From Classical to Byzantine: Social Evolution in Late Antiquity and the Fortress at Isthmia, Greece 9781841718552, 9781407328515

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
Figures
Tables
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chronology for the Korinthia
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: ANTHROPOLOGICAL HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE
CHAPTER 3: FIELD METHODS
CHAPTER 4: THE SITE AND ITS SETTING
CHAPTER 5: THE DEBATE OVER THE TRANSITION FROM LATE ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD
CHAPTER 6: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
CHAPTER 7: INTERNAL CORRELATIONS: DEVELOPMENTS AT ISTHMIA
CHAPTER 8: EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX 1: DATA FROM THE 1985 SYSTEMATIC SURFACE COLLECTION IN THE FORTRESS
APPENDIX 2: DATA FROM THE 1986 SYSTEMATIC SURFACE COLLECTION IN THE FORTRESS
APPENDIX 3: DATA FROM THE 1985 AND 1986 MAGNETOMETRY SURVEY IN THE FORTRESS
APPENDIX 4: DATA FROM THE 1985 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEY IN THE FORTRESS
APPENDIX 5: DATA FROM THE 1985 ELECTRICAL SOIL RESISTANCE SURVEY IN THE FORTRESS
APPENDIX 6: CATALOGUE OF SELECT ARTIFACTS FROM THE SYSTEMATIC SURFACE COLLECTION IN THE FORTRESS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

BAR S1412 2005 KARDULIAS

From Classical to Byzantine: Social Evolution in Late Antiquity and the Fortress at Isthmia, Greece P. Nick Kardulias

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE

BAR International Series 1412 2005 B A R

From Classical to Byzantine: Social Evolution in Late Antiquity and the Fortress at Isthmia, Greece P. Nick Kardulias

BAR International Series 1412 2005

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1412 From Classical to Byzantine: Social Evolution in Late Antiquity and the Fortress at Isthmia, Greece © P N Kardulias and the Publisher 2005 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841718552 paperback ISBN 9781407328515 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841718552 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2005. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

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To my son, Drosos Nicholas, for his intense interest in, and involvement with, the world around him

CONTENTS List of Figures

iii

List of Tables

iv

Preface

v

Acknowledgments

vii

Chronology for the Korinthia

ix

Chapter 1 Introduction The Problem: Transition or Collapse? Theoretical Perspective Cultural Materialism Cultural Evolutionism Culture Additional Considerations

1 6 6 8 9 9

Chapter 2 Anthropological Historical Archaeology in Greece The Classical Tradition Historical Archaeology Defined The Development of Classical Historical Archaeology New Vistas: Broadening the Scope of Historical Archaeology Conclusion

13 13 15 17 21

Chapter 3 Field Methods Introduction Surface Survey Geophysical Methods Magnetometry Field Operations Data Display Electrical Resistivity Field Operations Data Display Electrical Soil Resistance Field Operations Data Display Self-Potential Field Operations Data Display Conclusion

23 23 25 25 26 27 27 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 30 30

Chapter 4 The Site and its Setting The Natural Setting—Geology The Pleistocene Post-Tyrrhenian Development The Natural Setting—Topography History of the Site Previous Work at the Site

31 31 31 31 33 41

Chapter 5 The Debate over the Transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Byzantine Period Introduction The Debate in the Literature

47 47

i

Chapter 6 Presentation and Analysis of Data Introduction Field Methods and Analytical Procedures Geophysical Surveys Magnetometry Electrical Resistivity Electrical Soil Resistance Self-Potential Surface Collection Survey Chronological Considerations Function Structures Interpretation: What Did the Site Look Like in the Past? Conclusions

57 57 58 58 62 64 65 67 71 83 86 88 91

Chapter 7 Internal Correlations: Developments at Isthmia Introduction Population Estimates for the Fortress Techniques for Estimating Population Ethnographic Analogy and Population Estimates General Considerations Historical Analogy: Roman and Byzantine Military Contemporary Analogy: Modern Military Camps Population Estimates for the Isthmian Fortress Conclusion Energy and Architecture Architecture and Evolution Energy and Architecture at Isthmia Conclusion

95 95 95 96 96 96 98 98 100 101 101 102 106

Chapter 8 External Correlations: Isthmia and the Aegean Region Introduction The Historical Problem of Byzantine Urban Collapse or Continuity Isthmia in the Aegean Setting The Role of Korinth Evidence from Regional Surface Surveys Trade Isthmia as Settlement and Fortress Conclusion

107 107 110 110 113 116 118 124

Chapter 9 Conclusions Methodological Conclusions Archaeological Conclusions Historical Conclusions A Model for Social Change at Isthmia Conclusion

125 125 127 129 133

Appendix 1

Data from the 1985 Systematic Surface Collection in the Fortress

135

Appendix 2

Data from the 1986 Systematic Surface Collection in the Fortress

145

Appendix 3

Data from the 1985 and 1986 Magnetometry Survey in the Fortress

163

Appendix 4

Data from the 1985 Electrical Resistivity Survey in the Fortress

217

Appendix 5

Data from the 1985 Electrical Soil Resistance Survey in the Fortress

221

Appendix 6

Catalogue of Select Artifacts from the Systematic Surface Collection in the Fortress

223

Bibliography

225

Index

241 ii

FIGURES 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 4.1 4.2 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9.1 9.2 A3.1

Map of Greece and the Aegean region. Map of the Korinthia. Plan of Isthmia showing location of various structures. A model of culture that emphasizes the decision-making aspects as critical to adaptation. Plan of the Fortress. Plan of an area inside the Fortress excavated in 1969 that revealed a Roman house. View of the interior of the Fortress. Extant wall in the southern part of the Fortress. Area covered by magnetometry survey. Contour plot of the total geomagnetic intensity for all areas surveyed within the Fortress. Magnetic Anomaly 1 in the southeast corner of the Fortress. An area of 4,700 m2 in the east-central and southeastern part of the Fortress. Areas covered by electrical resistivity survey in the Fortress. Contour map of electrical resistivity values plotted at a contour interval of 50 ohm-meters. Area covered by electrical soil resistance survey. Contour plot of electrical resistance readings, 1985. Contour interval=10 ohms. Location of self-potential profiles in the Fortress. Profile of self-potential readings for Line 1. Profile of self-potential readings for Line 2. Profile of self-potential readings for Line 5 showing three sets of readings for test of replicability. Profile of self-potential readings for Line 6. Linear regression comparison of the first and third sets of self-potential readings for Line 5. Linear regression comparison of the second and third sets of self-potential readings for Line 5. Distribution of Classical pottery (n=23) in the Fortress. Distribution of Classical-Hellenistic (n=18) and Hellenistic (n=12) pottery. Distribution of Early Roman pottery (n=161). Distribution of Late Roman pottery presented in contour format (n=884). Distribution of Late Byzantine pottery (n=225). Distribution of Slavic pottery (n=13). Distribution of Early Byzantine pottery (n=31). Distribution of coins (n=3). Distribution of beehive fragments, glass, water pipe, slag, lamps, bronze, nails, kiln support, and waster. Rim of ceramic beehive from surface survey. Diamond-shaped tile from surface collection. Handles of ceramic lamps from surface survey. Distribution of Late Roman fine wares (n=80). Fragment of stamped Roman plate. Distribution of rooftiles (n=19,129) presented in contour format. Distribution of architectural stone in the Fortress. Fragment of marble revetment. Two groups of tesserae from mosaic floor. Plan of the Fortress showing restored layout of buildings in Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods. View of east wall of Structure 3. Plan of the central part of the Roman Sanctuary (after Broneer 1973). View of west wall of Fortress showing header and stretcher construction. Model of animal exploitation for military and residential sites (after Mortensen 1995). Plan of the Roman Bath. Slavic ware specimens from the Roman Bath. View of entrance to Tower 15 showing column drum used as lintel block. Section of Hexamilion wall ca. 5 m north of Roman Bath. Map of the Fortress showing the locations of grids for magnetometry survey.

iii

2 3 4 7 39 45 58 59 60 61 62 63 65 66 67 68 69 70 70 70 71 71 71 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 84 84 85 85 86 87 88 88 89 90 102 119 120 122 123 131 131 164

TABLES 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Area covered by geophysical techniques in the Fortress. Breakdown of material from 1986 surface collection. Size of structures in the Isthmian Fortress in LR to EB period. Population estimates for the Isthmian Fortress in Late Roman to Early Byzantine period. Work rates based on timed experiments. Energy expenditure in the central part of the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia during the Roman period. Work estimates for the construction of the Isthmian Fortress.

iv

57 72 90 97 103 104 106

PREFACE This book about social transformation has itself had a long evolution. The work began as a dissertation in the Department of Anthropology at Ohio State University in the mid 1980s. After completion of the degree in 1988 (Kardulias 1988), I revisited the dissertation and converted several of the chapters into articles after extensive revision. When I finally returned to the work as a whole, I had a more thorough grasp of both the opportunities to say something useful about social transformation in Late Antiquity and of the limitations of the data for doing so. It was at this time that I added the evolutionary framework, and many parts of the fragmentary mosaic of information on the Late Antique to Byzantine transition fell into place. A number of scholars had already made use of anthropological perspectives in the study of the Greek past. With a few exceptions, however, these studies focused on the prehistoric period. One point I wish to make with this book is that the anthropological lens can sharpen our image of historical eras as well. Specifically, evolutionary theory and several of its offshoots (for example, cultural ecology and cultural materialism) offer robust explanations of how and why change occurred in the Aegean world. It is my desire to bring the study of classical and medieval Greece into the stimulating debate on the use of evolutionary theory in archaeology. After all, there are few other places with such a wealth of documentary evidence to go along with a vast body of archaeological data, and it is just such conditions that allow us to make the best use of evolutionary (or any other) theory. Contrary to what some scholars suggest, the evolutionary perspective is still a highly productive source of interpretive statements. The revolution that Darwin and some of his contemporaries initiated rightly has become the reigning paradigm in the biological sciences. While there certainly have been problems in translating that success to the social sciences, the approach merits and continues to receive considerable attention. As Michael Schiffer has noted, “From the so-called unilinear evolutionists, through the Boasians and neo-evolutionists, to the selectionists of recent decades, evolutionary thinking in one guise or another has influenced archaeological explanations of behavioral change” (Schiffer 1997:vii). What does this mean for modern archaeology? Schiffer argues that “Today is a particularly opportune time for scientific archaeologists to renew and reconfigure their commitment to evolutionary theory” (Schiffer 1997:viii). The present book is in part an effort to meet this call to action, not just by using evolutionary theory as an explanatory framework, but also by applying it to an area of the world and a period often viewed as outside the realm of scientific anthropological archaeology. The rich material and literary record of Greece offers evolutionism a vast source of information on which to draw. In the succeeding pages I begin to tap this potential. As Colin Renfrew, Jack Davis, and others have noted, there exists a divide between classical archaeology and anthropological archaeology that has deep historical roots. While I explore this issue in some depth in Chapter 2, it is important to stress at the outset that both branches of the discipline share a crucial set of concerns and methods that academic departmental biases often mask. A talented cohort of scholars has worked assiduously over the past several decades to remove these barriers with some success. The present book is an attempt to enhance and perhaps expand this dialogue in some modest way.

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In undertaking this work, I have had the able assistance of a number of individuals. Foremost among these people is Prof. Timothy Gregory, Director of the Ohio State University Excavations at Isthmia (OSUEI). He provided invaluable guidance during the collection of data in the field and subsequently in reading various drafts of this document. Our many discussions about theoretical, chronological, and other substantive issues provided numerous insights. The bulk of the fieldwork was conducted at Isthmia for a total of six weeks in the spring and summer of 1985 and seven weeks in the summer of 1986. For brief periods during the field seasons in 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998, and 2001, I undertook additional work at the site in the form of reexamination of certain features in the Fortress and elsewhere at Isthmia, and the study of comparative material stored at the OSUEI compound. The Ohio State University provided funds for the fieldwork at Isthmia in 1985 and 1986 through a Research Seed Grant awarded to Timothy Gregory, a travel grant from the Center for Renaissance and Medieval Studies, and a Research Associateship from the College of the Humanities. I thank these administrative units and the Department of Anthropology at Ohio State University for their financial support. A grant from the Hellenic University Club of New York provided funds in 1988. Between 1990 and 1996, Kenyon College offered support through the Faculty Development Grant and Summer Science Scholar Faculty Stipend programs. The College of Wooster made possible study periods in Greece through the Ralston Endowment for Faculty Development (1997), and Faculty Development Grants (1998 and 2001). The College of Wooster also provided support for the preparation of the final manuscript through a sabbatical leave (2004-2005) and the Sophomore Research Assistant Program over a period of several years (2003-2005). In Greece, fieldwork was conducted under permits granted by the Greek Archaeological Service and the Sixth Byzantine Ephoreia. Our institutional affiliation in Greece was with the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, whose personnel handled the permit requests. The fieldwork on which this study is based would not have been possible without the contribution of many volunteers. In 1985, students from The Ohio State University and Kenyon College performed the bulk of the work in May and June. In July 1985, Prof. Ralph von Frese (Department of Geology and Mineralogy, The Ohio State University) and Prof. Stavros Papamarinopoulos (Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Patras) generously contributed their time and equipment to the field efforts. Volunteers Mette Korsholm, Rita Rousos, and Themis Philippidis worked diligently under a scorching July sun. The work of the 1986 field crew (A. Charles Mastran, Marianne Urse, and Peter Cole) provided the bulk of the data for analysis. Special thanks go to Michael Harsh whose electrical expertise salvaged a malfunctioning magnetometer. James Foradas has graciously permitted me to incorporate the data from his selfpotential survey in this document. Many people helped in the arduous task of preparing the manuscript. Lara Britain, Mollie Cardina, Kate Duffus, Christin Jones, Kate McMahon, Karl Mischler, Laura Moore, Rhian Stotts, Erin Toohey, and Andrew Womack carefully read chapters and checked bibliographic references. Laura Hendee helped reconfigure some of the geophysical data files. Mollie Cardina redrafted several figures. Andrew Womack performed critical duties in formatting the text, scanning and revising figures, and generating new images from the magnetic data. Several chapters have appeared elsewhere as articles and I thank the respective journals for permission to reprint those items in part or in whole. Chapter 2 is reprinted by permission from Historical Archaeology, Vol. 28, No. 3, © The Society for Historical Archaeology 1994. Portions of Chapter 6 previously appeared in Hesperia, Vol. 59, No. 3, and are reprinted by permission of the Trustees of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. The first half of Chapter 7 is reprinted by permission from American Antiquity, Vol. 57, No. 2, © Society for American Archaeology 1992; the second half of Chapter 7 originally appeared in Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology, edited by A. Bernard Knapp and John F. Cherry, published in 1995 by the University of Sheffield Academic Press Journals © Equinox Publishing Ltd. In addition, Figure 7.1 appears courtesy of the Trustees of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. The Media Center at Youngstown State University drafted the original versions of Figures 4.1, 6.3, 6.7-6.11, 6.18-6.26, 6.30, 6.32-6.33, and 6.36.

vii

CHRONOLOGY FOR THE KORINTHIA

Early Neolithic

6500–5800 B.C.

Middle Neolithic

5800–5300

Late Neolithic

53004500

Final Neolithic

4500–3100

Early Bronze Age

3100–2000

Middle Bronze Age

2000–1680

Late Bronze Age (Mycenaean)

1680–1065

Submycenaean

1065–1000

Protogeometric

1000–800

Geometric

800–700

Archaic

700–480

Classical

480–323

Hellenistic

323–31

Early Roman

31 B.C.–A.D. 250

Late Roman

250–700

Early Medieval (Byzantine)

700–1200

Late Medieval (Byzantine)

1200–1537

Ottoman/Venetian

1537–1827

Modern

1827–present

ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION sive wall stretching the entire breadth of the Isthmus from the Gulf of Korinth to the Saronic Gulf, signaled a shift in orientation. A bastion or small fort anchored either end of this monumental wall, with a large fortress just east of the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia to house a major garrison. This project was part of a grand strategy of defense for the entire northeastern Peloponnesos, if not the whole of southern Greece. Beyond this immediate goal, there is evidence that the construction of these fortifications formed part of an empire wide strategy of containment (Cheetham 1981:1516; Luttwak 1976). Over the succeeding centuries, the Fortress and Hexamilion were occasionally refurbished in order to meet various military threats. In the interim periods, the site continued to be occupied by people who took advantage of the stout walls of the Fortress to provide solid housing.

The Problem: Transition or Collapse? This book attempts to bring an anthropological perspective to the historical archaeology of a complex period in the Greek past. In so doing, we may be able to comprehend more clearly the nature of the social transformation that occurred at the close of Classical times. Traditionally, discussion of the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Byzantine period in the Aegean region has focused on the fate of Classical urban culture. Scholarly opinion is divided as to whether the Classical polis and its constituent institutions (a governing boule or council composed of aristocratic land owners, a monetary economy, elaborate public works, and a complex hierarchical social structure) emerged intact from the disruptive events of the third to sixth centuries A.D. Some argue the collapse of city life devastated the social fabric of antiquity and left in its wake smaller settlements devoid of the refinements of Greco-Roman civilization. Other scholars see an unbroken historical thread connecting all of Greek history. Over the past two decades a consensus has emerged that argues that the break between Classical and Byzantine occurred in the seventh, not the fourth or fifth centuries A.D., and that it was a more gradual process than previously believed (see Cameron 1993:197200). As one key scholar has noted, “it should be clear that the process of the ‘medievalization’ of early Byzantine settlement was a long and complex one and that an evolutionary model is to be preferred to explain the change rather than the usual catastrophy [sic] model” (Gregory 1992:252). The present study examines the Byzantine Fortress at Isthmia with an eye to understanding social change in this critical period, at the level of the site and then the region, in terms of an evolutionary perspective that gives specific form to Gregory’s general call.

The Medieval era in Isthmia is not well known. Archaeological investigation in Greece has stressed the early periods, that is, Bronze Age and Archaic through Hellenistic, with less focus on the Roman and subsequent phases. Excavations of purely Byzantine sites are still fewer in number. Even where Byzantine remains represent a large portion of the material in a multi-component site, these have regularly been treated in a cavalier manner, often hastily removed to gain access to what are deemed the more interesting and significant ancient materials. To verify this general statement, one merely needs to examine the monograph series published by the excavators of major sites in Greece, such as the Athenian Agora and Korinth. While analyses of ancient materials fill numerous volumes, Byzantine elements are often treated in an abbreviated manner (Rautman 1990), even though the Medieval time frame is nearly as long as that for antiquity. In many instances the problem is that the material is less well known than is the case with earlier artifacts. In some ways, scholars of Late Roman and Byzantine archaeology are still building a corpus of material that can serve to answer some very basic questions about life in the Eastern Empire, both at the outset, when it became a distinct political entity, and later (Gregory 1984, 1993a, 1993b). One should note that work at Korinth has more recently focused on Late Roman and Medieval sections of the site (Sanders 1999; Williams et al. 1997, 1998), so some change is underway.

The site of Isthmia in the northeastern Peloponnesos of Greece has occupied a strategic location since antiquity (see Figure 1.1). Situated at the southeastern corner of the Isthmus of Korinth (Figure 1.2), it commands the major land route from central to southern Greece. Virtually all land traffic into and out of the Peloponnesos had to traverse the Isthmus in the vicinity of this site (Wiseman 1978:50-51). Perhaps in part due to this geographic prominence, Isthmia enjoyed an international reputation in antiquity as one of the four major Panhellenic sanctuaries. The Temple of Poseidon and the associated complex of public facilities, including other temples, a stadium, baths, and a theater (see Figure 1.3), attracted visitors from all parts of the Greek world, and later, from many areas of the Roman Empire, to engage in multi-faceted festivals. The biennial Isthmian Games were just one of a number of events celebrated there.

Isthmia both fits and departs from this general trend of research. As with many other sites in Greece, Isthmia provides an opportunity to trace in some detail the evolution of a complex settlement history that covers a long time span (Broneer 1953, 1971, 1973; Morgan 1999). The nature of the site and the tradition of archaeological fieldwork in Greece are such that work at Isthmia has focused on delineating the architectural sequence evident in the remains of the Sanctuary. The Archaic through Early Roman phases of the site are rather well documented.

The predominantly ceremonial nature of Isthmia underwent significant alteration in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. At that time, the construction of the Hexamilion, a defen1

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1. Map of Greece and the Aegean region showing locations mentioned in the text. The excavations begun in 1952 had the express purpose of locating the Temple of Poseidon and associated structures and facilities around which the ceremonial activities of the ancient sanctuary were centered. In addition, interest focused on the Hexamilion and its attached Fortress. The second phase of excavation from 1967 to 1978 paid more attention to these prominent fortifications, but work concentrated only on the perimeter of the walls (Gregory 1993a). Although perhaps more work has been given over to the Byzantine remains at Isthmia than at any other major multicomponent site in Greece (but see Williams et al. 1998 for recent work at Korinth; also Avramea 1997), there still is a substantial gap in knowledge of the nature of the settlement in the Medieval period. This is not an unusual state of affairs in Greece where Byzantine archaeology takes a back seat to prehistoric and classical research. Consequently, comprehension of the nature of Byzantine social dynamics, especially in the crucial early period, is at a grossly imma-

ture stage. Questions amenable to discussion in terms of culture process are only recently being asked, using archaeological data to fill lacunae in the historical record. In several instances, such work has led to significant revision of historical images provided solely by texts. In dealing with Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine period, scholars occasionally operate in a data void, placing various pronouncements beyond the pale of verification. A key goal of the present study is to provide a database that can be of use in a site specific sense, but that also applies to more general problems. In order to augment our knowledge of Byzantine Isthmia, further fieldwork was conducted with the purpose of concentrating on the later portions of the site. Previous work at the site, in addition to revealing the Classical sanctuary, also investigated numerous other loci. All of the digging and the limited survey work turned up only scanty remains for the 2

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Byzantine period, except near the fortifications. The focus of the Medieval occupation seems to have been in and around the Fortress and along the Hexamilion. Since the Fortress is imperfectly known, an effort was made to gather more data about this facility. The research was directed specifically towards comprehending the configuration of features in the Fortress because these enable one to assess the level of cultural activity by comparison with the excavated areas that have substantial exposures of ancient remains. It is clear that Isthmia is a transitional site, but the nature of

the transformation cannot be understood if only the ancient component is available for scrutiny. A forthcoming study by Rife (2005) presents all the remains dating to the Late Roman and early Medieval components at the site, including a detailed osteological analysis of the many burials from the Fortress, the Roman Bath, and other areas. The present report assesses geophysical and surface survey data from the Fortress within an evolutionary framework. Rife’s comprehensive study examines other lines of evidence in greater depth than is possible here.

Figure 1.2. Map of the Korinthia showing Isthmia and other key sites. Modified from original in Eastern Korinthia Archaeological Survey (EKAS) archives. The concept of transition is central to this study. The issue involves how to examine culture change in the past. Key questions include the following: Does social change tend to be abrupt, with new technologies, modes of behavior, and ideas becoming dominant in a brief period of flux? If this is so, what are the causes of such revolutionary changes? If, on the other hand, culture change is gradual

how do we account for the dramatic differences that seem to characterize periods separated by short time spans? What is the role of the individual in social change? These and other related questions have consumed historians, archaeologists, and anthropologists for decades. The model of social change adopted in this study is evolutionary or developmental in form.

3

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3. Plan of Isthmia showing location of various structures and features of the landscape. The Ohio State University Excavations at Isthmia (OSUEI) Archives Change occurs through the accumulation of cultural innovations that feed off each other, expanding culture at a geometric rate. This does not mean, however, that change occurs only through the interplay of historical forces or trends. While it is true that humans do not act in a cultural void, they also must be seen as independent actors and innovators. Humans are the agents of social change, not just the media for the expression of inanimate cultural processes. This study characterizes transition as directed by humans towards some perceived benefits.

Antiquity and the Early Byzantine period. At the most visible level, these involved the shift from the religious and athletic focus to a military orientation. At a deeper and more meaningful level, serious questions of a systemic nature remain to be answered. While it was a viable center, the ancient sanctuary operated as an appendage of a complex urban culture, tied closely to all the facets of the latter (social, economic, religious, and ideological). The Fortress also served as a cog in a large system, but the nature of that system and the role of such sites in it are much less clear. To initiate such a systemic investigation requires knowledge of the function of the Fortress as a settlement; in turn, to comprehend its use, the physical character of the Fortress must be known. With this level of comprehension established, one can make some effort to relate the site to the imperial structure of which it was a regional manifestation. In terms of function, if the Early Byzantine Fortress contained, for example, few intramural structures, this might suggest its use as a refuge or point of assembly in times of duress. If, on the other hand, there are many substantial structures present with specialized activities represented (for example, chapels, pottery kilns, forges, and stables) the evidence might suggest a permanent garrison. In the former case, locals could have provided the bulk of the fighting contingent, while in the latter scenario, the central government could be viewed as taking a much more active role in local defense. The basic question of who the defenders were and what their relationship to residents of the area was can be examined in this fashion.

Isthmia, with its long history, provides a good setting to examine the problem of transition or social change in the Aegean region (see Randsborg 1990, 1991 for discussion of the issue in a Mediterranean context). I suggest that the entire sequence of occupation at Isthmia is amenable to an evolutionary treatment, that the periodization applied here and elsewhere in Greece is useful as a heuristic tool, but it often belies the complex relationships that tie events together. However, the focus of this study is the transition from Late Antiquity to Early Byzantine at Isthmia. This site offers good evidence for these phases and can aid in resolving some of the issues concerning the shift that occurred at the end of antiquity (see Chapter 5). Such an approach can be applied to earlier periods as well, for which evidence at the site is more abundant, but I will not deal with these phases in this study. Isthmia obviously underwent some changes between Late 4

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Literary sources fail us in the search for such information concerning Isthmia. Therefore, archaeological investigation is not only appropriate but crucial in this context.

system that produced and supported it. In this light, Isthmia can be viewed as a barometer to test the degree to which urban institutions survived the end of antiquity. A major debate has been under way for some years among scholars over how to characterize the period of transition from Late Antiquity to Early Byzantine. Some have argued the decline of the Western Roman Empire reflected itself in the East by a concomitant decay of urban life fostered by a variety of factors. This perspective holds that few cities escaped this disruption intact, and those that did shed the major characteristics of ancient centers as reflected in fundamental changes in architecture, city planning and size, and social organization (Foss 1972, 1977, 1979). Those who contend that there was a fundamental continuity between the two periods represent the other side of this controversy (Ostrogorsky 1959, 1969). These scholars argue that although cities did suffer from various exigencies, their basic nature remained intact and that the Early Byzantine period was primarily an urban culture as had been the case in Late Antiquity.

Because of the necessity to examine a broad area of the site to answer such questions, the means of conducting this investigation was by way of geophysical prospecting and systematic surface survey. Such an approach to research permits more rapid gathering of data than does excavation and has a proven viability in helping to address broad questions. Field work was initiated in the spring and summer of 1985 and concluded the following summer. An array of techniques (magnetometry, electrical resistivity, electrical resistance, and self-potential) were used in an effort to delineate the configuration and extent of subsurface features. The different techniques were employed in an attempt to obtain corroboration, so that the data from any single approach need not stand alone. In addition, the results of each method could be compared to determine which were most appropriate in the context of a structurally complex historic site in a Mediterranean setting. Accompanying this geophysical examination, a surface survey was conducted in each of the two field seasons. The purpose of these collections was threefold: (1) to discern surface patterns of artifact distribution which could then be compared to the locations of features revealed by the geophysical survey and thus pinpoint activity loci; (2) to develop a clearer understanding of the time depth represented by the collections and thus to comprehend the sequence of occupation in terms of length and intensity; (3) to define the various formation processes (Schiffer 1972, 1976, 1983, 1987) that have contributed to the present condition of the site.

A site such as Isthmia is well suited in some ways to act as evidence toward resolving this controversy. Although never a city itself, Isthmia was an extension of an urban culture when the Sanctuary was its major feature. As a ceremonial center, it attracted large crowds from various poleis and was supported through most of its history by the city of Korinth. Since it was in a dependent status, and not an absolute necessity to the community that supported it, one can imagine it being pruned from the urban trunk if conditions warranted a retrenchment. Isthmia can thus be viewed as a relatively sensitive gauge of prosperity for an urban culture, an indicator of the overall health of the city life to which it was closely tied. The degree to which the Byzantine remains can be interpreted as representing the presence or absence of urban traits in this fashion will determine which side of the controversy the evidence from Isthmia tends to support.

All of this work may serve as a guide to future excavation or the present study can stand independently in the attempt to gain a greater understanding of the Byzantine sections of Isthmia and the question of transition. As I noted above, Isthmia is one of the few major sites in Greece where the Medieval component has been explored to a considerable degree. However, this earlier investigation was undertaken to address only a few specific questions about the Medieval occupation, such as the date of the fortifications. The present study attempts to deal with problems of a sitespecific and a general nature. The site-specific questions concern how use of the site changed through time. Since prior work left many gaps in knowledge of cultural activity within the Fortress, the initial focus is on site layout and function.

Overall, this study focuses on three problems at different levels of abstraction: (1) A descriptive problemʊgathering more information about the Medieval occupation at Isthmia; delineating the structural features of the Byzantine Fortress with the ultimate intent of comprehending site functions through time. (2) A methodological problemʊthe use of geophysical techniques to examine the subsurface of the Fortress and other selected spots to obtain the data necessary for proper description. Part of this problem is to determine the efficacy of the various techniques in the context of a complex historic site with substantial stone architectural remains. Contributing equally to the elucidation of the nature of the Byzantine component are data from previous excavations and intensive systematic surface survey. (3) A broader historical problemʊhow best to reconstruct the key events pertaining to the transition from Late Antiquity to Early Byzantine. The methodological element becomes the link between the gathering of site-specific data and the wider historical implications for that information.

Once the extent and intensity of Byzantine occupation at Isthmia was determined, another concern was to place the site in its larger cultural and historical setting. The degree of planning and the outlay of labor manifested in the original construction of the Hexamilion and the Fortress, and the subsequent modifications, indicate the site was incorporated into a regional defensive scheme, substantiating the literary evidence of Procopius (Buildings, 1961:IV.2.1-28) and others. Perhaps, then, the site continued to be an urban apparatus, an outlier in a city-centered settlement hierarchy, and would have been sensitive to shifts or breaks in the cultural

The arrangement of the chapters is topical. A discussion of 5

INTRODUCTION historical archaeology in Greece comprises Chapter 2. Chapter 3 deals with the methods employed, both archaeological fieldwork and the use of previously published material concerning Isthmia. Chapter 4 provides an overview of the site, including local geology and topography, a history of the site, and a review of archaeological investigation at Isthmia. Chapter 5 details the historical debate over the nature of the transition from Late Antiquity to Early Byzantine. The analysis of the fieldwork, detailing the results of the geophysical and surface surveys, is presented in Chapter 6. In Chapter 7, these data are used as the basis for determining the structural regime of the Fortress in the fifth century A.D.; the various features are examined in terms of what they reveal about site usage in this period. Chapter 8 evaluates the historical context for Isthmia, to assess the role of the site in helping us understand the transition from Late Antique to Medieval society in the Aegean region. Methodological, archaeological and historical conclusions gleaned from the preceding chapters are summarized in Chapter 9. In addition, I propose a model for social change at Isthmia and in the Aegean region in Chapter 9. As a backdrop to the entire study, in the next section there will be a discussion of cultural materialism and evolutionism as the underlying theoretical perspective.

rangements of labor in production and distribution, and that these in turn call forth similar kinds of social groupings, which justify and coordinate their activities by means of similar systems of values and beliefs. Translated into research strategy, the principle of technoenvironmental, techno-economic determinism assigns priority to the study of the material conditions of sociocultural life, much as the principle of natural selection assigns priority to the study of differential reproductive success. The strategy in question will at once strike the sensitized reader as a form of materialism, and, indeed, I shall refer to it ...as the strategy of “cultural materialism” [Harris 1968:4]. Harris leaves no doubt as to what he perceives to be the ultimate motivating factors behind human behavior: The essence of cultural materialism is that it directs attention to the interaction between behavior and environment as mediated by the human organism and its cultural apparatus. It does so as an order of priority in conformity with the prediction that group structure and ideology are responsive to these classes of material conditions [Harris 1968:659].

Theoretical Perspective A crucial question is how to tie together the rather variable functions that evidently characterized the area in and around the Sanctuary of Poseidon at different times in its history. If the obvious elements are in fact the most telling and the site served primarily a religious function in the first part of its career and a secular military one later in time, there is the problem of explaining the reasons for such a shift. In other words, a unifying perspective is required to assist in conducting this investigation. The approach employed herein borrows from cultural materialism as developed and espoused by Marvin Harris (1968, 1979; see also Haas 1982), and cultural evolutionism (see Boyd and Richerson 1985; Carneiro 2003; Johnson and Earle 1987). In their search for nomothetic, generalizing laws to explain social phenomena, these two approaches attempt to deal with human behavior on a universal, cross-cultural scale. I describe these approaches in some detail in order to lay out explicitly the theoretical foundations of the present study (see Dyson 1993).

Thus, cultural materialism provides a programmatic statement that allows one to pinpoint the crucial components underlying social life. Ideological elements such as religion and philosophy are clearly secondary in nature and derivative in function from the more concrete aspects of culture, centering on technology and economics, especially subsistence. This perspective is based on “the simple premise that human social life is a response to the practical problems of earthly existence” (Harris 1979:ix). Humans are seen as engaged in an on going attempt to ameliorate their environment or to deal with demographic pressure by means of expanding the potential of the environment through the process of intensification, that is, increased exploitation of available resources in response to ecological shifts (both natural and cultural).

Cultural Materialism Harris’ concern is to present a “basic research strategy” which has parallels to the theory of biological evolution developed by Darwin. As he has stated:

As defined by Harris, cultural materialism is opposed to strategies that deny the legitimacy or feasibility of scientific accounts of human behavior, and is also against perspectives that begin with ideals, moral values, aesthetics, or religious beliefs in an attempt to comprehend the routine of social life. Harris states that the primary concerns are with the systemic interactions between thought and behavior, with conflict and discontinuity, but only as these can be examined as empirical and operational features (Harris 1979:ix-xii).

I believe that the analogue of the Darwinian strategy in the realm of sociocultural phenomena is the principle of technoenvironmental and techno-economic determinism. This principle holds that similar technologies applied to similar environments tend to produce similar ar-

6

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Environment: Natural and Social

Storehouse of Symbols

Values and Beliefs

Behavior

-

+

Figure 1.4. A model of culture that emphasizes the decision-making aspects as critical to adaptation. Negative feedback (-) inhibits change and positive feedback (+) encourages change (after Mark Shutes, personal communication 1984).

Harris lays out the theoretical principles of cultural materialism. These principles deal with the problems of understanding the relationships among the parts of sociocultural systems and with the evolution of these systems. The recurrent aspects or parts of such systems he calls the universal pattern, which has three major subdivisions: (1) Infrastructure is comprised of the activities by which every society meets its basic subsistence requirements (mode of production) and by which every society controls population size (mode of reproduction). (2) Structure is comprised of economic and political activities by which every society forms groups to allocate, regulate, and exchange labor and goods. Domestic economy refers to the organization of basic production and reproduction, exchange, and consumption within camps, houses, or other domestic settings. Political economy refers to the organization of these same activities within and between bands, villages, chiefdoms, states and empires. (3) Superstructure is comprised of thought and behavior concerned with artistic, playful, religious, and intellectual efforts, plus the mental aspects of infrastructure and structure (Harris 1987:17). These are the basic aspects of a research strategy that holds anthropology’s task is to provide causal explanations for the similarities and differences in thought and behavior exhibited by various human societies. This task is best conducted by examining the ma-

terial constraints that delimit human activity (Harris 1987:421). With this foundation laid, Harris discusses other major principles of cultural materialism. A key one states: “The etic behavioral modes of production and reproduction probabilistically determine the etic behavioral domestic and political economy, which in turn probabilistically determine the behavioral and mental emic superstructures...this principle can be referred to as the principle of infrastructural determinism” (Harris 1979:55 56). In other words, Harris is arguing for the preeminence of behavior related to the mode of production and the mode of reproduction in understanding human motivation and the flow of historical events in any society. All economic behavior emerges from this material basis, with the ideological component (political philosophy, religion, and so on) forming a third and most derivative stratum. The significance of this principle is that it provides a set of priorities for formulating and testing of hypotheses about the causes of sociocultural phenomena. Cultural materialism gives the highest priority to efforts to formulate and test theories in which infrastructural variables are primary causal factors. This perspective asserts the strategic priority of infrastructural over structural and superstructural conditions and processes. However, it does not deny the possibil-

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INTRODUCTION ity that superstructural and structural components may achieve a degree of independence from infrastructure. There is an attempt to build a theory of culture that incorporates the lawful regularities occurring in nature. There are two entrenched laws humans must face. First, people must expend energy to obtain energy. Second, the human ability to produce children exceeds the ability to obtain energy for them. Harris suggests that the best humans can do is to seek a balance between reproduction on one hand, and the production and consumption of energy on the other. He then argues that cultural evolution, like biological evolution, has occurred through opportunistic alterations that increase benefits and lower costs to individuals. Success of a group depends on the success of the individuals who comprise it (Harris 1979:56-60). The implications of this thesis for the understanding of past human societies center on the notion that most people engage in activities that they believe will enhance their material position in the world. Ideology is also part of such a survival strategy. Those individuals who adopt strategies yielding the greatest returns can be termed successful because of the advantages they garner for themselves, their kin, and their followers.

stressed the role of technology as the means humans use to extract energy from the environment; since energy is indispensable to human survival, White saw a causal thread connecting technology to all facets of society, from the material to the ideological. White was emphatic about the direction of the relationship: The roles played by the several subsystems in the culture process as a whole are not equal by any means. The primary role is played by the technological system. This is, of course, as we would expect it to be; it could not be otherwise. Man as an animal species, and consequently culture as a whole, is dependent upon the material, mechanical means of adjustment to the natural environment. Man must have food. He must be protected from the elements, and he must defend himself from his enemies. These three things he must do if he is to continue to live, and these objectives are attained only by technological means. The technical system is therefore both primary and basic in importance; all human life and culture rest and depend upon it [White 1949:365].

Cultural Evolutionism How to model culture change is, of course, a major issue for archaeology, historic or prehistoric. As Harris notes, “The tension between the unique and the recurrent exists in every field that concerns itself with diachronic processes. Evolution is the record of how out of sameness differences emerge” (Harris 1979:79). With this statement Harris captures the basic thrust of historical transformation. The purpose of the present study is to demonstrate that Early Byzantine culture is an outgrowth of its Late Antique roots, that the trajectory of development is comprehensible because human action in all periods is governed by similar forces, and that evolutionary theory, specifically as it relates to architecture, offers an elegant interpretive framework to explore those processes at a particular site. As Darwin (1928 [1859]) argued for the biological realm, and others have suggested for social development, the process of evolution is random or undirected, i. e., there is no ultimate goal to the sequence; traits that are adaptive in one environment may become neutral or even maladaptive under altered conditions. In short, adaptation is situational rather than preordained, and the environment (social and natural) acts as the selective agent that weeds out those individuals unable to compete successfully.

The fundamental truths that White enumerates in this passage are essential to the argument of the present study. Evolution for White involved the increasing capacity to capture and use energy. While White emphasized a general path of social transformation, Steward (1955) paid close attention to the particular methods humans employed to accommodate themselves to specific environmental settings. Critics pointed out that this cultural ecological approach, with its functionalist assumptions about self-regulating systems, provided no real role for human agency and ignored the political and social context of human interaction with the environment. The “new ecology” of the past 30 years rectifies this oversight by stressing the role of history, symbolism, and politics (Biersack 1999). In prehistory, the evolutionary paradigm provided the foundations of the New Archaeology, with its emphasis on scientific method, hypothesis testing, and the generation of covering laws (Binford 1962; Willey and Sabloff 1980:186; Watson et al. 1971, 1984). Scholars with a contextual, critical orientation (e. g., post-processualists) have leveled numerous criticisms at the neo-evolutionist paradigm, suggesting the approach overemphasizes general patterns of development and neglects individual variation (Hodder 1982, 1986; Shanks and Tilley 1987; Trigger 1989:315-319, 327-328). As witness to the paradigm’s utility, though, in the past several decades there have been a series of refinements in the application of evolutionary theory to social phenomena in general (Adams 1988; Boyd and Richerson 1985; Carneiro 2003; Durham 1991, 1992;

Cultural evolutionism has had a checkered career (Sanderson 1990). After its initial apogee in the 19th century (Morgan 1974 [1877]), evolutionary explanations declined in popularity (Boas 1896). The post-World War II era witnessed a significant shift. The neo-evolutionism of White (1943, 1949), Steward (1955), and Sahlins and Service (1960) emphasized the processes of adaptation and transformation; they and their followers viewed culture as an adaptive mechanism. There was a strong materialist and ecological emphasis in this work. White, for example,

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Johnson and Earle 1987) and to archaeological problems in particular (Barton and Clark 1997; Braun 1987, 1990; Dunnell 1980, 1989; O’Brien 1996; O’Brien and Holland 1990, 1992; Redding 1988; Rindos 1984, 1989; Shennan 2002; Spencer 1993). In sum, many scholars argue culture can provide either stability or innovation, and thus offers humans an immensely rapid and flexible response system. The ultimate impact of accumulated short-term decisions transforms society as particular choices prove more beneficial than others (i. e., they are adaptive). But we must realize that most of the decisions people make are conservative, that is, they identify their interests with the maintenance of a particular system or set of relationships or altering the contemporary system in their favor—a realignment rather than wholesale replacement. Even when systems are planned, the results are rarely predictable; witness the intent and effect of socialist systems in Eastern Europe. Kottak (1999:33) compares this aspect of culture to Romer’s Rule “that an innovation that evolves to maintain a system can play a major role in changing that system. Evolution occurs in increments. Systems take a series of small steps to maintain themselves, and they gradually change” (italics in original). In a similar way, I suggest that decisions ancient Korinthians made concerning various aspects of their lives (especially as they relate to architecture) were drawn from an array of choices, but they could in no way envision all the longterm consequences of those decisions; energy considerations influenced these decisions (see Abrams 1989, 1994 for the connection to architecture).

evolutionary and materialist, i. e., it attributed causal agency for cultural features to human efforts to adjust to the ecological conditions which they confront. For most of these scholars, but especially for White and his students, social evolution involved human efforts to extract energy from their environment through time. This emphasis on energy capture is an important feature of the present study as it relates to architecture. Efficiency in the production and use of energy (e. g., construction of buildings) is a major underlying assumption. The stress on energy provides a quantifiable measure for social evolution. People will attempt to attain their goals with minimum expenditure of energy. The sociologist Gerhard Lenski summarizes this key point very well: “In striving to satisfy their needs, humans seem to be governed by an ‘economizing principle’. That is to say, they use as few of their resources as possible in the effort to satisfy any specific need...because few if any individuals have sufficient resources to satisfy fully all their needs” (Lenski 1970:33). Out of this basic idea, Lenski builds an evolutionary model of societal development. He notes that cultural innovation provides members of a society with alternative solutions to problems. The choices people make can lead to the elimination of one or more of the options. Decision-making is rational in that people make choices based on perceived benefits, but the process also involves “unexamined assumptions, and emotional factors” (Lenski 1970:89). Figure 1.4 emphasizes the homeostatic (minus sign for negative feedback) and innovative (plus sign for positive feedback) capacities of culture, which acts as a general repository of symbols, knowledge, and customs for a group of people.

Stephen Sanderson (1990) has offered an excellent overview that makes clear the link between cultural materialism and social evolutionism. First he notes that many social scientists fail to distinguish evolutionist from evolutionary approaches. Evolutionist models explain change as the result of a “logical unfolding” that generates progress. Evolutionary formulations “attempt to explain changes as responses to particular requirements imbedded in specifichistorical situations” (Sanderson 1990:3). Cultural materialism is an evolutionary approach in which “adaptation is a concept that principally relates to how individuals make choices under particular kinds of material constraints” (Sanderson 1990:5). Furthermore, evolutionary models allow for retrogression, that is, evolution can encompass the decay or collapse of complex social systems into simpler forms, precisely one of the key points of the present study.

Additional Considerations Cultural materialism and evolutionism provide the overarching philosophical or theoretical framework within which data for this study were gathered and analyzed. Ancillary to this perspective, several notions embodied in anthropological economics are components in the orientation that guides interpretation below. These ideas deal with the basic elements of human behavior. The formalist school of thought argues that humans are motivated primarily by selfinterest. Decisions are made on the basis of choice from an array of options; the determining principle in such selection is the desire to maximize benefits and minimize costs, which is presented as the rational process by which all choices are made. With rationality as a cornerstone, formalists define economics as “...the allocation of scarce means to alternative ends” (Burling 1962:802). In other words, resources at the disposal of people are limited while the desired ends to which they may be applied are many. The assigning of resources to any particular goal is based on the interests, real or perceived, of an individual or group with the power to implement their wishes. The rewards for which people strive can be material (money, goods, or services) or immaterial (status, prestige, or privilege). The latter, however, can usually be translated into the former at some stage. The substantivist school argues that the formalists are im-

Culture The culture concept has provided anthropology with both a central focus and a point of major contention. The work of cultural anthropologists revealed the often subtle symbolic medium by which humans interact with their surroundings. Beginning in the 1930s and gathering momentum in the 1940s and after, in the work of Julian Steward, Leslie White, Marshall Sahlins, Lewis Binford, and Marvin Harris, culture emerged as a human construct involving a series of techno-environmental adaptations. The perspective was

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INTRODUCTION posing a capitalist bias on non-Western societies when such arguments are employed (Polanyi 1957; Dalton 1961). These scholars tend to stress the immersion of the economic system in the culture as a whole, which is a unique historical entity. Culture provides the rules by which humans act; the rationality argument, they contend, is cogent only in a Western context. Formalists on the other hand view cul ture as an emergent, something that is constantly shaped by individuals acting in a social setting; the rules are created by the actors rather than providing a set plan as the early substantivists suggest. Leaving the polemics of each camp aside, this study follows the formalist perspective. Not only is it compatible with cultural materialism and evolutionism, but it follows through on its basic premise, in that it imputes rational economizing behavior to all social interaction (Homans 1958). In so doing, it provides a comparative tool with which to assess within one framework the actions of different people separated by geographical, cultural, and temporal boundaries. The basic assumption is that human nature is a constant, no matter what the society or time period. In this way it shares a nomothetic outlook with cultural materialism and evolutionism.

fect. We have also seen a variety of plausible means whereby others might discern our predispositions. It is not necessary that we be able to judge everyone’s character with complete accuracy. The commitment model requires only that we be able to make reasonably accurate judgments concerning people we know very well. Most of us believe we have this capacity. If we are right, it follows that noble human motives, and the costly behaviors they often summon, will not only survive the ruthless pressures of the materialworld, but even be nourished by them [Frank 1988:255-256]. Frank’s approach supplements rather than supplants the formalist model. As many formalists have noted, people make choices about non-material as well as material items, and thus invest in elements of great emotional value (for example, prestige and status).

As Sanderson (1990:160) has pointed out, Harris conceives of adaptation as acting on individuals whose choices determine the nature of a culture: “The selection processes responsible for the divergent and convergent evolutionary trajectories of sociocultural systems operate mainly on the individual level; individuals follow one rather than another course of action, and as a result the aggregate pattern changes” (Harris 1979:60). Furthermore, Harris’ view of adaptation is quite similar to the formalist approach: “Cultural evolution, like biological evolution, has (up to now at least) taken place through opportunistic changes that increase benefits and lower costs to individuals” (Harris 1979:61). Many critics of such cost/benefit models argue that humans also act on the basis of emotion as well as logic, and often make choices that are clearly not in their material best interest. Frank (1988) offers a solution to this problem with his commitment model. He notes that people often act in a manner contrary to their self-interest (i. e., irrationally), based on emotion. Frank then notes that such behavior can in fact have long-term benefits:

The evolutionary/materialist approach is, of course, not the only way to examine the past. In recent decades postmodern perspectives have suggested the scientific approach is ill-suited to a proper understanding of the complexities of human behavior (see especially the work of Ian Hodder). A detailed discussion of the science vs. anti-science debate is beyond the scope of the present work. Several scholars (Bell 1994; Kuznar 1997) have capably addressed the postmodern criticisms. The materialist, rationalist perspective represented by Harris, evolutionism, and the formalists provides a comparative framework that attempts to transcend differences of time and space. In this way, events that transpired at Isthmia in various periods can be examined in a uniform fashion. Although activities at the site varied in the different historical eras, these events can all be understood in terms of people carrying out actions they deemed to be most likely to provide the greatest benefits. For example, the establishment of the Sanctuary and its embellishment conferred certain advantages on residents of Isthmia and neighboring communities, including employment in construction, maintenance and servicing of the facilities, the economic windfall resulting from the celebration of festivals drawing large crowds with the concomitant demands for food, drink and lodging, and the prestige associated with a Panhellenic center. It is little wonder that several poleis vied for the honor of controlling this Sanctuary. By the fifth century A.D., political, religious and economic conditions dictated a new scenario. Survival was best served by the construction of fortifications, and to expedite this activity many of the structures in the Sanctuary were dismantled to provide building material. Rather than viewing this event as symbolic of the disaffection with pagan religion, reflected in the irreverent treatment of sacred edifices, it may be more profitable in some ways to suggest that people were

There are many problems that purely self-interested persons simply cannot solve. They cannot make themselves attractive for ventures that require trust. They cannot threaten credibly to walk away from unfair transactions that will increase their wealth. Nor can they deter aggressors when retaliation would be prohibitively costly. Nor can they make credible commitments in intimate personal relationships. All of these problems are important… The problems require that we tie our hands, and the emotions have just the desired ef-

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE still acting in essentially the same way by attempting to maximize their potential for survival. The expression of the adaptive strategy changed because other environmental (cultural, in this case) factors had altered. Perhaps in this way the span of events at Isthmia can be viewed as an evolving pattern of adaptation by the residents.

A regional synthesis of some sort is often the goal of such studies. Although there does exist a substantial amount of published material on the site of Isthmia, no general synthesis or regional approach characterizes any of this work, although some effort has been made in this direction for the Korinthia by Salmon (1984). In addition, anthropological methodology and perspective had played virtually no role at Isthmia until recently (see Kardulias 1995; Rife 2005). This study is in part an effort to redress this oversight, and by so doing, to enhance our understanding of the site itself and its role in a regional and international settlement system. The purpose of this study is to attempt a synthesis that examines the site in a holistic manner rather than presenting the various temporal components as unique. Thus, the notion of transition is treated as the evolution of adaptive strategies. As mentioned above, although the entire occupational sequence at the site can be treated in this way, the focus here is on Late Antiquity and the early Medieval phase. The fieldwork was structured to address questions associated with this particular transformation. A broad general synthesis that explains the emergence of Medieval culture in the Eastern Mediterranean would require the comparative examination of data from a great number of sites, many of which are not currently reported in the literature, and is beyond the purview of this study. As a result, the level of the synthesis attempted below is in the middle range, concentrating on Isthmia to better understand the sequence of events at a specific site, but with some effort to envision the larger context as well. In pursuit of this goal, I was afforded access to both published and unpublished materials. These data provide the necessary foundation for the detailed analysis that follows.

The use of such anthropological approaches on material from Isthmia is in itself a novel development. Until quiterecently, most archaeological work in Greece has followed a classicist orientation, with excavation serving the role of handmaiden to historical and literary documents in describing ancient life. The traditional emphasis on monumental architecture (especially temples, historic civic centers, and prehistoric palaces) and artifacts as aesthetic objects is clearly manifested in general texts such as those of Biers In (1987) and MacKendrick (1981). In the past thirty years, a dramatic reorientation has been occurring with anthropological techniques becoming increasingly important, although by no means dominant. This shift is evident in the sophisticated level of regional survey work that integrates information from geomorphology, sedimentology, oceanography, palynology, and faunal analysis with archaeological data (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1985; Cherry et al. 1991; Davis et al. 1997; Gregory 1985; Jameson et al. 1994; Kardulias 1994a; Keller and Rupp 1983; McDonald and Rapp 1972; Renfrew and Wagstaff 1982; Runnels 1983; van Andel and Runnels 1987; van Andel et al. 1986), the proliferating number of ethnoarchaeological studies (Aschenbrenner 1976; Chang 1981, 1994; Kardulias 2000; Matson 1972; Murray and Chang 1981; Murray and Kardulias 1986, 2000; Whitelaw 1991), and the use of models to explain a variety of cultural phenomena, including economic behavior (Runnels 1981,1985) and the development of complex society in the Aegean (Cherry 1978; Galaty and Parkinson 1999; Halstead 1981; Parkinson and Galaty 2003; Renfrew 1972a; Renfrew and Cherry 1986).

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CHAPTER 2 ANTHROPOLOGICAL HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE material record in the interpretive process. As Rautman has noted, in writing specifically about the status of Byzantine archaeology, there has been “a special premium always put on evidence that corresponds with written sources, such as the identification of known settlements, a famous monument, or a historical event” (1990:145). Such an orientation is not surprising considering the strong philological training most scholars of the classical past brought to their studies. (2) Preference for the collection, analysis, and discussion of certain categories of materials over others. There has been a strong connection between classical archaeology and art history since the eighteenth century with the work of people such as J J. Winckelmann (1880 [1767]). As a result, the study of pottery (especially fine wares), statuary, inscriptions, and architecture dominated classical archaeology until the middle of the twentieth century. To be certain, the focus on such materials was understandable because of its quantity, artistic quality, and ability to shed significant light on various facets of classical civilization. Studies of these materials, along with historical records, have led to a degree of chronological precision that most other archaeologists envy. The drawback to this approach, with its concentration on public architecture and elite goods, was a gap in the understanding of the circumstances under which the majority of classical people lived and the social processes to which they were subject. As a humanistic discipline, classical archaeology emphasized what was both unique and lasting about GrecoRoman civilization; the excavator, many could argue, brought to light the actual objects and structures of the societies that formed the foundation for, and inspired many of the accomplishments of, Western culture. In the last five decades, and particularly since the mid 1960s, many classical archaeologists have adopted a number of the innovative techniques and perspectives shared by the wider archaeological community. Below I discuss some of the areas in which this process is most evident and because of which we now need to think about historical archaeology in universal terms.

The Classical Tradition During the past three decades, various techniques and theoretical approaches developed by anthropological archaeologists have made steady inroads into the study of Greek prehistory. Most Aegean prehistorians are now conversant with survey methods, absolute chronometric techniques, ecological models, and the issues raised by the New Archaeology. Scholars who deal with historical periods (Archaic through Early Modern, that is, eighth century B.C. to fifteenth century A.D.), however, have, with a few notable exceptions, been slower to adopt such innovations. For example, until recently Late Roman and Byzantine archaeologists infrequently discussed issues of local subsistence, settlement hierarchies based on survey data, and theoretical models of social change (but see Bintliff 1991, 2000; Gerstel 1998). Chronologically, Aegean archaeologists largely ignore the period between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries. This chapter reviews a series of recent efforts that attempt to introduce such theoretical and methodological approaches to historical archaeology in Greece. Among these developments are nonsite survey, geophysical prospecting, the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for predictive modeling, and the application of various theoretical approaches as explanatory frameworks. This chapter also provides an historical overview of the forces that led historical archaeology along different paths in North America and Greece, respectively, points out recent trends that signal a convergence, and presents examples of such research from various projects in Greece, all in an attempt to provide the context within which the present study should be understood. Historical archaeology in the New World is a mature discipline which is concerned with more than objects; it is fully infused with anthropological concepts and approaches, and as such, is a social science. If we look at certain parts of the Old World, though, we find that the archaeology of historical periods is just now emerging from a traditional mode and providing a better understanding of past social systems. The purpose of this chapter is to trace the development of recent trends in the Aegean area, specifically Greece, as they relate to historical archaeology. A second goal is to point out that historical archaeologists in the Old World and North America confront similar theoretical and methodological problems and the solutions they develop are leading to a more unified discipline. I argue that historical archaeology in Greece has broken the fetters of a narrow chronological and methodological perspective and expanded its horizons to include anthropology, geography, and earth sciences in the attempt to place the Hellenic past in a wider cultural context (Snodgrass 1985). By the term traditional, I mean an approach that stresses: (1) The primacy of texts over the

Historical Archaeology Defined Perhaps it would be best to initiate this discussion with some definitions. First, it is necessary to identify the anthropological historical archaeology alluded to in the title of this chapter. Second, one must explain how historical archaeology in Greece and North America differ from one another. While not all practitioners may agree, I identify New World historical archaeology (NWHA) with the discipline most clearly defined by Stanley South. To be certain, many post-processualists have contributed innovative and intriguing methods and interpretations, but the historical priority and impact of the New Archeology are undeniable. Distinguishing criteria include a problemoriented, processual approach, an effort to delineate the 13

ANTHROPOLOGICAL HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE social environment within which to interpret the material record, and for some at least, an emphasis on the promulgation of laws concerning human behavior; as such, the field is quite similar to prehistoric archaeology: “the use of ethnographic data and historical documentation by the archeologist does not result in a different kind of archeology merely because a wider data base is available” (South 1977:xiii). As South (1977:31) has noted, one of the key goals of an archaeologist should be to identify patterns in the archaeological record; these patterns can be related to consistent elements of behavior which aid in interpreting similarities within and differences among various social groups. Does the material record reflect in some relatively unambiguous fashion the complex cultural mosaic of early colonial America? South and others provided an affirmative reply to this query. In order to discern such patterns, South advocates a scientific approach. Questions become hypotheses, which can be tested within a deductive framework. In this form, archaeology is part of anthropology and as such shares the latter’s comparative framework and holistic perspective (cf. Binford 1962).

is a developmental relationship. The unity of Historical Archaeology is, or at least should be, primarily technical and involves the methodology of investigation more than the subject matter under investigation [Schuyler 1978:27, 28]. In contrast, Historic Sites archaeology: deals with a specific historical subject that has temporal, spatial, and cultural boundaries. Chronologically it would see its inception in the 15th Century perhaps with 1415, the date of the fall of Ceuta signaling initial Portuguese penetration of Africa, as an arbitrary but generally agreed upon point. Historic Sites Archaeology has temporal, geographical, and cultural boundaries because a complex of fundamental underlying patterns and processes creates the historical entity it is studying [Schuyler 1978:28].

For those who do not agree with such a New Archaeology approach to the discipline, there is still agreement on the basic composition of the field. Historical archaeology in the New World is conventionally defined as the study of the material cultural, and where possible, the structural/social components of non-Indian peoples of the Americas (Fagan 2000:500-501). By definition, the earliest subjects of this examination are the episodes of culture contact, some as early as the tenth or eleventh centuries A.D. (Rowlett 1982), but the focus is largely on the late fifteenth century and after. Specific topics of analysis include the various EuroAmerican frontiers (Spanish, English, French, Dutch, Russian), the colonial experience, industrial archaeology, Euro-American trade networks, urban archaeology, and landscape studies. Since at least the late 1950s, historical archaeology has shared many of the same perspectives as New World prehistoric anthropological archaeology, but brought those insights to periods for which documentation exists, and often is abundant. In fact, many of the practitioners came from the ranks of New World prehistorians. These newcomers transferred the emphases on diet, environmental reconstruction, detailed skeletal analyses, and other concerns to the study of historic periods. Certainly there are differences between historic and prehistoric archaeologists, but it is more in degree than kind since they share an allegiance to basic anthropological approaches.

While neither of these definitions is wholly satisfactory, what I call historical archaeology below is closer to Schuyler’s first definition, i. e., the study of material remains from any historical period. Andrén (1998:6) also emphasizes the connection between material culture and texts as the defining element. What I find useful in this definition is its lack of geographical boundaries. It leaves open the possibility of a world historical archaeology. To Schuyler’s notion that this discipline should be “primarily technical” (i. e., methodological), I would add that its unity also derives from a common theoretical core. That is, I argue certain theoretical frameworks, such as cultural ecology and cultural materialism, have universal applicability. The second definition has limited utility because of the constraints (chronological, spatial, and cultural) it imposes on the field of investigation. I suggest here that a convergence between New World and Old World historical archaeology is in progress, with anthropology supplying the critical nexus. Concepts from anthropological archaeology have made steady inroads into Mediterranean medieval archaeology (Davis 2001; Gregory 1990; Kardulias 1994a; Redman 1986; Rupp 1986), but over the past several decades even the bastions of classical archaeology have yielded to the new approaches. The advantages clearly go both ways. What anthropology gains is the well-documented record, built up from years of detailed scholarship, where ideas about the past can be tested and from which innovative theories and methods can, and have, emerged.

Schuyler (1978) offers a perspective that can help to refine these definitions further. He defines historical archaeology as: the study of the material remains from any historic period...Historical Archaeology is viewed as covering a subject matter which in no sense is a unified historical entity, although...there

The definition of classical historical archaeology (CHA) in Greece requires a longer exegesis. The historical period in the Aegean traditionally begins with the first Olympic Games in 776 B.C., but the Homeric epics, a distillation of a

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE variety of older stories, are the first important written documents to appear (ca. 750 B.C.) and provide a chronological base. Archaeological investigation in the circum-Aegean region has had a long and distinguished career (MacKendrick 1981; McDonald and Thomas 1990). Such research was at the cutting edge of the new discipline of archaeology in the nineteenth century. Most of this work focused on individual sites or major art monuments. The desire of antiquarians to collect objects (pottery and statuary in particular) associated with classical antiquity became routinized and professionalized through the efforts of J. J. Winckelmann (1880 [1767]) and others (Ceram 1979; Morris 1994). Elements of material culture became objects of intrinsic value, worthy of study in their own right. Stylistic approaches became standard methods of assessment. Much of classical archaeology became focused on the intricacies and aesthetics of vase-painting, public stone architecture (especially temples), metal-working, and other arts and crafts of the historical periods, which began in the Geometric phase (eighth century B.C.), in the Aegean area. The mundane elements of the archaeological record generally received little coverage. There were exceptions to the latter statement; the American excavations at the Athenian Agora and Korinth, for example, have published important studies on coarse pottery wares, but such materials still remain underrepresented in the literature. In addition, there was little explicit discussion of theory. CHA operated on the basis of a series of unstated assumptions.

which belonged to each Volk…In the case of the Greeks, all impurities were purged in the fires of source criticism to leave a race beyond comparison [Morris 1994:18]. Hierarchy and Romanticism were two key elements of this perspective. These notions became the core of Hellenism, defined by Morris as: “the idealisation of ancient Greece as the birthplace of a European spirit” (1994:11). He argues that Greek archaeology was subsumed by classics, and commonly served to illustrate or augment the classical texts, which became the authority. It has been argued (Andrén 1998:15-18; Kardulias 1994a) that reliance on classical authors was so pervasive that ancient texts defined the problems and standards of proof. Many scholars searched for the material correlates of the truth revealed in the texts. There is no doubt that such text-aided historical archaeology had many successes. For example, structures in city plans could be assigned precise labels because authors such as Pausanias (1964), a second century A.D. Romanized Greek travelerʊa sort of Fodor of his dayʊtell us the exact names, histories and condition of many buildings. We also know the precise names of towns and cities, and through some investigation, can correlate material objects, sites, historic events, even individuals, with material retrieved through archaeology. These examples are equivalent to the ethnographic analogy on which so much anthropological archaeological interpretation depends. There is, of course, the danger of being overly literal in one’s reading of the material record. For example, it may not be correct to associate a burned level dated between the sixth and seventh centuries at Sardis to the Persian sack of the city in A.D. 616. Another famous example is the attempt to associate the remains in a late fourth century B.C. Macedonian royal tomb with Philip II, father of Alexander the Great (Andronikos 1978). In some ways we see an emphasis on the unique and idiosyncratic in CHA at the expense of the general. In addition, classical archaeology translated the biases of ancient texts into fieldwork agendas. Herodotus, Thucydides, Pausanias, and other authors described the urban setting in some detail; religious sanctuaries also received considerable attention. It is little wonder that classical archaeologists, with their background in classical philology, focused their work on cities and temples since the ancient authors provided “maps” to these sites. Some of the major permanent excavations of the various foreign schools working in Greece clearly reflect this emphasis: the German School works at Olympia and Tiryns; the French at Delphi and Delos (sanctuaries of Apollo); and the Americans at the Athenian Agora and Ancient Korinth (Andrén 1998:17-18). This early concentration on urban and religious centers important in Greek history and mythology meant that the prehistoric (pre-Bronze Age) landscape remained largely terra incognita. There were always a few scholars interested in these earlier periods (for example, Tsountas 1908; Wace and Thompson 1912), but only in the past forty years have some of the foreign schools turned to systematic investigation of Palaeolithic,

The Development of Classical Historical Archaeology Ian Morris (1994; see also Andrén 1998:9-25) provides a detailed discussion of the development of classical archaeology and its resultant differences from the anthropological form of the discipline. Classical archaeology falls under what some call the Great Tradition (Renfrew 1980), a composite of humanistic studies in which classical texts (histories, drama, philosophy, science, medicine) formed the core of a proper education. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, German scholars gave a specific form to this tradition with their rigorous attention to details of texts and emphasis on philological abilities. The foremost classical scholars were Germans because of their attention to method. The new discipline, called Altertumswissenschaft, developed a strong following: The new professionals were initiated through the Seminar, where the Professor inculcated in them the skills of source criticism... The overarching paradigm controlling research was the concept of the Zeitgeist, or spirit of the age. Paradoxically, through the use of critical skills the Greeks were enshrined as being beyond historical criticism. History consisted of identifying the Zeitgeist

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE Mesolithic, and Neolithic sites (Bailey 1997; Bailey et al. 1984; Dakaris et al. 1964; Jacobsen 1976; Jacobsen and Farrand 1987; Runnels 1988, 1995). To this day, there is a certain tension between prehistoric and historic archaeologists in Greece (Snodgrass 1985).

features, however, often were ignored despite the wealth of data they contain. We know a great deal about public or elite architecture, but precious little about domestic forms. There was a tendency to treat the artifacts and features as items with inherent value rather than as media for cultural information; for example, artifacts may convey nuances of social structure, marital patterns, land tenure, and so on. A few examples from NWHA will suffice to make the point. In their classic study of colonial cemeteries in New England, Dethlefsen and Deetz (1966) demonstrated the use of stylistic change as an indicator of both chronology and social differentiation. Leone (1973) correlated Mormon religious ideology with settlement layout. A number of material culture studies (Gould and Schiffer 1981; Little and Shackel 1992) have enlightened us about the context within which we must attempt to interpret archaeological remains. Our understanding of the process of acculturation and ethnic relations in various settings has benefited greatly from the sophisticated integration of historical and archaeological data (Deetz 1988; Orser 1990; Reitz and Scarry 1985). Finally, post-processualists and structuralists have found historical sites rich areas for implementing their search for the symbolic meaning of artifacts, features, and landscapes (Glassie 1975; Leone and Potter 1988). Traditional Classical archaeologists dealt with some of these issues, but not as regularly as other investigators.

I do not deny that much of interest has been turned up over the years at the various classical sites, but for some time there was a noticeable lack of synthetic studies that deal in a sophisticated fashion with the underlying cultural dynamics that engendered and perpetuated the polis system. To be fair, one must realize that the older excavations had different goals, that is, stratigraphic excavation in order to build a local sequence based on artifacts and architecture. In addition, permits issued to foreign schools often restrict their activities to certain locations; thus, the construction of regional sequences often had to wait for the promulgation of rules appropriate to systematic survey. Furthermore, archaeologists had to develop methods to answer regional questions. While New World prehistorians can claim much of the credit for developing survey techniques (see Willey 1953), archaeologists working in the Mediterranean area, and the Aegean in particular, have not only adapted these methods to the region with considerable success, but they have also made major theoretical and methodological contributions to the discipline in the process (see Bintliff and Snodgrass 1988a, 1988b; Cavanagh et al. 1996; Cherry et al. 1991; Davis 1998; Davis et al. 1997; Jameson et al. 1994; Mee and Forbes 1997; Renfrew and Wagstaff 1982). A number of projects, some discussed below, have successfully wedded stratigraphic excavation and survey and significantly expanded our understanding of past cultural dynamics.

Renfrew (1980) identifies the difference between archaeology in the Aegean and North America as the “great divide” and attributes it to the divergent nature of the material for study in each area. Most North American archaeologists are prehistorians and deal regularly with a material record vastly different from that with which CHA contends. As NWHA developed, prehistorians joined its ranks in significant numbers and transferred their methodological and theoretical concerns to their new field of inquiry. Under the influence of Deetz, South, and others, it is not surprising that NWHA became “anthropologized”; the fit, of course, is not always comfortable, but, by and large, prehistorians and historical archaeologists in North America enjoy a fluid dialogue. Sufficient common ground exists so that a mutually beneficial discourse occurs. In many ways, it was NWHA that helped eliminate many of the barriers between history and archaeology in the United States. It has been more difficult to forge a similar link between NWHA and CHA. Morris broadens our understanding of this latter divide by stating it is “not a consequence of the putative poverty of Americanist archaeology; it is one way in which classical archaeology is policed... Power, conflict and social change–some of the major concerns of real people–are alienated from the realm of legitimate topics” (Morris 1994:14). I think it is sufficiently clear that there is a dichotomy in historical archaeology as practiced in the New and Old Worlds. In the administrative area, there are palpable divisions between the respective departments in American academe. There are, however, significant efforts by both subdisciplines to overcome these old barriers.

From this examination one can glean several characteristic traits of archaeology in the Great Tradition: (1) It is clearly text-aided (which makes it historical). In fact, some classicists argue archaeology is the handmaiden of history, its purpose to bring forth evidence to highlight what we already know from the ancient authors. For some, the role of the archaeologist is merely additive rather than truly exploratory. (2) The focus is on urban and religious elements in Greek life. Certainly cities were critical parts of Hellenic civilization, but we lose much, or care little, about the majority of the people, small farmers in the countryside. Techniques developed to unearth civic centers with monumental stone architecture proved to be wholly inadequate to the task of excavating small farmsteads, or even of recognizing their existence. (3) Because of the focus on urban and religious centers, the archaeological data tell us about elites and little about other social groups. The archaeologically invisible—day laborers, farmers, women, etc.—certainly played important roles, but traditional approaches rarely allowed one to gain data relevant to the examination of non-elites. (4) The close allegiance to art history is reflected in the object-oriented approach to the field (e. g., Biers 1987). Artifact typologies for fine pieces are well constructed. Chronology, especially for fine pottery, has been worked out in detail (Beazley 1956, 1963; Boardman 1975). The bulk of the mundane artifacts and

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE understanding the intricacies of this material. In a similar fashion, the textual documents historical archaeologists elsewhere consult also contain nuances and peculiarities that become evident only after detailed study. While we may be able to read the documents, we may not fully understand them. There is a need to immerse oneself in the literary styles of the periods in question in order to make more judicious use of these valuable resources. While this advice is certainly not a revelation to historical archaeologists working in areas other than the Mediterranean, those with an anthropological background still have something to gain from studying the manner in which classical archaeologists use texts. The analysis of historical texts is something most historical archaeologists come to with little formal background, and might, thus, benefit from association with a subdiscipline that incorporates philology as part of its graduate training.

New Vistas: Broadening the Scope of Historical Archaeology What I would like to suggest is that, despite some significant discrepancies (for example, the philosophical, historical, and academic differences that house them in distinct departments in the United States), the two branches of historical archaeology (CHA and NWHA) have much in common, can benefit from a closer association, and can, together, show the way to a world historical archaeology, or at least to an understanding of commonalities between what Andrén (1998) calls the several “historical archaeologies.” The two branches share many theoretical and methodological problems. For example, a major concern is the degree to which texts and the material record correspond, and how to resolve conflicts between the two lines of evidence. On this issue, classical archaeology, with over two centuries of experience in jointly utilizing texts and archaeological materials, has much to offer her sister discipline. What is perhaps most important about the past work in CHA is that it demonstrates clearly the degree to which the relationship between material culture and text can illuminate our understanding of the past. In this specialized pursuit, classical archaeologists, with their philological training, can provide methodological pointers to others who deal with historical periods. Textual criticism is a finely developed art in classical studies, and while the uninitiated may get lost in the minutiae, it is often just such details that make the difference in the proper interpretation of a site. For example, while Pausanias’ work is an invaluable aid in reconstructing the appearance of a number of Greek sites, scholars realize they must question his accuracy in some instances because of his loose phrasing. In discussing the site of Isthmia, for instance, Pausanias mentions the Temple of Poseidon, which must have been the center of cult activity, only with the passing phrase that it is “no higher than the trees,” although he does discuss the cult statues in some detail (1964:131). One could interpret this odd statement as meaning that the temple was small, but archaeological excavations have revealed the foundations of a very large structure (Broneer 1971). In addition, why use the negative form in referring to the size of the building? It may be that Pausanias never actually visited the temple, although he certainly was in the area. There are, of course, many other examples of the ways in which careful use of texts has benefited CHA. In the aforementioned detailed chronology for artifacts and architecture, the histories of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Livy, and many other authors provide temporal anchors that, once transcribed to fit our calendar, provide exceptional control over the critical time dimension. Some categories of materials can be dated to a particular decade; such chronological detail obviously contributes greatly to our ability to discuss past sequences of events, including use and reuse of buildings, features, and sites. In short, classical literature (i. e., histories, poetry, and drama), and the detailed analyses of it, form a massive corpus that archaeologists have mined to their benefit. Philological training is indispensable to

In addition, over the past thirty years a series of changes have initiated a process of amelioration between the two branches of historical archaeology. This process is actually more noticeable in prehistoric studies. During the past three decades, various techniques and theoretical approaches developed by anthropological archaeologists have made steady inroads into the study of Greek prehistory. Most Aegean prehistorians are now conversant with surface survey methods (Keller and Rupp 1983), a host of chronometric techniques, ecological reconstruction, and issues raised by the New Archaeology (archaeology as science, levels of proof, the nature of typology, and so on). Unaided by texts, Aegean prehistorians turned to methods and topics their New World counterparts would find congenial: subsistence as determined by retrieval of minute botanical (Hansen 1991) and faunal remains, settlement patterns, cultural evolution (including the emergence and collapse of complex societies; see Renfrew 1972a), exchange networks, models of hunter-gatherer subsistence (e.g., Binford 1980), and so on. Some of these techniques have also made their way into the repertoire of traditional CHA. Prehistoric studies in Greece clearly have moved in the direction of multi-disciplinary investigations. The clearest evidence of this trend is seen in the major regional studies conducted since the 1950s in Messenia (McDonald and Rapp 1972; see also Davis 1998 and Davis et al. 1997 for recent work), Kythera (Huxley and Coldstream 1973), Melos (Renfrew and Wagstaff 1982), the southern Argolid (van Andel and Runnels 1987; Jameson et al. 1994), Boeotia (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1985, 1988a, 1988b), Crete (Hayden et al. 1992; Watrous 1982), Keos (Cherry et al. 1991), the Nemea Valley (Wright et al. 1990), the Serres Basin in northeastern Greece (Fotiadis 1986), Epiros (Dakaris et al. 1964; Higgs and Vita-Finzi 1966; Wiseman and Zachos 2003), Thessaly (Runnels 1988), Grevena (Savina et al. 1991), Lakonia (Cavanagh et al. 1996), Methana (Mee and Forbes 1997), and the Berbati region (Wells [editor] 1996; Wells et al. 1990). Each of these projects involved systematic surface survey. Many of the surveys concentrated on sites of particular ages, as in

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE Messenia (McDonald and Rapp 1972), but nonetheless recorded locations occupied over the entire chronological range. The focus has increasingly become human use of the total landscape over time. Despite the lag in the adoption of such approaches by classical archaeologists, information on historical periods is abundant because many classical sites are found and investigated. Key settlement data emerge from these analyses that have overturned old conceptions. In Nemea (Wright et al. 1990), the southern Argolid (Jameson et al. 1994), Boeotia (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1985, 1988a; Gregory 1980, 1990), and elsewhere, evidence indicates several peaks in settlement density. The first is in the Late Bronze Age, followed by the largest in the Classical phase, and nearly equaled in the Late Roman era (fourth-seventh centuries A.D.). The last of these surprised many scholars because the Late Antique period is generally viewed as a time of political disruption, and economic and social decay. Thus, survey served to connect historical and prehistoric archaeology and yielded benefits to both.

broader context within which the site operated. During NVAP (1984-1986), however, excavation at the Bronze Age site was only one component of the work. The archaeological survey, while tied to the concerns of the excavation, was not limited in temporal scope; discovered sites range in date from Middle Palaeolithic to Late Byzantine. A sophisticated sampling procedure based on earlier work on Melos (Cherry 1982) and Keos (Cherry et al. 1991) provided ample coverage of the various environmental zones within the project area. Problems of sampling bias, and the representativeness of the archaeological record revealed through excavation and survey, not addressed by traditional scholars, have become critical issues for the new breed of Aegean archaeologists. Cherry (1982) first introduced probabilistic sampling in the Melos survey and now most directors deal explicitly with this matter. The NVAP survey investigated a significant portion of the 85-km2 project area. In addition, the survey used the non-site approach (Dunnell and Dancey 1983), in which field walkers recorded total artifact counts in the field tracts in order to provide data on past human use of the entire landscape. In fact, the Aegean region has proved to be an ideal setting in which to conduct non-site survey because of the general lack of dense vegetation, a fact that permits rapid and reasonably complete counts of surface artifacts (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1988b:57). Such conditions allow, for example, Bintliff and Snodgrass (1988a:506) to say that “off-site pottery scatters formed an almost unbroken carpet throughout those sectors of the landscape that were amenable to human settlement and exploitation” in Boeotia. Conventional approaches tell us little about the intervening space between sites, and may completely miss such ephemeral locations as threshing floors and pastoral camps. The method has proven useful in Boeotia, the Korinthia, Messenia, and elsewhere. As mentioned above, the Classical and late Roman periods witnessed intense land exploitation and high site densities in the Nemea valley. Alcock (1989, 1993), Gregory (1994), and other historical archaeologists argue that the settlement system suggested by such data reflect “imperial social and political policy which favored the local aristocracies as the natural allies of Rome” (Gregory 1994:142). Geomorphological studies in the valley helped to date several alluvial sequences that indicated the intensity of land exploitation in different historical periods. Pollen cores retrieved from several locations reflected changes in vegetational regimes that can also be tied to human activity; collapse and abandonment should appear in pollen profiles as times of more macquis cover, as terraced hillslopes are reclaimed by wild growth.

In addition to survey work, a host of other disciplines have helped to define the relationship between humans and the environment, and augmented our knowledge of historical periods. Geomorphology, especially the evolution of coast lines and sedimentary sequences, has become a standard component of most regional projects (van Andel et al. 1980; van Andel and Shackleton 1982; van Andel and Lianos 1983, 1984). In Messenia, geologists and palynologists helped to trace the development of local vegetation and the location of ancient ports (Zangger 1998), which allowed for inferences about human landclearing, and the direction and volume of trade. In the southern Argolid, the earth scientists determined the sequence of land use and abuse over a 5,000-year period (van Andel et al. 1986). Pope and van Andel (1984) determined that the construction and maintenance of terraces and other soil-retention features drastically affected the degree of alluviation and colluviation from the Bronze Age to the modern day. The use of anthropological approaches in regional studies in the Aegean is largely an Anglo-American contribution. Individuals who have played major roles in bringing broadbased analyses to classical archaeology include Colin Renfrew, Anthony Snodgrass, William McDonald, Timothy Gregory, Michael Jameson, John Cherry, Jack Davis, John Bintliff, Jennifer Moody, and Curtis Runnels. The work of the Nemea Valley Archaeological Project (NVAP) can serve as an example of how such methods are changing the face of Greek classical archaeology (Cherry et al. 1988; Wright et al. 1990). Nemea was the location of a secondary Bronze Age settlement and a major Panhellenic Sanctuary of Zeus in historic times (Miller 1990). It is interesting to note that the regional analysis emerged out of the concerns of the prehistoric component at the site. Although an extensive program of excavation by archaeologists with a more traditional research agenda revealed the classical sanctuary, little effort was made to define the nature of the

NVAP also made limited use of geophysical prospecting to locate sub-surface features prior to excavation. Such work has been conducted with considerable success at a variety of historical sites on the Greek mainland and several islands (Papamarinopoulos et al. 1985; Sarris and Jones 2000; Williams 1984). For example, the present study reports on work at the Byzantine fortress at Isthmia, where a suite of geophysical techniques (magnetometry, electrical

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE resistivity, soil resistance, and self-potential) revealed the presence of a number of buildings; in tandem with data from a systematic surface collection, a team was able to reconstruct the content and population size of the fifth century A.D. military installation (see Chapter 6; Gregory and Kardulias 1990; Kardulias 1992).

Some of our recent work in the Korinthia of eastern Greece attempts to demonstrate the vital role historical archaeology can play in developing new approaches to the study of the Greek past. Greek historical periods, with their significant amount of documentation, can aid in adopting and refining theoretical approaches developed elsewhere. For example, a key concept in the work of the KRRC and EKAS is that of the region as articulated by Marquardt and Crumley (1987; also, see Gamble 1986). In their regional study of Burgundy, Marquardt and Crumley focus on the landscape as “the spatial manifestation of the relations between humans and their environment” (1987:1). Their project was multidisciplinary, multitemporal, and multiscalar, and juxtaposed “archaeological, historical and contemporary ethnographic data with those of the natural sciences” (1987:3). As Marquardt and Crumley did in France, the KRRC examines the factors that determined the location of functional centers and the nature of boundaries, both topographic and administrative. I find great utility in their concept of heterarchy, that is, the potential for the landscape, or any part of it, to be ranked differently, depending on the needs of the system. For example, an edge area can become a functional center through time, or may serve such a function for a locality even while it is peripheral to the region as a whole. The current investigations in the Korinthia (at Isthmia, Agios Vasilios, and elsewhere) reflect the variable status of different sites both synchronically and diachronically. I view this as an evolution of the cultural landscape, which, while rather well known for antiquity, is largely unexplored for the Medieval period. The KRRC and EKAS, by gathering data on the Medieval to modern period, will help fill a major gap in our knowledge of Aegean regional dynamics. In this attempt, we employ archaeological, historical, geophysical, and geomorphological data to help us isolate factors that influenced settlement patterns.

NVAP also brought to its analyses a well-orchestrated series of theoretical perspectives, including cultural ecology, world-systems theory, and materialism. Such explicit theorizing and model-construction characterizes most of the other current regional studies in Greece. The Korinthia Regional Research Consortium (KRRC; and more recently the Eastern Korinthia Archaeological Survey [EKAS]), for example, has adopted an evolutionary paradigm to explain culture change in medieval Greece; it also sees the need for studies of contemporary economic strategies to help formulate models of how past land use practices contributed to social transitions (Kardulias and Shutes 1992; see also studies in Kardulias and Shutes 1997). NVAP has concluded its work, but other projects continue to focus innovative methods and perspectives on historical periods in Greece. A few of the studies will be mentioned, but cannot be given the full treatment they deserve. Jack Davis (1998; Davis et al. 1997) organized the Pylos Regional Archaeological Project (PRAP), in which his team implemented and refined many of the methodological and theoretical approaches of NVAP, and added detailed assessment of the Ottoman occupation (Bennet et al. 2000). At the more specific level, ethnoarchaeology has made significant contributions to model-building and interpretation of the archaeological record (Jacobsen 1985). Chang’s (1981, 1994; Murray and Chang 1981) and Koster’s (1997) studies of pastoralism and Murray and Kardulias’ (1986) modern site survey provide foundations for inferences of past behavior. Runnels (1982) has extended the study of lithics into historical periods. Cultural anthropologists are key members of large projects. They study a range of phenomena, from modern demography and site distribution to local transformations in villages (Aschenbrenner 1986; Dimen and Friedl 1976; Sutton 1988, 1994; van Andel and Sutton 1987); many of these studies challenge conventional notions of the peasant villager who is resistant to change and force us to reevaluate notions of past social dynamics. Another factor is greater attention to the archaeology of more recent periods; it is an interesting fact that we know less archaeologically about times closer to our own than we do about Classical Greece. The KRRC and a team from the University of Minnesota (Minnesota Morea Project) focused on the examination of Frankish sites in southern Greece. In 1991 the Minnesota team initiated a long-term survey of vernacular village architecture in an attempt to record regional pre-modern structures in Messenia (southwestern Greece). The purpose of the project is to record structures dating from late medieval times to the present century (Miller et al. 1991).

On the methodological plane, the KRRC has used state-ofthe-art computer graphics to reconstruct and analyze the fortified site of Agios Vasilios (Kardulias et al. 1997). The research has the twin goals of providing substantive information on a particular site and of forming the basis for a regional study by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). AutoCAD acts as a sophisticated database that allows one to construct categories of structures by size and place them in a rank order to determine site function and population size. With similar work at other sites in the future KRRC scholars will compile a data bank that will allow quick comparison of whole sites or individual structures. AutoCAD has provided plans and hypothetical reconstructions of buildings at the site. We are now placing these site-specific data in a regional context. ERDAS-based software enabled the team to identify a site signature for Agios Vasilios and three other Frankish period sites based on key attributes (aspect, proximity to water, soil types, elevation, proximity to crossroads, and proximity to pasture). From this characteristic profile we have developed a predictive model that has identified nine other potential site locations for the period in question (Dann 1992; Dann

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE and Yerkes 1994). Our investigation of the Agios Vasilios site adds important data on the size and configuration of secondary centers. The ultimate goal is to record a number of Medieval sites in the Korinthia in order to gain a clear image of the settlement hierarchy during this important, but neglected, period. The work will contribute to our understanding of culture change by examining the settlement system during the Frankish period and comparing it to, for example, the Late Antique-Early Byzantine transition in the same region by way of GIS. What underlying trends can we identify between these two periods, and conversely, how can we explain differences in a regional context?

artistic, and intellectual life, and thus presided over a society of less value and interest. In archaeology, this attitude on the part of some foreign scholars has led to a virtual disdain for Byzantine remains, which were treated as overburden and removed quickly in order to get at the “interesting” classical material (Rautman 1990). Greek archaeologists were and still are faced with a dilemma: while the Byzantine heritage is important, resources for archaeological investigations are limited, and priority often goes to the ancient sites. While foreign schools were more than willing to undertake excavations at classical and certain prehistoric sites, they generally ignored Byzantine remains, and, thus, we have a very incomplete understanding of this very important period.

The KRRC has also examined areas, such as small dry offshore islands occupied in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods, considered marginal for human existence (Gregory and Kardulias 1989; Kardulias et al. 1995; Kardulias 2000). These investigations address a major historical issue that the present study also examines, that is, the nature of the transformation of Classical urban civilization in the fourth to seventh centuries A.D. Many scholars who work in the Aegean area espouse a discontinuity model in which fundamental breaks occur at different points (P. Brown 1971; Bury 1923; Foss 1975, 1977, 1979; Gibbon 1909; Hood 1970; Kazhdan and Cutler 1982; Rostovtzeff 1926; Thompson 1959). Others suggest continuity characterized the historical stream in the Aegean (Ostrogorsky 1959; Russell 1986). The discontinuity perspective derives from a concentration on political history and the operation of the imperial state, that is, social macrostructures, which did change during the period in question (see Chapter 5). The KRRC evaluates the discontinuity hypothesis by examining microstructures in the form of settlement patterns, local economic organization, architectural style, biological distance between burial populations, and changes in cult activity. To assess this issue, we employ an evolutionary model that attempts to deal with periods of transition as aspects of adaptation (Dunnell 1989; Harris 1979; Sahlins 1960; Steward 1955). The interplay of historical and archaeological data permit us to evaluate the transition in great detail and will assist in constructing a general model of social change for the Aegean.

The neglect of the other periods has a different cause, but one still rooted in the circumstances of modern Greece. For Greeks, the Ottoman period (or Tourkokratia, the period of Turkish rule) conjures up a number of negative images; it was a time when Greeks lost control of their own homeland and their destinies. Beginning with the 1821 uprising against Ottoman rule, modern Greece emerged during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries through a process of territorial expansion. Accompanying the military ventures was a powerful ideological campaign in the service of establishing a viable national identity for a people that had been under foreign domination for almost four centuries. As Herzfeld (1982) has demonstrated ably, this campaign of ideas was a systematic attempt by the nascent state and many of its intellectuals to reclaim the Hellenic tradition in the service of Greek nationalism, to provide a rallying point and a center for this new member of the European community. Ancient Greek culture had, since the Renaissance, served as a model for western European intellectuals (Friedman 1992:838). Now, history and archaeology came to have important places in this process of Greek nation-building, as investigations revealed a past in which a citizen could take pride and use as a claim to territorial legitimacy. While territorial acquisition ended with the cession of the Dodekanese Islands (an eastern Aegean chain that includes Kos, Rhodes, Patmos, and nine other islands) by Italy in 1948, Greece feels less than comfortable with many of its neighbors. Continued tensions with Turkey over air space and territorial limits in the Aegean, with Albania over the large number of refugees flooding across the border, and with a former Yugoslavian republic over the political implications of the use of the name “Macedonia,” heighten Greek fears of being overwhelmed by foreign influences. These conditions have spawned initiatives to maintain Greek nationalism. For example, there has been a campaign to replace Slavic toponyms, place names that date to the Slavic invasions of the sixth and seventh centuries A.D., with Greek terms. In archaeological circles, the situation means that one does not undertake excavation of Ottoman period sites because, in part at least, the work would conflict with important national ideological needs. Similar constraints limit the possibilities, but to a lesser extent, of

During the field seasons of EKAS there was an effort to expand coverage to the largely neglected Ottoman period (Baram and Carroll 2000; Davis 1991), and even to nineteenth and twentieth century sites (Diacopoulos 2004). The neglect of the Ottoman period, and to a lesser extent the Byzantine, Frankish, and Venetian eras, brings us, finally, to a consideration of the socio-political climate within which archaeology operates in Greece. While Greeks view the Byzantine period as a significant part of their cultural inheritance, it does not share the same exalted status in the eyes of many Western archaeologists. To many scholars, Byzantine culture represents a degradation of the classical tradition; the medieval Greeks, to some, were unable to sustain the ancient cities, with their innovative political,

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE working on Frankish and Venetian sites. One can certainly sympathize with the Greek position. In fact, we are witnessing in the United States a similar situation. Native Americans are becoming increasingly successful in blocking excavation of certain sites because the work does not meet their ideological, religious, and social needs.

direct historical method can become a useful, standard tool only if we include the archaeological record in its entirety in our deliberations. With the written data available in the Aegean for most historic periods, we can make the connections more tightly than in many other regions of the world. The refined procedure could then be applied to many other areas, including North America, with a better sense of its strengths and weaknesses. Finally, there is the simple point of finding out more about a period that has been important in the formation of the modern Mediterranean world (cf. Braudel 1973).

For nineteenth and early twentieth century sites in Greece, the work primarily involves restoration of historic buildings, with no archaeological component; the period in question, in the minds of many Greek and foreign archaeologists, is simply outside the domain of archaeology. If the work of Deetz, Leone, Rathje, and others has done nothing else, it has demonstrated how much archaeology can contribute to the understanding of recent and even contemporary society. Certainly, practical considerations (i. e., limited funds available for archaeological work) also play a role in limiting investigations to particular periods.

Conclusion This examination reveals that, traditionally, historical archaeology in Greece was defined quite differently, in terms of chronology, specific topics of analysis, and methods, than its anthropological North American counterpart. Anthropology, with its holistic comparative perspective, infuses historical archaeology with a broader agenda in both areas. Historical archaeologists in North America have at least a familiarity with, if not commitment to, a problem-oriented, scientific approach. Perhaps more important is the interdisciplinary nature of the investigations now being conducted in Greece and the New World. The wealth of documentation for various Greek historical periods makes possible refined comparison with the archaeological record, and, thus, more detailed reconstructions. Thus, both CHA and NWHA can make major contributions to a world historical archaeology. Current trends bode well for research and should, one can hope, begin to break down the walls which block effective communication between these two areas of the field which are, to paraphrase George Bernard Shaw, separated by a common historical focus. The present study is part of the effort to bridge this gap.

What would be gained by the archaeological study of fifteenth to twentieth century sites in Greece? First, examination of such sites will help to construct a meaningful dialogue among prehistorians, classicists, and modern historians because of the ability to test hypotheses and assumptions against a more complete material record. Ethnoarchaeology has become an increasingly important element in regional studies in the Aegean. One of the basic premises of ethnoarchaeology is that the analogies and inferences generated by the work will be more appropriate if the time and place under study are closer to those for which the inferences are sought. Ethnoarchaeological studies will gain in analytical rigor if the contemporary studies and hypotheses are tested by examination against the recent archaeological record, with the complementary written records, before we push the inferences into the prehistoric, classical, and medieval past. Second, use of the

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CHAPTER 3 FIELD METHODS urban traditions into the Medieval period. If city life did in fact cease to exist at this time as some have suggested, the first to feel the effects of such a transition would be the urban outliers, those sites whose very existence is dependent on the center. The cost of maintaining ties to what may be seen as extraneous communities could well have dictated abandonment of this relationship. If, on the other hand, such ties continued to be nurtured, there would be some reason to argue that the structure of urban society was maintained, although its nature may have been altered somewhat. Under such circumstances, the outlier communities may have survived as independent agricultural villages.

Introduction The research component of this study has two basic facets. First is the examination of the published material, dealing with Isthmia at one level, and with the larger issue of how to characterize the Late Roman to Early Byzantine transformation, at another level. This part of the research involves a detailed perusal of the relevant literature. Although there is a substantial body of published material on both Isthmia and the continuity/discontinuity issue, a distinct link between this site and the larger problem has only recently been made. An important goal of this study is to explore further this connection, to use Isthmia as a test case to examine the phenomenon on a local level. To do this, a thorough review of the literature concerning Isthmia is necessary to lay a foundation for an exegetical framework.

These two facets of the research obviously complement one another. Although a substantial amount of excavation occurred near the Medieval fortifications, especially in the period between 1967 and 1978, this work focused on dating the defensive walls. Consequently, very little is known about the interior layout of the Fortress, an understanding of which is crucial to defining its role in a regional defensive scheme and as a manifestation of an urban culture. The geophysical fieldwork provided the means to gain such knowledge. In conjunction with the geophysical exploration, systematic surface collections were taken in each field season to provide an independent body of data about the remains within the Fortress. In lieu of excavation, the surface survey offered a means of checking on the geophysical results by correlating inferred features with concentrations of artifacts. The implementation of this field strategy is described below, beginning with some general information, followed by the collecting of surface samples and the geophysical operations. Each section concludes with a short discussion of the means employed to analyze the data so collected.

A substantial portion of the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia has been excavated. The various reports from these investigations provide a body of data that is crucial to reconstructing the sequence of events at the site. Such a history has been pieced together, but due to the emphases of the various excavators, much more is known about the use of the site in Antiquity than about events there in the Medieval phase. It is at this level of discussion where previous work at the site falls somewhat short of what is required to undertake the analysis envisioned here. Nonetheless, the literature is an integral part of the research effort. Second, to supplement the information garnered from the literature review and to provide a more secure context for evaluating the larger issue, additional fieldwork was undertaken in 1985 and 1986. This facet of the study involved geophysical exploration (Weymouth and Huggins 1985) and surface survey, primarily within the confines of the Byzantine Fortress at the eastern edge of the site. Some limited investigation also was conducted near the Roman Bath and at the eastern end of the Hexamilion several km from Isthmia.

Surface Survey In both 1985 and 1986, a systematic surface collection initiated the field work procedures. The goal of these collections was to determine the density of artifacts on the ground surface within the Fortress and to assess the variation in terms of material and chronology exhibited by the artifacts gathered.

The prime concern of this fieldwork was to obtain a more detailed picture of the Byzantine occupation of the site so that substantive statements about the nature of the Medieval settlement could be made. Beyond this level, the enhanced understanding of the site permits comparison with other Byzantine settlements and thus allows an evaluation of its status on a continuum. An assessment can then be made of the degree to which Isthmia continued to be the product of an urban society. Even though the site itself may not qualify as a city, its existence depended on close alliance to an urban center at Korinth and on the continued operation of a network for communication and exchange, elements of an urban culture that persisted in Greece, albeit in an altered form. Indeed, in some ways, the fact that Isthmia was not itself a city makes it a better example for the continuity of

Artifact density on the surface has been used as an indicator of subsurface concentrations of cultural material and as a demarcator of activity foci within sites. Some empirical substantiation for this archaeologically intuitive given has been provided by Redman and Watson (1970), who demonstrated that the horizontal spatial attributes of artifacts on the ground are rather well correlated with the distribution of artifact clusters and features beneath the surface. Differences in material and temporal affiliation of the surface artifacts are also significant. The former can 23

FIELD METHODS indicate functional differences in various areas of the site while the latter provides a general time range around which to hang these activities. The relative abundance of material from one period or another suggests more intensive use of the site during that time. Distinct localized concentrations of materials from different periods may indicate a shift in the use of various parts of the site through time. The absolute frequency (total raw count) of the different artifacts by category may suggest the relative importance of the activities associated with those items. When comparing different materials, this element may be misleading because of differential breakage patterns. For example, a single ceramic vessel is likely to shatter into many more pieces than a grinding stone, so that simple frequencies or percentages can be misleading. The ubiquity of various artifacts measures the degree of areal spread over the site and may be an index of generalized as opposed to specialized function. Artifact density refers to the degree of concentration of material at particular loci and can be a measure of the intensity of activity over space.

sode constitutes an important formation process that will be considered both in its own right and in terms of how it affects the interpretation of the results from the surface survey. The initial surface survey was conducted in May, 1985 and the second in July, 1986. A systematic sampling procedure was employed in which a series of 1 m2 units were marked out at 10 m and 5 m intervals in 1985 and 1986, respectively, using the site grid which we established in the initial season. Within each sampling square, all artifacts were collected and counted according to categories within each material type. For example, for ceramic materials distinctions were made between bricks, rooftiles, loom weights, artificial beehives, and pottery. The pottery was further divided into fine wares and coarse wares, with temporal/cultural affiliations assigned when such could be determined. Only the pottery could be treated in such an exhaustive fashion because of its diagnostic nature. The subdivision of other ceramics remained necessarily at a relatively gross level and this was generally true of other material categories. Stone could be subdivided into building material and ground and flaked lithics, with only the few decorative architectural members affording any relatively secure dating.

The varying combinations or permutations and intensity levels of these attributes are tied to certain basic assumptions about the relative significance of the artifacts. Those objects that exhibit high frequency, high ubiquity, and high density would represent the largest and in many ways the most important categories since they dominate the inventory; this combination can also reflect the most mundane, utilitarian types. A low frequency, low ubiquity combination could express one of several extremes: (1) if it is prosaic material, a low level of use due to insignificant contribution to the total lifestyle; alternatively, such circumstances may reflect a temporal problem, with low frequency perhaps indicating earlier deposits of which only a small portion find their way to the surface; (2) if it is finer material, perhaps this distribution represents an unequal low level spread on the basis of its scarcity, suggesting privileged access and hierarchical distinctions among occupants of the site; (3) it may also be the result of limited occupation of the site in certain periods.

In each season the total area available for surface collection was ca. 21,000 m2. This constitutes 77.5% of the total area of ca. 27,100 m2 (2.71 ha) enclosed by the circuit walls. Sections that could not be included in this procedure were the churchyard, the cemetery, and three fenced areas, one between Tower 15 and Tower 13, another around the South Gate, and the last near the Northeast Gate, where excavation had occurred already. In 1985, 1.4% of the Fortress interior was sampled while in 1986 2.7% was so examined. In each case, artifacts were collected within each sampling unit, counted, and recorded. All the material was left in the field with the exception of coins, and several pieces of pottery of uncertain date that were returned to the excavation house for cleaning and closer examination. The fine comparative collections in the excavation house and the site museum made appropriate identification a much simpler proposition than it might otherwise have been for these problematical pieces.

In addition to such basic assumptions, a series of second order behavioral correlates can be derived from these varying combinations. For example, a high frequency, high density, low ubiquity distribution may indicate locations of specialized activity. Categories exhibiting high frequency and high ubiquity (most notably rooftiles) reflect the most common material elements and undifferentiated activity, at least in a general sense (e. g., widespread distribution of rooftiles at a high frequency suggests a number of roofed structures throughout the Fortress, but does not necessarily reveal the functions of such buildings).

The sampling strategy was designed to provide extensive coverage of the Fortress. The number of individuals involved at any one time varied from three to seven, making for narrower or broader transects since the field workers operated abreast of one another. Each member of the survey staked out a square and examined the ground closely, using a trowel to clear vegetation and to dislodge artifacts visible on the surface but partly embedded in the dry earth. Each fieldworker made determination of artifact types as material for each square was sorted for counting and recording. Any possible diagnostic items and questionable pieces were set aside to be examined by Timothy Gregory, director of the project, or this author. Total time required to conduct the survey in this fashion was 10 days in 1985 and 18 days in 1986.

A complicating factor that undoubtedly affected the nature of the surface artifact assemblage is the use of fill from other parts of the Sanctuary to level the ground at the eastern edge of the Fortress at the time of the latter’s construction. This activity introduced a set of intrusive artifacts with no direct link to the functioning Fortress. As such, this epi-

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE The data generated by this procedure were initially recorded on paper forms in the field; that information has more recently been transferred to Excel spreadsheets for electronic archiving (see Appendix 1 for the 1985 survey and Appendix 2 for the 1986 collection). In addition, each category of diagnostic pottery, architectural stone, and other types of material (e. g., glass, metal, ceramic kiln wasters, tesserae, coins, slag) has been plotted on individual maps of the Fortress to provide a quick comparative reference for the distribution of these key items. For those categories that contained especially large numbers of artifacts (e. g., rooftiles and Late Roman pottery), the SURF2 computer program generated contour maps of the distributions. The various maps can be compared to plots generated for the geophysical techniques to see how artifact distribution matches up with magnetic and electrical anomalies in various parts of the Fortress.

bar magnet placed at the earth’s center. The field is altered by the current system near the core mantle interface and by variations in the magnetic properties of the rocks forming the mantle and crust. The field that is produced varies only gradually in time and space. However, overlain on this smooth basic field are irregular minor variations that are of interest from the archaeological perspective (Aitken 1974:207). A small distortion in the local magnetic field results from concentrations of rocks, soils, and iron objects magnetized by the earth’s field. An important consideration is the degree of soil magnetization, called magnetic susceptibility, which depends on the intensity of the field and the properties of the soils involved. The sources of this susceptibility are iron compounds in soils, primarily hematite, magnetite, and maghaemite. Soils can be ranked in ascending order of susceptibility, with those containing limestone and unbaked clays at the lower end, followed by subsoils, top soils, and finally heated soils, fired clays, and volcanic rocks. The top end of the scale can be 100 to 500 times as susceptible as the bottom portion (Weymouth 1986:342).

Geophysical Methods In order to obtain data to assess the level of activity at Isthmia during the Early Byzantine period, a variety of geophysical techniques were employed. The methods used include magnetometry, electrical resistivity, soil resistance, and self-potential. Collectively, these methods fall under the general heading of remote sensing (Ebert 1984), the use of which has a substantial history in Mediterranean archaeology (Fischer 1980). The intent was to obtain information about the size, configuration, and orientation of subsurface features. Cultural elements create disruptions or anomalies in the natural field, whether electrical or magnetic. The various instruments employed are capable of detecting such anomalies and provide powerful tools for assessing the nature of the remains without excavation. The use of different methods permitted an assessment of the efficacy of each in the examination of a structurally complex site. In addition, each procedure has idiosyncratic limitations; the use of several in the same area would help to overcome the constraints of any one method.

Another crucial feature is that some objects that initially exhibit little or no magnetization can have this property instilled. Induced magnetization occurs when such an object is placed in a field that imparts some of its properties to the item. If the object retains some residual effect when removed from the field, the magnetization is referred to as remanent. Heating an object imparts thermoremanent magnetization; the iron particles so freed align themselves with any available field and preserve the new orientation upon cooling. Because all soils possess some degree of magnetic susceptibility, the key in understanding what produces anomalies is to view the problem in terms of the contrast in this property between features of interest and the surrounding soil matrix. There are both natural and anthropogenic causes for such contrasts. Hematite, with a lower susceptibility, can be altered to magnetite, exhibiting higher values, by reduction. Fermentation or burning may be responsible for this changeover. Human intervention leading to enhanced contrast includes the creation of trash pits and middens with much organic material, filling ditches with topsoil, and the intrusion of structures that differ from the soil matrix in basic components. In addition, the presence of fire hearths, kilns, burned house remains, and bricks also provides a significant magnetic contrast (Weymouth 1986:342343).

Magnetometry The primary technique used in both field seasons was magnetic prospecting. This procedure has been utilized in an archaeological context since 1958 (Aitken 1978) and has gained in popularity as equipment has become more readily available and as archaeologists have gained an appreciation for its potential. Although the operation of the equipment is quite simple, the operational theory behind it is quite complex but is summarized here to provide an appropriate backdrop to subsequent discussions.

In many instances the disturbance in the magnetic field caused by archaeological features is relatively minor and requires a sensitive instrument to detect the shift. The proton magnetometer is most commonly employed for this purpose in an archaeological context. The protons in a proton rich liquid such as alcohol or decane act as tiny magnets, rotating quickly around an axis. As magnets, the protons tend to become oriented in a magnetic field, but their gyroscopic rotation causes them to precess or wobble while slowly aligning with the field. The frequency of the preces-

Magnetometry relies for the source of its signal on the presence of the earth’s magnetic field that is aligned with the magnetic north pole (Weymouth 1986:34). This natural field exists due to the dynamic nature of the earth’s fluid outer core. Every point in the magnetic field has an intensity and a direction (Rapp and Henrickson 1972:236). The key features of this field resemble what would be generated by a

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FIELD METHODS sion is precisely proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. In operation, a polarizing current passes for several seconds through a 1000 to 2000 turn coil wound around a bottle of liquid. When the current is terminated, the protons in the liquid gyrate at a speed proportional to the field strength, thus generating a tiny voltage that is amplified and measured (Rapp and Henrickson 1972:236).

ess of reduction is then the same (Weymouth 1986:346348). Field Operations. The magnetic survey constitutes the bulk of the field research. It was initiated in May, 1985 and continued in July of that year. The purpose was to cover the entire interior of the Fortress except the churchyard, cemetery, and areas enclosed by wire fence. A second season of work was necessary to accomplish this goal. In July, 1986, time in the field was split between conducting a second surface survey and completing the magnetic survey. The instrument used in this latter endeavor was a Geometrics G856 Proton Free Precession Magnetometer with a storage capacity of 1,225 readings.

The magnetic anomalies derived by this equipment have certain characteristics. When a feature or target has greater magnetic susceptibility than the surrounding soil, it establishes its own local magnetic field. This induced field (a dipole field) replicates that of the earth on a smaller scale. The local field combines with the earth’s to produce a normal dipole anomaly. In mid-northern latitudes, such as Greece, the maximum value of the dipole plotted as a profile is displaced to the south of the source by about onethird the target to sensor distance. If the susceptibility of the feature is less than that of the soil matrix, the anomaly is negative. If the feature is long, narrow, and cylindrical, for example, a deep pit, the anomaly produced is a monopole with a weak low region (Weymouth 1986:344 345).

In order to obtain a clearer picture of subsurface features, intensive coverage was implemented in the Fortress. A series of grids of varying dimensions were examined, with readings taken at 1 m intervals. The initial effort in May, 1985 covered five areas (four 20x20 m, and one 10x10 m). These were positioned in different parts of the site in an attempt to explore what seemed to be archaeologically sensitive locations; three of these units encompassed fragments of visible walls. In July, 1985 field work aimed at filling in the gaps between these previous units in order to provide a large block of surveyed territory. These efforts resulted in a large rectangular (90 x 50 m) area of coverage, with a 10 x 20 m section appended on the northeast, and an independent 20 x 20 m unit 85 m to the north near the Northeast Gate. Transects within these units (a total of seventeen) ran in the direction of the longest dimension along grid lines; wherever in situ wall remains were visible, an attempt was made to have transects intersect them. As a result of these contingencies the transects in some units were oriented east-west and in others north-south. A base station was set up in the center of this large rectangular area and served as the reference point for all field readings, except the one unit near the Northeast Gate for which a separate base station was established. Each morning the intensity of the magnetic field was monitored for twenty to thirty minutes with three readings taken every five minutes. If the readings proved to be relatively stable over that time period, the team began the regular survey routine. One individual took readings with the magnetometer and stored the numbers in the machine’s memory. A second individual recorded all the readings on special forms as these were called out. One or two other workers moved the tapes that marked the stations for each transect. The direction of the transects alternated at the end of each line. Every 25 to 35 minutes, the operator returned to the base station to take three diurnal readings, then resumed surveying. At the end of each grid, the magnetometer was returned to the excavation house where the memory was dumped onto a diskette on a Kaypro 2x personal computer. In 1986, a Zenith portable personal computer served as the data repository.

Walls, the chief type of feature sought at the Fortress, generally have low magnetization in comparison to the surrounding soil. As a result, the main anomaly associated with buried walls is a reverse one, that is, there is a drop in magnetic readings. There should also be at least one road in the Fortress. Ancient road deposits, however, are often too thin to create much of an anomaly; yet, Bronze Age roads in Cyprus and Roman roads in England had sufficient thickness to be detected easily by magnetometry (Aitken 1974:232-233). There is, then, the possibility of detecting the presence of a road in the Fortress if it is composed of substantial material. A key problem that demands attention is the fluctuation in the earth’s magnetic field, which occurs regularly throughout the day. This diurnal variation results in constant shifts in field intensity, which decreases quickly during the early morning after dawn, reaches a low point at midday, and then increases during the afternoon and night. There tends to be more fluctuation during the summer than the winter (Aitken 1974:209-210). In addition, occasional flareups in solar activity cause field intensity to fluctuate dramatically. Several options are available to counteract this problem. If two magnetometers are used in the field, one can be set up to take regular readings automatically to monitor the changes in field intensity at one place during the day. The second instrument can serve as a roving reading head for actual prospecting. Readings from the reference point can be plotted and data from the roving instrument can be adjusted (reduced) accordingly so that the fluctuations in the field intensity can be filtered out. Any anomalies that appear will then be due to features in the ground rather than diurnal variation. If only one instrument is available, a base station is established as the check point and is visited periodically. A series of readings are taken there at regular intervals during the survey to monitor the activity of the field. The proc-

Under this work regime, field operations commenced in the southeast corner of the Fortress; we surveyed a total of 5,100 m2 in 1985. Readings were taken at 1 m intervals

26

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE within the designated square being surveyed, with the reading head at a height above ground of .5 m. This spacing and height would permit detection of small scale anomalies in the range of five to ten nT (Ralph von Frese, personal communication 1985).

and contour maps on IBM compatible personal computers. Surfer (Golden Software) provided some of the final contour maps at a higher level of visual resolution. I employed these various programs to display the data from Isthmia. Electrical Resistivity

Several problems surfaced during the 1985 season. The first tripod used to hold the reading head proved to be slightly magnetic, thus invalidating the data collected while utilizing it. Of the 1700 m2 surveyed with this tripod, 800 m2 were later resurveyed with a new, totally non-magnetic stand. As a result of this difficulty, there are several areas with irregular readings that represent extraneous “noise” in the contour map for the first season’s work. A second difficulty arose in July when the RS 232 cable used to transfer data from the magnetometer memory to a personal computer malfunctioned. This necessitated the hand entry of readings from the data sheets to diskette, a process begun in Greece and completed at Ohio State in the fall of 1985.

This technique has seniority over all other geophysical methods in terms of archaeological applications, first being used for this purpose in England in the 1940s (Parrington 1983). Since that time it has become a common feature of the repertoire of methods utilized for site exploration in Europe and North America. A major advantage of electrical resistivity is that it is not affected by local disturbances that would play havoc with magnetic surveying, for example, the presence of automobiles and other modern metal sources, or electrical power lines. Application of this technique involves the insertion of four metal probes into the ground. The probes are connected to a meter and an alternating current source by electrical wire. Current is applied to two probes (inducing probes, often designated by I) and the resultant flow of electricity is measured as the potential difference in voltage between the other two probes (potential probes, P or V). In general, resistivity surveying measures the electrical resistance (or its reciprocal, conductivity) of the soil in a restricted volume near the surface. In other words, an index is obtained of how easily current flows through the ground.

In 1986, magnetic surveying resumed, beginning in the southwest portion of the site. The area remaining to be covered extended along the western edge of the site for a distance of 180 m. This large L-shaped area was divided into smaller units for surveying. Station interval was again 1 m and the height of the reading head 0.50 m. All transects ran in a north-south direction. Several base stations were established during the survey to facilitate access, as only one instrument was available for use. Diurnal checks were made every 20 to 45 minutes, depending on the rate of fluctuation noted during the day. As the result of familiarity with the equipment and a more portable stand for the reading head, recording speed was considerably enhanced over the previous year. A total of 9,958 m2 was examined in a period of 18 days employing a crew of three to five individuals. This work included all open areas within the Fortress walls, five transects near the Roman Bath ca. 300 m west of the Fortress, and two 10x15 m units in the area where the Hexamilion Wall disappears under the canal dump several km east of Isthmia. Only the readings in the Fortress are reported here since the results from the other areas were not usable due to the presence of metal and excessive depth to the target.

Factors that determine soil resistivity include soil structure, dissolved ion content, and amount of moisture (Weymouth 1986:318). When the interstices in soil or rock are filled with water containing a high percentage of dissolved salts and/or humic acids of biological origin, the flow of current is facilitated. Hard compact rocks, such as granite and sandstone, tend to be poor conductors. Porous limestone is much better in this regard, but it still provides more impedance than soil, sand, and clays (Tite 1972:25). The structure and porosity of the soil also play a role. The total volume of pores determines the amount of water uptake, and the configuration of pore connections affects the flow of current through the soil. When the earth is saturated with water, resistivity depends substantially on the connectivity of the pores. If the soil is dry, the degree of water retention of smaller pores is crucial. The unit for expressing soil resistivity is the ohm-meter (Weymouth 1986:320).

Data Display. The interpretation of the data retrieved by magnetic surveying has been greatly facilitated in the past two decades by the availability of computer programs specifically designed to handle the complex manipulations often required to obtain good results. The Department of Geology and Mineralogy at Ohio State University has developed a suite of programs for use on mainframe hardware to accomplish this. These include programs to remove the diurnal variation and filters to screen out extraneous data. The WYLBUR communication package was used to write the data onto mainframe files. Subsequently, maps were plotted on the Versatec Electrostatic Printer that contours planar data matrices. In addition, Geometrics, Inc., a major manufacturer of magnetometers, has developed software to remove diurnal variation and to plot preliminary dot density

Anthropogenic factors that can influence the degree of soil resistivity include the construction of large stone features (for example, foundations and cellars), the creation of humus, and various activities that contribute to soil compaction or aggregation. Walls and foundations generally cause resistivity readings to rise. The direction in which factors such as cellars and degree of soil compaction alter the natural resistivity depends on local climate. The addition of layers of humus tends to reduce resistivity because of the greater ion content in the soil (Weymouth 1986:320-321). Voids caused by features such as uncollapsed tombs or kilns

27

FIELD METHODS produce low resistivity readings (Rapp and Henrickson 1972:236).

because of the smaller size of the field crew (six for geophysical and surface survey, compared to as many as twenty for these operations in 1985) and the lack of dependable equipment. With operations at a much reduced scale, the strategy was to focus efforts on magnetometry.

The shape of the anomaly that is recorded depends on the configuration of the probes. The most common arrangement in archaeological applications is the Wenner array in which the four electrodes form a straight line with an equal distance (a-spacing) between each. The two outer probes are the inducing probes and the two inner ones measure the current flow. This array gives a double peak anomaly as it passes over a single source; this complicates interpretation, but the Wenner array is still preferred because it is the easiest to use in the field, necessitating the transfer of only one probe for each new reading. The point at which resistivity is being measured is in the center of the array, that is, at the midpoint between the inner potential probes. The a-spacing is often set at a length equivalent to the depth to the target, if this distance is known (Rapp and Henrickson 1972:323). If the a-spacing is not large enough, little current will reach the target, making it difficult to detect. If the distance is too large, small features are masked since they form only a fraction of the total volume that is reached by the current. The value of the resistivity that is acquired reflects conditions beneath the potential probes to a depth approximately one and one half times the a-spacing (Tite 1972:27, 29).

Operation of the resistivity meter proved to be both labor intensive and cumbersome. To work most efficiently, a crew of six people was required, one handling the instrument, one recording the readings, and one manning each of the four probes. As a reading was taken, the last probe was leapfrogged to the front of the array, so that only this one had to be moved each time, except when a new transect was started. An alligator clip at the end of each electrical lead facilitated the transfer of wires from probe to probe for each reading. Whenever fewer than six people were engaged in this work, the pace declined noticeably. The bulky nature of the meter also proved to be something of a problem in transferring it from station to station. The use of state of the art equipment would have eliminated some of these problems. Despite these logistical problems, electrical resistivity surveying has certain definite advantages over magnetometry. Key among these is that readings are not subject to distortion by extraneous sources (i. e., metal, power lines, heavy solar activity), nor is any diurnal correction required. Since additional water in the soil can reduce resistivity, surveying after rainstorms is not recommended, but this poses little trouble in a Mediterranean climate during the spring and summer. Another advantage is that its long use in archaeological contexts has proven its reliability in detecting cultural features. In addition, this method is especially appropriate for delineating walls and foundations, which are of major concern at Isthmia. When such structural elements are made of the same material as the soil matrix, there is no magnetic contrast, but the resistivity meter is still able to discriminate the features from their natural surroundings (Weymouth 1986:341).

Field Operations. All electrical resistivity work was conducted in May and July, 1985. The instrument used was a Strata Scout R 40 Resistivity Meter. A concerted effort was made to cover areas that were the subject of magnetic exploration. By this means, independent verification for each method was possible. Since this technique was viewed as supplemental to the magnetic prospecting, complete coverage of the interior of the Fortress was to be attempted only if time permitted. The labor intensive nature of this work made it less efficient than magnetometry and so it was not pursued in the second field season. Resistivity work focused on the central and southern part of the site. Four large areas were delineated between the south wall of the Fortress and the paved road at about the 60N line. Of these, three were completed and the fourth started before equipment failure ended this part of the investigation. Readings were taken with probes aligned in a Wenner array with an a-spacing of 2 m. Profile transects up to 50 m in length were run in a north south fashion, beginning along the east west baseline. The transects for Area 1 ran to the north of this baseline, between 50W and 86W and reaching up to 48N. Area 2 transects ran south of the baseline, between 10W and 50W, down to 48S. Area 4 also lay south of the baseline, between 52W and 84W, to 48S. Area 3 lies north of the baseline, with transects between 0E and 16E, reaching from 42N to 70N. Distance between transects was 2 m, so that they all ran along even numbered grid lines, for example the 54W, 56W, and 58W lines were all surveyed. An area of 5,632 m2 was surveyed by electrical resistivity in 1985, forming a squat “L” with the long side near the western edge of the Fortress and the short section to the south and east. No further resistivity work was conducted in 1986

Data Display. The presentation of resistivity data can be accomplished in several ways. Individual profiles can be plotted or contour maps can be drawn that encompass the whole area in question. Only the latter approach is followed below because of the interest in obtaining an image of the entire area of coverage for comparison with the results of the other techniques. An overall map of the surveyed area is employed, in order to exhibit the spatial relationships among various anomalies and how these may relate to specific cultural features. The PLTCON contour procedure, a FORTRAN program, is used to generate the larger map. Electrical Soil Resistance This technique is based on the same principles as electrical resistivity, and thus a discussion of the underlying theory is unnecessary here. The property it measures is, in fact, a component of soil resistivity. The distinction between this method and electrical resistivity is a fine one, based on the specific soil characteristics being examined. The derivation of soil resistance is necessary to the computation of soil

28

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE resistivity, and is stated in ohms. As with electrical resistivity, four electrodes are used, two to transmit an alternating current through the ground and two to monitor the potential drop across the constant gap between them. The use of special feedback circuits in the meter assures the validity of earth resistance readings up to 50,000 ohms (Stonefield Service Company 1983:3). This technique has been applied successfully in Greece at Stymphalos and Mytilene (Papamarinopoulos et al. 1985; Williams 1984). Resistance readings can vary according to the array employed while resistivity is a more standardized measure. However, raw resistance readings can be of use because variations in the measurements are the focus of concern.

the north wall of the Fortress. Magnetometry in this area held out little hope for good results due to the number of buildings and metal debris in the vicinity. The long axis in this case was east west. A total of ca. 1,120 m2 was examined with the Bradphys meter over a period of ten days. The equipment was not available in 1986 and thus no further such work was undertaken. Data Display. Without the need to deal with diurnal variations or to perform conversions the resistance data could be immediately placed in a format for plotting purposes. The printing of contour maps was accomplished through use of the same procedure employed to plot magnetic data. The maps were processed on the Versatec Printer. Anomalies appear as concentrations of high readings. Corroboration will be sought between the anomalies illustrated by all the methods, but the comparability of results between electrical resistivity and soil resistance will be of particular interest since they examine similar elements in only a slightly different manner.

Field Operations. A limited soil resistance survey was undertaken in July, 1985. The British School of Archaeology at Athens made a Bradphys MK 4 Earth Resistance Meter available through application of Prof. Stavros Papamarinopoulos from the University of Patras Department of Geology, who graciously offered to direct this field work. The implementation of this survey differed significantly from the electrical resistivity prospecting in the nature of the probe array. A twin probe array was adopted in which one inducing and one potential probe of the same polarity are placed 1 m apart in the ground at a substantial distance from the area to be surveyed. A generous length of electrical cord led from these probes to the meter. The latter was initially mounted on the upper of two horizontal parallel wooden cross bars, one of which was ca. 15 cm above the ground and the other at about waist height. These bars were kept apart by two long metal probes inserted through holes at both ends of the wooden pieces, forming a portable frame. The probes have handles at the upper ends, allowing for easy transport around a site. These probes, with their pointed lower ends inserted into the ground, served as the other pair of electrodes; they were 1 m apart and the reading point was in the middle, marked by a line on the lower wooden bar. The entire apparatus could be positioned over the mark on a grid, pushed into the ground and a reading taken in a shorter time than is typical for electrical resistivity. However, the considerable amount of stone rubble in the plowed interior of the Fortress made this approach untenable. The frame was set aside and metal probes were individually hammered into the ground to obtain proper contact. What would ordinarily have been a two person operation worked best with three individuals under these circumstances.

Self-Potential (SP) This method was used at Isthmia on a limited experimental basis. Its viability is questioned in geological applications, and the technique has received only limited testing in an archaeological context (Wynn and Sherwood 1984). The technique is based on the detection of natural current flows in the earth. It was initially devised to locate ore bodies, which act as sources of electric current when they experience oxidation. Water percolating down from the surface laden with oxygen contacts a sulfide ore body creating a large galvanic cell with a positive pole at the upper end of the deposit. Potential differences at ground level derive from the size and shape of the ore body, its depth below the surface, and the electrolytic properties of the materials involved. Most commonly, the current flows down through the ore body, then out and upward through the soil. On the surface, the current, measured in millivolts, flows toward a “negative center” above the target. This point can be located by several techniques, including: (1) measurements of earth potentials at evenly spaced intervals, followed by tracing of equipotential contours, or (2) taking profile readings that intersect the body in question. The key to the method, however, is the spontaneous polarization that certain features in the ground undergo. An additional influencing factor may be the difference in pH level of solutions near the surface to those at some depth (Jakosky 1950:444-445).

This survey was viewed as supplemental and therefore covered a restricted amount of the site. It was undertaken by individual squares, ideally measuring 20 x 20 m, but shortened in some instances due to physical obstacles. The station interval was 1 m. Two contiguous squares were examined in the southeast part of the Fortress, in the same area surveyed by magnetometer and electrical resistivity meter. This provided coverage of an area 20 m (east-west) x 40 m (north-south), a section with visible wall remains. Two other contiguous, but somewhat shortened, squares were examined just north of the church of St. John, adjacent to

In an archaeological context, the main source of measured voltages is the streaming potential, that is, “...the preferential absorption of specific ions out of a rock or soil mass as water slowly moves through it” (Wynn and Sherwood 1984:198). As fluids percolate downward, they leave a negative charge at ground level. Archaeological features, such as buried stone walls, affect the measured SP since a solid body would block the vertical water flow, creating a SP voltage positive over the feature. A negative

29

FIELD METHODS reading would result from an unconsolidated stone feature that does not inhibit fluid motion (Wynn and Sherwood 1984). The key problem with this technique is that a variety of sources can produce a SP effect and it is often difficult to discriminate among them (Telford 1976:458).

moved to the next station, at 1 m intervals. In the other section, station interval in the 10 m transects (Line 5 along 15W and Line 6 along 12W, between 50N and 60N) was also 1 m, but the electrodes were moved in a leap-frogging fashion. Each method of electrode movement proved to be equally time consuming.

Field Operations. The use of the SP method at Isthmia was an effort to assess the validity of a low cost geophysical technique. The equipment is inexpensive, consisting of a Radio Shack Volt Meter, 20 m of electrical wire, several alligator clips, and two porous pots. The latter are hollow plastic cylinders, with a layer of plaster poured in to close one end. Copper strips are inserted into the plaster before it hardens to act as terminals. A solution of copper sulfate is placed in the pots; as the liquid seeps through the plaster, contact is made with the soil. These pot/electrodes are linked to the volt meter by the wire and clips.

Data Display. Due to the restricted nature of this investigation, a relatively small number of readings were generated. These data have been plotted to graph the transect profiles. This rudimentary sort of data presentation is sufficient to deal with the information on hand, as it reveals the nature and extent of any anomalies. Any further data manipulation does not seem warranted by the limited scope of this effort. Conclusion

The SP survey was undertaken in July and August, 1986, at slack times in the other field operations. Two areas were selected for testing, one in the southeast corner and the other in the center of the Fortress. In each case, transects were run across visible walls and then in adjacent lines where no walls could be seen but were postulated to exist below the surface. A total of four 10 m transects were run in the southeast corner of the Fortress, along 19W (Line 1) and 15W (Line 2), between 40S and 30S, and along 35S (Line 3) and 37S (Line 4), between 10W and 20W. The electrodes were placed 1 m apart, equidistant on either side of the tape marking the grid line, and were allowed to equilibrate for one minute before taking a reading. Both pots were then

The various archaeological field methods form the data recovery scheme for the present study. The geophysical techniques were implemented in an effort to determine the number and size of Medieval structures within the Fortress. Surface survey provided chronological and functional data that aid in interpreting the nature of the site in the Early Byzantine period. All the data are presented and analyzed in Chapter 6. To provide an interpretative framework for the field information, the history of the site is detailed in the next chapter, followed by a consideration in Chapter 5 of the larger problem on which the Isthmia data have a bearing.

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CHAPTER 4 THE SITE AND ITS SETTING The Natural Setting—Geology

These materials are capped by a conglomerate in most areas, and with “Korinthian sandstone” in some isolated locations; ancient builders removed large quantities of the latter material from quarries west of Isthmia and used it for monumental structures in Korinth and at the Sanctuary (Hayward 1996). The two series cover the entire Isthmus (von Freyburg 1973:15).

The Isthmus of Korinth (Figure 1.2), geologically of recent marine origin, presents a complex physiographic picture. Hayward (1999:3-4) notes that the rock substrate on which Isthmia rests is like that found in much of the Korinthia. In general, thick Pliocene-Pleistocene white marls lie above conglomerates, sandstones, and oolitic limestone. Since the Korinthia is in a highly active seismic zone (Stiros 1987), the Isthmus experienced periodic uplift; this action exposed the marls to considerable erosion. The earliest deposits whose origins are ascertainable are Neogene in age. Rock types evident in this sequence are conglomerates, marls, and various sandstones. A soft white marl series suddenly replaces the conglomerate. The Marl Series also contains a sequence of olive green sandstones. The Colored Series takes the shape of a sandy deltaic fan that flowed from the south into the sea of marls when water conditions were rougher. In more placid periods, the deposition of marls characterized the entire region. The area of the Isthmus may have been an estuary, or a fresh water or saline coastal lake, bounded on the south by high ridges (von Freyburg 1973:12).

Post-Tyrrhenian Development The periodic inundations to which the Isthmus was subject resulted from eustatic change and tectonic subsidence. After the deposition of the Extension Series, the region experienced the development of fault line scarps, over which the modern landscape emerged. Pedogenic episodes accompanied the creation of a series of valleys. Massive uplifting of the area and continued formation of new faults and extension of old ones make difficult a complete understanding of these events. In the final major geomorphological phase, a large bay existed whose steep cliffs can be traced starting east of New Korinth and heading west around the city. Various terraces date to historical periods as indicated by the presence of ceramics in the loosely consolidated conglomerate. From a tectonic standpoint, evidence suggests that tilted fault blocks formed the Isthmus. In the north, this fault area reaches maximum height in the east and dips below sea level to the west. In the south, the reverse is true. Subsequent shifting along the faults has displaced the overlying loam, a process that seems to be ongoing (von Freyburg 1973:15-16). A heavily eroded red clayey sand covers the surface over much of the southern part of the Isthmus (Gregory 1993a:7).

Following the deposition of the Colored Series, the area experienced conglomerate accumulation (Katunistra Conglomerate), succeeded by marls (Asprochomata Marls), intermixed with sand marls and some sand banks; outcrops of the latter extend to the Sarandapotamos Valley. This whole sequence may be up to several hundred meters thick. The Korinthian Marl, reaching to Akrokorinth and Mt. Oneion, also developed at this time. The Neogene sequence in the Isthmus begins with fresh water deposits, continues with lithic series reflecting alternating saline and fresh water conditions, and concludes in the Pliocene with marine ingression (von Freyburg 1973:1218).

The Natural Setting—Topography The terrain in and around the Sanctuary is moderately to heavily dissected by a number of streambeds, forming a platform of land gently sloping down from west to east and from south to north. This roughly rectangular area is bounded on the south by Rachi, a long ridge with a southwest-northeast strike that terminates in an abrupt drop-off overlooking the Temenos and the Later Stadium from an elevation of 100 m (Figure 1.3). Prior to the construction of the Korinth Canal in the late nineteenth century and the addition of the massive dumps to the landscape, the area of the Sanctuary and Rachi offered an unimpeded view to the north across the Isthmus.

The Pleistocene The earliest Pleistocene deposits belong to the Kalamaki Strata, comprised of the Calabrium and Apscheron beds. The early marl in this sequence seems to have been laid down in rough shallow waters, with subsequent slight upfolding and erosion. A marine transgression also occurred in this period, advancing from the east as in the previous epoch. The marl deposits indicate an isthmus did not exist for at least part of this period, but there was subsequent uplift (von Freyburg 1973:14). The Main Conglomerate, directly overlying the Kalamaki Strata, indicates eustatic sea level rise that rapidly flooded the entire Isthmus (von Freyburg 1973:14-15).

The site is located at the juncture of several major, lowlying routes. Perhaps the most significant road skirts the mountains along the northwest shore of the Saronic Gulf and provides one of several natural corridors of transport from Attika and the Megarid into the Peloponnesos. An-

The Yellow Sand Series and the Extension Series, next in the sequence, both developed in a marine environment. 31

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING other route passes along the north shore of the Argolid peninsula, providing access to the Korinthia from Troizen and Epidauros (Wiseman 1978:50-51). The sea is currently only .5 km distant, enhancing the site’s potential as a crossroads for cultural interchange, both friendly and hostile.

occupied by a citrus orchard. It seems clear that a major depositional episode occurred in this area with the construction of the Hexamilion (as with the case cited above near the Roman Bath), blocking off the stream. The discrepancy in elevation (ca. 12 m) on the north and south sides of the Hexamilion at this point indicates the degree of in-filling that has occurred behind the wall as sediments were prevented from exiting to the north. As a result, the relative height of the east Fortress wall above the surrounding terrain would have been considerably greater in the fifth century A.D.

The so-called Northwest Gully defines the western edge of the modern village of Kyras Vrysi and presumably served a similar function in antiquity. This gully lies 300 m west of the Temenos; the intervening land rises gently to the west before dropping off abruptly into this ravine, which marks the course of an intermittent stream flowing south to north. At the head of this gully is a spring whose output has been seriously diminished in modern times by wells tapping the aquifers that feed it. In Classical times, a system of channels and reservoirs on the right bank of the streambed exploited this substantial water source for the residents and visitors in and around the Sanctuary. Extensive erosion has evidently occurred, downcutting the streambed so that its floor is currently 10 m lower than the ancient hydraulic system, which formerly redirected and collected the flow (Broneer 1973:2). Such evidence is instructive of the need to assess geomorphological processes in the Aegean at times other than the quiescent dry season. Periods of erosion are largely confined to the rainy fall and winter. What seems to be a stable landscape in summer can change dramatically in winter, so that erosion occurs in brief but destructive episodes (Moody 1997).

Broneer (1973:1) suggests that the land on which the Sanctuary is situated was more level in the past. Part of the site modification involved considerable landscaping to accommodate the east-west orientation believed to be most appropriate for a Greek temple. The expansion of the Sanctuary involved increasingly more land in this modification of the terrain. The ravine at the northwest corner of the Temenos and the gently sloping land to the east were raised to the level of the Temple site. The higher ground to the southwest of the Temple was eventually cut down to allow for expansion at the same level. As a result, the area between the Temenos and the Roman Bath, which probably at one time sloped downwards gradually, now presents a terraced appearance, with the Temple and associated structures on a higher tier than the Theater and Bath. The vegetational cover in the area of the Sanctuary today is largely agricultural in nature. Grains, citrus fruit, and olives are grown in the area, with various open fields overgrown with weeds, grass, and thistles. Trees are restricted to isolated stands of pine and cypress and groves of olives and citrus, with the surrounding hills relatively bare except for grasses and macquis cover. Broneer (1973:1) states that prior to construction in antiquity, the site was probably heavily wooded, a condition that would have limited the degree of erosion. Pausanias’ (1964:II.1.7) mention of a tree-lined path from the Later Stadium to the Temenos and of a Sacred Glen may provide some support for this view. These hints, however, fall well short of a full description.

The Northwest Gully joins up with the steep-sided Great Ravine to form the northern topographical boundary of the Sanctuary area. As it descends to the east, the latter stream broadens and terminates in the narrow coastal plain near the east entrance to the Korinth Canal. A short, wide tributary of this gully reaches the Hexamilion at a point where the Roman Bath stood. The Byzantine defenders of the site took advantage of the Great Ravine by building the Hexamilion along the south bank, overlooking the floor from a superior position. The tributary channel evidently originated farther to the south. A drain running underneath the northwest corner of the Temenos debouches into a narrow trough that curves down to an area just west of the Roman Bath where it terminates abruptly. Evidently the construction of the Hexamilion blocked off its natural exit and led to the buildup of sediments south of the wall that raised the surface elevation dramatically.

In addition, there is considerable debate at present over the issue of deforestation in antiquity. The removal of trees in large quantities may be a phenomenon of the recent past. Furthermore, geomorphological studies in the southern Argolid indicate the importance of terracing in determining sedimentation sequences (Pope and van Andel 1984; van Andel et al. 1986), a consideration that offers an alternative explanation. The clearing of land does not necessarily lead to erosion if terrace walls are maintained. So, the area of the site may have had few trees and yet retained soil due to proper terracing.

Another streambed delineates the eastern edge of the site. A channel follows a southwest-northeast course, starting from the southeast slope of Rachi. The course of the channel follows the contours of major topographic features. Ancient architects constructed the Later Stadium in this natural hollow after the flow of water was rerouted. Further to the northeast, the concave nature of the east wall of the Byzantine Fortress mirrors the channel. In their plan of the site, Jenkins and Megaw (1931-1932:80) note the presence of a stream in this area that today is

Generally, the topography of the Sanctuary was well suited for the various purposes to which it was put over several millennia. An abundant water supply was available once a channeling system was in place. Coupled 32

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE with the presence of land suitable for large-scale construction and agricultural production, the stage was set for a long sequence of human occupation. These fundamental underlying elements abetted the changes in site function through time.

problematic. Hope Simpson and Dickinson (1979:64) note the presence of the following components: Early Helladic (EH) I-II, Middle Helladic (MH), Late Helladic (LH) IIA-B, and LH IIIA2-B. These periods cover a broad time span from ca. 2900 B.C. to 1200 B.C., with several gaps. Hope Simpson and Dickinson (1979:64) make little of the putative Bronze Age settlement. Morgan (1999:305) notes that “LBA activity at Isthmia lacked strong spatial focus and was unexceptional in its immediate local context.”

History of the Site As mentioned above, the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia and its immediate environs occupy a strategic location astride the land route connecting the Peloponnesos with the rest of Greece. As such, the area has been a focus of human occupation in most periods since the Neolithic. Although the emphasis of this study will be on site use in Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine era, a preliminary examination of the site’s overall history will place the ensuing discussion in an appropriate temporal framework. Travelers’ accounts, historical documents, and archaeological reports offer a fairly clear picture of this sequence. Following this historical account, I present the history of scholarly (primarily archaeological) work at the site. In conjunction with the preceding sections on the natural setting, this foundation serves to ground the current research effort and, along with other comparanda, provides the basis for conclusions drawn in later chapters.

Smith (1955:142), however, suggests the presence of a sizable prehistoric site. Mycenaean sherds were found in the Temenos area, and others in an ancient dump to the north of the Temple, and yet another group, along with some EH material, in the Theater. The major prehistoric deposit came from the gully northwest of the Temple. One trench yielded pottery from EH to Mycenaean (LH I and II), consisting of cups, bowls, alabastra, and Efyrean ware. Smith (1955:143-146) concluded from the examination of this material that there was a significant island influence on the Bronze Age pottery of this mainland region. For the EH material, she sees some affinities with Thermi on Lesbos. Smith argues that the sauceboats, generally considered a diagnostic EH II ware, seem to be of an early form, with a clear developmental sequence and perhaps some affinities to vases from certain Early Bronze Age sites on Crete, including Koumasa, Christos, Pyrgos, and Mochlos. Smith further suggests that Cycladic influence is evident in other Isthmian pottery, such as the beaked jugs. The clay of which these wares are made is local, suggesting some sort of stimulus diffusion as opposed to importation that was clearly the case at some coastal sites, such as Agios Kosmas (Mylonas 1959). Some comparative work indicates that the sauceboat and other Early Bronze Age wares may have derived from Anatolia, where similar forms have been found at Troy and other sites (Stubbings1973:52).

The site of Isthmia has had a long and noteworthy history (Broneer 1976). The Sanctuary of Poseidon and the festivals celebrated there gained considerable renown in antiquity, earning Panhellenic status for the site in the sixth century B.C. The legends associated with the founding of the Isthmian Games may reflect an ex post facto explanation devised to lend mythical sanction to what was clearly an important cultural event. The myths attribute the start of the games variably to Theseus and Sysifos. The first of these tales involves the adventures of Theseus on his travels from Troizen in the Argolid peninsula to Athens, during which he encountered and defeated a number of characters who waylaid travelers. At Isthmia, Sines killed people by tying them to bent pine trees that he cut loose, thus splitting his victims in two. Theseus killed Sines with his own device, and the games were started later to commemorate this event; the pine wreath given to victors at Isthmia reflects this feat. In the latter story, Sysifos retrieves the body of a young boy, Palaimon, who had drowned in the Saronic Gulf; the Korinthian king supposedly started the games in honor of the dead youth. Whatever the specific circumstances may have been, there is clear evidence that the area was occupied from an early date.

Broneer (1973:6) dismisses most of the Bronze Age occupation as being relatively sparse, and Morgan’s (1999) exhaustive analysis of the prehistoric material supports this contention. Although EH material is scattered throughout the site, MH and LH sherds are more thinly distributed. In Broneer’s assessment: “They are enough to show that the site of the future Sanctuary was not wholly unoccupied in the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries B.C., but it would be rash to conclude from these insignificant finds that the cult of Poseidon had any such distant ancestry” (1973:6). From her detailed analysis of all the LH material, Morgan (1999:305) comes to the same conclusion; she finds no evidence for cult activity at Isthmia prior to the Early Protogeometric period.

Pottery from the Rachi, the high ridge overlooking the Sanctuary from the south, yielded some possible Neolithic sherds in a context with obsidian debris, but with no associated architectural components for this period (Smith 1955:142). Some Neolithic sherds were found in the fill beneath the Theater skene, but these may have been redeposited from elsewhere (Broneer 1973:6). Bronze Age data are more substantial, but also

It is Broneer’s contention that it was just at the end of the Mycenaean period that the Isthmus became at all significant when it served as a link in a defensive communication network. It was at this time, Broneer 33

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING argues, that a defensive wall was erected on the Isthmus (Broneer 1959:300), but the evidence for such fortifications is slim. A wall runs roughly west from the Saronic Gulf in various isolated fragments, which from the associated pottery, seems to date to LH IIIB-LH IIIC, ca. 1200 B.C. (Broneer 1966:355, 1976:418; Leekley and Noyes 1976:78; Hope Simpson and Dickinson 1979:64), but Morgan (1999:364-365) notes that the contexts of these ceramics is problematic, and the architectural style, while possibly Mycenaean, may also reflect work in the first millennium B.C. The wall is first visible in a 17-m section in the village of Isthmia 100 m from the Saronic Gulf near the east entrance to the Korinth Canal. It reappears near the modern paved road, ascending the slope of a hill to the northwest. At this point it follows the line of the later Hexamilion. Where the latter descends a slope to link up with the Byzantine Fortress, the prehistoric wall continues along the top of a ridge south of Kyras Vrysi.

anomalous features in a retaining wall. As a result of this evidence and the proposed date (LH IIIB-C) for the wall(s), Broneer (1976:418) argues that the function was primarily defensive, to block the influx of waves of Dorians; it was probably left incomplete when the last successful invasion occurred at ca. 1100 B.C. He suggests that the wall was to serve as a first line of defense in a coordinated effort to protect the Peloponnesos by delaying the enemy long enough to provide the Mycenaean armies time to mobilize. Broneer (1966:355,362) argues that such a cooperative spirit may have been acquired during the Trojan Expedition, but this is quite conjectural since there is considerable evidence that suggests the Mycenaeans regularly engaged in internecine warfare (Thomas 1970). In fact, most classical scholars today argue there was no Dorian invasion; the decline of Mycenaean civilization is instead attributed to a wide range of other factors (for example, internal strife, economic decay, and political decentralization).

Below Rachi, the wall turns towards a gully, crosses a ravine, then disappears. Wiseman (1978:59) suggests it turned back along the north slope of Rachi and entered the area of the Sanctuary. On the basis of this evidence and the small section near the Temple of Poseidon, Broneer (1973:7) argues that the wall passed through the west edge of the Temenos, leaving the Sanctuary area exposed outside of the fortification. He asserts that this is a “...clear indication that the cult of the Isthmian Poseidon was unknown at the turn from the thirteenth to the twelfth century B.C.” (1973:7). In his eagerness to prove a point, Broneer neglects to consider the possibility that a Mycenaean sanctuary may have been somewhat removed from the location of the Classical Temple, but still within the general vicinity.

Realizing that the date of the wall (LH IIIB-LH IIIC transition) puts the Dorians already in the Peloponnesos, Broneer attempts to explain why they did not block its construction. He (1958:33-35) hypothesizes a series of raids and withdrawals, with actual settlement by the outsiders subsequent to a late final success, at which time they prevented the completion of the project. Broneer notes that tradition implies the Dorian “invasion” was not a single event; the interlopers had some success then were forced to retreat north of the Isthmus. During such lulls, the Mycenaeans worked on strengthening their defenses, including an effort to block the invasion route with a wall across the Isthmus. In this and other instances Broneer strains to match tradition with archaeological evidence, a union which does not always mesh well. Leaving aside the whole issue of whether a Dorian invasion ever occurred, there are other problems with his reconstruction of events. The most telling is that the extant stretches of Mycenaean wall are rather few, relatively short, and unconnected. The orientations are such that it is not clear that all the various fragments necessarily form part of the same system. Gregory (1993a:4-5) argues strongly that these segments were not part of a wall across the Isthmus. There are no segments known west of the Sanctuary of Poseidon. The available evidence may perhaps be best interpreted as indicating a localized effort at defense. In addition, there is no reason to attribute a large collaborative effort to the Mycenaeans, the epic concerning the Trojan War notwithstanding (Morgan 1999:365).

The wall is Cyclopean in construction, varying in width from 2.75 to 4 m, with five towers known. It is dated on the basis of LH IIIB and LH IIIC pottery in the interstices and other associated contexts (Wiseman 1978:59). The precise function of the wall has been a matter of some controversy. In an early evaluation, Broneer (1958) opined that it may have been a retaining wall for a Mycenaean roadway. With subsequent discoveries, he came to view it as part of a defensive system, perhaps intended to stretch across the Isthmus, but the few disjointed stretches of walls do not follow a clear course and there are no extant sections along most of the Isthmus. It seems more likely that these walls represent separate fortifications. Kardara (1971) revived the retaining wall hypothesis, thus denying the structure status as a fortification. However, Broneer (1973:6 7, note 31) dispenses with this view on the force of three key pieces of evidence: (1) a 25 m segment in the village of Isthmia is faced on both sides, and is on level ground where there would have been no need for a retaining function; (2) further west is a section 8.40 m long up a slope whose incline precludes wheeled traffic; (3) the small north facing towers are

Subsequent to the Bronze Age, Isthmia evidently continued as a site of at best moderate importance. Despite the significance of the locale in mythology, it was clearly subordinate to other sites in the Korinthia in terms of human occupation. The quantity of ceramic material does indicate more activity in Geometric times, particularly in the latter phases of the period. The presence of two 34

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE bronze figurines in conjunction with this material may, Broneer (1973:7) suggests, indicate the beginning of cultic practices and thus mark the beginning of Isthmia’s career as a sanctuary by the late eighth century B.C. Morgan (1994:109-110), however, argues that the archaeological evidence indicates the presence of religious practices as far back as the early Protogeometric (eleventh century B.C.). A substantial occupation, though, is not clearly attested by abundant pottery until the ProtoKorinthian period (Broneer 1973:7).

B.C.); these two events seem to be coincidental rather than contingent, however (Broneer 1971:1,101). Rhodes (1987) questions this reconstructed sequence, arguing this initial temple was neither Doric nor peripteral, but rather a simple rectangular structure. The vitality of the site at this time, at the transition from Archaic to Classical, is reflected in the relatively rapid and grand reconstruction of the Temple. This second edifice was a larger affair, with foundations measuring 56.2 x 25.7 m set in an artificially leveled quadrangle covering an area 116 x 78 m with retaining walls on the north and east made of irregular blocks in lime mortar (Broneer 1953:185-186). Important similarities with the Temple of Zeus at Olympia exist in the general plan and profiles of mouldings, suggesting a date shortly after 460 B.C. It was a hexastyle peripteral temple with thirteen columns along the sides, each reaching a height of 8.73 m and surmounted by an entablature 3.658 m tall. Marble tiles fringed the roof of this impressive building that existed, albeit with significant modifications, for almost 900 years. By the end of the fifth century B.C., for example, the interior of the Temple was drastically altered, with two rows of columns replacing the original single row (Broneer 1971:1, 101).

In the Archaic period, Isthmia rose to prominence due in large part to the efflorescence of the Sanctuary and the cult of Poseidon associated with it. The centerpiece of the Sanctuary was the Temple of Poseidon that Broneer (1953:188; 1955:111-115; 1971:101-103) believes underwent three major phases of construction and renovation. The first Temple may have been built at the outset of the seventh century B.C., during the hegemony of the Bacchiads in Korinth. The site maintained or gained in significance under the reign of the Korinthian tyrants Kypselos and Periander. The Isthmian Games, of equal stature with those at Olympia and Delphi, were founded, or reorganized, in 582 or 580 B.C., according to tradition. This marks the internationalization of the Sanctuary into a Panhellenic center (Broneer 1973:4). The earliest graves in the large cemetery west of Kyras Vrysi also date to this time (Clement and Thorne 1974), a further indication of the more sustained use of the site.

The destruction and subsequent rebuilding of the Temple was not an isolated phenomenon at the site. By the end of the fifth century B.C., the so-called Earlier Stadium replaced its Archaic counterpart at essentially the same location. Its intricate starting line mechanism (MacKendrick 1981:332) provided a means of regulating the intense competitive spirit of participants in the Games. It was also at this time that the site first acquired a Theater, although it was probably of impermanent materials (Gebhard 1973:137). The stone Theater was added near the end of the following century. Several Cult Caves in the slope behind the Theater served as dining areas for ritual meals (Broneer 1962:4-7; 1973).

This quickened pace of activity may have much more to do with the enhanced commercial status of Korinth at this time than it does with any increase in piety. The Sanctuary was situated, as noted above, at a key spot on the Isthmus, in line with the best access route to the Megarid to the north, and the harbors of Schoenos and Kenchreai on the Saronic Gulf to the east. In addition, the Diolkos, a stone pavement built in the sixth or seventh century B.C. to haul ships across the Isthmus, probably passed near the Sanctuary on its route between the Korinthian and Saronic Gulfs. Isthmia would thus have witnessed considerable traffic and the Sanctuary evidently benefited as a result. The Sanctuary grew by accretion, an Archaic Stadium joining the Temple in an early complex (Broneer 1973:4).

The Second Temple suffered severe damage by fire in 390 B.C. during the Korinthian War, as related by Xenophon (Hellenica, 1968:IV.5.4). Because of the extensive rebuilding necessary to restore the structure, Broneer (1971:1-2) refers to the result of this effort as the Third Temple. The better preserved portions of the gutted building were left standing. The cella walls were eventually replaced, as were some of the peristyle columns. The marble roof tiles, some of which were reduced to lime by the intensity of the conflagration, gave way to terracotta ones. A number of the blocks bear the marks of two different types of tools, a fact which Broneer takes to mean the reworking of those blocks that were still usable.

The history of the Temple can serve as the centerpiece in discussing the Sanctuary as a whole since the rise and fall of the site’s fortunes are reflected in its key structure. The Archaic Temple was probably erected shortly after 700 B.C. and almost certainly prior to the middle of the seventh century B.C. (Broneer 1971:1). Broneer (1955:111) reconstructs it as a Doric peristyle structure with a length of about 40 m. The blocks of this Temple, he says, are distinguished from those of later versions by the presence of two parallel grooves on the undersides through which ropes could be passed to assist in lifting operations. Although some modifications were probably made, this structure stood for about 200 years before it was destroyed by fire at the time of the Persian invasion (ca. 480

In conjunction with this restoration, the Sanctuary continued to thrive. It had gained a reputation by the fourth century B.C. as one of the four Panhellenic centers, with its biennial games perhaps second in popularity only to those at Olympia because of Isthmia’s ready access to visitors and its proximity to the major population centers 35

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING of Attika and the Korinthia (Broneer 1962:25). By the middle of the century the two Cult Caves went out of use. Shortly thereafter, the Earlier Stadium gave way to a new facility built in the natural gully ca. 200 m southeast of the Temenos, where larger crowds could be accommodated. The festivals held here celebrated not only athletic prowess but also artistic ability; an inscription on a statue base honoring Themison tells of his 94 victories in poetry and music, often gained by putting to music the works of Sofokles, Euripides, and Timotheos (Broneer 1953:192193).

350-300 B.C. and reflect the sort of indirect trade in exotic goods that characterizes the ancient Mediterranean in various periods (Caskey 1960; Raubitschek 1998:67; Sherratt and Sherratt 1993). Such evidence aids in realizing the degree to which Isthmia and other major sanctuaries were cultural crossroads. At a more mundane level, the remains on Rachi south of the Sanctuary point to the increasing level of activity at the site. Fowler and Stilwell (1932:71) noted the presence on this ridge of numerous cuttings for streets, stairs, houses, and cisterns indicating the existence of a substantial settlement. They quote Monceaux (1884) who described the east slope as being covered by a settlement 1 km long and 300 m wide, with a broad street running the entire length. Monceaux suggested this was the site of Efyra, a Phoenician colony that was supplanted by Korinth after the Dorian conquest at the close of the Bronze Age (ca. 1100 B.C.). This interpretation lacks the support of excavated evidence and reflects the desire to make archaeology conform to literary sources.

Additional construction took place in the Sacred Glen, located approximately 400 m southwest of the Temple of Poseidon, where a Demeter shrine was situated, and perhaps other structures as well. At a distance of 2 km southwest of the Temple, the West Foundation also was constructed in the fourth century B.C.; Broneer (1973:23) posits that the Hippodrome is to be found in this vicinity, outside of the Sanctuary proper but within a reasonable distance. This amount of monumental public architecture reflects a substantial community investment. Korinth, which controlled the Sanctuary and the Games, assumed the onus of the burden, but the rewards for its regulatory role must also have been substantial. Korinthian merchants, farmers, herders, and artisans undoubtedly benefited financially from the influx of spectators, participants, and other visitors both during the major festivals and at other times. In addition to an economic aspect, the element of prestige figures into this evaluation, even though it too may ultimately be viewed in light of monetary rewards: the more prestigious the sanctuary, the more likely it is to draw pilgrims and others who could add to Korinthian coffers. The site did become a major crossroads of Hellenic culture, attracting individuals from the dispersed corners of the Greek world. Its status as a meeting place is perhaps best attested by its use as a forum for major announcements. According to Plutarch, Alexander the Great declared the start of his Persian campaign in 336 B.C. at Isthmia (Alexander 1914:XIV.1-2). Other such key events include Flaminius’ proclamation of Greek independence in 196 B.C. (Livy 1967:XXXIII.32.5-9) and the reaffirmation of this by Nero in A.D. 67 (Suetonius 1979:VI.24.2).

Kardara (1961) identified the site as a Hellenistic dyeing and weaving center dating ca. 360-240 B.C. The settlement may have been an industrial community, with vats for washing and dyeing wool, old roof tiles for squeezing out the excess lye for reuse, basins for treading cloth, and numerous loom weights used in weaving. Wool was available from Parnassos, purple dye from Ermioni, and Korinth could have provided marketing facilities. More problematic is the reason for the termination of this enterprise. Of the possible reasons offered by Kardara, the most likely are that the viability of the specialized community was undermined by more successful rivals or that the introduction of indigo lessened demand for the Rachi product. The location of this settlement on the heights overlooking the Sanctuary is hard to explain in light of the rather difficult access and lack of water on Rachi. Kardara (1961) suggests this area was selected to take advantage of the steady breezes to dry dyed textiles. Another explanation may be that such an industrial facility was kept at some distance from the Sanctuary to prevent the noise and smells of dyeing activity from disturbing the suppliants. Based on additional excavation in 1989, AndersonStojanoviü (1996:91-92) argues that a range of economic activities may have occurred in the Rachi settlement. While dyeing of cloth is still a possibility, Anderson-Stojanoviü also suggests the presence of fulling and tanning of animal hides; the production of olive oil, both for sale and domestic consumption; and weaving of textiles. Perhaps the most significant thing about the Rachi settlement is that it demonstrates that the Sanctuary did not exist in isolation, but was part of a larger complex, with commercial and residential facilities adjacent to religious and athletic ones. The presence of the complex hydraulic system and the West Cemetery further underlines the diversity of activity at the site.

The number and variety of votives found at the site also indicate a vibrant system in operation (Raubitschek 1998). A number of metal offerings, many melted by the two major fires, have been found in the Temple of Poseidon. Among the other areas that have yielded important finds of this nature is a well 200 m southwest of the Temenos (Caskey 1960). Included in this hoard are a pot dedicated to Demeter, a skyphoid krater with Dionysiac figures, lamps, terracotta figurines, and two bronze armlets or anklets. The two bronze items are not Greek, but rather have affinities to Celtic motifs of Central Europe, as seen in pieces from the La Tène culture of Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Austria, and Hungary; these date to 36

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE The strategic significance of the Isthmus was, of course, also considered by various military planners through time. In addition to the Mycenaean wall, other efforts were made to fortify the Isthmus. Herodotus (1972:VIII.71) describes a wall quickly thrown up in 480/479 B.C. to block the threatened Persian advance. Wiseman (1963, 1978:60-63) argues that this wall, though no longer extant, was followed by a Hellenistic wall built by a Macedonian garrison of Antigonos Gonatas in 279 B.C. Diodorus (1963:XV.68.3-5) mentions a wall built in 369 B.C. in an effort to block Epaminondas’ route into the Peloponnesos. According to Pausanias (1964:VII.6.4) the Peloponnesians considered building such a wall in 279 B.C. to impede the Gauls, but there is no evidence of such a structure. Since the site lies north of any known fortifications and would thus have been exposed to attack, the residents evidently made no effort to protect the Sanctuary. Obviously, more immediate needs were uppermost in the minds of military architects and in times of emergency the holy place was left to fend for itself. Some of the most valued treasures were probably removed to more secure quarters.

seems to have undergone various episodes of modification in the Roman period, but precisely how many cannot be ascertained (Broneer 1971:1). Perhaps even more significant in this respect for the site as a whole was the construction of a totally new structure within the Temenos. What this reflects is not simply a resumption of cult activities, but their expansion to encompass new or at least broadened interests, which in turn suggests a culture with a vital, invigorated spirit, the willingness to express this sentiment, and the economic capabilities to bring this desire to fruition. This new addition was a sector dedicated to Melikertes/Palaimon, the figure in whose honor the Games were instituted. The spot selected was in the area formerly occupied by the northwest end of the Earlier Stadium. Broneer (1973:4) argues logically that the worship of this individual must have existed from early on, but no distinct monument for such a purpose has been identified. The excavator suggests that an altar may have been located in the Earlier Stadium for this purpose. The so-called Palaimonion, including a circular Temple of Palaimon with a narrow passage built into its podium, seems to have focused initially on several sacrificial pits. Rupp (1979) has proposed the existence of a pre-Roman Temenos of Palaimon dating no later than 390 B.C. and perhaps as early as the Archaic period.

The general trend of sustained prosperity and physical expansion of the Sanctuary seems to have come to an abrupt halt in the middle of the second century B.C. In 146 B.C. the Roman general L. Mummius sacked Korinth in retaliation for its prominent role in the Achaean League; the city was refounded as a Roman colony in 44 B.C. under the auspices of Julius Caesar (Pausanias 1964:II.1.2). In the intervening time span, the Sanctuary at Isthmia experienced a decline in fortune that continued about another half century. The buildings evidently did not suffer as a result of Korinth’s destruction, but with its great patron city essentially disenfranchised as an urban entity, the Sanctuary evidently ceased to be a hub of activity. There is no clear indication whether the Isthmian Games continued to be celebrated at the traditional location or whether they were transferred elsewhere. Pausanias (1964:II.2.2) says the neighboring polis of Sikyon controlled the games during this period. The Long Altar east of the Temple of Poseidon may have been dismantled during this time and part of it crossed over by a roadway that cut through the Temenos area. Broneer (1973:4) proposes this explanation, although the wheel ruts need not necessarily belong to this time period.

Other work at the Sanctuary followed this initial effort. Some time around A.D. 50 the Temenos area was more clearly defined by the construction of a precinct wall around the Temple of Poseidon; a new altar was also erected at this time. Broneer (1973:4) sees in these activities a systematic plan at work, the next stage of which involved rebuilding the Theater. The first such effort may be tied to Nero’s visit in A.D. 66 or 67, at which time he used the Theater as the setting for his proclamation of Greek independence (Suetonius 1979:VI.24.2). Repairs were periodically made from that point on (Gebhard 1973). Another major addition to the site in the latter half of the first century A.D. was a monumental triple arch at the northeastern end. Its three entrances offered access to both wheeled and pedestrian traffic from the north and east. The arch was situated astride what probably was the main road into the Peloponnesos from those directions, and in fact it may have served as a boundary marker of sorts between southern and central Greece. Its construction may also be tied to Nero’s visit or may reflect the munificence of the Flavian emperors. At a more general level, it may represent the melding of Greek and Roman cultures, evident in its mixture of styles, and indicative of the cosmopolitan nature of Korinth and its environs at this time (Gregory and Mills 1984:407, 410, 425-429).

Bolstered by a significant drop in other remains (Broneer 1977:2), this argument suggests that during the hiatus the monuments north of the Temple were taken down and the Theater was abandoned. The rejuvenation of the Sanctuary seems to have begun under Augustus, when the Games were restored to the site and a new phase of construction was initiated. These events inaugurated a new era of prominence lasting some three centuries (Broneer 1973:2). During this period many of the older structures were refurbished and new ones added to the complex. In the Temple of Poseidon the floors and sections of the walls were adorned with marble revetment. This structure

In the succeeding centuries, the intervening area between the Temenos and this arch was rather densely inhabited as indicated by the number of foundations. At a location 37

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING 130 m north of the Temple of Poseidon, a large bath complex, with an elaborate mosaic depicting various sea creatures in one room, was built over the remains of an earlier Greek Bath (Catling 1976, 1979; Clement 1976; Gregory 1995). Also in the early Roman period, the road through the Sanctuary, which may have crossed over the altar and passed just north of the Temple of Poseidon during the time when the site’s fortunes were at low ebb from ca. 146 B.C. to the early Christian era, may have been diverted to run north of the Temenos (Broneer 1973:89). By all indications the Sanctuary was a thriving enterprise by the second century A.D., with key structures restored and new ones added to meet the growing demands on the site. Its fortunes were clearly tied to those of Korinth, which was a flourishing commercial center at the time.

third century is marked by political instability in Rome, with a plethora of emperors, most of who ruled quite briefly (Boak and Sinnigen 1965:403-404). The degree to which this turmoil at the center of political power translated into troubles in the provinces is a matter of debate. The conventional wisdom would have a period of decay and unrest, allowing and then being exacerbated by external events, such as the influx of barbarian groups (Jones 1964:1067, 1966:362-370; Piganiol 1947:411422). The situation was stabilized somewhat by Diocletian but at the cost of an overweening bureaucracy, which, along with a static economy, became a drain on the imperial system, creating a rupture in urban society, especially in the West (Walbank 1946:38-57). A crisis of confidence occurred, augmented by serious divisions among the ruling elite in terms of apportioning spheres of influence. Christianity made great headway under such circumstances, in part at least because of its theme of unity; it fulfilled certain needs that pagan religions could no longer address as well (Bury 1923a:309-310). The new faith drew followers, leading to the decline of pagan sanctuaries as the populace abandoned the old practices and cult centers.

This era of prosperity continued well into the second century A.D. In the second half of the century, Publius Licinius Priscus Iuventianus, an affluent high priest of Poseidon, provided funds for a series of new buildings in the Sanctuary. At this time the last great episode of construction in the Sanctuary occurred. The plan called for stoas on each side of the main Temple, but only three of the four were executed fully. The spot sacred to Palaimon received its round temple. The Theater was to be enlarged, but this part of the project never got beyond the planning stage (Broneer 1973:5). It was evidently this improved, enlarged complex that Pausanias (1964:II.1.79 and II.2.1-2) visited and described, perhaps some time in the A.D. 160s. He states that the theater and stadium are noteworthy and lists what he sees as he walks through the Sanctuary. Despite his comment that the Temple of Poseidon is not large, he does praise the statues. Those in the interior were dedicated by Herodes Atticus, the great Athenian patron who lavished vast amounts of his huge fortune on building projects throughout Greece. It is in large part from the work of Pausanias that the topography of many Greek sites is reconstructed and Isthmia is no exception. However, Pausanias does not discuss every monument he encounters (for example, he makes no mention of the Roman arch through which he must have passed if he came from the direction of Athens) so there are gaps in his account. Although his work is crucial in many respects to archaeological reconstruction in Greece, the image he presents is not without difficulties. With this proviso in mind, the evidence still points to the late second century A.D. as a time of prosperity for the Isthmian Sanctuary.

In a general sense, this is the sort of reasoning that is implied in Broneer’s description of the decline of the Isthmian Sanctuary. However, various historians have offered alternative views on this topic and they merit consideration. In his study of Roman Greece in Late Antiquity, Larsen (1938) finds the economic situation in Greece during the third century as one that had rebounded rather than being in decline. He notes that the civic apparatus still functioned (as witnessed by the vigorous response to the Heruli and others), although the population in many parts of Greece could not be labeled truly urban. Nonetheless, the more dispersed settlement pattern was not a drawback to a prosperous economy. Change was obviously taking place, but the process seems to be too complex to be expressed realistically in simple dichotomies such as pagan/Christian or rural/urban. The views of other scholars on this issue are outlined in Chapter 5. Whatever the underlying causes may have been, the process of debilitation of the Sanctuary came to a head in the fourth century A.D. Conventional wisdom suggests that Theodosios I officially ended the Isthmian Games in A.D. 394, but there is no conclusive evidence for this event. It is more likely that the Games died out due to lack of interest. Any official proclamation would simply have sanctioned a fait accompli. Also of great significance was Alaric’s devastating raid into Greece in the 390s. Beaton and Clement (1976) argue that Alaric’s forces sacked the Sanctuary. The dual blows of declining interest and destruction of the cult place evidently doomed the pagan Sanctuary. Early in the next century (ca. 410-420) the Hexamilion, a true transIsthmus fortification was constructed. The segment near

From this high water mark, the Sanctuary seemingly entered a period of decline (Broneer 1971:2). No further construction associated with cult activity can be documented within the Temenos. The site evidently ceased to function as a Sanctuary by the end of the fourth century A.D., with the ancient structures in a state of disrepair, as though the abandonment was gradual rather than abrupt. The social and political circumstances of the third and fourth centuries A.D. may provide some historical insights as to why the Sanctuary fell on hard times. The 38

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE the Sanctuary ran along the edge of the Late Roman site, incorporating features of the latter wherever feasible. The north wall of the Roman Bath was so used, as was the Roman arch; both of these structures stand at the edge of the Great Ravine that drops off steeply to the north. A large fortress (Figure 4.1) was appended to the Hexamilion at this time; the former shares its north wall with the latter. The Roman arch, bolstered by stout towers, served as the Northeast Gate of this Byzantine Fortress (Gregory and Mills 1984:407); the massive South Gate acted as the other entrance, on the Peloponnesos side.

ancient Sanctuary. Perhaps some of the structures were pulled down even prior to the construction of the fortifications (Broneer 1971:103), but it is clear that the Temple of Poseidon, the Temple of Palaimon, the stoas, the Theater, and other monuments were systematically dismantled for use in both the Hexamilion and the Fortress (Broneer 1976:418; Gregory 1993a). Many architectural members, including column drums, antae, capitals and voussoirs from various ancient structures, have been identified in the debris of the Byzantine walls (Gregory 1993a:139-140). These were modified for such use (for example, column drums were split to provide straight faces). In addition, the interior of the Fortress was leveled, especially on the east side, by bringing fill material from elsewhere in the Sanctuary area (Broneer 1976:418).

In addition to the standing structures incorporated into the Hexamilion and the Fortress, both fortifications also contain numerous spolia from other buildings in the

Figure 4.1. Plan of the Fortress showing 10-m grid used for geophysical and surface surveys and numbers of towers.

39

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING From this time on, the focus of occupation at the site shifted to the Fortress (Figure 4.1). Several small structures near the main Temple probably represent shelters for the workers involved in razing the ancient buildings. The Temenos area was eventually buried by overburden and the location of the Temple of Poseidon forgotten (Broneer 1971:2).

and situated between the two ports of Schoenos and Kenchreai is a group of seven sites, including a large Early Byzantine villa complex. If, as Gregory (1985:423) suggests, these sites represent an integrated system for exploiting the surrounding environment, there is reason to believe the settlement system in place at this time was much more complex than previously thought. There seems to have been a series of hamlets or individual houses, with the villa as the focus of economic activity. The area was intensively exploited from the fourth to the seventh centuries A.D., and perhaps well beyond the latter date (Gregory 1985). It is unreasonable to think that there was not some fairly close connection with the Fortress, which may have served as a refuge for the residents of Akra Sofia and other rural villas in troubled periods.

For over 1,000 years, the Fortress and adjoining sections of the Hexamilion witnessed the construction activity that had been previously reserved for the cult buildings (Gregory 1993a). The original intent of the fortification obviously was to block invaders. The works may have been in part a reaction to Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 that spurred defensive measures as far afield as Constantinople. By the end of the century, the military threat may have eased somewhat since the Fortress seems to have fallen into disrepair, as attested by the presence of houses and graves abutting on the interior walls at the Northeast Gate and probably elsewhere (Clement 1975:163-164; Rife 2005).

This dispersed mode of settlement has been noted for other parts of Greece. Hood (1970) believes various offshore islands, otherwise generally inhospitable due to lack of water, were populated in the late sixth century as a direct result of the Slavic invasions; people fled to these forsaken isles out of dire necessity as the barbarian groups occupied the mainland. Gregory (1986a) challenges this viewpoint, positing more systematic exploitation of the available environment by a society experiencing healthy economic expansion in a region with limited land available for agricultural and/or pastoral activities (see also Kardulias et al.1995).

During the reign of Justinian in the sixth century, the fortifications were extensively renovated. This impressive effort involved repairing the Hexamilion, the Fortress, and the numerous towers facing north from the former. Procopius (Buildings, 1961:IV.2.27-28) and the contemporary Victorinus inscription (Inscriptiones Graecae IV, Fraenkel 1902:32, no. 204) clearly indicate that this repair work occurred under the auspices of the imperial government as part of a general plan of defense for all of Greece. These renovations coincided with other such work at Thermopylae and elsewhere (Procopius, Buildings, 1961:IV.2.1-28; see Rosser 2001 on garrison). In the case of the Hexamilion and Fortress the purpose behind this considerable effort was to provide a single main line of defense for the Peloponnesos and to permit defense of the Isthmus by a smaller force (Gregory 1993a).

Within this framework, the Early Byzantine settlement at Isthmia, focusing on the Fortress, can be viewed as operating within a wider setting. Although at face value its functions may seem limited to the military sphere, one must consider the broader cultural mosaic of which it was a part. In this light, its role was still vital to Korinth, the major population center, even though the specific reason for its significance was different than in antiquity when it enjoyed an international reputation for its Sanctuary and Games. This theme of transition in function is discussed further below.

Near the end of the sixth century A.D., southern Greece witnessed the invasion of Slavic groups (Boak and Sinnigen 1965:521). Their advent was a disruptive event. Korinth was attacked and destruction levels at Argos indicate a violent incursion there, also (Aupert 1980). However, this episode did not mark the end of the civic centers, as some have contended. Korinth and other cities resumed their previous functions within a short time. At Isthmia, the Hexamilion had failed to stop the invaders, but the Fortress seems to have held out. Indeed, this enclosure may have served both as a military facility and a domicile from the late sixth and well into the seventh centuries A.D. (Gregory 1986b:8-10, 1993a; Rife 2005).

A lack of evidence suggests a major hiatus in site usage between the late seventh and tenth centuries A.D. (Gregory 1993a). The history of the site in the Middle Byzantine period is not as thoroughly known as earlier components because of the nature of the work conducted here and the lack of historical documents dealing with this phase. The Fortress evidently continued to be used sporadically in one manner or another. Numismatic evidence indicates that the area around the South Gate was occupied in the tenth century (Broneer 1958:21-22). In the eleventh or twelfth century, the approach to the South Gate from inside the Fortress was flanked by retaining walls to keep the area free of excess dirt. However, both the South Gate and Northeast Gate had been rendered inoperable as entrances into the Fortress by the construction of blocking walls, probably in the sixth or seventh century A.D. (Gregory 1993a:83, 94). Broneer (1959:320-321) contends that the area inside the South Gate was the location of considerable construction over

To understand the role of Isthmia as a settlement in this period, it is instructive to examine other sites in the immediate vicinity. The Fortress served both military and residential roles, but it cannot be viewed in isolation. At Akra Sofia on the coast 2.5 km south and east of Isthmia, 40

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE several centuries, the last structure being a house built after the Gate had been sealed, but the chronology is uncertain.

Perhaps the most complete account is that of Col. William Leake (1968 [1830]) who traveled extensively throughout Greece in the early nineteenth century. He incorrectly identified the Byzantine Fortress as the peribolos wall of the “Temple of Neptune,” a mistake that would be perpetuated by others for a century. He noted the presence of Doric architectural members, which he believed derived from the Temple, in the wall. This is a curious statement since he is suggesting that the peribolos would contain portions of the structure for which it was intended to demarcate the holy precinct. He then gives an accurate description of the course of the Hexamilion, and provides a discourse on its function and history, revealing his knowledge of military strategy and literary sources. The “small Fortress” (Leake 1968 [1830]:286) he places 300 yards west of the supposed peribolos is probably the Roman Bath. He errs in attributing construction of the Hexamilion to the ancient Korinthians, but his otherwise astute observations provide valuable insights into the condition of the site in the early nineteenth century (Leake 1968 [1830]:297, 302-305).

As with other fortifications in the Peloponnesos, those at Isthmia were utilized by the various groups that periodically occupied the country. Franks inhabited the area of the South Gate in the thirteenth century (Gregory 1993a:94). There is evidence of a Venetian presence in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:55). Byzantine control of the site was not lacking. At Tower 14 and elsewhere in the Fortress there is evidence of a major rebuilding conducted under the personal direction of Manuel II (1391-1423) in 1415 (Chalkokondyles 1843:183-184; Gregory 1993a:16-17, 147). This project involved a wholesale restoration of the entire Hexamilion and its forts. In the late Medieval period, a number of houses were built up against the west wall, both inside and outside, of the Fortress. The West Gate was also let into this wall (perhaps in the thirteenth or fourteenth century) just north of Tower 14, which could thus act as a bastion defending the new entrance. The Hexamilion itself was breached immediately west of Tower 15 and an arched entrance constructed to permit traffic to pass north of the fortifications, the Northeast Gate having long since been closed off.

The first systematic archaeological excavation at the site was undertaken by Monceaux (1884, 1885) in 1883. Upon fallaciously determining the Byzantine Fortress to be the Temenos of the Temple of Poseidon, he concentrated his excavation efforts along this wall. Like Leake before him, Monceaux believed the Doric building elements to be from the Temple of Poseidon, but seems to have ignored totally the logical inconsistency of his claims, as had his predecessor. Noting the number of Doric and Ionic fragments (the latter he attributed to the Temple of Palaimon) in and around the Northeast Gate, Monceaux excavated in this area. He exposed the Gate down to its marble pavement, correctly identifying the Arch as Roman in date, with flanking towers added in the third century A.D. to defend the site against barbarian invaders (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:65).

In 1463, the Venetians undertook extensive repairs, fortifying the Hexamilion with 136 towers and a double trench to the north. The Turks overran the fortifications on several occasions in the fifteenth century. The most recent large-scale restoration was planned but not executed by the Venetians in 1696 during their last short reoccupation of the Morea (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:55; Gregory 1993a:150). The modern village of Kyras Vrysi was founded in the nineteenth century, primarily to the west and south of the ancient Sanctuary and north of Rachi. The area of the Temenos was given over to agriculture, as was the interior of the Fortress. A cemetery and Church of St. John were placed in the northwest sector of the Fortress in the nineteenth century, with access provided at present by a paved road that required breaking through the east and west walls of the Fortress. The area between the Temenos and the Fortress is largely an agricultural zone. The Sacred Glen has been covered by modern houses.

Through the Gate, Monceaux states, passed one of three roads to the Sanctuary, coming from Schoenos. The second road at the southeast end of the site was cut into the bedrock and ascended a gentle slope from the sea. The third road approached from the west, but had been destroyed near the precinct wall. He reports it to be 10 m wide, flanked on each side by pits, 2 to 3 m in diameter and lined with cut stone, and a large cistern. A segment of this road had been visible several hundred meters from the precinct, suggesting to Monceaux the route to Korinth (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:69). Perhaps what Monceaux reported in this latter instance was that segment of the altar bearing wheel ruts. The number of visible building blocks, coupled with the lack of temple foundations, within the “Peribolos area” led Monceaux to conclude that the remains of the Temple of Poseidon lay beneath the Church of St. John.

Previous Work at the Site The Sanctuary of Poseidon and the Medieval remains at Isthmia have attracted the attention of scholars and travelers for centuries. As mentioned above, Pausanias was the first to leave a fairly detailed description of the site as he witnessed it in the second half of the second century A.D. Subsequent to this, the next substantial account to have survived is that of George Wheler who visited the site in 1676. He made note of walls, the Theater, and what he believed were “old Churches” and ruins of “the Town” (Wheler 1682:437).

Monceaux also observed other features at the site. In the Later Stadium, he noted the presence of marble seats and fragments of marble statues. Behind the Theater he re41

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING corded many foundations and wall remains. He also investigated the Rachi and described the extensive settlement there, stretching along the east slope, with a wide street running the entire 1 km length, passing through a central square. His identification of this settlement with Efyra has already been discussed (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:60,70-71).

Fowler added his own assessments based on visits to the site. He noted that the east end of the Hexamilion, which he dated prior to 146 B.C. when Korinth was still independent, is covered by canal dump (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:52). The Fortress walls, he believed, were ancient, with later modifications. Of the three gates, he considered the West Gate the most important because it faced Korinth, this despite the fact that the architecture is clearly more haphazard than that of the other two entrances. The South Gate he placed in an “Hellenic period” with Byzantine modifications, while he followed Monceaux in assigning the Northeast Gate to the Roman era. Within the Fortress he listed foundations for two Byzantine chapels and a large structure with squared blocks. The Doric architectural pieces he noted were primarily near the north, south, and west walls, none in proximity to the eastern edge. From these fragments he dated the Temple of Poseidon to the late sixth century B.C., after the Temple of Apollo at Korinth; the site of the Temple he takes to be the Church of St. John (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:63-67).

The next individual to undertake work at the site was Stais, acting for the Greek Archaeological Service. He excavated for fifteen days in September, 1903, largely in an effort to determine the validity of Monceaux’s claims that no ancient (that is, pre-Roman) buildings could be found (Stais 1903:14-15). He excavated a series of trial trenches wherever the ground seemed appropriate for laying foundations, carefully examining the stratigraphy in each case, but without locating any ancient structures or sherds older than Roman. Most of these test pits were placed within the “peribolos” (that is, the Fortress), where he found only Byzantine houses and churches. A total of nine such structures were discovered in an area some 290 m in length and varying from one half to one third that in width, with the individual units taken down to sterile soil. The only evidence for an ancient structure was northwest of the Church of St. John, where Monceaux conjectured the Temple of Poseidon was located. However, these remains could not be clearly ascribed to an ancient temple since they were so displaced that not even a plan could be determined; he felt further excavation in this area would be expensive and yield no solid results (Stais 1903:15-16).

Fowler assigned the Ionic column drums near the Northeast Gate to the Temple of Palaimon. He also made note of many fragments of buildings, altars, statue bases and statues within the Fortress; these he dated to the Roman and Byzantine periods. The remains behind the Theater that Monceaux had mentioned Fowler interpreted as houses of priests, lodgings for athletes and merchants, and shrines and other temples. He asserted that a city developed in association with the Sanctuary and its Games. Further west, he noted the presence of a spring, which in antiquity had a reservoir for storage, and cuttings to channel the water. He also described the layout of the settlement on Rachi (Fowler and Stilwell 1932:6870). As a statement of existing knowledge this work was adequate, but failed to take into account Fimmen’s interpretation, thus perpetuating an error that was the root cause of flaws in understanding the basic layout of the site. This situation created an anomaly in comprehending how the site functioned.

Stais also sank test trenches in the Later Stadium and the Roman Theater without positive results. Based on this work, Stais asserted that the lack of ancient buildings could be attributed to several major factors. He agreed with Monceaux that enemy invasions took their toll on the Sanctuary, but this was not the exclusive cause, as the Frenchman had concluded. Stais attributed the poor preservation to the lack of adequate soil cover, leaving structures more exposed and thus subject to complete destruction. Within the Fortress he described the soil cover over most of the area as only one to two meters down to sterile, and this would have been even thinner in the past, providing little protection (Stais 1903:16-17). The problem here, again, is the assumption that the Fortress wall was the Temenos.

A major step towards rectifying this problem was taken by two British scholars, R. J. H. Jenkins and A. H. S. Megaw. In 1931 and 1932 they dug a series of exploratory trenches in various parts of the site in an attempt to resolve the issue of the date of the enclosure wall. After a preliminary examination of the site, they asserted that everything except the arch was post Roman in date. Excavation along the outer face of the Fortress’ west wall between Towers 10 and 11 revealed the foundations of a Byzantine house, with no pottery earlier than Roman even at maximum depth of the cultural deposits. Further digging near the Hexamilion 150 m west of the Fortress (Unit G1) revealed some evidence of a proteichisma (outer wall) and tafros (ditch). All indications were that similar building techniques were employed in both the Hexamilion and the Fortress (wellshaped facing blocks with mortared rubble; occasional

Fimmen (1916) addressed the problem and argued that the wall was not ancient at all, but rather belonged to the Christian era. This assertion was not heeded, though, and the old view persisted as late as 1932. In that year, Fowler published an extensive account of Isthmia, including the Hexamilion, the Sanctuary, and Rachi, in the first volume of the Korinth series (Fowler and Stilwell 1932). This tome presented the contemporary knowledge on sites within the Korinthia. The section on Isthmia was based largely on historical accounts of the site, including travelers’ observations, and Monceaux’s work.

42

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE headers to act as bonding agents) with a date in the sixth century A.D. based on comparisons with other Byzantine fortifications. On the authority of Procopius (Buildings, 1961:IV.2.27-28), the date of construction was narrowed down to the reign of Justinian, and the Fortress was subsequently referred to as his (Jenkins and Megaw 1931-1932:75-77).

used in the wall. A spot 400 m west of the Fortress seemed a likely candidate due to its elevation and the quantity of roof tiles scattered on the surface. A long exploratory trench quickly revealed the foundations. As these were cleared, additional corroborative evidence appeared in the form of marble roof tiles and a section of raking sima. The extensive (56.2 x 25.7 m) foundations had witnessed episodes of renovation, discussed above (Broneer 1953:184-188).

Testing in the interior near Tower 5 (Unit C1) revealed Byzantine remains just below the surface and Roman material resting on virgin soil at a depth of 4.5 m. Various other pits to the west reached sterile levels at ca. 1.2 m below the surface. Jenkins and Megaw suggested that the original (pre-Roman) slope of the east central part of the enclosed area was not steep, but the foundation of the Roman structure in Pit C1 was probably cut into the slope. In the Roman period the settlement was situated on a gradually sloping, unfortified incline. In the Early Byzantine period, the Fortress was erected, and the uneven area behind filled with debris to make it level with the rest of the interior. The fill consisted of soil and rocks with Roman sherds, tiles, and other ceramic material (Jenkins and Megaw 1931-1932:79-81).

Over the next ten years Broneer excavated throughout the Sanctuary, concentrating on the area around the Temple of Poseidon, but investigating the Fortress and other locations as well. During the second season in 1954, the key periods in the Temple’s history were revealed. Also examined was the intricate water supply system with terracotta pipes within the Temenos, along with test soundings in the Theater, the Roman Bath, adjacent to the Cyclopean Wall, and the Fortress. In the latter he cleared a short section of wall and one tower, revealing blocks from the Temple (Broneer 1955:117, 122-124,140). In the succeeding two seasons, concerted digging resulted in the following: (1) Excavation of the north Temenos dump, containing debris from the Archaic Temple. (2) Exposure of the two altars associated with the Temple of Poseidon. (3) Clearing of the Temenos walls. (4) The unexpected discovery of the Earlier Stadium, with its elaborate starting line, near the Temple of Poseidon. (5) Revealing a structure that may be the Roman Palaimonion. (6) Completion of work on Rachi. (7) Clearing the South Gate of the Fortress, exposing the intricate nature of the construction of the Fortress, and a paved road leading to it (Broneer 1958:21,36).

The majority of the Roman pottery they examined dated to the second century A.D., suggesting the site had expanded considerably to the east by the time of Pausanias’ visit. Jenkins and Megaw concluded there was no Greek sanctuary or settlement in this location. The earliest remains near the wall were contemporary with the Roman arch, dating from the first century A.D. The site hit its zenith in the second century but declined in the third. In the sixth century Justinian built the Hexamilion; this location was chosen for the Fortress to protect the wall’s eastern end, since Isthmia was a defensible point near the sea. Korinth and Isthmia bracketed the Hexamilion (Jenkins and Megaw 1931-1932:82-83).

The fourth campaign, 1957-1958, witnessed extensive work covering the prehistoric to late medieval periods at the site. While attempting to define fortification walls that ran across the Isthmus, evidence came to light that the earliest walls dated to the Late Bronze Age. In the Sanctuary proper, a large circular pit south of the Temenos was investigated. At the Fortress, work continued around the South Gate, which was more fully investigated. In addition, the area along the outside face of the wall between Towers 6 and 8 was excavated and the Towers themselves cleared, revealing the nature of the original structure with intermediate wooden floors and possibly wooden roofs on some. The lower levels of several Towers had evidently served as dumps for the garrison.

In an attempt to locate the Greek sanctuary, Jenkins and Megaw (1931-1932:83) examined the area northwest of Kyras Vrysi, at the edge of a deep ravine. Classical Greek remains were exposed, including fragmentary foundations and an elaborate hydraulic system with channels and reservoirs. They concluded that this had been the site of Poseidon’s Temple that had succumbed to seismic and erosional activity, leaving behind no clue as to its actual position. With this work some major problems were resolved. The Fortress could no longer be identified with the Sanctuary proper, but the Temple was still to be located. In addition, the Fortress, although properly designated Early Byzantine, was dated over 100 years too late.

Several exploratory trenches were placed on the slope outside the south wall of the Fortress in an effort to get below Byzantine levels. These units yielded pottery, lamp, and glass fragments from the first two centuries after Christ. What may have been a small bath was situated near the southwest corner of Tower 7; the structure, with a stuccoed tank, dates to the second century A.D. and may have had cultic affiliations (Broneer 1959:300, 320-321). These results seemed to confirm the general

A long term excavation of the site began in 1952 under the direction of Oscar Broneer of the University of Chicago (1953:183). His intent was to locate the Temple of Poseidon, which could then be used as a reference point in reconstructing the ancient site topography. He estimated that the Temple was not far from the Fortress, probably at a higher elevation so that column drums and other material could be more easily rolled down to be 43

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING chronology of the Fortress area proposed by Jenkins and Megaw (1931-1932).

ing from the Theater, countering Monceaux’s contention that they had been part of the Palaimonion (Clement 1968:137-140).

The concluding years of this episode in the exploration of the site witnessed the completion of certain tasks already begun and efforts to define the true extent of the remains. Excavators completed the clearing of the Large Circular Pit, reaching a maximum depth of 19.75 m. Broneer suggests it was a well that was filled between 470 and 480 B.C. The Cult Caves were also excavated. Each consisted of one chamber, with five spaces in one case and six in the other for dining couches. Other areas examined included the Later Stadium, the Theater, the Northwest Reservoir, the Sacred Glen, and the West Foundation. In addition, agricultural activity revealed some ancient blocks in an area between Isthmia and the village of Hexamilia, 4 km to the west (Broneer 1962:1-2, 4-7). Broneer (1962:18) and Wiseman (1978) suggest these were from a fortification wall tied to other stretches on the Agios Demetrios ridge to the south, which they believe represent portions of a Hellenistic trans-Isthmian defensive work.

Along the west curtain of the Fortress, Clement excavated in and around Tower 14. He found two one-room structures, late Medieval in date, abutting on the Fortress wall in this area. At a later time, a doorway was broken into Tower 14. The West Gate was opened through the wall to accommodate the residents. Beneath these structures, a wall of large ashlar blocks, evidently Roman in date, was traced to the north and west for some 50 m; 18.5 m south of Tower 14 it turned east and continued under the Fortress wall. The precise nature of this large structure is still a matter of debate. The excavation notes and artifacts are currently being reevaluated; preliminary results indicate the presence of a Late Roman/Early Byzantine component, with a late Medieval occupation in the Frankish and Venetian periods to which several burials in the area belong (Downs 1996; Rife 2005). To the northwest of Tower 14 along the Hexamilion, work was also carried out on the North Drain. Its large size and swallow-tail cuttings seemed to fit a date in the late first century A.D. (Clement 1968:142).

This phase of the excavations aided in proper understanding of the site through the elucidation of the basic topography of key monuments. Several erroneous conjectures were categorically dispelled and occupational chronology was worked out in a more detailed fashion. The extent of the site was realized by means of test soundings, even though efforts centered around the Temenos area. The Medieval/Byzantine portions of the site received substantial attention, but only in so far as these were tied to the Hexamilion and the Fortress, the most obvious monuments of that period in the area. This is not to slight the work. Other scholars had largely ignored the Hexamilion in terms of active examination. One of the few efforts along these lines was a salvage operation by the Greek Archaeological Service involving measurement and photographing of a portion of the wall, along with a tower, which were destroyed in the process of widening the Athens-Korinth road (Pallas 1961-1962:78-79).

The following year work continued on the Fortress. Towers 2 and 15 were cleared. In the former, excavators found a passage through the Hexamilion to the interior of the Tower. The latter, in the northwest corner of the Fortress, revealed a well preserved interior vault. In addition, just to the west of Tower 15 a previously unknown gate through the Hexamilion was revealed; as with the other gates, it too had been blocked off in its last period of use. Elsewhere in the vicinity, 119 burials, primarily sixth to fifth centuries B.C., were opened in the field west of the village, in an area dubbed the Lambrou, later the West, Cemetery (Clement and Thorne 1974). Most of the graves were sarcophagus burials, but several, among them the latest, were simple pits in the rock covered with stone slabs. A great deal of the funerary pottery was Attic, providing some archaeological support for documents stating that the Isthmian Games were well attended by Athenians (Dickey 1992; Fraser 1969).

Paul A. Clement of UCLA initiated a new phase of excavation in 1967. Among the areas investigated in the first season of renewed work were the roadway west and north of the Temple of Poseidon, two water channels, a Cyclopean wall, and segments of the Fortress. Nineteen sarcophagus burials, the earliest containing sixth century B.C. Attic pottery, were excavated in a field west of Kyras Vrysi (Megaw 1968). The focus was on the Fortress, where several areas were examined. The Northeast Gate was completely excavated. Two graves with a total of thirteen skeletons and eight coins were found against the north side of the Gate. The coins dated to the third quarter of the fifth century A.D. Since the graves clearly postdated the military wall, the Justinianic date of the Fortress was called into question. The marble road through the Gate was in use at least as late as the second half of the fourth century A.D. Two Ionic column fragments near the Gate were identified as com-

The third season witnessed digging outside the Fortress near Towers 9 and 10, revealing fragmentary building walls, a section of a cobbled court, and part of a road leading to the South Gate; numismatic evidence suggests Late Roman, Byzantine, and Venetian occupation. Continued work around Tower 14 indicated an Early Roman rubble wall beneath the Medieval levels. Clearing of the West Gate showed it not to have been a feature of the original fortification. Excavation of the Northeast Gate also resumed. The marble pavement was found to end just west of the Gate, the roadway continuing as a packed dirt and stone bed. At the arch, the marble pavement was two layers thick. Architectural pieces, such as column drums, capitals, and cornices were used for this purpose. One of the paving blocks was a large (2.83 m high) stele erected in honor of one Lucius Kornelios 44

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Korinthos of Korinth by his sons (Clement 1974). Placed face down in the road, it was well preserved, as was another slab that had a roster of victorious athletes. A few graves were also found in several locations near the Fortress (Clement 1971:163-167). In 1969, Clement also excavated briefly near the modern church inside the Fortress. The presence of an Ionic column base suggested the possibility of a classical structure in this area of the fortifications. The excavators found a Late Roman building with a tile floor (Figure 4.2). Pottery and a coin dated the structure to the fourth to fifth century A.D. A number of pits dug down into the bedrock in this area yielded a variety of Late Medieval (thirteenth-fourteenth century) pottery, including several Italian imports. The Late Roman structures may date to the period immediately before construction of the Fortress and the late items to the time just before the major refurbishing under Manuel II in 1415. Finally, Clement excavated four

graves in an area ca. 60 m east of the Northeast Gate and outside the fortified area. Dating of the skeletons is problematic, but the best evidence suggests a Late Roman date (Rife 2005). Using the data from these excavations, Clement (1975) reevaluated the dating of the Fortress and the Hexamilion. In excavating the Northeast Gate, not only was debris cleared from the marble pavement, as Monceaux had done, but dowel holes, clamp cuttings, and joints between blocks were also cleaned, which the Frenchman had not done. This effort resulted in the discovery of a series of coins that suggests the fortifications were built in the early fifth century A.D., and not the sixth. Other coins and graves found in the Gate confirm this thesis. Although the fortifications were extensively refurbished under Justinian, perhaps including the blocking wall across the Northeast Gate, the original works antedate him by more than a century.

Figure 4.2. Plan of an area inside the Fortress excavated in 1969. The remains include a Roman structure and a number of Late Byzantine pits. OSUEI Archives. 45

THE SITE AND ITS SETTING Further digging in the 1970s concentrated on the area closer to the Sanctuary proper. In a field east of the Temenos, excavation revealed a series of house foundations, a tunnel whose function could not be discerned, and a series of water lines and a pit associated with a subterranean aqueduct (Catling 1972). Of the coins from this area, none dates later than A. D. 395. Clement (1975:164) argues that the destruction of this precinct, and, indeed, the Sanctuary as a whole, can be attributed to Alaric’s raid in the Peloponnesos in the 390s. Recent analysis of the architecture and pottery from this East Field area indicates the presence of a substantial residential quarter near the Sanctuary through at least the end of the fourth century A.D.

supplemented or in some cases superseded by findings from the later work. For example, in Volume II of the Isthmia series, Broneer (1973:2) uses the rubric Justinian’s Fortress while at the same time acknowledging the evidence that indicates an earlier date for the fortifications. For the second phase of major excavations since 1967, the works completed or under way deal with the Hexamilion and the Fortress (Gregory 1993a), sculpture (Lattimore 1996; Sturgeon 1987), metal objects (Raubitschek 1998), prehistoric pottery (Morgan 1999), the Late Antique and Medieval burials and settlement (Rife 2005), the Roman Bath (Fikret Yegül et al.), Greek and Roman terracotta lamps (Birgitta Wohl), inscriptions (David Jordan), stamped roof tiles (Michael Mills), Medieval pottery (Timothy Gregory), and coins (Paul Clement). As with the earlier stage of work, a variety of interim reports and specialized studies, many of them alluded to above, have already appeared in journals and edited volumes. In addition, much of the information garnered from both phases of the excavation at Isthmia has been incorporated in general reference works on the Korinthia and Greece (Broneer 1976; Hope Simpson and Dickinson 1979:63-64; Leekley and Noyes 1976:77-78; Wiseman 1978:50-51, 59-64). Continuing work in the Sanctuary involved a major season of excavation in the Temenos area (Gebhard and Hemans 1992, 1998; Gebhard et al. 1998) and further investigation on the Rachi (Anderson-Stojanoviü 1996). In the Sanctuary, the work indicated the Archaic Temple dates to the seventh century B.C. The investigation also revealed the development of the Temenos area with the expansion of the eastern terraces and two monumental entrances.

In 1976, work centered on the Roman Bath, where the large mosaic floor was uncovered. It depicts a Nereid on a sea centaur, Eros riding a dolphin, and another Nereid astride a Triton bearing a shield, with fish and octopi interlaced in the scene. The work dates to the late first or early second century A.D. and is in an excellent state of preservation (Catling 1976; Gregory 1995; Packard 1980). By 1979, the Bath had been cleared and the functions of the individual rooms (cauldarium, tepidarium, frigidarium, plunge baths) could be discerned (Catling 1979). In addition to excavation, a detailed topographic survey of the Hexamilion from the Saronic Gulf to the Gulf of Korinth was concluded in this period (Catling 1972; Gregory 1993a). A season of excavation in the Sanctuary and on Rachi took place in 1989. This work confirmed some of the preliminary conclusions of earlier investigations. For example, Gebhard and Hemans (1992:76) place the construction of the Archaic Temple and the Temenos wall in the first half of the seventh century B. C. Anderson-Stojanoviü (1996) directed the operations on Rachi and has suggested that the activities there may have involved tanning of hides and other activities (see above).

This corpus of data is used to establish the framework within which analyses below are presented. The image of the site provided by literary sources and previous excavation aids in the interpretation of the geophysical anomalies and surface artifact distribution examined in the present study. Despite the importance of the Fortress and the many references to it (see Testimonia in Gregory 1993a) very little was known about the layout of the interior. The present study affords some means to fill in these lacunae. Without the historical and archaeological background listed above, however, the current fieldwork would lack crucial reference points from which to assess the value of interpretative statements. Specifically, knowing the history of the site and the nature of previous archaeological work, one can determine the chronological and functional attributes of any structures or features that are revealed.

With the completion of various phases of the excavation, interim and final publications have appeared at intervals. The major findings from Broneer’s work in the earlier stage (1952-1961) has appeared in the first volumes of the Isthmia series, dealing with the Temple of Poseidon (Broneer 1971), the topography and architecture of the Sanctuary as a unit (Broneer 1973), and the terracotta lamps (Broneer 1977). Numerous preliminary reports and specialized studies have appeared in a variety of journals. Many of the interpretations in these works have been

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CHAPTER 5 THE DEBATE OVER THE TRANSITION FROM LATE ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD scholars. At present, a clear bias against things Byzantine exists in historical and archaeological circles. This attitude derives in part from the tradition of Classical studies. The present study employs an evolutionary perspective in examining material from Isthmia in order to dispel this older perspective. It is hoped that the analysis of site specific data will provide some insights into the nature of the transition to the Medieval period in the Aegean region.

Introduction Social change is a key issue at the very heart of contemporary anthropological archaeology. Defining this phenomenon at the conceptual level and then identifying it in the material record constitute major goals for archaeologists. In Greece, such matters have traditionally been dealt with in a conventional fashion, often based on a straightforward, and occasionally simplistic, interpretation of written records when such are available. Archaeology was usually called upon to verify certain preconceived notions, as seen in Schliemann’s (1884:1) search for sites described in the Homeric epics and Andronikos’ (1978) quest for Macedonian royal tombs. Until recently this was especially the case in dealing with the prehistoric and early historic periods. In these instances, the notion of change was viewed by some as a gradual process and by others as the result of foreign intervention and violent upheaval. In dealing with the Late Antique and Early Byzantine periods, though, the notion of gradual evolution from one stage to the next receives short shrift. Many scholars since the Renaissance have viewed this shift as a wrenching experience that created a serious disjuncture between what came before and what followed after. In this view, the society that emerged in the period between the fifth and seventh centuries A.D. supposedly represents a distinct break with its ancient antecedents. This difference is encapsulated in the decline of civic institutions, and the decay of urban forms in general. To date, the archaeological data brought to this debate frequently have been misused or only partly employed to help resolve this problem. As a result, there is still considerable disagreement as to the best way to characterize the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Byzantine period. Some believe that the social, political, religious, and economic alterations created a society different in quality, that is, Medieval. The key discriminating factor that distinguishes the Byzantine and Classical eras is often given as the decay of urban life. Such a viewpoint has been more pronounced in scholarship on the Western Empire. Indeed, most of the earlier discussion concerning this transition centered on events in the West (Montesquieu 1968 [1734]; Gibbon 1909 [1776-1788]; Bury 1923a; Baynes 1943). Intense scholarly interest in developments in the Eastern Empire during this same historical period is a relatively recent phenomenon.

The Debate in the Literature The fate of the Roman Empire from the fourth century A.D. and later is an immensely complex issue. The situation is often discussed in terms of decline and collapse, but the evidence is ambiguous as to the exact nature of the conditions both in the East and West, beyond a general agreement that the political structure was in disarray. Whatever the particulars, the Roman imperial system and territory in the West slipped from the control of Roman citizens to a variety of barbarian groups. To many scholars, this diluting of direct Roman influence was catastrophic to the social and political fabric. The difficulty has been to identify the factors that caused this shift. Because of the central nature of this issue to an understanding of European and Mediterranean history, scholars have repeatedly tackled this problem. Perhaps in an attempt not to dissipate their efforts by trying to discuss all possible elements, many historians have focused on one cause or a limited set of causes to explain the decline. An unfortunate result of this approach is that many of the explanations that have been propounded are overly simplistic, ignoring important alternatives. The scholars should not be castigated too severely on this point, however, since concentrating on certain factors at the expense of others is probably the only way to make the topic manageable. Complicating matters even further is the fact that the imperial political structure persisted for another millennium in the East. The literature reviewed below deals with both the Eastern and Western Empires. This selective examination of secondary sources is meant to be representative of the academic debate rather than an exhaustive enumeration of all who have dealt with the problem. There are many topics of potential interest in dealing with the Later Roman Empire. The focus of the present study is the nature of the historical and cultural connections in Aegean society from the fourth to the seventh century. For heuristic purposes, the debate over the nature of the transition from Classical antiquity to the Medieval period in the East is presented here in terms of the opposed perspectives of discontinuity and continuity. Byzantine historiography has oscillated between these two poles. Early historians dealing with Byzantium stressed its role as a

In part at least, the present study is consonant with the effort to bring into focus the rather murky image of Early Byzantine society. Some scholars in the past have gone to considerable lengths to dismiss the Byzantine era as a degenerate and undeserving successor to Classical civilization, to the point that the term Byzantine itself often has a pejorative connotation. Such a perspective has carried over to some extent in the work of some contemporary

47

THE DEBATE OVER THE TRANSITION FROM LATE ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD conduit of Hellenic culture between antiquity and the present. In many ways, this approach reduced Byzantine civilization to the status of guardian and failed to evaluate this society as a thriving, independent entity with inherent qualities, the value of which did not depend on connections to antecedents and successors. This simplistic view of continuity saw a direct line of inheritance from ancient to modern Greece and minimized Byzantine innovation, creativity, and contributions.

example, barbarian invasions, moral degeneracy) as single causative factors for the collapse of the Roman Empire. Among the most commonly mentioned of these prime movers are barbarian invasions (Piganiol 1947; Jones 1966), soil exhaustion (Simkhovitch 1916), manpower shortages (Boak 1955), the growth of a compulsory state structure (Walbank 1946), the concatenation of chance events (Bury 1923a), military defeats (Ferrill 1986), and even lead poisoning (Gilfillan 1965). Since the 1920s, the trend has been to identify basic underlying factors (for example, land tenure system, social relationships) that underwent radical alteration, thus rupturing the bonds that held Classical civilization together. This version of the discontinuity thesis has been the dominant perspective in Byzantine studies for over sixty years.

A reaction to this simple unilineal approach was forged in the nineteenth century and found expression in the views of scholars like Fallmerayer who denied any “racial” connection between ancient and modern Greeks (Winnifrith 1983:173). The multiethnic nature of the Byzantine state and the period of Ottoman control were believed to have diluted the ancient Greek influence. Fallmerayer (1965 [1830]) could point to fundamental differences between ancient Greece and Byzantium, such as the shift in religious orientation from paganism to Christianity. As a result, much past and current scholarship views Late Antiquity and Early Byzantine as clearly distinct eras (Bury 1923b). Although there is a continuation in terms of some social phenomena, a substantive disjuncture is seen as demarcating one period from the other. This discontinuity school of thought associates the end of antiquity with the decline of the polis and the complex of civic institutions subsumed under this rubric. Many historians from the time of Gibbon (1909 [1776-1788]) and before considered the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. as the turning point, when the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, the collapse of the system of municipal administration, and incursions of various barbarian groups ushered in the Middle Ages. Although not as adversely affected, the eastern portion of the empire also suffered depredations and changed sufficiently in form to warrant a new designation, that is, Byzantine. Most current scholars place the break in the late sixth to early seventh century. Some decline or collapse did occur; the question is how best to characterize that change. The prevailing notion of a “great break” often attributes prime causality to the invasions by Arabs in Anatolia, and by Slavs and Avars in the Balkans. In this discontinuity view, the change was cataclysmic. Those who argue for some degree of continuity do not deny the reality of collapse, but rather suggest the decline was more gradual, what Randsborg (1991:173-177) calls transformation. Bowersock (1988:170) argues in a complementary fashion that “the world of Late Antiquity can be seen…as a world in transition”. For heuristic purposes, in the present work by the term Late Antiquity I mean the early fourth through seventh centuries and Early Byzantine refers to the eighth to twelfth centuries A. D. Many historians traditionally placed Early Byzantine origins in the fourth century with the reign of Constantine, but from an archaeological standpoint, the most diagnostic ceramics suggest the terminology adopted in the present study.

Some scholars feel that advocates of discontinuity have gone too far in stating their case. The result has been the emergence of another perspective emphasizing the elements of similarity and continuity rather than those of disparity and disjuncture. As mentioned above, in its earliest form this perspective was also applied uncritically, simply assuming continuity from ancient Greece, through the Byzantine era, to the present. Medieval and contemporary Greek societies were examined for what scholars could learn about the Classical period. As more recently constituted, the continuity perspective argues for the inherent value of each phase in Greek history as a subject of study, and espouses a developmental sequence that ties the periods together. Many adherents of this revised form of the continuity thesis take an evolutionary approach that sees change occurring in increments. For the Byzantine East, this process eventually resulted in a cultural synthesis between the sixth and eighth centuries A.D. that was different yet derived from Late Antique society. A logical extension of this perspective, which some scholars have adopted, is to view Classical culture in the same manner, as an evolving entity that was substantially different in the second century A.D. from what it was in the fourth century B.C. Some of those who argue for discontinuity in defining the emergence of Medieval society imply that ancient society was monolithic and static. In essence, the continuity perspective argues for examination of the Classical and Medieval periods as expressions of ongoing cultural processes. Such an approach involves consideration of change as a phenomenon rooted in cultural interaction over extended periods of time; an abbreviated time frame obscures the larger historical forces at play. Cameron provides a clear statement on this matter that is relevant to the present study: It is more fruitful in the context of current research to look for changes in the balance of centre and periphery and at the shifting relations of local cultures. Consideration of the longue durée is more helpful than the appeal to immediate causal factors. The extraordinary tenacity of the late Roman state can too easily be forgotten in the

Prior to the twentieth century, most adherents of the discontinuity thesis focused almost exclusively on the West. In addition, they stressed the role of prime movers (for

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE search for explanations of its supposed decline and fall [Cameron 1993:197].

model is not fully elaborated by any scholar. Nonetheless, this type of urban-rural dichotomy is implied in the work of scholars on either side of the discontinuity/continuity controversy. The work of various scholars is reviewed below as a means of highlighting some of the key aspects of each perspective and of demonstrating the use of such an urban rural idiom.

There is a fundamental disagreement between the two approaches (discontinuity, continuity) in regard to the role of cities in the Early Byzantine period. Those favoring the discontinuity viewpoint argue that the decay of urban life is diagnostic, and perhaps causative, of the break, with the disappearance of civic institutions playing havoc with social order; a much less sophisticated system took its place (Foss 1972; Kazhdan 1954). The opposite camp sees at least some cities and their appurtenances as surviving from antiquity; the changes that do occur do not substantially alter the complex hierarchical relationships that define urban existence (Ostrogorsky 1959). Thus, examination of the status of cities and the nature of urban life is pivotal in resolving this controversy. In both Eastern and Western Europe, the level and type of urban activity are crucial in delineating the boundary between ancient and Medieval societies. The civic institutions in question included a municipal administrative structure centered on a council or boule composed of aristocratic land owners who made executive and legislative decisions for the polis and shouldered the responsibility of financing major public works. Other important institutions included a system of taxation, a monetary economy, a system of education based on Greek and Latin literature and philosophy, and a complex social structure with a variety of distinct classes (Kazhdan and Cutler 1982).

As mentioned above, early advocates of the discontinuity thesis often alluded to a prime mover to explain the collapse of the Western Empire. Some saw the cause as external (for example, the barbarian invasions), while others attributed the decline to internal factors, such as the demise of the ruling elite from lead poisoning due to the use of metal water pipes. These explanations proved to be as unsatisfactory as early attempts to support the continuity thesis on the basis of presumed cultural survivals from antiquity to the present. The following examination of the discontinuity perspective deals only with the more sophisticated, multicausal approach to the problem that has emerged since the 1920s. The views of Rostovtzeff (1926) illustrate some basic components of the discontinuity thesis. Rostovtzeff was not the originator of this viewpoint, but his was a considerable contribution to this line of argument and thus is valuable as an example of this perspective, which emphasizes decline (Cameron 1993:5). Concentrating on the West, he stresses the role of powerful social and economic forces in the collapse of the Roman Empire. Tracing the roots of the decline to the first century B.C., he characterizes the victory of Augustus as the culmination of an alliance between an Italian bourgeoisie and proletariat, who were led by ambitious politicians and military leaders. These combined forces ended the hegemony of Rome’s two major privileged classes, the senators and equestrians. The Flavian rulers completed the ruthless elimination of the classes that had held power in the late Republic. The emperors consciously encouraged the development of a strong middle class through their support of urban culture. Under the Antonines in the second century A.D., there was a virtual constitutional monarchy that rested on an urban middle class and self governing cities. The urban and rural poor received few benefits from this system (Rostovtzeff 1926:viii-ix).

Another important element in this debate is the distinction between urban and rural settlements. It is not always clear what scholars on either side of this debate mean by urban and rural, but certain traits are implied. Urban settlements included recognizable cities (possessing the characteristics listed above) and the adjacent territory or hinterland under municipal control. This hinterland contained a number of smaller settlements, towns or villages, which were linked to the administrative structure of the main city. Rural areas, which were distinct from outliers in the polis system, are more difficult to define because there is little historical evidence relating to such regions. In general, scholars seem to characterize rural areas as geographically isolated, primarily agricultural or pastoral in subsistence, with a low degree of social differentiation, a local administration dependent on less formal mechanisms (for example, clan or tribal social organization) than the boule or council, and lacking large settlements with monumental public works (that is, large temples, agora or forum, paved roads, theater, gymnasium). Areas such as Arkadia and Epiros are often depicted in this fashion. As such, rural areas in antiquity and the Medieval period can be categorized as folk societies. According to Redfield’s (1973) criteria, a folk society is geographically isolated, homogeneous, and selfsufficient. This statement of analogy should not be construed as advocacy of the use of Redfield’s folk-urban continuum in analyzing ancient and Medieval society. Instead, there seems to be the tacit acceptance of a Redfieldlike model by historians concerned with social and political phenomena during these two periods, although such a

The inherent flaw in this system, Rostovtzeff claims, was the inability of the middle class to support the fabric of an international state. Although this group depended to a large extent on the labor of the common classes, it was unwilling to open its ranks to these lower orders; the government bureaucracy exhibited a similar reluctance. An intense antagonism developed between the classes and resulted in the crises of the third century A.D. The army, drawn largely from the lower classes, expressed the views of their group and joined forces with the emperor whose ability to rule depended on the military. With the inability to reach a compromise, the struggle degenerated into civil and social war, leading eventually to the destruction of the bourgeoisie and upper classes. A new government 49

THE DEBATE OVER THE TRANSITION FROM LATE ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD emerged, following an Oriental mode of despotism based on the army, a strong bureaucracy, and the peasant masses (Rostovtzeff 1926:ix). Depopulation, plagues, and invasion accompanied these civil wars; productivity within the empire plummeted. Asia Minor and Syria reverted to a feudal system while the West was impoverished (Rostovtzeff 1926:424-425).

emerges in the fourth century A.D. and later is decidedly different from the urban culture based on Classical prototypes that had preceded it. Brown (1971) performs a sweeping analysis of this problem by dealing with social, religious, and political changes in the Roman world. He places considerable stress on a general phenomenon, the debasing of culture to its lowest common denominator. This process, he believes, precipitated the loss of a distinct identity for the intellectual elite that set the tone for ancient society. According to Brown, “The ancient world had died in the imagination of the inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean” (1971:187). Brown (1978:8) demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of the nature of change when he notes that “the changes that come about in Late Antiquity can best be seen as a redistribution and a reorchestration of components that had already existed for centuries in the Mediterranean world.” I argue similarly for the emergence of Early Byzantine society, although I stress the primacy of infrastructure over superstructure.

Rostovtzeff’s major thesis is that the peasantry expressed through the army its desire to share power in the Empire. A process of leveling began to assist the peasants in reaching their goal, including in the process the decimation of the bourgeoisie and the near ruin of city life. The key to reorganizing society under these circumstances was a stress on the emperor, but the reforms instituted in the army, the imperial bureaucracy, and the tax system did not alleviate the problems. Efforts were made to strip governmental functions down to their essentials so that the lower classes could participate and also because the creative urban middle class was no longer a functioning group. This process Rostovtzeff refers to as the barbarization of the Empire. He identifies the key element underlying the decline of the Empire as the gradual absorption of the educated urban classes by the masses and the consequent simplification of all the functions of political, social, economic, and intellectual life, cutting away the very foundations of Classical civilization. A complex social system was reduced to its most primitive constituents, and urban life suffered as a result (Rostovtzeff 1926:455:486). This approach can be seen as, in part, a condemnation of Marxist ideology. Whereas Marx described the proletariat in positive terms as the driving force in social change, Rostovtzeff takes a decidedly dim view of the common classes.

Elements of the discontinuity perspective are evident in the work of other scholars who deal with the Early Byzantine period. Reacting to the analytical work of Weiss (1977), Kazhdan and Cutler (1982) focus on structural change as the barometer for determining whether Byzantine society represents continuity or discontinuity with antiquity. They, too, emphasize the city as a major discriminating factor in this debate and argue that Balkan urban centers clearly declined in the sixth to seventh centuries A.D., and agree with Foss (1972) that a similar eclipse is evident in Asia Minor. Unlike Foss, they suggest that the preconditions for urban disaster already existed prior to the Persian invasions of the seventh century. One of the key changes that had occurred was in land ownership, with a drop in the amount of privately owned property, which was a major element in Roman society. The supreme position of the state as a landholder affected the autonomy of cities, decreasing the ability of municipal governments to deal effectively with local concerns as their financial resources, based on tax revenues from privately owned land, were diminished. The size and number of cities decreased. Key areas such as Asia Minor became increasingly rural in character between the fourth and sixth centuries. These conditions led to the development of an undifferentiated mass of agrarian folk subservient to the state. The institutional structure of the ancient city eroded with these developments (Kazhdan and Cutler 1982:438-446).

Rostovtzeff provides a penetrating analysis in many ways, attacking the problem from a variety of directions and tying these approaches together by means of the main thesis of social conflict. However, there are a number of difficulties with his approach. In the first place, his use of certain terms (bourgeoisie, proletariat) used to describe classes in capitalist society is not applicable to antiquity with its preindustrial economic base. There are also inconsistencies. In some places he speaks of the destruction of the urban middle class in a military sense, while elsewhere he suggests a process of gradual absorption into the peasant fabric. His argument that government and society from the late third century on were mere shadows of their former selves seems clearly not to be the case. The assertion that members of the peasantry permeated the administrative hierarchy seems based on rather thin evidence. Finally, much of his perspective rests on a moral, ethical, and even aesthetic argument, namely that the peasants, with their more rudimentary knowledge, abilities and lack of sophistication debased Roman society, and in particular its urban character. Beyond the fact that this view is patently elitist, it is also virtually impossible to document in any thorough manner. Despite all of these deficiencies, there is a thread in Rostovtzeff’s work that is picked up by others, that is, that the decline is empire wide and what

Another major change, according to Kazhdan and Cutler, occurred in social structure, with a simplification of the hierarchical complexity of ancient communities. The disappearance of various juridical categories coincided with the development of a uniform agrarian population, symptomatic of urban decline. Social microstructures, such as the family, came to prominence because of the dissolution of the polis and its network of social ties. In the seventh to ninth centuries the collapse of city life was

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE quickened by the shift to a barter economy. This system depended on the personal relationship of the parties involved in the exchange rather than on broader, more abstract principles; this led to a new Medieval system of taxation. Other signs of the degeneration of city life included a decline in Byzantine literature, construction, and artistic output (Kazhdan and Cutler 1982:445-452). Early Byzantine society had reached a level of stagnation, and the final blow to urban culture came with invasions by Slavs, Avars, Persians, and Arabs from the sixth to the seventh centuries A.D. By the latter period cities had collapsed, taking with them the ancient social hierarchy, the traditional forms of dependence, the active circulation of currency, an “open” daily life, schools, and theaters. The Early Byzantine period was, thus, one of transition to entirely new social, economic, political, and religious forms (Kazhdan and Cutler 1982:477).

and qualitative assessments of the social conditions on either side of the chronological divide. The search for a method of general applicability that also suits the idiosyncratic features of the Roman world has been on-going. In The Collapse of Complex Societies, Joseph Tainter (1988) provides an intriguing model that accounts for the disintegration of state level societies. He draws a sample that is widespread both geographically and temporally (including the Roman Empire) and analyzes the collapse of these societies by focusing on complexity as a problem-solving strategy. He argues that the return on investment in complexity varies and follows a characteristic curve: In many crucial spheres, the continued investment in sociopolitical complexity reaches the point where the benefits for such investment begin to decline, at first gradually, then with accelerating force. A population must allocate greater and greater amounts of resources, but after a point higher amounts of investment yield smaller increments of return [Tainter 1988:93].

Kazhdan and Cutler clearly view the Early Byzantine and Late Roman periods as distinct. A series of subtle assumptions underlie their work, and their conclusions flow logically out of these premises. It is a legitimate exercise, however, to assess the validity of these assumptions. Kazhdan and Cutler may indeed be correct in their exegesis, but alternative explanations should be weighed against their view. One important assumption is that cities are inherently positive aspects of human society; a corollary of this notion is that more complexity is better than less. Such perspectives reveal the urban bias that colors the work of many Western historians. Another way of examining the question of what happened to urban populations in the Eastern Empire in the sixth to seventh centuries is to study settlement systems as adaptive mechanisms, an approach that may lead scholars to modify, or at least define more clearly, views on urban evolution and collapse. Urban centers and the institutions that comprise them are means of adapting to environmental (natural and cultural) stresses. If large centers at some point fail to address such problems adequately, people will seek alternative solutions. This does not mean, though, that cities will necessarily disappear, but that some of the functions of the large centers may be coopted by secondary towns if this proves to be a viable solution.

Tainter argues that complex societies become entangled in a diminishing returns game, investing more and more simply to maintain the status quo. When the return on investment is minimal or even negative, the society is vulnerable to collapse, which involves elimination of bureaucracy, reduction in economic activity, and simplification of social stratification. Tainter warns we must be careful in assessing such events: Collapse is not a fall to some primordial chaos, but a return to the normal human condition of lower complexity. Such societies have not failed to adapt. In an economic sense they have adapted well... [Collapse] is a rational, economizing process that may well benefit much of the population [Tainter 1988:197-199].

Beyond this general theoretical level, there is also a problem with Kazhdan and Cutler’s treatment of the concept of social change. They discuss Classical antiquity in rather static terms, as though some plateau had been reached early and later developments acted only to slightly embellish this modus vivendi. In doing so, they fall prey to the same tendency to idealize the Classical past that they disparage in other scholars. In addition, this may be an unrealistic model for how societies operate; it is similar to early functionalism in anthropology with a stress on the harmonious interplay of various parts of the system, resulting in equilibrium and stability. Change is depicted largely in negative terms, especially when it involves altering urban institutions. Instead of a continuum of human behavior, with people making choices from an array of options, Kazhdan and Cutler opt for temporal dichotomies,

Tainter discusses the Roman Empire using this model. To meet various stresses there was increasing investment in complexity during the Republic. The need for an “energy subsidy” to finance this development was met through territorial expansion. Initially there was a very high rate of return as Rome conquered the wealthy cultures of the Mediterranean. But further conquests (for example, Britain and Dacia) provided meager returns for the high cost of military campaigns and administration. Beginning in the first century A.D. the Roman state had to invest huge amounts of resources simply to maintain the imperial structure. When other stresses developed (for example, barbarian incursions) the state found itself increasingly less able to respond because its resources were already depleted. The Western Empire collapsed due to lack of support by the majority of the population that was paying for organizational complex51

THE DEBATE OVER THE TRANSITION FROM LATE ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD ity through taxes, and agricultural and other products, but was receiving only minimal returns on this investment (defense was often inadequate, local services declined, and so on). Tainter further argues that collapse is a viable option only when there is a power vacuum. The Eastern Empire did not collapse because it was confronted by a series of peer polities (Sassanians, Arabs, Turks) and disinvestment in sociopolitical complexity would have led to territorial domination by a foreign power. As a result, investment in complexity continued in the East despite the declining marginal return. Although there is much to recommend Tainter’s approach as a general model, Gregory (1994:150151) notes that there are problems with the application to the Roman historical sources. Indeed, historians today tend to emphasize the fragmented nature of political authority in the Late Roman era (Cameron 1993), not a highly centralized authoritarian regime as Tainter suggests.

al. 1997). Such an analysis is beyond the scope of the present study. What I propose to demonstrate is a general adaptive capacity for societies under stress. Another major proponent of the notion that the Early Byzantine period marks a significant break with the urban culture of Late Antiquity is Clive Foss who has dealt with this issue on a broad level (1972, 1977), and also in relation to particular sites, such as Sardis (Foss 1975, 1976) and Efesos (Foss 1979). He employs archaeological data to assist in examining this issue of continuity or urban decline. At the general level, documentary evidence comes from a list of twenty cities in Byzantine Asia compiled by the erudite Emperor Constantine Porfyrogenitos in the tenth century. Foss (1972, 1977) examines the archaeological evidence for each city on the list, checking its level of prosperity in different periods. With the lone exception of Smyrna, each city seems to have continued the Classical patterns until invasions by Persians and Arabs in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. disrupted the system. Subsequent to these traumatic events, the cities entered a period of decline, manifested in their decreased areas and populations, lack of construction and upkeep of large scale public architecture, paucity of coins, and generally impoverished appearance, from which they never fully recovered. For example, Sardis had been a prosperous city in Late Antiquity with flourishing agricultural and commercial sectors. Foss claims the Persian forces of Chosroes burned much of the city in A.D. 616 (but see Russell 2001 on this matter). After that date, the number of coins falls off drastically, and there seems to be no effort to rebuild many of the old structures ruined in the fire (Foss 1977:470-482).

The oscillations between nucleated and dispersed settlement patterns noted in regional archaeological surveys in Greece (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1985; McDonald and Rapp 1972; Runnels and van Andel 1987) indicate the flexibility in the human response to fluctuations in the social and physical landscape through time. For example, in the Southern Argolid the most intense periods of occupation in terms of number of sites include EH II, LH II-IIIB, Classical and Early Hellenistic, Late Roman, and Middle to Late Byzantine (van Andel and Runnels 1987). In these periods, the population may have been larger than in intervening phases, but more important is the degree to which people spread out over the landscape in an effort to exploit a wide variety of ecological zones. It is important to note that the periods of dispersed settlement seem to have been the most prosperous. Certain environmental and cultural factors were significant at different times. These factors included clearing of land for agricultural purposes, shortening of fallow periods to assist in feeding a growing population, and pastoralism in economically depressed times, all of which contributed to erosion and undermined the expanded settlement system. Soil conservation techniques played a vital role in sustaining or rejuvenating a dispersed settlement regime. These methods included terracing and dam construction, and, ironically, total abandonment that permitted rapid takeover by pine and maquis cover, thus stabilizing the soil (van Andel et al. 1986).

Although the cities continued to exist, Foss claims they were mere shadows of their former selves. The invasions and plagues caused a drop in population, economic decline, and the loss of public services. Many of the settlements became forts amidst small towns. This was a devastating blow to society: “Urban life, upon which the Classical Mediterranean culture had been based, was virtually at an end” (Foss 1977:486). According to Foss, the Byzantine society that emerged from these disasters was different in kind from its Classical predecessor. Foss is to be lauded for his stress on interdisciplinary research, using archaeological data independently in an effort to corroborate historical evidence. His handling of excavation information, though, often fails to consider alternative explanations. He accepts the archaeologists’ interpretations without considering digging techniques, goals, or the competence of the excavators. For instance, he does not consider situations in which excavators may have rapidly and casually removed Byzantine remains to get at ancient materials, a not uncommon problem at Classical sites (Rautman 1990). Such treatment of Byzantine components has a long history in Aegean archaeology, as is evident in the excavations of Byzantine churches at the Asklepeion in Athens (Koumnoudis 1876) and at Lykosoura (Leonardos 1907), among other places, and has greatly complicated the inter-

The point of the preceding discussion is that the discontinuity thesis proposes a direct relationship between the presence of large, nucleated settlements and economic prosperity. Regional studies in Greece indicate that a settlement system focused on a number of small settlements also can be an expression of economic well being. A detailed environmental analysis is required to elaborate the ecological relationships that help to define the basis of settlement systems. Several studies of this sort have been conducted in Greece, on the island of Melos (Renfrew and Wagstaff 1982), in the southern Argolid (van Andel and Runnels 1987), in Epiros (Dakaris et al. 1964), in the Nemea Valley (Wright et al. 1990), and in Messenia (Davis 1998; Davis et

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE pretation of such sites (Rautman 1990; Travlos 1939/1941). In addition, there are problems of chronology because archaeologists not well versed in Byzantine materials have assigned dates uncritically on the basis of historical probability (Russell 2001). In his work, Foss deals with a number of important issues and provides a forceful argument for discontinuity. I deal with the issues Foss raises in some detail in Chapter 8.

Recent work on such islets suggests an alternative set of circumstances to those Hood proposes. Systematic surface survey on several dry islets in the northeastern part of the Gulf of Korinth (Gregory 1986a) has produced evidence for the types of settlements Hood had described elsewhere. Careful examination of ceramics indicates that these sites date as early as the fourth century when there was no Slavic threat to send mainland Greeks in search of refuge. Based on this and the prevalence of Late Roman sites in southern Greece, Gregory argues that the island remains represent an expanding settlement system that occupied arid off-shore locations because the adjacent mainland had reached a saturation point in terms of population and exploitation of the local environment. This was a prosperous era with widening horizons. As in other areas of the world at various times, when favorable conditions generate material well being and increased population, people are willing to exploit marginal zones in the search for other niches. If the islets also served as refuges in later centuries, they still do not represent the distinct break Hood had suggested.

mainland would have been critical to its survival. Even Hood notes “life on these off-shore islands must have been impossible unless the mainland opposite was normally available for pasturage and cultivation” (Hood 1970:43). The sites on Evraionisos were part of an integrated settlement system in which people exploited marginal ecological niches, in addition to areas better suited to agriculture and pastoralism on the mainland. But what would spur such expansion? A number of studies suggest that population growth may have been the catalyst. For the southern Argolid, van Andel and Runnels (1987:173, 175) correlate a rise in the number of sites with a population increase during the Late Bronze Age and the Late Roman period, but they do note that the equation between numbers of sites and population size is not a simple one. If the Late Roman and Mycenaean periods witnessed significant population increases, people in those times may have adopted dispersed settlement patterns to exploit available land for agricultural and pastoral activities. Evraionisos seems to be a node in this process of settlement expansion. The marginal nature of the island relates to its lack of fresh water sources and the rugged nature of the terrain. The austere nature of the existence indicated by these remains suggests the possibility of an ascetic or monastic community in the Late Roman period, but no direct proof (for example, a chapel) is present. As an analogy, on Pseira near Crete, Betancourt and Davaras (1988:224) identified as a monastery the Byzantine (sixth century A.D.) church and associated buildings erected over the Bronze Age remains. There is some evidence in other parts of the Byzantine world of the use of dry islands as retreats by those seeking solitude; for example, several ascetics moved to a dry island in the Red Sea in the EB period (Trombley 2001:146). Whatever the specifics, the construction and maintenance of cisterns and terrace walls on Evraionisos would have been an efficient expenditure of time only when more accessible locations on the mainland were nearing saturated use. In times of enhanced economic activity, for example, the Late Bronze Age and Late Roman period, people sought out unused niches, such as Evraionisos; its proximity to the mainland probably outweighed its lack of water as a determining factor in attracting residents. One might still object that the reason the island was inhabited was not because the mainland was saturated but because it was occupied by an invader and thus unavailable to the people who fled to Evraionisos. While I must admit that such a scenario is possible, it seems most unlikely for several reasons: life on the island would be impossible without continual contact with the mainland, and the physical structure of the settlement has all the marks of permanence and stability rather than haste. In Late Roman times the island may have had an important military component but it seems likely these activities would have been directed against an enemy who controlled the sea (such as the Arabs) rather than one who came by land (such as the Slavs).

Additional research on the islet of Evraionisos in the Saronic Gulf has confirmed Gregory’s ideas (Kardulias et al. 1995). The ancient community on Evraionisos was probably not self-sustaining, and ties to the neighboring

The continuity perspective is also represented by an array of scholars. Much of their work centers on the fate of urban culture during the period of transition. In this light, Larsen’s (1938) work on Roman Greece provides an example of how

Hood (1970) also enlists archaeological information to make a case for discontinuity. After examining the Late Roman to Early Byzantine remains on some small islands in the Gulf of Korinth, he concludes that the material dates to the sixth and seventh centuries A.D. Raids by Avars and Slavs began ca. A.D. 540, with the turmoil so initiated continuing well into the next century. In an effort to flee the invaders, Hood argues, many natives of central and southern Greece took refuge on a variety of small islands near the coastal areas of the Peloponnesos. Many of these islands are quite small and lack fresh water sources, necessitating the construction of large cisterns. Hood suggests that the available flat land on these dry islets was used for agriculture and grazing, as were nearby sections of the mainland. The size of structures reflects permanence, which in turn indicates continued problems with the Slavic invaders. These settlements seem to be contemporary with others on Salamis, Sfakteria, Rafti, islets off of Cape Malea, and the refugee community of Spartans at Monemvasia. The basic thrust of Hood’s work is that the Greeks were driven to these places and others in extremity, abandoning the cities and towns in large sections of southern Greece. He does argue that there were pockets of Greeks who maintained their presence on the mainland during this period, but the central theme is one of disruption.

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THE DEBATE OVER THE TRANSITION FROM LATE ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD the issue can be viewed in a manner quite different from that of the discontinuity advocates. Larsen challenges the equation that cities necessarily equal or coincide with material prosperity, while a village-based system is generally viewed as inferior in economic terms. The records suggest that an economic renaissance in Greece during the second century A.D. was based on a system of small dispersed settlements rather than on large towns or cities. By way of further evidence for his perspective, Larsen notes that under Roman administration in Greece there persisted a substantial degree of the federalism evident in the Hellenistic period, with local self-government, colonies, free and allied cities, leagues and tribes. Greece had indeed experienced economic decline in the first century B.C., but underwent a revival in the first two centuries of the Christian era due to the peaceful conditions that prevailed. The number of flourishing cities was considerably fewer under the Empire than before due to consolidation. Indeed, records indicate that some viewed Greece as underpopulated. Perhaps Hadrian’s efforts to encourage the growth of cities at the expense of large estates reflected this perspective that saw the lack of cities as problematic because imperial administration depended on urban centers to handle local affairs, including the collection of taxes. Without the active involvement of an urban administrative structure it was feared that revenues would not be forthcoming. In addition, the owners of large estates could aspire to join the imperial aristocracy through the acquisition of a title; this status released individuals from the requirement of paying taxes. Rather than being depopulated, large areas of Greece were devoted to herding and agriculture, with much of the land and the breeding of finer stock controlled by a small group of wealthy men. Thessaly produced enough wheat for export. Olive oil was another major agricultural export. Horses were raised in various places and sold in Italy for the hippodromes and the cavalry. Patras, Kos, and Amorgos were major textile manufacturing centers. Mines and quarries were intensively exploited. Representative of the vitality of this system was the ability of Greece to withstand the attack of the Heruli in the A.D. 260s, despite the sack of Athens. In fact, Greece seems to have been largely unaffected by the monetary crisis that afflicted the Empire in the West during the third century A.D. (Larsen 1938:441-496). Roman imperial policy, especially the implementation of a new system of landholding that favored the affluent, did certainly affect settlement patterns and economic fortunes in Greece. Alcock (1993) argues that such policy led to nucleated settlement in Greece during the first two centuries A.D., as people gathered in larger centers, leaving the countryside somewhat under-populated. The villa system that developed concentrated on land of optimum agricultural value.

institutions persisted essentially unaltered (Larsen 1938:492). Thus, the decline in the number of cities or in their size that occurs later need not translate into a qualitative difference, marking a sharp cultural break. Instead, the shift can be viewed as one option in an adaptive pattern of proven viability. Furthermore, the nature of the data is such that it is difficult to determine the numbers of settlements or sites. It seems that certain conventional perspectives, on both sides of the continuity discontinuity issue, developed without the benefit of a substantial body of data, but this is not the fault of the theorists since much of the necessary information is only now becoming available. To be certain, Larsen’s argument about prosperity in Greece has not gone unchallenged. Thompson (1959) asserts that the year A.D. 267 was a crucial turning point in the history of Athens. He claims the Herulian attack was sudden and catastrophic. The burned structures of the Agora were dismantled and used in the construction of an inner circuit wall that dramatically reduced the size of the city. Certain civic institutions, such as the ephebic system, came to an end. Thompson contends that the major reconstruction that took place in the ancient Agora in the fifth century represents contraction rather than expansion, with public structures that had once been on the edges of the city now replaced by buildings in the center. In the sixth century, the Slavic incursions terminated this limited resurgence. Some of the evidence Thompson employs can be used to reach conclusions other than those he presents. The rebuilding of the ancient Agora can be interpreted as revival on a considerable scale. The rapid renewal of various crafts that Thompson mentions may denote the vitality of the system despite the exigencies of the period. Jones (1964) makes a similar point for the particular period of transition examined here. He contends that the barbarian incursions exacerbated the internal economic and political weaknesses of the empire. In the West, this led to the complete collapse of the system. For the Eastern Empire, though, he notes that “Despite these weaknesses it managed in the sixth century not only to hold its own against the Persians in the East but to reconquer parts of the West, and even when, in the seventh century, it was overrun by the onslaughts of the Persians and the Arabs and the Slavs, it succeeded despite heavy territorial losses in rallying and holding its own” (Jones 1964:1068). What Isthmia demonstrates is this process of adaptation under duress on a local level. Dyson’s (1979) work in Italy deals with some key issues concerning the relationship between urban and rural areas in antiquity. He argues for multi disciplinary study of local and regional history based on defined territorial units that encompass both towns and their associated hinterlands. The main instrument in such investigation is archaeological survey, but Classical scholars have not employed this tool to anything near its full potential because of the problems associated with borrowing techniques and ideas from another discipline while lacking some of the requisite theoretical background. Systematic surface survey in certain areas of Italy has provided a clear view of the complexity of life in

The period Larsen discusses is earlier than the Late Roman and Early Byzantine with which this study is concerned. His analysis, though, is instructive for the problem at hand. The paucity of large cities in a period of material prosperity indicates the importance of not making rapid judgments as to the elements necessary for a smoothly functioning system. Even at a reduced scale of urban development, various civic

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE even the most rural areas. The use of standardized tiles, baths, mosaics, and lead pipes was widespread in Italy during Late Roman times and suggest extensive outside contacts. On the basis of such data, Dyson calls into doubt the self-sufficiency of any villa. Instead, he argues they formed a complex interacting local social and economic system. In this context, towns provided services for a well-populated countryside. Markets in these towns served as magnets for long distance trade, skills, and various types of social intercourse. The model that Dyson presents seems appropriate for Greece as well as Italy, perhaps throughout most of the fourth century. It accommodates rather well the data gleaned from historical sources by Larsen.

agricultural economy of the period was “a widely dispersed settlement system, making use of marginal land that was exploited in hardly any other period, and partly engaged in specialized production of goods destined for long-and shortdistance markets” (Gregory 1996:221). He attributes the sudden collapse of the economy in the seventh century to this over-extended system; the exploitation of marginal land led to environmental degradation and economic and political decline. A number of communities, however, survived and provided “an institutional infrastructure for the threads of continuity that stretched between antiquity and the Byzantine age” (Gregory 1996:224). Thus, while many ancient Greek cities declined in size and various urban institutions disappeared, some core elements remained. Gregory provides a coherent approach that considers both historical and archaeological evidence and mediates a pragmatic course between the two extreme poles.

Over the past twenty years, the consensus view is that the decline of classical civilization in the East occurred much later than in the West. Haldon (1990) and others argue major changes do not take place until the seventh century. Whittow (1996) suggests that the four key factors that preserved the empire were the system of taxation, the imperial court, the military, and the church, each of which contributed to a continued focus on the central administration either through material or ideological means. Gregory (1984, 1986b, 1994, 1996) notes the persistence of ancient urban institutions as attested by the presence of an urban aristocracy that maintained many of the traditional forms of municipal administration and the social hierarchy. Villas of the wealthy in Greece tended to be built near cities, indicating the close ties of the aristocracy to the centers. Having thus set the stage, Gregory then alludes to the major debate over the issue of whether Eastern Mediterranean cities survived the crisis period of the seventh and eighth centuries. The limited nature of historical documents for this period enhances the value of archaeological evidence, but such data are often misapplied. Citing the case of numismatics, he points out that a decline in the number of coins retrieved by excavation is generally interpreted as a hallmark of a depressed economy; however, such an empire wide phenomenon need not necessarily have resulted in a devastated economy on the local level. In addition, Gregory notes the large number of poleis indicated by some documents and by archaeological survey that belong to this Late Antique period (Gregory 1984:272-273).

The scholars who advocate the continuity thesis do not deny the prospect of change and the existence of significant differences in Greek society in various periods. What they do oppose is the assertion that a fundamental and wholesale restructuring of social, political, and economic relationships and institutions set Early Byzantine Greece on a path so irretrievably different from its Classical roots as to constitute an essentially new, and in many ways degenerate, entity. Many of the current advocates of discontinuity, such as Kazhdan and Cutler, make a distinction between Classical and Medieval society not to disparage the latter but rather in part to provide Byzantine historiography with its own distinct identity. As such, there is something of value in each of the perspectives. The preceding review of the major positions concerning the transition from ancient to Medieval society in the Aegean area is not intended to be exhaustive. Rather, I made an attempt to indicate the major thrust of each perspective. What emerges from this review is the importance of understanding regional variation within the Roman Empire and how that differentiation contributes to local developments. This point is particularly important in the context of the present study. Most of the scholars reviewed above deal with the Western Empire or with Byzantine territory outside of Greece. What the discontinuity theorists say about Asia Minor may be entirely correct. The situation in Greece, however, may have been quite different because it was not subject to the same influences, for example, the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century. The data from Isthmia are valuable in providing an example of the regional variation that may have characterized the Eastern Empire.

As for the destruction wrought by the Slavic invasions, the evidence can provide a perspective drastically in contrast to the conventional one, that is, that the barbarian incursions contributed mightily to urban collapse. Gregory argues that various cities, including key centers such as Athens, Korinth, Patras, and Sparta, weathered the storm successfully, with most civic institutions intact. Indeed, he suggests that it was these very institutions that made cities the bulwarks against the foreigners and formed the base from which the Hellenization of the Slavs proceeded. The success of this process in southern Greece speaks to the vitality of the urban culture on which it was based (Gregory 1984:273). Furthermore, Gregory (1996) argues, based largely on survey data, that considerable complexity characterized the Late Antique economy (see also Garnsey and Saller 1987; Greene 1986; Whittaker 1983). Central to the

Scholars on both sides of the debate have made a concerted effort to detach their work from the traditional monolithic approach that focused exclusively on large-scale movements that were often improperly applied across the board. An interdisciplinary focus characterizes both the continuity and discontinuity theses. Archaeology is particularly important in this regard, along with environmental reconstruction and demographic studies. The historian’s lack of familiarity with the theoretical and methodological elements of archaeology, 55

THE DEBATE OVER THE TRANSITION FROM LATE ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD however, has led to misapplication of approaches by some. Those who have paid the most attention to the issue of transition tend to stress the importance of variation in the archaeological record for different areas, and realize what those data can or cannot legitimately suggest. The idea of continuity does not preclude change; rather, it assumes that later developments have a foundation in prior forms. The stress on regional variation and local developments is akin to Sahlins’ (1960) concept of specific evolution and Steward’s (1955) notion of multilinear evolution, respectively, although the scholars mentioned above do not couch their discussions in these terms. According to Sahlins, specific evolution refers to the processes by which organisms or cultures adapt to the particular conditions of their environment, resulting in diversity and specialization. Steward makes essentially the same point, arguing that the different ecological conditions to which humans must respond leads cultures along a variety of developmental lines; the flexibility and ability to innovate that characterize culture allow people to pursue their needs and interests along a variety of paths, limited only by environmental and technological parameters. These two concepts are not deterministic since variation of cultural expression is emphasized.

alteration in site function tell us about the decay of urban life in the fifth to seventh centuries A.D. in the Byzantine Empire, that is, is the thesis of urban collapse supported or not, and if so, to what degree? Through the examination of the Byzantine Fortress at Isthmia one may be able to approach this problem from a site-specific perspective. Although not an urban center in the conventional sense, it was a major religious sanctuary from at least the seventh century B.C. and as such was closely tied to a regional settlement complex in the Korinthia. The extant remains seem to indicate a substantial changeover in site function through its long career, from primarily religious and social to essentially military. In order to comprehend better this metamorphosis, a thorough examination of the Fortress area, both in terms of assessing the results of previous excavations and the findings of the geophysical exploration and surface collection that form the core research of this study, was conducted. The results of this analysis are presented in the next chapter. The layout of the Fortress is detailed in an attempt to understand its function as the linchpin in a regional settlement pattern focusing on defense of the strategic Isthmus of Korinth, the gateway into southern Greece. With such data in hand, the Isthmian Fortress can be compared to other forts elsewhere in the Mediterranean to determine if it in some way was part of an Empire wide network. If such a correlation can be drawn, it might imply a high level of standardization and communication, and may shed light on the nature of the transition from Late Antiquity to Early Byzantine in the Aegean region.

A central concern of this study, then, is to consider the issue of the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Byzantine era as reflected in the evidence from Isthmia. Key questions that are asked include the following: Is it possible to trace the development from one stage to the next? What does the

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CHAPTER 6 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction

of the Fortress in the past (see Chapter 3), the work did not provide any comprehensive plan of extant features.

The purpose of the geophysical and surface surveys was to gather evidence concerning the configuration of features in the Fortress in order to assess the level of cultural activity at Isthmia in Late Antiquity and the Medieval period. The present investigation represents the utilization of surface survey at a level of intensity that was unusually high for the Mediterranean area in the past: most surveys have had a regional focus (see van Andel and Runnels 1987; Cherry 1994), while our work applied survey techniques to the interior of a single site. Geophysical prospecting has gained wider acceptance more recently (Lyness and Hobbs 1984; Papamarinopoulos et al. 1985; Sarris and Jones 2000; H. Williams 1984); our particular contribution was the intensity of the investigation and the utilization of several techniques, each of which can compensate for the limitations of the other methods (for more recent work which undertakes such an integrated approach see Sarris 1994).

Field Methods and Analytical Procedures Teams conducted fieldwork at Isthmia for a total of six weeks in the spring and summer of 1985 and seven weeks in the summer of 1986. A grid, with datum (0,0) at a benchmark on the northwest corner of Tower 5, was established inside the Fortress using a transit and metric tapes; wooden stakes marked grid points at 10 m intervals. Tapes stretched between the stakes provided station locations for the geophysical and surface collection surveys. The station interval was 1 m for magnetic and soil resistance readings and 2 m for electrical resistivity; all readings were taken in large square or rectangular sections or areas. The self-potential survey covered six 10-m lines with readings at every meter. Magnetometry was carried out in both seasons, the electrical techniques only in 1985 and the self-potential survey only in 1986. Table 6.1 indicates the coverage of each method. Magnetic readings were stored in the magnetometer’s memory and dumped to a personal computer at the end of each area. We also recorded all readings by hand on special forms as a safeguard. Records of all other geophysical field data were also kept on such forms.

This work in the Fortress forms one episode in the ongoing investigation of Isthmia. Although efforts at the site have concentrated on locating and exposing the various parts of the Classical Sanctuary, examination of the Byzantine component has been more extensive than at most other major sites in Greece. The earlier work, however, was undertaken to address only a few particular questions about Medieval occupation at the site, such as the date of the fortifications. The results of the present examination provide the foundation for dealing with problems at site specific and general levels. The site-specific questions concern changes in site usage through time. At the general level Isthmia can act as a barometer to gauge the degree to which urban institutions survived the end of antiquity within an evolutionary context of adaptation.

Table 6.1. Area covered by geophysical techniques in the Fortress. Method Method Magnetometry: 1985 and 1986 Electrical resistivity: 1985 Soil resistance: 1985 Self-potential: 1986

m2 m2 14,700 5,632 1,120 60

A surface collection preceded the geophysical work in both of the field seasons. In each season the total area available for surface collection was ca. 21,000 m2 (2.1 ha). This constitutes 77.5% of the total area of 2.71 ha (27,100 m2) enclosed by the circuit walls. A systematic sampling procedure was employed in which a series of 1 m2 units were marked out at 10 m and 5 m intervals in 1985 and 1986, respectively. Within each sampling square (a total of 391 in 1985 and 725 in 1986; see Appendix 1 and 2), all artifacts were collected, counted and recorded according to categories within each material type. For example, for ceramic materials we made distinctions between bricks, rooftiles, loomweights, ceramic beehives and pottery. The pottery was further divided into fine and coarse wares, with temporal affiliations assigned when such could be determined. Only the pottery could be treated in such an exhaustive fashion because of its diagnostic nature. The subdivision of other ceramics remained necessarily at a relatively gross level and this was generally true of other material categories. Stone could be

Today the interior of the Fortress can be divided into three zones, from north to south (Figure 6.1). The northernmost zone is occupied by the modern cemetery of the village of Kyras Vrysi and the Church of St. John Prodromos; with the exceptions noted below, this zone is unavailable for archaeological study. The middle zone of the Fortress is covered with brush and is presently unplowed and not used; the surface of the ground is hardpacked. The southernmost zone is covered with rows of olive trees; the area is frequently plowed and the soil is normally loose. The entire surface of the interior is strewn with rubble, loose mortar, and other archaeological material, which are the remains of buildings and activity within the Fortress. Fragments of walls, most of them oriented along the cardinal axes, are visible at several points, especially in the southern zone, but they nowhere allow reconstruction of an entire building (Figure 6.2). While some excavation did take place in the interior 57

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA subdivided into building material and ground and flaked lithics, with only the few decorative architectural members affording any relatively secure date. Because of the more exhaustive nature of the 1986 surface collection, it is the subject of detailed analysis.

The other major category of target included items such as large concentrations of ceramics, baked clay features (for example, clay lined hearths), and metallurgical or ceramic kilns. Such features, especially kilns and hearths, exhibit a high degree of thermoremanent magnetization, offering a substantial contrast to the soil, and are thus easily detected by magnetometry.

Geophysical Surveys Magnetometry. Geophysical methods used in the Fortress include magnetometry, electrical resistivity, soil resistance and self-potential (Aitken 1974, 1978; Telford 1976; Tite 1972; Weymouth 1986; Wynn and Sherwood 1984). Magnetic prospecting was the most extensively applied of the four geophysical techniques, covering an area of 14,700 m2 inside the Fortress (54.2% of the interior area of 2.71 ha, see Figure 6.3 and Appendix 3), 58 m2 near the Roman Bath and 300 m2 at the eastern terminus of the Hexamilion. Only the work in the Fortress provided positive results. Metal in a sprinkler system distorted readings in the field east of the Roman Bath, and the overburden on the Hexamilion is probably too thick to be penetrated by our near surface approach. The primary targets in the Fortress were buried stone walls, the limestone of which provides a significant magnetic contrast with the ferruginous soil matrix. Readings were taken every meter in a series of 36 adjoining grids.

In addition to these large features, iron artifacts also have a strong magnetic signature, and their detection is an important aspect of this survey since the Fortress was a military installation in which iron certainly was used for armaments and a variety of tools. A major problem in this regard is the need to discriminate between artifacts from the desired periods and modern scrap. To mitigate this difficulty, all discarded metal was collected from the surface and removed to an area at least 20 m from the magnetometer. Several large concentrations of metal could not be moved and distorted the readings in certain areas. Some modern iron is probably also buried in the ground and makes the interpretation of certain anomalies problematic. Another source of “noise” is burning on the surface that imparts thermoremanent magnetization to the soil. Burned patches were limited in number and extent with the exception of a 20 m x 40 m area in the northeast section of the Fortress. The G 856 magnetometer can record fluctuations in magnetic field intensity as low as 1 nT, permitting detection of small magnitude magnetic anomalies. Papamarinopoulos et al. (1985:484) point out the need for such a sensitive instrument in order to pick up the relatively weak signals given off by walls, roads, and ditches, features one could expect to encounter in the Fortress. Figure 6.4 presents a contour plot image of the total geomagnetic intensity for all areas surveyed within the Fortress. Regional field strength is 45,000 nT. In an effort to standardize the information for presentation on a general image, the minimum reading that is plotted is 44,900 nT and the contour interval is set at 10 nT. These levels were settled on after various test plots to determine what figures would provide the clearest image. In most instances, setting the contour interval below 10 nT made the image too dark and obscured the outline of any anomaly. The minimum reading was set at 44,900 nT to cut out the extremely low readings which leave large blank spots and also make it difficult to identify anomalies; most readings tended to cluster between 44,900 and 45,050 nT. This procedure creates a uniform scale for the entire survey area. An IBM-compatible personal computer was used to generate the original dot density images for each of the thirty six units surveyed over the two field seasons. These individual plots were then mounted on a large plan, forming a composite map. Subsequent treatment of the data with better software has provided contour maps of the magnetic readings with clearer depiction of anomalies; some distortion along the edges of units is still visible.

Figure 6.1. View of the interior of the Fortress, facing south. Photograph by the author. The primary targets of interest in the Fortress were definable structures, most of which we assumed would be of stone, at least at the foundation level. Traces of at least five stone structures visible at or above the present ground surface and reports of earlier investigations indicating the existence of buried buildings formed the basis for this assumption. The visible structures, the scattered worked blocks, and the abundant rubble strewn throughout the interior of the Fortress are all composed of limestone or a dense sandstone. These rocks tend to have a low magnetic susceptibility. The soil in the Fortress contains a substantial amount of iron and thus has a high susceptibility (Ralph von Frese, personal communication 1985). Due to this contrast, subsurface stone structures should be pronounced in magnetic prospecting.

58

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE signal by the con-siderable amount of surface rubble. The combined evi-dence of visible walls and magnetic data indicate the presence of at least three and probably four east-west walls and two or three north-south cross walls. This con-figuration reveals six small compartments (identified by Arabic numerals in Figure 6.5). The size of Anomaly 1and the arrangement of compartments within it suggest the structure is the remains of a barracks. In their studies of military camps, Webster (1985:184-195) and Pringle (1981:86) both present archaeological evidence that the living quarters of soldiers in Roman and Byzantine for-tresses were large structures subdivided into a number of small rooms. Room I in Anomaly 1 may be a corridor and each of the remaining rooms the sleeping quarters of a mess unit or contubernium. In North African Byzantine forts, barracks were often two stories tall, with the men sleeping on the upper floor and the ground level used for storing supplies and/or as stables; the barracks at Isthmia may also have been of the two story variety, but the evidence is inconclusive.

Figure 6.2. Extant wall in the southern part of the Fortress. The wall is part of the magnetic feature, Anomaly 1. Facing south. Photograph by the author. Darker areas on the image represent higher readings, while lighter areas with lower readings indicate walls and other anomalies. Some anomalies are the result of modern construction (asphalt road, power lines, churchyard) in the Fortress. The most uniform readings come from a stretch of 70 m along the southwest and west central part of the site and may provide the best example of the natural magnetic field within the Fortress because of the lack of subsurface features; these sectors can act as a baseline against which to assess the magnitude of anomalies in the east central and southeast sectors. The isolated 20 m x 20 m unit in the far north central part of the image reflects readings in the churchyard. The amount of local disturbance in the churchyard produced unstable readings so that it is virtually impossible to interpret the anomalies depicted. In general, the interior of the Fortress presents a very complex magnetic picture because of the amount of cultural activity, past and present.

Magnetic Anomaly 2 is a large (21 m northeast-southwest x 10 m northwest-southeast) cigar-shaped dipole anomaly in the east central part of the Fortress. The magnitude of the readings indicates either a large deposit of iron or a substantial thermoremanent feature. Since the feature lacks the characteristic hexagonal shape of many iron anomalies, it is tentatively identified as thermoremanent in origin, probably a forge or kiln. The independent evidence for either a forge or kiln is sparse. We recorded some ceramic wasters and slag debris during the surface collection, but this material is not concentrated near Anomaly 2. Circumstantial evidence suggests the likelihood of a forge because such a facility could provide crucial armaments and metal tools for a military installation. The odd elongated shape of the anomaly may reflect the presence of metal spill or a casting floor, rather than the furnace proper.

There are, however, five anomalies of clear archaeological significance. These anomalies are interpreted as walls on the basis of: (1) a drop in magnetic field strength due to contrast with the surrounding soil matrix, (2) orientation along the cardinal directions, on which the Fortress as a whole seems to have been laid out, (3) rectilinear shape, and (4) alignment with visible wall fragments. Each anomaly is described below.

Just to the east of the probable forge is a large square anomaly (Anomaly 3) measuring 6 m on a side. Von Frese and Noble (1984:42) assert that monopole anomalies exhibiting radially symmetric amplitudes are often diagnostic of wells or deep pits. The filling in of the empty space with topsoil creates a significant contrast in magnetic susceptibility. In this case, the anomaly (radially symmetric but a dipole rather than a monopole) may have a direct functional association to the previous one. The feature may be a cistern to store water for the adjacent forge and the manufacturing activity associated with it. If such a cistern had been filled with metal debris at some point, this action would account for the dipole nature of the anomaly. Webster (1985:202) notes that in one Roman fort in Britain a large store of iron artifacts was placed in a pit for later reuse when the camp was dismantled. An alternative explanation is that this anomaly is simply an extension of the one to the west (Anomaly 2), but this problem is difficult to resolve.

Magnetic Anomaly 1 is a composite of smaller linear anomalies clustered together in the southeast corner of the site where there are visible walls of large ashlar blocks. The magnetic data indicate the east west portion of the T shaped extant wall extends some 20 m to the west, with a parallel wall 18 m to the south of approximately the same length. Other linear features between these two long anomalies suggest cross walls that divided the structure into small rooms. These linear features do not exhibit consistently straight edges; the image probably reflects structural collapse with blocks scattered unevenly along both sides of the wall, or there may have been some deflection of the magnetic

59

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.3. Area covered by magnetometry survey in Fortress The fourth major magnetic anomaly is a large rectangular feature located near Tower 4, to the northeast of the previous two. This large dipole anomaly measures 4 m north-south and 6 m east-west, narrowing somewhat to the west. The magnitude of the dipole contrast indicates a significant thermoremanent anomaly, although not as large or intense as Anomaly 2. The more regular shape and the magnitude of this anomaly suggest a metallic source, oriented on an east-west axis. The precise nature of this source cannot be determined, but would bear investigation should excavation occur within the Fortress in the future.

blocks and a cemented rubble interior, identical in form to the circuit walls of the Fortress and thus suggestive of a similar date (ca. A.D. 410-420). A narrow band of higher readings, indicating a gap of some sort, separates Anomaly 5 from the wall proper; the hiatus may reflect a door or a robbed section of wall. There are no anomalies that clearly indicate crosswalls, even though on the south end of the extant wall a corner and part of a return are visible. Several meters to the north of Anomaly 5 there is an area of low readings, but these are not tightly defined and may be due to the proximity of electrical power lines that disrupted the magnetic signal. The size of the wall and associated anomaly and the fine masonry technique reflect the presence of a well-built monumental building. Due to its central location, the structure may have been part of the praetorium complex.

Magnetic Anomaly 5 is a low intensity linear dipole ca. 3 m long running north-south just north of a large extant wall south of the road in the west central part of the Fortress. The preserved wall has a facing of large ashlar 60

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.4. Contour plot of the total geomagnetic intensity for all areas surveyed within the Fortress. Major anomalies indicated by Arabic numerals. The most numerous magnetic anomalies are small but intense dipoles scattered throughout the interior of the Fortress. Such anomalies with large amplitudes and distinct geometries tend to characterize thermoremanent sources such as baked clay or iron objects. The most likely interpretation of these small anomalies in the Fortress is either concentrations of ceramics or iron artifacts. Examination of Figure 6.4 reveals that the distribution of these anomalies is not random. There are few in the southeast and east central part of the site where

the major structural anomalies are found. There are five such anomalies along the western edge of the site south of the paved road, four in the field immediately south of the church enclosure, and another four in the northeast sector. These anomalies may represent iron artifacts or clusters of ceramics, perhaps rooftiles, that were dumped by Fortress residents or that accumulated from the collapse of tiled roofs. If these objects are pre-modern iron tools, the distribution suggests use or discard throughout the site and indicates that similar activity loci 61

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.5. Magnetic Anomaly 1 in the southeast corner of the Fortress. Visible are six compartments, marked by Arabic numerals. were distributed Surfer provided an enhanced image of the 1985 magnetic survey data. Figure 6.6 represents an area of 4,700 m2 in the east-central and southeastern part of the Fortress (northwest corner at 40N-60W, southeast corner at 50S-10W). With this map, the key anomalies discussed above throughout the Fortress.

the iron/ceramic features 12-20 nT. There was a lack of major cultural anomalies in the surrounding sections. It is important to note, however, that electrical power lines along the western part of the road, a large metal gate at the entrance to the churchyard, and several blocks of reinforced concrete certainly distorted readings along the perimeter of the survey area.

Surfer provided an enhanced image of the 1985 magnetic survey data. Figure 6.6 represents an area of 4,700 m2 in the east-central and southeastern part of the Fortress (northwest corner at 40N-60W, southeast corner at 50S10W). With this map, the key anomalies discussed above can be viewed in greater detail, and amplitudes (range innT from highest to lowest readings associated with an anomaly) can be readily determined. Structural anomalies can be identified as elongated clusters of contour lines. Small dipoles appear as pentagons, with the apex of the anomaly indicating the orientation of the target in the ground. Anomaly 1 in the southeast corner has an amplitude of 8 nT, the suspected forge (Anomaly 2) over 1700 nT, Anomaly 3 east of the kiln 80 nT, and some of

Magnetometry proved to be a viable technique at the Isthmian Fortress. There are problems with interpreting the many small anomalies because of the amount of debris on the surface and the uncertainty as to how this material affected readings in some areas. Major subsurface features are easily detected, however, when these are not too deeply buried. The method is especially valuable in tracing out the extent of structures that are partially visible on the surface. Electrical Resistivity. Investigation by electrical resistivity was confined to the Fortress and was conducted during part of the 1985 field season. 62

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.6 An area of 4,700 m2 in the east-central and southeastern part of the Fortress. Equipment failure limited the area examined to 5,632 m2 in that year (20.8% of the Fortress, see Figure 6.7 and Appendix 4), and subsequent work was not feasible. Nonetheless, the sections surveyed form an important sample from the site, with only the north central and northeast areas receiving no coverage.

to as much as 4.5 m in the far eastern section due to filling and leveling operations by the Byzantine military engineers. Therefore, the readings do not reflect the full depth of cultural materials in the east central part of the Fortress. Enlarging the a-spacing would have provided greater depth penetration but at the expense of signal clarity. Most disturbances in current flow can be attributed to projecting areas of bedrock or to cultural features.

The use of the Wenner array with an a-spacing of 2 m between the electrical probes allowed the signal to penetrate ca. 3 m into the ground. Excavation by Jenkins and Megaw (1931-1932) indicated depth to bedrock is ca. 1.5-2 m in the western part of the Fortress, sloping down

Figure 6.8 is a contour map of apparent resistivity values plotted at a contour interval of 50 ohm-meters. The large

63

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA blank area in the upper right was not surveyed because of equipment failure. The three straight lines that neatly outline this section on the west and south result from an edge effect and do not reflect real anomalies. The most prominent anomalies are a series of north-south trending linear features concentrated in the south central and northwest sections of the image. These anomalies range in magnitude from 150 to 500 ohm-m, intermediate in strength, and are from 8 to 20 m in length. Although it is tempting to view these anomalies as a series of walls, they may also be caused by the considerable stone rubble on the ground surface. This explanation, however, does not account for the lack of such anomalies in the southwest sector where the quantity of stone rubble is approximately the same as elsewhere. In addition, the amount of rock in the northwest section is no greater than in other areas, yet it has most of these anomalies. The most prudent course in analyzing these data is to consider only those anomalies with the highest values as candidates for cultural features. In their examination of a Medieval fortress at Mytilene, Papamarinopoulos et al. (1985) considered values of 200-400 ohm-m as moderate to high. Adopting 250 ohm-m as a cutoff point eliminates all of the anomalies except for two in the central part of the image and one along the northwest edge. These anomalies are identified as walls. The latter anomaly coincides generally with magnetic Anomaly 5. The two anomalies in the center of the image are located in an area with an extremely heavy concentration of stone rubble that may represent structural collapse; the anomalies may pinpoint a subsurface alignment of the original wall from which this rubble derived. Another possibility is that the anomalies in the center of the image are the result of electrical current being channeled into linear shapes by the abundance of surface debris, but even if this is the case, the amount and direction of the rubble can be used to argue for the presence of a substantial wall.

the suggested structures can be estimated. The east-west anomalies are 35-40 m long. Making allowances for collapsed walls and scattering of debris, a conservative estimate for the length of these walls is 30 m. The northsouth trending anomalies that define the width of these structures are 22 m long for the southern structure and 18 m for the northern building, but neither is a complete width since no corner is indicated; a compromise figure of 20 m for the width of each structure seems reasonable. The thickness of the walls was probably less than 1 m. Electrical Soil Resistance. The electrical resistance survey covered a total of 1,120 m2 (4.13% of the interior) within the Fortress in the summer of 1985. This total encompassed 800 m2 in the southeast corner of the enclosure and 320 m2 in the churchyard at the northern end of the site (see Figure 6.9). The small amount of work performed with this instrument was the result of conditions on the site. The portable frame allows for a rapid pace under ideal conditions. At Stymfalos, up to 3,000 m2 a day could be surveyed (Williams 1984:181). In the Fortress, however, the rocky conditions forced abandonment of the frame, and the potential probes had to be hammered into the ground in order to make adequate contact with the soil. In addition, the extremely dry conditions often necessitated the use of a squirt bottle to apply moisture around the probes in order to register a reading. These factors conspired to slow down the pace to about 200 m2 per day. Although limited in scope, this survey did provide a good body of data to compare with that from the other geophysical techniques. The same basic theoretical and practical parameters that apply to electrical resistivity hold with this method, except that there is no conversion of the reading. The desired targets were structures and other gross features. Readings (Appendix 5) were plotted as contours using the PLTCON program. The soil resistance meter detected a series of large anomalies in the southeastern part of the Fortress, as did the other two techniques. In Figure 6.10 a linear feature is clearly visible running east-west across the entire 20 m breadth of the survey area. This corresponds to the extant wall and its presumed subterranean extension detected by magnetics and resistivity. To the south of and perpendicular to this feature at least two anomalies indicate possible cross walls. Two other similar northsouth anomalies are evident to the north of the wall. All of these anomalies have amplitudes in a range from 310 to 410 ohms. The dark lines indicating a strictly linear anomaly along the northwest edge of the survey unit reflect a section where no readings registered and is not a cultural feature.

Two other anomalies of interest are located in the southeast section of the map. Both follow a sinuous east-west course. The southernmost of these two includes the section of visible foundations noted near magnetic Anomaly 1. The electrical anomaly is 25 to 30 m long (including the visible part of the wall) and provides some corroborating evidence for the magnetic data. The other anomaly parallels the first 10 m to the north, but there is no evidence of a cross wall connecting them. At the western end, however, each of these long anomalies abuts on one of the north-south electrical features, creating right angles that lead away from each other, like the corners of buildings that face each other across an intervening space. If these anomalies do indeed represent different structures, there would be two large buildings in close proximity to one another, perhaps forming a complex, for example, two barracks, or a barracks and a storehouse.

The anomalies detected by the two electrical meters in this sector correspond rather closely. The major exception is the one east-west anomaly along the 20S line noted by the resistivity gear. No such anomaly was recorded by the soil resistance meter. There is undoubtedly one large structure in this southwest corner, but it is not clear

By following the outlines of the U-shaped anomalies indicated in the southeast sector of Figure 6.8, the size of 64

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE whether the walls to the north indicated by large anomalies are part of the same building or not.

This activity may have removed evidence of earlier buildings and thus constitutes a similar type of site formation process, that is, cultural activity subsequent to the initial deposition of material of interest to the archaeologist.

The examination of the churchyard revealed no anomalies of significance. The consistently low readings indicate a non-resistant medium free of large stones. The soil in this area is highly compacted, probably from recent activity within the compound. The area has been leveled by heavy machinery that left an island of raised soil around a tree near the interior face of the Hexamilion.

Self-Potential. A total of six transects, each 10 m in length, constitutes the self-potential survey (see Figure 6.11). The self-potential method has only recently been applied to archaeological problems, so our effort was conceived as a further test of its viability.

Figure 6.7. Area covered by electrical resistivity survey in the Fortress.

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PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.8. Contour map of electrical resistivity values plotted at contour interval of 50 ohm-meters. The readings from the self-potential survey have been plotted as profiles. Figures 6.12 and 6.13 present the profiles derived from data in the southeast part of the site. Examination of these profiles reveals considerable fluctuation in the readings but no discernible regular pattern that can be identified as a characteristic signature for the stone walls. This situation points out one of the key problems with the method. Although it is evident that the earth generates natural electrical currents, there is no easy way to determine what impact cultural features have on that current (Telford 1976:458).The profiles from the central area of the site exhibit the same lack of patterning (Figures 6.14 and 6.15). As a further test of the method in this area, Line 5 was surveyed three times to check on the replicability of

results. Obviously, if readings are not consistent in one area over time, this further complicates interpretation. The three sets of readings are compared against one another on scattergram plots. Figure 6.16 compares the first and third sets that have a very low correlation of .34. The second and third sets have a correlation factor of .417 (Figure 6.17). These results suggest that the self-potential method is not reliably replicable, at least in this area of the site. Further tests of this sort should be conducted, however, before the technique is completely dismissed by archaeologists. In light of the availability of other geo geophysical techniques of proven utility, the self-potential method does not provide an appropriate option in terms of efficient use of field time or results. 66

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.9. Area covered by electrical soil resistance survey. Surface Collection Survey

the surface inventory is a good reflection of subterranean artifact and feature locations (Redman and Watson 1970). Artifact density on the surface has been used as an indicator of subsurface concentrations of cultural material and as a demarcator of activity foci within sites. Some empirical substantiation for this archaeologically intuitive given has been provided by Redman and Watson (1970), who demonstrated that the horizontal spatial attributes of artifacts on the ground are rather well correlated with the distribution of artifact clusters and features beneath the surface. There are three key attributes of surface artifacts. The absolute frequency (total raw count) of the different artifacts by category may suggest the relative importance

The utility of surface collections in assisting the archaeologist to elicit chronological, functional, and spatial attributes of sites has been the topic of intense debate in the literature. Redman (1987) contends surface survey is useful in delimiting site boundaries and occasionally for determining functional areas, but warns it is not always the most appropriate technique. Carr (1982) suggests the need for collaborative evidence because of factors not related to the original depositional sequence (for example, plowing, bioturbation) that affect surface artifact distribution. There is substantial evidence, though, that 67

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.10. Contour plot of electrical resistance readings, 1985. Contour interval=10 ohms. of the activities associated with those items. The ubiquity of various artifacts measures the degree of areal spread over the site and may be an index of generalized as opposed to specialized function. Artifact density refers to the degree of concentration of material at particular loci and can be a measure of the intensity of activity over space.

exhibit high frequency, high ubiquity, and high density would represent the largest and in many ways the most important categories since they dominate the inventory; this combination can also reflect the most mundane, utilitarian types. A low frequency, low ubiquity combination could express one of several extremes: (1) If it is prosaic material, a low level of use due to insignificant contribution to the total lifestyle of site occupants; alternatively, such circumstances may reflect a temporal problem, with low frequency perhaps indicating earlier deposits of which only a small portion find their way to the surface.

The various permutations and intensity levels of these attributes are tied to certain basic assumptions about the relative significance of the artifacts. Those objects that 68

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE (2) If it is finer material, perhaps this distribution represents an unequal low level spread on the basis of its scarcity, suggesting privileged access and hierarchical distinctions among occupants of the site. (3) It may also be the result of limited occupation of the site in certain periods.

eastern edge of the enclosure at the time of the Fortress construction. This activity introduced a set of intrusive artifacts with no direct link to the functioning Fortress. As such, this episode constitutes an important formation process that will be considered both in its own right and in terms of how it affects the interpretation of the results from the surface survey.

In addition to such basic assumptions, a series of second order behavioral correlates can be derived from these various combinations. For example, a high frequency, high density, low ubiquity distribution may indicate locations of specialized activity. Categories exhibiting high frequency and high ubiquity (most notably rooftiles) reflect the most common material elements and undifferentiated activity, at least in a general sense (for example, widespread distribution of rooftiles at a high frequency suggests a number of roofed structures throughout the Fortress, but does not necessarily reveal the functions of such buildings).

One of the problems in interpretation of the archaeological record is the need to draw behavioral or dynamic implications from a static set of remains (Binford 1977). It is critical, then, to understand how the record came to have its present form, that is, to comprehend the nature of site formation processes. A diverse range of factors creates the artifact distribution on the ground noted by field workers during surface collections. Schiffer was one of the first archaeologists to discuss systematically use and discard behavior, called c-(for cultural) transforms, and the impact of such activities on the nature of the material record (Schiffer 1972, 1976, 1983, 1987). Going beyond this simple model, important activities that also should have characteristic residue are production and transport.

A complicating factor that undoubtedly affected the nature of the surface artifact assemblage is the use of fill from elsewhere at the Sanctuary to level the ground at the

Figure 6.11. Location of self-potential profiles in the Fortress. 69

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA For example, if production occurs on site, elements of the entire manufacturing sequence should be evident, including raw materials, transforming agents (for example, manufacturing tools, fuels, workshops), and intermediate and finished products. If no production facilities can be distinguished, importation of finished products is implied, with all of the attendant activities of physical transfer and exchange.

Figure 6.13. Profile of self-potential readings for Line 2.

Figure 6.12. Profile of self-potential readings for Line 1. A sequence of events, including production, importation, use, discard, reuse, loss, and abandonment, influences the character of the archaeological record, both its contents and the distribution of those objects. Although this is commonly thought of in horizontal terms, both spatially and temporally, there are diachronic and vertical displacement factors to consider. Once the archaeological record is deposited it can be disturbed by subsequent human activity at a much later date. Such disturbance is often unintentional, as is the case with plowing or the digging of foundation footers. In the case of large features, reuse even at a later date may be intentional and require disturbing the archaeological record by, for example, clearing away accumulated debris or gathering material to use in a different manner than originally intended (for example, the use of large ceramic fragments or millstones as wall chinking). A considerable amount of such activity characterizes the Fortress at Isthmia. Large ceramic fragments were used in wall construction. More significant was the use of the ancient monuments of the Sanctuary as sources of worked blocks for both the Hexamilion and Fortress. The Northeast Gate, for example, incorporates spolia (column drums, voussoirs, inscribed blocks) in both the superstructure and roadway (Gregory and Mills 1984). Also at the Northeast Gate, there is evidence that squatters occupied the area in the sixth century during a hiatus in military use. These residents modified the gate complex by moving blocks to enclose rooms and provide living space, and even buried their dead in this area. Similar residential reuse occurred near the West Gate in the fourteenth century. In terms of other materials, various kinds of ceramics were used as matrix for the mortared rubble interior of many walls. This phenomenon is evident all along the circuit walls and in the structure adjacent to magnetic Anomaly 5.

Figure 6.14. Self-potential readings for Line 5 showing three sets of readings for test of replicability. In addition to these cultural factors, a range of natural forces (n transforms in Schiffer’s terms) have an incessant impact on the disposition of the archaeological record (Schiffer 1976:15-16). These factors affect the preservation of the artifact or feature, its location, and its context. Included under this heading are things such as geomorphological processes (for example, erosion, deposition, wave action), animal burrowing, root activity, structural collapse and a series of other forces. These affect the archaeological record relentlessly and together with the cultural factors determine the appearance of that record. At Isthmia, erosion would have been significant in the eastern and northeastern sections of the Fortress where the ground slopes down dramatically to the east. The construction of the fortifications and the subsequent filling episode would have restricted erosional washoff along most of the eastern edge and stabilized that area. The land still sloped down towards the Northeast Gate, however, and erosional runoff contributed to the accumulation of soil and artifacts behind the walls in that area, eventually covering significant portions of the walls. An understanding of the roles played by various formation processes is vital to explaining the distribution of surface artifacts in the Fortress.

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE The 1986 surface collection sampled 2.7% of the Fortress interior. In all, 27,199 artifacts were collected and recorded in the 725 1-m2 sample units (Table 6.2; Appendix 2). The mean artifact density is 37.51 artifacts/m2, a figure two to four times higher than that recorded in other parts of Greece (Boeotia, Thisbe Plain) (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1985:132-133) and in neighboring areas of the Korinthia (Gregory 1985:421; see below). The material from the surface collection provides data at three levels: (1) Chronological. Diagnostic pottery, coins, and some worked stone blocks provide temporal parameters for occupation of the Fortress. (2) Extent of site usage. Spatial distribution of the artifacts indicates differential occupation of the enclosure in various periods.

Figure 6.15. Profile of self-potential readings for Line 6.

(3) Functional. The different material categories suggest domestic, storage, production and transport contexts.Chronological Considerations. Despite the large number of artifacts (n=27,199) retrieved during the surface survey, only a small portion (n=1,377, 5.06%) of this assemblage is considered diagnostic and, thus, useful as chronological markers. The emphasis is on ceramics because of the abundance of this category. This situation is the result of a long standing tradition of artifact analysis in Greece. Pottery is considered diagnostic on the basis of variation within a few key attribute categories, including vessel shape, fabric, glaze, slip, and surface decoration.

Figure 6.16. Linear regression comparison of the first and third sets of self-potential readings for Line 5. Correlation coefficient (r2=.34) is very low.

The primary emphasis is on stylistic elements, but functional criteria also play a part. Consequently, sherds are considered diagnostic if the pieces exhibit traits (for example, rim, base, handle) that indicate the shape of the pot, or something distinctive about its decoration that can be additive (glaze, slip, paint, applique), impressed (incision, ridging, mold made) or both. Fabrics vary from place to place in Greece and also through time. These various characteristics have been tied to time periods on the basis of their appearance on pottery from excavated contexts. In the case of Bronze Age, Classical and Hellenistic pottery the sequence is well developed and readily recognized. Late Roman and Byzantine pottery is not nearly so well studied or understood. A variety of standard reference works exist, including pottery volumes from the major excavations, especially the Athenian Agora and Korinth. These series also provide comparative information for Roman and Byzantine pottery (Morgan 1942). In addition, Hayes (1972) provides a standard work for identifying Roman pottery and MacKay (1967) does the same for Byzantine material. Part of the problem in dealing with Byzantine, and to some extent Roman, pottery is that it is rarely of central concern at Classical sites and is consequently not clearly typed. Furthermore, there is overlap between the LR and EB historical periods, adding some confusion in terms of categorizing the material.

Figure 6.17 Linear regression comparison of the second and third sets of self-potential readings for Line 5 Another important consideration is the successive use of certain artifacts or features for different purposes through time. One form of this transformation I have called the process of degradation of function (Murray and Kardulias 2000), when the artifact in question passes through functional phases. Initially, there is the purpose envisioned by the manufacturer. At a second level, perhaps after some damage prohibits use in the original manner, there may be a second utilitarian function. A non-utilitarian function may be next in line, followed ultimately by discard or abandonment.

71

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Presentation and Analysis of Data Table 6.2. Breakdown of material from 1986 surface collection. Sample unit size 1 m2, sample interval 5 m north-south and east-west

72

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE This is obviously a highly selective definition for the term diagnostic, excluding the vast majority of ceramics. The other categories of material are small and offer little hope of yielding chronological information, except for the coins. Since it is not my purpose to restructure pottery analysis, I have chosen to work within this narrow definition. The other ceramics (that is, the bulk of the pottery and all of the rooftiles) also have some distinguishing characteristics, but have traditionally been treated as an undifferentiated mass and it is beyond the scope of this study to attempt a detailed examination of typology.

tuary area. The key period of transition of concern in the present study, in terms of the ceramic chronology identified above, can be viewed as the shift from the early LR to the late LR and early EB phases. In dealing with a surface assemblage, one loses certain important contextual information that aids in determining dates for the material. Some objects are sufficiently diagnostic to be dated despite the lack of stratigraphic associations. A considerable portion of the assemblage remains undatable. When, as in this study, it is important to determine temporal affiliation to make statements about site usage through time, the problem is accentuated. Obviously, all the surface material, not just the diagnostics, has a temporal component, but we often lack the techniques to elicit this information. There may be means of inferring at least some chronological element for the material, though. For example, one can explore the relationship between the diagnostics and the remaining material. Specifically, one can ask how the percentages of the various diagnostics relate to the remaining artifacts.

There are certain key traits used to distinguish pottery by period. Classical and Hellenistic pottery is identified by a high quality black glaze or slip, a fine buff fabric, and vessel types that include various drinking cups (kylix, kantharos, skyfos), storage jars (amphorae), and water containers (jugs, hydria) among other types. ER wares include a variety of bowls, plates, jugs and amphorae made of fine red clay and often slipped red. LR pottery has the same range of shapes as ER types. While much of the LR material is glazed, many pieces also exhibit distinctive surface decoration (combed, spirally grooved, wheel ridged). Slavic pottery is hand made or formed on a slow wheel while virtually all pots in the other periods are made on a fast wheel. Slavic wares have a very coarse fabric and consist primarily of small to medium sized open vessels. Byzantine fine wares appear in many shapes but are clearly distinguished from earlier periods by the use of vitreous lead glazes. These are the primary traits used in determining the period of diagnostic pottery.

In the 1986 surface collection, 64.2% of all diagnostic pottery was LR in date. Can one then assume that approximately 64% of all the artifacts date from this same period? Much of the analysis of the surface material that follows is predicated on this assumption. The fact that post LR periods are represented by fewer diagnostics suggests that the surface material reflects lower intensity use of the Fortress area after the seventh century. There is an upturn in occupation of the site in the LB period; the increase in diagnostic pottery in the LB phase may correspond with the rebuilding of the fortifications early in the fifteenth century and subsequent use on a variety of occasions thereafter.

The LR period, and by inference the diagnostic pottery that represents it, is crucial to the issue of transition. There is a terminological problem in dealing with this period, though. From an historical standpoint LR often refers to the period from the late second to early seventh centuries. Confusion results from the fact that the Early Byzantine (EB) period, as defined by some scholars, coincides with the latter half of the LR phase. Pottery chronologies, though, usually list LR as second to seventh centuries A.D., a span that covers the period of transition that is the focus of this study. LR pottery assemblages are characterized by significant quantities of fine red slipped, combed, and spirally grooved wares. EB ceramics are usually dated late sixth to mid ninth centuries A.D., and exhibit pottery with distinctive vitreous glazes. The Slavic pottery, however, dates to the late sixth and seventh century, coterminous with the end of the LR period; while the two wares are typologically distinct, there is a degree of chronological overlap that does provide some evidence for the specific period in question. The problem for this study is that the shift from Late Antiquity to the Medieval period is not neatly correlated with defined pottery chronologies. The vast majority of the LR pottery in the Fortress, however, dates from the latter part of that ceramic phase (Timothy Gregory, personal communication 1987). Therefore, its presence can be tied largely to the fifth and sixth centuries, the time when the Fortress became the preeminent locale of occupation in the Sanc-

Another consideration is that the relationship between diagnostics and other surface materials may be consistent for some periods, but not for others. For example, since there are no known buildings associated with the Classical and Hellenistic material, it is possible that the bulk of the rooftiles and other architectural elements belong to the Early Roman (ER) and LR periods, even beyond the percentages indicated by the diagnostics. So, the LR share of the surface material may be significantly higher than the 64% indicated by known diagnostics. There were buildings in the Fortress area during the ER period, but this location was not the focus of occupation for Isthmia as a whole. It was in ER times that the Sanctuary was at its zenith (see Chapter 3). When the fortifications were constructed in the latter half of the LR period, it is clear that most of the ancient Sanctuary was abandoned. Whereas the ER occupation was spread throughout the area of the Sanctuary, the later LR settlement was clearly centered in the Fortress. In addition, the more crowded conditions in military installations should be reflected in denser concentrations of associated artifacts. It may, therefore, be legitimate to claim that the majority of the rooftiles and architectural stone should be assigned to the period of the military occupation in the LR period. The 73

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA late EB component in the Fortress is not considered as important in this context because of the small number (n=31) of diagnostics from this period.

is up to 3.5 m deep. Its place of origin is not known, but one may speculate that at least some of it came from the area inside the Fortress itself; any small prominence could have been leveled and the soil from it used to fill in the east slope behind the new circuit wall. The remainder of the fill may have derived from west of the Fortress toward the Sanctuary proper, but no borrow pits have been identified in that area that would clearly indicate such a source. The land to the north, east, and south slopes down from the rise on which the Fortress is located; bringing fill dirt from these areas would have necessitated transporting heavy loads uphill. One advantage of mining fill in these downslope areas would have been to enhance the incline approaching the walls. Another possible source for fill material may have been the taphros along the north face of the Hexamilion and Fortress. One further possibility for a source of fill may have been the footers for the Fortress walls. If the fill derived from the foundation footers or slopes outside the Fortress walls, it is less likely that much pre-ER material would be in that fill since various excavations in the vicinity of the walls have demonstrated an absence of such early material.

There is a question whether the earlier periods (pre-ER) have a lower representation because occupation was less intense, or because the remains are more deeply buried and fewer artifacts find their way to the surface. A possible reason is that the soil cover is rather shallow over most of the site, except the eastern edge, so that there is ample opportunity for the earlier material to appear, especially since the southern half (planted in olives) of the Fortress interior is plowed annually, and the northern half has been plowed in the recent past. Granted, some pre-LR material may have washed down the east slope and beyond the range of the survey area (defined by the defensive circuit) prior to the building of the fortifications. Construction of the Fortress walls in the early fifth century contained the material thereafter. So, even though the pre-LR material may be somewhat underrepresented, one can have considerable faith in the later assemblages. In addition, the lack of ancient Greek pottery was confirmed by the excavations of Stais (1903), Jenkins and Megaw (1931-1932), and Clement (1971, 1975) in the Fortress interior, implying that the surface assemblage is not biased to any great extent against the earliest phases. The other phase of major concern in this regard is the ER, the first period represented by a significant number of diagnostics and by structures in the area of the Fortress (Jenkins and Megaw 1931-1932). ER pottery is the third most abundant, after LR and LB. Excavations in and around the Fortress indicate that although the ER presence was significant, it was not as pronounced as LR and LB occupation. Therefore, the surface collection seems to reflect accurately intensity of occupation as indicated in previous investigations. The transportation of ER pottery by erosion seems not to have been that significant, but some ER material may brought in with the fill. Thus, one can argue that diagnostics can be a guide to have been determining the date of other surface material. The working assumption for this study is that the LR component encompasses at least 64% of the entire surface collection. In presenting the distributions of rooftiles and architectural stone below, it is assumed that two thirds to three fourths of the material was LR in date. The types of rooftiles collected lend credence to this assertion. There were few Lakonian and Corinthian tiles, both characteristic ancient Greek types. In addition, excavations in and around the Fortress by Monceaux (1884; 1885), Stais (1903), Jenkins and Megaw (1931-1932), Broneer (1955, 1958, 1959), and Clement (1975) have yielded pottery and coins that are predominantly LR-EB in date.

The use of spolia in the fortifications is a related phenomenon that brought material into the Fortress from another archaeological context. Various architectural members and ceramics that are clearly pre-LR in date are found in the Fortress. The problem is determining how much of this material represents in situ use by people residing at the eastern edge of the Sanctuary zone prior to the fifth century and what percentage reflects dumping in the fifth century and later. Since there is no clear independent evidence for the existence of large ancient ceremonial structures in the Fortress area, with the exception of the arch, most of the blocks with distinctive characteristics (that is, flutes, dentils) were probably brought in when the Sanctuary’s religious buildings were dismantled. The pottery is more problematic because it is easily portable and may have been brought in at virtually any time, either by people who used it in the period to which the material dates, or by large scale dumping at a later time. Although most of the pottery is taken to reflect in situ use, the role of imported dump material cannot be ignored. All the diagnostic pottery has been plotted on maps of the Fortress by period (Figures 6.18-6.24). Because of their small number, all of the coins appear on one map (Figure 6.25). In most cases, the relatively small number of artifacts makes visual inspection an adequate means of determining the nature of the spatial patterning. Clustered and dispersed patterns are described in general terms below. For the present study, a cluster constitutes a minimum of two 1-m2 units, each containing at least one specimen of the type being discussed, that are no more that 10 m apart. A string or grouping of such units comprise a larger cluster when the distance between any nearest neighbors is 10 m or less. A separation of 10 m is used because plowing tends to distribute adjacent artifacts

Dumping episodes that occurred in the past complicate interpretation of the surface collection. The key event was the filling in of the east central area after construction of the Fortress walls (Jenkins and Megaw 1931-1932). This unconsolidated fill, consisting of soil, rocks, and artifacts, 74

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.18. Distribution of Classical pottery (n=23) in the Fortress. by about that distance (Roper 1976). Artifacts isolated from others by more than 10 m are considered discrete units reflecting separate activity loci.

the Fortress suggests this part of Isthmia was occupied only later in the sequence. Elsewhere in the Sanctuary, Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Geometric materials have been found in substantial quantities (Broneer 1959; Morgan 1999; Smith 1955).

The oldest datable artifact that appears within the Fortress is one Archaic body sherd. There are a few pieces of flaked stone, including a prismatic blade core that may be Bronze Age in date, and some fragments of ground stone, but the small number precludes any clear temporal assignment. In addition, it is now clear that both chipped and ground stone tools were manufactured and used in all historical periods, and are not exclusively a prehistoric phenomenon as previously thought (Runnels 1981, 1982); Isthmia also offers some clear evidence for the continued use of flaked stone tools in historic times (Kardulias 1995a). The lack of definite prehistoric artifacts in

Classical (n=23, Figure 6.18) and Classical-Hellenistic (n=18, Figure 6.19) sherds constitute the earliest substantial body of diagnostic material. The distribution consists of two to three small clusters and scattered outliers. A key aspect of their distribution is the small number of sherds in the eastern half of the Fortress south of 45N and east of 50W, the area of the deep fill brought in to level the ground inside the east curtain wall. The lack of early material in the area of this fill suggests that the soil was not brought in from the Sanctuary proper. 75

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.19. Distribution of Classical-Hellenistic (n=18) and Hellenistic (n=12) pottery. The areas from which the fill was borrowed evidently contained later material at worst. This situation suggests that the surface artifacts may accurately reflect the chronology of subsurface materials, permitting greater confidence in stating that the surface collection reflects in situ activity. The presence of fine Classical black glaze pottery in this area hints at an expanded area of usage at the site while the Sanctuary was in operation, but the limited sample permits only speculation as to the nature of that activity. Since excavation revealed no Greek structures (Jenkins and Megaw 1931-1932), this activity may have been ephemeral in nature or involved no buildings. The distribution of Hellenistic pottery (Figure 6.19) suggests a decline in even this limited use of the Fortress area. Perhaps the Classical and Hellenistic pottery reflects casual refuse left by inhabitants of the Sanctuary area or

travelers on the roads leading to Schoenos and across the Isthmus. Clearly, the area witnessed little use during those periods. The Early Roman pottery (n=161, Figure 6.20) exhibits higher frequency and density than material from previous periods and may represent a sudden increase in site usage. The main cluster is located in the center of the Fortress, and accounts for 75 pieces, 46.59% of the total, in an area that constitutes 12.55% of the Fortress interior. This is the first period for which material appears near Tower 5. The fact that Jenkins and Megaw found several Early Roman structures in this area suggests much of this pottery reflects habitation, but some of the sherds probably were transported here in the leveling fill brought in by Byzantine military engineers. The amount of ER material

76

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.20. Distribution of Early Roman pottery (n=161). in other areas of the Fortress where there was no need for leveling reflects significant expansion in occupation of the site as a whole. Curiously, the northeast zone of the Fortress has only one ER sherd (.62%), even though the large arch was built in this period. Bedrock is exposed in this area and slopes down to the northeast. Perhaps erosion has washed material down toward the gate. An alternative explanation is that this sector was not occupied in the ER phase.

ing point in the history of the site. The distribution of Late Roman pottery is more extensive (high ubiquity) than for any other period (Figure 6.21). Both the northwest and northeast sections of the Fortress contain significant amounts of material (n=95 or 1.75% and n=68 or 7.69%, respectively); this is true for no other era. The presence of LR material in all areas surveyed within the Fortress is precisely what one would expect if this period reflects the time when the fortifications were constructed and initially garrisoned. It was then that the entire enclosure would have been utilized in some fashion. Pringle’s (1981) survey of North African Byzantine fortresses demonstrates that the compounds had little wasted space.

The pattern of more intense occupation reached an apex in the Late Roman period (fourth to seventh centuries A.D.), for which the pottery count is 884 (64.2% of all diagnostics). Since historical records and excavation results (Clement 1975; Gregory 1993a; also, see Chapter 4 for a detailed discussion of the date for the construction of the Fortress) indicate the fortifications were erected early in the fifth century, the LR pottery is taken as indicative of the period of military occupation at this turn-

The large number of men the Fortress could hold (see Chapter 7 for estimates) would have contributed to the size, diversity, and ubiquity of the LR artifact inventory. The range of pottery types (amphorae, jugs, pitchers, plates, various bowls) in the sample suggests a variety of

77

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.21. Distribution of Late Roman pottery (n=884) presented in contour format. activities, from importation and storage, to on-site consumption. The only subsequent period represented by substantial pottery is the Late Byzantine (LB; n=225, Figure 6.22) that may coincide with another major military occupation after the reconstruction of the fortifications ordered by Manuel II. Of importance is the presence of Slavic pottery dating to the sixth-seventh centuries A.D. This material does not appear in a destruction context in the Fortress and may not be the definitive marker of invasion, as some suggest (Aupert 1980).

trations of LR pottery. There are several possible explanations for this situation. Those sample units on walls obviously had low artifact counts. Some areas near walls or anomalies, that may be the interiors of structures, also exhibit low pottery densities. This may be due to use of ceramic implements or disposal of broken vessels outside the structures, with the latter perhaps more likely. A similar relationship between sherd densities and geophysical anomalies has been noted in Boeotia (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1985:156). The lack of a shadow effect, in which ceramics would outline the structure if the pottery was discarded uniformly around the building, may suggest that the material was disposed of in some systematic fashion. The surface distribution indicates either that there was no single dump since no area is devoid of debris or that several of the areas of high artifact concentration represent discard locations. Alternatively, specific locations may have developed into trash deposits. Several towers became dump sites (Broneer 1959:321). This form of disposal may have coexisted with extramural dumping, but excavations along the exterior of the circuit walls did not locate such deposits (Broneer 1959). One exception to

The ubiquity of LR pottery may reflect both use of all parts of the Fortress and, to a lesser degree, movement of artifacts by residents and by subsequent activity such as plowing. Currently, the southern half of the Fortress is planted in olives and is plowed annually. Some studies, however, suggest that horizontal artifact displacement by agricultural activities is not great (Lewarch and O’Brien 1981; Roper 1976). With few exceptions the extant walls and key geophysical anomalies do not coincide with the most intense concen-

78

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.22. Distribution of Late Byzantine pottery (n=225). the tendency for LR pottery not to be associated directly with walls and anomalies is in the southeast corner of the Fortress, in and around magnetic Anomaly 1. This large structure has been interpreted as a barracks. The presence of significant amounts of pottery in the interior of this structure may indicate several things. Storage on the ground level of a two story structure, as in North African Byzantine fortresses (Pringle 1981:86), is one possibility. Fragments of bowls and amphorae in the assemblage support this view. Dumping of broken vessels is another possibility, but this seems less likely since Tower 7 not far to the south served this function. In addition, it would not make sense to take up valuable storage space with rubbish; the broken vessels may represent dumping activity during a hiatus in military occupation in the LR period when the structure became a trash dump.

pottery. Figure 6.23 presents the distribution of Slavic (sixth to seventh centuries A.D.) pottery and Figure 6.24 that of EB ceramics. The former overlaps in time with the LR material. Since no destruction levels appeared in excavating the gates and towers, the Slavic material does not represent the intrusion of a foreign group into the Fortress. In fact, Gregory (1993a) suggests the Fortress withstood the invasions of the late sixth century; there is even evidence that there was a Dark Age Slavic agricultural community in the Roman Bath (Gregory 1993b; Kardulias 1994b). This pottery may simply reflect the adoption of the simpler vessel forms by Greek occupants of the Fortress. The small number of sherds (11 of 13, 84.62%) widely dispersed near the perimeter (within 25 m of circuit walls) may reflect individuals living in houses built against the Fortress walls. Slavic pottery was found in such a domestic context at the Northeast Gate (Gregory 1993a:85-86).

The drop in frequency, density, and ubiquity of succeeding assemblages magnifies the importance of the LR 79

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.23. Distribution of Slavic pottery (n=13). Since the blocking walls were probably already in place at both gates, restricting access to the Fortress except by ladders, the EB residents probably were few in number. The small frequency, low density, and high level of dispersal of the pottery suggests either a small, widely distributed population at one time or a series of small groups staying in different areas over time.

The late EB (eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D.) material (Figure 6.24) represents a distinct break with the LR both chronologically and in the character of the distribution. The EB assemblage is much smaller than the LR, suggesting a drop in site usage during this period. This is not an abandonment, since the material is present and widely scattered. The majority (21 pieces, 67.7%) of the sherds are within 20 m of the Fortress walls and may again reflect habitation in structures built up against the interior of the fortifications. This distribution is further highlighted by the fact that only 126 (46%) of the total of 271 10-m2 units inside the Fortress are within 20 m of the circuit walls. Therefore, 67% of the late EB sherds are found in an area that comprises only 46% of the total enclosure, emphasizing the distribution of that material along the periphery of the Fortress interior.

The Late Byzantine (thirteenth to fifteenth centuries) distribution (Figure 6.22) exhibits characteristics similar to the LR situation. All areas of the site have material, including the northwest and northeast sectors. Because there is less material than in the LR period, however, distinct clusters are more evident, especially in the southwest and east central sectors. The association with buildings and anomalies is again not very strong. It seems that 80

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.24. Distribution of Early Byzantine pottery (n=31). from LR times on, any instance of high frequency, density, and ubiquity can be associated with use of the Fortress as a full scale military installation. In LR times this was tied to the construction of the fortifications as defense against barbarian attacks. In the LB period, the key event probably was the extensive repair undertaken by Manuel II in 1415, probably followed by the stationing of troops in the Fortress. The discrepancies in the assemblages of the two periods can be explained by the presence of a larger force over a longer period of time in the LR phase. The Greeks of the LB period were forced to abandon the fortifications on several occasions over a period of several decades (Gregory 1993a:147-150). In addition, the Fortress seems to have been garrisoned intermittently in this period. The evidence from the LR period suggests longer continuous occupation because of the greater amount of diagnostic material and the time

span of at least two centuries that it represents. Furthermore, it seems the Fortress was never overrun in the LR phase. Had the LB military occupants been able to remain in the Fortress for sustained periods, the distribution of artifacts might well mirror the LR dispersal more closely. The discrepancies probably reflect differences in length and intensity (that is, a larger force) of military residence. A total of seven coins was found during the 1986 surface survey. Of these, three were retrieved from sample units (see Figure 6.25); the other four were found in the southern half of the Fortress during other activities and do not have an exact provenience. These coins are identified by emperor’s reign or general period when they were struck (provenienced coins are 1-3):

81

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.25. Distribution of coins (n=3). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

First to third century A.D., struck by a local mint, perhaps Korinth. Sons of Constantine, A.D. 337-361. Illegible, general LR date. Theodosios I, A.D. 379-395. Manuel I, A.D. 1143-1180. Constantios II, A.D. 337-361. Uncertain emperor, third century A.D.

earned would have found its way into and stimulated the local economy, as happened elsewhere in the empire (Russell 1986:139). In fact, Morrisson (2001) argues that military pay was a key factor that kept coins in circulation throughout Late Antiquity despite a drop in quantity. A major working assumption of this study is that diagnostics can be a guide to determining the date of other surface material. In the Fortress, most of the diagnostic pottery is Late Roman in date, followed by Late Byzantine and Early Roman. Excavations in and around the Fortress indicate that although the ER presence was significant, it was not as pronounced as LR and LB occupation. Therefore, the surface collection seems to reflect accurately intensity of occupation as indicated in previous investigations. A key assumption is that the LR component encompasses approximately 64% of the entire surface collection.

Although none of these dates to the fifth century when the Fortress was built and first occupied, coins of the fourth century such as 2, 4, and 6 regularly circulated in the fifth century. In addition, fifth century coins are smaller than other earlier and later issues and have proved difficult to locate in surface survey (Timothy Gregory, personal communication 1987). Although few in number, the coins tend to fall into the general periods of greatest activity for the Fortress. The coins also attest to the presence of a monetary economy. The hard currency soldiers 82

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Figure 6.26. Distribution of beehive fragments (B), glass (G), water pipe (W), slag (S), lamps (L), bronze (BR), nails (N), kiln support (K), and waster (WS) in the Fortress. All symbols indicate single specimens except where preceded by a number. Function. The ability to discriminate certain functional categories within the surface assemblage presents the possibility of distinguishing certain specialized activities. In addition, these artifacts also enhance understanding of the diversity of material present, thus providing insights into the population structure of the residents and their relationship to other occupants of the area. The ceramic materials in question include fragments of beehives, water pipes, kiln wasters, kiln supports, bricks, slag, and lamps. Glass forms another category. These materials (Figure 6.26) suggest a considerable range of activities. In terms of production, the beehive fragments indicate an attempt to provide one special item in the diet, but the noise, dust and lack of vegetation within the Fortress may not have been conducive to honey production. The ceramic beehives (dated to the middle of the sixth century A.D.; Figure 6.27) may reflect occupation of the enclo-

sure by squatters or a different military use of the fortress. The kiln waster, support and slag indicate pottery production, but the locations of these objects do not correlate with the suspected furnace revealed by magnetometry. As suggested above, perhaps the furnace was for metal work. The one piece of bronze is a dripping or spill from the manufacturing process. The discovery of substantial foundry debris in dumps near the Temple of Poseidon (Rostoker and Gebhard 1980) suggests that at least some of the metal objects dating to the Hellenistic period and earlier found at the Sanctuary may have been cast and finished at the site. The metal debris in our sample may thus be dump material brought in from elsewhere on the site. The same may be true of the kiln support and diamond-shaped floor tiles (Figure 6.28). A number of kiln supports and unfired and overfired ceramics have recently been identified from the destruction deposits in the Ro-

83

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA man Bath (Gregory 1995); there may have been a kiln in or near the Bath after its abandonment. Diamond-shaped tiles line the floor of a LR cistern ca. 50 m east of the Temple of Poseidon (Broneer 1973:96) and of another LR structure just north of the Roman Bath; one similar tile was also found in the debris of the Bath itself.

Figure 6.26 presents the distribution of these various materials. Clustering within and between the different categories is evident to some extent. The northeast sector of the Fortress has almost none of this material, suggesting it did not serve in the same capacity as other parts of the site. It may have been a specialized area, but one that stressed a more purely military purpose, such as a muster area for troops near the main gate facing the oncoming enemy. There is only a limited degree of positive locational correlation among the various classes of artifacts. This is expected since the categories tend to reflect different types of activities and should be spatially distinct. The association is clearest with those artifact types whose functions coincide, or at least do not obviate one another. Glass and lamps exhibit such a close relationship; each type fits easily into a domestic inventory, while other categories, such as beehives and glass vessels, do not complement each other either in terms of the functions or contexts one might associate with those types of artifacts.

Figure 6.27. Rim of ceramic beehive from surface survey (Appendix 6, no. 3). OSUEI Archives. The water pipes, lamps (Figure 6.29), and glass represent efforts to provide certain amenities. Although there is some leeway in assigning dates to these materials, they would not be out of character in a LR to EB context, and may, therefore, have been used by occupants of the Fortress in the fifth century A.D. There would certainly have been a need to organize water use in the installation, with pipes channeling water to and from cisterns and, perhaps, baths. Oil burning lamps were common at the Sanctuary in many periods (Broneer 1977; Wohl 1981), and one can expect their use in the Fortress area in all phases; several pieces antedate the Fortress. Some of the glass vessels probably date to the ER period, but the Byzantines also made extensive use of such containers. The small, thin size of the glass fragments suggests delicate vessels, possibly containing fine oils or beverages. The small number of glass vessels may further suggest limited access to certain resources. A degree of social differentiation among the occupants is one implication of such an unequal distribution of what might be considered prestige items. The small number of these various items may also be a function of being part of an undifferentiated dump.

Figure 6.29. Handles of ceramic lamps from surface survey (Appendix 6, no. 2). OSUEI Archives. Another possible indicator of functional differences is the distribution of fine wares (Figure 6.30). Assuming that the differences in social class between officers and common soldiers were reflected in the types of artifacts used by each group, there should be distinct spatial aggregation of such material if the two groups had separate quarters. Ceramic fine wares (Figure 6.31) are used here as indicators of high social rank on the assumption that the social and military elite possessed a disproportionately high percentage of the better ceramic material. Roman and Byzantine officers often came from aristocratic backgrounds (Garlan 1975:158-159) and customarily carried considerable personal baggage on campaign (Keppie 1984:100-101). Thus, clusters of LR fine wares in the central and south central parts of the Fortress are taken to be areas probably occupied by officers and senior noncommissioned officers. Webster (1985:196-197) notes the more elaborate nature of officers’ quarters in Roman fortresses. These concentrations coincide with the expectation that the largest contingent of officers in a Roman or Byzantine army would be found in the center of the camp, the characteristic location of the headquarters or principia (Webster 1985:171, 184). This spatial pattern was common in Late Roman fortifications from Britain to the Arabian frontier.

Figure 6.28. Diamond-shaped tile from surface collection (Appendix 6, no. 6). OSUEI Archives.

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Figure 6.30. Distribution of Late Roman fine wares (n=80). The diversity of surface material and its distribution provide us with important insights into the behavioral elements that created the initial scatter. The variety of categories reflects the range of activities in which occupants engaged. For the military camp, there is the indication of integrated activities, perhaps with the goal of making the installation self-sufficient, at least in part, so that it could withstand an attack in force or a siege. This situation suggests a complex relationship with residents of the surrounding territory. If the troops were part of the standing army and not just a local militia, as Procopius states was the case in the sixth century, the garrison would have required provisions from farmers and a number of manufactured products (such as pottery and livery) from local craftsmen. Certain items, such as metal weapons, may have been forged or repaired on the site. The economic and social relations between locals and soldiers must have been rather intricate.

Figure 6.31. Fragment of stamped Roman plate, firstsecond century A.D. (Appendix 6, no. 1). OSUEI Archives.

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PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 6.32. Distribution of rooftiles (n=19,129) presented in contour format. Contour interval = 5. Structures. The third problem the surface assemblage can address is the location of structures. Surface surveys in various parts of Greece have noted the close relationship of rooftile scatters to the location of ancient structures. It is assumed that a similar relationship holds in the Fortress. Because of the confined space and the considerable density of occupation in the enclosure, however, it is not clear how strong this connection is. In addition, inward and outward roof collapse would leave different patterns on the ground. In the former case, tiles would be clustered inside a structure, while in the latter, a “shadow” of tiles would mark the perimeter of the building. Rooftiles can also be collected and stored for later reuse. With these considerations in mind, an effort is made to determine if concentrations of rooftiles in the Fortress correspond to known or suspected buildings, or if instead these objects are rather haphazardly spread throughout the site, due to plowing and other events, so that no such determination is possible.

The 19,129 rooftiles form the largest single category of surface artifact (Figure 6.32). The highest densities appear in the south and east sectors, but with substantial concentrations elsewhere. Rooftiles represent a high frequency, high ubiquity, high density artifact type. This category is extremely common, but it can still be used as an indicator of functional loci by pinpointing the location of buildings. Conversely, areas of low rooftile density may represent open spaces used for military drills, general assemblies or perhaps even for gardens. With so much material, there is the problem of determining the threshold that separates background scatter from culturally meaningful concentrations. In examining the frequency distribution, there are 305 sample squares with rooftile counts of one to 20 pieces, 308 with counts of 21 to 40, 80 with 41 to 60, 23 with 61 to 80, and nine with 81 to 109. Using an arbitrary contour threshold of thirtyfive rooftiles as indicating a structure, the southeast corner of the Fortress has several large clusters, as do the far

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Figure 6.33. Distribution of architectural stone in the Fortress. Triangles represent marble (n=140), circles are revetment (n=70), squares are tesserae (n=13), and stars are worked blocks (n=7). With the exception of worked blocks, the symbols only represent presence, not frequency western fringe and the area between Towers 3 and 4. The concentration in the southeast corner coincides with the structures indicated by magnetic and electrical techniques. The other two high density areas, though, lack extant walls and geophysical anomalies, and may suggest either the presence of substantial buildings or dumping.

residue from construction of the Fortress wall. The marble and revetment in the southeast sector, however, correspond moderately well to the major structural anomaly detected by the geophysical techniques. Some of the revetment fragments are decorated with vertical flutes (Figure 6.34) and they appear to be segments of decorative antas or pilasters. Perhaps they came from the Bath where similar, but not identical, pieces are abundant. These fragments may have been stripped from the Bath to decorate some of the Fortress residences, or these items may be part of a fill deposit dumped into the compound. Such alternate explanations of origins also apply to the tesserae. Though few in number, the tesserae (Figure 6.35) are indicators of wealth since these decorative pieces were commonly used in elaborate mosaic floors, such as might grace the commander’s quarters; Caesar’s

Architectural stone is another category with the potential of indicating the presence of structures. Included in this category are worked blocks, revetment, marble fragments, and tesserae (Figure 6.33). The largest cluster of marble, revetment, and tesserae is in the center of the Fortress where the command post may have stood. Although no individual worked blocks were in any sample units, there are several walls in this area. Several other smaller concentrations of architectural stone are located in the northwest and south sectors where they may reflect

87

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA headquarters tent during the Gallic campaigns contained a portable mosaic floor (Suetonius, Caesar, 1979:46). If the tesserae were brought from the Sanctuary, either for decorative purposes or mixed in with fill dirt, the Roman Bath, with its extensive mosaic floors, might be a likely source, but the Bath tesserae are considerably larger than those found in the Fortress. Whatever the particular explanation may be, the architectural stone was clearly brought into the Fortress after construction of the fortifications because the ER structures excavated by Jenkins and Megaw (1931-1932:81) apparently lacked such architectural embellishment. Finally, the presence of marble and revetment in clusters around the Fortress might suggest a degree of opulence for a number of structures, thus minimizing social and hierarchical differentiation. Several factors make differentiation more explicit. First, the density of revetment and marble is considerably higher in the central zone than anywhere else (n=32 or 84.21% for revetment and n=72 or 51.06% for marble in the two central clusters). Second, the distribution of tesserae is concentrated near the center of the Fortress (n=10, 83.33%, in the two clusters).

Figure 6.35. Two groups of tesserae from mosaic floor (Appendix 6, no. 5). OSUEI Archives. Interpretation: What Did the Site Look Like in the Past? The field research yielded an abundance of information useful in determining the size and variety of structures within the Fortress, and in gauging the intensity of cultural activity through time. Analysis of the surface collection and geophysical data reveals the presence of a number of structures within the Fortress enclosure. Most of the suggested features are directly associated with visible walls. Figure 6.36 presents the extant walls and the extensions associated with these known walls revealed by fieldwork. In addition, the research produced evidence of possible structures with no visible remains and these hypothesized buildings are also shown in Figure 6.36. Although it is possible that other structures made of perishable materials may have existed, neither the geophysical examination nor surface survey revealed evidence for such buildings. The dotted lines representing suggested walls (except Structures 7, 8, 9, and 10) in Figure 6.36 were drawn primarily on the basis of the correlation of visible walls and geophysical anomalies. For example, Structure 1 is represented by two adjoining sections of extant walls. Magnetic and electrical readings indicated the continuation of a wall 25 m further to the west along the line of the visible east-west section. Thus, the visible section and the geophysical anomaly together indicate the north wall was ca. 30 m long. The electrical techniques provide substantiation for this conclusion, since the resistivity and resistance anomalies continue due west from the visible wall. The width (north-south) of the structure was estimated from linear anomalies that seem to represent cross walls. These anomalies reach to the southern boundary (50S) of the surveyed area, ca. 18-20 m from the north wall. These east-west and north-south measurements are taken to be maximum dimensions, so the area of the structure is derived by multiplying these two figures (Table 6.3). A similar approach is used in estimating the size of Structure 2, but with only one small section of visible wall, there is greater reliance on the geophysical, especially electrical, anomalies. The dimensions of Structures 7, 8, 9 and 10 are estimated on the basis of a suggested similarity in function (barracks) with Structures 1 and 2.

Figure 6.34. Fragment of marble revetment (Appendix 6, no. 7). OSUEI Archives. The surface collection survey provides some control over the interpretation of geophysical anomalies as well as being an independent data gathering technique. The surface assemblage offers both chronological and functional information that is important in making sense of the sub surface features. The surface collection and geophysical techniques together formed an integrated strategy for understanding site layout. Operated in conjunction with one another, surface survey and geophysical methods offer results that can aid in interpretation of a site and can guide future excavation.

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Figure 6.36. Plan of the Fortress showing extant walls and restored layout of buildings (indicated by dotted lines and identified by numbers) for military occupation in Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods. The layout of the site in the fifth century A.D. can now be discussed in light of this restoration. A massive building, Structure 1, dominates the southeast sector. The size and location of this structure suggest it may be a barracks. Several walls just to the north of this building seem not to be connected to it and are designated Structure 2. The presence of two barracks in the same area would suggest this was a key residential part of the Fortress. Proximity of the barracks to the South Gate would have facilitated access to the Fortress by bodies of troops. If parts of these structures were set aside for storage, carts entering through the South Gate could unload their cargo without proceeding too far into the Fortress. This southern area would have been one of the most protected in the enclosure since attacks were anticipated from the north.

standing the size and form of barracks in the Isthmian Fortress. Since Pringle specifically discusses EB fortresses, some of the particulars of his study are more appropriate in the context of Isthmia. Barracks in North Africa were commonly two stories tall (Pringle 1981:86), so the crosswalls indicated by geophysical techniques in Structure 1 may reflect dividers that separated rooms by military unit and supported an upper floor of similar layout. In addition, Pringle (1981:86) notes that an overhanging veranda was common on the second floor of North African barracks, providing access to all rooms, and the arrangement may have been similar at Isthmia. Other barracks may have existed in the Fortress, but lack of other large linear anomalies makes pinpointing the location of such features difficult. One possible spot is the northwest area, south of the cemetery, where there is open ground and a substantial scatter of surface artifacts.

The descriptions provided by Webster (1985) and Pringle (1981) together provide the comparative basis for under89

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Table 6.3. Size of structures in the Isthmian Fortress in LR to EB period.

Structure 3 may be related to the large anomaly immediately to the northeast (Anomaly 2). The forge or forge debris that this anomaly may represent indicates specialized economic activity, with an effort to make the garrison self-sufficient. A structure of some sort would have housed this enterprise, but none of the visible walls lines up with magnetic Anomaly 2. The closest association is with Structure 4, a narrow 4 m-long section of a wall with its north end at 30N-20W, and with Structure 3. None of these walls has the appearance of a forge, but perhaps the single wall of Structure 4 is a remnant of a storage building associated with manufacturing activity. A forge may have been situated in the eastern half of the Fortress to take advantage of prevailing winds to prevent noxious fumes from flowing across the inhabited part of the compound.

00000000000000000000000 00000000000000000000000080_ Structure Approximate Available space size (m x m) in m2 (Total Floor* ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

30 x 20 30 x 20 12 x 5 5x5 15 x 10 6x6 30 x 20 30 x 20 30 x 20 30 x 20

1,200 1,200 60 25 150 36 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 7,471

11

*Structures 1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are assumed to have been two stories tall. Total floor space for these buildings is obtained by doubling the area from the dimensions indicated.

Such positioning of barracks would have spread out forces within the Fortress. As an alternative explanation, Pringle (1981:86) notes that in North African Byzantine forts, additional barracks were often built against the defensive walls. Our inability to examine strips abutting on the circuit walls, because of obstacles such as fences and recent walls, leaves the presence of such barracks an open question. There may, however, be an independent indicator that such structures did abut on the Fortress walls. The barracks area in the southeast sector lies between Towers 5 and 6, a distance of 50 m. There are several other locations in the Fortress with similar long stretches of wall between towers. There are such sections in the northeast, between Towers 2 and 3, and between Towers 3 and 4, and in the northwest, between Towers 13 and 14, and Towers 14 and 15. These four stretches could accommodate long buildings (Structures 7, 8, 9, 10, respectively in Figure 6.36) without interfering with activities in the towers.

Figure 6.37. View of east wall of Structure 3. Facing northwest. Photograph by the author. No other areas of such industrial activity are evident. The scattered pieces of metal and ceramic slag, kiln wasters, and molten bronze suggest specialized production, but the small sample is insufficient to indicate patterning. One feature of the interior that may be telling is the clustering of structures and surface artifacts in the southern two thirds of the Fortress. If the churchyard and cemetery can be assumed to be similarly low in feature and artifact density, the northern tier was largely an open space in the fifth century. Setting aside a sizable portion of this area for troop movement, drills, and assemblies, some sections may have been left over for planting gardens to supplement the drab military diet. The section near the east wall would have been most appropriate because of the deep fill that was brought in there. Most food needs probably were supplied by local farmers or soldiers working the fields around the Fortress (see below).

Other than the southeast, the evidence points to considerable use of the central zone of the Fortress. In the east central area, two parallel walls, with a curved, apse-like appendage on the north end, constitute Structure 3 (Figure 6.37). This may be one of the buildings described by Monceaux (1884) and Stais (1903) as a chapel. Chapels certainly were an important element of EB military installations, often housing a shrine to the Virgin Mary as protector of the empire. Such structures may also have served to house the military standards and as a place to administer oaths to military personnel (Pringle 1981:164). The problem with Structure 3 at Isthmia is that the apse would be on the north end of the building instead of on the east side. The surface collection did not yield any material that exhibits Christian symbols in this vicinity. Although a Fortress of this size could be expected to have had a chapel, no such religious structure has been identified; perhaps it is under the present chapel of St. John at the north end of the enclosure.

Supplying water must have been a key concern. No wells or cisterns are clearly evident inside the Fortress walls. The few pieces of water pipe suggest the channeling of water. The stream to the south and east and the North Drain to the west could have provided abundant water in the rainy season, but storage in cisterns or large pools would have been necessary in the summer. The location

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE of such water storage features, however, is not evident from the results of the fieldwork.

Conclusions Of the four geophysical techniques employed, only the self-potential method proved to be totally unreliable under the prevailing geological conditions at Isthmia. On the whole, magnetometry, electrical resistivity and electrical resistance provided comparable results that can be used to corroborate the evidence from any single method. These techniques permitted the delineation of structures whose visible walls belie the actual size of the buildings. Covering the same areas with different equipment permits an assessment of viability and efficiency. Both of the electrical methods provided reasonably good data, but the stone rubble impeded the signal in certain areas. In addition, the physical labor involved in probe set up and transfer slowed the work pace noticeably. With a small stand for the reading head, magnetometry proceeded rapidly even on rocky terrain. The structural complexity of the Fortress presented the geophysical techniques with a series of obstacles that no one approach solved. In terms of viability and efficiency magnetometry proved to be the most successful method, followed by electrical resistivity and electrical resistance. Because of the variety of features and circumstances that are encountered on a structurally complex site, our results suggest it is advisable to employ at least two techniques in a geophysical survey, a sentiment supported by many other field researchers (Stavros Papamarinopoulos, personal communication 1991; Sarris 1994; von Frese 1984; Weymouth 1986). At a general level of assessment, the use of the geophysical methods at the Isthmian Fortress was moderately successful. The best application proved to be in terms of tracing out the extent of structures already indicated by visible remains. The amount of stone on the surface and the presence of large modern features (road, cemetery, churchyard) created difficulties in implementation and interpretation. Any further statement on the success of this part of the fieldwork must await future digging to compare the interpretation of anomalies provided above with excavated features.

Based on the distribution of certain artifact classes, such as architectural stone and LR fine ware, the headquarters or principia seems to have been located near the center of the enclosure, perhaps in the area between 20N and 60N. With one exception there are only several small extant wall fragments in this area and the geophysical evidence for the presence of a large structure here is ambiguous. This exception is a fragment of a thick wall near 10N60W with a facing of fine ashlar blocks and a rubble core (Structure 5); this structure may be part of the headquarters complex, although it is slightly west of the central area and the heaviest concentration of surface materials. This wall does, however, exhibit the level of workmanship one might expect in the commander’s compound. Since the walls of the Isthmian Fortress do not form a neat square or rectangle, some of the symmetry visible in other Roman and Byzantine camps is absent. There probably was only one road, connecting the two gates along a curving route. The disposition of the various buildings described above may not be as regular as elsewhere because of the unusual shape of the enclosure. The orientation of most structures along the cardinal directions and size of the buildings indicate considerable organization. The command center seems to have been situated in the heart of the enclosure, equidistant from either gate. The forge in the southeastern part of this complex may be associated with an arsenal. The amount of high quality material in this central zone (35 [43.8%] LR fine ware, 11 [50%] glass, 70 [50%] marble, 11 [84.6%] tesserae) suggests the presence of elaborate structures to house and serve officers. Distortion of geophysical readings by stone rubble, metal scrap and the bell tower may have obscured the presence of other features, such as a chapel. In addition, the presence of the modern church and cemetery prohibited examination of the far northern zone. The barracks building (Structure 1) in the southeast of the Fortress is certainly not the only such structure. The northwest area has already been mentioned as another possible location. In the northeast sector, although there are fewer surface artifacts, several worked blocks are present. Furthermore, a section of the bedrock in this zone was cut down on the north and east, creating the corner of a platform that may have served as the foundation for a large building.

A comparison of the results from both approaches reveals the complex nature of the relationship between surface and subsurface materials. The correlation between various categories of ceramics and structural anomalies seems to vary according to the type of ceramics considered. In this case, the geophysical anomalies act as constants against which we can consider the nature of the surface collection. The distribution of LR pottery in the southeastern part of the Fortress matches fairly well with the interior of a magnetic and electrical structural anomaly. The rooftile distribution in the same area, however, shadows the anomaly. This discrepancy may be due to the differing use and decay patterns of the ceramics in question. As household utensils, one would expect pottery to be found inside a structure, whereas rooftiles falling off of a pitched roof would tend to cluster around the perimeter of a building. As a result, the distributions of pottery and rooftiles seem to be complementary rather than overlapping.

Considerable storage is attested by the number of amphorae and other large vessels. Storage locations may have been in the ground floors of large structures, like the barracks. The ground level in such buildings could also have served as stables (Pringle 1981:165, 405). Considering the distances to be covered by soldiers manning the Hexamilion from a central base at the Fortress, cavalry detachments would have been indispensable for communication and rapid troop movements. The presence of some horse bones, albeit from mixed contexts, suggests the presence of cavalry at the fortress (Mortensen 1995). 91

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA The other magnetic anomalies do not present such a clear relationship to the ceramics. This may be due to the features represented by the anomalies. One would not expect the kiln or the small dipoles (perhaps iron artifacts) to have the same type of functional interrelationships with domestic pottery and rooftiles that residential structures do. Several of the electrical anomalies that may represent structures correspond rather well with the LR pottery.

long term self-reliance under all circumstances. In any case, surface survey suggests the Fortress was not an isolated community in the EB period. The information provided by excavation, the geophysical survey and the surface collection contributes to our understanding of site formation in the Fortress. The surface material indicates ephemeral use of the area in the preRoman phases. Various excavations have confirmed this impression, with no structures and few artifacts located antedating the first century B.C. In the ER period, several small structures were built along the east slope, a monumental building was erected near and partly under the later west wall of the Fortress, and the arch framed the roadway at the northeast entrance into the Sanctuary. With this activity, the transformation of the site began in earnest. The surface material reflects this substantial occupation, a direct result of the increased pace of site usage.

Several concentrations of surface materials are not associated with geophysical anomalies. In such cases the surface collection data supplement the geophysical data. For example, the clusters of LR pottery in proximity to dense rooftile scatters define possible structures (compare Figures 6.21 and 6.32). By this approach two to three more structures are added to those revealed by geophysics. The overlap between the major concentration of architectural stone and LR pottery suggests the presence of a sizable structure in the center of the Fortress. This concentration of stone only partially overlaps with a dense rooftile cluster.

The most dramatic transformation of the site occurred with the construction of the Hexamilion and Fortress in the early fifth century A.D. Erecting the walls defined clear boundaries for activities and the accumulation of cultural debris. Most of the ER occupation was obscured by construction of the west Fortress wall directly over the large ER structure, the filling and leveling in the eastern sector, and the transformation of the arch into a gate. Building up this portion of the Sanctuary occurred at the expense of other sectors since many ancient structures were systematically dismantled and the blocks reused in the fortifications (Kardulias 1995b). The scatter of worked blocks and marble revetment on the surface may reflect this systematic reuse. The intensity of occupation in the fifth to seventh centuries is revealed in the amount of diagnostic material from this period. The military construction affected the archaeological record. Foundation trenches were dug, earlier deposits disturbed, and Sanctuary buildings dismantled and the stone used in the fortifications. The filling episode buried or obscured ER structures and altered the topography of the site.

Because of the paucity of geophysical surveys in the Peloponnesos, comparisons between the Isthmian Fortress and other Byzantine sites in the area must rest on excavation and surface collections. Only the latter will be dealt with here. The nearby EB Site 2 at Akra Sofia has a mean artifact density of 8.78/m2 (Gregory 1985:421) compared to Isthmia’s 37.51/m2, indicating more intensive use of the Fortress area. Comparisons with other areas further highlights the magnitude of the Fortress assemblage. Mean artifact density at Kenchreai is 7.90/m2, the Eastern Korinthia .35/m2 (Gregory 1985:421), the Thisbe Plain in Boeotia 1.68/m2, Kouveli Island in the Korinthian Gulf 2.39/m2 (Gregory 1983), and 1.81/m2 in the central Boeotian Plain (Bintliff and Snodgrass 1985:132-133). The much higher density in the Fortress is probably due to the compact nature of a military camp. The variety of material at the Fortress and Akra Sofia is quite similar. One would expect differences because the two locations had different functions. The majority of the assemblage at Isthmia is not strictly military in character. The differences are in the numbers of artifacts rather than in the categories represented. The similarity of artifact types in the Fortress to those at Akra Sofia suggests several things: (1) For the time period represented (fifth to seventh centuries A.D.), both sites had access to wide ranging trade networks, reflected in imported wares such as African Red Slip. (2) Some artifacts such as beehive fragments, and cooking ware, may indicate many of the needs of Fortress residents were met internally. Alternatively, the beehive fragments (Figure 6.27) and other items in the Fortress may represent occupation in a nonmilitary context. Even if one views the Fortress at its inception as self-sufficient in some commodities, there may still have been strong ties to other communities. The diversity of intramural materials may represent the desire to be self-sufficient when under attack or siege rather than a

There is evidence of discard behavior from this phase. The excavation of Towers 6 and 7 revealed that the bottom levels had been used as trash dumps. Artifacts found there include amphorae and cooking vessels (Broneer 1959:321). There is a question as to how this activity affected artifact distribution within the Fortress. If only certain types of material were discarded in this manner, then the surface collection would not be representative of the site as a whole. There are many amphora and coarse ware fragments in the surface assemblage, however. Perhaps not all the towers served as dumps, with much ceramic material tossed into inconspicuous areas in the compound. Some materials probably were discarded outside the walls, but the excavations along the exterior of the fortifications did not reveal any such locations. The large number of rooftiles suggests that the various structures in the Fortress (represented by extant walls and 92

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE geophysical anomalies) were abandoned and collapsed. Later occupants may have pushed aside some of this material; the largest concentration of rooftiles is along the eastern edge near Tower 4 and may be a dump. The various reconstructions and reoccupations of the Fortress mentioned by historical sources and demonstrated in the archaeological remains altered portions of the site (e. g., placing of gate and houses along the west wall). These accretions to the original fortifications act to complicate interpretation of the occupational sequence but probably stabilized older sections since blocks were repositioned and walls buttressed. The Fortress walls contained sediments effectively, decreasing the redeposition of surface material on lower elevations as a result of erosion. This has probably helped maintain the integrity of the archaeological levels. At the same time, the Hexamilion impeded the stream east of the Fortress when drainage openings became clogged after abandonment of the fortifications. This situation led to the accumulation of deep sediments that filled the channel, significantly changing the appearance of the natural topography. The continued robbing of blocks by locals, further collapse of walls, and growth of

vegetation have combined to give the Fortress its present appearance. Cultivation of the interior area has resulted in artifacts being brought to the surface and further destruction of structures by plowing. Despite the dragging of artifacts by plowing, relationships between surface material and structures are discernible. The formation of the archeological record at the Isthmian Fortress is not the straightforward result of, to use Schiffer’s (1976) terms, c-transforms creating the original pattern that was subsequently acted upon by n-transforms. Instead, there was alternating predominance of natural and cultural factors throughout the history of the site. At times of intense occupation, as in the early fifth century A.D., the human element came to the fore, but natural forces continued to be in effect. Even if one is not always able to discriminate which of the factors is responsible for some particular aspect of the archaeological record, an awareness of the interplay between them alerts the researcher to the possibility of alternative explanations for the patterns seen on and in the ground. In the next chapter I explore what these patterns may tell us about site use.

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CHAPTER 7 INTERNAL CORRELATIONS: DEVELOPMENTS AT ISTHMIA Korinthia, its sites can act as laboratories to test hypotheses proffered by archaeologists and anthropologists, and thus we can enhance the dialogue between several branches of scholarship.

Introduction The presentation of the data in the preceding chapter provides a picture of the remains in the Fortress in their current archaeological context. The next step is to place the Isthmian Fortress in its systemic context (Schiffer 1972), that is, to consider the site as a functioning element of the culture that produced and utilized this installation. I am concerned with this systemic context at several levels. First is the effort to comprehend how the Fortress and its occupants functioned as a unit, including the number of soldiers and the relationships between the various parts of the military group as represented by the different buildings and spatial associations. A second focus is the ties between the military contingent and local residents that reveal something about the role of the site in the local settlement system. The third major concern is what the extant architecture reveals about energy investment and social complexity over time. These relationships I collectively call internal correlations and deal with them in this chapter. Comparanda consist of evidence from other Roman and Byzantine military camps. In Chapter 8, I attempt to place the Isthmian Fortress in its larger context, both geographically as part of the Aegean region and culturally as part of the Byzantine sphere. The term external correlations refers to these broader implications for the Isthmian data and relates to the issue of transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Byzantine period.

Estimating population size for ancient sites is a problem many archaeologists have tackled (Cook and Treganza 1950; DeRoche 1983; Hassan 1978, 1981; Howells 1960; Kolb 1985; Sanders 1984; Schacht 1981; Sumner 1979, 1989; Weissner 1974; Welinder 1979; Zubrow 1976). The matter is important because such estimates inform our interpretations of site function, past economic organization, kinship structure, and evolution in the levels of sociopolitical integration. If we can determine the number of occupants at a site in a particular period we can make important strides in deriving the systemic context from archaeological data, that is, how did people actually use a particular space in the past. What has been said about population density of residential sites does not seem to apply to ancient fortresses. The present investigation examines historical evidence and current military regulations as two distinct sources of ethnographic analogies that, combined with archaeological data, provide a method for estimating population more appropriate to a military setting. Techniques for Estimating Population Various techniques have been proposed to estimate population size from archaeological data. Hassan (1978:55, 1981) divides these approaches into seven categories based on the types of settlement data used to make the estimate: (1) dwelling or floor space, (2) total site area, (3) number of dwellings per site, (4) number of rooms or dwellings per site, (5) number of persons per room, (6) the volume of site deposits, and (7) the number of hearths per site. Of these, I shall consider only the first two because these techniques have attracted the most attention, can be seen as opposite ends of the spatial spectrum, and the methods do not necessarily require information from excavation since surface survey and geophysical prospecting provide adequate data to make estimates. The first approach uses information from excavated households and ethnographic data to estimate the amount of floor space or living area needed by an individual. The other major approach uses total site area, instead of household or compound area, as the basis for population estimates. One of the most cited examples of the floor space approach is Naroll’s (1962) work, which involved examination of eighteen ethnographic examples. Naroll determined that the ratio of enclosed floor space per person is a relatively constant 10:1 relation (that is, each person requires 10 m2 of floor space). Cook and Heizer (1965) argue that their California data confirm Naroll’s findings. It seems that this coefficient applies

Population Estimates for the Fortress If we wish to breathe life into our reconstructions of ancient society, we must present an image of a living, vibrant community. Minimally, such formulations should provide an estimate of the number of people who lived in the villages and towns of a region, for without such data our studies remain sterile academic exercises, bereft of the human element that links past and present. We are fortunate that the Korinthia offers a wealth of information to examine demographic trends in the region. Historical and archaeological data suggest that the Korinthia was heavily populated in various periods. Even the earliest reconnaissance, reported in the first volume of the Korinth series, revealed a general increase in site number and size from the Neolithic through the Roman era (Fowler and Stilwell 1932). In the Medieval period, settlement number and extent decrease, from which information scholars adduce a concomitant reduction in population. But precisely what is the relationship between site size and population, and how can we make our estimates more accurate? In an effort to answer these questions, I draw on archaeological and historical sources. In addition, anthropology provides a broad, comparative, cross-cultural base that illuminates the search for cultural patterns in human use of the landscape. Finally, with the good documentation available for the 95

INTERNAL CORRELATIONS: DEVELOPMENTS AT ISTHMIA basically to permanent settlements with substantial houses, but would not be an accurate estimate for temporary camp shelters (Hole and Heizer 1969:307). This aspect of the Naroll coefficient is confirmed by several applications. The method proved effective in estimating population for the fortress of Qsar es Seghir, a Medieval site in Morocco with Islamic and Portuguese phases (Redman 1986:238-239), and for the Middle Bronze Age community at Phylakopi on Melos (Cherry 1979:42-43).

one for camps, to two for villages, and three for cities. Weissner’s concern is with camps of hunters and gatherers for which the Naroll coefficient provides inaccurate population estimates. The distortion is also pronounced for cities, but minimal for villages. Therefore, the Naroll approach may be applicable to the Isthmian Fortress because it fits Weissner’s definition for village type occupation (area rather evenly filled and exhibits areal instead of vertical dimensioning, that is, there are few multiple story structures such as one would find in modern cities).

LeBlanc (1971) offers a more detailed critique of the Naroll approach, though he does not abandon the basic premise. LeBlanc argues that Naroll’s coefficient is not universally applicable and should be used with caution. He suggests that to derive a general law of floor area, data are needed on the amount of roofed area and walled space, not just total floor area. What he terms the average total area per person, including areas used for storage and social activities, varies considerably in his sample of villages in Samoa, Iran, and Peru. When he isolated living space, however, the average floor area per person clustered around 10 m2. The implied proviso is that the archaeologist must be able to distinguish living space clearly from storage, ceremonial, and other kinds of space. If this can be done, Naroll’s coefficient may be a good approximation of average living space per person and can be justifiably used to estimate population size.

Ethnographic Analogy and Population Estimates General Considerations. As Fagan (1985:454) notes, the number of variables one needs to consider precludes at present the development of an infallible mechanism for estimating population from archaeological remains alone. Archaeologists regularly turn to ethnographic material and modern population data to develop indices and draw inferences, often in the form of provisos. Sumner (1989) emphasizes the need to exercise caution in the use of analogies. In addition, he points out a series of general concerns; for example, since the average floor area per person rarely falls below 8 m2, any lower figure should be accepted only when there exists substantial independent support for exceptional crowding. I suggest that military conditions are by nature “exceptional” and should consistently demonstrate low floor-area coefficients per person (i.e., crowded conditions) and high population density per site area. My ethnographic base consists of: (1) historical evidence on the Roman and Byzantine armies as summarized in Webster (1985) and Watson (1969), and (2) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers camp and barracks construction regulations (Department of the Army 1973).

A variation of the Naroll approach was adopted by Millon (1973:44 45) who concentrated on available sleeping space in the apartment complexes at Teotihuacan. He estimated size of sleeping rooms at 120 m2 and number of occupants at two to four people, yielding a generous space allotment of 30-60 m2 per person. He purposefully used conservative figures so as not to overinflate estimates of the city’s population. Kolb’s (1985) work in Mesoamerica suggests that in agricultural communities with monogamous nuclear families the dwelling area average is 6.12 m2/person; in a comment following Kolb’s article, Shea gives a figure of 5 m2/person. LeBlanc (1981) investigated the various roomarea formulae and derived a figure of 6.2 m2/person. The work of these scholars suggests the Naroll figure should be used with caution because other coefficients may provide better estimates.

Historical Analogy: Roman and Byzantine Military. The arrangement of the major structures within the Fortress that I propose (Figure 6.36) is based on the surface survey and geophysical data (see above) and on comparisons with Roman and Byzantine military camps in other parts of the Empire. In central Europe in the fourth and fifth centuries, camp layout followed traditional patterns. The principia, the administrative core of the camp, was located in the center at the intersection of the two main roads. The principia consisted of the praetorium (residence of the commanding officer), the sacellum (sanctuary of the standards), the altar of the genius of the unit, the treasury, the drill hall, and the armamentaria (arsenal). Elsewhere in the enclosure could be found the horrea (granaries), the centuriae (barracks), a hospital, workshops, and stables (Schutz 1985:28). A similar layout is evident in the sixth century Byzantine forts in North Africa (Pringle 1981:164-166) and on the Arabian frontier in Jordan (Parker 1986:60-62), except that the sacellum and altar have given way to the chapel.

The second approach, using total surface area of a site, has been used in various studies. One of the first efforts in this vein was by Cook and Treganza (1950:231-233). Their sample of California sites indicated a correlation between site area and population, but the reason for this relation was not clear. Later work (Cook and Heizer 1968) indicated that the nature of this correlation is tied to the ecological setting of a site and to social factors. In critiquing Naroll’s method, Weissner (1974) also supports the total-settlement-area approach. She argues that population cannot be a constant fraction of floor space because as population increases, the area per person decreases. Borrowing from a geographic model, Weissner recommends using the formula: Area = constant x Populationb, in which b is a fraction with the numerator always two and the denominator varying from

Webster’s (1985) study of the Roman army in the first two centuries of the Empire provides considerable information on the evolution of military camps into permanent fortresses and the adoption of standard layouts. Wherever possible,

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE the axial format was followed. Despite the variety of facilities situated in a fortress, soldiers’ barracks occupied most of the space. These barracks were often arranged in narrow rectangular blocks in pairs, a holdover, Webster believes, of the rows of tents in original campaign camps. Each contubernium, or tent group, of eight men had one room (3.7 x 4.6 m) for storage, and another (4.6 x 4.6 m = 21.16 m2, or 2.65 m2 per man; compare with Table 7.1) for sleeping. A colonnaded area ran along one long side and the sleeping quarters opened onto this walkway that, in northern Europe, was lined with wicker trash baskets. A century (usually 80 men at full strength) would have required 10 pairs of rooms, but it was common to have 11 or 12, perhaps for supple-

mental storage. In addition, the centurion’s quarters, consisting of eight or nine rooms, were appended to one end and served as the company office and storerooms, as well as the centurion’s personal chambers, complete with latrine and washroom (Webster 1985:197- 198). The large legionary camps (20-25 ha) held 50 or more barracks buildings. The auxiliary forts provide better comparanda for the Isthmian Fortress. The fortress at Caerhun in Wales encloses 1.97 ha and has at least five barrack blocks, with four other unidentified structures which may also have served as living quarters (Webster 1985:184-192, 217). The Isthmian Fortress, at 2.71 ha, could have accomodated up to 13 or 14 such barracks.

Table 7.1. Population estimates for the Isthmian Fortress in LR to EB period. ________________________________________________________________________________________ Structure Approximate Available Space Number of people 2

Size: m x m Total Floor* 1 30 x 20 2 30 x 20 3 12 x 5 4 5x5 5 15 x 10 6 6x6 7 30 x 20 8 30 x 20 9 30 x 20 10 30 x 20

in m

Naroll coef. 2

Sleeping** 1,200 1,200 60 25 150 36 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 7,471

10 m 120 120 6 3 15 4 120 120 120 120 748

500 500 60 0 150 36 500 500 500 500 3,246

Pringle coef.

2

2.7 m 185 185 22 0 3 13 185 185 185 185 1,148

2

1.8 m 278 278 33 0 3 20 278 278 278 278 1,724

* Structures 1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are assumed to have been two stories tall. Total floor space for these buildings is obtained by doubling the area from the dimensions indicated. Used in conjunction with Naroll coefficient. 2

**Sleeping space includes only available area on the second story of Structures 1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10; 100 m is subtracted to account for verandas and intervening walls. Used in conjunction with Pringle coefficients.

The organizational structure of the Late Roman and Early Byzantine army is known from several primary sources, including the anonymous De Re Strategica (Köchly and Rustow 1885). The discussions of Pringle (1981), Schutz (1985), and Gregory (1993a) on military organization are based primarily on this work. The smallest category was the contubernium, a mess group of six to eight men who occupied one room in the barracks and prepared meals together. The basic tactical unit was the numerus or tagma, comprised of four centuries of 64 men each, for a total of 256, although actual numbers varied from 100 to 500. The cavalry equivalent of the century was the turma, which consisted of half the number of men in the infantry unit. A tribune commanded one or more tagmata, while a centurion was responsible for each century. The barracks consisted of rows of contubernia, while officers occupied better quarters in separate buildings. A group of elite troops, the bucellarii, often occupied barracks in the center of the enclosure near the commander (Pringle 1981:86).

of lesser combat quality. A number of foederati, or allies (usually from various non-Romanized barbarian groups), often joined in military operations (Pringle 1981:68-69). For the Byzantine period, Pringle’s (1981:86) discussion of the barracks in the sixth century fortress at Thamugadi (.75 ha) in North Africa is instructive. Each of the eight rows of barracks contained 11 compartments, all roughly equal in size. Each row had a veranda down one side onto which each room opened. A difference with the first and second century A.D. legionary fortresses is that at Thamugadi the sleeping quarters of the contubernium were on a second floor, the ground level being occupied by storerooms or stables, whereas in northern Europe storerooms and sleeping compartments were both on the ground level. He proposes 1.8 m2 to 2.7 m2 of floor space per man in the sleeping compartments based on the evidence from Thamugadi, where the available sleeping space in the excavated barracks varied from 11 m2 to 16 m2. Pringle assumes that the typical contubernium complement of eight men in a legionary camp would have unduly crowded the troops. As a result, he suggests six men were assigned to each sleeping room (11 m2/6 men = 1.8 m2/man; 16 m2/6 men = 2.7 m2/man). Each row of barracks, then, would have held 66 men.

Another distinction in troop composition was between the comitatenses, soldiers from the regular field armies, and the limitanei, soldiers recruited from among the local provincials to serve on the frontiers and generally considered 97

INTERNAL CORRELATIONS: DEVELOPMENTS AT ISTHMIA Contemporary Analogy: Modern Military Camps. The U.S. Army regulations and specifications on barracks and camp dimensions in Technical Manual TM 5-302 (Department of the Army 1973) have been in effect since before World War II and are only now undergoing modification (Wallace Dillon, personal communication 1991). The manual is, thus, an important ethnographic source that provides precise data bearing on the issue of population estimates for military installations and can act as a check and guide for figures on ancient installations gained by other methods.

Population Estimates for the Isthmian Fortress The size and organizational structure of the Fortress garrison can be estimated by several different approaches. Some of these approaches require estimates of available roofed floor space in buildings. Table 7.1 presents the area and floor space for the buildings discussed above, including the hypothetical barracks abutting on the Fortress walls. The available-floor-space figure assumes that all barracks were two stories tall, the lower for storage or stables, the upper occupied by soldiers. Those buildings represented by one wall (e. g., Structures 4 and 5) are assumed to be square in plan and one story in height.

The standard U.S. Army 50-man barracks for enlisted men measures 100 x 20 ft, or 30.48 x 6.096 m (185.81 m2), using a conversion factor of one foot = .3048 m. Following Millon (1973) this figure can be used to determine the sleeping area per man: 185.81 m2/50=3.72 m2/person. This figure is substantially below the Naroll coefficient but somewhat larger than those offered by Pringle (1981) for Byzantine forts in North Africa. If we do not include the space for heaters in the barracks, the area is reduced to 163.885 m2, and sleeping area is 3.28 m2/person. In a close-confinement 25-man barracks (50 x 20 ft), the total floor-space allotment is the same (3.72 m2/person), but when one considers only the sleeping space in 10 small rooms (45.336 m2), the figure drops to 1.81 m2/person. This figure corresponds precisely with Pringle’s estimate under crowded conditions and probably was in effect only in periods of duress when ancient (and modern) armies needed to mass large numbers of men to confront some crisis. Under normal conditions the allotment of 2.7 m2/person that Pringle suggests seems reasonable, even though the modern figure exceeds it by .58 m2/person, an understandable increase if we consider the larger average stature of modern populations and the amount of equipment and clothing American soldiers generally possess.

As a starting point, Naroll’s (1962) figure of 10 m2/person of floor space is used to calculate a population for the Fortress (see Table 7.1). This floor space includes all roofed areas, that is, sleeping quarters, storage areas, corridors, and nonresidential space. Such floor-space figures should also consider enclosed courtyards that were not roofed but would still have been important, especially in the warm months of the year when much activity could have been conducted out of doors. Since such areas can not be discerned from the Fortress data, only roofed floor space is used. The population estimate from the Naroll coefficient must thus be viewed as a conservative figure. Perhaps more appropriate in this context is the approach followed by Pringle (1981:86), discussed above. The occupants per building and totals for the whole Fortress at Isthmia based on Pringle’s coefficients are also presented in Table 7.1. No estimates are given for Building 4 since it seems to be associated with production (forge) or storage (arsenal). The elaborate construction of Structure 5 suggests it may have been part of the headquarters complex, perhaps the residence of the commander (praetorium) or other officers, and thus would have been much less crowded. It is assumed here that the occupants of this structure would require at least five times more space per individual than common soldiers and the totals reflect the difference; the number of residents for Structure 5 is arbitrarily set at a low figure of three.

Whereas the sleeping-area figures for modern and ancient conditions correspond rather closely, estimates of people per hectare differ considerably. In the Early Imperial period (first-second centuries A.D.), legionary camps, with 5,000 to 6,000 men, varied in size from 8 to 25 ha (625750 men/ha to 200-240 men/ha). On the Arabian frontier in the Late Roman period (fourth-sixth centuries A.D.), Parker (1986:63) suggests between 1,000 and 1,500 troops occupied the fortress at Lejjun (4.6 ha), so that density was between 217 men/ha and 326 men/ha. Technical Manual 5-302 (Department of the Army 1973) gives the dimensions of a 250-man camp as 500 x 670 ft, for an area of 3.1 ha and a density of 81 men/ha. The 500-man camp is 965 ft long, with a width of either 720 or 890 ft (6.45 and 7.98 ha, respectively), and has a density of 78 men/ha or 63 men/ha. The significant reduction in density in the modern era is probably due to a combination of factors, including the additional space required for mechanized equipment, the mobility that such equipment affords to aggregate quickly troops where needed, and the need to minimize casualties from aerial and artillery bombardment by scattering units over more terrain.

Gregory (1993a) has provided another population estimate for the Fortress based on another portion of Pringle’s (1981) work. The Isthmian Fortress, at 2.71 ha, falls in the intermediate range of Pringle’s list that rank orders all the Byzantine North African forts. Based on this and several related factors, including proximity to but not incorporation into a large population center, Gregory (1993a:131) suggests the Fortress may have held a maximum force of 2,000 men. This yields a density of 738 people/ha (2000/2.71), far beyond the range of other estimates for even large historic settlements. Russell (1958:64-66), in a detailed demographic survey of Europe and circum-Mediterranean regions in Late Antiquity (fourth to seventh centuries A.D.) and Medieval times, provides estimates of 160 people/ha for ancient Pompeii, 250-350 people/ha for imperial Rome, and 200 people/ha for Constantinople in the fifth century. Other

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE studies have suggested the figure of 200 people/ha as a mean density for Middle Eastern villages (Adams 1965) and Aegean settlements (Renfrew 1972b). Sumner’s (1979) work in Iran indicates this figure can fluctuate dramatically, from 66 to 293 people/ha in one region, depending on the size of the settlement, amount of open space, and presence of livestock within village walls, among other factors. All of these studies, however, focused on civilian settlements. Based on the evidence of Roman camps in Europe, troops were much more crowded than their civilian counterparts. For example, Webster (1985:171) notes that a legion (operational strength of 5,000 men) often camped in an area of ca. 8 ha, as at Reycross in England; such conditions provide a density of 625 people/ha. This figure highlights the difference between military camps and residential settlements and underscores the need to be careful in the application of ethnographic analogy. Based on the evidence provided by Webster (1985), Gregory’s (1993a:131) estimate of 2,000 men in the Isthmian garrison should be seen as an ultimate limit, but one that is at least plausible in a military context.

pable of checking the advance of various invaders. As a result, they were replaced by comitatenses. Gregory (1993a:132) believes the situation was the same at Isthmia. One can argue that it would not have made much sense for the state to undertake expensive projects, such as the construction of the Hexamilion and Fortress, only to leave defense of these fortifications in the hands of local militias. I suggest that in the fifth, sixth, and perhaps in the seventh centuries, when southern Greece faced invasions or raids in force by formidable barbarian groups, such as Slavs, Avars, and Goths, the task of holding the key defenses along the Isthmus was entrusted to contingents of comitatenses aided by locals. At other times, when threats to security were less severe, the locals could probably have defended their territory without the aid of imperial troops. Osteological analysis indicates that of 25 burials in various parts of the Fortress, nine represent adult females and 10 are subadults. Such a distribution suggests the possibility that the soldiers at various times were limitanei who took up residence with their families inside the Fortress (Rife 2005). Rife and Giesen (1994) compared a number of crania from an Archaic-Classical (sixth-fifth century B.C.) cemetery at Isthmia and the Fortress (fourth-sixth century A.D. contexts); they found no statistical difference between the two assemblages, and suggest that the people from these two time periods exhibit considerable biological affinity. This finding might suggest that the troops that manned the Fortress were drawn from local stock, that is, limitanei. Lease (1994) examined skeletal material from the Fortress for evidence of stress (trauma, lesions, malnutrition) that might indicate general difficulties for the Late Antique population as the result of political, social, and economic disruption. Although many skeletons exhibit abnormalities, including arthritis and healed fractures, the results of this study were not conclusive due to small sample size.

Use of the Naroll (1962) coefficient does not seem to be appropriate in this case since one would expect a military installation to exhibit more crowding than a civilian settlement. The discrepancies in figures derived using different aspects of Pringle’s (1981) work reflect estimates based on the living space within structures on the one hand (as in Table 7.1) and on the total size of the Fortress on the other hand (i.e., Gregory’s estimate of 2,000 men). LeBlanc’s (1981) figure of 6.2 m2/person yields an estimate of 1,200 men, and is closer to figures derived by other methods. A fair estimate would place the size of the Early Byzantine garrison at between 1,200 and 2,000 men. Using the density figure of 625 men/ha derived from Webster (1985), the Fortress could have held 1,694 soldiers. This number corresponds closely to the figure of 1,724 derived by using the 1.8 m2/man Pringle coefficient for sleeping area and can be taken as a reasonable upper limit that probably would have been reached only when a significant threat to the security of the Peloponnesos was imminent. The presence of cavalry would have lowered troop strength since a detachment of horsemen required about twice the space as an equal number of infantry, primarily to shelter their mounts (Pringle 1981:88). On the methodological plane, these figures indicate that estimates based on sleeping area and site area can correspond. Schacht (1981) urges careful consideration of the geographical area and type of site during the period under examination to enhance the quality of results from the site-area approach. The example of Isthmia stands as a case in point.

Another important consideration is how the Fortress fit into the settlement scheme in the region. The comitatenses would have required substantial support from surrounding communities to fulfill their needs. The soldiers could provide some of their own food by farming the surrounding fields south of the Hexamilion, keeping domestic animals and bees and gardening inside the Fortress, but when a full complement of up to 1,700 men was stationed at Isthmia such efforts would not have sufficed. Local farmers would have had to provide food, while merchants, artisans and workmen offered other necessary products and services such as pottery, metal artifacts, leather and wood materials, and labor for various projects. Facilities and personnel at Korinth and other towns probably supplied a considerable share of these goods and services. A system of rural villas, such as the one at nearby Akra Sofia (Gregory 1985), could also have provided a substantial number of goods, especially agricultural items. Such villae rusticae were an important part of the economic support system elsewhere in the Empire (Dyson 1979; Schutz 1985:139), and there is some evidence for a similar phe-

Based on the figures derived above, the garrison in the Fortress in the fifth century consisted of at least four, and perhaps as many as eight, tagmata. With four tagmata (ca. 1,000 men) to a legion by the Late Roman period, there may have been one or two legions stationed at Isthmia (Gregory 1993a:131). As to the composition of the troops, the Early Byzantine historian Procopius (1961:IV.2.14) states that soldiers manning the fortifications at Thermopylae prior to Justinian’s reign were local farmers who proved to be inca-

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INTERNAL CORRELATIONS: DEVELOPMENTS AT ISTHMIA nomenon in Greece in Late Roman and Early Byzantine times (Gregory 1984).

ing back to the Bronze Age. In addition, the number of houses in the East Field and on Rachi and the industrial facilities in the latter area point to residential and commercial facets. To say that ancient Isthmia was exclusively concerned with religious and athletic activities is misleading. Although ceremonial activities were certainly important, these did not exist in isolation and must be viewed in light of other cultural activity that supported the ritual events.

Ferrill (1986:79-83) states that the Roman army depended on a complex logistical system of support. While state factories produced most arms and clothing, food for the army was grown on imperial land, purchased on the open market, and raised by the soldiers. In the Late Empire the troops themselves provided a substantial portion of the food consumed by the army (MacMullen 1963; Ferrill 1986:82-83). Haldon (1990:11) argues that many Byzantine settlements received most essential materials from their immediate hinterlands. It is interesting to note that the land inside and around the Fortress today is still largely devoted to agriculture. While the surface and geophysical surveys provide little direct evidence of how a garrison provisioned itself, excavation data offer some important insights. The excavators took no flotation samples during the major seasons of work up to 1980, but they did collect many animal bones. Mortensen (1995) used the faunal remains to construct a model of animal exploitation at the site. She identified the bones of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, chickens, pigs, and rabbits in the assemblage. To explain the context within which Fortress residents used these animals, she devised two complementary models, one for military and the other for non-military inhabitants. In brief, she conjectured that the presence of many juvenile animal remains and many meat-rich elements, along with correspondingly few trimming elements (e. g., scapulae, proximal femur fragments) would reflect military use of animals. She argued that these features would hold if the surrounding communities provided butchered meat to the installation as often happened with permanent fortifications. In contrast, a higher proportion of adult remains and greater variability in the faunal assemblage would be evidence of civilian presence. Mortensen found that the pattern in the Fortress was civilian in nature and suggested that the material either reflects the presence of non-military squatters or limitanei who were self-sufficient, at least in terms of meat procurement (see also Chapter 8 on this issue).

In a similar vein, the site was more than just a military installation after the fortifications were erected. As political stability deteriorated and foreign invasions occurred, people in the region adapted to these changes, emphasizing defense more than they had for some centuries. The buildings of the Sanctuary were sacrificed to this pressing need. The purpose of the Fortress resulting from this activity was twofold: (1) To house the garrison that manned the Hexamilion, and (2) to provide a strong point and area of final refuge (Gregory 1993a). When the immediate threat receded, however, the Fortress became the site of domestic occupation. Military and domestic use of the Fortress alternated, and perhaps coincided at times, for a number of centuries. The role of economic activities under these conditions has already been described above. The major point in this discussion is that the determinants of site use are practical matters that impinge equally on all time periods. The differences we see reflected in the buildings of the Sanctuary and the Fortress do not represent a change in basic human approaches to problem solving. The largely ceremonial nature of the Sanctuary in antiquity, at least at one level of interpretation, was underlain by a stratum of practical considerations. The pragmatic elements are perhaps more evident in viewing the fortifications, but such factors were present before as well. When cultural and historical circumstances required a shift in the types of activity emphasized, the inhabitants of the region responded by adjusting the use of the site in a way to meet their immediate needs better. Whether Isthmia served as a Sanctuary or a military base depended on responses to perceived needs and not necessarily some fundamental shift in mental orientation from ethereal, aesthetic considerations to entirely practical defensive ones. The Sanctuary had served economic and residential functions as well as religious ones. The Fortress provided some outlets for ritual in the form of the presumed chapel and religious graffiti on walls (Gregory 1993a:93, 98, 96, 100-101, 120) and also served a domestic function at different times. The key is that people in various periods could focus on activities they deemed to be of prime importance, although a wide range of cultural behavior is evident.

The final topic of discussion in elaborating the role of the site is to examine changes in site usage through time. This is undertaken by means of an evolutionary perspective. Elements of this viewpoint are evident in the preceding discussion on the economic role of the site. At a superficial level, the construction of the fortifications in the fifth century A.D. can be viewed as separating occupation of the site into two distinct periods: the earlier Sanctuary phase when site activities focused on ritual and athletics, and the later military phase when defense was the major concern. Some see such changes as indicative of a major transformation that signals the end of pagan Classical civilization. Upon closer examination, this simple dichotomy does not seem tenable.

Conclusion The results of this demographic study lead to two key conclusions. First, at the general level, I simply would echo the cautionary statements of Schacht (1981), Sumner (1989), and many others that one must exercise caution in the use of analogies as the basis for population estimates. Judicious use of the ethnographic literature, and of data garnered by

Throughout its long history, the site of Isthmia served a variety of functions. The various ancient fortification walls described in Chapter 4 indicate a concern with defense go-

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE ethnoarchaeological research, will strengthen the inferential base from which one makes such estimates. The basic question researchers must ask is the following: To what degree is the contemporary example commensurate with the ancient setting to which we will attempt to extend the findings of our work? To the extent that we can establish a strong link between the ethnographic and the archaeological data, we will augment the reliability of our interpretations.

We live in a developing world, and the only justification for architecture is its connection with the overall evolution of society. For our purposes we may define this as the expression of all the forces which influence the creation of buildings, bearing in mind that the architect is conditioned by economic as well as by aesthetic, by social as well as by technical, by political as well as by cultural considerations. If we view architecture as a part of the overall development taking place around us we shall understand how much it is conditioned by environmental factors, factors that must seriously be taken into account [Doxiadis 1963:88].

Second, at the specific level, I believe military sites provide us with both unique and patterned conditions. It seems clear from this study that even the most crowded civilian settlement is spacious by comparison with army installations, so that typical residences are not good analogues for military ones. The idiosyncrasies of military camps, however, seem to maintain some consistency through time, at least in terms of the amount of sleeping space allotted to each person. In this case, the inhabitants-per-site-area approach for estimating population is less viable than the sleeping-area method because of historical changes in military technology. In conditions of close confinement, the sleeping area per person is 1.8 m2, and under normal conditions 2.7-3.7 m2 per person. These figures are up to 2.8 times less than the rather small amount of 5 m2 Shea (in Kolb 1985) derives for modern Mesoamerican villagers. Perhaps a closer examination of the ethnographic record will reveal other such situations that will require reassessment of current techniques that attempt to determine the number of inhabitants at ancient sites.

Doxiadis’ concern is with the need to adapt modern architecture and city layout to the requirements of twentieth century life, but his ideas are applicable to earlier periods, in particular the notion that buildings reflect the political and economic fortunes of a society. He contends that one of the major differences between the ancient and modern architects is that the former was concerned only with a single settlement, while his modern counterpart has regional and national concerns (Doxiadis 1963:97). Here I believe Doxiadis seriously underestimates the role played by the ancient builder. As many historians have demonstrated, military and civilian structures in national building programs often exhibited considerable integration in planning and function. This issue aside, Doxiadis (1968:21-22) offers a comprehensive approach. He views human settlements as four-dimensional entities, with time as the essential complement to spatial attributes. This evolutionary perspective encompasses individual and social change and underlines his concern with the development of settlements over time. Doxiadis stresses the examination of the physical layout of a settlement in order to gain insight into the significant human interactions contained within it.

Energy and Architecture In this section I explore the transformation at Isthmia in terms of energy and architecture. I do not deny that change occurred, but rather argue that we must view the Late Antique-Early Byzantine transition as a process not unlike what transpired before and after in the area. As Sallares (1991:70) notes, it is important to distance oneself from static notions of population structure (and, by implication, other untenable models of total stability); we should expect demographic change due to shifting environmental and social conditions: “The aim is to wean the reader away from the idea... that stability of population in the Mediterranean is normal and to be expected” (Sallares 1990:70). I suggest that such fluctuations in population certainly had an impact on energy expended on architecture.

Trigger (1990) offers an important assessment of the role architecture plays in socio-political complexity. He notes that monumental architecture, the scale and ornamentation of which often exceed necessary functional requirements, is uniformly present in all complex societies. In addition, he observes that while people attempt to minimize their expenditure of energy in attaining their goals, large-scale architecture seems to be wasteful and appears to obviate a purely materialist explanation of the phenomenon. But there is a solution to the conundrum. Trigger (1990:126) suggests that conspicuous consumption in the form not only of architecture but also of burial rituals, art, calendrics, and other elements did serve a very practical function: all of these things represented a massive energy investment that demonstrated and reinforced the social distance separating the upper and lower classes. To the elite, the expenditure of energy in large public buildings served the function of solidifying its preeminent position.

Architecture and Evolution Some researchers have applied a number of evolutionary principles to architecture, thus allowing us to evaluate the humanly constructed environment in a dynamic fashion. While there is an extensive literature on this subject, I concentrate on the work of several key scholars. The architect and city-planner Doxiadis (1968) coined the term “ekistics” to describe his efforts to understand human settlements as integrated wholes. In his view, architecture responds to the changing needs a society faces:

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Figure 7.1. Plan of the central part of the Roman Sanctuary (after Broneer 1973; reprinted by permission of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens). Abrams (1989, 1994) provides an explicit statement of the importance of architecture in the study of cultural evolution. Like Trigger, he focuses on the energy involved in construction as an indicator of societal complexity. In a very clear statement he proposes to “describe and explain the process of changing energy expenditure in architecture through time” (Abrams 1989:53). Since the control of energy resources can be measured objectively, it is possible to compare the relative status of societal complexity at different times or between different groups (Cheek 1986:50). For example, a decline in the construction of monumental buildings should mirror the collapse of a complex cultural system. To operationalize this approach archaeologically, one must translate energy into architectural equivalents. One of the most basic means of accomplishing this goal is to determine work rates and person/days expended in the construction of particular structures. Erasmus (1965) and Abrams (1994) conducted a series of timed experiments in Mexico and their figures provide a baseline for measuring energy invested in large-scale architecture. Table 7.2 provides a summary of their estimates for the energy expenditure required to prepare certain architectural elements; the figures from Erasmus’ (1965) study incorporate procurement, transportation, and construction costs.

Energy and Architecture at Isthmia The estimation of energy investment in architecture at Isthmia provides a quantified measure of resource expenditure. From an evolutionary standpoint, a society that wastes its resources on non-essential activities in a period of stress (i. e., fluctuating environment), or that misapplies resources in an effort to address a known problem, undermines its own viability. Strategic choices about the allocation of resources have a major impact on the form of a particular social structure. Abrams (1989:57) notes that heavy investment in monumental public architecture is a sign of emerging statelevel polities. I would add that such investment also tells us about the maintenance of complex societies. The purpose of this exercise is to evaluate and compare the conditions at Isthmia in the Early Roman period (firstsecond centuries A.D.), when there was general stability in the Empire, and in the early fifth century A.D. after a period of political and economic upheaval. Some scholars argue that significant changes occurred in the fifth century A.D., but a consensus seems to be emerging that the critical period was the seventh century (Haldon 1990). While the latter period certainly was a time of significant change, 102

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE structures because work in the center of the Sanctuary represents a concentrated effort to reestablish cult activity after a period of disuse (Broneer 1973:67), and thus is most equivalent to the intense building that characterized the construction of the Fortress; in addition, information is incomplete about many of the other buildings. To balance this limited focus for the Early Roman period, I calculate figures for the Fortress wall only, and omit consideration of the numerous, but incompletely preserved, structures in the interior, the defensive outworks, and the massive Hexamilion. For the purposes of this type of analytical comparison, the units of study are acceptably comparable. Another important consideration is the number of years during which people erected the various structures. Major building programs in the Roman Sanctuary covered a period of about 170 years, from the late first century B.C. when construction resumed under the auspices of the Roman colony at Korinth (Broneer 1973:67-68), to the time of Pausanias’ visit (ca. A.D. 160). The Fortress, on the other hand, was built over a period of several years (ca. five years for the whole Hexamilion system). The gradual vs. intense nature of these respective activities suggests differential concentration of resources in the periods under consideration. Military exigencies almost certainly dictated massive allocation of resources for building the Fortress; the fact that the state could marshal such quantities of materials and manpower quickly is in itself an indication of its continuing power.

similar events marked the late fourth and early fifth centuries A.D. Alaric’s raid into the Peloponnesos in A.D. 395 may have triggered the collapse of Isthmia as a major pagan Sanctuary (Beaton and Clement 1976). Thus, the shift that Haldon (1990) identifies was in part based on trends that developed earlier. In addition, it is clear that the nature of the site changed significantly between the two periods represented in the following analysis. The Early Roman sanctuary gave way to the Late Roman/Early Byzantine military complex. I intend to demonstrate that energy investment in the two periods was essentially unchanged despite the shift in emphasis. As a result, I argue for system maintenance in the fifth century despite significant differences in the outward appearance of the site. Most historians now agree that imperial institutions were still firmly in place in the Eastern Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries. The present study proposes some additional support for this view in terms of monumental public construction at one site (Table 7.3). Table 7.2. Work rates based on timed experiments. After Erasmus (1965) and Abrams (1989). The figures refer to the number of person-days (p-d) required to accomplish particular tasks. For example, 5.25 p-d are needed to build 1 m3 of rubble masonry; the rate includes the time needed to procure, transport, and prepare the raw materials and to undertake the actual construction. The figures for sculpted stone and shaped wood surfaces refer only to the manufacturing stage. The other factors are selfexplanatory.

Table 7.3 displays the figures derived for the Sanctuary. I took measurements for the various structures from Broneer (1973). Wherever reconstructed heights or thicknesses were not provided, I used the preserved dimension, so that the estimates must be viewed as conservative. For purposes of differentiating work rates, I consider entablature pieces as sculpted blocks that require considerably more time to complete than plain building blocks. Estimates of roof construction include time to erect the timber frame and put on ceramic tiles; I use Abrams’ formula (1989) for the construction of a grass roof, so the figures are conservative. The road consists of a bed of crushed stone across the length of the sacred area. The pits in the Palaimonion are rectangular holes with crude stone linings; the figures reflect the time needed to dig the pits and position the stones. Pausanias (1964:II.1.7-9; II.2.1) mentions 21 statues of gods and other mythological figures, and also notes that an unspecified number of portrait statues of athletes lined one side of the Sanctuary. Sturgeon (1987:9) suggests that the 10 statue bases along the north side of the Sanctuary may be those Pausanias noted for the athletes; in addition, she identifies Roman-period fragments that represent another 33 statues (Sturgeon 1987:131-155) for a total of 64 statues, although there almost certainly were more (see Drees [1968] for a discussion of the number of statues at Olympia, another Panhellenic sanctuary). The discovery of Phidias’ atelier at Olympia (Drees 1968) and the workshop at Nemea where bronze statues were cast (Miller 1990:63) supplement the limited evidence for the production of statuary at Isthmia (Rostoker and Gebhard 1980). Scranton (1969:32-33) noted that the wages paid to sculptors who prepared the figures

______________________________________________________ Activity Person-days000000000000 Rubble masonry 5.25 p-d/m3 Finished masonry 12.25 p-d/m3 Sculpted stone surface 3 p-d/1000 cm2 Shaped wood surface 8.3 p-h/m2 Grass roof construction p-d=2.95+.16(area) Rooftile production Making tiles 1 p-d/100 tiles Firing 2 p-d/500 tiles Excavating soil 1 p-d/m300000000000000

For this quantitative comparison I concentrate on the central part of the Roman Sanctuary and the Early Byzantine Fortress (Figure 1.3). I calculate energy expenditure in persondays (p-d) of work, based on the timed experiments conducted by Erasmus (1965) and Abrams (1989, 1994:41-55). Since the structures in the Sanctuary represent different periods of occupation, not all are included in the present analysis. I calculated estimates for the stoas that formed the temenos boundaries, the Palaimonion complex, and several smaller features (Figure 7.1). I excluded the Temple of Poseidon because the structure dates to the fourth century B.C., and, despite maintenance costs, the main resource expenditure falls well outside the Early Roman period. Roman construction at the site also included the Bath, Theater, renovation of the Later Stadium, and several building complexes east of the temenos. I do not consider these other 103

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Table 7.3. Energy expenditure in the central part of the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia during the Roman period. In the central column, the first figures indicate the volume or area of the particular material from each structure (left column) as calculated from data in Broneer (1973); the second figures indicate the work rates for dealing with the material (see Table 7.2). The third column (far right) gives the estimated p-d required to accomplish each of the tasks; figures are rounded to the nearest whole number. For columns and entablature, the first line provides the energy required to provide blanks or blocks, and the second line indicates the time needed to carve the pieces into the final form. Estimates for the number of rafters, beams, and rooftiles are based on reconstructions in Broneer (1973).

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Table 7.3, continued.

(each of which was ca. two feet high) for the Erechtheion frieze in the fifth century B.C. was 60 drachmas. At a typical wage of one drachma per day, each figure required sixty p-d. Since most of the statues at Isthmia were life-size, I multiplied the p-d estimate by six (three times higher and two times wider to equal a life-size statue) to compensate for the increased mass of each piece; I estimate 360 p-d for each statue. I also estimate that each commemorative stela and decorative inscribed block required one-fourth the effort of a lifesize statue. A number of such stelae must have adorned the Sanctuary. Two stelae (Clement 1974) and three intricately carved entablature blocks were reused as paving slabs in the road through the Northeast Gate (total of five pieces).

Fortress reflects only the most visible part of the military complex, and excludes the numerous internal structures (up to ten large buildings; see Kardulias 1992 and above), the Hexamilion, and temporary structures erected in the ancient temenos (Broneer 1973:96-98). Although not exactly equivalent, the central Roman Sanctuary and the Fortress provide bases for comparison. The p-d figures suggest a heavier building investment in the fifth century than in the second century A.D. This situation speaks directly to the issue of societal maintenance and change. While the functions of these buildings certainly differed, the massive investment in the Fortress is a clear indication of the ability to marshal substantial resources, and, thus, suggests the continued existence of a complex centralized political organization, as some historians have noted (Haldon 1990). In constructing the fortifications, the Early Byzantine decision-makers altered the external form and function of buildings at the site; as conditions played out over the next 150 years, their choice proved to have adaptive significance as the Korinthia withstood a series of assaults. In the difficult period of the seventh century, the site witnessed yet another shift as people took up residence in the ruins of the Bath and the Fortress (Gregory 1993b).

Table 7.4 presents the figures for the Fortress. While there is some variation in wall thickness, Gregory (1993a:135) states the average is 2.30 m, which represents ca. eight Roman feet, of which the ashlar blocks make up 1.2 m (.6 m on either side) and a cemented rubble core the remaining 1.1 m. I calculated separately the work rates for the curtain walls and the towers because of the differences in height and the space necessary for the stair wells and storage sections in the towers. Although the towers differ somewhat in configuration, based on Gregory (1993a:155) I used a minimal figure of 6 m per side; height to the fighting platform was 9 m, and the parapet wall rose 2 m above that. On wall sections between towers, height to the fighting platform was 5.7 m, with an additional 2 m on the outer face for the parapet wall (Gregory 1993a:135). The wall perimeter measures 728 m.

There is clearly a decline in construction at Isthmia in this period, but people continued to use available structures. The imperial government contracted its efforts in peripheral areas like Isthmia, but expended substantial energy at major centers such as Thessaloniki and Constantinople. This realignment of priorities was a reaction to political and military realities. That the Byzantine state was able to withstand considerable external pressure, in the form of raids and large-scale attacks by Slavs, Persians, and Arabs, and to expand in subsequent centuries reflects the cultural resilience modeled in Figure 1.4. Evolutionary theory informs us that change is part of a continuum of human behavior. What we see at Isthmia is that the socio-political core was essentially unchanged between the second and the fifth centuries despite decisions to invest in different types of public architecture. Energy investment clearly drops in the

The figure of 74,783 p-d required for the construction of the main portions of the Roman-era Sanctuary does not include all of the features in the area bounded by the temenos wall. I omitted both other known structures and features (the Bath, water lines, Theater and Stadium from the Roman period, and the Byzantine Hexamilion) and buildings known only from a reference on an inscription (Broneer 1973:113) to maintain a level of comparability. So the energy expenditure figure from Table 7.3 represents only the core of the Roman sanctuary. Similarly, the energy estimate for the

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Table 7.4. Work estimates for the construction of the Isthmian Fortress. The central column gives volume of material, derived from data in Gregory (1993a), multiplied by the work rate. The p-d estimates are rounded to the nearest whole number. ________________________________________________________________________________ Feature P-D Curtain walls without towers Rubble 4,552.02 m3 x 5.25 23,898 Finished masonry 5,842.86 m3 x 12.25 71,575 Towers (n=19) Rubble Finished masonry Total

1,244.88 m3 x 5.25 3,570.48 m3 x 12.25

seventh century, with no evidence of monumental construction at Isthmia, but substantial use of the site continued, as reflected by the considerable quantities of “Slavic” pottery found in the Fortress and the Bath (Gregory 1993b). What we see, then, is a “decline” in architectural investment, but a continuity in site usage. Conclusion This chapter uses the evidence to tell us something about the people who inhabited the site and the region in question. This excursion into the historical demography of the Isthmian Fortress has attempted to place that site in its cultural regional context. The site did not exist in isolation. The number of people resident in the installation certainly had a significant impact on regional agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial activity. As representatives of the central government, they

6,536 43,738 145,747

symbolized the political concerns of the imperial polity. The troops probably played both disruptive and constructive roles during their stay. Also, with additional study we should be able to go beyond just the population estimates and provide a demographic profile of the site’s, and region’s, inhabitants, with figures for life expectancy, gender ratios, nutritional levels, and general health. Interpretations of the observed patterns will still require substantial inferential leaps, but these hypotheses will spring from more solid foundations. The goal is to envision the inhabitants of the region as actively involved in a living, interactive system (see Rife 2005). The population estimates and the rudimentary analysis of architectural energetics attempted here are a starting point toward that goal. Past human occupants have left their signature on the Korinthian landscape. It is up to us to develop the means to read and understand that sometimes faint, but still indelible, mark.

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CHAPTER 8 EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION That city life in the Byzantine Empire changed in some important ways, especially in the sixth to eighth centuries, is not disputed here. In some parts of the Empire, population shifts occurred and influenced municipal administration and the system of land holding, among other things. These changes are often viewed in pejorative terms, as examples of cultural impoverishment (Foss 1972, 1975, 1977, 2002; Kazhdan 1954; Kazhdan and Cutler 1982). In some sense, this perspective may be correct, but it does not fully address the question of why the changes occurred. Typically, factors such as foreign invasion and economic decline are identified as the culprits. While not denying these elements a significant role, I suggest examining some of the alterations as the result of the Byzantines making choices in an effort to enhance their survival, as Tainter’s (1988) model suggests. The de-emphasis of certain aspects of urban life (e. g., loss of administrative autonomy) can then be viewed as part of a contemporary solution to problems. I agree with Tainter (1988) that one can think of collapse as a return to a simpler, and thus less expensive, political and economic system.

Introduction This section considers the larger problem of the fate of urban culture at the end of antiquity. In Chapter 5, I framed the discussion of this issue in terms of the opposed models of continuity and discontinuity. I make an effort here to assess which side of the controversy the Isthmian data support, or if some intermediate position is more tenable. The critical question deals with the degree to which Isthmia reflects the retention of urban characteristics in the period that is commonly considered the end of Classical civilization and the beginning of the Medieval era, that is, the fifth through the seventh centuries. This task entails a closer look at the arguments of some key scholars concerning the role of cities and how this role changed during the period in question and examination of the position of the Isthmian Fortress in a supra-regional defensive plan and settlement system. The Historical Problem of Byzantine Urban Collapse or Continuity

As an example of how the two approaches differ, Foss’ (1972, 1976) treatment of conditions in Sardis can be critiqued. His viewpoint receives considerable attention below because it was adopted by many Byzantinists in the 1970s, but has been severely criticized by scholars since (Trombley 1985a; Russell 2001). The following discussion is not meant to be a point by point analysis of Foss’ thesis. It is intended to present some of the key problems with his perspective and thus provide a venue for alternate interpretations.

The political structure in the Empire during the EB period suggests certain similarities with the LR phase. Cities and towns maintained a significant position as administrative centers in the EB period. The municipal administrative councils, composed of the local aristocracy, had eroded by the late sixth century, but a governing structure continued to exist in some form (Cameron 1993:168). The imperial government concerned itself with a number of activities (e. g., tax collection, administration of justice, regulating certain aspects of the economy, construction of large public works), as demonstrated by legal codes. The primary concern of the central administration vis-à-vis the provinces came to be defense (see Sarris 2002). Whereas in the early centuries of the Principate, defensive measures primarily concerned the frontiers along the perimeter of Roman territory, by the fourth century the government had to deal with barbarian incursions into the very heartland of the Empire. The defensive measures formerly reserved for the frontiers were brought to bear in Greece, Asia Minor, and elsewhere (Luttwak 1976). If the state was to be preserved, such efforts had to be directed by the central government so that there was a coherent plan. In some instances, these activities by the government superseded local authority. Rather than necessarily viewing such events as negative because the municipal structure suffered, these adjustments by the central government can be seen as a vigorous response in a crisis period that created the basis for the long standing ability of the Byzantine state to survive a number of serious challenges (Diehl 1957:48-49).

Foss (1972:407, 1976:56) argues that there was a drastic reduction in the population of Sardis and the surrounding area as a result of the Persian invasion of the early seventh century. He bases this contention on the abandonment of large public buildings and the reduced area of the city as seen by a shorter circuit wall. As a result, he says, there were simply not enough residents left to maintain the urban culture that had characterized antiquity. While the Urban Survey Project examined the immediate environs of Sardis (Greenewalt et al. 1983:28-37), there has been no systematic regional archaeological survey, and so the location of Byzantine settlements is not known with any great degree of certainty (Hanfmann and Foss 1983:13-15). An alternative to reduction in population in the Sardian plain might have been a shift to a dispersed settlement pattern as a means of surviving the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh and eighth centuries. The impact of constant raids could then have been diffused among a

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION population more widely distributed. Large population centers would have been natural targets for the invaders, and the repeated capture or destruction of such nodes would have crippled administration, communication, and the economy. If the various facilities were dispersed, at least some portion of the regional system could continue to function. There are historical examples of such a response to military incursion. During the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), residents of several states abandoned their villages and dispersed to a variety of smaller more isolated settlements when federal troops invaded their regions (Lewis 1963:232; Womack 1970:254, 276). Obviously, resolution of this issue in the region of Sardis must await accumulation of the appropriate data. The dispersed settlement model is offered as another possibility, one that considers the role of the Byzantines as active participants in the events of the period. With the current lack of data, either hypothesis may be viable.

(Kaegi 1982), located in regions that were conquered rather than just raided, as was Anatolia. An examination of some of the key evidence Foss uses to date the destruction of Sardis is warranted because he sees this incident as a prime example of the decline of city life in most of western Anatolia. Foss (1975) unequivocally assigns all destruction levels of major Late Antique structures at Sardis and elsewhere to the period of the Persian incursion based on numismatic evidence. His major point is that the paucity of coins struck after A.D. 615/616 recovered in the Sardis excavations illuminates a sudden economic collapse. Foss then associates the collapse of large public buildings with this date (A.D. 616) and assumes the Persians were responsible both for the economic disruption leading to reduction in coinage and the razing of the city. Individual finds comprise most of the numismatic evidence. Foss also discusses coin hoards that he believes were buried to hide wealth from marauding Persians. Because of the disruption caused by the invasion, Foss argues, many of the hoards were not recovered, the depositors either being killed or dispersed. One difficulty with the use of coins to date collapse of structures is that many of the collections were not discovered in good stratigraphic contexts in the debris of the buildings, leaving some doubt as to whether all major structures were razed in one episode, as Foss suggests. A number of the coins, both individual pieces and hoards, found in Sardis and elsewhere that he discusses do not have precise proveniences. Since the coins do not securely date the destruction of many structures, a number of the public buildings may have deteriorated over a number of years well after the Persian invasion; sources mention such buildings still in use in other cities in the midseventh century and later (Trombley 1985a:71).

The discontinuity thesis as espoused by Kazhdan (1954) and Foss (1972, 1975, 1977) encounters greater difficulties when this perspective is extended to encompass the whole Byzantine world or a significant portion of it. Kazhdan argues for a general urban decline while Foss states: “City life in western Asia Minor suffered a severe blow from which it never recovered” (1972:406). In addition to Sardis, Foss cites archaeological, numismatic, and literary evidence concerning Efesos (Foss 1979), Afrodisias, Pergamon, Magnesia, Ancyra, Priene, and other Anatolian cities (Foss 1972, 1977). In each case he points to the reduced size of the settlement after the Persian invasions, suggesting the sites changed from flourishing cities with Classical roots to isolated kastra harboring remnant populations without the distinguishing characteristics of Classical urban life, that is, a municipal council or boule, a diverse monetary economy, multiple social strata, and the ability to collect taxes. While this description may be appropriate for some of the sites Foss discusses, it is not universally applicable. For example, the city of Anemurium in southern Anatolia was commercially active throughout most of the seventh century, despite its proximity to the zone ravaged by the Persians. Russell (1986) suggests this situation throws serious doubts on Foss’ (1975) hypothesis that the Persian invasion of Asia Minor was the primary cause for the decline of the Anatolian polis system. Trombley (1985a:80 81) also rebuts Foss’ argument by presenting evidence from historical texts that the cities of Caesarea, Amorion, and Euchaita in Anatolia retained lavish public buildings and large populations well after the period of the Persian invasion, despite attacks by Persians and Arabs in the seventh century.

Serious doubt also exists as to whether the Persians ever sacked Sardis (Russell 1986:140, 2001:70-71). Trombley (1985a:78) argues there is no evidence that the Persians ever got that far west in the period 615-626. Foss admits there is no historical evidence for this attack. He places the Persians in Sardis in 616 because they were in Anatolia and because coins struck between 616 and 627 are scarce at Sardis. If the Persians never threatened Sardis, the numismatic evidence does not relate directly to the demise of the city. For example, if coins were not hoarded out of fear of attack, then these may have been deposited at a much later date for any of a variety of reasons, such as simple storage or to evade tax collection, unrelated to sudden urban decline. Trombley (1985a:76) also points out that Foss does not correlate the quantity of coins to other archaeological materials, especially pottery. Byzantine ceramics appear in large amounts in Palestine (occupied by the Persians) up to the Arab conquest, indicating no significant break in the early seventh century. Such studies still need to be done at Sardis (see Greenewalt and Rautman 1998, 2000 for recent work at the site).

Another problem is that Foss (1972:405) attributes a thorough destruction of many sites, including Sardis, to the Persians. The fact that the ancient public buildings (baths, temples, colonnades) are not rebuilt he believes was due to the collapse of the municipal administrative and tax structure in the wake of the invasions. There is clear evidence, however, that the Persians left many buildings standing in other cities, such as Caesarea in Palestine

Russell (1986:140-142) also questions Foss’ use of numismatic evidence at various levels. The most common use of coins by archaeologists, Russell says, is to provide a termi108

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE nus post quem for a stratigraphic level, but he argues that LR and Byzantine components in the Aegean area are rarely sufficiently sealed to provide an iron clad date, such as the year A.D. 616 that Foss fixes on for the destruction of Sardis. Furthermore, of the many coins found in excavations in the Mediterranean, very few are precisely datable. Referring specifically to Foss’ thesis, Russell states: “In this case a scenario based on the interpretation of a very limited sample of archaeological evidence has been mistaken for a certain historical event” (1986:140). Other studies have shown that a reduction in the amount of coinage did not lead to the demise of a market economy or civic status for Athens (Charanis 1955) or Asia Minor (Hendy 1985) in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. Even though there are fewer coins at Sardis after 616, there is no reason to suggest the entire municipal system collapsed suddenly in the seventh century. Russell and others suggest a more gradual process took place. Recently, Russell (2001:71) has even suggested that the Sassanians may never have captured Anemurium. This viewpoint coincides with that of Holum (1992) and Magness (1992) who dispute the assertion of Sassanian destruction of Caesarea and Jerusalem, respectively, in 614. Magness (1992) notes that there is no break in the use of streets and houses in the Tyropoeon Valley of Jerusalem from the Byzantine to Islamic periods.

tances from Syria and Palestine to Anatolia on an annual basis, Arab forces would remain in Byzantine territory over the winter, giving the population no respite. This strategy placed both towns and the countryside in serious straits, with considerable destruction and dislocation of population (Ostrogorsky 1969:111). The synodal lists, however, suggest a rapid recovery, with the number of signatory bishops, representing towns, increasing from 152 for the Sixth Oecumenical Council (680-681) to 210 for the Quinisextum (691-692). Isauria witnessed an increase from five to thirteen sees in this period, resulting in an upgrade in its status from a chora (disorganized territory) to reclaiming a position as an eparchia (province). The significance of the bishoprics in Byzantine territory was considerable. The religious administrative structure was based on the urban model. The bishopric was in fact an important civic institution in Late Antiquity and afterwards. Its continued existence in crisis periods can be viewed as an indication of urban adaptation, if not vitality. Ostrogorsky (1959) also used bishops’ lists to elaborate on the issue of urban evolution in the EB period. Noting that Byzantine cities had important differences with Classical poleis, he also pointed to significant similarities, especially the uninterrupted presence of a monetary economy. He contended changes in urban life had begun in the LR period. Early Byzantine laws, however, indicated the continued existence of a monetary economy from which he inferred “a developed urban life and a considerable number of towns” (Ostrogorsky 1959:65). He found further evidence for the survival of urban areas in the crisis period of the seventh century in the bishops’ lists that mentioned many cities throughout Asia Minor.

On a related issue, Cormack (1981:113) provides some evidence for the continued existence and maintenance of ancient public municipal buildings in the EB period. In Afrodisias and Thessaloniki, the street system, agora, and city walls were maintained in their ancient forms. Indeed, the physical extent of both cities stayed the same (Cormack 1981:106), a significant departure from Foss’ (1977) notion that all of the cities in western Asia Minor retracted behind shorter circuit walls due to political and economic instability and a drop in population. Foss bases his argument on circumstantial evidence. He assumes a reduced area enclosed by walls reflects a drop in population, which in turn is not large enough, he believes, to support various urban institutions. The evidence provided by Cormack suggests that this process of reduction in settlement size was not universal. Regional and even local variation is evident. In addition to refurbishing the circuit walls, the Byzantines lavished careful maintenance throughout the EB period on the cathedral of Afrodisias and the Rotunda in Thessaloniki, two important public buildings. A further example of such expenditures is the rebuilding of the fifth century church of Agios Demetrios in Thessaloniki after it burned down in the seventh century (Cormack 1981:113).

What Lewit (1991) describes primarily for the western Empire has relevance for the eastern Mediterranean as well. She notes that by the fifth century there was a shift from the classical pattern that …represents a de-urbanisation, not necessarily an impoverishment. There was continued occupation and activity in many of the partially abandoned towns, but occupation and activity of a different kind. The former public buildings which symbolize the institutions of classical urban life were used for burials, artisan activity, or as Christian cult places, and the main activities become market gardening and artisan production. We may picture them as “agro-towns”, settlements with an agricultural function but urban features. Such “agro-towns” were common in medieval Italy, where their walls enclosed gardens, orchards, fields and common land [Lewit 1991:62].

Foss is certainly correct in stating that Anatolia was ravaged by Persian and Arab invasions in the seventh century. The evidence, though, does not necessarily support his view that these incursions dealt cities in Asia Minor a death blow. In fact, some literary sources suggest a relatively rapid recovery in some areas. Trombley’s (1985b) examination of synodal lists reflects this phenomenon. Between 663 and 678, Arabs executed raids in Anatolia almost every year (Ostrogorsky 1969:111). Rather than traverse the great dis-

In the discussion that follows I make similar arguments for cities and towns in Greece. One way to think about what

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION happens in Korinth and at Isthmia in the fifth to seventh centuries is as a series of adaptations to fluctuating economic and political conditions that reshape urban life, while maintaining some basic attributes.

irretrievably damaged by these events. It is on the latter point that I disagree with Foss and other advocates of discontinuity. Isthmia in the Aegean Setting

Important changes did occur in the urban milieu in Late Antiquity and the EB period. What I argue against in the present study is the perspective that views fundamental changes as the result of singular catastrophic events. Foss’ (1972, 1975, 1976, 1979) arguments center on such an episode, the Persian and Arab invasions bringing Classical urbanism to an abrupt halt in Asia Minor, the heart of the Byzantine Empire. The model I propose is intermediate between that of Foss and of adherents to the extreme continuity thesis that presents Byzantine history as part of an uninterrupted flow from Classical Hellas to modern Greece. The model adopted here suggests that incremental, evolutionary change, in opposition to dramatic revolutionary developments, best characterizes the sequence. Changes do occur, but these begin earlier in many instances without warranting a change in designation for the temporal category, that is, from Roman to Medieval.

In the previous chapter, part of the discussion centered on the integration of the Isthmian Fortress into a local settlement scheme. I briefly explored the economic and strategic factors that defined the role of the Fortress as a settlement in the northeastern Korinthia. In the present section, I discuss Isthmia as a further example of the variation that I believe characterized the Aegean region during the period of transformation in the seventh century. The Role of Korinth The dominant settlement in the region around Isthmia throughout the history of the Sanctuary and Fortress was Korinth. Clearly, the fortunes of Isthmia were tied to those of the large urban center. Perhaps the first fact to keep in mind is that Korinth remained a viable economic and population center throughout Late Antiquity and into the EB era (see Kordosis 1981). This situation reflects not a static, monolithic indigenous society, but rather a fluid process in which various elements of local and regional culture changed as part of an on-going adaptive response by Korinthians to various challenges. People selected certain options in terms of material culture and social behavior, and rejected others. Rothaus (1993, 2000) has documented a process of religious change in Korinth in which paganism persisted until at least the sixth century. Despite the shift, he argues that the basic function of the city did not change. The city continued to serve the administrative, social, and political needs of the surrounding area, including Isthmia, through the sixth century (Rothaus 2000:136).

Foss (1976:11-12) is aware of such changes. He notes the effect of an outbreak of the bubonic plague that ravaged the Empire in A.D. 542-543, with recurrences for the next half century. The huge death toll depleted manpower resources for labor and the military. Revolts and brigandage ensued, requiring the appointment of biokolytes who suppressed the violence but subsequently abused the very people they had been assigned to protect. These events set the stage for the collapse to come. Foss believes the Persians delivered the fatal blow. There may be another way of looking at these data. Archaeological evidence from Sardis, on which Foss hinges much of his argument, indicates the sixth century was the crucial period when forces were set into motion that had important repercussions later. Already in that century, the regular maintenance of public roads by municipal officials was coming to an end. Public areas were being encroached upon for private use; the Byzantine Shops intruded on communal space (Crawford 1990:6), and one major avenue was used as a dump for domestic debris (Rautman 1985). The abandonment of parts of the ancient city, that Foss (1975) attributes to the seventh century, was already occurring as early as the fifth century due to the rapid accumulation of alluvial and colluvial deposits (Rautman 1987). Thus, environmental factors conspired with various social elements to alter the occupation of Sardis, and probably other sites as well. Yet, significant habitation continued for some time. A LR residential complex in the northwest part of Sardis was in use from the fourth to the early seventh centuries, and contained some elaborate features, such as a paved courtyard with columns and a mosaic floor; modifications indicate that room use changed over time and by the late sixth century some of the elaborate areas served more quotidian functions (Greenewalt and Rautman 2000:647655). I agree that urban life was clearly affected by various factors but stop short of saying that social complexity was

Rothaus (2000) argues for a transformational view of the Late Antique Korinthia. Instead of precipitous collapse, the material and literary evidence indicate adaptations to political, social, and economic forces. Rothaus examines the impact of political events, natural catastrophes (primarily earthquakes), and economics on civic planning in Korinth and the settlement system throughout the region. As many scholars have noted, in the fourth century and later, classical urban institutions began to change as the curial class increasingly abandoned key civic positions and responsibilities, and the attendant financial burdens. Many of these individuals moved to the countryside, despite imperial efforts to keep them rooted in the cities. Provincial governors gained greater power and looked to bishops and other church officials to provide the administrative support necessary to operate local government (Cameron 1993:168169). Rothaus (2000:11) argues that this sequence of events undermined the role of the boule, but that other mechanisms took on the key duties. Ecclesiastical officials shouldered the responsibility for public works and social welfare. The alteration of the classical city was underway. As Christian officials undertook more civic tasks, their influence with the provincial and imperial rulers grew. The waning of cult 110

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE activity in Korinth, Isthmia, and throughout the region was probably directly linked to this transfer of local authority from the curiales to the clergy.

facilities for the production of ceramics, bronze, and marble sculpture. Just as important were the services Korinth provided; Engels (1990: 43) lists religious, educational, cultural (e.g., entertainment such as theater and gladiatorial events), and judicial elements as primary, and the provision of food, lodging, and use of public facilities such as baths as secondary. He links long-distance trade to the prosperity of the city. By the late fourth century, increases in taxes and a drop in population diminished demand for both goods and services, adversely affecting the interregional trade on which the city’s prosperity depended. The increase in local production of various materials also reduced the demand for exports and contributed to the economic decline. Contraction of the physical extent of the city and of its services followed (Engels 1990:63-64). Isthmia fulfilled several of the services in Engels’ scheme. The Sanctuary of Poseidon was a major religious center, while the Isthmian Games provided entertainment to many visitors. Isthmia also had some industrial facilities. As Christianity burgeoned and people gradually abandoned pagan rites and games, Isthmia’s role shifted to the military aspect. What Engels suggests for Korinth applies to Isthmia as well. The Fortress and its garrison provided various services to the surrounding population (defense, demand for food and production of certain materials such as pottery and metal, employment of artisans for construction). In some ways, one can see the Fortress in the role of service provider, although what it offered differed from the classical temple complex.

The dismantling of the sanctuary buildings at Isthmia for use in the Fortress and Hexamilion makes good sense in this scenario since Christians were politically ascendant. Through most of the sixth century, Korinth remained the largest population center of the region, and as capital of the province of Achaia, was the key administrative hub; it retained this position into the EB period (see below). It seems probable that the military garrison in the Isthmian Fortress in the fifth and sixth centuries operated under the direction of political leaders in Korinth. This relationship is implied in the system Rothaus and others argue was in place in the Late Roman period. These scholars suggest that the political system became more centralized, with power centered on the emperor and the provincial governors to a far greater extent than had been the case in the early empire. The structure of the Korinthian economy also suggests considerable complexity during the period of transition. Avramea (1997; see also Engels 1990:33-42) notes that a significant range of occupations characterized the economic system of Korinth and the surrounding area in Late Antiquity, to the beginning of the seventh century. Among the professions that sources mention are veterinarian, muleteer, money changer, miller, butcher, wine seller, confectioner, furrier, tailor, sandal maker, construction laborer, and marble worker. Diversity and specialization characterize the number and type of occupations (Avramea 1997:133-135; Engels 1990:33-42). Mosaics, clearly the work of highly skilled artisans, are common in Korinth, as well as Argos, Sparta, and Patras at this time. The similarity in style of mosaic pavements throughout the Peloponnesos may reflect the work of the same workshop (Avramea 1997:138). Korinth was also a major center of ceramic production in the period. Isthmia, Kenchreai, Sparta, and Argos received lamps from the city (Avramea 1997:139). Korinth also continued to import ceramics from other regions. Decorated pottery from Crete arrived in both Korinth and Argos during the seventh century. In addition, Korinth imported glazed wares from Constantinople in the seventh and eighth centuries, demonstrating that the regional cities remained commercially active (Poulou-Papadimitriou 2001:237-239).

Adherents of the discontinuity thesis suggest that a key change occurred in city planning and layout during the transitional period. Specifically, they identify the decline in construction of monumental public architecture and the reduction in city size as key traits that characterize the end of the classical city. The argument is that these features are due to a drop in population, less investment in civic projects (due to declining economic fortunes, loss of trade, and other factors), and the disintegration of the imperial system that supported cities. In addition, these and other elements undermined the cultural basis of classical civilization. Some also argue that the incursions of various barbarian groups accelerated the decline. Proponents of this approach point to the abandonment of major structures, or their meager reuse as evidence of the impoverished state of EB society in the Korinthia and elsewhere. Korinth provides important data on this issue. As a prosperous city and provincial capital, many large, lavish public buildings adorned Korinth during the ER and LR periods. In the course of the late fourth and early fifth centuries, many of these structures suffered significant damage, the cause of which many ascribe to earthquakes, with barbarian attacks as another contributing factor. Among the damaged buildings are the Julian Basilica, the Great Bath on the Lechaion Road (Biers 1985:4), the West Shops, the South Basilica, the Odeion, the Gymnasium Area, the Theater, and the North Market. In addition, the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on the slopes of neighboring Akrokorinth suffered destruction (Slane 1990:5), as did several excavated villas in the immediate vicinity of Korinth. Near Isthmia, the Sanctuary of Isis at

Engels (1990) provides an economic analysis of both the prosperity and decline of Korinth during the Roman period. He argues that Korinth, like many ancient urban areas, was a service city rather than a consumer one. The latter term refers to the notion that urban residents both worked the surrounding land and exploited peasant farmers through rents and taxes in an economic system devoid of market forces. Engels (1990:1-2) suggests an alternative model in which there was “voluntary exchange of peasant surpluses for urban goods and services…Large cities…located on major trade routes were also supported by the goods and services they provided to travelers, traders, and tourists.” He argues that in addition to agriculture, Korinth had major

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION the port of Kenchreai collapsed. Based on various historical sources (including Ammianus Marcellinus, Eunapios, Libanios, and Zosimos) and evaluation of the archaeological data, Rothaus (2000:16-20) argues that the structural damage was probably seismic in origin and dates several earthquakes to the late fourth or very early fifth century. [The region is still seismically active. Tremors occur periodically, including a serious event in 1981 that caused widespread damage in New Korinth and surrounding towns and villages; some collapsed structures were still visible a decade after the event.]

building) west of the Asklepieion also received many dedicatory lamps from the late fourth to the sixth centuries. The majority of the lamps exhibit Christian symbols, but other material at the site, including lead curse tablets, suggests pagan ritual, perhaps associated with a cult of the Nymphs. What the Asklepieion and Fountain of the Lamps demonstrate is the coexistence of Christians and pagans in the Late Roman Korinthia. The evidence for pagan cult activity into the fourth century and perhaps beyond at Isthmia is reasonably good (Rothaus 2000:84-92). Residents and visitors at the site evidently did not intrude on the center of the Sanctuary around the temenos until the late fourth century and perhaps later, although the Temple of Poseidon may have been in ruins. The Bath was abandoned ca. 400; its function to the end was likely related to athletic competition, which in turn was closely linked to activities associated with the Sanctuary. What these activities suggest is a continuity of cult activity at Korinth and throughout the region in the LR era at the same time that Christianity began to expand significantly. The evidence suggests a gradual transformation in the religious sphere, as residents of the area adapted old practices to new ideas. The architectural and archaeological records demonstrate how people negotiated this transition in Korinth, Isthmia, and elsewhere.

All agree that many buildings in Korinth and the surrounding area collapsed or incurred significant damage in the period ca. A.D. 365-400. What is important for the current study is what happened subsequent to the damage. A significant amount of reconstruction occurred in the early fifth century, in the same period when the Fortress at Isthmia and the Hexamilion were constructed. In Korinth, builders redesigned the Forum, adding a large central staircase and a decorative façade. Workers restored a number of older buildings. The municipality renovated the Peirene Fountain, a major feature at the north end of the Forum, early in the sixth century. Rothaus (2000:21-25) argues that the Forum remained a vibrant area that continued to serve as a market place and administrative center through the sixth century. While some buildings fell into disrepair, many functioned as they had previously, while new structures added to the appearance of the civic center. Even though the city changed, Rothaus (2000:136) contends that Korinth “continued to be the social, political, economic and religious center of life.” Rothaus attributes the changes to external forces, mainly the increased importance of imperial control on the local level. As the capital of the province of Achaia in the prefecture of Illyricum into the fourth century, Korinth was home to the provincial governor. By the beginning of the fifth century, the city had become part of the Eastern Empire. Korinth served as a capital and seat of a bishop through the sixth century and into the EB period. As a result of these administrative shifts, Korinth forfeited some of its political autonomy; the provincial governor probably had more say in civic affairs as the municipal boule declined in importance (Rothaus 2000:11-12). There can be little doubt that the construction and refurbishing of the Isthmian Fortress and the Hexamilion directly reflect the augmented role of the imperial bureaucracy. As Tainter (1988) points out, such construction indicates the great cost necessary to maintain complex systems.

When combined with the evidence of economic vitality described by Avramea (1997) and others, the physical evidence suggests that Korinth not only survived the difficult period of the fourth and fifth centuries, but even prospered. Church construction indicates a shift in focus from paganism, but with a continued emphasis on monumentality. Other administrative and judicial functions remained similar to, if not identical with, those in earlier Roman times. Rothaus (2000:30) notes that Korinth “in the midst of transformation and change maintained many of it classical forms and principles.” A significant aspect of the LR landscape around Korinth and elsewhere in the region was the presence of villas. Some of these compounds were rural in location, while others were just outside the city. In either case, it is clear that the villas shared certain traits. First, they exhibit considerable affluence in the form of mosaic floors, imported ceramic fine wares, decorative marble, a bath, and sheer size. Second, the villas are located on or very near good arable land. Some of the compounds also have installations for processing olive oil. Rothaus (2000:27-30) suggests that the villas in the LR Korinthia were not independent, selfsufficient entities. Most produce probably was marketed in Korinth, with some commodities such as olive oil shipped to other regions. The proximity to urban centers (Korinth, Kenchreai, Kleonai) suggests that the residents wished to engage in civic affairs. There are six villas within one mile of Korinth (Engels 1990:24). Of the 10 sites Rothaus identifies as villas in the Korinthia, two are near Isthmia. One is the complex at Akra Sofia (dated fifth to seventh centuries) and another is in Kenchreai (third to sixth centuries). I believe it highly likely that these two villas serviced the Isthmian Fortress, at least in part.

Rothaus (2000:126-130) touches on another topic relevant to the current study. He notes that the Korinthians of the fourth century and later did not provide funds to restore the pagan temples ravaged by the earthquakes and normal deterioration, although some cult activity did continue to take place in the ruins. While imperial and local funds subsidized the construction of great Chrisian churches in and around Korinth, residents continued to practice pagan rites at various locales. At the Asklepieion on the north edge of Korinth, people offered ceramic lamps as gifts to the deities. The so-called Fountain of the Lamps (originally a bath 112

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE It is important to keep in mind the fact that despite economic and political problems in the fifth and sixth centuries, Korinth continued to be an important center. While the city retracted in size during the EB period, it retained its position as the preeminent settlement in the Korinthia and one of the main cities in all of Greece. Lambropoulou et al. (2001: 196-199) argue that Korinth remained a major ecclesiastical, commercial, and judicial center throughout the Byzantine Dark Age (DA; seventh to ninth centuries). Large churches in and around Korinth (e.g., the Kraneion Basilica) operated in this period. They note that one document, tentatively dated to the eighth century, indicates that the metropolitan of Korinth administered 32 bishops throughout the northern Peloponnesos (Lambropoulou et al. 2001:190). In addition, Korinth served an important military role because of its strategic location. Another important historical document, the sixth century Syndekmos of Hierokles, lists some 79 cities in Greece, suggesting a viable urban culture during the transitional period (Gregory 1984); this number contrasts with the 31 cities mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana from the second half of the fourth century (Avramea 1997:108).

At the sites of the great ancient religious sanctuaries, Avramea suggests that the LR occupants took advantage of the material present, and adjusted their activities according to their own needs and the specific attributes of each site. For Isthmia, she states (see also Gregory 1993a:55-59, and above) that the remains of various buildings served as building material for the Hexamilion and Fortress, noting that “l’étude détaillée du site a prouvé le changement de l’utilisation qui s’ adapte aux temps troublés” (Avramea 1997:115), which is precisely the point I make in the present study. A large basilica near the entrance to the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidauros, a church incorporating the workshop of Pheidias at Olympia, and similar structures at Nemea and elsewhere made use of the available cut stone. Avramea also examines the social, political, and economic conditions throughout the Peloponnesos during the EB period. This study of the material and documentary record leads her to argue for a transition that brought incremental change over a long period. Furthermore, Avramea (1997:157) states that the political and ecclesiastical administrative mechanisms in southern Greece remained essentially the same between the fourth and eighth centuries, despite outside events (i.e., incursions by Slavs and other groups). A process of change and adaptation characterizes the period in question. To demonstrate the tenacity of occupation in the Peloponnesos from the fourth to the eighth centuries, Avramea provides a catalogue of 290 sites. In addition to Korinth and Isthmia, major sites in the Korinthia include Krommyon, Lechaion, Kenchreai, Sofiko, and Sikyon. In the Argolid, key locations are Argos, Halieis, Ermioni, and Epidavros; in Arkadia, Mantinea, Megalopolis, and Tegea; in Lakonia, Sparta, Monemvasia, and Gytheion; in Messenia, Messene, Kyparissia, Korone, and Methone; in Elis, Olympia, Pylos, and Elis; in Achaia, Patras, and Aigion (Avramea 1997:164-203). While many of these major sites are not exceedingly large, one should remember that even Classical poleis were often rather small settlements with diminutive populations when compared with other urban cultures in the Near East. Osborne notes that “Even the cities of Greece were in many cases but tiny villages in population; Koressia on Keos had a total population of perhaps 700 to 800” (Osborne 1987:195). Jones (1964:1041) observed years ago that most Roman citizens lived in rural areas, so even the empire at its height had more residents in the countryside than in cities.

In her study of the Peloponnesos, Avramea (1997) pays considerable attention to the Korinthia and argues that here and throughout the peninsula the transformation that occurred was gradual rather than abrupt. She notes that the administrative structure in the region maintained significant features until the early ninth century when there was an imperial reorganization. Furthermore, she asserts that the political dominance of Constantinople heavily influenced the settlement landscape in southern Greece in the early medieval period. First, Avramea (1997:112-113) notes changes in Korinth itself. Despite the fact that various structures, including the Amphitheater and various shops in the city center, were in ruins by the fifth century, some remodeling took place and the Forum remained the focal point of civic activities, as Rothaus (2000) also suggests. The Julian Basilica is made into a Christian church. By the seventh to eighth centuries, Christian burials begin to intrude on the northern edge of the ancient Forum (and perhaps earlier along the southern periphery; see Ivison 1996), which lost its monumental aspect. Avramea (1997:113-115) documents a similar pattern of development elsewhere. One common element is the construction of large churches on or near ancient ruins. At Sparta, the basilica of Saint Nikon was built on the classical acropolis at the beginning of the seventh century. The Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea was converted into a church. A large basilica was erected over part of the hostel at the ancient panhellenic sanctuary of Nemea. The ancient layout of Argos underwent some changes, including the addition of a cemetery, common houses, and workshops in the city center. Ecclesiastical construction became the key monumental form. In addition, excavations in the city have revealed the presence of ceramics imported from Asia Minor throughout most of the seventh century.

Evidence from Regional Surface Surveys Locational surveys have revolutionized our understanding of the Aegean past. Systematic examination of the Greek landscape has been at the forefront of efforts to bring more theoretically and methodologically informed practices into the archaeology of Greece (Cherry 1983, 1994; Kardulias 1994a). In this section I review data from some of the major surveys conducted in the Peloponnesos and neighboring regions over the past three decades. This work has dramatically increased, and in many ways altered, our understanding of Late Antiquity and the Medieval period in the Ae-

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION gean. As noted elsewhere in this study, survey data have clearly shown the LR period to have been largely a prosperous era during which site numbers, population, and economic well-being were at or near the highest levels for all of antiquity.

Ermioni covered 15.12 ha, with an estimated population of 3,780, while the largest village (Mases) was 5 ha in extent with 625 residents. Jameson et al. (1994:545) also report on a number of rural agricultural villas that range in size from ca. 1 to 2 ha with between 75 and 238 people at each locale. Total population for the entire region was estimated at 8,055. In addition, several large ceramic production centers were located on the shore to take advantage of sea routes; at site B19 local artisans made a globular type of transport amphora found widely from Carthage to the Black Sea. These amphorae presumably carried local olive oil (the region is still noted for its high quality olive oil) (Jameson et al. 1994:400-403). In general, the LR settlement pattern mirrored that of Classical and Early Hellenistic times, another prosperous era.

The Korinthia would be the logical place to begin this review, but as noted above, systematic survey work has been limited. The key published work on settlement in the region remains Wiseman’s (1978) survey; while it lists many sites, the field research was extensive and selective in nature and thus has many gaps (see also Bon 1952 and Kordosis 1981). The Eastern Korinthia Archaelogical Survey (EKAS) is the first project in this area to use modern methods of intensive survey over a significant area with a large field team. Three seasons of field walking gathered information on artifact distribution and local geomorphology. Team members have offered some preliminary results that indicate that the region between Korinth and Kenchreai was densely occupied throughout antiquity, with peaks in the Late Bronze, Classical, and Roman (especially LR) periods. While Wiseman (1978) and others had noted some of these locations, EKAS identified 13 locations with substantial LR remains (Gregory and Pullen 2001). The sites include small groups of rock-cut chamber tombs in several locations as well as a large cemetery at Kenchreai; substantial settlements at Kromna on the road between Korinth and Isthmia, and on the north slope of Mt. Oneion; farmsteads; several early Christian churches; and several other dense scatters. Artifacts that reveal domestic and agricultural functions include large quantities of coarse ware, various fine wares, transport amphorae, and millstones. The work suggests that people continued to extract limestone from the quarries near Kromna. Investigation of the area south of the Later Stadium at Isthmia revealed substantial LR material, suggesting a very dense occupation in that period. While the number of survey finds drops off for the EB period, three to four sites continued to be occupied. This scenario may change somewhat as survey members analyze the data further for final publication, but in general the settlement trajectory seems clear. When added to work at Akra Sofia (Gregory 1985), Evraionisos (Kardulias et al. 1995) and other spots, the EKAS data give us a picture of a LR and EB landscape dotted with occupants taking advantage of the range of resources the Korinthia offers.

In the course of the seventh century there was a precipitous drop in the population of the southern Argolid to perhaps only several hundred (Jameson et al. 1994:554), but with some occupation of sites from the preceding period. The number of sites increased and population rebounded beginning in the ninth century, by which time new toponyms appeared. The cause of the drop in population may have been a retrenchment in the face of raids. Some aspects of the supraregional economic system may also have played a role. The many LR agricultural villas suggest the southern Argolid served the role of extraction zone (Chase-Dunn and Hall 1997:91), providing food and other resources that were shipped out of the region. As some portions of the trade network deteriorated during the seventh century, and various areas became somewhat more self-reliant, the need for the products of the southern Argolid dropped, followed by abandonment of many LR sites. The loss of North Africa and most of the Near East to Muslim forces restricted trade and eliminated the motive for heavy exploitation, and thus relatively large population, of the southern Argolid after the LR period. To the north, Isthmia also undergoes a period of retraction after the LR efflorescence. Investigation of the Methana peninsula reveals a settlement history similar to that of the southern Argolid that it borders (Bowden and Gill 1997). Peak periods of occupation seem to have been the Classical and Hellenistic, followed by the LR. On 36 of the 58 sites on which it appears, LR pottery forms a major component. The most common Roman fine ware is African Red Slip, followed by Phocaean, and Cypriot Red Slip. These types indicate that Methana maintained strong trade connections with North Africa, Anatolia, and Cyprus throughout Late Antiquity. While many of the LR sites are small, their distribution suggests intensive agriculture, especially cultivation of the olive, on independent farms rather than large estates. The presence of a number of coastal sites and of numerous amphorae fragments suggests the residents of the peninsula exported substantial amounts of oil in this period. The region prospered during the fifth and sixth centuries. Even with the advent of the Slavs in the late sixth century, Methana continued to thrive. The 11 sites dated to the seventh century retain the earlier settlement regime, and continued to receive imported wares, although the most common was Phocaean rather than African Red

In the southern Argolid, survey revealed an alternating pattern of nucleated and dispersed settlement in different periods (Runnels and van Andel 1987). The region experienced peaks in settlement during the Late Bronze Age, the Classical period, and again in the LR era. In the fifth and sixth centuries A.D., the number of sites dramatically increased, as people reoccupied areas that had been abandoned since the late Hellenistic. The distribution exhibits a preference for somewhat hilly terrain amenable to olive cultivation. While Ermioni was the only urban entity, various large villages and many rural estates dotted the landscape. In the survey area of over 200 km2 the project identified 99 sites of LR date; there were 82 small sites, less than .2 ha each in area, with an estimated total population of 410. By contrast, 114

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Slip. The main town of Methana remained a center of population and coastal sites were still prevalent. Bowden and Gill (1997:90) conclude that “There is no major disruption to the settlement pattern, and the same is true elsewhere in the Peloponnese.” The Slavic migrations seem to have had little impact in this area. Later in the seventh century, settlement numbers dropped and the people moved away from the coastal regions to the interior. Koukoulis (1997:98) suggests the reason was raids by Arabs. The residents raised crops and livestock in the productive inland zones in relative safety. Unlike the southern Argolid, which suffered a severe drop in population in the seventh and eighth centuries, Methana retained sufficient numbers to have a bishop at least through the late eighth century (Koukoulis 1997:92).

the LR, as well as Classical, sites are less than a hectare in extent. Another issue is the link between the polis of Koressos and its rural area. Cherry et al. (1991:340) argue that the structure of rural settlement or use depended on the polis center, home to a majority of the citizens, during most periods. The LR countryside, however, witnessed population growth despite the very small number of residents in the center. What this situation suggests is renewed incentive for exploiting the countryside and enhanced prosperity. Where those who profited from the increase in production resided is not clear; no villas with the trappings of affluence (e.g., mosaic floors, marble revetment, baths) were found in the survey area (Cherry et al. 1991:344). The evidence suggests that in the seventh century population dropped as part of an EB retrenchment noted in other parts of the Aegean.

The Berbati-Limnes survey (Wells, ed. 1996) examined a large valley system bounded by mountains east of Mycenae and south of the Korinthia. The region is similar to Methana, particularly the inland parts of the peninsula, in its relative isolation and rugged terrain. It seems to have been a peripheral area in the past as it continues to be today (Wells 1996:1). The settlement history of the region followed a course parallel to that of other areas in the Peloponnesos, with high site density in the Classical and early Hellenistic periods, a decline in late Hellenistic through ER, and an efflorescence in the LR phase. Of the 23 locations with Roman remains in the survey area, Forsell (1996:337) suggests that 10 represent habitations, eight of the remaining sites are probably graves, one was a watermill, another a location for making olive oil, and the remaining three had material out of context. Most of the habitation sites are located on the floor of the valley and contain various millstones for processing agricultural products (grains and olives). At least five of the residential sites continue into the EB period. The largest site is a LR villa with a bath, elaborate mosaic floors, imported fine wares, iron slag indicating a smithy, and three trapeta for crushing olives (Forsell 1996:337-341). Hahn (1996) identifies 14 findspots of material belonging to the subsequent period (A.D. 500-700); the villa continued to operate, although it was less extensive. The sites are mostly farmsteads in close proximity to good agricultural land and abundant water. The ceramic assemblage lacks fine ware and transport vessels, which suggests the region was an isolated, self-sufficient backwater. Hahn attributes the absence of Slavic ware to quick acculturation between the migrants and indigenous Greeks. With the exception of several findspots, people seem to have abandoned the Berbati Valley during the eighth to early ninth centuries, a situation similar to that in the southern Argolid (Hahn 1996 438-439).

Messenia in the southwestern Peloponnesos has been the subject of two major surveys. The first focused on the Bronze Age, but provided some evidence for the Roman period (McDonald and Rapp 1972). Based on his examination of historical documents, Topping (1972:64-65) suggests that Messenia experienced significant problems during the LR period. Raids by the Vandals in the fifth century and especially by the Slavs in the sixth disrupted social and commercial life. Severe earthquakes in 522 and 551, along with several epidemics of the plague from the mid-sixth to the early seventh century, affected the local population. However, Topping suggests that the region’s decline began gradually in the second and third centuries. The Pylos Regional Archaeological Project survey of the 1990s provided more archaeological evidence for all time periods and led to a revision of the earlier picture. Alcock (1998:185) notes that the fertility of the soil and the closeness to Italy made Messenia a prosperous region through at least the fifth century A. D. In addition to the city of Messene and other large settlements, some elaborate rural villas dotted the landscape, especially along the coast. The latter sites were often quite ornate, with baths, mosaic floors, and imported pottery and marble. A variety of economic activities characterized these complexes, including agriculture, the production of salt, and raising fish in ponds (Stone and Kampke 1998:192-195). Gerstel (1998:212-214) uses archaeological, documentary, and epigraphical evidence to demonstrate the expanding role of the church in this period as pagan cults gave way to Christianity. The construction of large churches coincided with a shift in the location of population centers; she argues the changes occurred within a range that maintained links to classical traditions. Christians often buried their dead in or near Roman and other ancient structures. Gerstel (1998:215) also deals briefly with the Byzantine Dark Age (which she places in the sixth to ninth centuries) in terms of the Slavic incursions. While some historical sources suggest that the Slavs invaded in force, captured and ravaged major cities such as Korinth and Argos, and then settled in the Peloponnesos for some two centuries, the archaeological evidence is at best equivocal on this matter. Since Messenia lacks Slavic

The results of the Keos survey mirror those from the southern Argolid in several ways. The period with the most datable components is the Classical, followed by the LR. From these data, Cherry et al. (1991:333-337) argue that the level of rural activity was significantly higher in the LR era compared to late Hellenistic and early Roman. Specifically, they attribute the distribution of material to agricultural activities at small farmsteads or installations; the majority of

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION material, Gerstel (1998:215) argues Slavs never dominated the region, but “Rather, they were cohabitants of an area that would continually absorb and assimilate other new peoples.” Evidence from other parts of the Peloponnesos seems to bear out this point.

terland. For example, while the rural sites lack imported fine wares, work in Sparta has yielded a substantial quantity of such pottery. Lawson does not explain precisely how Sparta would have survived under such conditions, and why the pattern is so different from most other areas of Greece.

The Boeotia Project has provided detailed survey data for a major region north of the Korinthia. Bintliff and Snodgrass (1985, 1988a) conducted a detailed investigation of this region, including both urban and rural sectors, in an effort to identify “settlement chambers,” which are locales within which communities shift from time to time according to certain priorities (Bintliff 2000). Surface finds allow researchers to track these movements. Using this approach, Bintliff examines the southwest portion of the project area and determines that the towns of Thespiae and Askra survived intact from LR into EB times (late seventh to mid ninth centuries), along with several smaller rural sites. For this sector, Bintliff (2000:42) describes “the model for the transition from late Antiquity to Medieval times as one of settlement continuity plus population merger (GrecoRomans with Slavs).” Turning to northern Boetia, Bintliff assesses the evidence for the area in and around ancient Hyettos. The survey evidence indicates that by ER times the city was one-half to one-third the extent of the Classical settlement, and it retained this reduced size even though all urban forms were in place in the LR era. A group of five Medieval rural sites .5 km to the north replaced Hyettos as the main residential zone in the settlement chamber in the EB period. Bintliff argues that local production of ceramics, exhibiting a mixture of Slavic and Roman traits, persisted through the EB period and later. As support for this perspective, he points to a Byzantine document that states that 500 tilemakers came to Constantinople from the province of Hellas in 766 at the request of the emperor. Bintliff presents a model of settlement continuity and mixing of population; he suggests that “in Early Byzantine times (7th-9th centuries) a reduced Greco-Roman population remained on or near the former foci of settlement of Late Roman times, merging through intermarriage with incoming communities of Slav farmers and herders” (Bintliff 2000:43). The expansion that marks the LR period in this region mirrors the situation in other parts of the eastern Mediterranean (Bintliff 1991). Avramea (2001:301-302) also suggests that Greeks and Slavs coexisted in the Peloponnesos during this period.

One region that exhibits some similarities with Lakonia is the Nemea Valley where intensive survey found few imported Roman fine wares and transport amphorae in the area outside the city of Flius and several other large sites. From this evidence, Cherry and Davis assume that Roman residents of the region relied more on their own products than did people in areas with ready access to the sea, such as the Southern Argolid and Keos (Wright et al. 1990:610). The Nemea region differs from Messenia in that it has widespread LR pottery. The authors suggest that settlements expanded and contracted over time; some sites experienced a hiatus in occupation (Wright et al. 1990:617). Trade Scholars often point to the existence of regular longdistance trade as one of the key features that characterizes classical culture. The traffic in a variety of commodities across the Mediterranean basin was an important vehicle for the transfer of political and religious ideologies as well as material that bound the ancient world into what can be called a world-system, i. e., a network of interacting societies that engage in various types of exchange, despite rivalries (Kardulias 1999; Wallerstein 1974). The commercial exchange that the Pax Romana made possible is seen by some as a defining element of ancient Mediterranean culture. The collapse of this system is, by extension, viewed as one thing that marks the end of antiquity. In particular, scholars seek evidence for the presence or absence of longdistance trade, often in the form of high-status luxury goods. First, a few comments about ship-building technology are in order. By the LR and EB periods, there was already a long and strong maritime tradition in the Aegean. The construction of sea-going commercial vessels may date to as early as the beginning of the Bronze Age, based on some images of Early Cycladic boats (Renfrew 1972a:356-358; but see Dickinson 1994 about their function). In Archaic times, Greek poleis established colonies stretching from the Black Sea to the western Mediterranean. The initial connections and on-going commercial interaction between mother city and colony, and later among the many now independent cities, formed part of a network that encompassed virtually the entire Mediterranean littoral. The ships that plied these commercial waters evolved over time. The wreck of a seventh century Byzantine merchantman near the small island of Yassi Ada in the southeastern Aegean has provided a great deal of information about ship-building techniques and typical cargoes at this time (Bass and van Doorninck 1982). The ship was about 20 m long, and 5.22 m at the widest point; this slender design provided greater speed than cargo ships from the fourth century A.D., perhaps, Bass (1982:312) argues, to evade enemy vessels that were

The evidence from the Lakonia survey conducted by the British School differs somewhat from that in other regions. The ceramics from the region suggest the presence of many sites early in the Roman sequence, from the first to the third centuries A. D. A significant drop in material occurs in the third to fourth centuries and continues into the LR period (fifth to seventh centuries) that is represented by few pieces. From this evidence, Lawson (1996:123) concludes that “many sites were abandoned as early as the fourth century, long before the so-called ‘Dark Age’ of late antiquity (AD 600-900).” While Sparta remains an urban center, Lawson believes that the dearth of LR ceramics in the surrounding countryside indicates the absence of secondary settlements, along with a weak trading link between the city and its hin116

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE more common in the EB period. The method of construction is intermediate between ancient and modern techniques. The builders started with the traditional Greco-Roman method of forming the hull by joining one plank to the next with mortise and tenon joints for several rows, but then they inserted supporting ribs to which they attached the remaining planks with iron nails, much like modern wooden vessels. The excavators retrieved 11 anchors, several bags of nails, and additional resin (for sealing pots), all materials that the ship owner must have obtained from a wellstocked chandlery at his home port or en route. Implements found on the vessel include a complete set of woodworking tools that a carpenter could have used for major and minor ship repairs; cooking and dining wares, and storage jars; stones for milling grain; weighing equipment; 70 coins that indicate the ship’s last voyage occurred in 625 or 626; and miscellaneous other items of glass, metal, and ceramics. The main cargo seems to have been amphorae (approximately 850), some of which probably contained wine and others that were empty and were to be sold as containers. Based on the seventhcentury Rhodian Sea-Law, Bass suggests the crew may have consisted of a shipowner or captain, a helmsman, a boatswain, a deck officer, a cook, and perhaps one or two seamen (Bass 1982:313-318). The Yassi Ada ship probably represents a typical nautical vessel of the EB period, and as such, reflects the continued existence of Aegean commerce at a time when the empire was beset by various problems. This information about ships is important in understanding much of the ensuing discussion of trade.

Poulou-Papadimitriou (2001:246-248) argues that trade in the Aegean during this 200-year span occurred at a significant scale, despite the decline in imports from regions that the Arabs conquered. She suggests that ceramic production took place in many small centers. Inhabitants of the region maintained their crafts as they adapted to a changing world. Morrisson (2001) presents numismatic evidence that shows that the monetary economy did survive, despite a restriction during this period. The use of coinage during the EB era is evident in Constantinople, provincial military bases, and in coastal regions. The Isthmian Fortress would have been one such supporting element when regular troops occupied the facility; they could have used the money they received to purchase various materials and services, and thus kept some coins in local circulation. The proximity of both Korinth and coastal trading towns could have contributed to the type of system Morrison describes. Trombley (2001) addresses the role of coastal communities in the trade system in the period 600-850. A number of such towns remained commercially active even during the Arab raids in the seventh and eighth centuries. Those attacks did affect local population levels, but some towns survived relatively intact, including Soloi on Cyprus, Gortyna on Crete, and Nikopolis in Epiros. Two other points merit mention. First, Trombley presents information about maritime professions from inscriptions at Korykos on the southern coast of Asia Minor. The list includes “11 sailmakers, 5 harbour customs officers, 5 net-makers, 4 shipmasters, 3 murex workers, 2 shipwrights, 1 fisherman” and others (Trombley 2001:139-140). The shipmasters in particular held important economic and social positions; Trombley suggests these people used wealth gained from agriculture and land ownership to subsidize their sea ventures, during which they traveled regularly from southern Asia Minor and various Aegean islands to Constantinople to supply the capital with its needs. Second, Trombley suggests there was a “cultural symbiosis” that involved borrowing of words and ideas between Greeks and Arabs during this period. Such sharing implies that the two groups often interacted in a peaceful fashion in a commercial milieu. There are examples of such relations in the region recently. For example, Greek merchants brought products from mainland Turkey to various islands even during periods of political tension between the two groups in the early twentieth century (Theodosia Kardulias, personal communication 1992).

In general, archaeological work over the past three decades has demonstrated the existence of extensive and intensive trade throughout the Mediterranean during the LR period (Lewit 1991:51-55). Among the key items in this exchange network were fine ceramics (e.g., African Red Slip), lamps, olive oil, and wine. The fact that some areas imported materials from abroad that they already produced and exported suggests the intricate nature of this trade. For example, North Africa exported significant quantities of olive oil, but also received this commodity from Syria; merchants in the Aegean and the Levant evidently sent both oil and wine between the regions. Some historical documents suggest that perishable items, especially cloth and foodstuffs, formed a major part of the exchange trade. Lewit (1991:55) argues that the trade in both bulk goods and preciosities continued from early into late imperial times, although the key centers shifted to the eastern Mediterranean by the fourth century.

Moore (2003) extends this discussion by looking at a backwater interior region on Cyprus. He analyzed the Roman pottery for the Sydney Cyprus Survey Project that examined the region around Mitsero in the northern foothills of the Troodos Mountains in the center of the island. Moore’s study of the ceramics indicates that this mining region was reasonably prosperous in the LR period. While in many ways the region was isolated from the more cosmopolitan parts of the island along the coast, the survey did reveal the presence of substantial quantities of fine imported wares, including African Red Slip from North Africa, Çandarli

While events in the fifth and sixth centuries affected Mediterranean and Aegean culture, these did not completely disrupt the ancient trade system. In one study, PoulouPapadimitriou (2001) notes the extensive distribution of various pottery types throughout the Aegean in the seventh and eighth centuries. Korinth imported glazed wares that were produced in Constantinople during this period. In addition, certain amphora forms (e.g., Late Roman 2) were produced, distributed, and imitated throughout the Aegean.

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION Ware and Phocaean Red Slip from Anatolia, Egyptian Red Slip, and local Cypriot Red Slip. In general, the survey finds reveal that fine wares were rare until ca. A.D. 350, then increased significantly from the late fourth and into the fifth centuries, reached a peak in the early to mid seventh century before declining to a low point again in the eighth century. The presence of substantial numbers of LR amphora sherds in the survey area indicate the region trafficked in some bulk goods during the peak period of about 200 years, from the fifth until the middle of the seventh century (Moore 2003:280-282). This pottery suggests more contacts with the eastern rather than the central and western Mediterranean, and demonstrates that even remote hinterlands could have access to the products of the larger economic koine—probably through local centers such as Tamassos—while in many other respects remaining relatively isolated on a daily basis. These findings correlate with other evidence from Greece. Moore’s (2000) study of Roman finewares from dump deposits at Isthmia reveals a majority were from North Africa (African Red Slip) and Asia Minor (Eastern Sigillata B, Çandarli, Phocaean), with a small amount from Egypt and none from Cyprus. Amphorae sherds in the assemblage are also largely eastern in origin. Moore argues the ceramic evidence indicates that trade followed an east to west route in the LR period for this part of the Korinthia. The number of sherds fluctuated over time, with a high point in the second century, a trough in the third and fourth centuries, and an apex in the fifth century before disappearing in the sixth century. While the types of transport amphorae sherds from excavated contexts at Tower 14 and the Northeast Gate of the Fortress are different, they are also largely of eastern origin (Moore 2000:123-125). The presence of Slavic ware in seventh century contexts at Isthmia and other sites may indicate a decline in interregional trade and increasing reliance on local production as an adaptation to various political events (but see below).

kastron expected to meet all its own needs. At this rudimentary level, the evidence can suggest not simply a diverse array of settlements in the area, but a system with rather complex interrelationships. The precise nature of these connections may not have been the same in the second century A.D. as compared to the fifth century A.D., but complexity of organization seems to have persisted. Such a level of integration was an important aspect of the Classical polis system and, I suggest, of Aegean culture in the EB period. The fact that site use at Isthmia had certain foci at different times (that is, ceremonial in early phases, military in later periods) should not obscure the fact that a variety of cultural activity occurred there in all periods. Since inhabitants of the immediate vicinity could not meet the needs of the Sanctuary and the Fortress in their respective periods, a larger sphere of interaction was in operation. This larger sphere involved production, transport, and exchange of a wide range of goods consumed at the site. The factor of site control also played an important part in determining the position of Isthmia in a regional settlement system. Civic officials in Korinth regulated activities in the ancient Sanctuary. These officials were members of the urban political structure, which included the boule or curia, the municipal governing assembly. As noted above, some scholars regard the boule as one of the definitive characteristics of Classical civilization, and its eventual disappearance is taken to be symptomatic of a decline in complexity and the end of urban culture in the so-called Dark Ages from the sixth to eighth centuries A.D. (Kazhdan and Cutler 1982). That there was a shift in terms of urban administration is widely accepted. This shift probably did involve a decrease in social complexity at the local level, but several interrelated systems existed at this time and not all felt the impact equally. The construction and use of the Isthmian Fortress in the fifth century, followed by rebuilding and reuse in the sixth century, reflect a strategic plan implemented at the imperial level. The policy that directed the use of the Fortress was formulated at the highest strata of government and percolated down to the local level. The Fortress is an overt manifestation of the operation of a highly complex system of administration. The role assigned the Fortress depended on a grand defensive scheme devised and executed by the state. The apparent transformation of the Fortress from military installation to residential sector during the seventh century reflects retrenchment by the imperial administration; this reallocation of resources makes sense given the exigencies of the period (e. g., the Arab raids in Anatolia that required immediate attention). To discuss the situation simply in terms of collapse deflects attention from the network of decisions that necessitated such moves. Cameron (1993:194-195) argues that the evidence for a grand imperial strategy of defense is equivocal, and that individual fortifications served local concerns as problems arose. The lack of a strict military hierarchy for local defense means we must consider how the limitanei and local populations adjusted to the immediate problems they faced.

Isthmia as Settlement and Fortress The preceding sections provide some background for understanding activities in the Isthmian Fortress over a period of several centuries. Although some efforts at making the Fortress self-sufficient did occur, these attempts seem to have been directed at helping the installation withstand sieges or other periods of duress. The lack of some facilities, such as any recognizable ceramic kiln, suggests the garrison depended on local suppliers for certain items. It is true that such a facility may have existed outside the Fortress walls in the vicinity of Isthmia, but no such feature has been identified to date for the LR period; Gregory (1993a:37, 80, 102) has identified several circular structures near the fortifications as lime kilns, features that would have been necessary for the production of mortar during construction and renovation. The garrison seems to have depended on the local procurement system to provide certain important commodities. The presence of substantial amounts of imported ceramics indicates ties to a much broader economic sphere as well. In short, the Fortress did not exist in isolation, as a singular 118

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE program of fortification in the Balkans after Alaric’s raid (Gregory 1979:270-272). The use of rectangular towers in the Hexamilion and Fortress (except those flanking the two gates) is characteristic of Byzantine fortifications of the fifth and sixth centuries, including those at Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Resafa, and Nikopolis (Winter 1971:203). Even the use of spolia in construction suggests a broader connection since both Vitruvius (1926:1.5.8) and the De Re Strategica (Köchly, and Rustow 1885:10.3) recommended this practice. Based on these similarities, Gregory (1993a:143) argues the central government was largely responsible for the construction of the Hexamilion and Fortress. Private citizens were called on at times to contribute to such projects, but Gregory argues the cost of the Hexamilion certainly exceeded local financial resources. The building techniques adopted at Isthmia in the Medieval fortifications reflect the uniform nature of such military construction in the Byzantine Empire. The regularity of the methods implies centralized administration. As already mentioned above, Procopius (Buildings, 1961:IV.2.1-28) offers literary evidence for such governmental control in his enumeration of the fortifications built or refurbished under Justinian in the Balkans. Certainly, then, in the fifth and sixth centuries the imperial system was a complex bureaucracy that implemented policies affecting large areas of the empire. This implementation occurred by means of collaboration with local authorities who shared the financial burden for initial outlays and subsequent maintenance of public projects.

Figure 8.1. View of west wall of Fortress showing header and stretcher construction on interior face. Tower 14 in background. Facing south. Photograph by the author.

As stated above, the Fortress served as a residential area in several periods. Other than those times of military emergency, when imperial troops and/or local militias garrisoned the fortifications, there was a small local resident population. For the LR period, Rife (2005) suggests that this community exhibited stability throughout the sixth century, as indicated by the 47 individuals buried in graves at the north end of the Fortress, particularly at the Northeast Gate, and along the Hexamilion. The graves contained multiple bodies, with one holding 10 and another 11 individuals. Funerary goods included earrings, rings, buckles, buttons, small ceramic vessels of a domestic nature, and a glass vessel; one grave also contained 11 coins. Although the use of explicit Christian symbols is limited, the orientation of the bodies and evidence of funerary ritual (e.g., placement of lamps outside several cists) suggest the interred were adherents ofChristianity. Rife also cites the location of several burials in the Sanctuary proper and the Roman Bath as evidence of Christian activity since this action reflects a shift in religious attitude towards the pagan structures. Similarly, Rothaus (2000:53) argues that Christian burials in the Asklepeion at Korinth represent a claim on that area by the followers of the new faith. At the same time, Rife notes that the burial practices represent a relatively smooth transition from earlier Roman practice rather than an abrupt break.

The construction technique used at the Fortress is one indicator of the large scale of planning involved. The walls of the Fortress and Hexamilion exhibit similarities to LR and EB fortifications elsewhere. The emplekton technique employed at Isthmia and in fortifications throughout much of the Byzantine East required the regular insertion of a header block after a series of stretcher blocks to create a strong bond between the ashlar facing and the rubble core (Figure 8.1). Stretcher blocks were laid with the long side following the direction of the wall, while the headers were positioned perpendicular to the line of the wall (Daly 1942; Lawrence 1983; Tomlinson 1961). This technique was Hellenistic in origin and was used by Byzantine military engineers in Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria (Gregory 1993a:136-137). Gregory (1979) also notes that the LR city wall of Korinth exhibits this style of construction. The inner and outer faces of the latter have well-laid courses of stone with a cemented rubble core between them; we see the same technique at Isthmia and throughout the Peloponnesos at Sparta, Palaia Epidauros, Korone, and Ermioni. Gregory dates the wall at Korinth between 400 and 420, at the same time as the Hexamilion and Fortress. He sees the construction of these walls in the Korinthia as part of the imperial

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Military Sites

If active military fort or encampment.

High % of juveniles; incomplete remains; emphasis on meat-rich elements. Other low maintenance species such as Gallus may be present. High % of horse remains as an indication of cavalry. Food

Leather

Low % of “trimming” elements (i.e. os coxae, proximal femur fragments, skull/teeth fragments). Indication of power/status: choicer cuts of meats for stable resource. Evidence of opportunistic hunting, trade, etc. of wild or local domestic game for variety and/or supplemental foodstuffs.

If inactive/abandoned

More agriculture-type profile--mixed age profiles, strategies, and remains: higher % of mature and decreased % of juveniles; higher % of all elements represented. Sedentary inhabitants: consume more O/C and Sus; Bos consumed more than mobile occupants. Mobile: consume/use a higher % of O/C, Gallus, and Sus than Bos; emphasize secondary strategy.

Figure 8.2 Model of animal exploitation for military and residential sites (after Mortensen 1995). The Fortress community in the fifth and sixth centuries probably represents a group of farmers who exploited the surrounding area, to this day utilized primarily for agriculture. It is likely that the LR residents pursued a mixed strategy of cultivating grains, olives, fruits, and vegetables, and raising of livestock, primarily sheep and goats along with some pigs, cattle, and chickens. This assemblage is largely the same as the faunal remains retrieved from a Hellenistic well on Rachi in which fish and fowl supplemented sheep, goat, pig, and cattle as important food sources (AndersonStojanoviü 1993:270), indicating long-term continuity in subsistence. While there are no botanical specimens due to the nature of excavation techniques, faunal remains from digging in the Fortress reveal a pattern of exploitation. Mortensen’s (1995) examination of the animal bones suggests a mode of use that one would expect in a residential or inactive military setting (Figure 8.2). In general, agropastoralists tend to cull herds judiciously, since they can use the animals for milk, wool, and other secondary products; they consume animals only on occasion. This strategy would result in a herd with a high proportion of adults to juveniles. In addition, there should be evidence of both onsite butchery and consumption. On the other hand, military units would be more likely to eat young animals that locals provided them through the process of provisioning or that

they confiscated. At military sites one would expect to find more of the meat-rich elements (e.g., upper limbs) of younger animals if there was a strategy of bringing in prepared cuts. Toplyn (1994) refers to the latter as the importation model and to the former as the production model of meat procurement. Since it is possible to distinguish mature individuals from juveniles and different bone segments through analysis of skeletal remains, the archaeological record provides a means to determine how people exploited their domesticated animals. This general approach finds support in the work of Noddle (1984) who determined that Romans in civilian settlements consistently consumed more mature animals than did military garrisons. Mortensen found a higher proportion of adult compared to immature ovicaprid remains in the faunal assemblage from LR contexts in the Fortress, and suggests there was some emphasis on maintaining the herd for the use of secondary products. In general, the data suggest that the LR residents had a long-term subsistence plan, which in turn implies they were fully integrated into the local setting. It seems the occupants were experienced farmer/herders who knew how best to take advantage of local food resources. The evidence indicates these people were largely self-sufficient and of local stock. Toplyn (1994) and Mortensen (1995) also note, however, that one must consider the structure of the military

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE unit. If national or imperial troops make up a garrison, one would expect to see the typical military model of animal exploitation. If, on the other hand, the troops are local forces (militia or limitanei) their use of animals might be more like that of local residents. Information from other parts of the eastern Mediterranean supports both the general model and the specific interpretation of the situation at Isthmia. In his study of LR fortresses in Jordan, Toplyn (1994) found that the pattern of animal exploitation in these installations mirrored that in the region as a whole, and of modern pastoralists. He concludes that many of the limitanei on the eastern frontier were peasant farmers. The various installations basically relied on their own resources to feed the garrisons, resulting in “subsistence autonomy” (Toplyn 1994).

lieve that the climate, soils, and other factors affecting agriculture in Late Antiquity were not that different from what we see today, or at least prior to 50 years ago when modern mechanized agriculture came to this region of Greece. The LR residents of Isthmia probably practiced a mixed agricultural subsistence strategy not unlike that of the “traditional” farmers of the early twentieth century in the area. This type of subsistence diversification to minimize risk is a practice of very long standing in the Mediterranean area (Butzer 1996:146). Of course, one further possibility is that the resident farmers may have been the same people who manned the fortifications at various times under the pressure of foreign incursions. The main point, however, is that the Fortress occupants were native to the region, and animal bones seem to suggest this portrait, although it is not now possible to discriminate more finely in terms of their military duties, if any. The faunal profile of the LR period contrasts sharply with that for the LB era for which animal remains clearly follow the military model, with a predominance of juvenile remains (Mortensen 1995); the LB garrison, such as the troops who undertook the extensive renovations in the early fifteenth century, imported meat-rich elements, and thus most likely represent an imperial force rather than local recruits.

For Isthmia, then, there are two possible scenarios for the LR occupation. In the first, the limitanei were drawn from the local population; they manned the Fortress and, along with their families, also lived there. Their daily lives were much as they had been prior to military service. While largely self-sufficient farmer-soldiers, the residents probably availed themselves of some food items provided by others in the vicinity, such as the occupants of the villa complex at Akra Sofia. In addition, it is likely that the Fortress residents purchased or bartered for at least some of the manufactured items (various metal objects and ceramics, in particular) found in the houses and graves. The substantial number of women and children among the burials of this period in the Fortress (Rife 2005) can further support this model since the local soldiers would have brought their families into the installation. Furthermore, the provincial government may have required the residents to provide labor for construction and maintenance of the fortifications in exchange for the privilege of living in the facility. The Theodosian Code (1952:11.17.4) made assistance by citizens compulsory in the early fifth century to address the problems that arose from the raids that various groups conducted into the heart of the empire; local officials may have made residence in the Fortress in part at least conditional on upkeep of the facility by the occupants.

One final point about the LR population in the Fortress deserves mention. The low level of material wealth that Rife (2005) notes in the LR burial goods indicates that the residents were not affluent, but does not necessarily help in determining whether the group was basically military or civilian in nature. Whether the Fortress residents were strictly farmers or limitanei, it is unlikely that they would have possessed great financial or material resources. The material record does support the contention that these people were local in origin, though. Isthmia served as a residential site in other periods as well. Of particular interest for the present study is the Slavic presence at the site in the late sixth and seventh centuries. Slavic groups began moving into the northern Balkans by 517, and reached the Peloponnesos ca. 580. Another wave arrived in the seventh century. The Chronicle of Monemvasia, a contemporary document, paints a dramatic picture of Slavic conquest, although it states that the Korinthia was generally under Greek control through most of the period (Gregory 1993b:150). Isthmia provides some evidence for these events, but it is far from definitive. A hoard of Byzantine coins in the collapsed Temple of Poseidon belongs to the period, with the latest specimen dated to 583/584 (MacDowall 1965); it is difficult, however, to associate the hoard directly with the invasion of the 580s. What is clear, Gregory (1993b:150-151) argues, is that the Slavs were in the Peloponnesos at this time, and there is evidence that the Fortress and Hexamilion, though manned, did not stop the incursion; toponymic evidence suggests that the main access route was to the west, so the Slavs may simply have skirted the massive defenses. Others have suggested that the Slavic advance was gradual and that the acquisition of land did not take place in the context of invasion in the early years, although confiscation eventually occurred (Birnbaum 1992).

In the second scenario, the residents did not play a military role. While there were periodic military emergencies in the fifth and sixth centuries when there would have been troops in the Fortress, this need would not have been ongoing. In those intervening periods, local farmers may have used the facility as a residential center. The circuit provided an enclosure for herds of animals, and walls for houses. Much of the land around the Fortress would have been suitable for cultivation and pasture. Today, the area supports large fields of wheat and barley, olive groves, stands of fruit trees (figs and apricots), and many small vegetable gardens. The slopes of nearby hills covered by macquis growth could have provided a number of additional resources, including firewood, wild herbs, and additional forage for domesticated animals (see Forbes 1997 on the use of such areas in the present). While present conditions may not be perfect proxies for past environments, there is good reason to be-

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION Three types of material constitute the evidence for a Slavic presence at Isthmia (Gregory 1993b). The first of these is pottery, specifically a coarse variety generically referred to as Slavic ware. Initially identified in the northern Balkans, its presence in burned levels at Argos and elsewhere has been touted as proof of a violent intrusion by Slavic groups (Aupert 1980). Some scholars saw its coarse fabric, burned and pitted exterior, and signs of hand manufacture as proof of a lower level of technology. Gregory and others have demonstrated that in fact this pottery was produced by various techniques, including a slow wheel or turntable, and that there is some imitation of Roman forms. Similarly, Sanders (1995:455) suggests the Slavic forms at Sparta reflect “acculturation or integration.” Curta (2001:182) adds another element to this discussion. Based on statistical and typological analyses, he argues that function, rather than ethnic affiliation, determined the shapes of Slavic vessels. At Isthmia, the majority of the Slavic pottery comes from the Roman Bath (n=309). The Bath at Isthmia (Figure 8.3) ceased its original function at the end of the fourth century, followed by the collapse of some walls; the builders of the Hexamilion may have been responsible for removing this debris and for the use of the structure in the early fifth century. The remaining walls and roof subsequently collapsed in the late sixth century (Gregory 1995). At some point near the end of the sixth to early seventh century, squatters moved into several rooms of the massive building. The substantial pottery they deposited all derives from small cooking pots that reflect a domestic function (Figure 8.4). This information corresponds with the second type of evidence, which is architectural. Excavation revealed fragmentary walls of two structures, one in each of two separate rooms (IV and VIII) of the former Bath. Although preserved only to one course in height, the structures both exhibited apsidal ends and roughly rectangular outlines. Excavators also uncovered what are presumably floor levels without associated walls in three other rooms of the Bath (II, III, and V). The associated ceramics date all of these structures and floors to the Byzantine DA (Gregory 1993b).

There is additional evidence for this contention as it relates to Room VIII. On the east side of the wall that separates Rooms VIII and IX an E-shaped feature abuts on a large ashlar block and rests on the hard clay packing that was a bedding for a refurbishing of the Roman mosaic floor that was never relaid. The feature seems to be a grill for a cooking oven or hearth and together with the querns, apsidal structure, and evidence of ash and burning in the southern part of the room, suggests a primary domestic context (Kardulias 1994b).

Figure 8.3. Plan of the Roman Bath. Roman numerals indicate individual rooms. OSUEI Archives. Analysis of the materials from which millstones are made provides an important avenue for a consideration of trade systems in the Roman period. Information is available on material for seven of the 10 querns in the Roman Bath assemblage. Three of the implements are made of porphyritic andesite of probable Aeginetan origin. Two are made of a type of basaltic andesite common in the eastern and southern Aegean (one source is the island of Nisyros; Runnels 1981). A thick anomalous piece is made of a sandy limestone common at Isthmia. The material of one flat rotary quern is a small-grained pebbly conglomerate, also probably of local origin. Thus, the querns attest an intricate trade network that involved long-distance, regional, and local exchange. The evidence suggests that outside markets and long-distance networks were still available to DA residents, even though the volume of trade may have been curtailed. Finally, these implements are comparable to others from the same time period in other parts of the Aegean. For example, in the Byzantine fort at Emporio on Chios, the excavators found a complete mill on the floor of the Northwest Tower, dated to the

The third line of evidence is the presence of millstones in the Bath. These implements served to grind grain and are good indicators of household food preparation. The rotary querns from the Bath relate directly to the local economy and subsistence practices of the DA residents. Gregory (1993b) suggests the querns indicate the residents in this period milled grain they raised themselves, i.e., that they were permanent farmers rather than itinerant raiders or nomadic squatters. The quantity of Slavic pottery in the Bath and the area of the Fortress tends to confirm this notion. The farmers could have cultivated fields to the east, south, and west of the Bath and perhaps enough of the Bath’s hydraulic system was functional to make access to water non-problematic. The concentration of querns near the DA structures and floors suggests milling was a domestic chore associated with particular households. The presence of three querns in Room II and two in Room VIII indicate these two locations were primary food processing loci. 122

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE mid-7th century A.D. The diameter of the upper stone is .485 m and of the lower stone .445 m (Ballance et al. 1989:133). By comparison, a piece from north of Room I in a LR-EB context had a radius of .25 m and reconstructed diameter of .50 m.

vious patterns. Rife argues on the basis of the grave contexts and the skeletal remains that the DA occupants were native Korinthians, and that is in keeping with the conclusions of the present study. Such a conclusion, however, does not necessarily hold for other parts of Greece. For example, at Olympia excavators have identified distinct communities that occupied various parts of the ancient sanctuary after the demise of the classical cults. Völling (2001:304-305) recognizes two phases of a Byzantine Christian village in the fifth and sixth centuries, followed by a distinctive Slavic community starting in the period after ca. 625 with a different material culture and cremation burials. He argues that the Greeks and Slavs were two distinct groups with no overlap. Some seventh century burials uncovered in the Forum and along the LR city wall of Korinth and on the west side of Akrokorinth provide further evidence to consider. Among the funerary goods are metal buckles, and in the case of four burials (most with multiple interments) there are also various weapons; Weinberg (1974) and others have referred to the latter as military burials. Based on comparable metal artifacts from Hungary and neighboring areas, scholars have identified the skeletal remains as those of Avars (Davidson 1937), Bulgars (Setton 1950), or Slavs (Weinberg 1974). Russell (1982) has demonstrated that such material, the buckles in particular, appear widely, from Sicily to Asia Minor, including areas the Slavs, Avars, and Bulgars did not reach. Russell concludes that Byzantine artisans fashioned these items. Ivison argues that:

Figure 8.4. Slavic ware specimens from the Roman Bath. Inventory numbers: 1 (IPB 72-36), 2 (IPB 70-6), 3 (IPB 707), 4 (IPB 77-2), 5 (IPB 72-31), 6 (IPB 72-29). OSUEI Archives.

The weapons and buckles from the Corinthian graves could have been supplied by the kommerkiarioi who provisioned soldiers and contracted out the manufacturing within the themes during the seventh century (Haldon 1993:15-18). These burials at Corinth could thus represent groups of Slavs invested with land by the State to defend the city and issued with military equipment some of which accompanied them to their grave [Ivison 1996:119].

The DA remains from the Fortress reinforce and add other elements to this reconstruction. The surface survey retrieved 13 pieces of Slavic ware (see Chapter 6), but excavation along the walls provided more information. Substantial quantities of the distinctive pottery were found in areas associated withsmall structures built up against the Fortress walls. Despite the date and association with Slavic ware, these houses and those in the Bath differ from domestic structures excavated in the Slavic heartland of central Europe and the northern Balkans. In the latter area, houses were often subterranean to some degree with wooden superstructures and a mantle of soil, in contrast to the dry stone wall construction at ground level evident at Isthmia (Gregory 1993b:156-157).

What Ivison suggests for Korinth is the presence of a foreign population that served the local administration. I argue here that the DA residents of Isthmia were probably indigenous people whose material culture reflects an amalgamation of LR and Slavic traits. In either event, the key point is that a Slavic presence or influence in southern Greece in the seventh century does not necessarily reflect military conquest and occupation.

Twelve DA graves along the north and west walls of the Fortress add another important line of evidence to this discussion. Rife (2005) has identified a series of traits associated with these interments that distinguish them from graves of the LR period in the Fortress and elsewhere. The DA graves had markers on the ground surface, including upright blocks and clumps of building debris covered with a veneer of mortar, occasionally with crosses drawn in the wet matrix. The Fortress residents of this period systematically laid out the deceased in an east-west manner in individual cists, accompanied by personal ornaments such as buckles, pendants, and jewelry. Many of these features, however, reflect the evolution of pre-

If we look elsewhere in the Balkans, there is evidence for population movements associated with the reuse of LR structures. A particularly good example of the phenomenon is along the Dalmatian coast where the residents of Salona evidently abandoned their city in the first half of the seventh century as a result of Avar attacks. Salona was an important

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EXTERNAL CORRELATIONS: ISTHMIA AND THE AEGEAN REGION regional administrative and religious center in Late Antiquity. Among other things, excavation has revealed a large Christian cemetery and basilica complex (Duval and Marin 2000). Starting in the fourth century, a number of pagan cult buildings were converted to Christian churches; for example, two cult-places for Nemesis became memorial chapels (Dyggve 1951:11). In an interesting form of syncretism, builders who erected the large Bishop’s Church in Salona copied dimensions from Diocletian’s Palace that is located near the city. Historical documents and archaeological evidence suggest that some time between 612 and 641 Salona suffered catastrophic destruction, and the residents moved into the former imperial palace at Split (Dyggve 1951:125). Diocletian’s massive complex enclosed a substantial urban zone by the tenth century, but it “may already have been occupied by refugees in the sixth century and it is possible that the fall of Salona did no more than enlarge an existing settlement” (Wilkes 1986:88). The plan of the original Palace betrays many features of LR military instillations, including towers, key buildings on a central axis, a shrine, etc., although the function may not have been fully military (Wilkes 1986:69-71). In the sixth and seventh centuries the residents of the new community in the former palatial complex erected small buildings of unworked stones and clay mortar in the free areas next to Roman structures. Wilkes describes the coarse, locally-produced pottery associated with the settlement as “Slavic” ware, which is of significantly lower quality than the imported ceramics of the LR period (Wilkes 1986:88). The similarities with the DA settlement at Isthmia are striking and reflect a widespread pattern in which extant monumental architecture is used for defense, and as a support for very simple houses.

a full military setting and a rural culture. If one were to investigate a LR farmstead in the countryside, the difference would likely dissipate since it is reasonable to expect that the basic needs of an agricultural lifestyle changed little during the period in question. Conclusion The evidence from Isthmia tends to support a perspective intermediate between the two poles of continuity and discontinuity, or what may be termed modified continuity. By the time the fortifications were constructed in the fifth century, the Sanctuary had ceased to function, a fact that can reflect an important disjuncture setting off the Medieval from the ancient. Indications for continued participation in a complex system exist in the evidence for involvement in an international trade network by occupants of the Fortress. In addition, the construction of the fortifications in itself speaks to this problem. The Hexamilion and Fortress are large scale public buildings requiring considerable skill in engineering, financing, military planning, and maintenance to erect, operate, and preserve. While the precise nature of construction at the site changed in this transitional phase from religious to military forms, both types constitute public structures. The needs of the local population and the central government dictated this shift in emphasis, involving a process of conscious choice. In subsequent periods when the Fortress alternated between military and domestic use, the same process of decision making was in effect. This process of selection occurred within the context of a society that possessed substantial social complexity, some of which was retained from the Classical polis and part of which grew out of responses to crises afflicting the imperial system. Social complexity continued, but it was not exactly the same as that of the Classical polis. Adaptation to the new circumstances demanded alterations, but not necessarily to the detriment of complexity as a general trait. A greater appreciation of this phenomenon will be gained when more Byzantine sites receive the attention they deserve. The treatment of the Isthmian Fortress in the present study is one small step in that direction.

The evidence from the Fortress and the Bath strongly suggest the presence of a sedentary agricultural community at Isthmia during the Early Byzantine DA from the late sixth to the eighth centuries. The houses, burials, stone tools, and even the ceramics reflect close familiarity with LR culture. The contrast between the DA remains and those of the LR period are exaggerated by the difference between

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CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS percentage of all other material is assumed to be LR in date as well.

Methodological Conclusions Based on the examination of data presented in Chapter 6, several general statements concerning the field methods can be made. Of the geophysical techniques, the magnetic and electrical methods proved to be moderately effective in outlining subsurface structures. The large amount of stone rubble and the presence of metal and of power lines disrupted the signals in certain locations. As a result, no single technique was ideal for the entire enclosure. In terms of time and manpower, however, magnetometry proved to be the most effective method because a large area could be covered in a short period by three people. In addition, with magnetic readings the removal of extraneous diurnal fluctuations and plotting of the corrected data can now be accomplished by a variety of computer programs. At Isthmia, the electrical techniques provided additional evidence for the presence of subsurface structural remains in the southeast section of the Fortress and thus supported the results of the magnetic survey. In one case (Structure 2), the electrical techniques provided a clearer image than magnetometry. Because of signal distortion, the interpretation of magnetic and electrical anomalies is tenuous in areas of the Fortress where there are no above ground walls to indicate the presence of structures. In general, the geophysical methods worked best in areas where soil depth, and thus distance to cultural target, was less than 1.5 m.

Second, the spatial distribution of the artifacts indicates the extent of site usage. Certain sections of the Fortress were occupied in all phases, while some areas, especially the northeast and northwest sectors, were used intensely only in the LR and LB periods. The increased distribution in the LR and LB periods seems to reflect the main military occupations of the Fortress when all areas of the enclosure would have been utilized. The dumping of material also influenced the artifact distribution. The large amount of fill brought into the area during construction of the Fortress seems to have been concentrated largely in the east central sector where the ground sloped down significantly toward the east. Discard of trash by site occupants was more widespread than the fill and may account for some of the dense concentrations of artifacts in the Fortress. Third, there is a functional component to the surface artifacts. The different categories of material suggest domestic, storage, production, and transport contexts. The clustering of rooftiles, the largest single category, assists in locating structures and ceramic dumps. Some materials (e. g., LR fine ware, glass, tesserae) are markers of wealth differentiation in addition to their primary utilitarian functions; in the case of these materials, one can assess the social or symbolic function as well as the strictly utilitarian.

The self-potential survey was an experimental effort in the use of an inexpensive geophysical technique. The small financial investment for equipment is outweighed by the slow pace in the field and the difficulty in pinpointing the source of self-potential anomalies. Although the method may still prove useful in certain contexts, the results of our survey suggest it may not be appropriate in a structurally complex site because of the inability to clearly discriminate between various targets. The lack of replicability of results must also be addressed before the self-potential approach can become a standard procedure in archaeological geophysical exploration. Given the advances in geophysical techniques, however, over the past two decades, the selfpotential method is probably not a viable option.

The geophysical and surface surveys both supplement and complement each other. The two approaches examine different data sets, but both have the goal of understanding the structural layout in the Fortress. The geophysical methods provide images of the various features while the surface collection acts to corroborate the presence of structures by offering data on the nature of the artifacts associated with the buildings. The surface survey data are more flexible in this respect because the information can suggest the presence of structures where geophysical methods do not indicate such features. Furthermore, surface artifacts are indispensable in determining the date and function of the discovered features. At this time, surface survey and excavation provide the “ground truth” against which interpretations of geophysical anomalies must be compared. Excavation was not possible, however, under the terms of the permit for the present study.

The surface collection formed the other major component of the fieldwork. The intensive and extensive nature of the surface survey provided the basis for assessing the character of the human occupation in the area of the Fortress at three levels. First, there is the chronological aspect. The diagnostic pottery, and to a lesser degree the coins and some of the worked stone blocks, provide temporal parameters for the occupation. Most of the diagnostic ceramics can be dated to a period of one or two centuries duration. The discussion of ceramic chronology in Chapter 6 details the relationship of LR pottery to the date of the Fortress. The majority (n=884, 64.2%) of the diagnostic pottery is LR in date; a similar

Archaeological Conclusions The archaeological work in the Isthmian Fortress had as goals the delineation of structural features associated with the Medieval occupation of the site and the gathering of data to assist in understanding diachronic changes in site function. In addition, I examined site formation processes as part of the effort to interpret the archaeological record. 125

CONCLUSIONS Dealing with site formation processes first, Schiffer’s (1972, 1976, 1987) model is used as a starting point. His description of n-transforms and c-transforms is supplemented by additional factors of discard behavior. The processes of artifact deposition, construction and collapse of structures, reuse of artifacts and architectural members, accumulation of sediments, erosion, pastoral activities, and plowing have all contributed to the present state of the archaeological record and complicate the interpretation of context. Nonetheless, these factors can be sorted out and assigned differential impact.

its original size, the deposition of later materials was superimposed on the earlier material. Subsequent weathering, erosion, and plowing have brought to the surface artifacts from various periods. Because the filling episode associated with construction of the fortifications seems to have been restricted to the east central part of the site and the soil is relatively shallow elsewhere in the Fortress, the surface inventory is a credible reflection of artifact distribution in the stratigraphic components (Cherry 1983). Thus, those periods with the most artifacts on the surface represent the times of most intense site usage.

At Isthmia, the roles of various natural and cultural factors associated with the accumulation and distribution of natural sediments, archaeological deposits, and artifacts fluctuated through time. Erosion may have carried away considerable amounts of pre-LR artifacts, thus underrepresenting the earlier phases in the surface artifact inventory. The evidence of previous excavations, however, suggests the surface collection accurately reflects the intensity of occupation. Construction of the Fortress in the fifth century A.D. minimized artifact displacement from erosion thereafter since the walls retained sediments effectively. A large amount of fill was dumped into the east central part of the enclosure to level the ground inside the compound. This event may have contributed to the high mean density of artifacts in the Fortress, but most of the artifact concentration is probably due to the intensive military occupation of the compound in the LR and LB periods, and the domestic use in the EB phase.

The use of structures within the Fortress also must be understood in terms of these formation processes. Structures are more likely to be reused than individual artifacts, especially when the buildings are constructed of durable materials. Although many of the structures in the Fortress were reoccupied at various times, the main period of interest in the present study is the fifth through the seventh centuries. Since the majority of the diagnostic surface artifacts date to the LR period, when the fortifications were constructed, the buildings within the Fortress are assumed to have been most intensively used in that phase. This is a working hypothesis that would require excavation to verify. The descriptive aspect of the present study uses the geophysical and surface survey data to reconstruct the layout of the Fortress interior in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. The extant walls in the enclosure indicate the presence of six free standing structures (see Figure 6.36). There are also a number of isolated worked blocks; there is no way to determine if these pieces belong to the visible walls. The geophysical techniques aided in tracing out the size of some structures with visible remains. The best examples of this are Structures 1, 2 and 5 (see Figure 6.36). Geophysical methods proved unable to map out the configuration of the remaining known structures, but magnetometry did outline an anomaly of extremely high amplitude that may be a forge near Structure 4.

The occupation of the Fortress by large military contingents alternated with small scale domestic residence, the latter often concentrated along the periphery of the enclosure. Many of the structures in the Fortress fell into disrepair during periods of non-military use and probably contributed to the massive number of rooftiles found on the surface. The concentrations of rooftiles in various locations may represent in situ structural collapse or a series of trash dumps. The construction of blocking walls across the main gates and subsequent clogging of drainage outlets contributed to the accumulation of sediments that buried significant portions of the architecture. In addition, refuse disposal by inhabitants eventually filled up several towers. It is not clear to what degree trash discard occurred within the enclosure.

The surface artifacts suggest the presence of subsurface structural remains in two ways, depending on the type of material examined. In several cases (e. g., Structure 1), concentrations of diagnostic pottery coincide with the interior of geophysical structural anomalies, while the distribution of rooftiles shadows the anomaly. These phenomena may derive from differential functional and decay patterns of the two types of ceramics. In general, the results of the surface survey confirm the existence of the structures revealed by geophysics; the heavy concentration of material around Structure 6 suggests it was probably a large building even though magnetometry reveals little of this plan. In addition, the concentration of certain high status objects, including glass vessels, LR fine ware, tesserae, and revetment, in the center of the Fortress probably pinpoints the location of the principia and officers’ quarters. Certain specialized activities are inferred from the presence of beehive fragments and slag in the southern half of the Fortress.

There is evidence for reuse, and thus displacement, of materials at various times. Construction of the Fortress involved extensive use of spolia, much of which came from Sanctuary structures dismantled specifically for this purpose. Ceramics were commonly used as chinking in the rubble interior of circuit walls and other structures. In addition, the Fortress was refurbished on a number of occasions. Historical and archaeological evidence indicates two major rebuilding phases in the mid-sixth century under Justinian, and the early fifteenth century under Manuel II; such activity probably required repositioning some blocks and replacing others. Since the compound was never extended beyond

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE A detailed discussion of the number, size, and function of Fortress buildings is presented in Chapter 6. To recapitulate briefly, the evidence from visible walls and geophysics indicates the presence of at least six structures in the Fortress. The two large buildings in the southeast corner were probably barracks. Structure 5 with its well hewn blocks may have been part of the command complex. The function of the three other buildings with extant walls is difficult to ascertain. The surface artifacts confirm this figure of six structures, and augment it by suggesting Structure 6 was larger than the remaining wall indicates. Furthermore, a large deposit of rooftiles between Towers 3 and 4 may reflect the existence of another barracks (Structure 8). Examination of North African Byzantine fortresses suggests barracks were often built against the circuit walls (Pringle 1981). This comparison is the basis for hypothesizing the existence of three other large barracks (Structures 7, 9, 10), for a total of ten buildings in the Fortress in the fifth and sixth centuries. There were probably more structures in the compound, but the field data do not permit further speculation. Some buildings may be obscured by the modern cemetery and church in the northern section of the Fortress. Based on available sleeping space in the ten buildings (see Table 7.1), the military population of the Fortress in the LR to EB periods was between 1,200 and 2,000 men, with 1,700 a more likely upper limit under most circumstances.

fourth and seventh centuries. Some scholars who follow this perspective see the watershed as a cataclysmic event due primarily to human action (e. g., invasion) while others stress a more gradual, but no less definitive, separation occurring as the result of accumulated social and environmental problems. A unifying theme among all the discontinuity theorists is agreement over the decline of urban life as constituted in the Classical polis. The adherents of continuity emphasize the perpetuation of many aspects of ancient society during this period of stress. The continuity theorists see cities maintaining a vital social, political, and economic role into the EB period and beyond. The major discontinuity theorists include Foss and Kazhdan and Cutler, all three of whom concentrate on conditions in Anatolia. They all stress the decay of city life. The immediate cause of this decline for Foss (1975) is the Persian invasions of the seventh century, but Kazhdan and Cutler (1982) offer a gradualist, multi-variate explanation. To summarize my previous criticisms, Kazhdan and Cutler assume that the increase in rural territory signals the decline of cities and the impoverishment of Roman Byzantine society. Their approach assumes this process of decay is something new that creates a gap between Late Antiquity and Early Byzantium. However, such conditions had existed previously in Greece, and presumably in Asia Minor, without devastating urban culture. There seems to be greater resilience in the system for absorbing a variety of shocks than some discontinuity theorists would accept. Furthermore, Kazhdan and Cutler describe ancient society in static terms and then compare this monolithic entity to Byzantine society. Considerable evidence suggests the polis system changed significantly during antiquity. For example, the Greek city went from controlling its own foreign policy to surrendering that activity to Macedonia and eventually to Rome. The various civic institutions changed through time to address contemporary problems. In this light, the alterations of the fourth to seventh centuries do not necessarily constitute the dramatic break with the Classical past that discontinuity theorists envision. Changes occurred, but these were part of an ongoing process that was also in operation at a time (first to second centuries A.D.) when few would deny the viability of the polis system.

The surface collection data also provide a basis for comparing the Fortress with other sites in Greece where similar information was gathered. The extremely high mean artifact density in the Fortress is probably due to the congested nature of military camps. Various dumping episodes may have also contributed to the total, but even if one-half of the inventory in the Fortress derived from such activity, the remaining density is still significantly higher than anything recorded elsewhere in Greece. Military occupation of a site is evidently of a different order of magnitude than civilian residence in terms of intensity and compactness. Analysis of the geophysical and surface collection data from the Fortress offers the basis for a better understanding of the systemic context within which the Byzantine occupants of the site operated. In this manner, interpretative statements can be made that breathe life into the static archaeological record.

Foss (1972, 1975, 1979) employs an impressive array of historical, archaeological and numismatic data to support the thesis that the Persian invasions of the seventh century terminated Late Antique urban life. Citing conditions in a variety of cities, but focusing on Sardis, Foss argues for an irreversible decline in settlement size, the scale of public works, and the monetary economy. The small towns that emerge from the Dark Ages, he contends, bear little resemblance to the grand ancient cities. Foss’ position has been influential but can be faulted at several levels. First, the numismatic evidence he uses often lacks good stratigraphic provenience. There is also the factor of archaeological sampling that may be responsible for the discrepancies in numbers of coins in various periods, including the dropoff in quantity after 615 that Foss argues is indicative of urban

Historical Conclusions The historical component of the present study builds on the results of the archaeological fieldwork. The larger issue within which the archaeological data are framed concerns the nature of social change. Discontinuity and continuity have been presented in Chapter 5 as competing paradigms that have been used in the past to examine the transition from Late Antiquity to the EB period in the Aegean region. The matter is not simply a semantic disagreement. Those who espouse discontinuity believe a fundamental cultural break occurred in this region at some time between the

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CONCLUSIONS collapse. There are other studies (Charanis 1955; Hendy 1985) that suggest a reduction in coins did not signal the demise of a monetary economy in other Byzantine cities. A second problem area is the lack of independent historical evidence for the destruction of Sardis by the Persians. Third, Foss takes a uni-causal approach that does not consider alternate explanations for some phenomena. For example, Foss points to the failure to rebuild public structures in the seventh century as evidence of the financial and institutional weakness of Anatolian cities. There is evidence, however, that public construction continued in the EB period in various cities (Cormack 1981).

and allowed the cities to function much as they had before, except that the Roman state arrogated the handling of certain foreign affairs and demanded payment of taxes. The historical and archaeological evidence from Isthmia suggests the continuation of important elements of this urban imperial system in the EB period. Various contemporary historians, most notably Procopius, refer to the rebuilding of the Hexamilion and Fortress under the auspices of the imperial government as part of a larger plan for defending the southern Balkans. The size and extent of the fortifications at Isthmia and the evidence for their integration into a regional strategy strongly indicate the continuation of the imperial system, as it was constituted in Late Antiquity, into the fifth and sixth centuries at least. Some significant changes did occur in the seventh century, as the Fortress became part of a Dark Age agricultural community, but there is also evidence for continuity in trade and shared technology; Avramea’s (1997) contention that Korinth retained some key administrative functions for the region would suggest some impact on Isthmia. Perhaps the work of EKAS will provide some additional field data to clarify the relationship between Isthmia as a whole and the surrounding area during the transitional period.

In efforts to resolve this debate scholars on both sides have had recourse to archaeological as well as historical evidence. These efforts have focused largely on Anatolia. Isthmia provides a Greek setting for the examination of this problem of social change. Despite its lack of civic status, Isthmia has certain characteristics that make it an appropriate venue for determining how urban culture fared in the transitional phase under scrutiny. Both as a sanctuary and a fortress, Isthmia was an urban apparatus. In both manifestations it reflected and was sensitive to the shifting nuances of the larger society, some of whose important needs the site reflected. At no time could the site stand in isolation. The Sanctuary was directed by Korinthian officials, who regulated the festivals, construction, and maintenance to enhance their personal status and that of their city. The Fortress was an important cog in imperial military strategy that covered all the Balkans. In many ways, Isthmia was always dependent on connections to a larger urban system for its prosperity. If that larger system was disrupted and cities declined, as the discontinuity thesis holds, a site such as Isthmia should be among the first to suffer. As cities turned in upon themselves, halted the construction of large public projects and became isolated settlements, urban outliers such as Isthmia should have felt the impact of the changes. Isthmia should thus be as good or better than a city as a measure of urban vitality and the direction of social change during the period in question.

Isthmia was intimately tied into this defensive network as witnessed by similarities in construction techniques used in the Fortress and Hexamilion with structures as far afield as Constantinople and Resafa. In addition, there is evidence for a monetary economy in the period of transition in the form of coins and substantial amounts of imported pottery collected during the surface survey. At present, there is no way to know what role Korinthian officials played in the administration of the Fortress but locals may have borne some of the financial burden (Gregory 1993a:143). The fortifications at Isthmia represent a massive public project and continuation of a phenomenon often treated as characteristic of urban culture in the region. As an urban outlier, Isthmia continued to serve a variety of functions, the key one now being defensive rather than ritual. Neither the Fortress nor the Sanctuary could have existed in isolation. The complex social hierarchy that characterized Late Antiquity was in place through the sixth and into the seventh century. Social differentiation is evident in the Fortress in the variety of prestige items from the surface collection; these data imply not just discrepancies in military rank but also in social station since it was the aristocratic officers who could afford such material. All of these indicators point to certain crucial similarities in the social, political, and economic milieux at Isthmia in antiquity and the early Medieval period. There are differences as well, but I believe the weight of the evidence compels acceptance of a position viewing social complexity as a continuing feature at Isthmia, and perhaps in the Aegean area as a whole, into the period of transition. Obviously, the case of Isthmia by itself does not settle the issue at a regional level, but it at least demonstrates the need to consider the range of possible variation.

An important aspect of the present study is to assess how the data from Isthmia relate to the nature of social change in the Aegean region during the fourth through the seventh centuries. This involves connecting the site-specific data with the larger question of the fate of urban culture in Late Antiquity. As a Sanctuary, Isthmia reflected various aspects of the polis system. For example, the Sanctuary could not have functioned and prospered without the support of Korinth and various wealthy citizens who served as benefactors and overseers of the public works and festivals. These people invariably served in the boule. In addition, construction and maintenance required architects, a large talented labor pool, and a complex economic system capable of providing all the necessary materials and services. The social hierarchy, political structure and monetary economy that made this system possible were common to much of the Greek East. The Roman imperial provincial structure was superimposed over the polis system

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE other underlying assumption is the primacy of infrastructural components (e. g., mode of production, practical political considerations of power) over superstructural ones (i. e., religion, ideology). In other words, the pragmatic, concrete considerations of the material world determine the tenor of any historical period, with a symbolic overlay that justifies the system. Religion and other ideological components of social life are derivative from and not causative of human action, but as such are still important to the system. People manipulate symbolic systems, including religion and ideology, to aid them in achieving certain desired ends; feedback from the ideological superstructure is vital in maintaining the system as a whole. The cultural materialist perspective of Marvin Harris (1966, 1974, 1977, 1979) and the micro-economic principles of formalist economics (Burling 1962; Homans 1958) are the bases for these key assumptions.

A Model for Social Change at Isthmia Based on the preceding discussion, I derive a model of culture change that has the following elements: (1) The least effort principle guides human behavior. Humans must, at some level, be concerned with the efficient expenditure of energy. This principle relates directly to the universal human capacity for rational choice. People will select those options that seem to be in their best interest, i. e., that provide them the most benefits at the lowest cost. The benefits include both material and non-material items; the latter include status and prestige. (2) The principles of the Darwinian evolutionary model are applicable to social change. The change is non-directed, but people do make efforts to provide an orientation by dealing with immediate problems; in so doing, their actions have long-range consequences, many of which are unforeseen and thus introduce the non-directed component. Changes are often incremental, but the cumulative effect can be far-reaching. From Tainter (1988) we learn that collapse has positive elements, or at the very least is understandable as an option for a society undergoing significant stress. (3) Architecture reflects these individual and societal concerns. Since practical factors are primary, one cannot proceed with monumental undertakings without making important choices about the disposition of limited resources. The investment of vast resources in large building projects reflects social complexity with hierarchical organization. Such complexity persisted from Late Antiquity into the Medieval period, even though the precise overt manifestation of the phenomenon altered. I do not deny that Byzantine and Late Antique culture differed, but to characterize the transition as an abrupt break or dissolution is of little assistance in determining the process of change. What is of interest is not the shift in emphasis on architectural function, but the degree to which energy investment in construction continued, when it changed, and why it did so.

Appended to this materialist viewpoint is the definition of culture as a flexible response system used by humans in the complex process of adapting to the physical and cultural environment. As noted above, culture is not a fixed, static set of rules that provides people with an unvarying blueprint for reacting to the world, but is rather a dynamic information system that people constantly change; people tap and add to its reservoir of knowledge. Culture is the adaptive strategy used by humans and, thus, changes as human needs and the environment change. This view of culture derives from cultural ecology and its offshoots (Moran 1982; Netting 1977), and has strong connections to evolutionism. The evolutionary paradigm has proved its utility to archaeology in a number of studies (Bettinger 1991; Dunnell 1989, 1992; Neff 1992; O’Brien 1996; O’Brien and Holland 1992, 1995; Rindos 1984; Rosenberg 1994; Shennan 2002; Teltser 1995; Trigger 1998), although there is continuing vigorous debate over the best specific approach (Broughton and O’Connell 1999). For my purposes, the selectionist approach (Dunnell 1980) offers a useful way to examine the actions of past peoples. In brief, “humans are subject to the process of selection just as is anything else organic” (O’Brien and Holland 1995:177). Furthermore, there is the effort to determine why particular adaptations or cultural features become dominant in particular periods. If we begin with the idea that “Artifacts represent solutions to roadblocks that our ancestors encountered” (O’Brien and Holland 1995:192), we can extend the model to other aspects of technology and behavior. As part of the quest to resolve various problems, ancient Korinthians invested heavily in monumental architecture at various times. When that option held fewer benefits for various reasons, the people ceased such work in the Sanctuary, and shifted focus to the fortifications. In the seventh century, abandonment of the Fortress reflects disinvestment by the imperial government at a time when it needed to concentrate resources elsewhere, while the squatters who moved into the military installation and the Bath (Gregory 1993a:144145, 1993b) did so to take advantage of existing structures, an adaptation that allowed them to expend energy on chores other than house construction.

Examination of the historical and archaeological evidence provided by exponents of abrupt discontinuity suggests that this perspective is not an adequate explanation for what transpired in the Aegean region between the fourth and seventh centuries. Also unsatisfactory is a simple version of continuity that sees a direct reflection of ancient Hellenic culture in Byzantine and modern Greek societies. This notion of continuity makes of the Byzantines little more than caretakers of the ancient legacy. The present study emphasizes continuity, but with the Byzantine people as active participants in retaining some key elements of Late Antique culture while altering other aspects to meet their particular needs. I call this perspective modified continuity and it entails certain assumptions. Foremost is the notion that people are motivated by selfinterest, that is, they act to satisfy a set of perceived needs, material and nonmaterial (Frank 1988; Homans 1958; Lenski 1970:32-34; see Randsborg [1990, 1991] for the period in question). This is true of humans in all time periods and provides a common ground by which contemporary scholars can assess the actions of past peoples. An-

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CONCLUSIONS Another important consideration is the degree to which we can generalize issues of structural deterioration. I believe Adams (1988:24-25) is correct in stating that the decay of complex structures rarely occurs simultaneously across the entire structure. As a supplement to Adams’ notion, decline in one area often is compensated by reassignment of resources to another. I contend that changes at Isthmia in the fifth to sixth centuries are aspects of such a realignment, a reordering of priorities, or what Lenski (1970:89-90) calls intrasocietal selection. As Lenski points out, the choices people make over a period of time create a “definite progression of organizational forms” that modify older structures to meet new demands. In the process, the structures (especially the economic and political systems) are gradually transformed.

from the Bath were used in the fortifications that were erected ca. A.D. 410-420 to answer the threat of barbarian invasions (Clement 1975; Gregory 1993a:142). Byzantine military engineers made considerable use of spolia at Isthmia (Broneer 1971:102). The extent of the practice had a dramatic impact on the appearance of the Sanctuary. We know from Pausanias (1964:II.1.7) that the Temple of Poseidon was intact and functioning in the second half of the second century A.D. Yet when various travelers visited the site in the seventeenth century and later (Leake 1968 [1830]; Wheler 1682), no traces of this large structure remained on the ground. In fact early researchers, like Monceaux (1884, 1885), mistook the Fortress for the temenos wall of the temple. Broneer’s work (1953, 1971) demonstrated conclusively the location of the temple and the core of the Sanctuary; his excavations in the area of the temenos revealed a singular lack of the numerous architectural members from the temples and associated structures. Such a thorough disappearance was evidently not due to natural disasters, since other ancient structures in the region had withstood the ravages of time. The Temple of Zeus at Nemea, for example, described by Pausanias (1964:II.15.2) as in a poor state of repair, remained a visible monument throughout the Medieval period and into modern times (Miller 1990:13).

Examining Isthmia with such a model provides a necessary balance between the extreme continuity and discontinuity positions. The transition from Late Antiquity to Early Byzantine is only one phase of an ongoing process that includes all of Greek history. When we talk of Classical antiquity or the Classical polis system, we often describe the diagnostic phenomena at some arbitrary point in time and make that reference point characteristic of all periods. There were changes in urban culture throughout antiquity and the alterations in the Aegean region and at Isthmia during the fourth to seventh centuries A.D. are extensions of this flux. In the region as a whole, certain elements of that urban system were maintained while others were changed to accommodate the altered conditions of the period. The environmental conditions (social and natural) of the period selected for a system in which residents abandoned certain traits of Classical urban culture. The public buildings of the polis (baths, temples, stoas, theaters, and so on) proved to be excessive burdens; reduction in scale enhanced survivability (financial, economic) of many cities. In addition, the central administration focused much of its architectural efforts on the capital in Constantinople and other large cities. In some cases, other forms co-opted their functions (e. g., churches replaced temples; see Avramea [1997:113-116] for such changes in the Peloponnesos).

Although it is difficult to assign particular blocks to specific ancient buildings, many reused blocks have appeared in the fortifications. The Northeast Gate of the Fortress incorporates an earlier Roman arch and also contains numerous other reused blocks (Gregory and Mills 1984). The base of the Gate’s north tower contains a number of voussoir blocks from some circular structure (Gregory 1993a:57-59); a large rectangular marble block, used as a paving slab for the road through the Gate, was originally a monument commemorating the victories of one Lucius Kornelios Korinthos in various musical competitions (Clement 1974). A column drum serves as a door lintel in Tower 15 of the Fortress (Figure 9.1). Excavation in the area around Tower 14 of the Fortress yielded the following pieces of the Temple of Poseidon: two building blocks from the foundation of the interior colonnade, a geison block, and a fragmentary mutule (Broneer 1971:104, 115, 135-136). A segment of the Hexamilion near the Roman Bath contains a wide array of ancient blocks: column drums, triglyph-metope blocks, and Doric capitals (Gregory 1993a:43-44; Figure 9.2). Vitruvius (1926:I.5.8) and the anonymous author of the military treatise De re Strategica (Köchly and Rustow 1885:10.3) both advocated such use of spolia. Since spolia did not provide sufficient material for the task of constructing the Fortress, the Byzantines also quarried stone near the walls. Gregory (1993a:116-117) identified one such quarry near the east Fortress Wall; removal of the blocks from the limestone bedrock minimized the transport distance and steepened the approach to the wall. Additional material may have come from the ancient quarries several kilometers west of the site from which derived much of the stone for the original ancient buildings in the Sanctuary (Hayward 1996).

At Isthmia these conditions translated into an abandonment of the Sanctuary and the systematic dismantling of its structures. The precise date of the Sanctuary’s demise is a matter of some debate. Beaton and Clement (1976) suggest cult activity at Isthmia terminated abruptly in A.D. 395 when Alaric’s raid destroyed most of the site. Gebhard (in Catling 1988:22) places the demise of the Isthmian festival in the second quarter of the third century. Rothaus (1993) has found evidence for cult activity as late as the sixth century in the Korinthia and at least to the late fourth century at Isthmia. Excavation in the periphery of the Sanctuary has revealed some evidence concerning this issue. For example, work in the Roman Bath indicates that the structure was in use into the fourth century (Gregory 1995; Gregory and Kardulias 1989). Spolia

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE only Panhellenic festival under the direct control of a major polis and Korinth made the most of this economic opportunity. I do not wish to deny the importance of religious motivations. Rather, I simply do not assign them primacy.

Figure 9.1. View of entrance to Tower 15 showing column drum used as lintel block. At lower left is an Ionic column drum from the Theater. Facing west. Photograph by the author. Some scholars might argue that this use of spolia marks a fundamental shift in perspective that separates the Late Antique mindset, and thus the society that fostered it, from the Early Byzantine. I suggest that it was largely material conditions that dictated a shift in strategy. The changes in the physical aspects of the site reflect a change in the adaptive strategy of the area’s occupants and the central government to enhance survival. Even this transition reflects a consistent pragmatic orientation. Although ritual behavior was important at Isthmia from the founding of the Sanctuary down to the late fourth century A.D., a variety of other activities provided the foundation for the various religious, athletic and theatrical events. Planning and execution of the various Sanctuary construction projects required considerable resources and skills in architectural design, financing, organizing labor, stone masonry and a variety of other vocations. Maintenance of the facilities and festivals also required considerable administrative expertise and monetary outlay. The benefits of controlling the Sanctuary were, I suggest, primarily practical in providing such things as income from gifts and visitors, and employment. The prestige associated with control of the Sanctuary also had a pragmatic component. The greater the reputation of the various festivals conducted at the site, the more likely it was that large crowds would attend and enrich Korinthian coffers. Salmon (1984:403) notes that the Isthmian Games were the only Panhellenic festival under

Figure 9.2. Section of Hexamilion wall ca. 5 m north of Roman Bath. Note column drums used as foundation blocks. Facing west. Photograph by the author. In tearing down ancient structures, the people of the fifth century were pursuing an activity they estimated would help them overcome certain immediate problems. In a similar manner, cities such as Efesos, Sardis, and Korinth that contracted in size did so to adjust to current conditions. The people found that maintenance of the status quo was counter-productive and so they pursued innovations; in terms of the culture model (Figure 1.4), they adopted new values which in turn permitted restricting the size of the community because they probably found unbearable the cost of maintaining an undefendable system of extensive walls. The intent was not to create a “Byzantine” type community, but in the long term the new strategies altered the appearance of Classical cities, such as Korinth. Nor was the dismantling of ancient monuments always an expression of Christian hostility toward pagans. Saradi-Mendelovici (1990) demonstrates that, while persecution of pagans and destruction of their buildings did occur, Christians also often displayed a positive attitude toward pagan monuments, many of which they actively preserved. She 131

CONCLUSIONS also attributes the regular use of marble from ancient temples in Christian buildings to “convenience and financial motives” (Saradi-Mendelovici 1990:52), an argument fully supported by the present study.

provincial town...with life disrupted to such an extent that the old pattern could never be resumed.” While clearly significant, the raid was probably not cataclysmic. In the late fourth and early fifth century A.D., the Agora experienced a building spurt which, while it did not reestablish the ancient pattern and style, clearly reflects a rejuvenation of significant proportions. In addition, a number of important visitors and scholars graced Athens in the seventh century A.D. and speak to its continued vitality: St. Gislenus and Theodore of Tarsus (later Archbishop of Canterbury) both studied philosophy there in the midseventh century, and Emperor Constans II stayed in Athens during the winter of 662/3 (Thompson and Wycherley 1972:216).

The practical considerations entailed in this perspective are perhaps more evident in discussing the Fortress. The construction of the fortifications was an outgrowth of security concerns in a period of foreign incursions. The need for defense was pressing. To expedite completion of the walls, ready sources of stone, such as the buildings of the Sanctuary, were used. Major rebuilding episodes in the sixth and fifteenth centuries (Gregory 1993a:144, 147-148) reflect similar processes of decision-making based on practical considerations. Time, effort, and money were invested to secure material benefits. The failure of these attempts to block invaders does not obviate the rational, ends-oriented process in which the builders engaged.

In these studies there is also an expression of the efficiency principle (that is, maximize rewards at the minimum cost). For example, in their discussion of the construction of a defensive wall against the Herulian raid, Thompson and Wycherley (1972:210) note that the builders stripped the buildings of the Agora for construction material, but that they spared the Temple of Hephaestos perhaps because of its distance from the wall rather than out of any special veneration. Since it is clear that these builders in the late third century were predominantly pagans, it seems practical military needs overrode religious sentiment.

The change in the character of the site from primarily religious to military in orientation can thus be viewed from the perspective of people acting to maximize their benefits at the minimum cost. As a Sanctuary, the site was failing to meet the immediate needs of people in the northeastern Korinthia in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. The new challenges confronting them required a change in strategy which is reflected in construction of the fortifications. The use of prepared stone is more efficient than quarrying new blocks, and so the temples and other structures were mined to provide building material. While modern scholars may decry this destruction of architectural treasures, the ancients had to make practical choices and acted accordingly. If the Sanctuary had not been so violated prior to the fifth century, it was because the site served a practical function and residents saw it was in their interest to maintain the structures, or, after the cult place was abandoned, that there was nothing to be gained by destroying the buildings. As such, the Sanctuary buildings can be seen as idle assets that were put to use by the government when a particular need for them arose. The change that occurred at the site can be described as part of a series of activities that are understandable in such pragmatic terms.

Furthermore, not all cities in the Aegean area experienced the transformation uniformly as a decline. Preferable to the “great break” perspective is one that stresses a “continual process of cultural transformation” (Rautman 1990:14; see also Kaegi 1989), what I would call an evolutionary development. Trombley (1985a) demonstrates the persistence of Euchaita as an urban entity in Asia Minor during the seventh century. Russell’s (1986, 2001) work at Anemurium indicates continued strong urban activity at the same time that Sardis and other Anatolian cities experienced a drop in monumental construction and other civic activities. In general, though, a transformation of some significance occurred between the fifth and seventh centuries. Haldon (1990:92117) attributes the changes to the loss of fiscal, economic, and political autonomy. The reduced status of towns led directly, he argues, to the decrease in size, population, and complexity witnessed in Anatolian and Greek urban settlements. Haldon’s emphasis on structural, rather than external (i. e., invasions) factors permits a clear delineation of the forces at play. Accompanying the de-emphasis of cities was the increased importance of villages as administrative units, the landowners of which formed the core for revenue collection by the state. This process had begun at least by the sixth century (Haldon 1990:138-139). Haldon’s penetrating analysis focuses on attempts by the Byzantines to deal with a fluctuating situation. He states that the major response centered on efforts to re-establish the efficacy of the worldview that had been buffeted by various events in the sixth and seventh centuries. While I concur that a search to reaffirm basic cultural values occurred (positive feedback loop in Figure 1.4), one cannot lose sight of the basic material causes (e. g., the need to provide security, and a stable sub-

The events at Isthmia did not occur in a historical vacuum, and thus comparison with other sites is necessary and instructive. The excavations in Athens provide excellent comparanda to assess the nature of the transition. It is undeniable that monumental construction in the Agora declined in Late Antiquity. Several authors view the Herulian raid of A.D. 267 as the critical event that began Athens’ decline from a Classical polis to a medieval town. Thompson and Wycherley (1972:210) note the destruction of the ancient administrative structures (Bouleterion, Tholos, Metroon). While they are uncertain what buildings replaced these civic offices, both the institutions housed there and the economy of the city suffered a decline. Frantz (1988:3) places greater emphasis on the Herulian raid as a watershed event, suggesting it marks “clearly the end of the ancient city and its transition to the status of a minor

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FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE sistence base) that underlay the abstract cultural conceptions. It is not that Haldon disregards these material causes, but he argues that the Byzantines acted on the basis of a constructed worldview, a series of perceptions. I see a somewhat more direct link between material causes and cultural behavior, but in general I find Haldon’s approach quite useful. The “whole” he refers to that makes individual behavior comprehensible (Haldon 1990:439) is culture. Haldon allows for significant regional variation in changes to settlements. In addition, the process he describes, with the possibility of alternative strategies, fits the evolutionary model outlined above.

What Treadgold describes is a selective process of adaptation in which the Byzantines made a series of choices that transformed some basic aspects of their social, political, and economic systems in the successful effort to preserve the core of their society. This process of transformation involved simplification of various facets. The decisions that the Byzantines made stripped away some of the external features of LR culture, but maintained certain central elements of complexity. Isthmia provides an example of this dynamic process in which the site served various functions over time as the needs of the region’s inhabitants shifted. Conclusion

Treadgold (2002:142-150) also offers a model compatible with that proposed in the present study. He suggests that although certain significant changes occurred in Byzantine society, the evidence indicates some degree of continuity. He identifies increased militarization as a major trend beginning in the mid-seventh century that had various effects. Because of the threats posed by the Persians, Arabs, Slavs, and others, the imperial administration used its limited financial reserves primarily to maintain and pay the army. With the loss of key areas in the seventh century, military land grants (theme system) became increasingly important in this task and the amount of coins in circulation dropped. Provincial warehouses served as customs houses and places where soldiers could purchase, with coins or agricultural produce, the necessary armaments. The military leaders of the themes supplanted provincial governors, the civil service shrank, population declined, and cities lost administrative functions. Nonetheless, many of the basic institutions remained in place. In addition, Treadgold argues that the lives of rural peasants did not change appreciably. Small farmers had adequate land, and could depend on their fellow villagers to offer help with paying taxes, providing a stability that allowed Byzantium to weather the difficult period of transition. As a summary of the situation, he states,

Viewed from such a perspective, the historical transition to the Early Byzantine period is less one of discontinuity than of continuity. The elements of change were carried out within the context of societal adjustments rather than total realignment. Another important point in considering conditions at Isthmia during the period of change is the multidimensional nature of the site before and after the construction of the fortifications. In antiquity, cultural activity at Isthmia encompassed more than the rituals and festivals. The large West Cemetery and domestic quarters in the East Field and on Rachi attest to the presence of a sizable resident population. The dyeing or tanning facilities on Rachi demonstrate the presence of an important commercial enterprise (Anderson-Stojanoviü 1996; Kardara 1961). As described above, the various festivals also had an important economic component. The nature of the road system made Isthmia an important transportation node. After the construction of the Fortress in the fifth century many of these features remained important. The selection of Isthmia as the location of the Fortress undoubtedly had much to do with the site’s command of the roads along the eastern part of the Isthmus. Occupation of the Fortress alternated between a military garrison and civilian residents from the fifth century on. The Fortress was an important component in the local settlement system, both as a residential area and as a last refuge in periods of duress. A series of economic links certainly bound the Fortress garrison to the local community since the maximum contingent (ca. 1,700 men) probably was not self-sufficient in terms of many important commodities such as food and pottery. The Fortress and Sanctuary thus both exhibited a diverse array of activities even though they are often each identified with only one primary function. The nature of some of these activities changed in significant ways between the fourth and seventh centuries, but the site always supported a variety of human behavior.

The Dark Age of the seventh and eighth centuries left Byzantine society more primitive than before, but still recognizably the descendant of late Roman society. Unlike contemporary western Europe, Byzantium kept most of the superstructure of the Roman state, including its system of taxation, professional army, civil service, monetary economy, and secular schools. All of these were scaled back, often drastically, out of economic necessity, so that the public sector shrank more than the private sector. But the Byzantine state remained large enough to give its emperors greater powers than any king or emperor in the early medieval West, and to give Byzantium the ability to withstand the similarly organized caliphate [Treadgold 2002:150].

The size of the Byzantine Empire precludes any simple solution to the problem of understanding how that society adapted and changed through time. Evolutionary theory provides significant insights into this process of culture change. The data from Isthmia provide evidence for the importance of regional variation in providing loose parameters that allowed people leeway to make adjustments they deemed necessary under various conditions. In a general

133

CONCLUSIONS way, these data tend to support a revised form of the continuity thesis. Even if Classical urban culture was eclipsed suddenly in Anatolia, and the evidence is by no means unequivocally in support of this interpretation, we must entertain the possibility of a different outcome in Greece. As more Byzantine sites are examined, it may be predicted that this phenomenon of regional variation within a general cultural context will become increasingly apparent. Perhaps then Byzantine society will be seen as a dynamic successor to the ancient legacy, which it neither thoughtlessly cast aside nor followed blindly, but rather adapted to its own

peculiar needs. We must not be deceived by certain external changes into believing that people were fundamentally different. The true continuity is the constancy of human nature and the drive to secure economic benefits, however these may be defined by the social individual. It is only fitting to let Darwin have the last say on this matter: “...there is a struggle for existence leading to the preservation of profitable deviations of structure or instinct…The truth of these propositions cannot, I think, be disputed” (Darwin 1928 [1859]:437).

134

APPENDIX 1 DATA FROM THE 1985 SYSTEMATIC SURFACE COLLECTION IN THE FORTRESS In 1985, the surface materials were collected in 1-m2 sampling units at the following intervals: 10 m northsouth and 5 m east-west.

ChC=Chert Core ChF=Chert Flake CS=Cut Stone G=Glass HS=Handstone I=Iron IS=Inscribed Stamp K=Kiln Support L=Lamp LD=Lid M=Marble MO=Mortar MS=Millstone N=Nail R=Revetment S=Slag SB=Stone Bowl SL=Slavic Pottery/Ware SN=Snail SS=Sea Shell ST=Slate T=Tessera TR=Triglyph W=Water Pipe WB=Worked Block WS=Waster

Below are abbreviations used for the column headers and in the Diagnostic, Other, and Visibility categories of the spreadsheet. For the 1985 survey, the method of recording the various materials was still being developed. Dates of ceramics were not recorded in the same detail as in the following year. As a result, we used more generic terms with less chronological specificity in some instances. The lists below reflect abbreviations found on the spreadsheets for both the 1985 and 1986 surface collections; Column Headers and symbols for Visibility were precisely the same for each year, while some of the symbols for the Diagnostic and Other columns are unique to the 1985 survey. In addition, field teams often spelled out fully certain descriptions in 1985 (e. g., glazed, combed) without providing any further chronological precision other than Roman or Byzantine. In the following year, the temporal breakdown was more precise (e.g., ER, LR). Column Headers FI=Fine Ware CS=Coarse Ware TL=Tile BS=Base Sherd RS=Rim Sherd H=Handle B=Base

Designations for date in Diagnostic column Byz=Byzantine EB=Early Byzantine LB=Late Byzantine ER=Early Roman LR=Late Roman

Designations for Diagnostic and Other B=Beehive BK=Brick Bld=Building BO=Bone BR=Bronze C=Coin

Visibility E=Excellent G=Good F=Fair P=Poor

135

APPENDIX 1

Transect 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Square Total FW 60S-5W 1 0 60S-10W 1 0 60S-15W 8 1 60S-20W 2 0 50S-5W 1 0 50S-10W 54 2 50S-15W 19 0 50S-20W 15 0 40S-5W 2 0 40S-10W 54 7 40S-15W 18 0 40S-20W 7 0 30S-5W 0 0 30S-10W 8 0 30S-15W 15 0 30S-20W 26 0 20S-5W 0 0 20S-10W 17 0 20S-15W 33 2 20S-20W 63 0 10S-5W 1 0 10S-10W 33 1 10S-15W 32 0 10S-20W 67 0 0S-5W 0 0 0S-10W 22 0 0S-15W 54 2 0S-20W 8 0 10N-5W 1 0 10N-10W 32 2 10N-15W 52 0 10N-20W 41 0 20N-5W 6 0 20N-10W 32 0 20N-15W 18 1 20N-20W 43 0 30N-5W 20 0 30N-10W 27 1 30N-15W 30 0 30N-20W 14 4 40N-5W 22 0 40N-10W 39 0 40N-15W 35 0 40N-20W 25 5 50N-5W 19 0 50N-10W 8 0 50N-15W 9 0 50N-20W 12 0 60N-5W 7 0

CW 0 0 6 2 0 42 14 7 1 35 15 5 0 4 10 10 0 6 18 17 0 21 20 16 0 18 27 0 0 20 30 15 1 23 9 15 3 24 15 2 6 37 22 9 7 7 3 6 2

Tile 0 1 1 0 1 9 4 8 1 12 3 2 0 4 5 16 0 11 13 46 1 10 12 51 0 4 25 8 1 10 22 25 5 9 8 28 13 2 15 7 16 2 13 11 9 1 6 4 5

BS RS H B Diagnostic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Glazed green piece 0 0 0 0 43 0 1 0 Byz glaze btw samples 14 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 40 1 1 0 1Roman 14 0 4 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 9 1 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 13 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 22 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 LG rims, sev. handles 16 0 0 0 1Pithos, 1Combed 0 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 29 0 0 0 4Roman glaze 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0 0 0 28 1 0 1 1Roman glaze 14 1 0 0 2Glazed pieces 1 0 0 0 22 0 1 0 10 0 0 0 [Byz handle btw smpls] 15 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 Pithos rim 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 36 0 1 0 22 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 5 1 1 0 7 0 0 0 1Combed, 1Roman 3 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

136

Other 1M

Visib P F [powdery soil, lime] G F F 1M G 1C G G F 1WS, 1T w/lime G G G [passed wall] G G 1Amphora stopper G F 1Pithos rim G G E P 1R E E E P G G F P 1M G 1Vessel stem G 1R G G G G G 3R, 1M G G G 1R P G G G G 3M G F F 2R G F

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Square Total FW 60N-10W 14 0 60N-15W 16 0 60N-20W 5 0 70N-5W 8 0 70N-10W 13 0 70N-15W 20 0 70N-20W 16 0 80N-5W 10 0 80N-10W 20 0 80N-15W 18 0 80N-20W 8 0 80N-5W 0 0 80N-10W 0 0 80N-15W 1 0 70N-5W 13 0 60N-5W 1 0

CW Tile BS RS H B Diagnostic 11 3 11 0 0 0 10 6 9 1 0 0 2 3 2 0 0 0 1 6 0 1 0 0 11 1 10 0 0 1 1Roman 18 2 17 0 1 0 7 9 7 0 0 0 2 8 2 0 0 0 18 2 17 1 0 0 9 8 9 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 8 5 7 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

50N-5W 50N-10W 50S-15W 50S-20W 50S-25W 50S-30W 50S-35W 40S-5W 40S-10W 40S-15W 40S-20W 40S-25W 40S-30W 40S-35W 30S-5W 30S-10W 30S-15W 30S-20W 30S-25W 30S-30W 30S-35W 20S-5W 20S-10W 20S-15W 20S-20W 20S-25W 20S-30W 20S-35W 10S-5W 10S-10W 10S-15W 10S-20W 10S-25W 10S-30W

5 2 14 13 14 1 1 9 7 29 12 17 2 4 6 8 21 17 44 0 4 12 9 40 23 46 4 12 5 34 22 32 3 9

18 12 18 20 21 8 13 31 11 32 16 19 8 20 27 14 27 25 47 11 15 30 20 48 32 51 6 21 11 38 32 35 16 26

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

15 10 3 6 7 7 11 22 4 3 3 2 5 14 21 6 5 7 1 11 11 18 11 8 8 5 2 8 5 4 10 3 13 16

3 0 13 13 13 0 1 7 7 29 10 17 2 4 5 7 21 15 41 0 4 10 9 40 23 43 4 11 5 33 22 31 3 10

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Other

1M 1M

1G

E

1Byz glaze 1G 1M

1Roman

1Rim

1Roman 1Byz glaze

1M 1M 1M, 1R

2 Byz glaze 1Roman 1Byz, 1Combed

1M 1M (inlay) 1M, 1G

2 Combed 1 Byz glaze 1Roman, 1Combed

1M

1BG 1Byz glaze 1Byz glaze

137

Visib F F F F F F F F F F P P P F

1M 1G

G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G F G G G G G G G

APPENDIX 1

Transect 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Square Total FW 0S-25W 32 0 0S-30W 12 0 0S-35W 26 0 10N-30W 4 0 10N-35W 12 0 20N-35W 2 0 60S-20W 0 0 60S-25W 4 0 60S-30W 0 0 60S-35W 1 0 50S-5W 1 0 50S-10W 5 0 50S-15W 11 0 50S-20W 6 0 50S-25W 10 0 50S-30W 5 0 50S-35W 16 0 40S-5W 24 0 40S-10W 16 0 40S-15W 10 0 40S-20W 13 0 40S-25W 9 0 40S-30W 0 0 40S-35W 4 3 30S-5W 17 0 30S-10W 9 0 30S-15W 11 0 30S-20W 0 0 30S-25W 12 0 30S-30W 3 0 30S-35W 16 0 20S-5W 4 0 20S-10W 23 0 20S-15W 28 0 20S-20W 17 0 20S-25W 15 0 20S-30W 9 0 20S-35W 0 0 10S-5W 1 0 10S-10W 6 0 10S-15W 11 0 10S-20W 8 0 10S-30W 3 0 10S-35W 11 0 0S-10W 5 0 0S-15W 1 0 0S-20W 15 0 0S-25W 28 0 0S-30W 10 0 0S-35W 11 0

CW 25 0 12 3 2 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 5 1 6 1 4 2 12 0 5 6 0 1 6 4 2 0 7 0 4 0 17 6 3 11 2 0 1 4 2 2 1 3 4 0 4 15 3 5

Tile 4 11 12 1 10 2 0 0 0 1 1 5 6 5 4 3 11 22 3 10 8 3 0 3 11 5 9 0 5 3 12 4 5 22 12 4 7 0 0 1 9 6 2 8 1 0 10 13 7 6

BS RS H B Diagnostic 25 0 0 0 1Roman btw samples 0 0 0 0 8 1 3 0 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 0 3 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 Some Greek floor tiles 3 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 1Combed 3 0 0 0 5 0 0 0

138

Other 1R, 2M 1R 2R

1R 1M 1M

1M 2M

Visib G G G G G P P P P P P P P P P P P F F F P P P P P P P P F F F P G G G G G P P

1R Lamp spout piece

1Sculpture frag. 1M

F G F G P F G G G

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Square Total FW CW Tile BS RS H B Diagnostic 10N-5W 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10N-10W 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10N-15W 10 0 1 9 0 0 0 1 10N-20W 22 0 6 16 5 0 1 0 10N-25W 28 0 17 11 17 0 0 0 1Combed 10N-30W 12 0 4 8 4 0 0 0 10N-35W 19 0 7 12 7 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 20N-25W 4 0 3 1 3 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 20N-30W 8 0 2 5 2 0 0 0 20N-35W 22 0 3 19 3 0 0 0 60S-35W 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 50S-35W 4 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 50S-30W 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 40S-35W 10 0 4 6 3 0 1 0 40S-30W 15 0 14 1 14 0 0 0 40S-25W 14 0 9 5 8 1 0 0 40S-20W 40S-15W 40S-10W 30S-35W 30S-30W 30S-25W 30S-20W 30S-15W 30S-10W 30S-5W 20S-35W 20S-30W 20S-25W 20S-20W 20S-15W 20S-10W 10S-35W 10S-30W 10S-25W 10S-20W 10S-15W 0S-35W 0S-30W 60S-30W 60S-35W 50S-5W 50S-10W 50S-15W 50S-20W 50S-25W 50S-30W 50S-35W 40S-5W 40S-10W

14 4 1 3 12 12 5 11 15 13 2 3 10 10 24 16 5 3 2 9 1 4 2 5 25 26 17 7 12 31 18 20 18 23

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 1 1 2 12 6 1 5 5 1 1 3 5 0 10 10 2 3 0 4 0 2 1 2 18 11 11 6 9 9 7 12 8 20

11 3 0 1 0 6 4 6 9 12 1 0 5 10 12 6 3 0 2 5 0 2 0 3 7 15 6 1 3 20 11 8 8 3

3 1 1 2 12 5 1 5 5 1 1 3 5 0 10 10 2 3 0 4 0 2 1 2 18 11 11 6 8 8 7 11 6 20

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Combed 0 0

139

Other

1M

1R

2M

1WB 1WB

1R, 1M

2R 1Amphora toe

Visib P P G G G G G F F F F F F G G G G P P F G G G G G G G F G F F F F P F F P G F F G E E E E E E E E E

APPENDIX 1

Transect 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Square Total FW 40S-15W 16 0 40S-20W 16 0 40S-25W 30 0 40S-30W 34 0 40S-35W 15 0 30S-5W 25 0 30S-10W 18 0 30S-15W 20 0 30S-20W 7 0 30S-25W 19 0 30S-30W 17 0 30S-35W 28 0 20S-5W 17 0 20S-10W 12 0 20S-15W 19 0 20S-20W 17 0 20S-25W 27 0 20S-30W 21 0 20S-35W 29 0 10S-5W 24 0 10S-10W 19 0 10S-15W 10 0 10S-20W 10 0 10S-25W 20 0 10S-30W 15 0 10S-35W 33 0 0S-5W 21 0 0S-10W 16 0 0S-15W 23 0 0S-20W 35 0 0S-25W 26 0 0S-30W 29 0 0S-35W 21 0 10N-5W 16 0 10N-10W 15 0 10N-15W 18 0 10N-20W 13 0 10N-25W 26 1 10N-30W 11 0 10N-35W 26 0 20N-5W 18 0 20N-10W 11 0 20N-15W 12 0 20N-20W 7 0 20N-25W 17 0 20N-30W 4 0 20N-35W 1 0 30N-5W 7 0 30N-10W 7 0 30N-15W 11 0

CW 11 15 15 14 11 15 15 18 4 6 11 17 3 9 15 15 19 13 18 10 14 8 7 9 8 17 4 7 14 28 21 20 16 4 3 11 11 15 5 19 6 1 11 4 12 3 1 3 0 6

Tile 5 1 15 20 4 8 3 2 1 13 6 11 14 3 4 1 8 8 10 14 5 2 3 11 7 15 14 9 9 7 5 9 5 12 12 7 2 9 6 6 12 9 1 0 5 1 0 4 7 5

BS RS H B Diagnostic 11 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 14 1 0 0 1Byz, 1Roman 14 0 0 0 10 0 1 0 15 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 16 0 1 0 1Byz glaze 3 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 14 0 1 0 2Combed 18 0 1 0 12 0 1 0 18 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 8 0 1 0 8 0 0 0 16 1 0 0 4 0 0 0 6 0 1 0 14 0 0 0 28 0 0 0 21 0 0 0 1Combed 19 0 1 0 15 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 11 0 0 0 1Crosshatched 15 1 1 0 1Combed 5 0 0 0 19 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 11 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 0

140

Other

2R

2WB 1Marble triglyph

1Amphora toe 1Mystery object

1WB

1WB 1R, 2M

1Stone vessel 1M 1SS 1M 2M, 1R

Visib E E E E E E E E F G E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E G E E E E E E E E E E E

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Square Total FW 30N-20W 13 0 30N-25W 25 0 30N-30W 18 1 30N-35W 27 1 40N-5W 10 0 40N-10W 8 0 40N-15W 13 0 40N-20W 17 0 40N-25W 15 0 40N-30W 24 0 40N-35W 21 0 50N-5W 9 0 50N-10W 13 0 50N-15W 12 0 50N-20W 9 0 50N-25W 23 0

CW 8 13 7 10 4 3 11 15 7 11 8 5 5 8 7 9

Tile 5 10 9 16 5 5 2 2 7 13 11 4 8 3 2 13

BS RS H B Diagnostic 8 0 0 0 12 1 0 0 8 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 4 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 1Pithos, 1Combed 15 0 0 0 Yellow slip 6 1 0 0 11 0 0 0 7 0 1 0 5 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 4 0 4 0 8 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 1 Byz glaze 8 1 0 0

50N-30W 50N-35W 60N-5W 60N-10W 60N-15W 60N-20W 60N-25W 60N-30W 70N-5W 70N-10W 70N-15W 70N-20W 70N-30W 70N-35W 80N-5W 80N-10W 80N-20W 80N-25W 80N-30W 80N-35W 90N-10W 90N-15W 90N-20W 90N-25W 90N-30W 90N-35W 100N-5W 100N-10W 100N-15W 100N-20W 100N-25W 100N-30W 100N-35W 110N-5W

12 1 5 4 6 18 15 4 11 2 5 4 0 4 5 5 7 9 3 18 4 15 8 6 9 11 26 10 24 19 3 13 16 17

10 9 3 10 3 1 0 5 1 7 1 1 1 1 2 10 1 0 6 12 5 0 0 1 12 7 4 8 2 1 11 6 6 10

12 0 5 3 6 18 14 4 11 2 5 4 0 4 5 5 7 7 3 18 4 15 8 6 9 11 26 10 24 18 5 12 14 17

22 12 8 14 9 19 16 9 12 9 6 5 1 6 7 15 8 9 9 30 9 15 8 7 21 18 31 18 26 21 18 20 23 27

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Grooved 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Grooved, 1Byz glazed 0 0 0 0 1Combed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

141

Other 1R, 1M 1M 1R

1M 2M

1M 1M

Visib E E E E E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G E-G

E-G E-G E E G E 1M E G G G F G P 1M F G G G G G G G 1Amphora toe G G G G G 1M G G G 1M G 1Col. base (Ionic?) G 1M G 1M G G 2M

APPENDIX 1

Transect 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Square 110N-10W 110N-15W 110N-20W 110N-25W 110N-30W 110N-35W 60S-5W 60S-10W 60S-15W 50S-5W 50S-10W 50S-15W 40S-5W 40S-10W 40S-15W 30S-5W 30S-10W 30S-15W 20S-5W 20S-10W 20S-15W 10S-5W 10S-10W 10S-15W 10S-20W 0S-5W 0S-15W 0S-20W 0S-25W 10N-5W 10N-10W 10N-20W 10N-25W 20N-5W 20N-10W 20N-15W 20N-20W 20N-25W 20N-30W 30N-5W 30N-10W 30N-15W 30N-20W 30N-25W 40N-5W 40N-10W 40N-15W 40N-20W 40N-25W 40N-30W

Total 32 20 13 23 13 19 14 14 10 15 12 4 6 4 14 21 6 7 14 12 6 12 11 9 2 14 9 10 9 11 9 4 8 12 5 6 10 9 8 14 14 8 13 6 6 12 11 17 8 5

FW 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

CW 17 18 12 10 9 5 5 6 4 5 5 2 2 3 9 12 4 2 9 9 2 11 8 2 1 6 5 8 8 8 7 3 4 9 4 4 7 3 3 11 9 6 4 1 5 9 9 6 5 3

Tile 15 1 1 13 4 13 9 8 6 10 7 2 2 1 5 9 2 5 3 2 4 1 3 7 1 8 4 2 1 3 1 1 4 3 1 2 3 5 5 3 5 2 9 5 1 3 2 11 3 2

BS RS H B Diagnostic 17 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 1Combed 11 0 1 0 10 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 4 1 0 0 1Byz glaze 6 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 8 0 0 1 1Byz glaze 12 0 0 0 Amph toe 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 7 0 2 0 9 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 1Crosshatched 7 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1Combed 6 0 0 0 1Byz glaze, 1Combed 5 0 0 0 7 1 0 0 7 1 0 0 8 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 10 1 0 0 1Striped red sl, 1Combed 9 0 0 0 5 1 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 1 0 9 0 0 0 8 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 4 1 0 0 3 0 0 0

142

Other 1M

1R

2M

2M 1M

1M

1P

Visib G G G G G G G G G E E E E E E E E E E E E G E G G E G G F F G E G G E E E G G E E E G G G G E E E E

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Square Total FW 50N-5W 10 0 50N-10W 12 0 50N-15W 8 0 50N-20W 13 0 50N-25W 6 0 50N-30W 6 0 60N-5W 11 0 60N-10W 10 0 60N-15W 21 0 60N-20W 23 0 60N-25W 10 0 60N-30W 5 0 70N-5W 9 0 70N-10W 13 0 70N-15W 9 0 70N-20W 12 0

CW Tile BS RS H B Diagnostic Other 2 8 2 0 0 0 7 5 7 0 0 0 1Byz glaze 4 4 4 0 0 0 5 8 5 0 0 0 4 2 4 0 0 0 3 3 3 0 0 0 9 2 9 0 0 0 7 2 7 0 0 0 Fine white marble 1R 11 10 10 0 1 0 1Combed 14 9 13 0 1 0 7 3 7 0 0 0 Roman sl, Mouth of beehive 2 3 1 1 0 0 6 3 6 0 0 0 1Combed 10 3 9 0 1 0 Handle (Roman) on body 6 3 6 0 0 0 7 5 7 0 0 0

Visib E E E E E E E E E E E E E G E E

70N-25W 70N-30W 80N-5W 80N-10W 80N-15W 80N-20W 80N-25W 80N-30W 90N-5W 90N-10W 90N-15W 90N-20W 90N-25W 90N-30W 100N-5W 100N-10W 100N-15W 100N-20W 100N-25W 100N-30W 110N-5W 110N-10W 110N-15W 110N-20W 110N-25W 110N-30W

11 1 15 5 7 12 13 8 7 7 7 6 12 5 9 3 8 12 9 0 9 4 0 0 0 0

E E E E E E E E E E E E E E G G G G G G G F P P F F

19 7 16 12 14 23 17 11 9 15 9 31 15 14 14 10 12 24 15 1 13 9 2 0 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

8 6 1 7 7 11 4 3 1 7 2 24 3 9 5 7 4 12 6 1 4 4 2 0 0 1

8 1 15 4 7 9 13 8 7 7 7 5 10 5 9 3 8 11 8 0 9 4 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1Medium glaze, 1Grooved 0 0 0 0 1Combed 0 0 0 1Byz. grn glaze 0 0 0 0 0

143

1R 1M 1M

1M

1M

APPENDIX 2 DATA FROM THE 1986 SYSTEMATIC SURFACE COLLECTION IN THE FORTRESS In 1986, the surface materials were collected in 1-m2 sampling units at the following intervals: 5 m north-south and 5 m east-west.

M=Marble MO=Mortar MS=Millstone My=Mystery Object N=Nail R=Revetment S=Slag SB=Stone Bowl SN=Snail SS=Sea Shell ST=Slate T=Tessera TR=Triglyph W=Water Pipe WB=Worked Block WS=Waster

Below are abbreviations used for the column headers and in the Diagnostic, Other, and Visibility categories of the spreadsheet. The lists below reflect abbreviations found on the spreadsheets for the 1986 surface collection. Column Headers FI=Fine Ware CS=Coarse Ware TL=Tile BS=Base Sherd RS=Rim Sherd H=Handle B=Base

Designations for date in Diagnostic column P=Prehistoric A=Archaic CL=Classical H=Hellenistic ER=Early Roman LR=Late Roman EB=Early Byzantine LB=Late Byzantine SL=Slavic EM=Early Modern

Designations for Other B=Beehive BK=Brick Bld=Building BO=Bone BR=Bronze C=Coin ChC=Chert Core ChF=Chert Flake CS=Cut Stone G=Glass HS=Handstone I=Iron IS=Inscribed Stamp K=Kiln Support L=Lamp LD=Lid

Visibility E=Excellent G=Good F=Fair P=Poor

145

APPENDIX II

Transect 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Square 55S-10W 55S-15W 55S-20W 55S-25W 50S-10W 50S-15W 50S-20W 50S-25W 45S-10W 45S-15W 45S-20W 45S-25W 40S-10W 40S-15W 40S-20W 40S-25W 35S-10W 35S-15W 35S-20W 35S-25W 30S-10W 30S-15W 30S-20W 30S-25W 25S-10W 25S-15W 25S-20W 25S-25W 20S-10W 20S-15W 20S-20W 20S-25W 15S-10W 15S-15W 15S-20W 15S-25W 10S-10W 10S-15W 10S-20W 10S-25W 5S-10W 5S-15W 5S-20W 5S-25W 0S-10W 0S-15W 0S-20W 0S-25W 5N-10W

Total FW CW 11 0 2 21 1 4 24 0 7 64 23 20 7 0 2 23 0 0 49 1 5 46 2 16 21 1 4 51 3 8 79 3 13 37 0 11 21 0 2 31 0 3 28 1 1 44 0 10 31 1 8 5 0 0 50 0 15 66 2 26 24 0 6 49 2 8 14 0 1 74 1 16 32 3 12 35 1 9 28 1 4 66 0 22 17 1 4 27 0 3 74 0 10 60 1 17 22 1 5 41 0 10 44 0 9 75 1 11 31 1 9 41 2 6 61 1 8 56 1 17 37 1 14 46 3 3 79 0 8 64 0 16 19 0 6 32 2 6 52 0 9 29 1 8 34 0 13

Tile 9 16 16 20 5 23 42 28 16 40 63 25 19 27 26 34 22 5 35 37 18 38 13 57 17 25 22 44 12 24 64 42 16 31 35 63 21 33 52 38 22 40 70 48 13 21 43 20 21

BS 2 5 7 41 2 0 6 18 5 10 15 10 2 2 1 10 9 0 15 28 6 10 1 14 14 8 5 22 5 3 7 16 6 6 8 12 9 8 8 16 15 4 6 15 6 7 6 9 13

146

RS 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

H 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 0 0

B Diagnostic 0 1LB 1ER 0 0 2ER, 1LR 0 0 0 4LR 0 2LR 0 2LR, 1ER 0 1LB 1 1EB, 1LR 0 2LR 0 0 2ER 0 1LB 0 3LR 0 3LB, 2LR(SL) 0 0 0 1LB, 4LR 0 0 1LB 0 1LR 1 4LR, 1LB 1 1LB 0 4LR 0 1LB 0 4LR 0 1ER 0 0 3LR 0 1ER, 3LR 0 1LR, 1LB 0 3LR 1 3LR 0 1EB, 1LB 0 1LB 0 3LR, 2LB 0 3LR 0 1EB, 2LR 0 1LB 1 1ER, 1CL 0 0 1LR, 1ER 0 1LR, 1EB 0 3ER, 1LB 0 2LR 0 0 1LR

Other

1M, 1SN 1R

1CS SN

SN 1M 1MO, 1BO 1L, SN SN SL Bld SN 1M, SN, 1SS

Visib P E G E P E E E F E E E G E E E

P E E F 1G E G E 1IS G E E E 1B F G E E 1SS F E SN G E G E E SN E G 1M E 1M, SN E 1B E F 2M, 1HS, 1BO E SN E F G

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Square 5N-20W 5N-25W 10N-10W 10N-15W 10N-20W 10N-25W 15N-10W 15N-15W 15N-20W 15N-25W 20N-10W 20N-15W 20N-20W 20N-25W 25N-10W 25N-15W

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

25N-20W 25N-25W 30N-10W 30N-15W 30N-20W 30N-25W 35N-10W 35N-15W 35N-20W 35N-25W 40N-10W 40N-15W 40N-20W 40N-25W 45N-10W 45N-15W 45N-20W 45N-25W 50N-10W 50N-15W 50N-20W 50N-25W 55N-10W 55N-15W 55N-20W 55N-25W 60N-10W 60N-15W 60N-20W 60N-25W 65N-10W 65N-15W 65N-20W 65N-25W

Total FW CW 37 0 8 39 1 18 33 0 11 25 6 10 30 1 11 21 0 11 22 1 7 38 4 12 29 0 14 63 3 23 32 0 10 40 0 22 17 0 5 37 0 20 27 0 14 34 6 18 4 45 19 35 10 44 31 38 13 39 29 21 29 50 25 28 21 47 23 30 11 60 23 21 16 49 18 17 19 15 21 39 60 35

0 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

2 25 4 15 4 26 13 20 2 14 12 9 15 15 15 11 6 7 12 19 2 18 13 10 3 23 13 8 5 8 8 15 15 5

Tile 28 20 22 9 18 10 14 20 15 36 22 18 12 17 13 9

BS 7 19 11 14 11 11 7 12 13 25 8 22 5 20 14 22

RS 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

H 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 2

B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 3LR 2LR

2 20 14 15 6 18 16 5 10 24 17 8 13 35 9 16 14 39 11 6 9 42 9 10 12 25 3 9 14 7 12 22 45 30

2 25 3 14 4 26 12 20 3 14 11 10 15 15 15 11 6 6 12 20 2 18 10 11 2 23 12 7 5 8 8 15 14 5

0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

WALL 2LR 2LR 6LR, 1ER 1LR 2LR 1ER, 3LR 1LB, 3LR 1LR 2ER 1LR 1LB, 2LR 4LR 2LR 3LR

147

Other 1M, SN 1B, SN

5ER, 2LB 1LB 1LR 1LB, 3ER 3LR 1ER 2LR 3LR 2LR 3LR 2LR, 6ER

1M, 1SS 1L SN, 1G

SN SN 1M SN 1SB 1S, 1G, 1M SN SN 1SL 1R, 1T SN SN 1T, 1S 1T 1G 1G SN 1G

2LR 2LR 3LR 2ER, 6LR 1LR 1LR 2LR 1CL, 1LR 1ER 1CL, 4LR 1H, 2ER 3LR

1M, 1R SN SN 1M SN SN, 1R

1ER, 1LB 1LR 3LR

2R

SN SN

Visib E E G E E P E E E G E E E E G E P E

E E F E G E F E G E F E F E F G F E E E G G F P F F F F

APPENDIX II

Transect 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Square Total FW CW 70N-10W 19 0 5 70N-15W 70 2 22 70N-20W 34 0 17 70N-25W 25 0 5 75N-10W 12 0 3 75N-15W 14 0 1 75N-20W 3 1 1 75N-25W 18 2 7 80N-10W 8 0 4 80N-15W 5 0 5 80N-20W 11 1 6 80N-25W 21 0 15 85N-10W 11 2 4 85N-15W 0 85N-20W 0 85N-25W 0 90N-10W 1 0 0 90N-15W 19 0 1 90N-20W 7 0 4 90N-25W 22 0 0 100N-10W 0 100N-15W 0 100N-20W 22 0 14 100N-25W 13 0 4 105N-10W 0 105N-15W 0 105N-20W 16 0 7 105N-25W 3 0 0 110N-10W 0 110N-15W 0 110N-20W 0 110N-25W 23 0 12 110N-30W 5 0 1 110N-35W 0 110N-40W 0 110N-45W 0 110N-50W 0 105N-30W 43 0 22 105N-35W 24 0 9 105N-40W 33 2 12 105N-45W 26 0 7 105N-50W 21 0 3 100N-30W 47 0 11 100N-35W 32 0 5 100N-40W 34 0 10 100N-45W 29 1 7 100N-50W 14 1 11 95N-30W 59 0 15 95N-35W 43 1 12 95N-40W 44 2 16

Tile 13 45 17 20 9 12 1 9 4 0 4 6 5

1 18 3 22

8 9

9 3

11 4

21 14 19 19 18 36 27 24 21 2 44 30 26

BS 4 20 15 5 3 1 1 8 4 5 7 15 6 ON ROAD ON ROAD ON ROAD 0 1 4 0 ON ROAD ON ROAD 14 4 ON ROAD ON ROAD 6 0 ON ROAD ON ROAD ON ROAD 12 1 IN CEMETERY IN CEMETERY IN CEMETERY IN CEMETERY 21 8 13 7 3 11 4 8 7 11 13 13 14

148

RS 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

H 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 1LR 0 1LR 0

0 0

0 0 0 0 2LR

0E E

1 0

0 0 1LR 0 0

E

0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 2

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 1LR 5LR 2LR

Other 1I 1M

2LR 0 1R 1LB 2LR

1LB 4LR 2LB

2LR 2LB 1LB, 2LR 1LR

1MS, 1SS

2LR 1LB 2LB 2LR 3LR 1LB, 1LR 2ER, 3LR, 1EB

1SS

1B

Visib F F F F G G G F E 1E G E

E G G G G G G F G F E G G

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Square 95N-45W 95N-50W 90N-30W 90N035W 90N-40W 90N-45W 90N-50W 85N-30W 85N-35W 85N-40W 85N-45W 85N-50W 80N-30W 80N-35W 80N-40W 80N-45W

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

80N-50W 75N-30W 75N-35W 75N-40W 75N-45W 75N-50W 70N-30W 70N-35W 70N-40W 70N-45W 70N-50W 65N-30W 65N-35W 65N-40W 65N-45W 65N-50W 60N-30W 60N-35W 60N-40W 60N-45W 60N-50W 55N-30W 55N-35W 55N-40W 55N-45W 55N-50W 50N-30W 50N-35W 50N-40W 50N-45W 50N-50W 45N-30W 45N-35W 45N-40W

Total FW CW 28 0 9 35 0 5 47 0 16 37 1 7 29 0 12 36 1 10 12 1 3 30 1 15 23 0 3 24 0 8 25 0 9 15 0 1 1 0 0 19 0 7 21 0 6 36 0 8 31 0 7 22 17 24 17 17 0 13 16 42 27 8 0 13 64 16 25 16 12 64 37 47 28 6 58 36 45 32 36 64 45 35

Tile 19 30 31 29 15 24 9 14 20 16 15 14 1 12 14 28

BS 9 5 16 7 12 8 3 15 3 7 8 1 0 6 6 7

RS 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

7 ON ROAD 2 5 9 15 0

1

0 0 2LR, 1ER

F

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

G F F F F G

0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 3LR 0 4LR 0 1ER, 1LR

0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0

8

23

0 0 0 0 3 1

2 7 9 16 14 16

5 15 8 18 3 1

0 0 1 0 1

0 6 22 15 3

13 10 19 12 4

0 4 0 0 2 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 3 2 0 2 1 3 0

4 30 6 8 1 10 32 16 12 8 1 23 13 13 16 18 30 15 6

9 29 9 7 12 2 27 19 35 19 5 33 20 30 14 12 30 27 28

ON ROAD 0 6 23 15 3 ON ROAD 4 32 5 8 3 10 31 17 12 9 1 23 16 15 15 20 30 16 6

149

H 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Diagnostic 2LR 3LR 1LR 3LR, 1ER 2LR 3LR 1LR 1LR, 1 P 1LR 1LB 2LR

2LR 3LR 1ER

Other

1W, 1MS 1M

1G

1M

1LR 2LR 2ER 3LR

3LB 1ER 2LR 1LR 2LR, 1ER 2LR, 1CL 3LR ER 1ER, 4LR 3ER 3LR, 1LB 2LR 2ER 3LR, 1EB 1CL, 1LR, 2CL-ER 4LR

1B, 1SS 1B

1M 1M

Visib G G G G G G G F G G F F F F F F

F F F F G

G F G 1M G G 1S, 1ChF, SN E 1M E E G P 1M, SN E E E 1S, 1SL E 4M G 1ChF, 1M, 1G E E 1M E

APPENDIX II

Transect 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Square 45N-45W 45N-50W 40N-30W 40N-35W 40N-40W 40N-45W 40N-50W 35N-30W 35N-35W 35N-40W 35N-45W 35N-50W 30N-30W 30N-35W 30N-40W 30N-45W 30N-50W 25N-30W 25N-35W 25N-40W 25N-45W 25N-50W 20N-302 20N-35W 20N-40W 20N-45W 20N-50W 15N-30W 15N-35W 15N-40W 15N-45W 15N-50W 10N-30W 10N-35W 10N-40W 10N-45W 10N-50W 5N-30W 5N-35W 5N-40W 5N-45W 5N-50W 0N-35W 0N-30W 0N-40W 0N-45W 0N-50W 5S-30W 5S-35W 5S-40W

Total FW CW 29 1 8 33 0 8 50 0 19 56 2 20 44 0 13 36 0 11 28 0 13 63 2 18 42 1 11 42 1 20 39 0 14 56 0 17 64 5 32 24 0 6 41 1 8 45 0 8 38 0 8 52 1 14 23 0 7 48 0 16 40 1 12 67 2 17 26 1 12 47 2 18 49 1 11 74 2 12 43 1 20 24 3 11 59 0 28 48 2 10 36 0 8 37 0 15 36 3 20 36 0 16 50 2 3 36 0 8 30 1 15 49 3 10 66 0 17 39 1 5 44 0 1 45 1 19 51 0 19 67 1 7 61 0 6 61 0 9 37 0 15 36 1 7 41 0 11 52 0 7

Tile 20 25 30 34 30 23 13 43 30 21 25 39 27 18 32 37 26 36 16 31 27 46 12 27 35 60 22 10 30 36 27 22 13 20 45 28 14 36 48 33 43 25 31 59 55 52 22 28 30 43

BS 8 7 17 21 9 11 13 20 11 20 14 16 35 6 7 5 6 15 6 16 11 18 11 20 11 13 19 14 28 11 7 14 22 15 5 8 16 12 17 6 1 19 20 6 6 8 13 4 4 7

150

RS 1 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0

H 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 0

B 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 1ER, 2LR 2LR

Other

1M 2LB, 2LR 4ER 1LR 1LR 1 H, 1LB, 1LR 1ER, 3LR 5LR

1M 1M, 1T 1M, 1B SN

3LR, 2 H 2ER 1ER 2LR 1LR 3LR 1LR 1LB 1ER, 1 H, 1LR 1LB, 3LR 1EB, 2ER 1EB, 2ER 3LR, 1LB, 1 H 2LB 3LB 3ER 1ER, 1LB 1EB, 1ER 5LR 2LR

4M 1M SN, 1BO 1M, SN 1M 1G 2M

1T SN 1S 1L

1LR 3LR, 1LB 3ER 3LR 1LR 1ER, 2LR

1M 1L

1SS 2LR 3LR 3LR

SN

2LB, 2ER 2LR

Visib E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E

1M, 1CS

E E E E E E G E E E E

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Square 5S-45W 5S-50W 10S-30W 10S-35W 10S-40W 10S-45W 10S-50W 15S-30W 15S-35W 15S-40W 15S-45W 15S-50W 20S-30W 20S-35W 20S-40W 20S-45W

Total FW CW 41 0 1 43 0 17 41 0 8 79 2 17 58 0 6 49 1 9 37 1 10 48 0 10 31 0 4 59 1 9 62 2 15 49 0 9 42 2 10 27 0 4 61 0 10 54 1 17

Tile 6 26 32 57 52 39 24 37 27 48 45 39 30 23 50 36

BS 34 17 8 18 6 10 11 9 3 8 14 7 12 3 9 17

RS 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0 0 1 0 0

H 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 1

B 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 1LB, 1LR, 1ER 2LR 1LR 3LR, 1LB 1LR 1LB 1EB, 3LR 2LR 1LR, 1LB 3LR, 1CL 4 LB, 2LR 2LR 1LR, 1ER 3LR 3LR 3LR

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

20S-50W 25S-30W 25S-35W 25S-40W 25S-45W 25S-50W 30S-30W 30S-35W 30S-40W 30S-45W 30S-50W 35S-30W 35S-35W 35S-40W 35S-45W 35S-50W 40S-30W 40S-35W 40S-40W 40S-45W 40S-50W 45S-30W 45S-35W 45S-40W 45S-45W 45S-50W 50S-30W 50S-35W 50S-40W 50S-45W 50S-50W 55S-30W 55S-35W 55S-40W

36 64 57 86 62 47 64 61 107 76 52 37 45 43 63 52 69 34 31 26 33 52 49 45 68 56 50 37 39 42 43 56 36 71

28 45 42 72 40 43 55 29 88 61 34 13 34 39 47 39 53 29 20 13 25 32 44 38 39 39 36 30 30 24 32 36 19 63

7 18 14 11 22 3 8 31 15 14 18 24 9 3 11 11 14 4 10 10 4 18 3 5 25 15 13 5 7 13 10 18 16 7

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 2 3 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1LR 1LR 2LR, 1LB 4LR, 1LB 1ER, 2LR

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0

8 19 13 13 21 4 9 31 17 13 18 24 10 3 12 12 16 5 10 11 6 19 4 7 26 15 13 5 9 13 11 19 16 7

151

1LR 1LR, 1LB 3LR

2LR 5LR, 1LB 2LR, 2LB 1LB 1LR 3LB 3LR 2LR 1LB 1LR 1ER, 1LR 3LR 2LR 1LR, 1LB 2LR, 3LB 3LR, 2LB 3LR 1LR 1LR

Other

Visib

1R, 1B 1T, 2M, 1B

E E E E E E E E E E E E E E

1G, 1W 1M, SN 1M 1M SN 1R

SN 1M 1WB, SN 1BO SN 1WB, 1M 1M 1SS 1M 1M 1B, 1M, 1R 1M

1CS, SN SN, 1G 1CS, 1G 1CS

1MS, 1CS 1R 1G, 1BK SN 1M 1SS 1M 1M 1M

E E E E E E E E E E E E E E G E E F E G E E E E E E E E E E E E E E

APPENDIX II

Transect 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Square 55S-45W 55S-50W 60S-30W 60S-35W 60S-40W 60S-45W 60S-50W 65S-30W 65S-35W 65S-40W 65S-45W 65S-50W 70S-55W 70S-60W 70S-65W 70S-70W 70S-75W 70S-80W 70S-85W 65S-55W 65S-60W 65S-65W 65S-70W 65S-75W 65S-80W 65S-85W 60S-55W 60S-60W 60S-65W 60S-70W 60S-75W 60S-80W 60S-85W 55S-55W 55S-60W 55S-65W 55S-70W 55S-75W 55S-80W 55S-85W 50S-55W 50S-60W 50S-65W 50S-70W 50S-75W 50S-80W 50S-85W 45S-55W 45S-60W 45S-65W

Total FW CW 38 0 8 48 3 7 71 1 14 36 0 11 78 1 10 45 1 15 45 0 10 0 16 0 3 38 0 11 51 1 17 27 0 5 0 56 0 25 41 0 4 28 0 10 0 0 0 25 1 7 42 0 6 42 1 10 36 0 9 53 0 8 0 0 39 1 10 62 2 14 51 1 20 41 0 18 43 0 20 29 2 7 9 0 2 31 2 7 36 0 18 41 1 5 38 1 10 43 0 6 43 3 13 61 0 33 54 2 21 69 2 30 42 0 14 44 0 15 54 1 26 48 1 17 52 0 27 52 2 24 54 1 23 52 2 12

Tile 29 38 56 25 66 29 34

BS 8 9 15 11 9 15 9

RS 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

H 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

B 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

13 27 33 22

3 11 17 5 ON ROAD 23 4 10 ON ROAD ON ROAD ON ROAD 7 6 11 9 8 ON ROAD ON ROAD 11 14 19 17 20 8 2 8 17 6 9 6 16 32 22 28 13 14 27 18 27 25 23 14

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 1LR 0 1ER, 1EB, 3LR 0 1LR

1 0 0

1 0 5LR, 1LB 0 0 1LR 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

1LR, 1LB 3LR ?P 1LR 2LR

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2LR, 2LB 1ER, 1CL, 2LR 1LB, 2LR 1LR 1LR 2EB 2LR 1LR, 1LB 1LR 1LR 2LB, 1LR 1LR 2ER, 1LB, 3LR 1ER 1ER, 1CL-H, 3LR 2ER, 1LB 4LR 3LR 1CL, 1ER, 2CL-R 1ER 2LR 1CL-H, 1ER 1CL-H, 1LB, 1LR 1ER, 1CL, 2LR

31 37 17

17 36 31 27 45

27 45 30 23 23 20 7 22 18 34 26 36 27 27 31 37 28 29 26 30 25 25 30 37

152

Diagnostic 1LR

Other 1B, 1OC 1SL

2LR, 1EM 2LR, 1LB 1LR 1ER, 1LR

1M 1M

1SS

1BO 1M

Visib E E E E E E E F G E E E G E

E E E E E E 1M 1M

SN

1WB 1G 1M 1M 1B, 1BO

1M

E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E

SN, 1BO, 1SS 1C E E 1K E

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Square 45S-70W 45S-75W 45S-80W 45S-85W 40S-55W 40S-60W 40S-65W 40S-70W 40S-75W 40S-80W 40S-85W 35S-55W 35S-60W 35S-65W 35S-70W 35S-75W

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

35S-80W 35S-85W 30S-55W 30S-60W 30S-65W 30S-70W 30S-75W 30S-80W 30S-85W 25S-55W 25S-60W 25S-65W 25S-70W 25S-75W 25S-80W 25S-85W 20S-55W 20S-60W 20S-65W 20S-70W 20S-75W 20S-80W 20S-85W 15S-55W 15S-60W 15S-65W 15S-70W 15S-75W 15S-80W 15S-85W 10S-55W 10S-60W 10S-65W

Total FW CW 76 2 25 58 1 19 66 0 37 51 0 4 44 0 17 47 0 15 47 3 8 53 1 17 53 1 19 35 2 14 42 0 15 39 2 18 42 0 16 40 2 14 48 2 21 64 0 20 52 19 31 29 63 39 99 44 48 25 35 27 53 53 51 31 32 19 34 34 61 65 43 40 40 30 36 34 31 31 53 30 36

0 0 2 1 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1

19 10 13 11 21 9 27 15 24 9 9 9 31 13 16 11 5 8 4 20 20 24 21 14 5 8 13 12 9 12 16 9 16

Tile 49 37 29 30 26 31 36 33 31 19 27 19 26 24 24 44

BS 24 19 37 21 17 15 10 17 20 16 15 19 15 14 21 18

RS 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 1

H 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1

B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1

33 9 16 17 42 28 70 26 21 16 26 17 20 40 34 17 26 11 18 13 40 40 21 25 34 20 22 22 22 19 36 19 19

18 10 13 11 21 9 27 17 25 8 9 9 27 12 14 10 5 8 15 17 17 24 20 15 6 8 12 11 9 12 15 10 12

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

153

Diagnostic 2LB

Other 1M, SN

1LR 2LR 5LR, 1LB 1CL-H, 2LR 2LB, 1CL 2LR, 1LB, 1ER 2LR, 1LB 1LR, 1EB 3LR 1LR, 1LB 2LR, 1ER 3ER, 1CL-H 3LR, 2LB 3LR 1LR 2LB 1LB, 2LR 3LR, 2ER, 1CL-H 2LR, 1LB 2LB, 4LR 4LR 4LR, 1LB 2LR 1LR 1LB, 1LR 2LB 3LR, 2LB 1LR, 1ER 1ER, 2LB 1 H, 1ER 2LR 2LB 1ER, 1LB, 3LR 3LR, 1LB, 1ER 1 H, 3LR 1EB, 2LR, 1ER 1LB, 1LR 2LR, 1ER 1LB 1ER 1LR 1LR 1CL, 4LR 2ER, 1LR 1CL-B, 1LR

SN 1R 1R 1BO, 2G 1G, 1L, SN SS

1G, 1B

Visib E F E E E E E E E E G E E E E E F G G

SN 1R SN 1SS

E E E E E

1BR SN 1M, SN 1M, 1R

1M, 1ST SN, My SN SN 1SS

E E G E E E E E G F E E G E G E E G E

APPENDIX II

Transect 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Square 10S-70W 10S-75W 10S-80W 10S-85W 5S-55W 5S-60W 5S-65W 5S-70W 5S-75W 5S-80W 5S-85W 0N-55W 0N-60W 0N-65W 0N-70W 0N-75W 0N-80W 0N-85W 5N-55W 5N-60W 5N-65W 5N-70W 5N-75-W 5N-80W 5N-85W 10N-55W 10N-60W 10N-65W 10N-70W 10N-75W 10N-80W 10N-85W 15N-55W 15N-60W 15N-65W 15N-70W 15N-75W 15N-80W 15N-85W 20N-55W 20N-60W 20N-65W 20N-70W 20N-75W 20N-80W 20N-85W 25N-55W 25N-60W 25N-65W 25N-70W

Total FW CW 34 0 9 60 0 10 45 0 12 44 2 16 26 2 11 25 0 8 38 1 16 33 2 10 71 2 18 43 1 32 25 0 16 41 2 22 36 0 13 30 0 10 33 0 15 45 0 8 28 1 11 13 0 2 31 0 11 40 2 6 31 0 9 47 0 13 65 2 11 41 0 14 0 28 0 14 14 32 0 27 0 6 36 0 9 51 0 11 33 0 15 0 24 1 8 15 0 3 34 1 18 21 0 12 32 0 9 0 61 1 20 45 1 10 35 0 10 25 1 9 43 1 7 20 0 6 8 0 2 41 0 18 59 1 10 36 1 14 27 1 9 48 0 14

Tile 25 50 33 26 13 17 20 21 51 9 9 17 23 19 18 37 15 11 19 32 22 34 52 27 13 11 21 27 40 15 15 12 15 9 23 40 34 25 15 35 14 6 19 48 20 16 33

BS 9 10 12 16 13 8 14 12 18 33 16 20 12 9 12 7 17 2 10 8 9 11 12 14 ON ROAD 14 2 6 9 10 14 ON ROAD 8 3 19 10 9 ON ROAD 20 11 10 7 8 5 2 18 9 14 8 12

154

RS 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 12 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0

B 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 2LR 2LR

Other

1ER 1LR 1LR 1ER, 1LB 1LR 1LR 2LR, 1LB, 1ER 1LR

1G SN 1T

SN

E E E E E

0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

3LR 1ER, 1LR 2LR 1LR 1LB, 2LR

1BLD

E

1R, SN

E E E E

1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

2LB

SN

E P E E E

0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

1LB, 1LR 1H 1LR 1LR, 1LB 1LR, 2LB 1LR

SN 2LB 4LR, 2LB, 1CL

1B

1LB, 1LR 1R 2LB, 4LR 1CL-H, 1ER, 1LB, 5LR SN 1LR 1M SN 2LB, 2LR, 1ER, 1EM 1M 5LR, 2ER

1LR, 1CL-H 2LR, 1LB 4LR

1LR 1ER, 4LR 3LR 1LR 2LB, 1ER

SN prtly on road 1S, 3CS

Visib E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E

E E E E P E

1R 1R

E E

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Square 25N-75W 25N-80W 25N-85W 30N-55W 30N-60W 30N-65W 30N-70W 30N-75W 30N-80W 35N-55W 35N-60W 35N-65W 35N-70W 35N-75W 25N-80W 40N-55W

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

40N-60W 40N-65W 40N-70W 40N-75W 40N-80W 45N-55W 45N-60W 45N-65W 45N-70W 45N-75W 45N-80W 50N-55W 50N-60W 50N-65W 50N-70W 50N-75W 55N-55W 55N-60W 55N-65W 55N-70W 55N-75W 60N-55W 60N-60W 60N-65W 60N-70W 60N-75W 65N-55W 65N-60W 65N-65W 65N-70W 65N-75W 70N-55W 70N-60W 70N-65W

Total FW CW 0 43 1 7 0 50 1 24 27 0 6 29 0 9 0 17 0 7 29 0 4 31 1 5 29 1 10 25 0 7 0 29 1 11 19 0 6 39 0 12 23 0 25 53 50 68 0 11 48 40 0 0 10 45 33 24 0 25 39 17 22 39 34 29 27 21 18 29 22 27 32 42 55 37

Tile 34 25 12 20 10 23 25 18 18 17 13 26

0

5

18

0 1 0 0

7 13 7 11

18 39 43 57

1 0 0

1 11 6

9 37 34

0 3 0 0

3 16 8 5

7 26 25 19

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

9 14 6 4 9 9 9 9 3 2 11 6 8 4 10 6 6

15 24 11 18 30 25 20 17 17 16 18 15 18 28 32 49 31

BS ON ROAD 7 ENDS 16 6 8 ON ROAD 7 2 6 10 7 ON ROAD 11 5 9 5 ON ROAD 7 12 6 10 ON ROAD 2 11 4 ENDS ON ROAD 3 19 8 3 ON ROAD 10 14 5 4 7 7 8 10 3 2 11 5 7 4 9 6 6

155

RS H B Diagnostic

Other

Visib

0

1 0 1ER

6 0 0

3 0 3LR, 2LB, 1ER 0 0 2LR 1 0 3LR

0 4 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0

0 1 2LR, 2LB 0 0 2LR 2 1 1ER, 2LR

0

0 0

0 2 0 1

0 0 1 0

0 0 2

0 0 1LR 0 0 1LR 0 0 2LR

F E E

0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1

0 0 2LR, 2LB 0 1LR 0

P E E G

0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

P F P F P F

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1LR 2LB 1EB, 1ER, 1LR 1LR

E E E 1SN, 1W 1WB E E E

1R

E F

2LR 2LR, 1EB 2LR 1ER

G 1W E SN

1ER 2LR, 1EB 1LR 1LR 2ER 2LR 1CL, 2EB 1EB 1LR 1ER 1LR 1LR, 1CL-H 2LR, 1ER 1LB

P F P P P 1M G G

APPENDIX II

Transect 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Square Total FW CW 70N-70W 31 1 8 70N-75W 21 1 4 75N-55W 49 0 14 75N-60W 33 1 6 75N-65W 40 0 9 75N-70W 31 0 9 75N-75W 8 0 0 80N-55W 42 0 8 80N-60W 44 0 16 80N-65W 23 0 2 80N-70W 30 0 5 80N-75W 0 85N-55W 47 0 18 85N-60W 35 0 10 85N-65W 39 0 10 85N-70W 30 0 7 90N-55W 42 0 3 90N-60W 57 2 15 90N-65W 29 0 7 90N-70 42 1 14 95N-55W 29 0 7 95N-60W 23 0 13 95N-65W 31 0 8 95N-70W 17 0 4 100N-55W 8 0 5 100N-60W 74 0 24 100N-70W 21 0 9 100N-70W 21 1 4 105N-55W 43 0 11 105N-60W 21 0 9 105N-65W 0 105N-70W 0 105N-20E 13 0 0 90N-20E 30 0 7 90N-15E 20 0 3 90N-10E 8 0 0 90N-5E 8 0 0 90N-0E 3 0 2 90N-5W 1 0 0 85N-20E 66 0 16 85N-15E 41 1 21 85N-10E 34 0 9 85N-5E 23 0 1 85N-0E 48 0 9 85N-5W 43 0 9 80N-20E 63 0 12 80N-15E 30 1 9 80N-10E 26 0 4 80N-5E 46 0 8 80N-0E 57 1 9

Tile 22 15 35 26 30 22 8 34 28 20 25 29 25 28 23 39 39 22 27 22 10 21 13 3 50 12 16 32 12

13 23 17 8 8 1 1 48 19 25 22 39 34 50 20 22 38 45

BS 8 4 13 7 8 7 0 7 15 2 5 ENDS 18 9 9 6 1 17 7 14 5 13 7 3 5 23 7 5 10 9 ENDS ENDS 0 7 3 0 0 2 0 15 21 8 1 9 8 11 9 4 8 9

156

RS 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 0

H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 1LB, 1EB 1LB 1LR 1LB 1LB, 1ER 2EB, 1LR

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1LR 1LR 1LR 2LR

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Other 1G

Visib F F F

1R SN

2LR 2LR, 1LB 1R 2LR

1LB, W. GATE 1LR 1LB 2LR 1LR 2LR

1R

1M, 1SS, My

1M, 1K

2LR 1LB 2ER 2LR

2LR 1LB, 1LR 1LR

2M

1SS 1LR 3LR 2LR, 1ER 1LR 2LR, 1ER

1R, SN

2M

F F F F F G G F F F F F F F G E G G E E

E F F F E G E F F F F G G F F F F

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Square 80N-5W 75N-20E 75N-15E 75N-10E 75N-5E 75N-0E 75N-5W 70N-20E 70N-15E 70N-10E 70N-5E 70N-0E 70N-5W 65N-20E 65N-15E 65N-10E

Total FW CW 30 0 11 71 1 20 26 0 8 38 0 9 55 0 9 63 0 13 34 0 13 99 4 26 126 2 38 29 0 7 36 0 4 70 0 18 40 1 20 84 0 17 68 1 19 39 1 12

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

65N-5E 65N-0E 65N-5W 60N-20E 60N-15E 60N-10E 60N-5E 60N-0E 60N-5W 55N-20E 55N-15E 55N-10E 55N-5E 55N-0E 55N-5W 50N-20E 50N-15E 50N-10E 50N-5E 50N-0E 50N-5W 45N-20E 45N-15E 45N-10E 45N-5E 45N-0E 45N-5W 40N-20E 40N-15E 40N-10E 40N-5E 40N-0E 40N-5W 40N-20E

46 50 37 71 43 38 60 51 60 109 87 96 61 30 45 84 80 99 90 50 49 44 83 112 121 53 60 0 0 119 130 62 80 0

3 0 1 2 1 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

22 16 11 12 15 15 20 22 35 16 20 29 7 12 13 19 20 23 14 16 16 13 10 20 12 12 14

0 0 0 3

37 18 10 15

Tile 19 47 18 19 46 49 21 68 86 22 32 51 18 56 47 26

BS 10 19 0 7 9 13 13 27 36 7 3 ## 20 17 20 13

RS 1 1 8 0 0 0 0 3 34 9 0 0 1 0 0 0

H 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic

Other

6LR, 1A (?)

1M, 1WB

21 32 23 48 26 21 38 28 23 90 64 67 53 16 32 64 55 76 71 33 32 31 72 91 107 41 44 ENDS ON WALL ENDS ON WALL 82 109 52 60 ENDS ON WALL

24 16 11 18 15 15 18 20 2 17 20 28 7 11 11 16 18 23 12 13 16 13 11 18 12 12 14

0 0 0 2 1 1 2 1 35 0 1 1 0 3 2 1 2 0 4 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 # 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

2LB, 1LR, 1CL 2LR 1ER, 1LB 2LB, 2LR 2LB, 1LR 6LR, 1ER 4LR, 2CL 2CL-H, 1LR 2LR

37 16 10 15

0 1 0 2

0 1 0 0

0 0 0 1

157

2LB 2LR 1LR 4LB, 1ER, 3LR 2ER, 7LR 1LR 1EB 2LB 1LB, 2LR 6LR 5LR, 1ER 1LB, 1CL-H

1CL, 1LR 2LR 1H 2LR, 2CL 1LB 1ER, 3LR 3LR 3LB, 1LR 7LR 1LR (ON WALL) 1LR, 1LB 1ER 2LR 1LR

1LR 7LR, 1ER 1LR 3LR, 1ER

1SS 1M 1M 1R

1M 1LD 2M 1M

Visib F F P F F F F 0 0F 0F G G E E

2M 2M 1C 1SS, 1M 1M 2M 1R, 1G, SN 2R

1M, SN 1ChF,2R,1G 1R, 1B 1R 1R SN 1R 2M 1R, 1B

SN, 3R 2M

E F F E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E F G E E E E

E E E E

APPENDIX II

Transect 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Square 35N-15E 35N-10E 35N-5E 35N-0E 30N-20E 30N-15E 30N-10E 25N-5E 25N-0E 25N-5W 20N-0E 20N-5W 15N-0E 15N-5W 90N-25E 85N-25E 80N-25E 75N-25E 70N-25E 65N-25E 60N-25E 55N-25E 50N-25E 90N-30E 85N-30E 80N-30E 75N-30E 70N-30E 65N-30E 60N-30E 55N-30E 50N-30E 90N-35E 85N-35E 80N-35E 75N-35E 70N-35E

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

65N-35E 60N-35E 85N-40E 80N-40E 75N-40E 70N-40E 65N-40E 60N-40E 80N-45E 70N-45E 75N-45E 80N-50E

Total FW CW Tile 0 ENDS ON WALL 100 0 10 88 57 0 10 44 68 0 16 52 46 0 7 39 70 0 9 61 52 2 14 36 0 ENDS ON WALL 43 1 9 33 51 0 10 39 46 1 7 38 81 0 14 67 22 0 1 21 50 0 4 45 57 1 9 47 29 1 4 23 58 1 12 44 109 4 36 67 64 0 9 55 65 0 15 50 83 0 22 61 44 0 8 36 39 0 10 29 17 0 7 10 31 1 6 24 78 1 19 58 76 1 166 56 89 2 19 68 68 1 22 44 46 1 12 33 27 0 6 20 0 ON WALL 0 ON ROAD 50 0 12 38 57 1 15 41 120 0 31 87 65 2 21 42 53 56 0 38 52 71 54 0 30 73 49 0

6 1

20 16

0 0 3 0

23 14 6 14

0 1 0

3 18 20

BS

27 39 ON ROAD 15 37 62 40 ON WALL 27 54 29 ON WALL

158

RS H B Diagnostic

8 10 15 7 6 13

0 0 0 0 2 2

2 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 0 0 0

2LR 1ER 3ER, 1LR 2LR 2LR 3LR, 1LB

7 10 7 10 1 4 10 5 13 35 9 15 20 6 9 7 6 20 13 19 23 11 6

2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

2LR, 1ER 2LR 1LB 1LB, 2ER, 1LR

11 15 29 22

1 1 0 0

0 0 2 0

0 0 0 1

24 17

2 0

2LR 1LB, 3LR 1LR, 1ER 3LR, 1EB, 6LB 4LR, 2CL, 5LR 0 0 [SLAVIC] 0 0 4LR, 1LB

20 12 9 10

2 1 0 1

1 0 0 2

3 18 17

0 1 3

0 0 1ER 0 0 1LB, 1LR, 1CL-H 0 0 5LR

0 1 0 1

1LR 3LR, 1LB 1LR, 1ER 1EM 2LB, 1EB, 2ER 2LR, 1ER 3LR 4LR 2LR 2LR 1EM 3LR 1ER, 1LR 2LB, 1CL 2LB, 2LR 1LB, 1LR 1ER

4LR, 1H 3LR, 2CL-H 3LR, 2LB 3LB

Other

Visib

1R, 1T 2R, 1T

E E E F E E E

2T SN 1T 1M 1N 1M, 1SS

3M SN 1M 1M

1SS 1R, 1M

1M

1R

1B

F F F P P P F E F E G F P G F E E E E F

G E E E E E E E E E P G F

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Square 75N-50E 70N-50E 80N-80E 85N-70E 85N-75E 85N-80E 85N-85E 85N-90E 85N-95E 90N-60E 90N-65E 90N-70E 90N-75E 90N-80E 90N-85E 90N-90E 90N-95E 90N-100E 90N-105E 95N-55E 95N-60E 95N-65N 95N-70E 95N-75E 95N-80E 95N-85E 95N-95E 95N-100E 95N-105E 95N-110E 95N-115E 100N-45E 100N-50E 100N-55E 100N-60E 100N-65E 100N-70E 100N-75E 100N-80E 100N-85E 100N-90E 100N-95E 100N-100E 100N-105E 100N-110E 100N-115E 105N-40E 105N-45E 105N-50E 105N-55E

Total FW CW 52 2 15 37 0 11 17 0 0 15 0 2 11 0 5 15 0 3 25 0 5 25 0 1 29 0 5 19 0 0 29 2 2 51 0 5 17 0 0 22 0 2 22 1 7 23 0 1 29 18 18 39 24 19 29 52 14 7 15 12 16 33 10 4 13 19 15 22 19 48 16 7 6 13 23 21 6 5 4 14 21 18

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

5 2 0 8 3 3 6 11 3 1 2 0 0 4 3 1 4 1 3 4 3 5 1 5 0 1 4 2 0 0 1 5 4 5

Tile 35 26 17 13 6 12 20 24 24 19 25 4 17 20 13 22

BS 13 11 0 2 3 3 5 1 5 0 3 5 0 2 7 1

RS 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

H 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 3LB, 2LR 3LR

1LR, 1ER, 1LB

1ChF

23 16 17 30 21 16 22 41 10 6 13 11 16 29 7 3 9 17 12 18 15 43 14 2 6 12 16 18 6 5 2 9 17 13

3 2 1 8 3 3 5 11 1 1 2 1 0 3 3 1 3 1 3 3 2 5 1 5 0 1 5 2 0 0 2 3 4 5

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2EB

1R

159

Other SN

1LR 1LB 1LR 1LR

2LB

1LB

Visib P P F F P P P P G F G F F F P F F P

1M SN 2LR 2LR 1LB, 1LR, 2LR

1M SN 1M

1LR

1LR 1M 1LB 1LR 3LR 1LB 2LR

SN

1LB 1EB

2M 1M

1LB

1LR

1ChC

P G G E F F P P P P P E G E P F F G G F P P P P P P G G G F

APPENDIX II

Transect 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Square Total FW CW 105N-60E 16 0 5 105N-65E 12 0 0 105N-70E 18 0 1 105N-75E 28 0 3 105N-80E 12 0 1 105N-85E 0 0 0 105N-90E 8 0 1 105N-95E 10 0 3 105N-100E 21 0 2 105N-105E 22 0 1 105N-110E 22 0 3 105N-115E 11 0 1 105N-120E 0 0 0 110N-50E 14 0 5 110N-55E 8 0 1 110N-60E 0 110N-65E 7 0 1 110N-70E 15 0 0 110N-75E 28 1 3 110N-80E 24 0 3 110N-85E 11 0 2 110N-90E 14 0 4 110N-95E 26 0 6 110N-100E 21 0 6 110N-105E 35 0 6 110N-110E 25 0 6 110N-120E 7 0 0 110N-115E 13 0 2 115N-55E 9 0 1 115N-60E 18 0 3 115N-65E 19 0 2 115N-70E 17 0 1 115N-75E 35 0 0 115N-80E 36 0 3 115N-85E 42 1 12 115N-90E 40 0 2 115N-95E 50 0 8 115N-100E 18 0 5 115N-105E 39 0 9 120N-50E 22 1 5 120N-55E 13 0 5 120N-60E 28 0 5 120N-65E 22 0 3 120N-70E 33 0 1 120N-75E 21 0 1 120N-80E 42 1 5 120N-85E 21 0 0 120N-90E 28 0 10 120N-95E 38 0 2 120N-100E 25 0 1

Tile 10 12 17 25 11 0 6 7 19 21 19 10 0 9 6 ON TRASH 6 15 24 21 9 10 19 14 29 19 7 11 8 15 17 15 35 35 29 38 42 13 30 16 8 23 19 31 20 36 21 17 35 24

BS 5 0 1 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 3 1 0 3 1

RS 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

B Diagnostic 0 1LR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1LR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 3 3 2 4 6 5 6 6 0 2 1 3 2 1 0 1 12 1 7 5 7 6 5 5 3 1 1 5 0 10 2 1

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

160

Other 1M

1M

1ChF

Visib P P P F F F F F P P P P G P

1LR P 1EB

4LR 1LR 1LR

1WB 1M

1LR SN

1M

1C-H, 1LB 1LR 1LB, 3LR 1LR 2LB 1LR 2LR

1SS

1R 4LR 3LR 1LR 1LR

1M 1M

P F F G P P P P P P P P P P P P G P P P P P P P P P F F F P P

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Transect 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Square Total FW CW 120N-105E 19 0 6 125N-45E 16 0 4 125N-50E 20 0 8 125N-55E 51 0 4 125N-60E 39 1 13 125N-65E 30 0 2 125N-70E 22 0 0 125N-75E 20 0 4 125N-80E 34 0 4 125N-85E 22 0 4 125N-90E 15 0 0 125N-95E 16 4 12 125N-100E 0 0 0 125N-105E 0 0 0 130N-45E 0 130N-50E 29 0 5

Tile 13 11 12 47 25 27 22 16 30 16 15 3 0 0

130N-55E 130N-60E 130N-65E 130N-70E 130N-75E 130N-80E 130N-85E 130N-90E 135N-55E 135N-60E 135N-65E 135N-70E 135N-75E 135N-80E 135N-85E

51 10 11 12 7 4 7 7 2 8 14 0 3 20 19

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

12 3 4 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 7 0 1 2 8

RS 0 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

22

BS 6 2 7 1 12 1 0 3 4 4 0 1 0 0 TRASH 5

0

0 0

39 7 6 10 7 3 6 5 2 7 7 0 2 17 11

7 3 4 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 7 0 1 3 7

3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

161

H 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

B 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diagnostic 1LR 1LR, 1CL-H, 1LB 3LR

Other 1BO 1M (SL)

Visib P G F

1LB, 3LR 1M 1LR 2LR 1LB

1M, 1WB

1G, 1R 6LR 1LR 1LR

1BK

1SS 1LR SN 1LR 1LB

F F F P P P

F G P P P P P P P P G P P P P P

APPENDIX 3 DATA FROM THE 1985 AND 1986 MAGNETOMETRY SURVEY IN THE FORTRESS In 1985 and 1986, the magnetometry survey in the Fortress covered 14,700 m2 of the interior. The surveyed zone was subdivided into square or rectangular grids that varied in size from 10 x 10 m up to 30 x 30 m. Readings were taken with a Geometrics G-856 Proton Free Precession Magnetometer with a storage capacity of 1,225 readings at 1 m intervals in each of the grids. The readings in each line or transect within each grid were taken in a north-south direction unless indicated otherwise below (i.e. E-W, for East-West). Each reading has five columns. From left to right, the columns represent the following categories of information: (1)

(2) (3) (4)

(5) Magnetic readings. These have six digits and are recorded in nanotesela. The sixth or last digit is to the right of the decimal point, so that 449835 should be read as 44,983.5 nT. The base station readings for each area follow the field readings for that sector. There is no Area 6 in the data list. When the survey was restructured in the summer of 1985, Area 6 was subsumed within Area 7. In addition, while there is a data file for Area 5 (corners at 105N-50E, 105N-70E, 125N50E, and 125N-70E) from the 1985 survey, this isolated block in the northeast section of the Fortress was redone in 1986 since we needed to expand the surface coverage. Area 5 falls in the zone covered by Areas 32, 33, 35, and 36. As a result, the readings from Area 5 were not plotted. The map (Figure A3.1) on the following page shows the locations of the grids for the magnetometry survey. Areas 1-17 were surveyed in 1985, and Areas 1836 were completed in 1986.

Line number. This is a two or three digit number. The download program provided by the manufacturer inserted the number 1 after each line number, so that 11 should be read as Line 1, 21 as Line 2, etc. Julian calendar day. Time of day, on a 24-hour clock. Station number. These numbers should form a continuous sequence between downloads, except when readings that had not been recorded in the instrument’s memory were entered by hand.

163

APPENDIX III

Figure A3.1 Map of the Fortress showing the locations of grids for magnetometry survey.

164

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

Area 1 Field Readings 11 200 084310 1 449835 11 200 084339 2 449816 11 200 084409 3 449901 11 200 084431 4 449919 11 200 084452 5 449902 11 200 084513 6 449872 11 200 084535 7 449844 11 200 084555 8 449994 11 200 084617 9 449892 11 200 084636 10 449855 11 200 084703 11 449895 11 200 084725 12 449896 11 200 084751 13 449885 11 200 084818 14 449907 11 200 084840 15 449868 11 200 084907 16 449893 11 200 084928 17 449821 11 200 084950 18 449848 11 200 085008 19 449907 11 200 085027 20 449948 11 200 085050 21 449959 21 200 090427 25 449902 21 200 090446 26 449841 21 200 090508 27 449793 21 200 090534 28 449835 21 200 090549 29 449794 21 200 090606 30 449834 21 200 090625 31 449784 21 200 090641 32 449854 21 200 090702 33 449788 21 200 090718 34 449832 21 200 090736 35 449870 21 200 090801 36 449841 21 200 090818 37 449811 21 200 090833 38 449881 21 200 090850 39 449806 21 200 090906 40 449829 21 200 090926 41 449819 21 200 090941 42 449864 21 200 090955 43 449860 21 200 091011 44 449801 21 200 091027 45 449779 31 200 091318 49 449835 31 200 091342 50 449832 31 200 091407 51 449729 31 200 091428 52 449729 31 200 091446 53 449767 31 200 091502 54 449814 31 200 091528 55 449570 31 200 091556 56 449870 31 200 091617 57 449791 31 200 091635 58 449820 31 200 091651 59 449842 31 200 091706 60 449826 31 200 091726 61 449834 31 200 091745 62 449804 31 200 091805 63 449796 31 200 091828 64 449795 31 200 091846 65 449796 31 200 091902 66 449799 31 200 091919 67 449818 31 200 091935 68 449791 31 200 091956 69 449764 41 200 092245 73 449823 41 200 092315 74 449821 41 200 092333 75 449718 41 200 092352 76 449656 41 200 092421 77 449703 41 200 092441 78 449766 41 200 092502 79 449647 41 200 092530 80 449747 41 200 092549 81 449685 41 200 092607 82 449757 41 200 092704 83 449754 41 200 092723 84 449744 41 200 092738 85 449767 41 200 092752 86 449756 41 200 092808 87 449767 41 200 092824 88 449744 41 200 092840 89 449753 41 200 092857 90 449726 41 200 092913 91 449734 41 200 092931 92 449731 41 200 092947 93 449733

51 200 093208 51 200 093231 51 200 093252 51 200 093314 51 200 093334 51 200 093359 51 200 093418 51 200 093442 51 200 093501 51 200 093520 51 200 093543 51 200 093603 51 200 093620 51 200 093637 51 200 093701 51 200 093719 51 200 093738 51 200 093804 51 200 093823 51 200 093842 51 200 093901 61 200 094106 61 200 094140 61 200 094205 61 200 094246 61 200 094342 61 200 094406 61 200 094426 61 200 094448 61 200 094507 61 200 094526 61 200 094545 61 200 094603 61 200 094622 61 200 094640 61 200 094656 61 200 094723 61 200 094741 61 200 095917 61 200 095934 61 200 095950 61 200 100123 71 200 100326 71 200 100422 71 200 100445 71 200 100510 71 200 100556 71 200 100621 71 200 100758 71 200 100822 71 200 100842 71 200 100858 71 200 100914 71 200 100930 71 200 100953 71 200 101007 71 200 101025 71 200 101047 71 200 101103 71 200 101117 71 200 101132 71 200 101154 71 200 101210 81 200 101435 81 200 101455 81 200 101519 81 200 101541 81 200 101606 81 200 101623 81 200 101721 81 200 101747 81 200 101809 81 200 101837 81 200 101948 81 200 102003 81 200 102018 81 200 102032 81 200 102050 81 200 102105 81 200 102128 81 200 102145 81 200 102202 81 200 102219 81 200 102233 91 200 102455

91 200 102517 193 449597 91 200 102541 194 449538 91 200 102601 195 449548 91 200 102626 196 449616 91 200 102649 197 449575 91 200 102713 198 449587 91 200 102734 199 449528 91 200 102756 200 449592 91 200 102815 201 449647 91 200 102832 202 449590 91 200 102850 203 449596 91 200 102906 204 449636 91 200 102944 205 449620 91 200 103001 206 449591 91 200 103121 207 449538 91 200 103139 208 449567 91 200 103158 209 449580 91 200 103212 210 449628 91 200 103228 211 449622 91 200 103246 212 449598 101 200 103453 216 449611 101 200 103512 217 449635 101 200 103532 218 449599 101 200 103620 219 449527 101 200 103639 220 449590 101 200 103658 221 449600 101 200 103718 222 449618 101 200 103738 223 449581 101 200 103810 224 449628 101 200 103832 225 449673 101 200 103900 226 449625 101 200 103919 227 449575 101 200 103935 228 449678 101 200 104002 229 449654 101 200 104020 230 449614 101 200 104039 231 449595 101 200 104058 232 449589 101 200 104118 233 449664 101 200 104140 234 449645 101 200 104159 235 449633 101 200 104219 236 449617 111 200 104417 240 449630 111 200 104437 241 449625 111 200 104507 242 449565 111 200 104531 243 449495 111 200 104555 244 449585 111 200 104622 245 449654 111 200 104650 246 449682 111 200 104721 247 449647 111 200 104740 248 449659 111 200 104800 249 449628 111 200 104815 250 449631 111 200 104835 251 449586 111 200 104911 252 449612 111 200 104931 253 449645 111 200 104954 254 449552 111 200 105021 255 449597 111 200 105042 256 449643 111 200 105100 257 449610 111 200 105120 258 449658 111 200 105144 259 449662 111 200 105207 260 449645 121 200 105441 264 449619 121 200 105508 265 449612 121 200 105529 266 449529 121 200 105552 267 449543 121 200 105618 268 449597 121 200 105635 269 449680 121 200 105659 270 449647 121 200 105722 271 449591 121 200 105739 272 449572 121 200 105759 273 449639 121 200 105823 274 449649 121 200 105845 275 449610 121 200 105905 276 449613 121 200 105923 277 449622 121 200 105941 278 449525 121 200 110013 279 449576 121 200 110031 280 449647 121 200 110100 281 449659 121 200 110118 282 449692 121 200 110136 283 449637 121 200 110155 284 449635 131 200 110402 288 449625 131 200 110426 289 449633

97 449740 98 449765 99 449668 100 449612 101 449637 102 449692 103 449644 104 449659 105 449678 106 449685 107 449715 108 449699 109 449685 110 449768 111 449653 112 449620 113 449696 114 449679 115 449649 116 449693 117 449681 120 449774 121 449718 122 449616 123 449545 124 449544 125 449554 126 449521 127 449637 128 449669 129 449653 130 449639 131 449746 132 449641 133 449655 134 449563 135 449566 136 449608 137 449618 138 449634 139 449641 140 449652 144 449705 145 449675 146 449536 147 449437 148 449572 149 449546 150 449520 151 449655 152 449617 153 449646 154 449658 155 449614 156 449657 157 449661 158 449578 159 449535 160 449577 161 449594 162 449616 163 449598 164 449601 168 449643 169 449659 170 449537 171 449663 172 449678 173 449568 174 449545 175 449556 176 449588 177 449594 178 449601 179 449633 180 449629 181 449639 182 449612 183 449556 184 449576 185 449569 186 449579 187 449570 188 449629 192 449651

165

131 200 110451 131 200 110524 131 200 110545 131 200 110609 131 200 110630 131 200 110652 131 200 110712 131 200 110729 131 200 110754 131 200 110824 131 200 110845 131 200 110904 131 200 110922 131 200 110948 131 200 111016 131 200 111042 131 200 111106 131 200 111126 131 200 111146 141 200 111403 141 200 111444 141 200 111503 141 200 111532 141 200 111555 141 200 111621 141 200 111641 141 200 111701 141 200 111729 141 200 111748 141 200 111807 141 200 111833 141 200 111855 141 200 111913 141 200 111931 141 200 111948 141 200 112010 141 200 112036 141 200 112054 141 200 112114 141 200 112136 151 200 112349 151 200 112527 151 200 112622 151 200 112645 151 200 112707 151 200 112726 151 200 112750 151 200 112811 151 200 112839 151 200 112856 151 200 112921 151 200 112939 151 200 113019 151 200 113039 151 200 113059 151 200 113118 151 200 113135 151 200 113150 151 200 113221 151 200 113237 151 200 113305 161 200 113451 161 200 113528 161 200 113547 161 200 113609 161 200 113707 161 200 113724 161 200 113740 161 200 113848 161 200 113911 161 200 113924 161 200 113946 161 200 114004 161 200 114024 161 200 114045 161 200 114100 161 200 114118 161 200 114134 161 200 114155 161 200 114211 161 200 114230 161 200 114248 171 200 114458 171 200 114527 171 200 114545

290 449583 291 449529 292 449554 293 449612 294 449615 295 449581 296 449568 297 449644 298 449678 299 449633 300 449632 301 449618 302 449588 303 449558 304 449547 305 449564 306 449574 307 449612 308 449615 312 449655 313 449669 314 449604 315 449525 316 449586 317 449618 318 449614 319 449572 320 449582 321 449614 322 449627 323 449598 324 449562 325 449578 326 449555 327 449581 328 449528 329 449510 330 449531 331 449569 332 449575 334 449644 335 449691 336 449649 337 449569 338 449617 339 449665 340 449639 341 449514 342 449523 343 449536 344 449562 345 449592 346 449549 347 449524 348 449536 349 449565 350 449527 351 449489 352 449517 353 449583 354 449539 358 449712 359 449691 360 449667 361 449518 362 449634 363 449634 364 449662 365 449545 366 449571 367 449582 368 449613 369 449666 370 449655 371 449589 372 449600 373 449577 374 449628 375 449607 376 449566 377 449586 378 449589 382 449737 383 449720 384 449693

APPENDIX III

171 200 114602 171 200 114621 171 200 114642 171 200 114706 171 200 114732 171 200 114753 171 200 114812 171 200 114830 171 200 114847 171 200 114911 171 200 114929 171 200 114951 171 200 115011 171 200 115034 171 200 115054 171 200 115122 171 200 115139 171 200 115157 181 200 115343 181 200 115405 181 200 115458 181 200 115522 181 200 115545 181 200 115607 181 200 115627 181 200 115644 181 200 115708 181 200 115736 181 200 115757 181 200 115818 181 200 115835 181 200 115900 181 200 115919 181 200 115943 181 200 120004 181 200 120023 181 200 120041 181 200 120101 181 200 120123 191 200 120318 191 200 120351 191 200 120417 191 200 120442 191 200 120504 191 200 120527 191 200 120552 191 200 120620 191 200 120638 191 200 120712 191 200 120744 191 200 120803 191 200 120820 191 200 120838 191 200 120856 191 200 120917 191 200 120936 191 200 120955 191 200 121013 191 200 121035 191 200 121119 201 200 121418 201 200 121442 201 200 121503 201 200 121525 201 200 121545 201 200 121606 201 200 121624 201 200 121652 201 200 121711 201 200 121734 201 200 121752 201 200 121817 201 200 121835 201 200 121857 201 200 121914 201 200 121933 201 200 121952 201 200 122011 201 200 122032 201 200 122103 201 200 122132 211 200 122320 211 200 122347 211 200 122408 211 200 122429

385 449557 386 449585 387 449667 388 449716 389 449584 390 449587 391 449606 392 449643 393 449701 394 449650 395 449627 396 449602 397 449527 398 449623 399 449627 400 449596 401 449584 402 449628 406 449708 407 449710 408 449696 409 449590 410 449571 411 449665 412 449664 413 449610 414 449577 415 449699 416 449675 417 449664 418 449645 419 449627 420 449627 421 449592 422 449638 423 449653 424 449637 425 449663 426 449652 430 449695 431 449681 432 449658 433 449628 434 449624 435 449652 436 449698 437 449645 438 449627 439 449699 440 449699 441 449646 442 449656 443 449617 444 449597 445 449626 446 449678 447 449684 448 449677 449 449707 450 449669 454 449684 455 449682 456 449681 457 449615 458 449566 459 449632 460 449706 461 449659 462 449619 463 449687 464 449705 465 449679 466 449695 467 449613 468 449630 469 449626 470 449693 471 449680 472 449722 473 449664 474 449647 478 449672 479 449727 480 449711 481 449645

31 137 123827 31 137 123842 31 137 123903 31 137 123919 31 137 123932 31 137 123944 31 137 123955 31 137 124014 31 137 124032 31 137 124055 41 137 124256 41 137 124413 41 137 124432 41 137 124447 41 137 124506 41 137 124556 41 137 124612 41 137 124628 41 137 124645 41 137 124706 41 137 124726 41 137 124740 41 137 124801 41 137 124825 41 137 124839 41 137 124902 41 137 124924 41 137 124940 41 137 124958 41 137 125014 41 137 125032 51 137 152329 51 137 152409 51 137 152428 51 137 152445 51 137 152508 51 137 152524 51 137 152558 51 137 152623 51 137 152639 51 137 152655 51 137 152711 51 137 152730 51 137 152751 51 137 152807 51 137 152824 51 137 152839 51 137 152859 51 137 152920 51 137 152936 51 137 152959 51 137 153018 61 137 153105 61 137 153137 61 137 153203 61 137 153217 61 137 153231 61 137 153247 61 137 153307 61 137 153331 61 137 153351 61 137 153414 61 137 153446 61 137 153507 61 137 153525 61 137 153539 61 137 153612 61 137 153639 61 137 153700 61 137 153719 61 137 153733 61 137 153748 61 137 153802 71 137 154353 71 137 154411 71 137 154423 71 137 154437 71 137 154505 71 137 154527 71 137 154624 71 137 154648 71 137 154707 71 137 154726 71 137 154747 71 137 154811

211 200 122448 482 449618 211 200 122518 483 449680 211 200 122537 484 449731 211 200 122558 485 449665 211 200 122616 486 449607 211 200 122640 487 449682 211 200 122703 488 449665 211 200 122722 489 449639 211 200 122751 490 449716 211 200 122815 491 449615 211 200 122837 492 449636 211 200 122934 493 449443 211 200 122953 494 449705 211 200 123010 495 449688 211 200 123033 496 449692 211 200 123054 497 449636 211 200 123115 498 449613 Area 1 Base Station Readings 999 212 110900 1 449958 999 212 110905 2 449960 999 212 110910 3 449961 999 212 111200 4 449960 999 212 111205 5 449962 999 212 111211 6 449960 999 212 113240 7 449997 999 212 113245 8 449996 999 212 113251 9 449997 999 212 114900 10 449955 999 212 114905 11 449952 999 212 114911 12 449953 Area 2 Field Readings 11 137 115840 2 450044 11 137 120040 3 450043 11 137 120106 4 449935 11 137 120154 5 449843 11 137 120237 6 449748 11 137 120303 7 449736 11 137 120349 8 450044 11 137 120507 9 450279 11 137 120534 10 450037 11 137 120548 11 449914 11 137 120625 12 449755 11 137 120647 13 449903 11 137 120725 14 450018 11 137 120803 15 449890 11 137 120819 16 450108 11 137 120840 17 449928 11 137 120856 18 449874 11 137 120910 19 449845 11 137 120924 20 449845 11 137 120950 21 450059 11 137 121023 22 449888 21 137 121138 23 449886 21 137 121157 24 450012 21 137 121211 25 449917 21 137 121225 26 450017 21 137 121239 27 450075 21 137 121251 28 450030 21 137 121457 29 450010 21 137 121515 30 449829 21 137 121543 31 449951 21 137 121600 32 450063 21 137 121616 33 449873 21 137 121627 34 449744 21 137 121639 35 449798 21 137 121704 36 450112 21 137 121726 37 449704 21 137 121802 38 449650 21 137 122500 39 449652 21 137 122514 40 449767 21 137 122529 41 449744 21 137 122542 42 449792 21 137 122558 43 449684 31 137 123414 48 449967 31 137 123502 49 449929 31 137 123516 50 449823 31 137 123528 51 449891 31 137 123540 52 449970 31 137 123602 53 449986 31 137 123639 54 449871 31 137 123713 55 450198 31 137 123735 56 450265 31 137 123752 57 450214 31 137 123808 58 450208

166

59 450170 60 450473 61 450139 62 450152 63 450387 64 450219 65 450428 66 450418 67 450250 68 450092 69 450142 70 450215 71 450279 72 450172 73 450250 74 450240 75 450197 76 450353 77 450350 78 450444 79 450342 80 450405 81 450343 82 450340 83 450138 84 450058 85 450003 86 450024 87 450030 88 450127 89 450211 95 450116 96 450176 97 450135 98 449935 99 449822 100 450025 101 449908 102 450299 103 450237 104 450227 105 450162 106 450035 107 449969 108 450169 109 449992 110 449885 111 449956 112 449781 113 449954 114 450175 115 450187 116 449573 117 449743 118 449648 119 450131 120 450169 121 450248 122 449771 123 449928 124 450254 125 450197 126 450348 127 450218 128 450227 129 450215 130 450684 131 450007 132 449693 133 449908 134 450018 135 450184 136 450214 137 450198 138 450069 139 449652 140 449747 141 449786 142 449341 144 449945 145 449702 146 449991 147 449787 148 449925 149 450532

71 137 154836 150 450236 71 137 154900 151 449859 71 137 154938 152 449751 71 137 154953 153 449701 71 137 155005 154 449799 71 137 155026 155 449522 71 137 155049 156 449669 71 137 155110 157 449614 71 137 155148 158 449921 81 137 155840 163 450280 81 137 155918 164 450103 81 137 155935 165 450228 81 137 155954 166 450405 81 137 160017 167 450432 81 137 160032 168 450454 81 137 160055 169 450536 81 137 160224 170 450657 81 137 160341 171 450561 81 137 160407 172 450432 81 137 160438 173 450390 81 137 160454 174 450378 81 137 160521 175 450430 81 137 160537 176 450537 81 137 160639 177 450161 81 137 160713 178 449843 81 137 160729 179 449910 81 137 160744 180 449994 81 137 160758 181 450004 81 137 160812 182 450145 81 137 160827 183 450354 91 137 161508 184 449724 91 137 161539 185 449599 91 137 161558 186 449820 91 137 161622 187 449903 91 137 161646 188 450215 91 137 161706 189 449826 91 137 161757 190 449672 91 137 161847 191 450182 91 137 161904 192 450118 91 137 161916 193 450334 91 137 161936 194 450050 91 137 161959 195 450006 91 137 162035 196 450416 91 137 162104 197 449925 91 137 162129 198 450453 91 137 162144 199 450378 91 137 162156 200 450431 91 137 162209 201 450507 91 137 162227 202 450378 91 137 162252 203 450340 91 137 162327 204 450328 101 137 163411 210 450386 101 137 163447 211 450411 101 137 163512 212 450293 101 137 163530 213 450164 101 137 163548 214 450337 101 137 163610 215 449926 101 137 163634 216 449613 101 137 163655 217 450115 101 137 163713 218 449781 101 137 163729 219 449998 101 137 163749 220 449635 101 137 163806 221 449735 101 137 163821 222 450165 101 137 163842 223 450221 101 137 163900 224 450424 101 137 163918 225 450202 101 137 163934 226 450289 101 137 163947 227 450001 101 137 164003 228 450294 101 137 164021 229 449923 101 137 164039 230 450039 111 137 164404 231 449636 111 137 164429 232 450383 111 137 164454 233 450449 111 137 164508 234 450424 111 137 164547 235 450455 111 137 164625 237 450255 111 137 164643 238 450371 111 137 164701 239 450344 111 137 164727 240 450421 111 137 164742 241 450357 111 137 164759 242 450460 111 137 164824 243 450448 111 137 164845 244 450594

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

111 137 164904 245 450482 111 137 164924 246 450557 111 137 164944 247 450429 111 137 165003 248 450477 111 137 165018 249 450470 111 137 165048 250 450472 111 137 165110 251 450419 111 137 165126 252 450415 121 137 165419 253 450224 121 137 165452 254 450339 121 137 165509 255 450226 121 137 165531 256 450131 121 137 165556 257 450350 121 137 165640 258 450238 121 137 165707 259 450118 121 137 165816 260 450584 121 137 165836 261 450527 121 137 165855 262 450315 121 137 165919 263 450313 121 137 165936 264 450346 121 137 165958 265 450070 121 137 170017 266 450400 121 137 170033 267 450375 121 137 170055 268 450095 121 137 170113 269 450173 121 137 170133 270 450011 121 137 170155 271 450258 121 137 170216 272 450182 121 137 170252 273 450232 131 137 171211 279 450305 131 137 171229 280 450391 131 137 171244 281 450316 131 137 171300 282 450353 131 137 171327 283 450191 131 137 171350 284 450198 131 137 171415 285 450518 131 137 171433 286 450682 131 137 171456 287 450546 131 137 171510 288 450573 131 137 171525 289 450560 131 137 171539 290 450497 131 137 171552 291 450493 131 137 171607 292 449943 131 137 171626 293 450037 131 137 171645 294 450463 131 137 171703 295 449963 131 137 171717 296 449981 131 137 171736 297 450335 131 137 171754 298 450335 131 137 171811 299 450033 141 137 171924 300 450335 141 137 171941 301 450510 141 137 171957 302 450216 141 137 172013 303 450262 141 137 172043 304 450400 141 137 172112 305 450568 141 137 172142 306 450670 141 137 172214 307 450589 141 137 172233 308 450743 141 137 172248 309 450757 141 137 172307 310 450537 141 137 172323 311 450808 141 137 172342 312 450539 141 137 172400 313 450428 141 137 172419 314 449999 141 137 172436 315 449836 141 137 172459 316 450172 141 137 172515 317 450034 141 137 172540 318 450179 141 137 172612 319 450485 141 137 172653 320 450484 151 137 172758 321 449966 151 137 172835 322 450304 151 137 173004 323 450636 151 137 173045 2000 450400 151 137 173133 324 450669 151 137 173152 325 450530 151 137 173209 326 450704 151 137 173259 327 450698 151 137 173325 328 450986 151 137 173342 329 450566 151 137 173356 330 450846 151 137 173410 331 450573 151 137 173425 332 450553 151 137 173441 333 450377

151 137 173455 151 137 173510 151 137 173529 151 137 173544 151 137 173605 151 137 173626 151 137 173704 161 138 091745 161 138 091840 161 138 091915 161 138 092008 161 138 092029 161 138 092117 161 138 092209 161 138 092332 161 138 092434 161 138 092459 161 138 092518 161 138 092554 161 138 092617 161 138 092644 161 138 092708 161 138 092730 161 138 092750 161 138 092813 161 138 092849 161 138 092922 161 138 092956 171 138 093059 171 138 093123 171 138 093140 171 138 093156 171 138 093211 171 138 093231 171 138 093248 171 138 093308 171 138 093334 171 138 093353 171 138 093408 171 138 093426 171 138 093447 171 138 093504 171 138 093526 171 138 093546 171 138 093611 171 138 093627 171 138 093751 171 138 093808 171 138 093824 181 138 095136 181 138 095213 181 138 095233 181 138 095250 181 138 095310 181 138 095358 181 138 095556 181 138 095610 181 138 095624 181 138 095638 181 138 095655 181 138 095711 181 138 095739 181 138 095754 181 138 095812 181 138 095829 181 138 095853 181 138 095920 181 138 095939 181 138 095956 181 138 100011 191 138 100050 191 138 100117 191 138 100135 191 138 100152 191 138 100209 191 138 100227 191 138 100252 191 138 100312 191 138 100332 191 138 100404 191 138 100426 191 138 100443 191 138 100749 191 138 100805 191 138 100827

191 138 100845 434 449600 191 138 100908 435 450278 191 138 100927 436 450646 191 138 100946 437 450579 191 138 101018 438 450612 191 138 101038 439 450640 201 138 102036 447 450685 201 138 102237 448 450691 201 138 102713 449 450563 201 138 102732 450 450203 201 138 102754 451 449348 201 138 102813 452 448926 201 138 102910 453 448621 201 138 102929 454 448787 201 138 103014 455 448788 201 138 103044 456 449296 201 138 103106 457 449486 201 138 103121 458 449631 201 138 103148 459 450012 201 138 103209 460 450020 201 138 103231 461 450126 201 138 103247 462 450127 201 138 103319 463 450128 201 138 103337 464 450231 201 138 103417 465 449964 201 138 103454 466 450068 201 138 103513 467 450133 211 138 103606 468 450422 211 138 103728 469 450015 211 138 103813 470 450248 211 138 103900 471 449946 211 138 103918 472 449824 211 138 103937 473 449930 211 138 103959 474 450071 211 138 104023 475 450189 211 138 104113 476 450390 211 138 104220 477 449982 211 138 104301 478 449863 211 138 104324 479 449544 211 138 104355 480 449274 211 138 104436 481 449014 211 138 104526 482 448565 211 138 104610 483 448105 211 138 104652 484 448032 211 138 104712 485 449058 211 138 104943 486 449924 211 138 105013 487 450734 211 138 105102 488 451148 Area 2 Base Station Readings 999 137 114700 1000 450049 999 137 114800 1001 450053 999 137 114900 1002 450051 999 137 115000 1003 450053 999 137 115600 1004 450049 999 137 115707 1 450051 999 137 122726 44 450072 999 137 122804 45 450137 999 137 123010 46 450224 999 137 123059 47 450147 999 137 125156 90 450235 999 137 125305 91 450203 999 137 125355 92 450188 999 137 152116 93 449819 999 137 152205 94 449711 999 137 155403 159 450203 999 137 155500 160 450176 999 137 155556 161 450314 999 137 155650 162 450191 999 137 162544 205 449948 999 137 162637 206 450143 999 137 162745 207 450110 999 137 162832 208 450157 999 137 162926 209 450115 999 137 170427 274 450241 999 137 170553 275 450252 999 137 170729 276 450256 999 137 170857 277 450189 999 137 171018 278 450273 999 137 173844 341 450219 999 137 173953 342 450174 999 137 174036 343 450164 999 137 174109 344 450120 999 137 174210 345 450095 999 138 085248 346 450393 999 138 085924 347 450381

334 450104 335 450133 336 449991 337 450261 338 449802 339 450638 340 450237 350 450555 351 450572 352 450586 353 450529 354 450723 355 450608 356 450447 357 450600 358 450636 359 450565 360 450418 361 450014 362 449868 363 449641 364 449867 365 450007 366 450125 367 449921 368 450286 369 450156 370 449910 371 450022 372 449888 373 449931 374 449901 375 449991 376 449345 377 449528 378 449365 379 449342 380 449654 381 449723 382 450002 383 450084 384 450396 385 450294 386 450261 387 450018 388 449919 389 450347 390 450275 391 450119 398 450531 399 450539 400 450795 401 450645 402 450542 403 450216 404 450359 405 450204 406 449931 407 449572 408 449413 409 449410 410 449660 411 449839 412 449913 413 449913 414 450034 415 450045 416 449942 417 450000 418 449861 419 449800 420 450109 421 450066 422 450167 423 449882 424 449629 425 449839 426 449899 427 449780 428 449525 429 449190 430 448743 431 448925 432 449388 433 449653

167

999 138 090420 999 138 090917 999 138 094014 999 138 094146 999 138 094249 999 138 094348 999 138 094511 999 138 094629 999 138 101217 999 138 101337 999 138 101443 999 138 101609 999 138 101708 999 138 101820 999 138 101918 999 138 105243 999 138 105407 999 138 105507 999 138 105627 999 138 105733

348 450367 349 450365 392 450113 393 449925 394 450076 395 450110 396 449967 397 450000 440 449903 441 450066 442 449953 443 450053 444 449931 445 449918 446 449895 489 450004 490 449769 491 449782 492 449551 493 449807

Area 3 Field Readings 11 138 155813 4 450519 11 138 155904 5 450362 11 138 155924 6 450258 11 138 155942 7 450228 11 138 160004 8 450245 11 138 160024 9 450284 11 138 160043 10 450316 11 138 160108 11 450436 11 138 160138 12 450418 11 138 160230 13 450303 11 138 160245 999 450270 11 138 160302 14 450254 11 138 160331 15 450191 11 138 160354 16 450253 11 138 160428 17 450271 11 138 160458 18 450346 11 138 160542 19 450413 11 138 160612 20 450243 11 138 160633 21 450320 11 138 160652 22 450283 11 138 160714 23 450318 21 138 161325 24 450421 21 138 161400 25 450365 21 138 161420 26 450407 21 138 161452 27 450447 21 138 161512 28 450415 21 138 161540 29 450587 21 138 161558 30 450474 21 138 161618 31 450412 21 138 161635 32 450288 21 138 161657 33 450565 21 138 161716 34 450512 21 138 161738 35 450464 21 138 161806 36 450518 21 138 161831 37 450458 21 138 161851 38 450400 21 138 161911 39 450203 21 138 161929 40 450143 21 138 161949 41 450283 21 138 162005 42 450368 21 138 162021 43 450476 21 138 162041 44 450278 31 138 163646 49 450373 31 138 163710 50 450323 31 138 163728 51 450252 31 138 163745 52 450321 31 138 163803 53 450388 31 138 163824 54 450296 31 138 163844 55 450352 31 138 163905 56 450453 31 138 163925 57 450364 31 138 163943 58 450284 31 138 163958 59 450349 31 138 164012 60 450383 31 138 164028 61 450450 31 138 164048 62 450295 31 138 164134 63 450403 31 138 164152 64 450458 31 138 164209 65 450359 31 138 164231 66 450450 31 138 164253 67 450432 31 138 164308 68 450273 31 138 164326 69 450320

APPENDIX III

41 138 164409 41 138 164519 41 138 164535 41 138 164553 41 138 164610 41 138 164625 41 138 164642 41 138 164700 41 138 164715 41 138 164734 41 138 164750 41 138 164805 41 138 164819 41 138 164834 41 138 164848 41 138 164904 41 138 164920 41 138 164935 41 138 164950 41 138 165004 41 138 165020 51 138 165724 51 138 165743 51 138 165802 51 138 165817 51 138 165837 51 138 165852 51 138 165915 51 138 165929 51 138 165943 51 138 170006 51 138 170023 51 138 170043 51 138 170101 51 138 170117 51 138 170132 51 138 170152 51 138 170208 51 138 170228 51 138 170244 51 138 170300 51 138 170314 61 138 170354 61 138 170414 61 138 170524 61 138 170539 61 138 170608 61 138 170625 61 138 170643 61 138 170702 61 138 170720 61 138 170735 61 138 170750 61 138 170808 61 138 170823 61 138 170850 61 138 170912 61 138 170934 61 138 170950 61 138 171007 61 138 171023 61 138 171039 61 138 171054 71 138 171254 71 138 171325 71 138 171347 71 138 171403 71 138 171422 71 138 171442 71 138 171509 71 138 171538 71 138 171555 71 138 171617 71 138 171633 71 138 171653 71 138 171715 71 138 171748 71 138 171815 71 138 171847 71 138 171914 71 138 171938 71 138 171956 71 138 172012 71 138 172027 81 138 173530

70 450184 71 450199 72 450473 73 450339 74 450248 75 450556 76 450502 77 450431 78 450232 79 450344 80 450200 81 450266 82 450192 83 450194 84 450172 85 450017 86 450264 87 450247 88 450085 89 450158 90 450315 95 450265 96 450167 97 450248 98 450399 99 450316 100 450220 101 450270 102 450165 103 450134 104 450174 105 450076 106 450125 107 450103 108 450166 109 450462 110 450232 111 450364 112 450415 113 450349 114 450312 115 450066 116 449962 117 450479 118 450522 119 450511 120 450597 121 450595 122 450618 123 450548 124 450328 125 450302 126 450266 127 450294 128 450272 129 450199 130 450208 131 450173 132 450185 133 450196 134 450243 135 450103 136 449959 137 450041 138 450027 139 449896 140 450124 141 450186 142 450096 143 449907 144 450097 145 449714 146 450079 147 450011 148 450301 149 450117 150 450425 151 450245 152 450233 153 450517 154 450287 155 450598 156 450855 157 450268 162 449832

121 141 103450 121 141 103514 121 141 103535 121 141 103601 121 141 103622 121 141 103642 121 141 103704 121 141 103752 121 141 103811 121 141 103851 121 141 103911 121 141 103934 121 141 103956 121 141 104018 121 141 104044 121 141 104102 121 141 104123 121 141 104147 121 141 104217 131 141 105409 131 141 105457 131 141 105536 131 141 105606 131 141 105704 131 141 105749 131 141 105834 131 141 105913 131 141 105948 131 141 110012 131 141 110212 131 141 110244 131 141 110316 131 141 110346 131 141 110414 131 141 110445 131 141 110505 131 141 110533 131 141 110602 131 141 110625 131 141 110650 141 141 110744 141 141 110826 141 141 110855 141 141 110917 141 141 110943 141 141 111014 141 141 111045 141 141 111115 141 141 111148 141 141 111214 141 141 111241 141 141 111305 141 141 111330 141 141 111413 141 141 111513 141 141 111550 141 141 111631 141 141 111702 141 141 111720 141 141 111738 141 141 111758 151 141 112608 151 141 112651 151 141 113402 151 141 113437 151 141 113500 151 141 113546 151 141 113645 151 141 113748 151 141 113814 151 141 113858 151 141 113925 151 141 114043 151 141 114146 151 141 114632 151 141 114732 151 141 114804 151 141 114830 151 141 114857 151 141 114927 151 141 114954 151 141 115023 161 141 143807 161 141 143952 161 141 144109

81 138 173648 163 450092 81 138 173730 164 449953 81 138 173803 165 450058 81 138 173831 166 449670 81 138 173902 167 449974 81 138 173950 168 450039 81 138 174049 169 450336 81 138 174141 170 450466 81 138 174229 171 450325 81 138 174303 172 450284 81 138 174338 173 450114 81 138 174404 174 450052 81 138 174437 175 450113 81 138 174506 176 450171 81 138 174621 177 450278 81 138 174643 178 450443 81 138 174701 179 450830 81 138 174727 180 450535 81 138 174748 181 450918 81 138 174840 182 450772 91 141 092534 191 450348 91 141 092610 192 450357 91 141 092635 193 450366 91 141 092732 194 450548 91 141 092815 195 450516 91 141 092916 196 450479 91 141 092950 197 450369 91 141 093011 198 450350 91 141 093151 199 450137 91 141 093230 200 450139 91 141 093307 201 450186 91 141 093330 202 450188 91 141 093410 203 450039 91 141 093502 204 450060 91 141 093541 205 449999 91 141 093623 206 450150 91 141 093651 207 450111 91 141 093730 208 450180 91 141 093821 209 450241 91 141 093857 210 450258 91 141 095753 211 449880 101 141 095958 212 449773 101 141 100055 213 449902 101 141 100134 214 449845 101 141 100206 215 449856 101 141 100244 216 449915 101 141 100314 217 449903 101 141 100343 218 449924 101 141 100412 219 450075 101 141 100445 220 450091 101 141 100515 221 449868 101 141 100548 222 449983 101 141 100624 223 450077 101 141 100652 224 450139 101 141 100734 225 449860 101 141 100821 226 449916 101 141 100857 227 449972 101 141 100950 228 450035 101 141 101029 229 449980 101 141 101108 230 450052 101 141 101136 231 449889 101 141 101219 232 449825 111 141 102015 237 449916 111 141 102100 238 449884 111 141 102133 239 449959 111 141 102202 240 450022 111 141 102226 241 450084 111 141 102305 242 450012 111 141 102335 243 450110 111 141 102358 244 449976 111 141 102428 245 450021 111 141 102459 246 450037 111 141 102536 247 450010 111 141 102623 248 449967 111 141 102647 249 449869 111 141 102718 250 449948 111 141 102751 251 449917 111 141 102951 252 449822 111 141 103017 253 449922 111 141 103045 254 449899 111 141 103114 255 450001 111 141 103212 256 449833 111 141 103240 257 449961 121 141 103344 258 449932 121 141 103430 259 449919

168

260 449946 261 449936 262 449694 263 449897 264 449826 265 449938 266 450137 267 449822 268 450020 269 449855 270 450210 271 450118 272 450133 273 450000 274 450056 275 449909 276 450043 277 450053 278 449665 283 450139 284 450193 285 450287 286 450267 287 450323 288 450306 289 449876 290 449821 291 449621 292 449748 293 449270 294 449586 295 449446 296 449609 297 449496 298 449752 299 449581 300 449749 301 450069 302 450110 303 450002 304 449732 305 449800 306 449645 307 450016 308 450153 309 450180 310 450201 311 450227 312 449917 313 449886 314 449554 315 449847 316 449920 317 449525 318 450242 319 449693 320 449847 321 449305 322 449579 323 449450 324 449957 328 450312 329 450300 330 450101 331 450251 332 450201 333 450176 334 450316 335 450106 336 450198 337 450021 338 449815 339 449573 340 450158 341 450419 342 449807 343 450137 344 450089 345 449790 346 450000 347 449970 348 449865 358 450342 359 450407 360 450236

161 141 144210 161 141 144249 161 141 144344 161 141 144431 161 141 144528 161 141 144610 161 141 144812 161 141 144918 161 141 145017 161 141 145053 161 141 145142 161 141 145226 161 141 145308 161 141 145347 161 141 145428 161 141 145459 161 141 145539 161 141 145616 171 141 145744 171 141 145816 171 141 145846 171 141 145917 171 141 145940 171 141 150005 171 141 150028 171 141 150055 171 141 150132 171 141 150200 171 141 150227 171 141 150255 171 141 150328 171 141 150351 171 141 150417 171 141 150443 171 141 150506 171 141 150532 171 141 150559 171 141 150627 171 141 150655 181 141 151602 181 141 151635 181 141 151702 181 141 151725 181 141 151750 181 141 151817 181 141 151844 181 141 151913 181 141 151941 181 141 152003 181 141 152028 181 141 152057 181 141 152132 181 141 152206 181 141 152234 181 141 152300 181 141 152328 181 141 152406 181 141 152433 181 141 152500 181 141 152529 191 141 152619 191 141 152646 191 141 152715 191 141 152737 191 141 152801 191 141 152823 191 141 152846 191 141 152909 191 141 152933 191 141 152956 191 141 153021 191 141 153043 191 141 153113 191 141 153134 191 141 153156 191 141 153219 191 141 153241 191 141 153324 191 141 153348 191 141 153410 191 141 153432 201 141 153611 201 141 153639 201 141 153700 201 141 153722

361 450172 362 450109 363 450443 364 450484 365 450369 366 450148 367 449914 368 450102 369 450077 370 449911 371 450061 372 450119 373 449997 374 450069 375 449876 376 450065 377 449954 378 450095 379 450018 380 449778 381 449809 382 449928 383 449983 384 449768 385 449891 386 449957 387 449867 388 449862 389 450050 390 449978 391 449973 392 450066 393 450026 394 449910 395 449975 396 449971 397 449814 398 449916 399 449987 405 449774 406 449855 407 449890 408 450055 409 450058 410 449857 411 449863 412 450132 413 450027 414 450033 415 449772 416 449895 417 449991 418 450004 419 449976 420 449968 421 449941 422 449769 423 449956 424 449804 425 449942 426 449801 427 449897 428 449939 429 449906 430 449855 431 449865 432 449924 433 449920 434 449904 435 449654 436 449805 437 449962 438 450017 439 449916 440 449911 441 449841 442 449852 443 449667 444 449563 445 449675 446 449837 447 449832 448 449767 449 449863 450 450174

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

201 141 153745 451 449926 201 141 153808 452 449733 201 141 153830 453 449924 201 141 153858 454 449648 201 141 153919 455 449729 201 141 153946 456 449821 201 141 154006 457 449794 201 141 154039 458 449845 201 141 154059 459 449744 201 141 154127 460 449751 201 141 154152 461 449777 201 141 154215 462 449837 201 141 154245 463 449789 201 141 154308 464 449786 201 141 154336 465 449679 201 141 154402 466 449880 201 141 154423 467 449795 211 141 160016 471 449651 211 141 160052 472 449814 211 141 160116 473 449511 211 141 160148 474 449637 211 141 160210 475 449809 211 141 160244 476 449755 211 141 160331 477 450017 211 141 160415 478 449817 211 141 160837 479 450038 211 141 160859 480 449981 211 141 160928 481 449955 211 141 160959 482 449799 211 141 161025 483 449984 211 141 161049 484 449835 211 141 161118 485 449742 211 141 161147 486 449894 211 141 161211 487 449996 211 141 161242 488 450141 211 141 161306 489 450172 211 141 161335 490 449961 211 141 161358 491 449881 Area 3 Base Station Readings 999 138 155431 1 450279 999 138 155516 2 450345 999 138 155607 3 450254 999 138 162706 45 450396 999 138 162751 46 450459 999 138 162829 47 450396 999 138 162912 48 450451 999 138 165317 91 450389 999 138 165403 92 450383 999 138 165501 93 450377 999 138 165604 94 450377 999 138 172156 158 450119 999 138 172259 159 450129 999 138 172342 160 450051 999 138 172418 161 449956 999 138 175033 183 449935 999 138 175148 184 449956 999 138 175303 185 449890 999 138 175432 186 449983 999 141 090955 187 450263 999 141 091325 188 450092 999 141 091434 189 450136 999 141 092002 190 450226 999 141 101428 233 449976 999 141 101620 234 450031 999 141 101719 235 450017 999 141 101821 236 450027 999 141 104419 279 450067 999 141 104527 280 450100 999 141 104643 281 450106 999 141 104742 282 450057 999 141 112140 325 450124 999 141 112236 326 450068 999 141 112340 327 450123 999 141 115239 349 449996 999 141 115338 350 449940 999 141 115448 351 450025 999 141 115535 352 449979 999 141 143040 353 449875 999 141 143208 354 449848 999 141 143333 355 449936 999 141 143428 356 449823 999 141 143538 357 449906 999 141 150938 400 449957 999 141 151031 401 449925 999 141 151130 402 449957

999 141 151231 999 141 151331 999 141 154646 999 141 154742 999 141 154840 999 141 161558 999 141 161700 999 141 161759 999 141 161858 999 141 162000

71 142 102205 580 450336 71 142 102248 581 450321 71 142 102320 582 450379 71 142 102343 583 450382 81 142 103554 588 450348 81 142 103722 589 450222 81 142 103751 590 450287 81 142 103815 591 450346 81 142 103848 592 450359 81 142 103920 593 450203 81 142 103941 594 450194 81 142 104004 595 450174 81 142 104029 596 450395 81 142 104102 597 450336 81 142 104126 598 450167 91 142 104225 599 450094 91 142 104253 600 450061 91 142 104318 601 450306 91 142 104345 602 450260 91 142 104409 603 450195 91 142 104428 604 450128 91 142 104446 605 450280 91 142 104507 606 450250 91 142 104529 607 450215 91 142 104549 608 450271 91 142 104610 609 450267 101 142 105104 610 450112 101 142 105134 611 450285 101 142 105201 612 450241 101 142 105228 613 450238 101 142 105247 614 450296 101 142 105307 615 450182 101 142 105338 616 450171 101 142 105406 617 450373 101 142 105431 618 450424 101 142 105457 619 450241 101 142 105530 620 450208 111 142 105623 621 450147 111 142 105648 622 450114 111 142 105714 623 450432 111 142 105744 624 450321 111 142 105809 625 450265 111 142 105829 626 450293 111 142 105849 627 450510 111 142 105909 628 450314 111 142 105928 629 450458 111 142 105949 630 450256 111 142 110012 631 450163 Area 4 Base Station Readings 999 142 090011 497 450060 999 142 090105 498 450124 999 142 091621 499 449995 999 142 091725 500 450046 999 142 091822 501 450071 999 142 092026 502 450073 999 142 094935 536 450061 999 142 095035 537 449885 999 142 095137 538 450016 999 142 095234 539 449960 999 142 102528 584 450250 999 142 102627 585 450251 999 142 102737 586 450251 999 142 102824 587 450245 999 142 110147 632 450400 999 142 110240 633 450401 999 142 110327 634 450395 999 142 110425 635 450396 999 142 110526 636 450400

403 449834 404 449970 468 449681 469 449760 470 449926 492 449984 493 449886 494 449991 495 449997 496 449904

Area 4 Field Readings 11 142 092416 503 450129 11 142 092445 504 450068 11 142 092512 505 450023 11 142 092554 506 449831 11 142 092620 507 449942 11 142 092645 508 450124 11 142 092707 509 450065 11 142 092727 510 450068 11 142 092749 511 450063 11 142 092811 512 450018 11 142 092836 513 450012 21 142 092938 514 449964 21 142 093011 515 449940 21 142 093033 516 450146 21 142 093054 517 450059 21 142 093114 518 450051 21 142 093135 519 450145 21 142 093156 520 449996 21 142 093219 521 450037 21 142 093240 522 450155 21 142 093258 523 450151 21 142 093318 524 449971 31 142 094248 525 450006 31 142 094317 526 449920 31 142 094343 527 449968 31 142 094403 528 450011 31 142 094427 529 450007 31 142 094448 530 449992 31 142 094509 531 450066 31 142 094526 532 450080 31 142 094545 533 450059 31 142 094603 534 450077 31 142 094629 535 449972 41 142 095650 540 450065 41 142 095749 541 449902 41 142 095814 542 449951 41 142 095843 543 450079 41 142 095909 544 450074 41 142 095932 545 449979 41 142 095952 546 450014 41 142 100011 547 450045 41 142 100029 548 450102 41 142 100048 549 450027 41 142 100108 550 449876 51 142 100214 551 449968 51 142 100239 552 450103 51 142 100256 553 450071 51 142 100314 554 450002 51 142 100334 555 450100 51 142 100355 556 450181 51 142 100418 557 450147 51 142 100442 558 450159 51 142 100511 559 450133 51 142 100536 560 450154 51 142 100558 561 450020 61 142 101036 562 450066 61 142 101153 563 449844 61 142 101237 564 450093 61 142 101317 565 449795 61 142 101425 566 450001 61 142 101459 567 449991 61 142 101524 568 449950 61 142 101546 569 450000 61 142 101606 570 450081 61 142 101626 571 450096 61 142 101646 572 449989 71 142 101746 573 449905 71 142 101810 574 450136 71 142 101830 575 449989 71 142 101853 576 450009 71 142 101916 577 449991 71 142 101941 578 450122 71 142 102110 579 450407

Area 5 Field Readings 11 143 110824 4 449738 11 143 110854 5 449788 11 143 110936 6 449974 11 143 110958 7 449994 11 143 111026 8 449951 11 143 111100 9 449942 11 143 111125 10 449935 11 143 111147 11 449727 11 143 111206 12 449860 11 143 111236 13 449812 11 143 111315 14 449880 11 143 111341 15 449792 11 143 111404 16 450072 11 143 111433 17 450042 11 143 111454 18 449802

169

11 143 111519 11 143 111548 11 143 111620 11 143 111636 11 143 111654 11 143 111718 21 143 112017 21 143 112048 21 143 112116 21 143 112153 21 143 112219 21 143 112239 21 143 112308 21 143 112330 21 143 112353 21 143 112416 21 143 112509 21 143 112533 21 143 112551 21 143 112615 21 143 112635 21 143 112756 21 143 112826 21 143 112846 21 143 112906 21 143 112936 21 143 113001 31 143 114000 31 143 114041 31 143 114102 31 143 114159 31 143 114215 31 143 114230 31 143 114248 31 143 114305 31 143 114327 31 143 114402 31 143 114420 31 143 114440 31 143 114506 31 143 114531 31 143 114557 31 143 114624 31 143 114658 31 143 114727 31 143 114751 31 143 114818 31 143 114859 41 143 115031 41 143 115103 41 143 115205 41 143 115226 41 143 115248 41 143 115309 41 143 115334 41 143 115355 41 143 115424 41 143 115452 41 143 115524 41 143 115548 41 143 115618 41 143 115645 41 143 115709 41 143 115737 41 143 115823 41 143 115852 41 143 115926 41 143 115950 41 143 120027 51 143 133309 51 143 133440 51 143 133529 51 143 133600 51 143 133618 51 143 133637 51 143 133653 51 143 133709 51 143 133735 51 143 133754 51 143 133814 51 143 133841 51 143 133906 51 143 133926 51 143 133943 51 143 133959

19 449968 20 449938 21 449873 22 449793 23 449766 24 449456 25 449866 26 450060 27 450057 28 450038 29 449877 30 450250 31 449583 32 450340 33 450502 34 449915 35 450308 36 449952 37 450140 38 449635 39 450352 40 450368 41 450554 42 450010 43 450025 44 449926 45 450059 51 449978 52 449853 53 449872 54 449939 55 450123 56 450101 57 449943 58 449930 59 449728 60 449636 61 449800 62 449806 63 449999 64 449874 65 449826 66 449830 67 450035 68 449783 69 449976 70 449690 71 449483 72 449778 73 449899 74 449833 75 449773 76 449685 77 449761 78 449759 79 449791 80 449902 81 449721 82 449684 83 449719 84 449844 85 449679 86 449806 87 449801 88 449700 89 449803 90 449629 91 449699 92 449735 102 449692 103 450005 104 449950 105 450081 106 450134 107 450027 108 449867 109 449962 110 450012 111 449845 112 449657 113 450089 114 450306 115 450127 116 450047 117 450115

APPENDIX III

51 143 134022 118 450046 51 143 134041 119 450113 51 143 134105 120 450124 51 143 134127 121 449913 51 143 134149 122 449853 61 143 134427 123 449893 61 143 134458 124 449981 61 143 134515 125 450263 61 143 134535 126 450110 61 143 134552 127 450083 61 143 134616 128 450142 61 143 134646 129 450358 61 143 134716 130 450212 61 143 134752 131 450295 61 143 134820 132 450302 61 143 135006 133 450017 61 143 135031 134 450206 61 143 135050 135 449922 61 143 135110 136 450322 61 143 135146 137 450038 61 143 135220 138 449685 61 143 135244 139 449894 61 143 135304 140 449853 61 143 135324 141 450013 61 143 135355 142 449672 61 143 135416 143 449760 71 143 140100 2000 449860 71 143 140218 148 450016 71 143 140238 149 449818 71 143 140258 150 449907 71 143 140322 151 450203 71 143 140342 152 450132 71 143 140400 153 450025 71 143 140423 154 450097 71 143 140444 155 450058 71 143 140501 156 450071 71 143 140530 157 450153 71 143 140551 158 450125 71 143 140646 159 450125 71 143 140713 160 450108 71 143 141056 161 450295 71 143 141131 162 450314 71 143 141159 163 450171 71 143 141230 164 450139 71 143 141252 165 450221 71 143 141312 166 450114 71 143 141337 167 450150 81 143 141425 168 450144 81 143 141502 169 450033 81 143 141555 170 450303 81 143 141627 171 450143 81 143 141703 172 450140 81 143 141729 173 450111 81 143 141815 174 449925 81 143 141839 175 449689 81 143 141926 176 450030 81 143 142008 177 449595 81 143 142105 178 449737 81 143 142137 179 449706 81 143 142305 180 449584 81 143 142331 181 449803 81 143 142357 182 449797 81 143 142428 183 449810 81 143 142500 184 450165 81 143 142556 185 450141 81 143 142618 186 449851 81 143 142730 187 449791 81 143 142749 188 449717 91 143 144124 193 449905 91 143 144205 194 449969 91 143 144239 195 449957 91 143 144322 196 450128 91 143 144348 197 450121 91 143 144419 198 449958 91 143 144444 199 449820 91 143 144504 200 449858 91 143 144524 201 449886 91 143 144550 202 449916 91 143 144609 203 450071 91 143 144636 204 450185 91 143 144653 205 450044 91 143 144715 206 449891 91 143 144737 207 450027 91 143 144801 208 450157 91 143 144823 209 449953

131 143 162356 303 449769 131 143 162417 304 449804 131 143 162436 305 449860 141 143 162531 306 449821 141 143 162549 307 449918 141 143 162612 308 449919 141 143 162642 309 449804 141 143 162704 310 449911 141 143 162727 311 449928 141 143 162808 312 449808 141 143 162833 313 449908 141 143 162913 314 449690 141 143 162950 315 449800 141 143 163012 316 449733 141 143 163047 317 449766 141 143 163114 318 449852 141 143 163137 319 449850 141 143 163153 320 449732 141 143 163215 321 449852 141 143 163238 322 449673 141 143 163256 323 449824 141 143 163317 324 449644 141 143 163338 325 449762 141 143 163355 2001 449600 151 144 094505 336 450099 151 144 094542 337 450108 151 144 094602 338 450093 151 144 094624 339 450111 151 144 094642 340 450134 151 144 094702 341 450185 151 144 094721 342 450310 151 144 094743 343 450140 151 144 094804 344 450183 151 144 094822 345 450204 151 144 094839 346 450251 151 144 094859 347 450265 151 144 094918 348 450396 151 144 094937 349 450194 151 144 094956 350 450209 151 144 095016 351 450264 151 144 095037 352 450248 151 144 095102 353 450328 151 144 095131 354 450316 151 144 095154 355 450333 151 144 095217 356 450330 161 144 095327 357 450380 161 144 095404 358 450357 161 144 095427 359 450373 161 144 095449 360 450212 161 144 095511 361 450219 161 144 095539 362 450252 161 144 095558 363 450208 161 144 095634 364 450205 161 144 095652 365 450278 161 144 095707 366 450260 161 144 095724 367 450272 161 144 095739 368 450236 161 144 095754 369 450193 161 144 095809 370 450147 161 144 095829 371 450217 161 144 095849 372 450166 161 144 095906 373 450138 161 144 095922 374 450157 161 144 095942 375 450093 161 144 100000 376 450077 161 144 100018 377 449956 171 144 100621 378 449969 171 144 100648 379 449977 171 144 100713 380 450030 171 144 100730 381 449956 171 144 100747 382 450086 171 144 100805 383 450124 171 144 100832 384 450226 171 144 100848 385 450133 171 144 100909 386 450148 171 144 100925 387 450230 171 144 100947 388 450262 171 144 101003 389 450194 171 144 101018 390 450228 171 144 101035 391 450213 171 144 101052 392 450156 171 144 101117 393 450232 171 144 101133 394 450186 171 144 101150 395 450224 171 144 101213 396 450247

91 143 144843 210 450048 91 143 144902 211 449916 91 143 144921 212 449939 91 143 144955 213 449666 101 143 145301 214 449812 101 143 145336 215 449988 101 143 145359 216 450124 101 143 145420 217 450099 101 143 145441 218 449962 101 143 145503 219 449971 101 143 145525 220 450005 101 143 145810 221 449979 101 143 150158 222 450036 101 143 150221 223 450107 101 143 150244 224 450164 101 143 150305 225 450220 101 143 150359 226 450232 101 143 151719 227 450217 101 143 151748 228 450067 101 143 151818 229 450067 101 143 151843 230 450112 101 143 151905 231 450173 101 143 151929 232 450234 101 143 151951 233 450241 101 143 152114 234 450148 111 143 153913 239 450167 111 143 153949 240 450202 111 143 154012 241 450261 111 143 154036 242 450234 111 143 154109 243 450190 111 143 154144 244 450223 111 143 154221 245 450054 111 143 154247 246 450159 111 143 154320 247 450169 111 143 154344 248 450224 111 143 154538 249 450179 111 143 154603 250 450151 111 143 154624 251 450232 111 143 154645 252 450322 111 143 154712 253 450333 111 143 154730 254 450175 111 143 154758 255 450201 111 143 154832 256 450170 111 143 154851 257 450188 111 143 154917 258 450213 111 143 155040 259 450220 121 143 155233 260 450442 121 143 155311 261 450226 121 143 155341 262 450193 121 143 155417 263 450216 121 143 155518 264 450262 121 143 155543 265 450272 121 143 155643 266 450318 121 143 155716 267 450034 121 143 155757 268 449982 121 143 155826 269 450124 121 143 155850 270 450181 121 143 155917 271 450213 121 143 155957 272 450240 121 143 160034 273 450163 121 143 160110 274 449900 121 143 160155 275 450117 121 143 160235 276 450128 121 143 160305 277 449970 121 143 160324 278 450109 121 143 160353 279 450055 121 143 160427 280 450105 131 143 161645 285 449796 131 143 161731 286 449822 131 143 161753 287 449696 131 143 161821 288 449778 131 143 161847 289 449797 131 143 161910 290 449854 131 143 161932 291 449779 131 143 161956 292 449752 131 143 162015 293 449868 131 143 162032 294 449861 131 143 162050 295 449841 131 143 162109 296 449801 131 143 162126 297 449805 131 143 162151 298 449693 131 143 162209 299 449782 131 143 162227 300 449821 131 143 162248 301 449675 131 143 162308 302 449465

170

171 144 101240 171 144 101258 181 144 101824 181 144 101900 181 144 101926 181 144 101944 181 144 102013 181 144 102032 181 144 102049 181 144 102106 181 144 102121 181 144 102137 181 144 102155 181 144 102211 181 144 102231 181 144 102249 181 144 102306 181 144 102324 181 144 102338 181 144 102355 181 144 102415 181 144 102438 181 144 102457 191 144 102921 191 144 102949 191 144 103014 191 144 103031 191 144 103048 191 144 103106 191 144 103126 191 144 103158 191 144 103226 191 144 103246 191 144 103314 191 144 103334 191 144 103358 191 144 103418 191 144 103439 191 144 103456 191 144 103511 191 144 103529 191 144 103546 191 144 103607 191 144 103630 201 144 104354 201 144 104421 201 144 104443 201 144 104501 201 144 104520 201 144 104536 201 144 104551 201 144 104606 201 144 104619 201 144 104632 201 144 104645 201 144 104659 201 144 104712 201 144 104727 201 144 104742 201 144 104800 201 144 104815 201 144 104832 201 144 104846 201 144 104901 201 144 104917 211 144 105106 211 144 105129 211 144 105151 211 144 105207 211 144 105223 211 144 105240 211 144 105259 211 144 105318 211 144 105337 211 144 105354 211 144 105413 211 144 105429 211 144 105448 211 144 105504 211 144 105523 211 144 105540 211 144 105558 211 144 105616 211 144 105632 211 144 105652

397 450231 398 450448 403 450217 404 450782 405 450237 406 450246 407 450256 408 450248 409 450214 410 450192 411 450202 412 450171 413 450238 414 450151 415 450063 416 450012 417 450122 418 450027 419 450016 420 449978 421 449952 422 449946 423 449868 424 449752 425 449878 426 449923 427 449984 428 449980 429 450156 430 450143 431 450023 432 450053 433 450119 434 450227 435 450211 436 450215 437 450161 438 450216 439 450192 440 450182 441 450198 442 450165 443 450085 444 450164 449 450206 450 450250 451 450219 452 450202 453 450185 454 450200 455 450099 456 450119 457 450143 458 450203 459 450194 460 450156 461 450131 462 450089 463 450062 464 449954 465 449884 466 449933 467 449865 468 449753 469 449692 470 449512 471 449602 472 449741 473 449887 474 449783 475 449995 476 450037 477 450082 478 450064 479 450068 480 450111 481 450193 482 450164 483 450179 484 450105 485 450236 486 450216 487 450253 488 450126 489 450166

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

211 144 105713 490 450137 Area 5 Base Station Readings 999 143 105820 0 449840 999 143 105942 1 449847 999 143 110109 2 449846 999 143 110626 3 449849 999 143 113242 46 449952 999 143 113322 47 449958 999 143 113420 48 449906 999 143 113512 49 449911 999 143 113612 50 449908 999 143 120213 93 449992 999 143 120312 94 450000 999 143 120408 95 449890 999 143 120514 96 449807 999 143 132506 97 449904 999 143 132611 98 449983 999 143 132718 99 449892 999 143 132824 100 450005 999 143 132919 101 449859 999 143 135631 144 450351 999 143 135740 145 450340 999 143 135851 146 450351 999 143 135941 147 450461 999 143 143036 189 450033 999 143 143138 190 450038 999 143 143255 191 449648 999 143 143344 192 449896 999 143 152806 235 450217 999 143 152901 236 450150 999 143 153025 237 450129 999 143 153113 238 450130 999 143 161002 281 449874 999 143 161103 282 449702 999 143 161153 283 449715 999 143 161248 284 449724 999 143 163446 326 449807 999 143 163535 327 449795 999 143 163628 328 449832 999 143 163723 329 449802 999 144 092613 330 450204 999 144 092719 331 450205 999 144 092823 332 450203 999 144 093217 333 450249 999 144 093716 334 450243 999 144 094215 335 450235 999 144 101413 399 450214 999 144 101509 400 450213 999 144 101608 401 450210 999 144 101708 402 450212 999 144 103751 445 450218 999 144 103849 446 450200 999 144 103953 447 450198 999 144 104051 448 450157 999 144 110855 512 450381 999 144 110952 513 450387 999 144 111054 514 450384 999 144 111154 515 450381 999 144 111402 516 450050 999 144 111502 517 450069 999 144 111559 518 450112 Area 7 Field Readings 11 200 152905 2 450060 11 200 153001 3 450056 11 200 153022 4 450065 11 200 153039 5 450047 11 200 153056 6 450042 11 200 153110 7 449936 11 200 153135 1000 449926 11 200 153210 8 449927 11 200 153224 9 449923 11 200 153236 10 449971 11 200 153254 11 450007 11 200 153318 12 450021 11 200 153350 13 449956 11 200 153407 14 450031 11 200 153431 15 449984 11 200 153450 1001 449978 11 200 153504 16 449944 11 200 153537 17 449909 11 200 153558 18 449946 11 200 153620 19 449918 11 200 153642 20 449977 11 200 153906 21 449938

11 200 153927 11 200 153948 11 200 154005 11 200 154021 11 200 154045 11 200 154105 11 200 154121 11 200 154151 11 200 154210 21 200 154530 21 200 154553 21 200 154608 21 200 154627 21 200 154644 21 200 154706 21 200 154725 21 200 154758 21 200 154813 21 200 154831 21 200 154914 21 200 154936 21 200 154958 21 200 155012 21 200 155040 21 200 155102 21 200 155123 21 200 155144 21 200 155201 21 200 155217 21 200 155249 21 200 155312 21 200 155327 21 200 155352 21 200 155421 21 200 155439 21 200 155459 21 200 155532 21 200 155633 21 200 155650 21 200 155708 31 200 155832 31 200 155856 31 200 155921 31 200 160035 31 200 160109 31 200 160134 31 200 160217 31 200 160234 31 200 160249 31 200 160314 31 200 160339 31 200 160412 31 200 160430 31 200 160449 31 200 160507 31 200 160520 31 200 160545 31 200 160607 31 200 160631 31 200 160644 31 200 160658 31 200 160717 31 200 160735 31 200 160803 31 200 160833 31 200 160857 31 200 160917 31 200 160941 31 200 161000 31 200 161020 31 200 161042 41 200 161259 41 200 161315 41 200 161336 41 200 161418 41 200 161438 41 200 161524 41 200 161540 41 200 161558 41 200 161614 41 200 161628 41 200 161648 41 200 161716 41 200 161729 41 200 161743

41 200 161821 41 200 161847 41 200 161910 41 200 161926 41 200 161943 41 200 161957 41 200 162013 41 200 162039 41 200 162057 41 200 162125 41 200 162148 41 200 162210 41 200 162226 41 200 162241 41 200 162256 41 200 162310 41 200 162325 51 200 162406 51 200 162431 51 200 162449 51 200 162502 51 200 162527 51 200 162549 51 200 162616 51 200 162638 51 200 162707 51 200 162731 51 200 162749 51 200 162806 51 200 162821 51 200 162836 51 200 162849 51 200 162902 51 200 162917 51 200 162948 51 200 163006 51 200 163025 51 200 163043 51 200 163102 51 200 163116 51 200 163132 51 200 163151 51 200 163205 51 200 163219 51 200 163251 51 200 163311 51 200 163332 51 200 163349 61 200 163817 61 200 163848 61 200 163902 61 200 163941 61 200 163958 61 200 164014 61 200 164034 61 200 164049 61 200 164101 61 200 164119 61 200 164137 61 200 164150 61 200 164205 61 200 164219 61 200 164236 61 200 164250 61 200 164304 61 200 164322 61 200 164337 61 200 164352 61 200 164409 61 200 164425 61 200 164438 61 200 164450 61 200 164504 61 200 164518 61 200 164533 61 200 164546 61 200 164606 61 200 164620 61 200 164637 71 200 164718 71 200 164738 71 200 164800 71 200 164818 71 200 164833 71 200 164848

22 449902 23 449897 24 449931 25 449995 26 450006 27 450026 28 450009 29 449989 30 449987 34 449988 35 449983 36 450026 37 450006 38 450010 39 449982 40 449979 41 449918 42 449897 43 449919 44 449926 45 449976 46 450005 47 449934 48 449953 49 450016 50 450005 51 449954 52 449932 53 450001 54 449987 55 449962 56 449852 57 449864 58 449902 59 449918 60 450012 61 450032 62 450091 63 450068 64 449981 65 449951 66 449952 67 449855 68 449855 69 449889 70 449913 71 449884 72 449862 73 449909 74 449959 75 449993 76 449999 77 449966 78 449975 79 449978 80 449966 81 449919 82 449952 83 449978 84 449978 85 449944 86 449907 87 449880 88 449846 89 449924 90 449966 91 449959 92 449917 93 449952 94 449922 95 449936 99 449921 100 449934 101 449892 102 449861 103 449958 104 449914 105 449897 106 449829 107 449883 108 449902 109 449911 110 449910 111 449867 112 449871

171

113 449910 114 449911 115 449906 116 449873 117 449886 118 449894 119 449882 120 449868 121 449819 122 449836 123 449955 124 449961 125 449910 126 449885 127 449875 128 449875 129 449921 130 449884 131 449867 132 449865 133 449859 134 449889 135 449908 136 449846 137 449786 138 449786 139 449817 140 449824 141 449865 142 449812 143 449807 144 449821 145 449834 146 449823 147 449814 148 449854 149 449861 150 449816 151 449857 152 449820 153 449804 154 449845 155 449886 156 449861 157 449820 158 449845 159 449839 160 449878 164 449912 165 449854 166 449804 167 449789 168 449752 169 449823 170 449786 171 449754 172 449777 173 449763 174 449757 175 449780 176 449767 177 449776 178 449744 179 449771 180 449768 181 449740 182 449786 183 449778 184 449778 185 449739 186 449738 187 449794 188 449815 189 449817 190 449851 191 449870 192 449871 193 449850 194 449834 195 449850 196 449854 197 449872 198 449868 199 449847 200 449815

71 200 164901 201 449846 71 200 164917 202 449800 71 200 164933 203 449706 71 200 165000 204 449741 71 200 165016 205 449760 71 200 165030 206 449757 71 200 165048 207 449724 71 200 165105 208 449708 71 200 165122 209 449709 71 200 165146 210 449714 71 200 165202 211 449697 71 200 165237 212 449685 71 200 165256 213 449696 71 200 165310 214 449748 71 200 165324 215 449720 71 200 165338 216 449725 71 200 165400 217 449721 71 200 165415 218 449713 71 200 165428 219 449705 71 200 165444 220 449730 71 200 165519 221 449691 71 200 165536 222 449712 71 200 165550 1002 449752 71 200 165608 223 449776 71 200 165626 224 449779 81 200 165925 228 449746 81 200 165953 229 449713 81 200 170009 230 449729 81 200 170023 231 449710 81 200 170036 232 449742 81 200 170051 233 449737 81 200 170104 234 449745 81 200 170119 235 449766 81 200 170145 236 449753 81 200 170202 237 449744 81 200 170218 238 449705 81 200 170233 239 449703 81 200 170245 240 449704 81 200 170258 241 449666 81 200 170316 242 449672 81 200 170336 243 449622 81 200 170349 244 449637 81 200 170406 245 449622 81 200 170424 246 449627 81 200 170438 247 449657 81 200 170451 248 449628 81 200 170508 249 449649 81 200 170527 250 449655 81 200 170543 251 449638 81 200 170600 252 449723 81 200 170617 253 449721 81 200 170632 254 449740 81 200 170646 255 449780 81 200 170700 256 449757 81 200 170713 257 449767 81 200 170735 258 449766 91 200 170808 259 449815 91 200 170829 260 449772 91 200 170843 261 449745 91 200 170902 262 449692 91 200 170927 263 449663 91 200 170947 264 449633 91 200 171007 265 449395 91 200 171203 266 449447 91 200 171228 267 449710 91 200 171309 268 449649 91 200 171326 269 449639 91 200 171350 270 449624 91 200 171411 271 449639 91 200 171437 272 449596 91 200 171508 273 449613 91 200 171540 274 449597 91 200 171610 275 449601 91 200 171644 276 449653 91 200 171707 277 449664 91 200 171725 278 449668 91 200 171741 279 449675 91 200 171757 280 449719 91 200 171820 281 449748 91 200 171841 282 449784 91 200 171857 283 449761 91 200 171919 284 449787 91 200 171942 285 449765 91 200 172004 286 449684 91 200 172026 287 449680

APPENDIX III

91 200 172043 288 449681 91 200 172101 289 449698 101 200 172250 293 449661 101 200 172311 294 449645 101 200 172328 295 449633 101 200 172357 296 449699 101 200 172417 297 449730 101 200 172438 298 449769 101 200 172458 299 449786 101 200 172515 300 449773 101 200 172536 301 449762 101 200 172554 302 449708 101 200 172624 303 449680 101 200 172657 304 449648 101 200 172715 305 449644 101 200 172733 306 449649 101 200 172759 307 449669 101 200 172814 308 449689 101 200 172830 309 449638 101 200 172911 310 449647 101 200 172931 311 449646 101 200 172957 312 449613 101 200 173018 313 449661 101 200 173035 314 449699 101 200 173054 315 449802 101 200 173142 316 450436 101 200 173244 317 449330 101 200 173319 318 449618 101 200 173343 319 449653 101 200 173401 320 449695 101 200 173415 321 449763 101 200 173441 322 449816 101 200 173551 323 449834 111 200 173658 324 449828 111 200 173730 325 449782 111 200 173752 326 449838 111 200 173810 327 449685 111 200 173825 328 449664 111 200 173846 329 449689 111 200 173902 330 449698 111 200 173920 331 449811 111 200 173937 332 449807 111 200 173956 333 449720 111 200 174015 334 449702 111 200 174044 335 449722 111 200 174059 336 449700 111 200 174117 337 449696 111 200 174143 338 449734 111 200 174200 339 449749 111 200 174223 340 449719 111 200 174241 341 449698 111 200 174256 342 449689 111 200 174346 343 449717 111 200 174407 344 449770 111 200 174441 345 449796 111 200 174509 346 449806 111 200 174529 347 449821 111 200 174546 348 449809 111 200 174609 349 449854 111 200 174628 350 449820 111 200 174647 351 449833 111 200 174709 352 449747 111 200 174730 353 449725 111 200 174748 354 449773 121 200 175137 358 449761 121 200 175157 359 449715 121 200 175250 360 449732 121 200 175334 361 449782 121 200 175351 362 449824 121 200 175415 363 449835 121 200 175453 364 449809 121 200 175514 365 449789 121 200 175535 366 449756 121 200 175610 367 449764 121 200 175630 368 449738 121 200 175645 369 449708 121 200 175705 370 449690 121 200 175722 371 449714 121 200 175740 372 449723 121 200 175758 373 449717 121 200 175816 374 449700 121 200 175830 375 449692 121 200 175858 376 449703 121 200 175914 377 449647 121 200 175932 378 449676

151 201 091715 151 201 091740 151 201 091754 151 201 091809 151 201 091823 151 201 091839 151 201 091851 151 201 091905 151 201 091919 151 201 091931 151 201 091944 151 201 091957 151 201 092011 151 201 092031 151 201 092045 151 201 092059 151 201 092113 151 201 092126 161 201 092307 161 201 092323 161 201 092342 161 201 092400 161 201 092423 161 201 092450 161 201 092517 161 201 092554 161 201 092605 161 201 092619 161 201 092633 161 201 092648 161 201 092703 161 201 092716 161 201 092743 161 201 092758 161 201 092814 161 201 092834 161 201 092849 161 201 092912 161 201 092926 161 201 092939 161 201 092954 161 201 093010 161 201 093026 161 201 093043 161 201 093100 161 201 093113 161 201 093127 161 201 093143 161 201 093203 171 201 093244 171 201 093304 171 201 093323 171 201 093339 171 201 093355 171 201 093416 171 201 093433 171 201 093452 171 201 093514 171 201 093532 171 201 093553 171 201 093614 171 201 093656 171 201 093721 171 201 093739 171 201 093752 171 201 093809 171 201 093825 171 201 093839 171 201 093855 171 201 093909 171 201 093925 171 201 093939 171 201 093954 171 201 094008 171 201 094024 171 201 094041 171 201 094058 171 201 094115 171 201 094128 171 201 094142 181 201 094401 181 201 094431 181 201 094446 181 201 094501 181 201 094518

121 200 175950 379 449767 121 200 180009 380 449746 121 200 180026 381 449710 121 200 180047 382 449707 121 200 180104 383 449723 121 200 180119 384 449632 121 200 180137 385 449713 121 200 180152 386 449766 121 200 180209 387 449793 121 200 180228 388 449812 131 200 180315 389 449782 131 200 180335 1003 449752 131 200 180401 390 449746 131 200 180422 391 449661 131 200 180443 392 449627 131 200 180503 393 449725 131 200 180521 394 449761 131 200 180544 395 449716 131 200 180602 396 449695 131 200 180631 397 449696 131 200 180701 398 449669 131 200 180725 399 449668 131 200 180746 400 449689 131 200 180804 401 449680 131 200 180822 402 449717 131 200 180845 403 449705 131 200 180901 404 449706 131 200 180922 405 449734 131 200 180939 406 449685 131 200 180959 407 449724 131 200 181020 408 449725 131 200 181037 409 449765 131 200 181054 410 449756 131 200 181109 411 449771 131 200 181126 412 449810 131 200 181141 413 449832 131 200 181159 414 449805 131 200 181218 415 449769 131 200 181236 416 449723 131 200 181303 417 449740 131 200 181336 418 449754 141 201 090530 430 449810 141 201 090610 1004 449786 141 201 090640 431 449756 141 201 090655 432 449792 141 201 090708 433 449864 141 201 090722 434 449877 141 201 090734 435 449841 141 201 090747 436 449809 141 201 090800 437 449791 141 201 090811 438 449784 141 201 090823 439 449796 141 201 090835 440 449772 141 201 090847 441 449726 141 201 090859 442 449743 141 201 090911 443 449754 141 201 090924 444 449732 141 201 090936 445 449728 141 201 090946 446 449706 141 201 090959 447 449702 141 201 091011 448 449719 141 201 091024 449 449704 141 201 091035 450 449688 141 201 091046 451 449761 141 201 091101 452 449762 141 201 091113 453 449817 141 201 091126 454 449692 141 201 091138 455 449661 141 201 091149 456 449757 141 201 091201 457 449731 141 201 091214 458 449748 141 201 091230 459 449772 151 201 091336 460 449736 151 201 091400 461 449762 151 201 091418 462 449731 151 201 091437 463 449717 151 201 091453 464 449696 151 201 091510 465 449780 151 201 091528 466 449773 151 201 091544 467 449682 151 201 091601 468 449669 151 201 091618 469 449714 151 201 091633 470 449714 151 201 091647 471 449715 151 201 091700 472 449726

172

473 449719 474 449738 475 449734 476 449749 477 449749 478 449757 479 449767 480 449752 481 449788 482 449793 483 449792 484 449824 485 449869 486 449863 487 449727 488 449762 489 449794 490 449809 494 449843 495 449845 496 449803 497 449812 498 449860 499 449890 500 449868 501 449834 502 449814 503 449821 504 449820 505 449785 506 449799 507 449750 508 449750 509 449771 510 449771 511 449742 512 449680 513 449726 514 449732 515 449699 516 449671 517 449663 518 449698 519 449775 520 449702 521 449691 522 449717 523 449719 524 449667 525 449808 526 449778 527 449803 528 449767 529 449763 530 449742 531 449715 532 449696 533 449744 534 449726 535 449787 536 449667 537 449682 538 449780 539 449787 540 449769 541 449779 542 449809 543 449761 544 449803 545 449807 546 449839 547 449845 548 449847 549 449841 550 449852 551 449822 552 449828 553 449769 554 449814 555 449826 559 449801 560 449800 561 449787 562 449812 563 449850

181 201 094535 181 201 094549 181 201 094603 181 201 094617 181 201 094632 181 201 094645 181 201 094658 181 201 094745 181 201 094800 181 201 094813 181 201 094826 181 201 094843 181 201 094858 181 201 094913 181 201 094929 181 201 094943 181 201 094959 181 201 095012 181 201 095024 181 201 095041 181 201 095056 181 201 095110 181 201 095124 181 201 095136 181 201 095153 181 201 095208 191 201 095244 191 201 095309 191 201 095330 191 201 095345 191 201 095400 191 201 095416 191 201 095433 191 201 095451 191 201 095505 191 201 095518 191 201 095532 191 201 095546 191 201 095600 191 201 095615 191 201 095630 191 201 095644 191 201 095656 191 201 095714 191 201 095728 191 201 095743 191 201 095757 191 201 095812 191 201 095826 191 201 095839 191 201 095852 191 201 095905 191 201 095919 191 201 095935 191 201 095951 191 201 100006 191 201 100021 201 201 100149 201 201 100213 201 201 100253 201 201 100309 201 201 100323 201 201 100338 201 201 100351 201 201 100405 201 201 100418 201 201 100430 201 201 100445 201 201 100456 201 201 100510 201 201 100526 201 201 100537 201 201 100549 201 201 100603 201 201 100616 201 201 100629 201 201 100641 201 201 100652 201 201 100704 201 201 100717 201 201 100732 201 201 100750 201 201 100803 201 201 100819 201 201 100834

564 449820 565 449834 566 449846 567 449855 568 449861 569 449854 570 449785 571 449743 572 449745 573 449776 574 449788 575 449804 576 449769 577 449730 578 449718 579 449712 580 449742 581 449745 582 449773 583 449765 584 449729 585 449753 586 449721 587 449721 588 449751 589 449789 590 449746 591 449764 592 449725 593 449728 594 449736 595 449704 596 449676 597 449760 598 449721 599 449693 600 449680 601 449725 602 449753 603 449744 604 449756 605 449784 606 449754 607 449749 608 449748 609 449815 610 449816 611 449840 612 449844 613 449824 614 449803 615 449834 616 449848 617 449787 618 449781 619 449723 620 449758 624 449750 625 449734 626 449732 627 449773 628 449795 629 449827 630 449821 631 449767 632 449767 633 449795 634 449784 635 449754 636 449740 637 449714 638 449727 639 449717 640 449718 641 449703 642 449677 643 449650 644 449715 645 449689 646 449707 647 449691 648 449690 649 449650 650 449694 651 449700

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

201 201 100850 652 449732 201 201 100905 653 449736 201 201 100921 654 449687 211 201 100936 655 449654 211 201 100952 656 449755 211 201 101007 657 449711 211 201 101022 658 449725 211 201 101038 659 449740 211 201 101053 660 449725 211 201 101109 661 449694 211 201 101124 662 449693 211 201 101140 663 449682 211 201 101155 664 449719 211 201 101211 665 449795 211 201 101226 666 449627 211 201 101241 667 449681 211 201 101257 668 449712 211 201 101321 669 449708 211 201 101328 670 449701 211 201 101343 671 449730 211 201 101359 672 449749 211 201 101414 673 449716 211 201 101430 674 449738 211 201 101445 675 449749 211 201 101501 676 449774 211 201 101516 677 449745 211 201 101531 678 449762 211 201 101547 679 449779 211 201 101602 680 449765 211 201 101618 681 449775 211 201 101633 682 449748 211 201 101649 683 449720 211 201 101704 684 449701 211 201 101720 685 449710 Area 7 Base Station Readings 999 200 152636 0 449868 999 200 152752 1 449869 999 200 154322 31 449867 999 200 154333 32 449865 999 200 154348 33 449866 999 200 161137 96 449823 999 200 161148 97 449823 999 200 161200 98 449820 999 200 163512 161 449786 999 200 163544 162 449785 999 200 163550 163 449782 999 200 165718 225 449732 999 200 165726 226 449730 999 200 165734 227 449727 999 200 172152 290 449682 999 200 172200 291 449682 999 200 172210 292 449683 999 200 174830 355 449775 999 200 174842 356 449776 999 200 174850 357 449777 999 200 181508 419 449787 999 200 181519 420 449786 999 200 181531 421 449785 999 201 085616 422 449827 999 201 085640 423 449824 999 201 085650 424 449824 999 201 090030 425 449828 999 201 090101 426 449827 999 201 090504 427 449826 999 201 090513 428 449827 999 201 090520 429 449826 999 201 092206 491 449799 999 201 092212 492 449798 999 201 092219 493 449798 999 201 094304 556 449773 999 201 094311 557 449772 999 201 094319 558 449771 999 201 100100 621 449768 999 201 100109 622 449767 999 201 100117 623 449770 999 201 101735 686 449749 999 201 101743 687 449750 999 201 101752 688 449751 Area 8 Field Readings 11 201 120328 3 449610 11 201 120341 4 449667 11 201 120355 5 449695 11 201 120408 6 449688 11 201 120423 7 449636

11 201 120439 11 201 120457 11 201 120549 11 201 120602 11 201 120617 11 201 120631 11 201 120654 11 201 120710 11 201 120726 11 201 120739 11 201 120751 11 201 120806 11 201 120823 11 201 120838 11 201 120851 11 201 120906 11 201 120922 11 201 120937 11 201 120951 11 201 121005 11 201 121017 11 201 121042 11 201 121113 11 201 121126 11 201 121139 11 201 121153 21 201 121229 21 201 121245 21 201 121304 21 201 121319 21 201 121334 21 201 121355 21 201 121410 21 201 121426 21 201 121441 21 201 121456 21 201 121514 21 201 121531 21 201 121548 21 201 121604 21 201 121620 21 201 121634 21 201 121645 21 201 121801 21 201 121844 21 201 121906 21 201 121935 21 201 121958 21 201 122035 21 201 122059 21 201 122121 21 201 122139 21 201 122156 21 201 122213 21 201 122239 21 201 122257 21 201 122315 31 201 122503 31 201 122527 31 201 122543 31 201 122600 31 201 122623 31 201 122642 31 201 122709 31 201 122739 31 201 122756 31 201 122817 31 201 122847 31 201 122911 31 201 122927 31 201 122945 31 201 123012 31 201 123032 31 201 123045 31 201 123110 31 201 123134 31 201 123217 31 201 123234 31 201 123248 31 201 123300 31 201 123312 31 201 123324 31 201 123339 31 201 123353 31 201 123408

31 201 123427 95 449647 31 201 123440 96 449559 31 201 123503 97 449570 41 201 123533 98 449659 41 201 123548 99 449603 41 201 123603 100 449615 41 201 123618 101 449644 41 201 123635 102 449689 41 201 123651 103 449674 41 201 123706 104 449671 41 201 123724 105 449704 41 201 123738 106 449701 41 201 123752 107 449713 41 201 123811 108 449723 41 201 123837 109 449772 41 201 123853 110 449761 41 201 123913 111 449815 41 201 123937 112 449761 41 201 123957 113 449847 41 201 124014 114 449811 41 201 124033 115 449845 41 201 124057 116 449865 41 201 124113 117 449759 41 201 124134 118 449715 41 201 124154 119 449661 41 201 124222 120 449578 41 201 124239 121 449602 41 201 124301 122 449580 41 201 124315 123 449638 41 201 124328 124 449698 41 201 124343 125 449678 41 201 124358 126 449673 41 201 124415 127 449628 41 201 124429 128 449643 51 201 124630 132 449562 51 201 124717 133 449613 51 201 124731 134 449604 51 201 124745 135 449613 51 201 124805 136 449641 51 201 124829 137 449615 51 201 124850 138 449507 51 201 124928 139 449444 51 201 124950 140 449439 51 201 125008 141 449545 51 201 125023 142 449605 51 201 125038 143 449688 51 201 125056 144 449724 51 201 125114 145 449769 51 201 125131 146 449668 51 201 125149 147 449683 51 201 125210 148 449745 51 201 125224 149 449705 51 201 125238 150 449632 51 201 125253 151 449751 51 201 125308 152 449778 51 201 125325 153 449708 51 201 125343 1000 449708 51 201 125402 154 449643 51 201 125418 155 449539 51 201 125440 156 449653 51 201 125459 157 449682 51 201 125514 158 449667 51 201 125531 159 449692 51 201 125547 160 449781 51 201 125611 161 449784 61 201 125706 162 449463 61 201 125745 163 449671 61 201 125805 164 449750 61 201 125833 165 449819 61 201 125851 166 449720 61 201 125927 167 449706 61 201 125944 168 449686 61 201 130002 169 449648 61 201 130020 170 449655 61 201 130043 171 449734 61 201 130103 172 449734 61 201 130125 173 449685 61 201 130140 174 449596 61 201 130202 175 449664 61 201 130228 176 449645 61 201 130255 177 449600 61 201 130314 178 449726 61 201 130339 179 449671 61 201 130404 180 449618 61 201 130426 181 449707

8 449633 9 449573 10 449549 11 449523 12 449665 13 449858 14 449834 15 449821 16 449790 17 449615 18 449537 19 449592 20 449675 21 449721 22 449682 23 449608 24 449593 25 449617 26 449625 27 449670 28 449719 29 449727 30 449724 31 449697 32 449653 33 449635 34 449684 35 449634 36 449668 37 449691 38 449760 39 449716 40 449697 41 449656 42 449618 43 449610 44 449663 45 449698 46 449688 47 449730 48 449644 49 449731 999 450019 50 450223 51 449916 52 449852 53 449815 54 449661 55 449532 56 449520 57 449643 58 449630 59 449651 60 449718 61 449697 62 449670 63 449673 67 449674 68 449667 69 449704 70 449720 71 449655 72 449567 73 449596 74 449555 75 449531 76 449645 77 449777 78 449789 79 449916 80 450032 81 450060 82 449778 83 449693 84 449741 85 449686 86 449716 87 449671 88 449646 89 449661 90 449689 91 449673 92 449717 93 449745 94 449677

173

61 201 130507 61 201 130522 61 201 130535 61 201 130557 61 201 130615 61 201 130630 61 201 130644 61 201 130701 61 201 130717 61 201 130732 61 201 130750 71 201 152132 71 201 152155 71 201 152323 71 201 152351 71 201 152418 71 201 152444 71 201 152500 71 201 152514 71 201 152527 71 201 152547 71 201 152618 71 201 152637 71 201 152657 71 201 152810 71 201 152835 71 201 152911 71 201 152929 71 201 152949 71 201 153002 71 201 153038 71 201 153055 71 201 153109 71 201 153125 71 201 153140 71 201 153154 71 201 153211 71 201 153233 71 201 153247 71 201 153438 71 201 153452 71 201 153507 81 201 153634 81 201 153706 81 201 153731 81 201 153750 81 201 153818 81 201 153840 81 201 153900 81 201 153920 81 201 153934 81 201 153949 81 201 154007 81 201 154028 81 201 154049 81 201 154105 81 201 154124 81 201 154146 81 201 154202 81 201 154225 81 201 154252 81 201 154318 81 201 154339 81 201 154354 81 201 154407 81 201 154419 81 201 154435 81 201 154451 81 201 154513 81 201 154527 81 201 154541 81 201 154556 81 201 154613 91 201 154826 91 201 154842 91 201 154859 91 201 154929 91 201 154943 91 201 155000 91 201 155017 91 201 155035 91 201 155048 91 201 155102 91 201 155118 91 201 155132

182 449660 183 449598 184 449536 185 449572 186 449559 187 449631 188 449661 189 449605 190 449604 191 449640 192 449638 199 449783 200 449746 201 449730 202 450049 203 449838 204 449850 205 449813 206 449843 207 449853 208 449920 209 449797 210 449859 211 449853 212 449815 213 449857 214 449769 215 449775 216 449791 217 449775 218 449807 219 449850 220 449823 221 449771 222 449747 223 449801 224 449823 225 449785 226 449829 227 449855 228 449845 229 449841 230 450207 231 449813 232 449796 233 449778 234 449798 235 449830 236 449783 237 449761 238 449794 239 449886 240 449862 241 449845 242 449814 243 449806 244 449866 245 449857 246 449887 247 449907 248 449896 249 449974 250 449902 251 449875 252 449915 253 449888 254 449881 255 449846 256 449847 257 449846 258 449774 259 449766 260 449772 264 449699 265 449709 266 449749 267 449754 268 449795 269 449782 270 449827 271 449788 272 449697 273 449797 274 449762 275 449837

APPENDIX III

91 201 155152 276 449826 91 201 155210 277 449853 91 201 155234 278 449979 91 201 155305 279 449864 91 201 155319 280 449826 91 201 155343 281 449868 91 201 155410 282 449780 91 201 155427 283 449844 91 201 155444 284 449824 91 201 155506 285 449827 91 201 155522 286 449877 91 201 155540 287 449842 91 201 155554 288 449788 91 201 155608 289 449799 91 201 155623 290 449787 91 201 155638 291 449780 91 201 155652 292 449824 91 201 155717 293 449885 91 201 155742 294 449976 101 201 155817 295 449818 101 201 155835 296 449800 101 201 155853 297 449768 101 201 155912 298 449769 101 201 155946 299 449768 101 201 160017 300 449755 101 201 160033 301 449753 101 201 160059 302 449831 101 201 160135 303 449914 101 201 160201 304 449816 101 201 160222 305 449831 101 201 160242 306 449759 101 201 160308 307 449800 101 201 160341 308 449819 101 201 160412 309 449804 101 201 160429 310 449968 101 201 160447 311 449858 101 201 160506 312 449675 101 201 160525 313 449826 101 201 160542 314 449839 101 201 160602 315 449808 101 201 160619 316 449810 101 201 160633 317 449761 101 201 160649 318 449806 101 201 160708 319 449825 101 201 160731 320 449807 101 201 160749 321 449809 101 201 160803 322 449814 101 201 160816 323 449773 101 201 160831 324 449737 101 201 160845 325 449724 111 201 161114 329 449725 111 201 161144 330 449779 111 201 161158 331 449854 111 201 161212 332 449828 111 201 161226 333 449846 111 201 161240 334 449816 111 201 161259 335 449867 111 201 161321 336 449870 111 201 161343 337 449749 111 201 161359 338 449802 111 201 161427 339 449759 111 201 161447 340 449800 111 201 161504 341 449805 111 201 161528 342 449723 111 201 161553 343 449776 111 201 161638 344 449800 111 201 161653 345 449788 111 201 161713 346 449826 111 201 161737 347 449842 111 201 161806 348 449883 111 201 161835 349 449856 111 201 161853 350 449847 111 201 161913 351 449858 111 201 161926 352 449832 111 201 161939 353 449782 111 201 161952 354 449761 111 201 162005 355 449773 111 201 162024 356 449804 111 201 162042 357 449776 111 201 162056 358 449794 111 201 162118 359 449790 121 201 162150 360 449794 121 201 162210 361 449792 121 201 162228 362 449771 121 201 162304 363 449790

141 201 165629 141 201 165649 141 201 165711 141 201 165726 151 201 165906 151 201 165930 151 201 165944 151 201 165958 151 201 170013 151 201 170032 151 201 170115 151 201 170128 151 201 170144 151 201 170201 151 201 170217 151 201 170230 151 201 170245 151 201 170301 151 201 170317 151 201 170339 151 201 170356 151 201 170413 151 201 170431 151 201 170452 151 201 170512 151 201 170527 151 201 170844 151 201 170908 151 201 170921 151 201 170936 151 201 170956 151 201 171010 151 201 171026 151 201 171044 151 201 171101 161 201 171129 161 201 171146 161 201 171201 161 201 171222 161 201 171236 161 201 171250 161 201 171307 161 201 171321 161 201 171335 161 201 171348 161 201 171407 161 201 171421 161 201 171442 161 201 171500 161 201 171514 161 201 171526 161 201 171539 161 201 171555 161 201 171608 161 201 171625 161 201 171638 161 201 171650 161 201 171702 161 201 171714 161 201 171726 161 201 171739 161 201 171751 161 201 171804 161 201 171815 161 201 171828 161 201 171840 171 201 172522 171 201 172542 171 201 172556 171 201 172608 171 201 172635 171 201 172648 171 201 172707 171 201 172720 171 201 172737 171 201 172748 171 201 172808 171 201 172821 171 201 172834 171 201 172847 171 201 172900 171 201 172913 171 201 172929 171 201 172943 171 201 172956

121 201 162328 364 449729 121 201 162406 365 449787 121 201 162421 366 449789 121 201 162435 367 449825 121 201 162455 368 449823 121 201 162513 369 449864 121 201 162533 370 449841 121 201 162554 371 449799 121 201 162622 372 449847 121 201 162649 373 449838 121 201 162707 374 449799 121 201 162725 375 449825 121 201 162745 376 449795 121 201 162805 377 449715 121 201 162833 378 449859 121 201 162852 379 449954 121 201 162915 380 449871 121 201 162935 381 449835 121 201 162949 382 449864 121 201 163007 383 449881 121 201 163023 384 449843 121 201 163043 385 449909 121 201 163109 386 449846 121 201 163131 387 449816 121 201 163148 388 449875 121 201 163207 389 449810 121 201 163222 390 449739 131 201 163834 394 449828 131 201 163900 395 449809 131 201 163914 396 449823 131 201 163928 397 449819 131 201 163945 398 449848 131 201 164002 399 449912 131 201 164029 400 449917 131 201 164051 1002 449957 131 201 164119 401 449959 131 201 164133 402 449841 131 201 164205 403 449865 131 201 164222 404 449894 131 201 164237 405 449938 131 201 164255 406 449791 131 201 164324 407 449862 131 201 164340 408 449827 131 201 164357 409 449782 131 201 164416 410 449803 131 201 164433 411 449846 131 201 164451 412 449774 131 201 164509 413 449800 131 201 164523 414 449815 131 201 164540 415 449881 131 201 164557 416 449879 131 201 164625 417 449764 131 201 164640 418 449717 131 201 164700 419 449702 131 201 164717 420 449713 131 201 164734 421 449797 131 201 164756 422 449791 131 201 164814 423 449798 141 201 164908 424 449812 141 201 164928 425 449751 141 201 164944 426 449788 141 201 165010 427 449764 141 201 165027 428 449752 141 201 165043 429 449757 141 201 165101 430 449759 141 201 165113 431 449824 141 201 165124 432 449855 141 201 165135 433 449808 141 201 165147 434 449778 141 201 165201 435 449797 141 201 165215 436 449808 141 201 165228 437 449837 141 201 165240 438 449796 141 201 165256 439 449753 141 201 165330 440 449787 141 201 165347 441 449807 141 201 165408 442 449852 141 201 165426 443 449863 141 201 165441 444 449844 141 201 165454 445 449806 141 201 165510 446 449860 141 201 165523 447 449846 141 201 165539 448 449823 141 201 165557 449 449820 141 201 165609 450 449786

174

451 449754 452 449786 453 449771 454 449751 458 449762 459 449784 460 449712 461 449790 462 449765 463 449788 464 449871 465 449814 466 449767 467 449813 468 449778 469 449790 470 449846 471 449783 472 449797 473 449788 474 449813 475 449863 476 449799 477 449823 478 449784 479 449824 480 449929 481 449878 482 449813 483 449838 484 449883 485 449892 486 449803 487 449852 488 449874 489 449931 490 449883 491 449851 492 449869 493 449923 494 449854 495 449804 496 449837 497 449865 498 449846 499 449825 500 449844 501 449814 502 449816 503 449852 504 449868 505 449893 506 449860 507 449907 508 449886 509 449918 510 449847 511 449818 512 449829 513 449873 514 449822 515 449825 516 449866 517 449787 518 449724 519 449671 523 449718 524 449720 525 449741 526 449745 527 449818 528 449743 529 449758 530 449728 531 449700 532 449678 533 449721 534 449773 535 449834 536 449814 537 449800 538 449736 539 449708 540 449709 541 449712

171 201 173008 171 201 173023 171 201 173037 171 201 173050 171 201 173102 171 201 173116 171 201 173126 171 201 173138 171 201 173150 171 201 173208 171 201 173223 171 201 173238 181 201 173328 181 201 173350 181 201 173409 181 201 173432 181 201 173447 181 201 173457 181 201 173509 181 201 173520 181 201 173534 181 201 173550 181 201 173601 181 201 173612 181 201 173625 181 201 173643 181 201 173700 181 201 173717 181 201 173732 181 201 173746 181 201 173759 181 201 173812 181 201 173826 181 201 173842 181 201 173900 181 201 173914 181 201 173931 181 201 173945 181 201 174002 181 201 174018 181 201 174033 181 201 174052 181 201 174105 191 201 174309 191 201 174329 191 201 174346 191 201 174400 191 201 174415 191 201 174439 191 201 174511 191 201 174525 191 201 174541 191 201 174604 191 201 174618 191 201 174634 191 201 174647 191 201 174700 191 201 174714 191 201 174733 191 201 174746 191 201 174809 191 201 174825 191 201 174838 191 201 174853 191 201 174908 191 201 174922 191 201 174938 191 201 174959 191 201 175013 191 201 175028 191 201 175042 191 201 175054 191 201 175108 191 201 175132 201 201 175209 201 201 175230 201 201 175251 201 201 175309 201 201 175327 201 201 175350 201 201 175405 201 201 175421 201 201 175434 201 201 175447 201 201 175508

542 449723 543 449764 544 449768 545 449815 546 449768 547 449767 548 449767 549 449767 550 449740 551 449740 552 449768 553 449841 554 449756 555 449748 556 449745 557 449730 558 449748 559 449740 560 449757 561 449771 562 449817 563 449770 564 449730 565 449724 566 449699 567 449724 568 449735 569 449765 570 449827 571 449819 572 449808 573 449780 574 449765 575 449713 576 449762 577 449768 578 449799 579 449780 580 449760 581 449744 582 449717 583 449741 584 449771 588 449779 589 449750 590 449756 591 449759 592 449821 593 449794 594 449852 595 449786 596 449795 597 449822 598 449823 599 449819 600 449842 601 449854 602 449842 603 449797 604 449780 605 449778 606 449780 607 449771 608 449776 609 449776 610 449802 611 449770 612 449724 613 449670 614 449808 615 449790 616 449789 617 449805 618 449767 619 449749 620 449817 621 449796 622 449796 623 449824 624 449714 625 449680 626 449762 627 449810 628 449783 629 449768

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

201 201 175522 630 449734 201 201 175533 631 449754 201 201 175545 632 449753 201 201 175600 633 449766 201 201 175612 634 449808 201 201 175624 635 449792 201 201 175636 636 449869 201 201 175650 637 449833 201 201 175701 638 449790 201 201 175714 639 449831 201 201 175732 640 449832 201 201 175755 641 449828 201 201 175809 642 449817 201 201 175823 643 449805 201 201 175843 644 449808 201 201 175858 645 449830 201 201 175913 646 449774 201 201 175928 647 449743 201 201 175943 648 449740 201 201 175954 649 449746 211 201 181254 653 449817 211 201 181308 654 449798 211 201 181322 655 449853 211 201 181335 656 449814 211 201 181347 657 449801 211 201 181401 658 449741 211 201 181412 659 449729 211 201 181424 660 449728 211 201 181436 661 449792 211 201 181449 662 449821 211 201 181506 663 449761 211 201 181518 664 449777 211 201 181536 665 449746 211 201 181548 666 449774 211 201 181559 667 449797 211 201 181611 668 449798 211 201 181622 669 449815 211 201 181632 670 449810 211 201 181643 671 449803 211 201 181655 672 449795 211 201 181705 673 449759 211 201 181718 674 449741 211 201 181730 675 449787 211 201 181740 676 449769 211 201 181751 677 449777 211 201 181802 678 449781 211 201 181814 679 449774 211 201 181825 680 449729 211 201 181835 681 449706 211 201 181848 682 449720 211 201 181912 683 449714 Area 8 Base Station Readings 999 201 120003 0 449647 999 201 120012 1 449646 999 201 120020 2 449647 999 201 122416 64 449664 999 201 122430 65 449662 999 201 122438 66 449664 999 201 123104 83 449693 999 201 123128 84 449741 999 201 123142 85 449686 999 201 124511 129 449671 999 201 124517 130 449669 999 201 124525 131 449671 999 201 130831 193 449659 999 201 130838 194 449662 999 201 130847 195 449661 999 201 152026 196 449765 999 201 152043 197 449765 999 201 152052 198 449769 999 201 154713 261 449803 999 201 154722 262 449805 999 201 154729 263 449803 999 201 160922 326 449792 999 201 160932 327 449794 999 201 160939 328 449793 999 201 163310 391 449835 999 201 163320 392 449838 999 201 163326 393 449836 999 201 165807 455 449832 999 201 165813 456 449828 999 201 165820 457 449827 999 201 171938 521 449856 999 201 171943 522 449852 999 201 174156 586 449823

999 201 174203 999 201 180046 999 201 180053 999 201 180100 999 201 182002 999 201 182008 999 201 182015

31 204 101632 31 204 101648 31 204 101703 31 204 101717 31 204 101735 31 204 101747 31 204 101758 31 204 101815 31 204 101835 31 204 101850 31 204 101904 31 204 101930 31 204 101948 31 204 102000 31 204 102013 31 204 102027 31 204 102047 41 204 102128 41 204 102159 41 204 102217 41 204 102231 41 204 102244 41 204 102257 41 204 102323 41 204 102345 41 204 102403 41 204 102419 41 204 102431 41 204 102445 41 204 102502 41 204 102524 41 204 102544 41 204 102604 41 204 102618 41 204 102634 41 204 102653 41 204 102711 41 204 102730 41 204 102749 41 204 102807 41 204 102822 41 204 102836 41 204 102849 41 204 102909 41 204 102929 41 204 102946 41 204 103005 41 204 103019 51 204 103159 51 204 103219 51 204 103237 51 204 103332 51 204 103348 51 204 103405 51 204 103422 51 204 103438 51 204 103455 51 204 103512 51 204 103533 51 204 103556 51 204 103611 51 204 103623 51 204 103635 51 204 103650 51 204 103708 51 204 103722 51 204 103736 51 204 103752 51 204 103825 51 204 103837 51 204 103849 51 204 103907 51 204 103921 51 204 103934 51 204 103948 51 204 104001 51 204 104012 51 204 104026 51 204 104038 61 204 104110 61 204 104125 61 204 104142 61 204 104156 61 204 104218 61 204 104231

587 449824 650 449822 651 449822 652 449819 683 449831 684 449825 685 449830

Area 9 Field Readings 11 204 095458 686 449648 11 204 095517 687 449647 11 204 095540 688 449673 11 204 095553 689 449693 11 204 095605 690 449731 11 204 095621 691 449733 11 204 095635 692 449736 11 204 095650 693 449714 11 204 095704 694 449704 11 204 095718 695 449720 11 204 095731 696 449695 11 204 095750 697 449680 11 204 095803 698 449655 11 204 095817 699 449694 11 204 095831 700 449670 11 204 095844 701 449638 11 204 095900 702 449655 11 204 095914 703 449653 11 204 095931 704 449613 11 204 095954 705 449561 11 204 100009 706 449756 11 204 100030 707 449641 11 204 100043 708 449615 11 204 100105 709 449632 11 204 100121 710 449615 11 204 100133 711 449671 11 204 100147 712 449667 11 204 100159 713 449643 11 204 100214 714 449719 11 204 100234 715 449668 11 204 100251 716 449527 21 204 100426 717 449843 21 204 100450 718 449778 21 204 100507 719 449559 21 204 100536 720 449595 21 204 100551 721 449668 21 204 100606 722 449634 21 204 100624 723 449630 21 204 100639 724 449646 21 204 100652 725 449677 21 204 100705 726 449631 21 204 100720 727 449659 21 204 100732 728 449636 21 204 100748 729 449653 21 204 100804 730 449637 21 204 100817 731 449605 21 204 100832 732 449630 21 204 100845 733 449644 21 204 100857 734 449655 21 204 100911 735 449642 21 204 100923 736 449677 21 204 100936 737 449681 21 204 100950 738 449662 21 204 101004 739 449645 21 204 101015 740 449654 21 204 101025 741 449685 21 204 101036 742 449725 21 204 101047 743 449677 21 204 101059 744 449691 21 204 101111 745 449649 21 204 101122 746 449634 21 204 101134 747 449660 31 204 101250 748 449694 31 204 101306 749 449643 31 204 101319 750 449683 31 204 101332 751 449674 31 204 101346 752 449733 31 204 101408 753 449737 31 204 101425 754 449746 31 204 101439 755 449712 31 204 101453 756 449696 31 204 101513 757 449665 31 204 101528 758 449654 31 204 101548 759 449671 31 204 101605 760 449684 31 204 101620 761 449702

175

762 449674 763 449620 764 449611 765 449601 766 449601 767 449644 768 449670 769 449638 770 449617 771 449614 772 449569 773 449586 774 449669 775 449646 776 449699 777 449756 778 449674 779 449526 780 449892 781 449664 782 449637 783 449644 784 449543 785 449651 786 449665 787 449637 788 449648 789 449709 790 449597 791 449568 792 449600 793 449601 794 449608 795 449649 796 449656 797 449636 798 449622 799 449627 800 449638 801 449634 802 449646 803 449707 804 449706 805 449660 806 449667 807 449622 808 449585 809 449614 810 449581 811 449583 812 449582 813 449622 814 449617 815 449651 816 449644 817 449639 818 449601 819 449581 820 449607 821 449571 822 449565 823 449595 824 449617 825 449571 826 449592 827 449559 828 449528 829 449510 830 449595 831 449587 832 449587 833 449630 834 449613 835 449524 836 449558 837 449500 838 449568 839 449612 840 449481 841 449436 842 449676 843 449494 844 449441 845 449490 846 449445

61 204 104254 61 204 104307 61 204 104320 61 204 104332 61 204 104344 61 204 104355 61 204 104407 61 204 104423 61 204 104436 61 204 104450 61 204 104504 61 204 104517 61 204 104529 61 204 104547 61 204 104603 61 204 104618 61 204 104639 61 204 104655 61 204 104709 61 204 104722 61 204 104736 61 204 104750 61 204 104808 61 204 104826 61 204 104844 71 204 105109 71 204 105124 71 204 105137 71 204 105152 71 204 105205 71 204 105216 71 204 105229 71 204 105243 71 204 105253 71 204 105304 71 204 105315 71 204 105325 71 204 105337 71 204 105408 71 204 105419 71 204 105434 71 204 105446 71 204 105501 71 204 105514 71 204 105527 71 204 105540 71 204 105553 71 204 105605 71 204 105617 71 204 105631 71 204 105652 71 204 105711 71 204 105729 71 204 105740 71 204 105751 71 204 105804 81 204 105842 81 204 105858 81 204 105909 81 204 105923 81 204 105936 81 204 105948 81 204 110003 81 204 110016 81 204 110029 81 204 110042 81 204 110056 81 204 110117 81 204 110133 81 204 110148 81 204 110202 81 204 110217 81 204 110229 81 204 110240 81 204 110252 81 204 110305 81 204 110318 81 204 110329 81 204 110340 81 204 110352 81 204 110406 81 204 110418 81 204 110429 81 204 110441 81 204 110456

847 449437 848 449461 849 449496 850 449478 851 449494 852 449469 853 449510 854 449516 855 449519 856 449535 857 449518 858 449495 859 449517 860 449503 861 449504 862 449468 863 449487 864 449529 865 449547 866 449529 867 449517 868 449513 869 449548 870 449502 871 449484 872 449411 873 449456 874 449537 875 449537 876 449495 877 449512 878 449487 879 449450 880 449415 881 449432 882 449436 883 449449 884 449459 885 449440 886 449462 887 449482 888 449473 889 449479 890 449495 891 449524 892 449488 893 449412 894 449487 895 449412 896 449438 897 449360 898 449441 899 449423 900 449445 901 449539 902 449427 903 449473 904 449532 905 449446 906 449420 907 449458 908 449445 909 449467 910 449481 911 449529 912 449501 913 449605 914 449595 915 449594 916 449546 917 449495 918 449489 919 449481 920 449445 921 449428 922 449455 923 449434 924 449401 925 449407 926 449448 927 449462 928 449522 929 449540 930 449540 931 449488

APPENDIX III

81 204 110510 932 449429 81 204 110523 933 449368 91 204 110701 934 449363 91 204 110723 935 449406 91 204 110735 936 449421 91 204 110749 937 449522 91 204 110801 938 449573 91 204 110812 939 449537 91 204 110823 940 449561 91 204 110837 941 449524 91 204 110850 942 449471 91 204 110906 943 449444 91 204 110919 944 449459 91 204 110930 945 449443 91 204 110942 946 449504 91 204 110953 947 449496 91 204 111003 948 449535 91 204 111018 949 449538 91 204 111033 950 449559 91 204 111046 951 449554 91 204 111059 952 449645 91 204 111110 953 449637 91 204 111120 954 449710 91 204 111137 955 449605 91 204 111151 956 449551 91 204 111202 957 449516 91 204 111218 958 449564 91 204 111238 959 449604 91 204 111250 960 449534 91 204 111301 961 449481 91 204 111311 962 449480 91 204 111328 963 449509 91 204 111346 964 449350 101 204 111522 965 449483 101 204 111553 966 449511 101 204 111634 967 449515 101 204 111648 968 449509 101 204 111709 969 449552 101 204 111723 970 449630 101 204 111741 971 449570 101 204 111754 972 449547 101 204 111806 973 449604 101 204 111821 974 449631 101 204 111835 975 449660 101 204 111846 976 449577 101 204 111900 977 449594 101 204 111917 978 449581 101 204 111932 979 449607 101 204 111944 980 449563 101 204 111957 981 449533 101 204 112007 982 449530 101 204 112021 983 449528 101 204 112034 984 449524 101 204 112048 985 449499 101 204 112103 986 449504 101 204 112116 987 449574 101 204 112137 988 449598 101 204 112149 989 449579 101 204 112206 990 449501 101 204 112219 991 449511 101 204 112232 992 449512 101 204 112245 993 449440 101 204 112258 994 449508 101 204 112311 995 449601 111 204 112444 996 449750 111 204 112500 997 449666 111 204 112517 998 449431 111 204 112538 999 449542 111 204 112552 1000 449540 111 204 112628 1001 449572 111 204 112653 1002 449590 111 204 112711 1003 449667 111 204 112730 1004 449632 111 204 112745 1005 449627 111 204 112807 1006 449571 111 204 112832 1007 449608 111 204 112850 1008 449642 111 204 112915 1009 449603 111 204 112940 1010 449656 111 204 112956 1011 449656 111 204 113014 1012 449715 111 204 113042 1013 449683 111 204 113108 1014 449671 111 204 113122 1015 449705 111 204 113139 1016 449577

31 204 123637 1078 449518 31 204 123656 1079 449620 31 204 123713 1080 449635 31 204 123726 1081 449646 31 204 123739 1082 449619 31 204 123756 1083 449646 31 204 123814 1084 449661 31 204 123832 1085 449647 31 204 123848 1086 449651 31 204 123902 1087 449650 31 204 123915 1088 449691 31 204 123930 1089 449606 41 204 124006 1090 449641 41 204 124026 1091 449613 41 204 124042 1092 449592 41 204 124058 1093 449639 41 204 124116 1094 449628 41 204 124142 1095 449668 41 204 124203 1096 449627 41 204 124221 1097 449613 41 204 124235 1098 449655 41 204 124249 1099 449666 41 204 124305 1100 449555 41 204 124323 1101 449545 41 204 124344 1102 449465 41 204 124407 1103 449385 41 204 124437 1104 449441 41 204 124510 1105 449449 41 204 124525 1106 449502 41 204 124539 1107 449538 41 204 124554 1108 449574 41 204 124609 1109 449639 41 204 124625 1110 449637 51 204 124828 1111 449662 51 204 124846 1112 449637 51 204 124858 1113 449584 51 204 124911 1114 449556 51 204 124924 1115 449553 51 204 124936 1116 449508 51 204 125001 1117 449495 51 204 125016 1118 449497 51 204 125042 1119 449548 51 204 125055 1120 449531 51 204 125107 1121 449474 51 204 125121 1122 449483 51 204 125132 1123 449590 51 204 125146 1124 449565 51 204 125200 1125 449648 51 204 125215 1126 449628 51 204 125234 1127 449605 51 204 125248 1128 449626 51 204 125301 1129 449637 51 204 125317 1130 449638 51 204 125331 1131 449796 61 204 125403 1132 449650 61 204 125417 1133 449592 61 204 125432 1134 449570 61 204 125448 1135 449549 61 204 125516 1136 449575 61 204 125532 1137 449584 61 204 125605 1138 449597 61 204 125620 1139 449604 61 204 125634 1140 449545 61 204 125647 1141 449498 61 204 125700 1142 449481 61 204 125724 1143 449520 61 204 125740 1144 449514 61 204 125759 1145 449490 61 204 125817 1146 449495 61 204 125834 1147 449475 61 204 125851 1148 449519 61 204 125903 1149 449530 61 204 125916 1150 449602 61 204 125931 1151 449641 61 204 125947 1152 449745 71 204 130141 1156 449639 71 204 130211 1157 449574 71 204 130225 1158 449530 71 204 130236 1159 449451 71 204 130248 1160 449479 71 204 130307 1161 449491 71 204 130325 1162 449573 71 204 130337 1163 449485 71 204 130359 1164 449492 71 204 130415 1165 449494

111 204 113208 1017 449655 111 204 113230 1018 449675 111 204 113254 1019 449623 111 204 113321 1020 449659 111 204 113340 1021 449746 111 204 113414 1022 449631 111 204 113431 1023 449588 111 204 113451 1024 449588 111 204 113506 1025 449557 111 204 113527 1026 449552 Area 9 Base Station Reading 999 204 095400 1 449703 999 204 095412 2 449701 999 204 095425 3 449703 999 204 101200 4 449656 999 204 101215 5 449655 999 204 101228 6 449656 999 204 103103 7 449605 999 204 103117 8 449609 999 204 103131 9 449605 999 204 104910 10 449507 999 204 104922 11 449507 999 204 104932 12 449509 999 204 110612 13 449505 999 204 110624 14 449505 999 204 110637 15 449506 999 204 112330 16 449557 999 204 112343 17 449557 999 204 112356 18 449553 999 204 113624 19 449609 999 204 113635 20 449605 999 204 113650 21 449605 Area 10 Field Readings E-W 11 204 122058 1027 449663 11 204 122115 1028 449691 11 204 122129 1029 449625 11 204 122144 1030 449485 11 204 122156 1031 449456 11 204 122208 1032 449650 11 204 122230 1033 450156 11 204 122254 1034 450071 11 204 122308 1035 449777 11 204 122323 1036 449535 11 204 122337 1037 449565 11 204 122351 1038 449590 11 204 122404 1039 449613 11 204 122418 1040 449617 11 204 122430 1041 449653 11 204 122444 1042 449654 11 204 122457 1043 449607 11 204 122516 1044 449593 11 204 122535 1045 449600 11 204 122548 1046 449620 11 204 122600 1047 449702 21 204 122619 1048 449736 21 204 122638 1049 449621 21 204 122655 1050 449635 21 204 122711 1051 449608 21 204 122728 1052 449629 21 204 122743 1053 449658 21 204 122804 1054 449661 21 204 122821 1055 449604 21 204 122835 1056 449576 21 204 122848 1057 449610 21 204 122902 1058 449582 21 204 122914 1059 449502 21 204 122929 1060 449446 21 204 122949 1061 449619 21 204 123008 1062 449648 21 204 123021 1063 449385 21 204 123049 1064 449360 21 204 123107 1065 449500 21 204 123124 1066 449606 21 204 123140 1067 449603 21 204 123200 1068 449643 31 204 123341 1069 449645 31 204 123407 1070 449655 31 204 123424 1071 449607 31 204 123441 1072 449489 31 204 123500 1073 449422 31 204 123515 1074 449384 31 204 123532 1075 449475 31 204 123548 1076 449455 31 204 123613 1077 449463

176

71 204 130429 1166 449496 71 204 130441 1167 449515 71 204 130500 1168 449558 71 204 130513 1169 449583 71 204 130526 1170 449595 71 204 130543 1171 449549 71 204 130555 1172 449556 71 204 130608 1173 449523 71 204 130620 1174 449524 71 204 130633 1175 449529 71 204 130645 1176 449554 81 204 130714 1177 449525 81 204 130731 1178 449533 81 204 130745 1179 449552 81 204 130759 1180 449531 81 204 130815 1181 449541 81 204 130833 1182 449630 81 204 130846 1183 449624 81 204 130903 1184 449640 81 204 130916 1185 449574 81 204 130930 1186 449560 81 204 130948 1187 449568 81 204 131002 1188 449566 81 204 131022 1189 449596 81 204 131035 1190 449589 81 204 131053 1191 449616 81 204 131111 1192 449581 81 204 131125 1193 449550 81 204 131147 1194 449552 81 204 131209 1195 449543 81 204 131225 1196 449558 81 204 131240 1197 449592 91 204 131422 1201 449598 91 204 131452 1202 449607 91 204 131504 1203 449623 91 204 131516 1204 449625 91 204 131531 1205 449569 91 204 131542 1206 449589 91 204 131555 1207 449639 91 204 131609 1208 449590 91 204 131624 1209 449652 91 204 131639 1210 449648 91 204 131656 1211 449617 91 204 131707 1212 449587 91 204 131720 1213 449623 91 204 131734 1214 449695 91 204 131750 1215 449689 91 204 131805 1216 449677 91 204 131823 1217 449655 91 204 131838 1218 449603 91 204 131850 1219 449587 91 204 131902 1220 449634 91 204 131917 1221 449591 101 204 131942 1222 449715 101 204 132000 1223 449638 101 204 132013 1224 449578 101 204 132032 1225 449637 101 204 132042 1226 449625 101 204 132054 1227 449709 101 204 132307 1228 449675 101 204 132315 1229 449662 101 204 132325 1230 449635 101 204 132335 1231 449604 101 204 132346 1232 449658 101 204 132407 1233 449681 101 204 132420 1234 449720 101 204 132435 1235 449676 101 204 132456 1236 449700 101 204 132520 1237 449664 101 204 132540 1238 449616 101 204 132600 1239 449611 101 204 132615 1240 449677 101 204 132640 1241 449662 101 204 132738 1242 449609 111 204 133108 1243 449655 111 204 133119 1244 449670 111 204 133136 1245 449647 111 204 133150 1246 449628 111 204 133206 1247 449617 111 204 133220 1248 449666 111 204 133235 1249 449690 111 204 133244 1250 449707 111 204 133255 1251 449699 111 204 133308 1252 449669 111 204 133320 1253 449650

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

111 204 133334 1254 449674 111 204 133345 1255 449646 111 204 133358 1256 449663 111 204 133500 1257 449710 111 204 133515 1258 449694 111 204 133530 1259 449664 111 204 133544 1260 449632 111 204 133601 1261 449617 111 204 133618 1262 449482 111 204 133632 1263 449771 Area 10 Base Station Readings 999 204 121910 1024 449647 999 204 121930 1025 449649 999 204 121940 1026 449650 999 204 123400 2000 449600 999 204 123409 2001 449600 999 204 123421 2002 449600 999 204 124005 2003 449627 999 204 124020 2004 449628 999 204 124031 2005 449631 999 204 130048 1153 449628 999 204 130055 1154 449627 999 204 130102 1155 449627 999 204 131324 1198 449628 999 204 131331 1199 449630 999 204 131337 1200 449631 999 204 132800 2006 449663 999 204 132810 2007 449659 999 204 132822 2008 449662 999 204 133823 2009 449669 999 204 133834 2010 449672 999 204 133844 2011 449675 999 204 133855 2012 449672 Area 11 Field Readings 011 205 105900 3 449836 011 205 105915 4 449816 011 205 105930 5 449779 011 205 105945 6 449716 011 205 110000 7 449688 011 205 110012 8 449746 011 205 110024 9 449756 011 205 110036 10 449765 011 205 110048 11 449814 011 205 110100 12 449825 011 205 110112 13 449810 011 205 110124 14 449840 011 205 110136 15 449847 011 205 110148 16 449837 011 205 110200 17 449844 011 205 110212 18 449835 011 205 110224 19 449848 011 205 110236 20 449863 011 205 110248 21 449871 011 205 110300 22 449887 011 205 110312 23 449890 011 205 110324 24 449892 011 205 110336 25 449876 011 205 110348 26 449869 011 205 110400 27 449849 011 205 110442 28 449653 011 205 110524 29 449508 011 205 110606 30 450380 011 205 110648 31 451520 011 205 110730 32 451485 011 205 110812 33 450707 021 205 110854 34 450830 021 205 110939 35 450765 021 205 111020 36 448970 021 205 111101 37 446440 021 205 111141 38 446580 021 205 111222 39 449830 021 205 111300 40 450033 021 205 111312 41 450036 021 205 111324 42 450021 021 205 111336 43 449918 021 205 111348 44 449959 021 205 111400 45 449939 021 205 111412 46 449884 021 205 111424 47 449869 021 205 111436 48 449826 021 205 111448 49 449864 021 205 111500 50 449843 021 205 111518 51 449840 021 205 111536 52 449831

021 205 111554 021 205 111612 021 205 111630 021 205 111648 021 205 111706 021 205 111726 021 205 111743 021 205 111800 021 205 111815 021 205 111830 021 205 111845 021 205 111900 031 205 112050 031 205 112105 031 205 112120 031 205 112135 031 205 112150 031 205 112203 031 205 112216 031 205 112229 031 205 112242 031 205 112255 031 205 112308 031 205 112321 031 205 112334 031 205 112347 031 205 112400 031 205 112418 031 205 112436 031 205 112454 031 205 112512 031 205 112530 031 205 112548 031 205 112606 031 205 112624 031 205 112642 031 205 112700 031 205 112730 031 205 112800 031 205 112830 031 205 112900 031 205 112930 031 205 113000 041 205 113035 041 205 113110 041 205 113144 041 205 113228 041 205 113302 041 205 113336 041 205 113400 041 205 113415 041 205 113430 041 205 113445 041 205 113500 041 205 113510 041 205 113520 041 205 113530 041 205 113540 041 205 113550 041 205 113600 041 205 113612 041 205 113624 041 205 113636 041 205 113648 041 205 113700 041 205 113712 041 205 113724 041 205 113736 041 205 113748 041 205 113800 041 205 113815 041 205 113830 041 205 113845 041 205 113900 051 205 114100 051 205 114112 051 205 114124 051 205 114136 051 205 114148 051 205 114202 051 205 114216 051 205 114229 051 205 114242 051 205 114255 051 205 114308

051 205 114321 051 205 114334 051 205 114347 051 205 114400 051 205 114412 051 205 114424 051 205 114436 051 205 114448 051 205 114500 051 205 114524 051 205 114548 051 205 114612 051 205 114636 051 205 114700 051 205 114715 051 205 114730 051 205 114745 051 205 114800 051 205 114815 051 205 114830 061 205 114900 061 205 114920 061 205 114940 061 205 115000 061 205 115020 061 205 115040 061 205 115100 061 205 115115 061 205 115130 061 205 115145 061 205 115200 061 205 115210 061 205 115220 061 205 115230 061 205 115240 061 205 115250 061 205 115300 061 205 115312 061 205 115324 061 205 115336 061 205 115348 061 205 115400 061 205 115412 061 205 115424 061 205 115436 061 205 115448 061 205 115500 061 205 115515 061 205 115530 061 205 115545 061 205 115600 071 205 115800 071 205 115809 071 205 115818 071 205 115827 071 205 115836 071 205 115845 071 205 115903 071 205 115912 071 205 115921 071 205 115930 071 205 115939 071 205 115948 071 205 115957 071 205 120006 071 205 120015 071 205 120024 071 205 120033 071 205 120042 071 205 120051 071 205 120100 071 205 120124 071 205 120148 071 205 120212 071 205 120236 071 205 120300 071 205 120330 071 205 120400 071 205 120430 071 205 120500 071 205 120530 071 205 120600 081 205 120618 081 205 120635 081 205 120652

53 449801 54 449768 55 449786 56 449775 57 449758 58 449749 59 449729 60 449722 61 449808 62 449824 63 449818 64 449820 68 449836 69 449859 70 449884 71 449744 72 449751 73 449716 74 449715 75 449739 76 449741 77 449761 78 449734 79 449749 80 449729 81 449799 82 449847 83 449844 84 449830 85 449871 86 449865 87 449892 88 449933 89 450035 90 450220 91 450426 92 450591 93 449290 94 443630 95 442840 96 447310 97 449952 98 450632 99 450384 100 449721 101 447362 102 442540 103 442640 104 448910 105 451070 106 450906 107 450456 108 450156 109 449955 110 449868 111 449848 112 449842 113 449817 114 449845 115 449834 116 449776 117 449754 118 449757 119 449777 120 449788 121 449769 122 449787 123 449765 124 449759 125 449801 126 449795 127 449872 128 449863 129 449847 133 449820 134 449805 135 449809 136 449773 137 449762 138 449748 139 449757 140 449745 141 449767 142 449735 143 449747

177

144 449727 145 449752 146 449746 147 449781 148 449821 149 449817 150 449804 151 449842 152 449933 153 450054 154 450386 155 450848 156 451525 157 451540 158 448580 159 442860 160 444130 161 447748 162 449555 163 450180 164 450105 165 459777 166 448705 167 446130 168 443280 169 447350 170 451590 171 452010 172 451242 173 450610 174 450255 175 450039 176 449909 177 449835 178 449824 179 449791 180 449765 181 449749 182 449725 183 449731 184 449750 185 449762 186 449756 187 449747 188 449756 189 449765 190 449758 191 449749 192 449829 193 449837 194 449811 198 449825 199 449839 200 449860 201 449835 201 449790 202 449793 204 449795 205 449792 206 449786 207 449793 208 449792 209 449790 210 449800 211 449795 212 449799 213 449803 214 449833 215 449886 216 450008 217 450153 218 450381 219 450852 220 451518 221 452030 222 450780 223 446750 224 444720 225 447196 226 449061 227 449916 228 450096 229 450010 230 449961 231 449332

081 205 120709 081 205 120726 081 205 120743 081 205 120800 081 205 120815 081 205 120830 081 205 120845 081 205 120900 081 205 120920 081 205 120940 081 205 121000 081 205 121020 081 205 121040 081 205 121100 081 205 121112 081 205 121124 081 205 121136 081 205 121148 081 205 121200 081 205 121212 081 205 121224 081 205 121236 081 205 121248 081 205 121300 081 205 121315 081 205 121330 081 205 121345 081 205 121400 091 205 121530 091 205 121540 091 205 121550 091 205 121600 091 205 121610 091 205 121621 091 205 121632 091 205 121643 091 205 121654 091 205 121705 091 205 121716 091 205 121727 091 205 121738 091 205 121749 091 205 121800 091 205 121812 091 205 121824 091 205 121836 091 205 121848 091 205 121900 091 205 121924 091 205 121948 091 205 122012 091 205 122036 091 205 122100 091 205 122130 091 205 122200 091 205 122230 091 205 122300 091 205 122330 091 205 122400 101 205 122426 101 205 122452 101 205 122518 101 205 122544 101 205 122610 101 205 122635 101 205 122700 101 205 122715 101 205 122730 101 205 122745 101 205 122800 101 205 122830 101 205 122900 101 205 122930 101 205 123000 101 205 123130 101 205 123200 101 205 123212 101 205 123224 101 205 123236 101 205 123248 101 205 123300 101 205 123312 101 205 123324 101 205 123336 101 205 123348

232 448152 233 446500 234 445910 235 448670 236 451260 237 451649 238 451041 239 450614 240 450338 241 450105 242 449954 243 449842 244 449884 245 449867 246 449550 247 449879 248 449876 249 449849 250 449839 251 449844 252 449850 253 449825 254 449850 255 449861 256 449863 257 449880 258 449882 259 449887 263 449900 264 449945 265 449843 266 449838 267 449850 268 449844 269 449780 270 449810 271 449826 272 449827 273 449819 274 449854 275 449800 276 449886 277 449899 278 449933 279 449905 280 449977 281 450198 282 450401 283 450751 284 451107 285 451290 286 450290 287 448113 288 446660 289 447641 290 448768 291 449522 292 450018 293 449993 294 449904 295 449820 296 449736 297 449172 298 448172 299 448168 300 447530 301 448112 302 450034 303 450754 304 450812 305 450518 306 450274 307 450112 308 449968 309 449930 310 449920 311 449839 312 449825 313 449794 314 449827 315 449816 316 449831 317 449791 318 449826 319 449891

APPENDIX III

101 205 123400 320 449851 101 205 123415 321 449854 101 205 123430 322 449860 101 205 123445 323 449851 101 205 123500 324 449882 111 205 124500 328 449855 111 205 124520 329 449901 111 205 124540 330 449932 111 205 124600 331 449797 111 205 124620 332 449491 111 205 124640 333 448973 111 205 124500 334 448447 111 205 124530 335 447992 111 205 124600 336 448464 111 205 124630 337 449924 111 205 124700 338 450813 111 205 124710 339 450673 111 205 124720 340 450463 111 205 124730 341 450250 111 205 124740 342 450005 111 205 124750 343 449957 111 205 124800 344 449905 111 205 124818 345 449841 111 205 124836 346 449855 111 205 124854 347 449828 111 205 124912 348 449825 111 205 124930 349 449793 111 205 124948 350 449755 111 205 125006 351 449787 111 205 125024 352 449852 111 205 125042 353 449893 111 205 125100 354 449868 111 205 125115 355 449903 111 205 125130 356 449924 111 205 125145 357 449844 111 205 125200 358 449927 Area 11 Base Station Readings 999 205 105800 0 449712 999 205 105810 1 449712 999 205 105820 2 449710 999 205 112020 66 449681 999 205 112030 67 449682 999 205 114000 130 449724 999 205 114010 131 449725 999 205 114020 132 449726 999 205 115700 195 449749 999 205 115710 196 449754 999 205 115720 197 449756 999 205 121500 260 449787 999 205 121510 261 449788 999 205 121520 262 449788 999 205 123510 325 449769 999 205 123520 326 449769 999 205 123530 327 449769 999 205 125210 359 449814 999 205 125220 360 449819 999 205 125130 361 449819 Area 12 Field Readings 11 205 152600 3 449660 11 205 152614 4 449674 11 205 152628 5 449701 11 205 152642 6 449691 11 205 152655 7 449730 11 205 152708 8 449820 11 205 152721 9 449809 11 205 152734 10 449845 11 205 152747 11 449832 11 205 152800 12 449779 11 205 152818 13 449746 11 205 152836 14 449746 11 205 152854 15 449751 11 205 152912 16 449776 11 205 152930 17 449784 11 205 152948 18 449773 11 205 153006 19 449763 11 205 153024 20 449740 11 205 153042 21 449711 11 205 153100 22 449708 11 205 153117 23 449741 11 205 153134 24 449718 11 205 153151 25 449749 11 205 153208 26 449737 11 205 153224 27 449774 11 205 153240 28 449714

11 205 153256 11 205 153312 11 205 153328 11 205 153344 11 205 153400 21 205 153417 21 205 153434 21 205 153451 21 205 153508 21 205 153524 21 205 153540 21 205 153556 21 205 153612 21 205 153628 21 205 153644 21 205 153700 21 205 153717 21 205 153734 21 205 153751 21 205 153808 21 205 153824 21 205 153840 21 205 153856 21 205 153912 21 205 153928 21 205 153944 21 205 154000 21 205 154020 21 205 154040 21 205 154100 21 205 154120 21 205 154140 21 205 154200 21 205 154220 21 205 154240 21 205 154300 31 205 154400 31 205 154420 31 205 154440 31 205 154500 31 205 154520 31 205 154540 31 205 154600 31 205 154620 31 205 154640 31 205 154700 31 205 154712 31 205 154724 31 205 154736 31 205 154748 31 205 154800 31 205 154812 31 205 154824 31 205 154836 31 205 154848 31 205 154900 31 205 154917 31 205 154934 31 205 154951 31 205 155008 31 205 155024 31 205 155040 31 205 155056 31 205 155112 31 205 155128 31 205 155144 31 205 155200 41 205 155210 41 205 155221 41 205 155232 41 205 155243 41 205 155254 41 205 155305 41 205 155316 41 205 155327 41 205 155338 41 205 155349 41 205 155400 41 205 155417 41 205 155434 41 205 155451 41 205 155508 41 205 155524 41 205 155540 41 205 155556

41 205 155612 41 205 155628 41 205 155644 41 205 155700 41 205 155714 41 205 155728 41 205 155742 41 205 155755 41 205 155808 41 205 155821 41 205 155834 41 205 155847 41 205 155900 51 205 160100 51 205 160114 51 205 160128 51 205 160142 51 205 160155 51 205 160208 51 205 160221 51 205 160234 51 205 160247 51 205 160300 51 205 160312 51 205 160324 51 205 160334 51 205 160348 51 205 160400 51 205 160412 51 205 160424 51 205 160436 51 205 160448 51 205 160500 51 205 160510 51 205 160521 51 205 160532 51 205 160543 51 205 160554 51 205 160605 51 205 160616 51 205 160627 51 205 160638 51 205 160649 51 205 160700 61 205 160717 61 205 160734 61 205 160751 61 205 160808 61 205 160824 61 205 160840 61 205 160856 61 205 160912 61 205 160928 61 205 160944 61 205 161000 61 205 161021 61 205 161042 61 205 161104 61 205 161126 61 205 161148 61 205 161210 61 205 161232 61 205 161254 61 205 161316 61 205 161338 61 205 161400 61 205 161414 61 205 161428 61 205 161442 61 205 161455 61 205 161508 61 205 161521 61 205 161534 61 205 161547 61 205 161600 71 205 161900 71 205 161920 71 205 161940 71 205 162000 71 205 162020 71 205 162040 71 205 162100 71 205 162120 71 205 162140 71 205 162200

29 449701 30 449685 31 449755 32 449802 33 449735 34 449711 35 449669 36 449653 37 449697 38 449696 39 449715 40 449817 41 449725 42 449670 43 449681 44 449664 45 449630 46 449672 47 449702 48 449746 49 449744 50 449775 51 449709 52 449743 53 449716 54 449714 55 449816 56 449835 57 449839 58 449796 59 449761 60 449678 61 449675 62 449693 63 449650 64 449661 68 449646 69 449639 70 449667 71 449680 72 449717 73 449735 74 449796 75 449802 76 449818 77 449819 78 449761 79 449726 80 449684 81 449691 82 449688 83 449738 84 449764 85 449733 86 449703 87 449725 88 449733 89 449679 90 449717 91 449763 92 449820 93 449784 94 449694 95 449719 96 449726 97 449704 98 449741 99 449750 100 449756 101 449724 102 449680 103 449754 104 449755 105 449839 106 449839 107 449767 108 449699 109 449779 110 449775 111 449755 112 449751 113 449786 114 449727 115 449681 116 449729

178

117 449718 118 449765 119 449790 120 449808 121 449798 122 449781 123 449804 124 449749 125 449758 126 449750 127 449709 128 449731 129 449681 133 449696 134 449736 135 449733 136 449732 137 449821 138 449816 139 449834 140 449824 141 449852 142 449872 143 449854 144 449789 145 449756 146 449765 147 449744 148 449766 149 449799 150 449802 151 449790 152 449769 153 449751 154 449778 155 449822 156 449896 157 449895 158 449770 159 449857 160 449814 161 449722 162 449769 163 449761 164 449688 165 449739 166 449784 167 449781 168 449852 169 449793 170 449845 171 449865 172 449830 173 449803 174 449771 175 449774 176 449821 177 449908 178 449850 179 449809 180 449791 181 449815 182 449789 183 449881 184 449922 185 449884 186 449875 187 449909 188 449863 189 449899 190 449874 191 449826 192 449829 193 449770 194 449751 198 449771 199 449776 200 449780 201 449812 202 449893 203 449936 204 449903 205 449888 206 449876 207 449880

71 205 162212 208 449863 71 205 162224 209 449858 71 205 162236 210 449803 71 205 162248 211 449801 71 205 162300 212 449786 71 205 162312 213 449824 71 205 162324 214 449813 71 205 162336 215 449852 71 205 162348 216 449853 71 205 162400 217 449824 71 205 162417 218 449789 71 205 162434 219 449813 71 205 162451 220 449806 71 205 162508 221 449855 71 205 162524 222 449766 71 205 162540 223 449728 71 205 162556 224 449788 71 205 162612 225 449735 71 205 162628 226 449860 71 205 162644 227 449886 71 205 162700 228 449747 81 205 162710 229 449839 81 205 162721 230 449870 81 205 162732 231 449808 81 205 162743 232 449790 81 205 162754 233 449785 81 205 162805 234 449706 81 205 162816 235 449751 81 205 162827 236 449840 81 205 162838 237 449841 81 205 162849 238 449768 81 205 162900 239 449773 81 205 162917 240 449813 81 205 162934 241 449795 81 205 162951 242 449744 81 205 163008 243 449813 81 205 163024 244 449799 81 205 163040 245 449826 81 205 163056 246 449816 81 205 163112 247 449766 81 205 163128 248 449766 81 205 163144 249 449823 81 205 163200 250 449877 81 205 163214 251 449847 81 205 163228 252 449858 81 205 163242 253 449919 81 205 163255 254 449887 81 205 163308 255 449820 81 205 163321 256 449764 81 205 163334 257 449793 81 205 163347 258 449738 81 205 163400 259 449765 91 205 163600 263 449780 91 205 163614 264 449788 91 205 163628 265 449795 91 205 163642 266 449794 91 205 163655 267 449808 91 205 163708 268 449853 91 205 163721 269 449859 91 205 163734 270 449877 91 205 163747 271 449865 91 205 163800 272 449867 91 205 163818 273 449822 91 205 163836 274 449767 91 205 163854 275 449795 91 205 163912 276 449815 91 205 163930 277 449793 91 205 163948 278 449773 91 205 164006 279 449805 91 205 164024 280 449759 91 205 164042 281 449747 91 205 164100 282 449794 91 250 164110 283 449708 91 205 164121 284 449691 91 205 164132 285 449809 91 205 164143 286 449760 91 205 164154 287 449691 91 205 164205 288 449679 91 205 164216 289 449695 91 205 164227 290 449758 91 205 164238 291 449787 91 205 164249 292 449862 91 205 164300 293 449928 101 205 164321 294 449614 101 205 164342 295 449842

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

101 205 164404 296 449730 101 205 164426 297 449731 101 205 164448 298 449692 101 205 164510 299 449654 101 205 164532 300 449638 101 205 164554 301 449719 101 205 164616 302 449745 101 205 164638 303 449657 101 205 164700 304 449758 101 205 164710 305 449815 101 205 164721 306 449811 101 205 164732 307 449795 101 205 164743 308 449736 101 205 164754 309 449709 101 205 164805 310 449711 101 205 164816 311 449731 101 205 164827 312 449732 101 205 164838 313 449688 101 205 164849 314 449764 101 205 164900 315 449770 101 205 164914 316 449796 101 205 164928 317 449829 101 205 164942 318 449834 101 205 164955 319 449844 101 205 165008 320 449796 101 205 165021 321 449779 101 205 165034 322 449747 101 205 165047 323 449733 101 205 165100 324 449712 111 205 165300 328 449651 111 205 165314 329 449650 111 205 165328 330 449675 111 205 165342 331 449725 111 205 165355 332 449789 111 205 165408 333 449838 111 205 165421 334 449801 111 205 165434 335 449814 111 205 165447 336 449805 111 205 165500 337 449775 111 205 165512 338 449701 111 205 165524 339 449615 111 205 165536 340 449701 111 205 165548 341 449714 111 205 165600 342 449649 111 205 165612 343 449690 111 205 165624 344 449718 111 205 165636 345 449733 111 205 165648 346 449753 111 205 165700 347 449722 111 205 165717 348 449722 111 205 165734 349 449708 111 205 165751 350 449777 111 205 165808 351 449772 111 205 165824 352 449666 111 205 165840 353 449666 111 205 165856 354 449632 111 205 165912 355 449704 111 205 165928 356 449715 111 205 165944 357 449888 111 205 170000 358 449694 Area 12 Base Station Readings 999 205 152400 0 449660 999 205 152410 1 449663 999 205 152420 2 449662 999 205 154320 65 449653 999 205 154330 66 449657 999 205 154340 67 449659 999 205 160000 130 449728 999 205 160010 131 449726 999 205 160020 132 449725 999 205 161700 195 449752 999 205 161710 196 449755 999 205 161720 197 449756 999 205 163500 260 449715 999 205 163510 261 449721 999 205 163520 262 449719 999 205 165200 325 449710 999 205 165210 326 449704 999 205 165220 327 449706 999 205 170100 359 449694 999 205 170110 360 449694 999 205 170120 361 449693 999 205 171030 362 449696 Area 13 Field Readings

11 206 101400 11 206 101414 11 206 101428 11 206 101442 11 206 101455 11 206 101508 11 206 101521 11 206 101534 11 206 101547 11 206 101600 11 206 101610 11 206 101621 11 206 101632 11 206 101643 11 206 101654 11 206 101705 11 206 101716 11 206 101727 11 206 101738 11 206 101749 11 206 101800 21 206 101815 21 206 101830 21 206 101845 21 206 101900 21 206 101915 21 206 101930 21 206 101945 21 206 102000 21 206 102015 21 206 102030 21 206 102045 21 206 102100 21 206 102114 21 206 102128 21 206 102142 21 206 102155 21 206 102208 21 206 102221 21 206 102234 21 206 102247 21 206 102300 31 206 102312 31 206 102324 31 206 102336 31 206 102348 31 206 102400 31 206 102412 31 206 102424 31 206 102436 31 206 102448 31 206 102500 31 206 102517 31 206 102534 31 206 102551 31 206 102608 31 206 102624 31 206 102640 31 206 102656 31 206 102712 31 206 102728 31 206 102744 31 206 102800 41 206 102815 41 206 102830 41 206 102845 41 206 102900 41 206 102915 41 206 102930 41 206 102945 41 206 103000 41 206 103015 41 206 103030 41 206 103045 41 206 103100 41 206 103114 41 206 103128 41 206 103142 41 206 103155 41 206 103208 41 206 103221 41 206 103234 41 206 103247 41 206 103300 61 206 103500

61 206 103520 61 206 103540 61 206 103600 61 206 103620 61 206 103640 61 206 103700 61 206 103720 61 206 103740 61 206 103800 61 206 103810 61 206 103821 61 206 103832 61 206 103843 61 206 103854 61 206 103905 61 206 103916 61 206 103927 61 206 103938 61 206 103949 61 206 104000 51 206 104015 51 206 104030 51 206 104045 51 206 104100 51 206 104115 51 206 104130 51 206 104145 51 206 104200 51 206 104215 51 206 104230 51 206 104245 51 206 104300 51 206 104314 51 206 104328 51 206 104342 51 206 104355 51 206 104408 51 206 104421 51 206 104434 51 206 104447 51 206 104500 71 206 104512 71 206 104524 71 206 104536 71 206 104548 71 206 104600 71 206 104612 71 206 104624 71 206 104636 71 206 104648 71 206 104700 71 206 104710 71 206 104721 71 206 104732 71 206 104743 71 206 104754 71 206 104805 71 206 104816 71 206 104827 71 206 104838 71 206 104849 71 206 104900 81 206 104920 81 206 104940 81 206 105000 81 206 105020 81 206 105040 81 206 105100 81 206 105120 81 206 105140 81 206 105200 81 206 105220 81 206 105240 81 206 105300 81 206 105327 81 206 105354 81 206 105421 81 206 105448 81 206 105515 81 206 105542 81 206 105608 81 206 105634 81 206 105700 91 206 105900 91 206 105920

3 449717 4 449676 5 449736 6 449735 7 449672 8 449737 9 449757 10 449769 11 449766 12 449780 13 449760 14 449765 15 449810 16 449775 17 449670 18 449693 19 449707 20 449727 21 449723 22 449752 23 449725 24 449695 25 449687 26 449725 27 449760 28 449709 29 449708 30 449714 31 449797 32 449823 33 449788 34 449710 35 449778 36 449774 37 449822 38 449824 39 449756 40 449699 41 449737 42 449762 43 449735 44 449805 45 449805 46 449779 47 449779 48 449765 49 449748 50 449784 51 449806 52 449876 53 449812 54 449803 55 449802 56 449692 57 449818 58 449762 59 449715 60 449742 61 449714 62 449745 63 449735 64 449684 65 449618 66 449654 67 449702 68 449764 69 449702 70 449750 71 449718 72 449696 73 449745 74 449804 75 449200 76 449913 77 449832 78 449817 79 449795 80 449797 81 449821 82 449748 83 449751 84 449773 85 449754 86 449782 90 449760

179

91 449830 92 449703 93 449794 94 449704 95 449776 96 449782 97 449784 98 449766 99 449725 100 449728 101 449741 102 449762 103 449707 104 449722 105 449657 106 449677 107 449678 108 449702 109 449681 110 449667 111 449681 112 449726 113 449738 114 449741 115 449753 116 449668 117 449673 118 449749 119 449750 120 449786 121 449780 122 449793 123 449777 124 449777 125 449791 126 449812 127 449812 128 449801 129 449736 130 449825 131 449819 132 449619 133 449605 134 449685 135 449730 136 449716 137 449685 138 449689 139 449677 140 449635 141 449609 142 449655 143 449711 144 449705 145 449665 146 449656 147 449638 148 449602 149 449609 150 449678 151 449603 152 449618 153 449655 154 449666 155 449647 156 449600 157 449656 158 449653 159 449638 160 449689 161 449771 162 449778 163 449741 164 449673 165 449708 166 449633 167 449765 168 449637 169 449643 170 449657 171 449616 172 449722 173 449773 177 449877 178 449929

91 206 105940 179 449817 91 206 110000 180 449885 91 206 110020 181 449831 91 206 110040 182 449787 91 206 110100 183 449726 91 206 110120 184 449755 91 206 110140 185 449713 91 206 110200 186 449706 91 206 110210 187 449731 91 206 110221 188 449825 91 206 110232 189 449817 91 206 110243 190 449766 91 206 110254 191 449756 91 206 110305 192 449688 91 206 110316 193 449668 91 206 110327 194 449644 91 206 110338 195 449686 91 206 110349 196 449662 91 206 110400 197 449712 101 206 110415 198 449664 101 206 110430 199 449681 101 206 110445 200 449708 101 206 110500 201 449690 101 206 110515 202 449698 101 206 110530 203 449731 101 206 110545 204 449786 101 206 110600 205 449774 101 206 110615 206 449871 101 206 110630 207 449775 101 206 110645 208 449724 101 206 110700 209 449671 101 206 110720 210 449700 101 206 110740 211 449688 101 206 110800 212 449728 101 206 110820 213 449711 101 206 110840 214 449751 101 206 110900 215 449741 101 206 110920 216 449758 101 206 110940 217 449771 101 206 111000 218 449669 111 206 111024 219 449717 111 206 111048 220 449716 111 206 111112 221 449707 111 206 111136 222 449601 111 206 111200 223 449709 111 206 111224 224 449696 111 206 111248 225 449658 111 206 111312 226 449735 111 206 111336 227 449867 111 206 111400 228 449240 111 206 111417 229 449717 111 206 111134 230 449809 111 206 111451 231 449874 111 206 111508 232 449788 111 206 111524 233 449738 111 206 111540 234 449813 111 206 111556 235 449771 111 206 111612 236 449737 111 206 111628 237 449724 111 206 111644 238 449715 111 206 111700 239 449672 Area 13 Base Station Readings 999 206 101300 0 449726 999 206 101310 1 449725 999 206 101320 2 449728 999 206 103400 87 449730 999 206 103410 88 449730 999 206 103420 89 449730 999 206 105800 174 449744 999 206 105810 175 449745 999 206 105820 176 449746 999 206 111900 240 449764 999 206 111912 241 449760 999 206 111926 242 449761 Area 14 Field Readings E-W 11 206 113500 1 450774 11 206 113520 2 450492 11 206 113540 3 449704 11 206 113600 4 448642 11 206 113622 5 447610 11 206 113640 6 447510 11 206 113657 7 448054 11 206 113720 8 448710 11 206 113742 9 449197

APPENDIX III

11 206 113800 11 206 113820 11 206 113840 11 206 113858 11 206 113921 11 206 113939 11 206 113959 11 206 114020 11 206 114040 11 206 114025 11 206 114040 11 206 114058 21 206 114200 21 206 114230 21 206 114241 21 206 114300 21 206 114329 21 206 114342 21 206 114400 21 206 114420 21 206 114440 21 206 114458 21 206 114520 21 206 114700 21 206 114713 21 206 114727 21 206 114740 21 206 114753 21 206 114806 21 206 114819 21 206 114842 21 206 114852 21 206 114905 31 206 114933 31 206 114951 31 206 115009 31 206 115027 31 206 115045 31 206 115103 31 206 115121 31 206 115139 31 206 115157 31 206 115215 31 206 115227 31 206 115239 31 206 115251 31 206 115302 31 206 115314 31 206 115327 31 206 115339 31 206 115352 31 206 115403 31 206 115415 31 206 115425 41 206 115500 41 206 115510 41 206 115520 41 206 115530 41 206 115540 41 206 115550 41 206 115603 41 206 115614 41 206 115622 41 206 115631 41 206 115641 41 206 115700 41 206 115714 41 206 115727 41 206 115740 41 206 115753 41 206 115807 41 206 115821 41 206 115834 41 206 115847 41 206 115900 51 206 121400 51 206 121413 51 206 121426 51 206 121440 51 206 121453 51 206 121506 51 206 121519 51 206 121532 51 206 121545 51 206 121600

10 449506 11 449647 12 449721 13 449772 14 449848 15 449809 16 449723 17 449715 18 449754 19 449798 20 449848 21 449830 22 449807 23 449837 24 449736 25 449760 26 449791 27 449804 28 449872 29 449907 30 449803 31 449781 32 449745 33 449682 34 449599 35 449370 36 449133 37 448667 38 447847 39 447370 40 447540 41 449094 42 450307 43 448960 44 447760 45 447350 46 447999 47 448737 48 449309 49 449577 50 449719 51 449805 52 449821 53 449824 54 449831 55 449843 56 449863 57 449892 58 449836 59 449839 60 449809 61 449756 62 449817 63 449860 64 449830 65 449857 66 449885 67 449937 68 449922 69 449860 70 449897 71 449922 72 449932 73 449944 74 449972 75 449955 76 449998 77 449947 78 449874 79 449717 80 449448 81 448959 82 448409 83 447964 84 447878 85 448191 86 448655 87 449119 88 449488 89 449711 90 449835 91 449902 92 449995 93 450038 94 449907

51 206 121610 51 206 121620 51 206 121631 51 206 121641 51 206 121651 51 206 121700 51 206 121710 51 206 121720 51 206 121730 51 206 121740 51 206 121800 61 206 121815 61 206 121830 61 206 121845 61 206 121900 61 206 121915 61 206 121930 61 206 121945 61 206 122000 61 206 122015 61 206 122030 61 206 122045 61 206 122100 61 206 122112 61 206 122122 61 206 122131 61 206 122140 61 206 122150 61 206 122200 61 206 122210 61 206 122220 61 206 122231 71 206 122300 71 206 122312 71 206 122324 71 206 122336 71 206 122348 71 206 122400 71 206 122412 71 206 122424 71 206 122436 71 206 122500 71 206 122530 71 206 122600 71 206 122630 71 206 122700 71 206 122730 71 206 122800 71 206 122810 71 206 122920 71 206 122930 71 206 122940 71 206 122948 81 206 122958 81 206 123005 81 206 123013 81 206 123020 81 206 123028 81 206 123036 81 206 123044 81 206 123051 81 206 123059 81 206 123109 81 206 123119 81 206 123128 81 206 123138 81 206 123148 81 206 123158 81 206 123207 81 206 123217 81 206 123228 81 206 123240 81 206 123250 81 206 123307 91 206 123500 91 206 123512 91 206 123524 91 206 123536 91 206 123548 91 206 123600 91 206 123612 91 206 123624 91 206 123636 91 206 123700 91 206 123716

91 206 123733 180 449792 91 206 123749 181 449769 91 206 123805 182 449841 91 206 123821 183 449879 91 206 123837 184 449754 91 206 123853 185 449795 91 206 123909 186 449872 91 206 123925 187 449869 91 206 123941 188 449877 91 206 124000 189 449851 101 206 124020 190 449835 101 206 124036 191 449850 101 206 124049 192 449879 101 206 124105 193 449891 101 206 124121 194 449803 101 206 124137 195 449910 101 206 124153 196 449873 101 206 124209 197 449860 101 206 124225 198 449840 101 206 124241 199 449821 101 206 124257 200 449872 101 206 124313 201 449827 101 206 124329 202 449828 101 206 124345 203 449804 101 206 124402 204 449855 101 206 124418 205 449959 101 206 124434 206 449875 101 206 124507 208 449862 101 206 124523 209 449805 101 206 124539 210 449819 101 206 124600 211 449952 111 206 124610 212 449855 111 206 124620 213 449803 111 206 124630 214 449845 111 206 124640 215 449881 111 206 124650 216 449869 111 206 124700 217 449869 111 206 124710 218 449868 111 206 124720 219 449807 111 206 124730 220 449836 111 206 124740 221 449845 111 206 124751 222 449829 111 206 124805 223 449864 111 206 124817 224 449829 111 206 124829 225 449835 111 206 124841 226 449805 111 206 124853 227 449853 111 206 124907 228 449787 111 206 124920 229 449858 111 206 124930 230 449824 111 206 124945 231 449809 111 206 125003 232 449852 Area 14 Base Station Readings 999 206 113400 1 449745 999 206 113410 2 449746 999 206 113416 3 449745 999 206 120100 4 449762 999 206 120107 5 449760 999 206 120115 6 449759 999 206 121100 7 449763 999 206 121110 8 449766 999 206 121115 9 449762 999 206 123400 10 449768 999 206 123408 11 449770 999 206 123416 12 449767 999 206 125107 13 449775 999 206 125115 14 449775 999 206 125123 15 449777

95 449981 96 449938 97 449848 98 449866 99 449975 100 449909 101 449968 102 450027 103 449920 104 449901 105 449890 106 449827 107 449824 108 449836 109 449830 110 449841 111 449807 112 449563 113 449593 114 449813 115 449875 116 449829 117 449817 118 449803 119 449757 120 449799 121 449806 122 449824 123 449701 124 449557 125 449294 126 448792 127 449324 128 449530 129 449645 130 449765 131 449829 132 449891 133 449819 134 449762 135 449726 136 449765 137 449727 138 449797 139 449732 140 449483 141 449160 142 449867 143 449750 144 449710 145 449794 146 449785 147 449811 148 449783 149 449782 150 449793 151 449773 152 449775 153 449858 154 449853 155 449772 156 449839 157 449802 158 449819 159 449770 160 449758 161 449778 162 449849 163 449897 164 449882 165 449799 166 449836 167 449798 168 449702 169 449875 170 449930 171 449907 172 449754 173 449845 174 449861 175 449839 176 449841 177 449857 178 449839 179 449813

Area 15A Field Survey E-W 11 207 110000 1 449917 11 207 110015 2 449919 11 207 110030 3 449874 11 207 110045 4 449872 11 207 110105 5 449932 11 207 110120 6 449961 11 207 110135 7 449961 11 207 110150 8 449982 11 207 110208 9 450022 11 207 110230 10 450033 11 207 110300 11 449927 11 207 110315 12 449961 11 207 110330 13 450067 11 207 110345 14 450065

180

11 207 110400 11 207 110415 11 207 110430 11 207 110445 11 207 110500 11 207 110515 11 207 110530 11 207 110543 11 207 110555 11 207 110607 11 207 110619 11 207 110631 11 207 110643 11 207 110655 11 207 110707 11 207 110719 11 207 110731 21 207 110800 21 207 110812 21 207 110824 21 207 110836 21 207 110848 21 207 110900 21 207 110912 21 207 110924 21 207 110936 21 207 110948 21 207 111000 21 207 111012 21 207 111030 21 207 111048 21 207 111106 21 207 111124 21 207 111142 21 207 111200 21 207 111218 21 207 111234 21 207 111302 21 207 111314 21 207 111326 21 207 111338 21 207 111350 21 207 111402 21 207 111414 21 207 111426 21 207 111438 21 207 111450 21 207 111502 31 207 111513 31 207 111524 31 207 111535 31 207 111546 31 207 111557 31 207 111608 31 207 111619 31 207 111630 31 207 111641 31 207 111652 31 207 111703 31 207 111714 31 207 111725 31 207 111736 31 207 111748 31 207 111800 31 207 111812 31 207 111820 31 207 111832 31 207 111844 31 207 111900 31 207 111924 31 207 111948 31 207 112012 31 207 112036 31 207 112100 31 207 112124 31 207 112148 31 207 112212 31 207 112236 31 207 112300 41 207 112500 41 207 112519 41 207 112538 41 207 112557 41 207 112616 41 207 112635

15 450078 16 450059 17 449886 18 449986 19 449996 20 449975 21 449891 22 449878 23 449830 24 449794 25 449931 26 449753 27 449520 28 448186 29 449946 30 449860 31 449697 32 449859 33 450174 34 450392 35 450433 36 449979 37 449719 38 449837 39 449913 40 449891 41 449961 42 449980 43 449992 44 450000 45 449959 46 449987 47 450086 48 450229 49 450091 50 450068 51 450009 52 449936 53 450093 54 450300 55 450020 56 449965 57 449998 58 449931 59 449885 60 449876 61 449908 62 449995 63 449946 64 449917 65 449882 66 449892 67 449944 68 449993 69 450041 70 450019 71 450174 72 450239 73 449950 74 449951 75 450014 76 450043 77 450033 78 449958 79 449928 80 449925 81 449872 82 449923 83 450085 84 450044 85 449993 86 449893 87 449811 88 450033 89 450479 90 450811 91 450724 92 450411 93 449981 94 449889 95 449849 96 449879 97 449896 98 449974 99 449994

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

41 207 112654 41 207 112713 41 207 112732 41 207 112751 41 207 112810 41 207 112829 41 207 112838 41 207 112848 41 207 112858 41 207 112908 41 207 112919 41 207 112929 41 207 112939 41 207 113000 41 207 113019 41 207 113037 41 207 113056 41 207 113115 41 207 113134 41 207 113153 41 207 113212 41 207 113231 41 207 113250 41 207 113309 41 207 113333 51 207 113353 51 207 113411 51 207 113430 51 207 113449 51 207 113508 51 207 113526 51 207 113544 51 207 113600 51 207 113619 51 207 113638 51 207 113655 51 207 113707 51 207 113719 51 207 113731 51 207 113743 51 207 113755 51 207 113807 51 207 113819 51 207 113831 51 207 113843 51 207 113855 51 207 113907 51 207 113919 51 207 113931 51 207 113943 51 207 113955 51 207 114002 51 207 114009 51 207 114018 51 207 114027 51 207 114036 61 207 114055 61 207 114105 61 207 114117 61 207 114129 61 207 114141 61 207 114153 61 207 114205 61 207 114217 61 207 114229 61 207 114242 61 207 114254 61 207 114306 61 207 114321 61 207 114336 61 207 114351 61 207 114406 61 207 114421 61 207 114436 61 207 114451 61 207 114506 61 207 114522 61 207 114537 61 207 114553 61 207 114611 61 207 114630 61 207 114648 61 207 114706 61 207 114724 61 207 114742

100 450019 101 450026 102 450051 103 450305 104 450173 105 449973 106 449978 107 450040 108 450032 109 450106 110 449930 111 449884 112 449838 113 449983 114 450024 115 450125 116 450104 117 449891 118 449595 119 449653 120 449790 121 450165 122 450179 123 449982 124 449945 125 449838 126 450036 127 450458 128 450375 129 449781 130 449896 131 449636 132 449738 133 450013 134 450103 135 450045 136 450045 137 450026 138 450081 139 450045 140 450046 141 450041 142 450042 143 450097 144 450001 145 450038 146 450050 147 449971 148 449925 149 449963 150 450027 151 449907 152 449891 153 449896 154 449884 155 449917 156 449892 157 449851 158 449833 159 449892 160 449959 161 449998 162 450006 163 449944 164 450022 165 450064 166 450032 167 450023 168 450068 169 450044 170 450128 171 450179 172 450063 173 450139 174 450069 175 450107 176 450052 177 450050 178 449961 179 450061 180 451050 181 450611 182 449989 183 450081 184 450320

61 207 114759 61 207 114817 71 207 115112 71 207 115130 71 207 115148 71 207 115206 71 207 115224 71 207 115242 71 207 115300 71 207 115318 71 207 115336 71 207 115354 71 207 115512 71 207 115530 71 207 115548 71 207 115606 71 207 115624 71 207 115642 71 207 115659 71 207 115717 71 207 115735 71 207 115743 71 207 115750 71 207 115756 71 207 115801 71 207 115807 71 207 115814 71 207 115820 71 207 115827 71 207 115835 71 207 115843 71 207 115850 71 207 115858 81 207 115906 81 207 115913 81 207 115920 81 207 115927 81 207 115936 81 207 115944 81 207 115950 81 207 115956 81 207 120004 81 207 120012 81 207 120020 81 207 120032 81 207 120044 81 207 120056 81 207 120108 81 207 120120 81 207 120132 81 207 120144 81 207 120156 81 207 120208 81 207 120220 81 207 120232 81 207 120244 81 207 120256 81 207 120308 81 207 120320 81 207 120332 81 207 120344 81 207 120356 81 207 120408 81 207 120420 91 207 120435 91 207 120450 91 207 120505 91 207 120520 91 207 120535 91 207 120550 91 207 120605 91 207 120620 91 207 120635 91 207 120650 91 207 120705 91 207 120720 91 207 120735 91 207 120750 91 207 120805 91 207 120820 91 207 120835 91 207 120850 91 207 120905 91 207 120920 91 207 120935

91 207 120950 270 450092 91 207 121005 271 450028 91 207 121020 272 449920 91 207 121035 273 449834 91 207 121050 274 449909 91 207 121105 275 450207 91 207 121120 276 450333 91 207 121135 277 450144 91 207 121150 278 449906 91 207 121205 279 449882 101 207 121400 280 449966 101 207 121415 281 449883 101 207 121430 282 449880 101 207 121445 283 449873 101 207 121500 284 449907 101 207 121515 285 449978 101 207 121530 286 449979 101 207 121545 287 449986 101 207 121600 288 449987 101 207 121615 289 449967 101 207 121630 290 450026 101 207 121645 291 450031 101 207 121700 292 450069 101 207 121715 293 450125 101 207 121730 294 450261 101 207 121745 295 450278 101 207 121800 296 450400 101 207 121815 297 450507 101 207 121830 298 450576 101 207 121900 299 450604 101 207 122000 300 450418 101 207 122018 301 450311 101 207 122036 302 450112 101 207 122054 303 449991 101 207 122112 304 449963 101 207 122130 305 450026 101 207 122148 306 450109 101 207 122206 307 450621 101 207 122224 308 450311 101 207 122242 309 449992 101 207 122300 310 449920 111 207 122318 311 449993 111 207 122336 312 450101 111 207 122354 313 450721 111 207 122412 314 451019 111 207 122430 315 450406 111 207 122448 316 450164 111 207 122506 317 450229 111 207 122523 318 450351 111 207 122541 319 450593 111 207 122559 320 450773 111 207 122617 321 450816 111 207 122635 322 450983 111 207 122653 323 450724 111 207 122711 324 450475 111 207 122729 325 450316 111 207 122747 326 450218 111 207 122805 327 450189 111 207 122823 328 450113 111 207 122841 329 450032 111 207 122859 330 449924 111 207 122917 331 449891 111 207 122935 332 449871 111 207 122953 333 449895 111 207 123015 334 449931 111 207 123033 335 449896 111 207 123051 336 449889 111 207 123109 337 449887 111 207 123127 338 449821 111 207 123145 339 449848 111 207 123203 340 449856 111 207 123221 341 449830 Area 15A Base Station Readings 999 207 105800 1 449841 999 207 105808 2 449845 999 207 105817 3 449845 999 207 112430 4 449849 999 207 112437 5 449846 999 207 112446 6 449848 999 207 114925 7 449849 999 207 114934 8 449845 999 207 114942 9 449845 999 207 121312 10 449834 999 207 121320 11 449835 999 207 121329 12 449834

185 450047 186 449984 187 449884 188 449785 189 449870 190 449887 191 450010 192 450061 193 450015 194 450027 195 450057 196 450076 197 449984 198 450105 199 450137 200 450173 201 450157 202 450151 203 450060 204 450120 205 450112 206 450100 207 450091 208 450041 209 449988 210 450081 211 450362 212 450521 213 450306 214 450028 215 449836 216 449765 217 449851 218 449783 219 449707 220 449938 221 450134 222 450072 223 450082 224 449899 225 449899 226 449985 227 450017 228 450104 229 450233 230 450124 231 450172 232 450057 233 450130 234 450136 235 450137 236 450076 237 450023 238 449960 239 449992 240 449963 241 450003 242 449997 243 450038 244 450026 245 449836 246 449969 247 449920 248 449964 249 449934 250 449970 251 449916 252 449880 253 449942 254 450015 255 449984 256 449965 257 449957 258 449915 259 449933 260 450055 261 450051 262 450138 263 450186 264 450205 265 450205 266 450317 267 450322 268 450325 269 450208

181

Area 15B Field Readings 121 207 123309 1 451368 121 207 123327 2 451551 121 207 123345 3 451355 121 207 123403 4 451358 121 207 123421 5 450979 121 207 123439 6 450775 121 207 123457 7 450695 121 207 123515 8 450760 121 207 123533 9 450506 121 207 123551 10 450132 121 207 123609 11 449992 131 207 123627 12 450040 131 207 123645 13 450117 131 207 123655 14 450403 131 207 123705 15 450735 131 207 123717 16 451160 131 207 123735 17 451660 131 207 123747 18 451800 131 207 123759 19 452080 131 207 123811 20 452340 131 207 123823 21 452219 131 207 123835 22 451290 141 207 124100 23 449979 141 207 124118 24 451670 141 207 124136 25 451495 141 207 124154 26 450383 141 207 124212 27 449931 141 207 124220 28 450661 141 207 124238 29 451171 141 207 124256 30 450687 141 207 124314 31 450056 141 207 124332 32 450111 141 207 124350 33 450057 151 207 124410 34 450058 151 207 124446 35 450114 151 207 124522 36 450305 151 207 124558 37 450079 151 207 124634 38 449530 151 207 124710 39 449046 151 207 124746 40 448907 151 207 124822 41 449450 151 207 124858 42 450309 151 207 124920 43 450221 151 207 125000 44 449133 161 207 125100 45 449675 161 207 125118 46 449969 161 207 125136 47 450054 161 207 125154 48 449538 161 207 125212 49 449123 161 207 125230 50 449009 161 207 125248 51 449157 161 207 125306 52 449658 161 207 125324 53 449878 161 207 125342 54 449980 161 207 125400 55 450046 171 207 125419 56 450074 171 207 125437 57 449932 171 207 125455 58 449866 171 207 125513 59 449695 171 207 125531 60 449530 171 207 125549 61 449384 171 207 125607 62 449445 171 207 125625 63 449590 171 207 125643 64 449872 171 207 125703 65 449946 171 207 125721 66 449939 181 207 125900 67 449976 181 207 125918 68 449967 181 207 125936 69 449961 181 207 125954 70 449798 181 207 130012 71 449689 181 207 130030 72 449668 181 207 130048 73 449764 181 207 130106 74 449889 181 207 130124 75 450015 181 207 130142 76 450016 181 207 130200 77 450091 191 207 130218 78 450026 191 207 130236 79 450016 191 207 130254 80 450030 191 207 130312 81 449941 191 207 130330 82 449902

APPENDIX III

191 207 130348 83 449845 191 207 130406 84 449846 191 207 130424 85 449841 191 207 130442 86 449885 191 207 130500 87 449912 191 207 130518 88 449986 201 207 130546 89 449997 201 207 130556 90 450006 201 207 130609 91 449889 201 207 130621 92 449851 201 207 130633 93 449860 201 207 130646 94 449904 201 207 130658 95 449932 201 207 130710 96 449943 201 207 130722 97 449965 201 207 130735 98 449952 201 207 130747 99 450002 211 207 130759 100 449998 211 207 130830 101 449955 211 207 130900 102 449926 211 207 130930 103 449930 211 207 131000 104 449928 211 207 131030 105 449940 211 207 131100 106 449910 211 207 131130 107 449836 211 207 131200 108 449850 211 207 131230 109 449912 211 207 131240 110 450007 Area 15B Base Station Readings 999 207 123245 1 449800 999 207 124000 2 449765 999 207 124008 3 449763 999 207 124017 4 449763 999 207 125800 5 449788 999 207 125809 6 449792 999 207 125819 7 449792 999 207 131255 8 449786 999 207 131304 9 449789 999 207 131312 10 449789 Area 16 Field Readings E-W 11 207 154600 1 449294 11 207 154612 2 449237 11 207 154624 3 449244 11 207 154636 4 449288 11 207 154648 5 449285 11 207 154700 6 449329 11 207 154712 7 449283 11 207 154724 8 449185 11 207 154736 9 448831 11 207 154748 10 448662 11 207 154800 11 449072 11 207 154818 12 449092 11 207 154836 13 449335 11 207 154848 14 449684 11 207 154924 15 450073 11 207 154942 16 451074 11 207 155000 17 452808 11 207 155018 18 455450 11 207 155025 19 000000 11 207 155029 20 000000 11 207 155035 21 000000 21 207 155200 22 000000 21 207 155215 23 458661 21 207 155230 24 459501 21 207 155245 25 456930 21 207 155300 26 453640 21 207 155315 27 451706 21 207 155330 28 450408 21 207 155345 29 450190 21 207 155400 30 449822 21 207 155415 31 449610 21 207 155430 32 449502 21 207 155445 33 449288 21 207 155500 34 449304 21 207 155515 35 449332 21 207 155530 36 449360 21 207 155545 37 449333 21 207 155600 38 449374 21 207 155615 39 449334 21 207 155630 40 449262 21 207 155645 41 449208 21 207 155700 42 449163 31 207 155718 43 449063 31 207 155736 44 449179

31 207 155754 31 207 155812 31 207 155830 31 207 155848 31 207 155906 31 207 155927 31 207 155945 31 207 160003 31 207 160021 31 207 160039 31 207 160057 31 207 160115 31 207 160133 31 207 160151 31 207 160209 31 207 160227 31 207 160245 31 207 160303 31 207 160321 41 207 160339 41 207 160357 41 207 160415 41 207 160433 41 207 160451 41 207 160509 41 207 160527 41 207 160545 41 207 160603 41 207 160621 41 207 160639 41 207 160657 41 207 160715 41 207 160733 41 207 160751 41 207 160809 41 207 160827 41 207 160845 41 207 160903 41 207 160921 41 207 160939 51 207 161000 51 207 161018 51 207 161036 51 207 161054 51 207 161112 51 207 161130 51 207 161148 51 207 161206 51 207 161224 51 207 161242 51 207 161259 51 207 161317 51 207 161335 51 207 161353 51 207 161411 51 207 161429 51 207 161447 51 207 161504 51 207 161522 51 207 161540 51 207 161558 61 207 161616 61 207 161634 61 207 161652 61 207 161710 61 207 161728 61 207 161746 61 207 161804 61 207 161822 61 207 161840 61 207 161858 61 207 161916 61 207 161934 61 207 161952 61 207 162010 61 207 162020 61 207 162030 61 207 162040 61 207 162050 61 207 162059 61 207 162110 61 207 162120 71 207 162135 71 207 162145 71 207 162155

71 207 162205 130 449404 71 207 162215 131 449439 71 207 162225 132 449483 71 207 162235 133 449669 71 207 162245 134 449640 71 207 162255 135 449628 71 207 162305 136 449589 71 207 162315 137 449649 71 207 162325 138 449790 71 207 162343 139 449991 71 207 162401 140 450233 71 207 162419 141 450446 71 207 162437 142 450739 71 207 162445 143 451142 71 207 162503 144 451642 71 207 162521 145 452173 71 207 162539 146 452681 71 207 162557 147 452871 81 207 162620 148 451767 81 207 162638 149 451589 81 207 162656 150 451361 81 207 162714 151 451045 81 207 162732 152 450731 81 207 162750 153 450515 81 207 162808 154 450272 81 207 162826 155 450059 81 207 162844 156 449910 81 207 162902 157 449775 81 207 162920 158 449707 81 207 162938 159 449628 81 207 162948 160 449601 81 207 162958 161 449566 81 207 163007 162 449536 81 207 163017 163 449402 81 207 163027 164 449406 81 207 163037 165 449460 81 207 163047 166 449358 81 207 163057 167 449222 81 207 163107 168 448936 91 207 163300 169 448971 91 207 163310 170 449217 91 207 163320 171 449328 91 207 163330 172 449409 91 207 163340 173 449465 91 207 163350 174 449494 91 207 163400 175 449563 91 207 163410 176 449630 91 207 163420 177 449602 91 207 163430 178 449656 91 207 163440 179 449669 91 207 163450 180 449778 91 207 163505 181 449931 91 207 163520 182 450052 91 207 163535 183 450216 91 207 163550 184 450358 91 207 163605 185 450539 91 207 163620 186 450715 91 207 163635 187 450858 91 207 163650 188 450997 91 207 163705 189 451147 101 207 163723 190 450614 101 207 163741 191 450530 101 207 163759 192 450530 101 207 163817 193 450413 101 207 163835 194 450315 101 207 163853 195 450220 101 207 163811 196 450120 101 207 163829 197 449996 101 207 163847 198 449889 101 207 163905 199 449811 101 207 164000 200 449778 101 207 164018 201 449685 101 207 164036 202 449667 101 207 164054 203 449633 101 207 164112 204 449655 101 207 164130 205 449580 101 207 164148 206 449467 101 207 164206 207 449432 101 207 164224 208 449457 101 207 164242 209 449444 101 207 164300 210 449300 111 207 164900 211 449656 111 207 164918 212 449582 111 207 164936 213 449525 111 207 164954 214 450130

45 449150 46 449261 47 449375 48 449363 49 449369 50 449424 51 449601 52 449732 53 449876 54 449824 55 449858 56 450276 57 450986 58 452357 59 454074 60 455998 61 458068 62 459820 63 463430 64 461220 65 457560 66 455350 67 455399 68 454870 69 453410 70 451321 71 450186 72 450207 73 450535 74 450871 75 450471 76 449753 77 449337 78 449253 79 449574 80 449495 81 449128 82 448853 83 448824 84 448887 85 449024 86 447740 87 448105 88 448822 89 450190 90 450380 91 447520 92 448915 93 449853 94 451250 95 451510 96 450870 97 450346 98 450490 99 451210 100 452820 101 453720 102 453848 103 453961 104 457750 105 457420 106 458388 107 453876 108 452884 109 451240 110 451455 111 451024 112 450637 113 450304 114 449993 115 449833 116 449763 117 449711 118 449591 119 449525 120 449451 121 449503 122 449413 123 449219 124 448997 125 448798 126 448793 127 448927 128 449223 129 449379

182

111 207 165012 111 207 165030 111 207 165048 111 207 165104 111 207 165122 111 207 165140 111 207 165158 111 207 165216 111 207 165244 111 207 165254 111 207 165303 111 207 165313 111 207 165323 111 207 165333 111 207 165343 111 207 165353 111 207 165403 121 207 165418 121 207 165428 121 207 165438 121 207 165448 121 207 165508 121 207 165518 121 207 165530 121 207 165540 121 207 165550 121 207 165600 121 207 165610 121 207 165620 121 207 165630 121 207 165640 121 207 165650 121 207 165700 121 207 165710 121 207 165720 121 207 165730 121 207 165740 121 207 165740 131 207 165900 131 207 165917 131 207 165935 131 207 165953 131 207 170015 131 207 170033 131 207 170051 131 207 170109 131 207 170127 131 207 170145 131 207 170203 131 207 170221 131 207 170239 131 207 170257 131 207 170315 131 207 170333 131 207 170351 131 207 170409 131 207 170418 131 207 170428 131 207 170438 141 207 170455 141 207 170503 141 207 170513 141 207 170523 141 207 170533 141 207 170543 141 207 170553 141 207 170603 141 207 170613 141 207 170623 141 207 170633 141 207 170651 141 207 170702 141 207 170720 141 207 170738 141 207 170756 141 207 170814 141 207 170832 141 207 170850 141 207 170908 141 207 170926 151 207 171020 151 207 171038 151 207 171056 151 207 171114 151 207 171132

215 449581 216 449544 217 449625 218 449672 219 449695 220 449717 221 449980 222 449806 223 449850 224 449929 225 450067 226 450074 227 450127 228 450214 229 450251 230 450152 231 450037 232 449533 233 449837 234 449983 235 450019 236 450029 237 450033 238 449982 239 449937 240 449940 241 449747 242 449695 243 449719 244 449710 245 449658 246 449660 247 449590 248 449570 249 449592 250 449579 251 449736 252 449819 253 449702 254 450100 255 449625 256 449531 257 449572 258 449581 259 449637 260 449657 261 449682 262 449767 263 449787 264 449794 265 449859 266 449878 267 449900 268 449925 269 449961 270 449908 271 449881 272 449751 273 449331 274 449621 275 449840 276 449819 277 449846 278 449870 279 449862 280 449810 281 449820 282 449828 283 449808 284 449781 285 449737 286 449771 287 449703 288 449691 289 449659 290 449630 291 449601 292 450143 293 451800 294 457840 295 448893 296 448570 297 449418 298 449482 299 449602

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

151 207 171150 300 449585 151 207 171208 301 449653 151 207 171226 302 449698 151 207 171244 303 449773 151 207 171302 304 449775 151 207 171320 305 449752 151 207 171341 306 449821 151 207 171402 307 449769 151 207 171423 308 449785 151 207 171444 309 449809 151 207 171505 310 449804 151 207 171526 311 449850 151 207 171547 312 449852 151 207 171608 313 449795 151 207 171629 314 449969 151 207 171650 315 450410 161 207 171708 316 450697 161 207 171726 317 449924 161 207 171744 318 449808 161 207 171802 319 449755 161 207 171820 320 449773 161 207 171838 321 449815 161 207 171856 322 449782 161 207 171914 323 449785 161 207 171932 324 449763 161 207 171950 325 449780 161 207 172008 326 449842 161 208 094900 327 449587 161 208 094910 328 449442 161 208 094920 329 449419 161 208 094930 330 449368 161 208 094940 331 449306 161 208 094950 332 449199 161 208 095000 333 449203 161 208 095010 334 449167 161 208 095020 335 449222 161 208 095035 336 449306 171 208 095100 337 449007 Area 16 Base Station Readings 999 207 154400 1 449938 999 207 154408 2 449941 999 207 154419 3 449944 999 207 160925 4 449953 999 207 160933 5 449959 999 207 160942 6 449950 999 207 163230 7 449934 999 207 163239 8 449931 999 207 163248 9 449935 999 207 165807 10 449975 999 207 165815 11 449979 999 207 165824 12 449977 999 207 172030 13 449988 999 207 172038 14 449990 999 207 172046 15 449992 999 208 094800 16 449668 999 208 094800 17 449664 999 208 094809 18 449662 999 208 100328 19 449587 999 208 100336 20 449587 999 208 100346 21 449582 999 208 101406 22 449613 999 208 101414 23 449613 999 208 101422 24 449611 Area 17 Field Readings E-W 11 208 111200 1 449593 11 208 111212 2 449614 11 208 111224 3 449594 11 208 111236 4 449607 11 208 111248 5 449564 11 208 111300 6 449597 11 208 111312 7 449546 11 208 111324 8 449611 11 208 111336 9 449590 11 208 111348 10 449580 11 208 111400 11 449633 11 208 111412 12 449636 11 208 111424 13 449603 11 208 111436 14 449564 11 208 111448 15 449586 11 208 111500 16 449602 11 208 111512 17 449561 11 208 111524 18 449634 11 208 111536 19 449737 11 208 111550 20 449634

11 208 111600 11 208 111612 11 208 111624 11 208 111636 11 208 111648 11 208 111700 11 208 111712 11 208 111724 11 208 111736 11 208 111748 11 208 111800 21 208 111900 21 208 111914 21 208 111928 21 208 111942 21 208 111956 21 208 112010 21 208 112024 21 208 112038 21 208 112052 21 208 112129 21 208 112200 21 208 112212 21 208 112224 21 208 112236 21 208 112248 21 208 112300 21 208 112312 21 208 112324 21 208 112336 21 208 112348 21 208 112400 21 208 112412 21 208 112424 21 208 112436 21 208 112448 21 208 112500 21 208 112512 21 208 112524 21 208 112536 21 208 112548 21 208 112600 31 208 112620 31 208 112632 31 208 112644 31 208 112656 31 208 112708 31 208 112720 31 208 112732 31 208 112744 31 208 112756 31 208 112810 31 208 112822 31 208 112834 31 208 112846 31 208 112858 31 208 112910 31 208 112922 31 208 112934 31 208 112946 31 208 112958 31 208 113010 31 208 113022 31 208 113034 31 208 113046 31 208 113058 31 208 113110 31 208 113122 31 208 113134 31 208 113146 31 208 113158 31 208 113210 31 208 113222 41 208 113242 41 208 113254 41 208 113310 41 208 113325 41 208 113340 41 208 113355 41 208 113410 41 208 113425 41 208 113440 41 208 113455 41 208 113510 41 208 113525

41 208 113540 41 208 113555 41 208 113605 41 208 113617 41 208 113629 41 208 113641 41 208 113653 41 208 113705 41 208 113717 41 208 113729 41 208 113741 41 208 113753 41 208 113805 41 208 113817 41 208 113829 41 208 113841 41 208 113853 41 208 113905 41 208 113917 51 208 114200 51 208 114210 51 208 114220 51 208 114230 51 208 114240 51 208 114250 51 208 114300 51 208 114310 51 208 114320 51 208 114330 51 208 114340 51 208 114350 51 208 114400 51 208 114410 51 208 114420 51 208 114430 51 208 114440 51 208 114450 51 208 114500 51 208 114510 51 208 114520 51 208 114530 51 208 114540 51 208 114550 51 208 114600 51 208 114610 51 208 114620 51 208 114630 51 208 114640 51 208 114650 51 208 114701 61 208 114800 61 208 114817 61 208 114834 61 208 114851 61 208 114908 61 208 114925 61 208 114942 61 208 114959 61 208 115016 61 208 115033 61 208 115100 61 208 115115 61 208 115130 61 208 115145 61 208 115200 61 208 115215 61 208 115230 61 208 115245 61 208 115300 61 208 115315 61 208 115330 61 208 115345 61 208 115400 61 208 115415 61 208 115430 61 208 115445 61 208 115500 61 208 115515 61 208 115530 61 208 115545 61 208 115610 71 208 115700 71 208 115709 71 208 115718 71 208 115727

21 449542 22 449518 23 449457 24 449453 25 449490 26 449492 27 449429 28 449442 29 449477 30 449489 31 449456 32 449509 33 449541 34 449509 35 449455 36 449441 37 449463 38 449474 39 449497 40 449495 41 449455 42 449481 43 449498 44 449535 45 449560 46 449587 47 449581 48 449586 49 449588 50 449608 51 449618 52 449654 53 449565 54 449628 55 449561 56 449511 57 449529 58 449541 59 449591 60 449646 61 449585 62 449592 63 449622 64 449618 65 449628 66 449588 67 449516 68 449554 69 449503 70 449585 71 449552 72 449543 73 449569 74 449652 75 449645 76 449625 77 449666 78 449639 79 449606 80 449589 81 449567 82 449567 83 449547 84 449557 85 449538 86 449540 87 449445 88 449414 89 449450 90 449483 91 449484 92 449584 93 449527 94 449663 95 449501 96 449504 97 449444 98 449441 99 449429 100 449526 101 449601 102 449684 103 449714 104 449655 105 449633

183

106 449679 107 449674 108 449672 109 449662 110 449690 111 449588 112 449592 113 449585 114 449574 115 449583 116 449572 117 449554 118 449492 119 449485 120 449599 121 449594 122 449611 123 449646 124 449614 125 449628 126 449578 127 449605 128 449587 129 449581 130 449501 131 449517 132 449569 133 449614 134 449616 135 449589 136 449577 137 449548 138 449552 139 449613 140 449600 141 449615 142 449699 143 449691 144 449653 145 449669 146 449746 147 449767 148 449618 149 449533 150 449422 151 449405 152 449436 153 449499 154 449524 155 449533 156 449562 157 449555 158 449533 159 449457 160 449366 161 449377 162 449519 163 449738 164 449783 165 449713 166 449661 167 449592 168 449641 169 449728 170 449665 171 449622 172 449589 173 449590 174 449575 175 449604 176 449635 177 449604 178 449614 179 449584 180 449574 181 449546 182 449568 183 449658 184 449664 185 449649 186 449624 187 449635 188 449668 189 449672 190 449722

71 208 115736 71 208 115745 71 208 115754 71 208 115803 71 208 115812 71 208 115821 71 208 115830 71 208 115839 71 208 115847 71 208 115856 71 208 115905 71 208 115914 71 208 115923 71 208 115932 71 208 115941 71 208 120000 71 208 120018 71 208 120036 71 208 120054 71 208 120112 71 208 120120 71 208 120138 71 208 120156 71 208 120214 71 208 120232 71 208 120250 71 208 120308 81 208 120328 81 208 120340 81 208 120352 81 208 120404 81 208 120416 81 208 120428 81 208 120440 81 208 120452 81 208 120504 81 208 120516 81 208 120538 81 208 120550 81 208 120602 81 208 120617 81 208 120629 81 208 120644 81 208 120659 81 208 120714 81 208 120729 81 208 120744 81 208 120759 81 208 120815 81 208 120830 81 208 120845 81 208 120900 81 208 120915 81 208 120930 81 208 120945 81 208 121000 81 208 121015 81 208 121103 91 208 121130 91 208 121142 91 208 121154 91 208 121206 91 208 121218 91 208 121230 91 208 121242 91 208 121254 91 208 121306 91 208 121318 91 208 121330 91 208 121342 91 208 121354 91 208 121406 91 208 121418 91 208 121430 91 208 121442 91 208 121454 91 208 121506 91 208 121700 91 208 121712 91 208 121724 91 208 121736 91 208 121748 91 208 121800 91 208 121812 91 208 121824

191 449654 192 449619 193 449592 194 449597 195 449635 196 449648 197 449686 198 449653 199 449596 200 449635 201 449629 202 449625 203 449632 204 449638 205 449611 206 449598 207 449631 208 449725 209 449740 210 449751 211 449730 212 449582 213 449485 214 449571 215 449570 216 449613 217 449613 218 449883 219 449626 220 449660 221 449725 222 449772 223 449863 224 449875 225 449786 226 449723 227 449727 228 449666 229 449608 230 449593 231 449658 232 449637 233 449624 234 449606 235 449645 236 449613 237 449677 238 449681 239 449666 240 449776 241 449630 242 449617 243 449553 244 449660 245 449659 246 449660 247 449668 248 449647 249 449705 250 449671 251 449676 252 449648 253 449627 254 449572 255 449639 256 449646 257 449640 258 449664 259 449692 260 449666 261 449623 262 449639 263 449611 264 449631 265 449629 266 449651 267 449601 268 449603 269 449651 270 449700 271 449754 272 449771 273 449862 274 449929 275 449883

APPENDIX III

91 208 121836 276 449766 91 208 121848 277 449760 91 208 121900 278 449681 91 208 121912 279 449441 101 208 121934 280 449658 101 208 121952 281 449623 101 208 122004 282 449630 101 208 122022 283 449664 101 208 122040 284 449797 101 208 122058 285 449834 101 208 122116 286 449807 101 208 122134 287 449762 101 208 122152 288 449712 101 208 122210 289 449683 101 208 122228 290 449667 101 208 122246 291 449637 101 208 122304 292 449604 101 208 122322 293 449638 101 208 122340 294 449680 101 208 122358 295 449687 101 208 122406 296 449654 101 208 122414 297 449672 101 208 122423 298 449578 101 208 122432 299 449615 101 208 122441 300 449665 101 208 122450 301 449615 101 208 122459 302 449673 101 208 122509 303 449666 101 208 122518 304 449623 101 208 122527 305 449598 101 208 122536 306 449648 101 208 122545 307 449666 101 208 122554 308 449668 101 208 122602 309 449712 101 208 122610 310 449712 111 208 122700 311 449703 111 208 122712 312 449735 111 208 122724 313 449703 111 208 122736 314 449675 111 208 122748 315 449645 111 208 122800 316 449610 111 208 122812 317 449615 111 208 122824 318 449658 111 208 122836 319 449655 111 208 122848 320 449643 111 208 122900 321 449569 111 208 122912 322 449529 111 208 122924 323 449561 111 208 122936 324 449707 111 208 122948 325 449656 111 208 123000 326 449712 111 208 123012 327 449717 111 208 123024 328 449607 111 208 123036 329 449601 111 208 123100 330 449629 111 208 123118 331 449687 111 208 123136 332 449667 111 208 123154 333 449734 111 208 123212 334 449782 111 208 123220 335 449811 111 208 123238 336 449744 111 208 123256 337 449760 111 208 123314 338 449662 111 208 123335 339 449642 111 208 123355 340 449660 111 208 123415 341 449697 Area 17 Base Station Readings 999 208 111100 1 449545 999 208 111107 2 449545 999 208 111118 3 449544 999 208 114000 4 449564 999 208 114009 5 449572 999 208 114017 6 449567 999 208 121200 7 449614 999 208 121208 8 449616 999 208 121217 9 449616 999 208 123500 10 449643 999 208 123509 11 449642 999 208 123518 12 449642 Area 18 Field Readings 11 193 120500 0 449798 11 193 120515 1 449853 11 193 120530 2 449827 11 193 120545 3 449874

11 193 120600 11 193 120615 11 193 120630 11 193 120645 11 193 120700 11 193 120715 11 193 120730 11 193 120745 11 193 120800 11 193 120815 11 193 120830 11 193 120845 11 193 120900 11 193 120915 11 193 120930 11 193 120945 11 193 121000 21 193 121030 21 193 121045 21 193 121100 21 193 121115 21 193 121130 21 193 121145 21 193 121200 21 193 121215 21 193 121230 21 193 121245 21 193 121300 21 193 121315 21 193 121330 21 193 121345 21 193 121400 21 193 121415 21 193 121430 21 193 121445 21 193 121500 21 193 121515 21 193 121530 31 193 121600 31 193 121615 31 193 121630 31 193 121645 31 193 121700 31 193 121715 31 193 121730 31 193 121745 31 193 121800 31 193 121815 31 193 121830 31 193 121845 31 193 121900 31 193 121915 31 193 121930 31 193 121945 31 193 122000 31 193 122015 31 193 122030 31 193 122045 31 193 122100 41 193 122200 41 193 122215 41 193 122230 41 193 122245 41 193 122300 41 193 122315 41 193 122330 41 193 122345 41 193 122400 41 193 122415 41 193 122430 41 193 122445 41 193 122500 41 193 122515 41 193 122530 41 193 122545 41 193 122600 41 193 122615 41 193 122630 41 193 122645 41 193 122700 51 193 122800 51 193 122815 51 193 122830 51 193 122845 51 193 122900

51 193 122915 51 193 122930 51 193 122945 51 193 123000 51 193 123015 51 193 123030 51 193 123045 51 193 123100 51 193 123115 51 193 123130 51 193 123145 51 193 123200 51 193 123215 51 193 123230 51 193 123245 51 193 123300 61 193 151300 61 193 151312 61 193 151324 61 193 151336 61 193 151348 61 193 151400 61 193 151412 61 193 151424 61 193 151436 61 193 151448 61 193 151500 61 193 151512 61 193 151524 61 193 151536 61 193 151548 61 193 151600 61 193 151612 61 193 151624 61 193 151636 61 193 151648 61 193 151700 71 193 151800 71 193 151812 71 193 151824 71 193 151836 71 193 151848 71 193 151900 71 193 151912 71 193 151924 71 193 151936 71 193 151948 71 193 152000 71 193 152012 71 193 152024 71 193 152036 71 193 152048 71 193 152100 71 193 152112 71 193 152124 71 193 152136 71 193 152148 71 193 152200 81 193 152230 81 193 152245 81 193 152300 81 193 152315 81 193 152330 81 193 152345 81 193 152400 81 193 152415 81 193 152430 81 193 152445 81 193 152500 81 193 152515 81 193 152530 81 193 152545 81 193 152600 81 193 152615 81 193 152630 81 193 152645 81 193 152700 81 193 152715 81 193 152730 91 193 152750 91 193 152805 91 193 152815 91 193 152830 91 193 152845 91 193 152900

4 449875 5 449887 6 449907 7 449939 8 449966 9 449923 10 449927 11 449911 12 449952 13 449919 14 449932 15 450032 16 450025 17 449976 18 449955 19 449939 20 449986 21 449954 22 449980 23 450002 24 450027 25 450062 26 450051 27 449974 28 449923 29 449900 30 449921 31 449895 32 449882 33 449958 34 449925 35 449867 36 449859 37 449859 38 449890 39 449841 40 449833 41 449815 42 449806 43 449779 44 449782 45 449788 46 449861 47 449849 48 449863 49 449919 50 449945 51 449859 52 449912 53 449987 54 449991 55 449903 56 449869 57 449739 58 450042 59 450012 60 450004 61 449984 62 449968 63 449999 64 450004 65 449895 66 450009 67 449967 68 449829 69 449883 70 449869 71 449953 72 449958 73 449924 74 449912 75 449942 76 449950 77 449832 78 449850 79 449829 80 449741 81 449780 82 449732 83 449802 84 449770 85 449782 86 449790 87 449846 88 449827

184

89 449833 90 449828 91 449888 92 449908 93 449910 94 449944 95 449974 96 449911 97 449855 98 449882 99 449883 100 449961 101 449959 102 449940 103 449984 104 449922 105 450085 106 450086 107 450103 108 450076 109 450046 110 450053 111 450029 112 450049 113 450085 114 450114 115 450122 116 450084 117 450032 118 449990 119 449958 120 449963 121 449984 122 449970 123 449964 124 449919 125 449891 126 449889 127 449907 128 449973 129 450006 130 450000 131 449965 132 449952 133 449947 134 449989 135 450065 136 450116 137 450177 138 450151 139 450089 140 450093 141 450077 142 450100 143 450101 144 450152 145 450163 146 450123 147 450145 148 450102 149 450105 150 450114 151 450165 152 450099 153 450096 154 450101 155 450175 156 450209 157 450193 158 450116 159 450013 160 449910 161 449980 162 450023 163 450010 164 450022 165 449991 166 449912 167 449916 168 449942 169 449948 170 449957 171 450071 172 450009 173 450010

91 193 152915 174 450075 91 193 152930 175 450052 91 193 152945 176 450133 91 193 153000 177 450213 91 193 153015 178 450246 91 193 153030 179 450190 91 193 153045 180 450114 91 193 153100 181 450118 91 193 153115 182 450148 91 193 153130 183 450146 91 193 153145 184 450165 91 193 153200 185 450097 91 193 153215 186 450113 91 193 153230 187 450109 91 193 153245 188 450139 101 193 153300 189 450197 101 193 153315 190 450121 101 193 153330 191 449988 101 193 153345 192 450185 101 193 153400 193 450162 101 193 153415 194 450176 101 193 153430 195 450169 101 193 153445 196 450131 101 193 153500 197 450123 101 193 153515 198 450188 101 193 153530 199 450211 101 193 153545 200 450247 101 193 153600 201 450231 101 193 153615 202 450110 101 193 153630 203 450112 101 193 153645 204 450085 101 193 153700 205 450053 101 193 153715 206 450044 101 193 153730 207 450006 101 193 153745 208 450016 101 193 153800 209 450055 111 193 153830 210 450040 111 193 153848 211 449965 111 193 153906 212 449960 111 193 153924 213 450025 111 193 153942 214 450014 111 193 154000 215 450080 111 193 154018 216 450116 111 193 154036 217 450095 111 193 154054 218 450145 111 193 154112 219 450173 111 193 154130 220 450182 111 193 154148 221 450204 111 193 154206 222 450113 111 193 154224 223 450193 111 193 154242 224 450256 111 193 154300 225 450158 111 193 154318 226 450193 111 193 154336 227 450119 111 193 154354 228 450087 111 193 154412 229 450075 111 193 154430 230 449660 121 193 154800 231 450080 121 193 154812 232 450166 121 193 154824 233 450127 121 193 154836 234 450164 121 193 154848 235 450213 121 193 154900 236 450218 121 193 154912 237 450226 121 193 154924 238 450187 121 193 154936 239 450147 121 193 154948 240 450188 121 193 155000 241 450231 121 193 155012 242 450178 121 193 155024 243 450161 121 193 155036 244 450138 121 193 155048 245 450096 121 193 155100 246 450089 121 193 155112 247 450056 121 193 155124 248 450130 121 193 155136 249 450004 121 193 155148 250 450037 121 193 155200 251 449959 131 193 155210 252 450000 131 193 155220 253 450022 131 193 155235 254 450061 131 193 155250 255 450073 131 193 155300 256 450132 131 193 155315 257 450088 131 193 155330 258 450083

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

131 193 155345 131 193 155400 131 193 155415 131 193 155430 131 193 155445 131 193 155500 131 193 155515 131 193 155530 131 193 155545 131 193 155600 131 193 155615 131 193 155630 131 193 155645 131 193 155700 141 193 155800 141 193 155815 141 193 155830 141 193 155845 141 193 155900 141 193 155915 141 193 155930 141 193 155945 141 193 160000 141 193 160015 141 193 160030 141 193 160045 141 193 160100 141 193 160115 141 193 160130 141 193 160145 141 193 160200 141 193 160215 141 193 160230 141 193 160245 141 193 160300 151 193 160320 151 193 160332 151 193 160344 151 193 160356 151 193 160408 151 193 160420 151 193 160432 151 193 160444 151 193 160456 151 193 160508 151 193 160520 151 193 160532 151 193 160544 151 193 160556 151 193 160608 151 193 160620 151 193 160632 151 193 160644 151 193 160656 151 193 160708 151 193 160720 161 193 161000 161 193 161015 161 193 161030 161 193 161045 161 193 161100 161 193 161115 161 193 161130 161 193 161145 161 193 161200 161 193 161215 161 193 161230 161 193 161245 161 193 161300 161 193 161315 161 193 161330 161 193 161345 161 193 161400 161 193 161415 161 193 161430 161 193 161445 161 193 161500 171 193 161525 171 193 161537 171 193 161549 171 193 161559 171 193 161612 171 193 161624 171 193 161636 171 193 161648

259 450121 260 450125 261 450138 262 450242 263 450208 264 450164 265 450199 266 450235 267 450231 268 450253 269 450181 270 450179 271 450220 272 450187 273 450199 274 450252 275 450241 276 450199 277 450223 278 450294 279 450144 280 450274 281 450159 282 450207 283 450187 284 450171 285 450092 286 450147 287 450107 288 450131 289 450136 290 450126 291 450058 292 450040 293 449995 294 449989 295 450016 296 450030 297 450124 298 450146 299 450179 300 450162 301 450151 302 450143 303 450166 304 450194 305 450180 306 450154 307 450194 308 450176 309 450268 310 450175 311 450176 312 450245 313 450221 314 450210 315 450214 316 450220 317 450255 318 450157 319 450175 320 450224 321 450210 322 450202 323 450176 324 450190 325 450159 326 450155 327 450156 328 450206 329 450195 330 450149 331 450154 332 450059 333 450041 334 450143 335 450048 336 450192 337 450102 338 450070 339 450057 340 450093 341 450130 342 450177 343 450196

171 193 161700 171 193 161712 171 193 161724 171 193 161736 171 193 161748 171 193 161800 171 193 161812 171 193 161824 171 193 161836 171 193 161848 171 193 161900 171 193 161912 171 193 161924 181 193 161940 181 193 161955 181 193 162010 181 193 162025 181 193 162040 181 193 162055 181 193 162110 181 193 162125 181 193 162140 181 193 162155 181 193 162210 181 193 162225 181 193 162240 181 193 162255 181 193 162310 181 193 162325 181 193 162340 181 193 162355 181 193 162410 181 193 162425 181 193 162440 191 193 162500 191 193 162512 191 193 162524 191 193 162536 191 193 162548 191 193 162600 191 193 162612 191 193 162624 191 193 162636 191 193 162648 191 193 162700 191 193 162712 191 193 162724 191 193 162736 191 193 162748 191 193 162800 191 193 162812 191 193 162824 191 193 162836 191 193 162848 191 193 162900 201 193 163000 201 193 163012 201 193 163024 201 193 163036 201 193 163048 201 193 163100 201 193 163112 201 193 163124 201 193 163136 201 193 163148 201 193 163200 201 193 163212 201 193 163224 201 193 163236 201 193 163248 201 193 163300 201 193 163312 201 193 163324 201 193 163336 201 193 163348 201 193 163400 211 193 163420 211 193 163432 211 193 163444 211 193 163456 211 193 163508 211 193 163520 211 193 163532 211 193 163544 211 193 163556

211 193 163608 211 193 163620 211 193 163632 211 193 163644 211 193 163656 211 193 163708 211 193 163720 211 193 163732 211 193 163744 211 193 163756 211 193 163808 211 193 163820 221 193 164100 221 193 164115 221 193 164130 221 193 164145 221 193 164200 221 193 164215 221 193 164230 221 193 164245 221 193 164300 221 193 164315 221 193 164330 221 193 164345 221 193 164400 221 193 164415 221 193 164430 221 193 164445 221 193 164500 221 193 164515 221 193 164530 221 193 164545 221 193 164600 231 193 164700 231 193 164712 231 193 164724 231 193 164736 231 193 164748 231 193 164800 231 193 164812 231 193 164824 231 193 164836 231 193 164848 231 193 164900 231 193 164912 231 193 164924 231 193 164936 231 193 164948 231 193 165000 231 193 165012 231 193 165024 231 193 165036 231 193 165048 231 193 165100 241 193 165112 241 193 165124 241 193 165136 241 193 165148 241 193 165200 241 193 165212 241 193 165224 241 193 165236 241 193 165248 241 193 165300 241 193 165312 241 193 165324 241 193 165336 241 193 165348 241 193 165400 241 193 165412 241 193 165424 241 193 165436 241 193 165448 241 193 165500 241 193 165512 251 193 165600 251 193 165612 251 193 165624 251 193 165636 251 193 165648 251 193 165700 251 193 165712 251 193 165724 251 193 165736 251 193 165748

344 450173 345 450154 346 450134 347 450138 348 450160 349 450135 350 450181 351 450186 352 450146 353 450182 354 450230 355 450211 356 450123 357 450129 358 450154 359 450190 360 450146 361 450141 362 450152 363 450156 364 450181 365 450120 366 450108 367 450102 368 450145 369 450125 370 450153 371 450095 372 450087 373 450057 374 450114 375 449948 376 450233 377 450100 378 449922 379 450013 380 450018 381 450106 382 450077 383 450053 384 450061 385 450017 386 450092 387 450169 388 449973 389 450077 390 450071 391 450138 392 450139 393 450121 394 450081 395 450151 396 450150 397 450141 398 450150 399 450127 400 450091 401 450135 402 450115 403 450106 404 450097 405 450106 406 450145 407 450114 408 450084 409 450062 410 450118 411 450096 412 450016 413 449947 414 450143 415 450137 416 450108 417 450018 418 450028 419 450017 420 450008 421 450020 422 450059 423 450103 424 450153 425 450089 426 449915 427 450091 428 450061

185

429 450085 430 450100 431 450108 432 450130 433 450126 434 450119 435 450123 436 450119 437 450155 438 450185 439 450120 440 450134 441 450189 442 450197 443 450189 444 450144 445 450101 446 450110 447 450225 448 450165 449 450134 450 450117 451 450104 452 450088 453 450101 454 450076 455 449684 456 450476 457 450153 458 450090 459 450070 460 450091 461 450023 462 450043 463 450079 464 450138 465 450122 466 450155 467 450042 468 450021 469 450141 470 450112 471 450083 472 450085 473 450121 474 450130 475 450134 476 450093 477 450123 478 450110 479 450152 480 450189 481 450251 482 450215 483 450206 484 450142 485 450101 486 450122 487 450110 488 450136 489 449961 490 450328 491 450103 492 450045 493 450153 494 450119 495 450163 496 450092 497 450028 498 450012 499 450096 500 450087 501 450120 502 450037 503 450030 504 450025 505 450014 506 450085 507 450048 508 450093 509 450032 510 450024 511 450108 512 450172 513 450148

251 193 165800 514 450102 251 193 165812 515 450007 251 193 165824 516 450051 251 193 165836 517 450191 251 193 165848 518 450071 251 193 165900 519 450123 251 193 165912 520 450124 251 193 165924 521 450142 251 193 165936 522 450027 251 193 165948 523 450026 251 193 170000 524 450130 261 193 170100 525 450143 261 193 170115 526 450085 261 193 170130 527 450045 261 193 170145 528 450096 261 193 170200 529 450057 261 193 170215 530 450110 261 193 170230 531 450085 261 193 170245 532 450120 261 193 170300 533 450088 261 193 170315 534 450114 261 193 170330 535 450074 261 193 170345 536 450019 261 193 170400 537 450018 261 193 170415 538 450011 261 193 170430 539 449947 261 193 170445 540 450025 261 193 170500 541 450200 261 193 170515 542 449996 261 193 170530 543 450068 261 193 170545 544 449906 261 193 170600 545 450288 Area 18 Base Station Readings 999 193 115800 1 449923 999 193 115810 2 449923 999 193 115818 3 449922 999 193 120300 4 449951 999 193 120308 5 449951 999 193 120316 6 449950 999 193 123400 7 449983 999 193 123407 8 449982 999 193 123415 9 449982 999 193 150700 10 450130 999 193 150707 11 450128 999 193 150714 12 450127 999 193 151100 13 450135 999 193 151107 14 450130 999 193 151114 15 450129 999 193 154700 16 450209 999 193 154706 17 450210 999 193 154713 18 450208 999 193 160800 19 450209 999 193 160806 20 450214 999 193 160816 21 450213 999 193 164000 22 450219 999 193 164007 23 450221 999 193 164015 24 450220 999 193 170730 25 450172 999 193 170737 26 450174 999 193 170745 27 450174 Area 19 Field Readings 11 195 093030 0 450067 11 195 093045 1 450067 11 195 093059 2 450000 11 195 093117 3 450119 11 195 093136 4 450095 11 195 093152 5 450023 11 195 093209 6 450062 11 195 093225 7 450071 11 195 093237 8 450079 11 195 093250 9 450065 11 195 093304 10 449995 11 195 093325 11 449991 11 195 093342 12 450057 11 195 093406 13 450120 11 195 093426 14 450069 11 195 093441 15 450089 11 195 093456 16 450112 11 195 093516 17 450281 11 195 093532 18 450153 11 195 093550 19 450105 11 195 093605 20 450108 11 195 093622 21 450083 11 195 093637 22 449926

APPENDIX III

11 195 093651 23 450261 11 195 093705 24 450125 11 195 093720 25 449965 11 195 093734 26 450258 11 195 093752 27 450366 11 195 093808 28 450179 11 195 093822 29 450102 11 195 093836 30 450096 21 195 093850 1000 450061 21 195 093941 31 450096 21 195 093958 32 450230 21 195 094014 33 450549 21 195 094029 34 450254 21 195 094046 35 449662 21 195 094101 36 449928 21 195 094118 37 450102 21 195 094255 38 450100 21 195 094311 39 450126 21 195 094328 40 450099 21 195 094357 41 450076 21 195 094414 42 450127 21 195 094433 43 450107 21 195 094454 44 450060 21 195 094512 45 450023 21 195 094531 46 450077 21 195 094550 47 450086 21 195 094608 48 450086 21 195 094623 49 450005 21 195 094651 50 449972 21 195 094706 51 450033 21 195 094725 52 450072 21 195 094741 53 450059 21 195 094759 54 450114 21 195 094842 55 450029 21 195 094909 56 450059 21 195 094929 57 450079 21 195 094944 58 449985 21 195 095011 59 449999 21 195 095030 1001 450000 31 195 095110 1002 450006 31 195 095138 60 450117 31 195 095207 61 450053 31 195 095220 62 450016 31 195 095247 63 450035 31 195 095306 64 450044 31 195 095322 65 450074 31 195 095354 66 449995 31 195 095413 67 450053 31 195 095435 68 450053 31 195 095450 69 450055 31 195 095507 70 450051 31 195 095532 71 450058 31 195 095549 72 450048 31 195 095605 73 450051 31 195 095621 74 449981 31 195 095638 75 450000 31 195 095653 76 450020 31 195 095712 77 450102 31 195 095730 78 450060 31 195 095745 79 450119 31 195 095800 80 450092 31 195 095816 81 450100 31 195 095834 82 450071 31 195 095848 83 449919 31 195 095859 84 449661 31 195 095925 85 449961 31 195 095941 86 450090 31 195 095955 87 450072 31 195 100010 88 450018 31 195 100026 89 450030 41 195 100400 90 449955 41 195 100421 91 449958 41 195 100449 92 450092 41 195 100504 93 449964 41 195 100520 94 449938 41 195 100537 95 450019 41 195 100552 96 449995 41 195 100608 97 449966 41 195 100626 98 449973 41 195 100646 99 450007 41 195 100700 100 450020 41 195 100713 101 449998 41 195 100733 102 449952 41 195 100750 103 449931 41 195 100807 104 449913

71 195 103932 189 450054 71 195 103946 190 450056 71 195 103957 191 449949 71 195 104013 192 449948 71 195 104025 193 449932 71 195 104035 194 449851 71 195 104048 195 450023 71 195 104100 196 449996 71 195 104113 197 449923 71 195 104132 198 449891 71 195 104148 199 449862 71 195 104202 200 449891 71 195 104215 201 449875 71 195 104229 202 449874 71 195 104248 203 449918 71 195 104300 204 449890 71 195 104315 205 449903 71 195 104344 206 449917 71 195 104406 207 449682 71 195 104541 208 449891 71 195 104556 209 449946 71 195 104607 210 449986 71 195 104626 211 449950 71 195 104647 212 449826 81 195 104948 213 449824 81 195 105012 214 449958 81 195 105025 215 449985 81 195 105042 216 449928 81 195 105105 217 449876 81 195 105121 218 449852 81 195 105140 219 449818 81 195 105154 220 449929 81 195 105209 221 449930 81 195 105224 222 449887 81 195 105238 223 449903 81 195 105257 224 449853 81 195 105311 225 449873 81 195 105327 226 449894 81 195 105341 227 449893 81 195 105355 228 449923 81 195 105408 229 449997 81 195 105422 230 449980 81 195 105435 231 449925 81 195 105452 232 449934 81 195 105514 233 449984 81 195 105531 234 450026 81 195 105545 235 450033 81 195 105601 236 449979 81 195 105619 237 449957 81 195 105634 238 449965 81 195 105651 239 449936 81 195 105705 240 449911 81 195 105721 241 449947 81 195 105745 242 449939 81 195 105759 1005 449939 91 195 105827 243 449908 91 195 105854 244 449923 91 195 105908 245 449940 91 195 105925 246 449945 91 195 105943 247 449947 91 195 110000 248 449933 91 195 110015 249 449963 91 195 110030 250 450012 91 195 110045 251 450018 91 195 110100 252 449999 91 195 110117 253 449943 91 195 110131 254 449913 91 195 110148 255 449946 91 195 110204 256 449956 91 195 110220 257 449972 91 195 110235 258 449932 91 195 110250 259 449907 91 195 110305 260 449909 91 195 110322 261 449886 91 195 110336 262 449869 91 195 110350 263 449907 91 195 110404 264 449893 91 195 110416 265 449917 91 195 110436 266 449906 91 195 110451 267 449846 91 195 110507 268 449866 91 195 110523 269 449873 91 195 110535 270 449886 91 195 110551 271 449930 91 195 110607 272 449936

41 195 100828 105 449919 41 195 100856 106 449918 41 195 100911 107 449907 41 195 100925 108 450010 41 195 100940 109 450060 41 195 100955 110 450094 41 195 101204 112 450060 41 195 101219 113 450075 41 195 101234 114 450047 41 195 101251 115 450010 41 195 101312 116 449877 41 195 101327 117 449851 41 195 101348 118 450107 41 195 101402 119 449979 41 195 101421 120 449948 41 195 101440 121 450010 51 195 101527 122 449949 51 195 101542 123 449947 51 195 101605 124 449966 51 195 101619 125 449968 51 195 101632 126 449898 51 195 101651 127 449933 51 195 101704 128 450038 51 195 101718 129 450076 51 195 101730 130 450032 51 195 101745 131 450004 51 195 101803 132 449995 51 195 101820 133 450097 51 195 101836 134 450065 51 195 101850 135 449871 51 195 101905 136 449900 51 195 101919 137 449905 51 195 101933 138 449842 51 195 102017 139 449878 51 195 102034 140 449854 51 195 102052 141 449890 51 195 102107 142 449919 51 195 102124 143 449941 51 195 102139 144 449920 51 195 102155 145 449915 51 195 102216 146 449913 51 195 102238 147 449958 51 195 102301 148 449925 51 195 102317 149 449884 51 195 102331 150 449891 51 195 102352 151 449864 51 195 102404 1003 449864 61 195 102442 152 449818 61 195 102618 153 449958 61 195 102640 154 449954 61 195 102658 155 449943 61 195 102712 156 449664 61 195 102735 157 449876 61 195 102755 158 449908 61 195 102811 159 449897 61 195 102825 160 449925 61 195 102840 161 449867 61 195 102900 162 449883 61 195 102917 163 449887 61 195 102932 164 449880 61 195 102945 165 449880 61 195 103000 166 449930 61 195 103019 167 449990 61 195 103034 168 449976 61 195 103058 169 449790 61 195 103113 170 449979 61 195 103130 171 450003 61 195 103145 172 449993 61 195 103211 173 450034 61 195 103226 174 450025 61 195 103246 175 450002 61 195 103301 176 449971 61 195 103317 177 449921 61 195 103335 178 449930 61 195 103400 179 449956 61 195 103417 180 449936 61 195 103434 1004 449936 61 195 103454 181 449908 71 195 103740 182 449953 71 195 103757 183 449945 71 195 103813 184 449956 71 195 103829 185 449981 71 195 103844 186 449935 71 195 103901 187 449980 71 195 103915 188 450021

186

91 195 110623 273 449869 101 195 110703 274 449868 101 195 110724 275 449865 101 195 110742 276 449839 101 195 110804 277 449867 101 195 110820 278 449896 101 195 110840 279 449873 101 195 110858 280 449927 101 195 110913 281 449912 101 195 110928 282 449888 101 195 110943 283 449896 101 195 110955 284 449887 101 195 111009 285 449932 101 195 111026 286 449864 101 195 111041 287 449901 101 195 111056 288 449902 101 195 111113 289 449928 101 195 111129 290 449933 101 195 111146 291 449923 101 195 111203 292 449934 101 195 111219 293 449899 101 195 111235 294 449903 101 195 111250 295 449937 101 195 111304 296 449950 101 195 111317 297 449894 101 195 111331 298 449877 101 195 111348 299 449868 101 195 111405 300 449852 101 195 111421 301 449850 101 195 111434 302 449893 101 195 111454 303 449883 101 195 111509 304 449875 111 195 111545 1006 449884 111 195 111634 305 449864 111 195 111647 306 449841 111 195 111659 307 449858 111 195 111715 308 449860 111 195 111731 309 449908 111 195 111746 310 449854 111 195 111800 311 449785 111 195 111815 312 449837 111 195 111826 313 449862 111 195 111840 314 449855 111 195 111855 315 449965 111 195 111939 316 449806 111 195 111957 317 449883 111 195 112009 318 449824 111 195 112022 319 449803 111 195 112034 320 449816 111 195 112050 321 449872 111 195 112107 322 449859 111 195 112121 323 449806 111 195 112137 324 449808 111 195 112155 325 449818 111 195 112209 326 449813 111 195 112223 327 449810 111 195 112238 328 449868 111 195 112254 329 449779 111 195 112309 330 449781 111 195 112323 331 449800 111 195 112339 332 449754 111 195 112400 333 449778 111 195 112419 334 449687 121 195 112654 335 449741 121 195 112738 336 449719 121 195 112756 337 449755 121 195 112813 338 449754 121 195 112833 339 449714 121 195 112848 340 449726 121 195 112935 341 449782 121 195 112947 342 449796 121 195 113001 343 449750 121 195 113014 344 449760 121 195 113027 345 449726 121 195 113040 346 449725 121 195 113054 347 449859 121 195 113106 348 449846 121 195 113120 349 449714 121 195 113133 350 449737 121 195 113150 351 449798 121 195 113202 352 449867 121 195 113217 353 449785 121 195 113230 354 449831 121 195 113243 355 449957 121 195 113255 356 449454

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

121 195 113308 357 450109 121 195 113327 358 449699 121 195 113342 359 449962 121 195 113356 360 449960 121 195 113409 361 449813 121 195 113424 362 449804 121 195 113439 363 449815 121 195 113452 364 449819 121 195 113508 365 449897 131 195 113553 366 449863 131 195 113608 367 449812 131 195 113624 368 449824 131 195 113638 369 449825 131 195 113652 370 449836 131 195 113708 371 449953 131 195 113721 372 449950 131 195 113736 373 449803 131 195 113751 374 449842 131 195 113806 375 449668 131 195 113824 376 449876 131 195 113843 377 449826 131 195 113855 378 449768 131 195 113910 379 449796 131 195 113931 380 449678 131 195 113945 381 449706 131 195 113956 382 449769 131 195 114015 383 449825 131 195 114030 384 449849 131 195 114042 385 449716 131 195 114055 386 449734 131 195 114107 387 449758 131 195 114120 388 449685 131 195 114139 389 449809 131 195 114152 390 449783 131 195 114207 391 449742 131 195 114221 392 449718 131 195 114239 393 449742 131 195 114252 394 449751 131 195 114306 395 449813 131 195 114327 396 449715 141 195 114343 1007 449738 141 195 114442 397 449786 141 195 114457 398 449752 141 195 114517 399 449728 141 195 114531 400 449760 141 195 114548 401 449743 141 195 114605 402 449749 141 195 114618 403 449854 141 195 114636 404 449804 141 195 114652 405 449808 141 195 114706 406 449733 141 195 114723 407 449758 141 195 114752 408 449826 141 195 114806 409 449782 141 195 114819 410 449699 141 195 114833 411 449664 141 195 114845 412 449710 141 195 114858 413 449705 141 195 114912 414 449802 141 195 114923 415 449885 141 195 114936 416 449796 141 195 115009 417 449779 141 195 115013 1008 449766 141 195 115023 418 449844 141 195 115037 419 449872 141 195 115052 420 449839 141 195 115104 421 449839 141 195 115119 422 449834 141 195 115145 423 449833 141 195 115201 424 449792 141 195 115214 425 449867 151 195 115455 426 449818 151 195 115526 427 449855 151 195 115543 428 449734 151 195 115556 429 449716 151 195 115612 430 449723 151 195 115626 431 449705 151 195 115656 432 449777 151 195 115712 433 449785 151 195 115726 434 449721 151 195 115738 435 449707 151 195 115752 436 449684 151 195 115806 437 449707 151 195 115821 438 449722 151 195 115843 439 449703

181 195 122410 181 195 122425 181 195 122435 181 195 122449 181 195 122501 181 195 122514 181 195 122526 181 195 122545 181 195 122556 181 195 122606 181 195 122617 181 195 122632 181 195 122644 181 195 122703 181 195 122715 181 195 122729 181 195 122746 181 195 122800 181 195 122812 181 195 122824 181 195 122838 181 195 122853 181 195 122928 181 195 122940 181 195 122539 191 195 123245 191 195 123301 191 195 123314 191 195 123327 191 195 123339 191 195 123352 191 195 123358 191 195 123419 191 195 123438 191 195 123452 191 195 123507 191 195 123516 191 195 123528 191 195 123539 191 195 123549 191 195 123603 191 195 123617 191 195 123626 191 195 123620 191 195 123648 191 195 123701 191 195 123711 191 195 123726 191 195 123747 191 195 123805 191 195 123820 191 195 123833 191 195 123846 191 195 123858 191 195 123910 191 195 123932 201 195 124007 201 195 124021 201 195 124034 201 195 124047 201 195 124102 201 195 124110 201 195 124121 201 195 124135 201 195 124146 201 195 124157 201 195 124210 201 195 124221 201 195 124229 201 195 124243 201 195 124257 201 195 124300 201 195 124316 201 195 124326 201 195 124355 201 195 124406 201 195 124415 201 195 124425 201 195 124437 201 195 124504 201 195 124516 201 195 124532 201 195 124546 201 195 124556 201 195 124609

151 195 115856 440 449746 151 195 115907 441 449754 151 195 115917 442 449760 151 195 115927 443 449842 151 195 115941 444 449862 151 195 115951 445 449764 151 195 120003 446 449798 151 195 120015 447 449815 151 195 120027 448 449810 151 195 120042 449 449789 151 195 120055 450 449825 151 195 120117 451 449867 151 195 120138 452 449870 151 195 120154 453 449839 151 195 120210 454 449800 151 195 120230 455 449816 151 195 120242 1009 449816 161 195 120330 456 449796 161 195 120349 457 449773 161 195 120407 458 449854 161 195 120429 459 449884 161 195 120447 460 449914 161 195 120512 461 449865 161 195 120528 462 449846 161 195 120542 463 449762 161 195 120601 464 449816 161 195 120614 465 449841 161 195 120625 466 449766 161 195 120639 467 449753 161 195 120655 468 449686 161 195 120708 469 449759 161 195 120716 470 449792 161 195 120725 471 449777 161 195 120733 472 449717 161 195 120921 473 449697 161 195 120947 474 449732 161 195 121001 475 449699 161 195 121016 476 449668 161 195 121029 477 449672 161 195 121042 478 449752 161 195 121058 479 449753 161 195 121114 480 449718 161 195 121137 481 449694 161 195 121151 482 449708 161 195 121203 483 449710 161 195 121216 484 449736 161 195 121229 485 449787 161 195 121248 486 449712 171 195 121401 487 449751 171 195 121416 488 449790 171 195 121427 489 449782 171 195 121439 490 449797 171 195 121454 491 449768 171 195 121511 492 449655 171 195 121526 493 449666 171 195 121539 494 449748 171 195 121601 495 449724 171 195 121619 496 449673 171 195 121633 497 449672 171 195 121647 498 449730 171 195 121657 499 449714 171 195 121716 500 449721 171 195 121728 501 449720 171 195 121739 502 449766 171 195 121753 1010 449766 171 195 121801 503 449762 171 195 121845 504 449733 171 195 121907 505 449745 171 195 121923 506 449733 171 195 121923 507 449850 171 195 121923 508 449767 171 195 121947 509 449730 171 195 122011 510 449815 171 195 122024 1011 449836 171 195 122035 511 449836 171 195 122059 512 449832 171 195 122117 513 449843 171 195 122128 514 449687 171 195 122143 515 449766 181 195 122234 516 449736 181 195 122304 517 449699 181 195 122317 518 449808 181 195 122326 519 449781 181 195 122337 520 449787 181 195 122355 521 449771

187

522 449782 523 449737 524 449708 525 449769 526 449796 527 449752 528 449707 529 449755 530 449700 531 449750 532 449703 533 449697 534 449722 535 449701 536 449633 537 449670 538 449645 539 449690 540 449721 541 449752 542 449721 543 449779 544 449767 545 449786 546 449696 547 449659 548 449677 549 449724 550 449753 551 449727 552 447667 553 449677 554 449655 555 449642 556 449699 557 449655 558 449678 559 449688 560 449605 561 449718 562 449709 563 449680 564 449757 565 449728 566 449705 567 449790 568 449815 569 449752 570 449655 571 449740 572 449751 573 449767 574 449718 575 449747 576 449743 577 449732 578 449736 579 449775 580 449716 581 449687 582 449742 583 449542 584 449648 585 449679 586 449768 587 449799 588 449758 589 449706 590 449708 591 449726 592 449691 593 449678 594 449848 595 449796 596 449681 597 449591 598 449528 599 449587 600 449666 601 449636 602 449589 603 449590 604 449701 605 449700 606 449673

201 195 124630 607 449657 201 195 124656 608 449649 211 195 124810 609 449614 211 195 124820 610 449638 211 195 124836 611 449647 211 195 124848 612 449725 211 195 124924 613 449628 211 195 124934 614 449686 211 195 124943 615 449628 211 195 124949 616 449686 211 195 124957 617 449671 211 195 125013 618 449573 211 195 125018 619 449583 211 195 125027 620 449530 211 195 125036 621 449654 211 195 125048 622 449517 211 195 125055 623 449572 211 195 125102 624 449654 211 195 125121 625 449710 211 195 125132 626 449740 211 195 125145 627 449753 211 195 125158 628 449735 211 195 125201 629 449773 211 195 125214 630 449793 211 195 125219 631 449771 211 195 125232 632 449696 211 195 125244 633 449562 211 195 125250 634 449643 211 195 125255 635 449752 211 195 125305 636 449792 211 195 125324 637 449775 211 195 125339 1012 449813 211 195 125353 1013 449777 221 195 155704 638 449911 221 195 155734 639 449878 221 195 155745 640 449887 221 195 155754 641 449912 221 195 155818 642 449919 221 195 155832 643 449906 221 195 155853 644 449839 221 195 155905 645 449846 221 195 155917 646 449893 221 195 155935 647 449812 221 195 155956 648 449794 221 195 160009 649 449795 221 195 160027 650 449927 221 195 160041 651 449998 221 195 160053 652 449868 221 195 160117 653 449857 221 195 160129 654 449863 221 195 160144 655 449975 221 195 160157 656 449966 221 195 160211 657 449975 221 195 160237 658 449994 221 195 160252 659 450000 221 195 160305 660 449970 221 195 160319 661 449887 221 195 160343 662 449911 221 195 160353 663 450001 221 195 160408 664 450038 221 195 160432 665 450065 221 195 160445 666 450055 221 195 160503 667 450007 221 195 160518 668 450082 231 195 160642 669 450094 231 195 160708 670 450021 231 195 160724 671 450047 231 195 160735 672 450046 231 195 160751 673 450004 231 195 160805 674 450040 231 195 160822 675 449978 231 195 160840 676 449875 231 195 160850 677 449974 231 195 160900 678 449948 231 195 160912 679 449973 231 195 160926 680 449953 231 195 160938 681 449967 231 195 160954 682 449898 231 195 161010 683 449834 231 195 161026 684 449847 231 195 161044 685 449897 231 195 161057 686 449901 231 195 161113 687 449809 231 195 161129 688 449677 231 195 161158 689 449768

APPENDIX III

231 195 161213 690 449811 231 195 161225 691 449894 231 195 161241 692 449817 231 195 161246 693 449726 231 195 161251 694 449804 231 195 161259 695 449850 231 195 161315 696 449835 231 195 161341 697 449887 231 195 161355 698 449841 231 195 161410 699 449776 241 195 161500 700 449676 241 195 161527 701 449794 241 195 161554 702 449932 241 195 161621 703 449870 241 195 161633 704 449804 241 195 161656 705 449767 241 195 161711 706 449710 241 195 161727 707 449770 241 195 161739 708 449879 241 195 161753 709 449744 241 195 161813 710 449642 241 195 161841 711 449559 241 195 161901 712 449708 241 195 161915 713 449794 241 195 161929 714 449790 241 195 161943 715 449758 241 195 162002 716 449738 241 195 162038 717 449881 241 195 162052 718 449922 241 195 162108 719 449899 241 195 162127 720 449925 241 195 162142 721 449898 241 195 162155 722 449857 241 195 162209 723 449887 241 195 162223 724 449933 241 195 162239 725 449956 241 195 162255 726 449996 241 195 162311 727 449973 241 195 162325 728 450009 241 195 162405 729 450045 241 195 162430 1014 450045 251 195 163151 730 449692 251 195 163211 731 449758 251 195 163225 732 449836 251 195 163238 733 449766 251 195 163301 734 449725 251 195 163325 735 449643 251 195 163335 736 449621 251 195 163346 737 449658 251 195 163404 738 449657 251 195 163416 739 449613 251 195 163430 740 449572 251 195 163442 741 449582 251 195 163454 742 449624 251 195 163506 743 449658 251 195 163520 744 449644 251 195 163531 745 449656 251 195 163542 746 449632 251 195 163555 747 449671 251 195 163605 748 449756 251 195 163617 749 449855 251 195 163628 750 449868 251 195 163639 751 449815 251 195 163651 752 449787 251 195 163704 753 449835 251 195 163715 754 449834 251 195 163727 755 449866 251 195 163740 756 449976 251 195 163752 757 450002 251 195 163803 758 449980 251 195 163819 759 449976 251 195 163834 760 449966 261 195 163929 761 449967 261 195 163939 762 449901 261 195 163951 763 449974 261 195 164003 764 449989 261 195 164016 765 449902 261 195 164031 766 449807 261 195 164041 767 449776 261 195 164053 768 449803 261 195 164120 769 449809 261 195 164132 770 449770 261 195 164147 771 449776 261 195 164157 772 449823 261 195 164212 773 449680

31 195 170115 824 449837 41 195 170209 825 449812 41 195 170226 826 449826 41 195 170239 827 449798 41 195 170254 828 449768 41 195 170304 829 449895 41 195 170314 830 449921 41 195 170323 831 449822 41 195 170333 832 449805 41 195 170351 833 449860 41 195 170404 834 449801 41 195 170416 835 449767 51 195 170544 836 449861 51 195 170555 837 449869 51 195 170606 838 449815 51 195 170619 839 449788 51 195 170634 840 449843 51 195 170643 841 449921 51 195 170652 842 449884 51 195 170701 843 449785 51 195 170710 844 449809 51 195 170719 845 449843 51 195 170727 846 449834 61 195 170820 847 449891 61 195 170829 848 449882 61 195 170837 849 449815 61 195 170846 850 449748 61 195 170855 851 449804 61 195 170904 852 449906 61 195 170914 853 449879 61 195 170922 854 449792 61 195 170930 855 449773 61 195 170938 856 449772 61 195 170949 857 449861 71 195 171057 858 449833 71 195 171105 859 449796 71 195 171112 860 449787 71 195 171121 861 449786 71 195 171129 862 449841 71 195 171138 863 449903 71 195 171146 864 449784 71 195 171156 865 449772 71 195 171204 866 449776 71 195 171212 867 449795 71 195 171222 868 449819 81 195 171353 869 449864 81 195 171402 870 449843 81 195 171409 871 449812 81 195 171417 872 449819 81 195 171426 873 449841 81 195 171434 874 449881 81 195 171442 875 449861 81 195 171450 876 449840 81 195 171501 877 449821 81 195 171509 878 449830 81 195 171519 879 449873 91 195 171555 880 449906 91 195 171604 881 449900 91 195 171612 882 449895 91 195 171620 883 449872 91 195 171628 884 449872 91 195 171637 885 449889 91 195 171647 886 449904 91 195 171654 887 449836 91 195 171702 888 449852 91 195 171712 889 449891 91 195 171723 890 449908 101 195 172020 891 449956 101 195 172031 892 449912 101 195 172040 893 449917 101 195 172048 894 449937 101 195 172056 895 449926 101 195 172105 897 449901 101 195 172114 898 449899 101 195 172126 899 449890 101 195 172134 900 449953 101 195 172145 901 449937 101 195 172155 902 449928 111 195 172300 1200 449947 111 195 172319 903 449952 111 195 172333 904 449916 111 195 172419 905 447828 111 195 172431 906 449839 111 195 172539 907 449895 111 195 172548 908 449926

261 195 164224 774 449562 261 195 164235 775 449596 261 195 164246 776 449591 261 195 164255 777 449532 261 195 164304 778 449518 261 195 164313 779 449454 261 195 164322 780 449484 261 195 164331 781 449540 261 195 164339 782 449626 261 195 164354 783 449640 261 195 164408 784 449631 261 195 164417 785 449607 261 195 164425 786 449616 261 195 164434 787 449634 261 195 164442 788 449641 261 195 164452 789 449711 261 195 164504 790 449666 261 195 164516 791 449644 Area 19 Base Station Readings 999 195 091500 1 450101 999 195 091507 2 450100 999 195 092800 3 450094 999 195 092807 4 450096 999 195 092813 5 450095 999 195 100103 6 450030 999 195 100110 7 450030 999 195 100118 8 450029 999 195 104800 9 449945 999 195 104808 10 449941 999 195 104820 11 449942 999 195 112500 12 449887 999 195 112508 13 449885 999 195 112517 14 449886 999 195 115300 15 449850 999 195 115307 16 449852 999 195 115313 17 449851 999 195 123100 18 449851 999 195 123108 19 449847 999 195 123115 20 449844 999 195 125500 21 449876 999 195 125507 22 449873 999 195 125514 23 449873 999 195 155500 24 450098 999 195 155507 25 450099 999 195 155513 26 450095 999 195 162900 27 450040 999 195 162906 28 450038 999 195 162913 29 450038 999 195 164800 30 450033 999 195 164807 31 450035 999 195 164813 32 450032 Area 20 Field Readings 11 195 165323 792 449652 11 195 165336 793 449702 11 195 165400 794 449747 11 195 165411 795 449648 11 195 165420 796 449662 11 195 165428 797 449613 11 195 165435 798 449535 11 195 165444 799 449596 11 195 165452 800 449641 11 195 165501 801 449632 11 195 165515 802 449662 21 195 165633 803 449722 21 195 165643 804 449722 21 195 165655 805 449692 21 195 165708 806 449605 21 195 165716 807 449696 21 195 165727 808 449751 21 195 165736 809 449694 21 195 165745 810 449669 21 195 165756 811 449796 21 195 165805 812 449797 21 195 165814 813 449750 31 195 165936 814 449757 31 195 165946 815 449767 31 195 170000 816 449869 31 195 170009 817 449785 31 195 170021 818 449793 31 195 170030 819 449871 31 195 170038 820 449752 31 195 170047 821 449681 31 195 170055 822 449805 31 195 170104 823 449889

188

111 195 172558 909 449953 111 195 172607 910 449929 111 195 172621 911 449933 111 195 172635 1201 449976 112 195 172708 912 449950 112 195 172719 913 449942 112 195 172730 914 449947 112 195 172739 915 449987 112 195 172747 916 449955 112 195 172754 917 449910 112 195 172802 918 449887 112 195 172814 919 449887 112 195 172825 920 449948 112 195 172836 921 449946 112 195 172849 922 450012 131 195 172932 923 449946 131 195 172941 924 449931 131 195 172950 925 449913 131 195 172958 926 449912 131 195 173006 927 449949 131 195 173015 928 449986 131 195 173026 929 450003 131 195 173040 930 449973 131 195 173054 931 449960 131 195 173108 932 449970 131 195 173122 933 449971 141 195 173158 934 449984 141 195 173212 935 449985 141 195 173220 936 449915 141 195 173229 937 449939 141 195 173238 938 449955 141 195 173247 939 449970 141 195 173254 940 449969 141 195 173259 941 449961 141 195 173305 942 449949 141 195 173310 943 449946 141 195 173315 944 449930 151 195 173422 945 449929 151 195 173432 946 449952 151 195 173440 947 449930 151 195 173448 948 449940 151 195 173457 949 449949 151 195 173506 950 449934 151 195 173516 951 449962 151 195 173525 952 449950 151 195 173535 953 449853 151 195 173542 954 449975 151 195 173551 955 450020 161 195 173631 956 450239 161 195 173648 957 450015 161 195 173658 958 450003 161 195 173719 959 449988 161 195 173733 960 449996 161 195 173743 961 449988 161 195 173756 962 449978 161 195 173806 963 449991 161 195 173815 964 449962 161 195 173825 965 449987 161 195 173836 966 449861 171 195 173906 967 449931 171 195 173914 968 449968 171 195 173923 969 450015 171 195 173934 970 450000 171 195 174039 971 450011 171 195 174051 972 449998 171 195 174102 973 449973 171 195 174115 974 450004 171 195 174125 975 450114 171 195 174134 976 450039 171 195 174145 977 449978 181 195 174230 978 450006 181 195 174242 979 450019 181 195 174254 980 449999 181 195 174309 981 450049 181 195 174322 982 450022 181 195 174338 983 449996 181 195 174349 984 449954 181 195 174401 985 450056 181 195 174413 986 449971 181 195 174426 987 449983 181 195 174440 988 449969 191 195 174521 989 449979 191 195 174533 990 449941 191 195 174545 991 449998 191 195 174601 992 449947

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

191 195 174616 993 449931 191 195 174625 994 449971 191 195 174633 995 450032 191 195 174642 996 449996 191 195 174651 997 450029 191 195 174701 998 450021 191 195 174712 999 450011 201 195 175000 1000 450015 201 195 175012 1001 449995 201 195 175024 1201 449982 201 195 175036 1202 449941 201 195 175048 1203 449969 201 195 175100 1204 449964 201 195 175112 1205 449951 201 195 175124 1206 449969 201 195 175140 1207 449953 201 195 175155 1208 449957 201 195 175300 1002 449917 211 195 175525 1003 449902 211 195 175557 1004 449873 211 195 175607 1005 449906 211 195 175636 1006 449893 211 195 175648 1007 449920 211 195 175702 1008 449951 211 195 175714 1009 449900 211 195 175726 1010 449875 211 195 175737 1011 449995 211 195 175751 1012 449998 211 195 175803 1013 449968 221 195 175908 1014 449969 221 195 175938 1015 449976 221 195 180023 1016 449980 221 195 180035 1017 449873 221 195 180049 1018 449898 221 195 180105 1019 449943 221 195 180117 1020 449949 221 195 180129 1209 449881 221 195 180139 1021 449895 221 195 180152 1022 449890 221 195 180204 1023 449880 231 195 180332 1024 449915 231 195 180342 1025 449916 231 195 180351 1026 449952 231 195 180457 1027 449985 231 195 180506 1028 450026 231 195 180516 1029 450213 231 195 180525 1030 450032 231 195 180535 1031 449846 231 195 180547 1032 449991 231 195 180601 1033 450043 231 195 180614 1034 449990 241 195 180707 1035 450062 241 195 180718 1036 450044 241 195 180733 1037 449958 241 195 180746 1038 449895 241 195 180759 1039 450274 241 195 180811 1040 450452 241 195 180824 1041 450126 241 195 180838 1042 450073 241 195 180935 1043 450092 241 195 180947 1044 449978 241 195 180958 1045 449975 251 195 181045 1046 450028 251 195 181732 1047 449754 251 195 181800 1048 449784 251 196 114400 1049 449782 251 196 114415 1050 449782 251 196 114430 1051 449901 251 196 114445 1052 449873 251 196 114500 1053 449664 251 196 114515 1054 449697 251 196 114530 1055 449734 251 196 114545 1056 449764 261 196 114700 1057 449742 261 196 114718 1058 449706 261 196 114734 1059 449693 261 196 114750 1060 449666 261 196 114807 1061 449769 261 196 114823 1062 449768 261 196 114839 1063 449771 261 196 114856 1064 449756 261 196 114920 1065 449758 261 196 114940 1066 449727 261 196 115008 1067 449714 Area 20 Base Station Readings

999 195 165100 999 195 165108 999 195 165116 999 195 171800 999 195 171806 999 195 171813 999 195 174800 999 195 174806 999 195 174815 999 196 114300 999 196 114307 999 196 114314 999 196 115130 999 196 115137 999 196 115144

31 203 123419 31 203 123433 31 203 123445 31 203 123455 31 203 123508 31 203 123521 31 203 123532 31 203 123544 31 203 123558 31 203 123614 31 203 123629 31 203 123641 31 203 123651 31 203 123703 31 203 123713 31 203 123725 31 203 123737 31 203 123754 31 203 123806 31 203 123818 31 203 123828 31 203 123841 31 203 123851 31 203 123901 31 203 123914 41 203 123952 41 203 124008 41 203 124022 41 203 124033 41 203 124043 41 203 124055 41 203 124107 41 203 124120 41 203 124134 41 203 124147 41 203 124159 41 203 124211 41 203 124224 41 203 124235 41 203 124246 41 203 124258 41 203 124309 41 203 124320 41 203 124331 41 203 124342 41 203 124354 41 203 124407 41 203 124425 41 203 124445 41 203 124500 41 203 124514 41 203 124531 41 203 124543 41 203 124557 41 203 124613 41 203 124632 51 203 152755 51 203 152807 51 203 152817 51 203 152828 51 203 152842 51 203 152919 51 203 152958 51 203 153010 51 203 153023 51 203 153036 51 203 153050 51 203 153104 51 203 153118 51 203 153130 51 203 153143 51 203 153158 51 203 153212 51 203 153225 51 203 153240 51 203 153252 51 203 153305 51 203 153317 51 203 153333 51 203 153346 51 203 153358 51 203 153410 51 203 153506 51 203 153518 51 203 153531

1 450037 2 450036 3 450040 4 450053 5 450052 6 450052 7 450023 8 450021 9 450022 10 449739 11 449740 12 449741 13 449730 14 449732 15 449731

Area 21 Field Readings 11 203 121604 0 449711 11 203 121616 1 449723 11 203 121639 2 449730 11 203 121650 3 449789 11 203 121705 4 449850 11 203 121718 5 449859 11 203 121739 6 449793 11 203 121752 7 449749 11 203 121809 8 449737 11 203 121831 9 449729 11 203 121843 10 449732 11 203 121901 11 449732 11 203 121913 12 449711 11 203 121925 13 449660 11 203 121935 14 449717 11 203 121947 15 449700 11 203 122001 16 449692 11 203 122014 17 449734 11 203 122028 18 449830 11 203 122041 19 449498 11 203 122101 20 449722 11 203 122118 21 449812 11 203 122132 22 449861 11 203 122154 23 449821 11 203 122206 24 449763 11 203 122220 25 449785 11 203 122231 26 449795 11 203 122244 27 449743 11 203 122305 28 449708 11 203 122320 29 449722 11 203 122336 30 449695 21 203 122418 31 449686 21 203 122434 32 449691 21 203 122448 33 449768 21 203 122502 34 449729 21 203 122517 35 449778 21 203 122531 36 449751 21 203 122544 37 449748 21 203 122556 38 449784 21 203 122612 39 449825 21 203 122629 40 449852 21 203 122642 41 449758 21 203 122654 42 449749 21 203 122709 43 449894 21 203 122722 44 449744 21 203 122736 45 449705 21 203 122808 46 449683 21 203 122828 47 449724 21 203 122847 48 449688 21 203 122908 49 449786 21 203 122920 50 449791 21 203 122931 51 449718 21 203 122943 52 449720 21 203 122956 53 449768 21 203 123007 54 449826 21 203 123022 55 449810 21 203 123036 56 449873 21 203 123047 57 449851 21 203 123058 58 449797 21 203 123111 59 449783 21 203 123124 60 449793 21 203 123142 61 449805 31 203 123208 62 449791 31 203 123252 63 449796 31 203 123332 64 449849 31 203 123343 65 449866 31 203 123354 66 449876 31 203 123405 67 449922

189

68 449935 69 449923 70 449978 71 449878 72 449847 73 449825 74 449783 75 449721 76 449721 77 449723 78 449670 79 449746 80 449802 81 449793 82 449823 83 449848 84 449861 85 449764 86 449754 87 449764 88 449758 89 449756 90 449755 91 449725 92 449731 93 449657 94 449677 95 449712 96 449685 97 449693 98 449711 99 449731 100 449766 101 449835 102 449801 103 449788 104 449743 105 449741 106 449733 107 449693 108 449709 109 449780 110 449756 111 449780 112 449834 113 449868 114 449996 115 450066 116 449969 117 449984 118 449959 119 449912 120 449868 121 449845 122 449772 123 449748 124 449736 125 449758 126 449867 127 449908 128 449998 129 450024 130 450037 131 450058 132 450056 133 450048 134 449941 135 449852 136 449851 137 449767 138 449820 139 449747 140 449775 141 449792 142 449801 143 449833 144 449839 145 449856 146 449894 147 449855 148 449924 149 449748 150 449696 151 449729 152 449816

51 203 153543 51 203 153556 61 203 153728 61 203 153825 61 203 153836 61 203 153850 61 203 153904 61 203 153916 61 203 153935 61 203 154140 61 203 154153 61 203 154204 61 203 154241 61 203 154253 61 203 154313 61 203 154352 61 203 154405 61 203 154416 61 203 154428 61 203 154440 61 203 154454 61 203 154505 61 203 154518 61 203 154530 61 203 154556 61 203 154611 61 203 154622 61 203 154635 61 203 154655 61 203 154710 61 203 154724 61 203 154737 61 203 154754 71 203 154835 71 203 154848 71 203 154906 71 203 154938 71 203 154949 71 203 155002 71 203 155016 71 203 155038 71 203 155052 71 203 155105 71 203 155119 71 203 155131 71 203 155143 71 203 155156 71 203 155215 71 203 155228 71 203 155239 71 203 155252 71 203 155305 71 203 155319 71 203 155332 71 203 155344 71 203 155355 71 203 155406 71 203 155419 71 203 155433 71 203 155447 71 203 155506 71 203 155520 71 203 155531 71 203 155544 81 203 155632 81 203 155645 81 203 155659 81 203 155716 81 203 155732 81 203 155744 81 203 155757 81 203 155810 81 203 155829 81 203 155842 81 203 155858 81 203 155915 81 203 155929 81 203 155941 81 203 155954 81 203 160012 81 203 160024 81 203 160039 81 203 160104 81 203 160142 81 203 160203

153 449664 154 449703 155 449705 156 449711 157 449736 158 449715 159 449693 160 449836 161 449805 162 449839 163 449854 164 449868 165 449840 166 449822 167 449839 168 449814 169 449853 170 449716 171 449829 172 449798 173 449712 174 449845 175 449943 176 450030 177 450036 178 450054 179 450018 180 450036 181 450000 182 449937 183 449860 184 449773 185 449803 186 449809 187 449853 188 449918 189 449958 190 449986 191 450013 192 450002 193 450020 194 449986 195 449959 196 449951 197 449887 198 449856 199 449857 200 449815 201 449842 202 449871 203 449907 204 449857 205 449799 206 449813 207 449869 208 449839 209 449803 210 449680 211 449811 212 449756 213 449715 214 449738 215 449748 216 449728 217 449738 218 449723 219 449711 220 449716 221 449775 222 449799 223 449802 224 449860 225 449801 226 449853 227 449819 228 449857 229 449902 230 449924 231 449870 232 449885 233 449850 234 449886 235 449929 236 450004 237 449996

APPENDIX III

81 203 160223 238 449985 81 203 160237 239 449988 81 203 160249 240 450017 81 203 160310 241 450029 81 203 160327 242 450030 81 203 160345 243 450052 81 203 160405 244 449970 81 203 160417 245 449943 81 203 160428 246 449921 81 203 160443 247 449789 91 203 160631 248 449846 91 203 160644 249 449860 91 203 160655 250 449927 91 203 160711 251 450006 91 203 160731 252 450028 91 203 160745 253 450016 91 203 160802 254 450061 91 203 160819 255 450069 91 203 160834 256 450032 91 203 160845 257 449973 91 203 160857 258 449928 91 203 160908 259 449950 91 203 160925 260 449888 91 203 160938 261 449877 91 203 160950 262 449884 91 203 161005 263 449859 91 203 161020 264 449844 91 203 161039 265 449876 91 203 161050 266 449886 91 203 161104 267 449844 91 203 161120 268 449817 91 203 161136 269 449821 91 203 161151 270 449769 91 203 161204 271 449837 91 203 161221 272 449837 91 203 161235 273 449793 91 203 161248 274 449752 91 203 161306 275 449733 91 203 161323 276 449713 91 203 161338 277 449723 91 203 161350 278 449717 101 203 161423 279 449556 101 203 161438 280 449614 101 203 161451 281 449655 101 203 161505 282 449747 101 203 161519 283 449783 101 203 161534 284 449819 101 203 161546 285 449782 101 203 161601 286 449789 101 203 161615 287 449792 101 203 161630 288 449816 101 203 161645 289 449808 101 203 161659 290 449834 101 203 161713 291 449831 101 203 161726 292 449813 101 203 161742 293 449833 101 203 161757 294 449859 101 203 161810 295 449887 101 203 161822 296 449905 101 203 161835 297 449894 101 203 161854 298 449934 101 203 161909 299 449962 101 203 161928 300 449996 101 203 161942 301 450047 101 203 161955 302 450044 101 203 162008 303 450062 101 203 162022 304 450024 101 203 162034 305 450033 101 203 162054 306 449951 101 203 162113 307 449898 101 203 162124 308 449793 101 203 162138 309 449846 111 203 162203 310 450021 111 203 162216 311 449945 111 203 162229 312 449818 111 203 162242 313 449899 111 203 162258 314 449939 111 203 162310 315 450008 111 203 162322 316 450009 111 203 162335 317 450029 111 203 162347 318 450002 111 203 162400 319 449950 111 203 162416 320 449931 111 203 162429 321 449898 111 203 162441 322 449869

141 203 164804 141 203 164813 141 203 164824 141 203 164834 141 203 164844 141 203 164856 141 203 164905 141 203 164916 141 203 164941 141 203 165059 141 203 165110 141 203 165120 141 203 165131 141 203 165141 141 203 165152 141 203 165203 141 203 165213 141 203 165223 141 203 165233 141 203 165245 141 203 165258 141 203 165315 141 203 165327 141 203 165337 141 203 165348 141 203 165400 151 203 165434 151 203 165447 151 203 165457 151 203 165512 151 203 165522 151 203 165540 151 203 165552 151 203 165601 151 203 165614 151 203 165623 151 203 165634 151 203 165644 151 203 165658 151 203 165714 151 203 165726 151 203 165737 151 203 165748 151 203 165759 151 203 165808 151 203 165819 151 203 165831 151 203 165841 151 203 165852 151 203 165904 151 203 165914 151 203 165924 151 203 165934 151 203 165944 151 203 170003 151 203 170019 151 203 170047 161 203 170252 161 203 170339 161 203 170350 161 203 170401 161 203 170411 161 203 170423 161 203 170433 161 203 170446 161 203 170457 161 203 170508 161 203 170517 161 203 170529 161 203 170539 161 203 170550 161 203 170600 161 203 170609 161 203 170620 161 203 170658 161 203 170710 161 203 170720 161 203 170731 161 203 170745 161 203 170756 161 203 170809 161 203 170822 161 203 170833 161 203 170844 161 203 170853

111 203 162452 323 449850 111 203 162507 324 449838 111 203 162520 325 449811 111 203 162535 326 449767 111 203 162548 327 449778 111 203 162602 328 449763 111 203 162621 329 449773 111 203 162636 330 449769 111 203 162649 331 449744 111 203 162702 332 449762 111 203 162715 333 449780 111 203 162727 334 449775 111 203 162741 335 449755 111 203 162759 336 449795 111 203 162814 337 449657 111 203 162829 338 449562 111 203 162842 339 449513 111 203 162900 340 449420 121 203 163039 341 449027 121 203 163055 1000 449347 121 203 163123 342 449565 121 203 163136 343 449672 121 203 163150 344 449810 121 203 163205 345 449773 121 203 163218 346 449797 121 203 163232 347 449781 121 203 163244 348 449706 121 203 163253 349 449823 121 203 163304 350 449766 121 203 163317 351 449758 121 203 163328 352 449728 121 203 163340 353 449764 121 203 163350 354 449788 121 203 163358 355 449802 121 203 163410 356 449832 121 203 163424 357 449845 121 203 163435 358 449864 121 203 163448 359 449884 121 203 163458 360 449902 121 203 163510 361 449970 121 203 163520 362 450011 121 203 163530 363 450028 121 203 163544 364 450004 121 203 163555 365 449990 121 203 163606 366 449920 121 203 163616 367 449897 121 203 163625 368 449837 121 203 163637 369 449804 121 203 163652 370 449886 131 203 163831 371 449835 131 203 163843 372 449825 131 203 163912 373 449866 131 203 163925 374 449892 131 203 163936 375 449916 131 203 163947 376 449980 131 203 164000 377 450011 131 203 164011 378 450026 131 203 164022 379 450023 131 203 164036 380 449980 131 203 164049 381 449950 131 203 164058 382 449922 131 203 164110 383 449887 131 203 164120 384 449882 131 203 164133 385 449853 131 203 164144 386 449796 131 203 164154 387 449795 131 203 164206 388 449769 131 203 164216 389 449740 131 203 164226 390 449752 131 203 164237 391 449746 131 203 164247 392 449764 131 203 164258 393 449703 131 203 164308 394 449771 131 203 164318 395 449820 131 203 164328 396 449828 131 203 164339 397 449814 131 203 164343 1001 449828 131 203 164347 1002 449573 131 203 164350 1003 449150 131 203 164412 398 448292 141 203 164701 399 448082 141 203 164722 400 449567 141 203 164731 401 450128 141 203 164742 402 450142 141 203 164753 403 450014

190

404 449947 405 449847 406 449820 407 449734 408 449741 409 449738 410 449771 411 449812 412 449836 413 449843 414 449840 415 449838 416 449867 417 449896 418 449955 419 449988 420 450001 421 450017 422 450002 423 449987 424 449946 425 449938 426 449916 427 449871 428 449838 429 449811 430 449771 431 449768 432 449808 433 449919 434 449959 435 449943 436 449981 437 449983 438 449955 439 449954 440 449995 441 449958 442 449884 443 449856 444 449780 445 449809 446 449843 447 449914 448 449821 449 449733 450 449693 451 449700 452 449762 453 449831 454 449967 455 450209 456 450741 457 451894 458 451731 459 450278 460 448846 461 449065 462 449745 463 451954 464 452306 465 451195 466 450412 467 450049 468 449823 469 449686 470 449649 471 449662 472 449782 473 449781 474 449835 475 449844 476 449685 477 450594 478 450097 479 449941 480 449950 481 449939 482 449942 483 449922 484 449975 485 449980 486 449966 487 449902 488 449851

161 203 170905 489 449832 161 203 170918 490 449836 161 203 170933 491 449810 171 203 171158 492 449792 171 203 171211 493 449835 171 203 171222 494 449844 171 203 171234 495 449860 171 203 171244 496 449874 171 203 171254 497 449894 171 203 171305 498 449951 171 203 171320 499 449912 171 203 171333 500 449838 171 203 171412 501 449866 171 203 171422 502 449903 171 203 171432 503 449902 171 203 171442 504 449902 171 203 171453 505 450007 171 203 171504 506 449815 171 203 171514 507 449722 171 203 171525 508 449798 171 203 171535 509 449789 171 203 171546 510 449724 171 203 171556 511 449697 171 203 171606 512 449494 171 203 171618 513 449524 171 203 171628 514 449507 171 203 171638 515 449643 171 203 171650 516 450206 171 203 171702 517 450949 171 203 171713 518 450937 171 203 171726 519 450653 171 203 171739 520 450057 171 203 171751 521 449396 171 203 171802 522 449137 181 203 171839 523 449072 181 203 171904 524 449210 181 203 171913 525 449478 181 203 171932 526 449717 181 203 171946 527 450066 181 203 172003 528 450989 181 203 172048 529 450111 181 203 172102 530 449150 181 203 172111 531 449238 181 203 172122 532 449399 181 203 172133 533 449473 181 203 172146 534 449622 181 203 172158 535 449706 181 203 172213 536 449720 181 203 172223 537 449751 181 203 172233 538 449765 181 203 172242 539 449852 181 203 172253 540 449853 181 203 172303 541 449856 181 203 172314 542 449879 181 203 172323 543 449882 181 203 172334 544 449756 181 203 172346 545 449724 181 203 172359 546 449953 181 203 172408 547 449948 181 203 172417 548 449872 181 203 172426 549 449875 181 203 172436 550 449847 181 203 172447 551 449821 181 203 172459 1004 449747 181 203 172516 552 449786 191 203 172544 553 449792 191 203 172557 554 449750 191 203 172608 555 449772 191 203 172620 556 449813 191 203 172638 557 449833 191 203 172653 558 449878 191 203 172741 559 449904 191 203 172752 560 450248 191 203 172805 561 450032 191 203 172814 562 449627 191 203 172827 563 449760 191 203 172837 564 449816 191 203 172851 565 449806 191 203 172905 566 449853 191 203 172914 567 449797 191 203 172924 568 449755 191 203 172934 569 449677 191 203 172946 570 449698 191 203 172957 571 449685 191 203 173008 572 449656

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

191 203 173017 573 449451 191 203 173027 574 449346 191 203 173037 575 449222 191 203 173047 576 448509 191 203 173100 577 448885 191 203 173111 578 449547 191 203 173123 579 449492 191 203 173135 580 449304 191 203 173146 581 449182 191 203 173156 582 448986 191 203 173207 583 448875 201 203 173302 584 448507 201 203 173322 585 448710 201 203 173342 586 448867 201 203 173351 587 449053 201 203 173410 588 449219 201 203 173423 589 449268 201 203 173436 590 449074 201 203 173447 591 448945 201 203 173457 592 449279 201 203 173506 593 449302 201 203 173515 594 449441 201 203 173525 595 449644 201 203 173536 596 449655 201 203 173547 597 449653 201 203 173559 598 449662 201 203 173612 599 449723 201 203 173624 600 449751 201 203 173634 601 449637 201 203 173644 602 449773 201 203 173655 603 449779 201 203 173705 604 449769 201 203 173716 605 449657 201 203 173727 606 449752 201 203 173737 607 449923 201 203 173749 608 449821 201 203 173759 609 449785 201 203 173810 610 449828 201 203 173820 611 449782 201 203 173831 612 449767 201 203 173841 613 449736 201 203 173859 614 449713 211 203 173932 615 449778 211 203 173943 616 449758 211 203 173957 617 449765 211 203 174008 618 449851 211 203 174017 619 449865 211 203 174028 620 449745 211 203 174038 621 449735 211 203 174047 622 449729 211 203 174058 623 449672 211 203 174110 624 449710 211 203 174121 625 449750 211 203 174131 626 449799 211 203 174141 627 449896 211 203 174151 628 449524 211 203 174202 629 449612 211 203 174212 630 449626 211 203 174221 631 449687 211 203 174230 632 449686 211 203 174240 633 449606 211 203 174249 634 449910 211 203 174301 635 449240 211 203 174312 636 449101 211 203 174322 637 448989 211 203 174332 638 448922 211 203 174346 639 448987 211 203 174403 640 448806 211 203 174415 641 448687 211 203 174426 642 448499 211 203 174437 643 448317 211 203 174452 644 447941 211 203 174504 645 447918 Area 21 base Station Readings 999 203 121500 1 449746 999 203 121505 2 449747 999 203 121510 3 449748 999 203 152600 4 449858 999 203 152606 5 449857 999 203 152612 6 449856 999 203 160510 7 449867 999 203 160515 8 449872 999 203 160521 9 449874 999 203 163804 10 449917 999 203 163811 11 449918

999 203 163817 999 203 171000 999 203 171006 999 203 171013 999 203 174700 999 203 174706 999 203 174712

31 204 102014 31 204 102025 31 204 102037 31 204 102049 31 204 102105 31 204 102120 31 204 102147 31 204 102159 31 204 102209 31 204 102220 31 204 102233 31 204 102244 31 204 102254 31 204 102305 31 204 102321 31 204 102332 31 204 102344 41 204 102422 41 204 102435 41 204 102446 41 204 102457 41 204 102508 41 204 102518 41 204 102534 41 204 102554 41 204 102607 41 204 102618 41 204 102629 41 204 102642 41 204 102657 41 204 102726 41 204 102739 41 204 102807 41 204 102817 41 204 102828 41 204 102838 41 204 102849 41 204 102901 41 204 102911 41 204 102921 41 204 102930 41 204 103024 41 204 103035 41 204 103046 41 204 103057 41 204 103108 41 204 103121 41 204 103134 51 204 103436 51 204 103446 51 204 103457 51 204 103508 51 204 103519 51 204 103531 51 204 103541 51 204 103555 51 204 103606 51 204 103617 51 204 103628 51 204 103638 51 204 103648 51 204 103658 51 204 103708 51 204 103720 51 204 103731 51 204 103748 51 204 103759 51 204 103810 51 204 103823 51 204 103835 51 204 103847 51 204 103900 51 204 103912 51 204 103924 51 204 103936 51 204 103946 51 204 103956 51 204 104008 51 204 104018 61 204 104045 61 204 104109 61 204 104119 61 204 104131 61 204 104140 61 204 104150

12 449920 13 449952 14 449949 15 449948 16 449996 17 449997 18 449999

Area 22 Field Readings 11 204 100204 0 449775 11 204 100216 1 449828 11 204 100229 2 449844 11 204 100247 3 449873 11 204 100302 4 449824 11 204 100317 5 449886 11 204 100327 6 449896 11 204 100342 7 449929 11 204 100353 8 449862 11 204 100408 9 449941 11 204 100510 10 449910 11 204 100523 11 449902 11 204 100535 12 449933 11 204 100547 13 449937 11 204 100558 14 449966 11 204 100609 15 449972 11 204 100620 16 449984 11 204 100630 17 450108 11 204 100642 18 450453 11 204 100653 19 450557 11 204 100713 20 449325 11 204 100729 21 449027 11 204 100743 22 449476 11 204 100756 23 449618 11 204 100807 24 449922 11 204 100818 25 449878 11 204 100829 26 449782 11 204 100840 27 449693 11 204 100851 28 449638 11 204 100903 29 449666 11 204 100916 30 449726 21 204 100949 31 449637 21 204 101003 32 449650 21 204 101029 33 449667 21 204 101056 34 449754 21 204 101115 35 449784 21 204 101126 36 449793 21 204 101138 37 449786 21 204 101148 38 449804 21 204 101203 39 449745 21 204 101214 40 449555 21 204 101225 41 449584 21 204 101243 42 450916 21 204 101254 43 451776 21 204 101309 44 450246 21 204 101321 45 450129 21 204 101333 46 450091 21 204 101346 47 449995 21 204 101400 48 449934 21 204 101416 49 449943 21 204 101429 50 449920 21 204 101439 51 449929 21 204 101451 52 449912 21 204 101502 53 449875 21 204 101514 54 449932 21 204 101526 55 449889 21 204 101540 56 449878 21 204 101553 57 449861 21 204 101607 58 449828 21 204 101618 59 449800 21 204 101629 60 449799 21 204 101648 61 449806 31 204 101727 62 449832 31 204 101742 63 449803 31 204 101754 64 449787 31 204 101804 65 449804 31 204 101816 66 449802 31 204 101832 67 449821 31 204 101842 68 449840 31 204 101852 69 449859 31 204 101904 70 449828 31 204 101916 71 449846 31 204 101926 72 449894 31 204 101936 73 449916 31 204 101948 74 449892 31 204 102004 75 449922

191

76 450023 77 450175 78 450699 79 450457 80 447212 81 450270 82 449777 83 449647 84 449683 85 449752 86 449760 87 449744 88 449806 89 449720 90 449678 91 449710 92 449744 93 449938 94 449769 95 449705 96 449653 97 449714 98 449784 99 449349 100 449724 101 449692 102 449671 103 449703 104 449805 105 449537 106 450381 107 450302 108 450137 109 449966 110 449832 111 449806 112 449781 113 449784 114 449781 115 449769 116 449751 117 449743 118 449792 119 449772 120 449720 121 449714 122 449712 123 449673 124 449626 125 449641 126 449689 127 449704 128 449756 129 449757 130 449740 131 449744 132 449699 133 449693 134 449642 135 449687 136 449724 137 449675 138 449552 139 450260 140 449944 141 449895 142 449829 143 449760 144 449656 145 449641 146 449613 147 449593 148 449564 149 449694 150 449685 151 449631 152 449640 153 449677 154 449702 155 449577 156 449592 157 449620 158 449617 159 449647 160 449668

61 204 104202 161 449637 61 204 104213 162 449596 61 204 104226 163 449550 61 204 104242 164 449587 61 204 104256 165 449606 61 204 104309 166 449653 61 204 104327 167 449711 61 204 104344 168 449728 61 204 104353 169 449898 61 204 104404 170 449883 61 204 104415 171 449488 61 204 104427 172 449648 61 204 104437 173 449673 61 204 104447 174 449445 61 204 104456 175 449418 61 204 104507 176 449477 61 204 104517 177 449586 61 204 104528 178 449676 61 204 104539 179 449678 61 204 104549 180 449714 61 204 104603 181 449744 61 204 104615 182 449722 61 204 104627 183 449650 61 204 104655 184 449546 61 204 104713 185 449622 71 204 104733 186 449624 71 204 104751 187 449607 71 204 104803 188 449645 71 204 104818 189 449742 71 204 104832 190 449602 71 204 104849 191 449728 71 204 104902 192 449683 71 204 104916 193 449586 71 204 104927 194 449428 71 204 104937 195 449224 71 204 105011 196 448695 71 204 105024 197 448644 71 204 105035 198 449202 71 204 105049 199 449772 71 204 105100 200 449726 71 204 105118 201 449847 71 204 105132 202 450024 71 204 105145 1001 449380 71 204 105209 203 449655 71 204 105220 204 449593 71 204 105231 205 449555 71 204 105242 206 449614 71 204 105253 207 449631 71 204 105304 208 449581 71 204 105321 209 449614 71 204 105334 210 449607 71 204 105347 211 449591 71 204 105355 1000 449583 71 204 105415 212 449564 71 204 105428 213 449581 71 204 105440 214 449739 81 204 105513 215 449531 81 204 105531 216 449537 81 204 105545 217 449526 81 204 105558 218 449547 81 204 105610 219 449554 81 204 105621 220 449558 81 204 105632 221 449587 81 204 105644 222 449566 81 204 105656 223 449639 81 204 105712 224 449709 81 204 105725 225 449638 81 204 105738 226 449592 81 204 105750 227 449626 81 204 105805 228 449623 81 204 105817 229 449738 81 204 105830 230 449762 81 204 105843 231 449742 81 204 105855 232 449730 81 204 105907 233 449417 81 204 110020 234 448226 81 204 110044 235 447067 81 204 110102 236 448366 81 204 110114 237 449220 81 204 110126 238 449482 81 204 110140 239 449690 81 204 110205 240 449710 81 204 110217 241 449736 81 204 110236 242 449722 81 204 110249 243 449612

APPENDIX III

81 204 110300 244 449556 81 204 110312 245 449610 91 204 110616 246 449571 91 204 110633 247 449501 91 204 110644 248 449588 91 204 110654 249 449595 91 204 110704 250 449724 91 204 110714 251 449886 91 204 110725 252 450007 91 204 110736 1002 449771 91 204 110749 253 449172 91 204 110803 254 449110 91 204 110816 255 448594 91 204 110829 256 449258 91 204 110843 257 449481 91 204 110855 258 449570 91 204 110906 259 449555 91 204 110917 260 449560 91 204 110928 261 449488 91 204 110939 262 449431 91 204 110950 263 449417 91 204 111005 264 449366 91 204 111019 265 449475 91 204 111030 266 449508 91 204 111043 267 449395 91 204 111054 268 449409 91 204 111104 269 449427 91 204 111115 270 449413 91 204 111125 271 449424 91 204 111135 272 449413 91 204 111146 273 449378 91 204 111159 274 449368 91 204 111209 275 449313 101 204 111308 276 449327 101 204 111331 277 449365 101 204 111343 278 449303 101 204 111353 279 449350 101 204 111404 280 449376 101 204 111414 281 449416 101 204 111424 282 449455 101 204 111436 283 449378 101 204 111447 284 449421 101 204 111459 285 449445 101 204 111509 286 449418 101 204 111519 287 449396 101 204 111531 288 449435 101 204 111541 289 449451 101 204 111552 290 449474 101 204 111603 291 449479 101 204 111614 292 449501 101 204 111627 293 449494 101 204 111642 294 449437 101 204 111657 295 449335 101 204 111712 296 449242 101 204 111724 297 449302 101 204 111734 298 449536 101 204 111750 299 450916 101 204 111806 300 450753 101 204 111815 301 450061 101 204 111824 302 449707 101 204 111834 303 449524 101 204 111844 304 449409 101 204 111856 305 449397 101 204 111906 306 449439 111 204 111939 307 449208 111 204 111949 1003 449217 111 204 111957 308 449287 111 204 112006 309 449458 111 204 112015 310 449632 111 204 112025 311 450097 111 204 112041 312 451104 111 204 112053 313 451094 111 204 112257 314 449380 111 204 112355 315 449416 111 204 112406 316 449423 111 204 112416 317 449475 111 204 112426 318 449485 111 204 112439 319 449470 111 204 112450 320 449500 111 204 112502 321 449493 111 204 112512 322 449524 111 204 112526 323 449525 111 204 112539 324 449520 111 204 112551 325 449441 111 204 112603 326 449551

21 204 120938 21 204 120946 21 204 120954 21 204 121002 21 204 121010 31 204 121022 31 204 121034 31 204 121046 31 204 121058 31 204 121107 31 204 121119 31 204 121131 31 204 121143 31 204 121155 31 204 121207 31 204 121219 31 204 121231 31 204 121243 31 204 121255 31 204 121307 31 204 121319 31 204 121331 31 204 121343 31 204 121355 31 204 121407 31 204 121419 31 204 121431 31 204 121443 31 204 121455 31 204 121507 31 204 121519 31 204 121531 31 204 121543 31 204 121555 31 204 121607 31 204 121619 41 204 121700 41 204 121710 41 204 121720 41 204 121730 41 204 121740 41 204 121750 41 204 121800 41 204 121810 41 204 121820 41 204 121830 41 204 121840 41 204 121850 41 204 121900 41 204 121910 41 204 121920 41 204 121930 41 204 121940 41 204 121950 41 204 122000 41 204 122010 41 204 122020 41 204 122030 41 204 122040 41 204 122050 41 204 122100 41 204 122110 41 024 122120 41 204 122130 41 204 122140 41 024 122150 41 204 122200 51 204 122230 51 204 122244 51 204 122258 51 204 122312 51 204 122326 51 204 122340 51 204 122354 51 204 122408 51 204 122422 51 204 122436 51 204 122450 51 204 122504 51 204 122518 51 204 122532 51 204 122546 51 204 122600 51 204 122614 51 204 122628

111 204 112614 327 449521 111 204 112626 328 449433 111 204 112640 329 449489 111 204 112650 330 449477 111 204 112700 331 449438 111 204 112718 332 449385 111 204 112733 333 449350 111 204 112749 334 449340 111 204 112811 335 449260 111 204 112824 336 449284 Area 22 base Station Readings 999 204 095400 1 449800 999 204 095406 2 449801 999 204 095412 3 449800 999 204 100000 4 449790 999 204 100005 5 449788 999 204 100012 6 449790 999 204 103300 7 449729 999 204 103305 8 449730 999 204 103311 9 449731 999 204 110400 10 449651 999 204 110406 11 449648 999 204 110411 12 449649 999 204 112900 13 449648 999 204 112906 14 449649 999 204 112912 15 449648 Area 23 Field Readings 11 204 120000 0 449489 11 204 120012 1 449499 11 204 120024 2 449557 11 204 120036 3 449759 11 204 120048 4 449571 11 204 120100 5 449583 11 204 120112 6 449637 11 204 120124 7 449697 11 204 120136 8 449741 11 204 120148 9 449772 11 204 120200 10 449727 11 204 120212 11 449686 11 204 120224 12 449726 11 204 120236 13 449703 11 204 120248 14 449685 11 204 120300 15 449724 11 204 120312 16 449793 11 204 120324 17 449817 11 204 120336 18 449932 11 204 120348 19 449789 11 204 120400 20 449745 11 204 120412 21 449810 11 204 120424 22 449811 11 204 120436 23 449796 11 204 120448 24 449976 11 204 120500 25 449990 11 204 120512 26 450164 11 204 120524 27 450059 11 204 120536 28 449709 11 204 120548 29 449553 11 204 120600 30 449549 21 204 120610 31 449686 21 204 120618 32 449563 21 204 120626 33 449777 21 204 120634 34 450022 21 204 120642 35 450042 21 204 120650 36 449936 21 204 120658 37 450027 21 204 120706 38 449907 21 204 120714 39 449755 21 204 120722 40 449760 21 204 120730 41 449741 21 204 120738 42 449755 21 204 120746 43 449793 21 204 120754 44 449764 21 204 120802 45 449684 21 204 120810 46 449681 21 204 120818 47 449668 21 204 120826 48 449652 21 204 120834 49 449721 21 204 120842 50 449702 21 204 120850 51 449713 21 204 120858 52 449676 21 204 120906 53 449644 21 204 120914 54 449683 21 204 120922 55 449613 21 204 120930 56 449617

192

57 449691 58 449583 59 449530 60 449532 61 449531 62 449566 63 449548 64 449540 65 449577 66 449663 67 449667 68 449662 69 449651 70 449695 71 449639 72 449667 73 449691 74 449674 75 449623 76 449611 77 449649 78 449701 79 449719 80 449731 81 449731 82 449713 83 449792 84 449904 85 450049 86 449948 87 449946 88 449945 89 449867 90 449755 91 449926 92 450045 93 450140 94 449998 95 449758 96 449901 97 449950 98 449981 99 449922 100 450064 101 449983 102 449879 103 449747 104 449681 105 449659 106 449661 107 449656 108 449623 109 449613 110 449639 111 449616 112 449685 113 449642 114 449655 115 449619 116 449512 117 449536 118 449522 119 449589 120 449554 121 449549 122 449538 123 449526 124 449260 125 449559 126 449552 127 449555 128 449575 129 449581 130 449505 131 449505 132 449462 133 449460 134 449664 135 449675 136 449631 137 449657 138 449668 139 449640 140 449632 141 449610

51 204 122642 51 204 122656 51 204 122710 51 204 122724 51 204 122738 51 204 122752 51 204 122820 51 204 122834 51 204 122848 51 204 122902 51 204 122916 51 204 122930 51 204 122944 61 204 123000 61 204 123016 61 204 123032 61 204 123048 61 204 123120 61 204 123136 61 204 123150 61 204 123206 61 204 123222 61 204 123238 61 204 123254 61 204 123310 61 204 123326 61 204 123342 61 204 123358 61 204 123414 61 204 123430 61 204 123446 61 204 123502 61 204 123518 61 204 123534 61 204 123550 61 204 123606 61 204 123622 61 204 123638 61 204 123654 61 204 123710 61 204 123726 61 204 123742 61 204 123758 61 204 123814 71 204 124300 71 204 124312 71 204 124324 71 204 124336 71 204 124348 71 204 124400 71 204 124412 71 204 124424 71 204 124436 71 204 124448 71 204 124500 71 204 124512 71 204 124524 71 204 124536 71 204 124548 71 204 124600 71 204 124612 71 204 124624 71 204 124636 71 204 124648 71 204 124700 71 204 124712 71 204 124724 71 204 124736 71 204 124748 71 204 124800 71 204 124812 71 204 124824 71 204 124836 71 204 124848 71 204 124900 81 204 125000 81 204 125024 81 204 125036 81 204 125048 81 204 125100 81 204 125112 81 204 125124 81 204 125136 81 204 125148 81 204 125200

142 449636 143 449665 144 449764 145 449848 146 449937 147 450075 149 449963 150 449891 151 449893 152 449840 153 449793 154 450054 155 450145 156 449469 157 449509 158 449519 159 449558 161 449570 162 449584 163 449548 164 449504 165 449353 166 449390 167 449583 168 449626 169 449611 170 449620 171 449653 172 449606 173 449660 174 449602 175 449586 176 449604 177 449720 178 449791 179 449937 180 450065 181 449955 182 449869 183 449876 184 449812 185 449835 186 449817 187 450175 188 449613 189 449921 190 450127 191 449820 192 449813 193 449899 194 449962 195 449984 196 449906 197 449789 198 449648 199 449647 200 449528 201 449527 202 449459 203 449608 204 449592 205 449582 206 449547 207 449559 208 449489 209 449439 210 449435 211 449487 212 449565 213 449572 214 449519 215 449473 216 449475 217 449426 218 449427 219 449364 221 449379 222 449416 223 449433 224 449442 225 449414 226 449480 227 449570 228 449529 229 449596

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

81 204 125212 230 449554 81 204 125224 231 449668 81 204 125236 232 449440 81 204 125248 233 449478 81 204 125300 234 449536 81 204 125312 235 449513 81 204 125324 236 449568 81 204 125336 237 449528 81 204 125348 238 449537 81 204 125400 239 449476 81 204 125412 240 449537 81 204 125424 241 449596 81 204 125436 242 449604 81 204 125448 243 449655 81 204 125500 244 449722 81 204 125512 245 449672 81 204 125524 246 449695 81 204 125536 247 449819 81 204 125548 248 450178 81 204 125600 249 450164 81 204 125612 250 449606 91 204 125640 251 449393 91 204 125655 252 449612 91 204 125710 253 450229 91 204 125725 254 449958 91 204 125740 255 449531 91 204 125755 256 449467 91 204 125810 257 449541 91 204 125825 258 449515 91 204 125840 259 449491 91 204 125855 260 449493 91 204 125910 261 449496 91 204 125925 262 449431 91 204 125940 263 449433 91 204 125955 264 449484 91 204 130010 265 449488 91 204 130025 266 449493 91 204 130040 267 449473 91 204 130055 268 449457 91 204 130110 269 449388 91 204 130125 270 449464 91 204 130140 271 449489 91 204 130155 272 449506 91 204 130210 273 449472 91 204 130225 274 449504 91 204 130240 275 449424 91 204 130255 276 449377 91 204 130310 277 449354 91 204 130325 278 449387 91 204 130340 279 449391 91 204 130355 280 449424 91 204 130410 281 449348 101 204 130600 282 449303 101 204 130614 283 449375 101 204 130642 285 449369 101 204 130656 286 449285 101 204 130704 287 449299 101 204 130718 288 449336 101 204 130732 289 449340 101 204 130746 289 449332 101 204 130800 290 449361 101 204 130814 291 449382 101 204 130828 292 449367 101 204 130842 293 449345 101 204 130856 294 449340 101 204 130904 295 449342 101 204 130918 296 449412 101 204 130932 297 449405 101 204 130946 298 449396 101 204 131000 299 449408 101 204 131014 300 449407 101 204 131028 301 449455 101 204 131042 302 449519 101 204 131056 303 449482 101 204 131110 304 449450 101 204 131124 305 449342 101 204 131138 306 449189 101 204 131152 307 449319 101 204 131206 308 449403 101 204 131220 309 449810 101 204 131234 310 450446 101 204 131248 311 449624 101 204 131302 312 449889 111 204 131314 313 448365 111 204 131326 314 448867

21 204 161729 21 204 161744 21 204 161757 21 204 161809 21 204 161820 21 204 161834 21 204 161848 21 204 161900 21 204 161911 21 204 161922 21 204 161932 21 204 161943 21 204 161953 21 204 162005 21 204 162023 21 204 162038 21 204 162053 21 204 162105 31 204 162216 31 204 162229 31 204 162239 31 204 162252 31 204 162304 31 204 162317 31 204 162329 31 204 162339 31 204 162356 31 204 162411 31 204 162423 31 204 162437 31 204 162453 31 204 162505 31 204 162517 31 204 162530 31 204 162541 31 204 162552 31 204 162603 31 204 162615 31 204 162625 31 204 162641 31 204 162655 31 204 162707 31 204 162725 31 204 162737 31 204 162755 31 204 162808 31 204 162821 31 204 162834 31 204 162907 41 204 163043 41 204 163100 41 204 163115 41 204 163128 41 204 163142 41 204 163156 41 204 163207 41 204 163222 41 204 163236 41 204 163248 41 204 163258 41 204 163312 41 204 163326 41 204 163341 41 204 163418 41 204 163434 41 204 163446 41 204 163459 41 204 163510 41 204 163523 41 204 163536 41 204 163546 41 204 163559 41 204 163617 41 204 163628 41 204 163639 41 204 163651 41 204 163702 41 204 163717 41 204 163730 41 204 163741 51 204 163842 51 204 163853 51 204 163904 51 204 163914 51 204 163924

111 204 131338 315 449056 111 204 131350 316 449608 111 204 131402 317 449112 111 204 131414 318 448858 111 204 131426 319 448768 111 204 131438 320 449140 111 204 131450 321 449313 111 204 131502 322 449366 111 204 131514 323 449383 111 204 131526 324 449335 111 204 131538 325 449294 111 204 131550 326 449247 111 204 131602 327 449278 111 204 131614 328 449219 111 204 131626 329 449240 111 204 131638 330 449220 111 204 131650 331 449246 111 204 131702 332 449325 111 204 131714 333 449232 111 204 131726 334 449213 111 204 131738 335 449316 111 204 131750 336 449246 111 204 131802 337 449234 111 204 131814 338 449224 111 204 131826 339 449302 111 204 131838 340 449261 111 204 131850 341 449177 111 204 131902 342 449188 111 204 131914 343 449168 Area 23 Base Station Readings 999 204 115500 1 449641 999 204 115506 2 449639 999 204 115510 3 449640 999 204 123100 4 449595 999 204 123106 5 449597 999 204 123112 6 449601 999 204 132200 7 449662 999 204 132206 8 449669 999 204 132213 9 449667 Area 24 Field Readings 11 204 160248 0 449954 11 204 160317 1 449984 11 204 160328 2 450043 11 204 160347 3 450039 11 204 160401 4 450049 11 204 160413 5 450068 11 204 160426 6 450003 11 204 160438 7 449985 11 204 160452 8 450071 11 204 160515 9 449882 11 204 160530 10 449913 11 204 160543 11 449908 11 204 160554 12 449913 11 204 160607 13 449924 11 204 160623 14 449902 11 204 160635 15 449941 11 204 160649 16 449931 11 204 160705 17 449946 11 204 160720 18 449958 11 204 160734 19 449937 11 204 160752 20 449938 11 204 160805 21 449984 11 204 160817 22 450029 11 204 160830 23 450081 11 204 160842 24 450199 11 204 160855 25 449970 11 204 160908 26 450175 11 204 160921 27 450331 11 204 160938 28 450766 11 204 160951 29 452198 11 204 161027 30 454471 21 204 161126 31 453802 21 204 161341 32 452380 21 204 161401 33 450760 21 204 161418 34 450335 21 204 161433 35 450175 21 204 161525 36 450222 21 204 161540 37 450078 21 204 161556 38 450008 21 204 161612 39 449992 21 204 161626 40 449964 21 204 161646 41 450022 21 204 161701 42 449921 21 204 161715 43 449873

193

44 449904 45 449899 46 449925 47 449905 48 449915 49 449886 50 449903 51 449929 52 449912 53 449887 54 449949 55 449920 56 449998 57 450041 58 450018 59 449974 60 449923 61 449898 62 449904 63 449937 64 449951 65 449972 66 450010 67 449962 68 449916 69 449919 70 449893 71 449867 72 449899 73 449883 74 449855 75 449897 76 449905 77 449917 78 449863 79 449875 80 449871 81 449936 82 449963 83 450000 84 449954 85 449944 86 450026 87 450130 88 450154 89 450274 90 450294 91 450922 92 450967 93 450166 94 450233 95 450431 96 450018 97 450081 98 450070 99 450002 100 449886 101 449836 102 449891 103 449891 104 449888 105 449859 106 449841 107 449917 108 449916 109 449968 110 449876 111 449861 112 449874 113 449842 114 449830 115 449889 116 449890 117 449887 118 449926 119 449953 120 449952 121 449923 122 449935 123 449896 124 449978 125 449955 126 449949 127 449957 128 449955

51 204 163935 51 204 163945 51 204 164117 51 204 164128 51 204 164141 51 204 164155 51 204 164206 51 204 164216 51 204 164229 51 204 164241 51 204 164256 51 204 164309 51 204 164321 51 204 164331 51 204 164341 51 204 164352 51 204 164403 51 204 164414 51 204 164423 51 204 164432 51 204 164441 51 204 164452 51 204 164502 51 204 164513 51 204 164524 51 204 164547 61 204 165055 61 204 165123 61 204 165330 61 204 165352 61 204 165404 61 204 165417 61 204 165428 61 204 165440 61 204 165452 61 204 165503 61 204 165520 61 204 165534 61 204 165550 61 204 165601 61 204 165613 61 204 165629 61 204 165642 61 204 165656 61 204 165706 61 204 165718 61 204 165731 61 204 165743 61 204 165753 61 204 165803 61 204 165813 61 204 165823 61 204 165837 61 204 165850 61 204 165901 61 204 165914 61 204 165926 71 204 170023 71 204 170042 71 204 170058 71 204 170110 71 204 170152 71 204 170207 71 204 170220 71 204 170240 71 204 170254 71 204 170306 71 204 170322 71 204 170335 71 204 170346 71 204 170401 71 204 170416 71 204 170432 71 204 170445 71 204 170504 71 204 170519 71 204 170535 71 204 170551 71 204 170609 71 204 170622 71 204 170639 71 204 170650 71 204 170711 71 204 170724 71 204 170755

129 449900 130 449918 131 449926 132 449885 133 449861 134 449825 135 449823 136 449822 137 449831 138 450007 139 449948 140 449827 141 449831 142 449849 143 449867 144 449858 145 449921 146 449761 147 449840 148 449946 149 450045 150 450256 151 450050 152 450165 153 450299 154 449903 155 450025 156 450009 157 449977 158 449992 159 449952 160 449946 161 449940 162 449945 163 449908 164 449883 165 449804 166 449740 167 449780 168 449809 169 449792 170 449916 171 449835 172 449872 173 449842 174 449823 175 449717 176 449667 177 449672 178 449756 179 449917 180 449881 181 450184 182 450159 183 450034 184 450072 185 449963 186 449911 187 449959 188 449990 189 450077 190 450105 191 449990 192 450048 193 449447 194 449425 195 449561 196 449681 197 449746 198 449762 199 449856 200 449868 201 449873 202 449797 203 449664 204 449635 205 449611 206 449949 207 449903 208 449979 209 449981 210 449953 211 449899 212 449912 213 449983

APPENDIX III

71 204 170813 214 450027 71 204 170839 215 450037 71 204 170904 216 450042 81 204 171015 217 449991 81 204 171043 218 450037 81 204 171112 219 450050 81 204 171127 220 449978 81 204 171143 221 449915 81 204 171155 222 449923 81 204 171208 223 449926 81 204 171223 224 449958 81 204 171240 225 449988 81 204 171250 226 449931 81 204 171301 227 449842 81 204 171312 228 449551 81 204 171322 229 449292 81 204 171333 230 449343 81 204 171342 231 449655 81 204 171355 232 449889 81 204 171406 233 449938 81 204 171422 234 449860 81 204 171432 235 449808 81 204 171448 236 449750 81 204 171458 237 449686 81 204 171507 238 449420 81 204 171517 239 448853 81 204 171603 240 447843 81 204 171621 241 449408 81 204 171632 242 450157 81 204 171645 243 450118 81 204 171658 244 450096 81 204 171708 245 450045 81 204 171720 246 450007 81 204 171754 247 449888 91 204 171908 248 450007 91 204 171922 249 450039 91 204 171949 250 450065 91 204 172006 251 450072 91 204 172021 252 450163 91 204 172035 253 450184 91 204 172051 254 449649 91 204 172139 255 447328 91 204 172155 256 448352 91 204 172207 257 449266 91 204 172219 258 449664 91 204 172231 259 449795 91 204 172242 260 449820 91 204 172255 261 449917 91 204 172308 262 450080 91 204 172330 263 450016 91 204 172348 264 449588 91 204 172437 265 448164 91 204 172511 266 448442 91 204 172523 267 449513 91 204 172536 268 449910 91 204 172552 269 450010 91 204 172606 270 450035 91 204 172625 271 449978 91 204 172637 272 449951 91 204 172648 273 449929 91 204 172702 274 449932 91 204 172717 275 449996 91 204 172736 276 450059 91 204 172752 277 450040 91 204 172806 278 449989 101 204 173243 279 449983 101 204 173302 280 450006 101 204 173314 281 449980 101 204 173328 282 449923 101 204 173341 283 449976 101 204 173350 284 449966 101 204 173359 285 449953 101 204 173410 286 450045 101 204 173420 287 450115 101 204 173433 288 450164 101 204 173444 289 450157 101 204 173507 290 449990 101 204 173548 291 447206 101 204 173608 292 455808 101 204 173621 293 449452 101 204 173633 294 450314 101 204 173701 295 450113 101 204 173714 296 449919 101 204 173724 297 449833 101 204 173742 298 449750

101 204 173751 101 204 173800 101 204 173809 101 204 173820 101 204 173829 101 204 173838 101 204 173850 101 204 173900 101 204 173920 101 204 173932 101 204 173942 111 204 174054 111 204 174107 111 204 174129 111 204 174147 111 204 174205 111 204 174215 111 204 174226 111 204 174237 111 204 174249 111 204 174304 111 204 174316 111 204 174325 111 204 174335 111 204 174344 111 204 174353 111 204 174415 111 204 174451 111 204 174505 111 204 174520 111 204 174542 111 204 174553 111 204 174616 111 204 174626 111 204 174636 111 204 174646 111 204 174655 111 204 174707 111 204 174717 111 204 174726 111 204 174737 111 204 174748 121 204 174836 121 204 174851 121 204 174905 121 204 174916 121 204 174926 121 204 174940 121 204 174951 121 204 175008 121 204 175022 121 204 175035 121 204 175046 121 204 175100 121 204 175128 121 204 175142 121 204 175156 121 204 175208 121 204 175218 121 204 175227 121 204 175236 121 204 175245 121 204 175256 121 204 175306 121 204 175316 121 204 175325 121 204 175335 121 204 175347 121 204 175358 121 204 175408 121 204 175417 121 204 175428 121 204 175440 131 204 175518 131 204 175532 131 204 175550 131 204 175603 131 204 175616 131 204 175627 131 204 175637 131 204 175647 131 204 175703 131 204 175715 131 204 175727 131 204 175748

131 204 175806 131 204 175825 131 204 175839 131 204 175847 131 204 175856 131 204 175904 131 204 175915 131 204 175926 131 204 175935 131 204 175944 131 204 175954 131 204 180006 131 204 180036 131 204 180047 131 204 180057 131 204 180109 131 204 180121 131 204 180130 131 204 180143 141 204 180243 141 204 180255 141 204 180305 141 204 180315 141 204 180324 141 204 180333 141 204 180343 141 204 180352 141 204 180401 141 204 180412 141 204 180421 141 204 180432 141 204 180444 141 204 180457 141 204 180508 141 204 180520 141 204 180531 141 204 180541 141 204 180727 141 204 180740 141 204 180754 141 204 180804 141 204 180814 141 204 180828 141 204 180839 141 204 180850 141 204 180859 141 204 180910 141 204 180920 141 204 180932 141 204 180944 151 204 181326 151 204 181401 151 204 181413 151 204 181423 151 204 181434 151 204 181448 151 204 181457 151 204 181506 151 204 181515 151 204 181525 151 204 181540 151 204 181550 151 204 181601 151 204 181610 151 204 181618 151 204 181631 151 204 181646 151 204 181853 151 204 181905 151 204 181917 151 204 181925 151 204 181933 151 204 181941 151 204 181950 151 204 181958 151 204 182007 151 204 182016 151 204 182024 151 204 182033 151 204 182042 151 204 182052 161 204 182132 161 204 182150 161 204 182200 161 204 182209

299 449633 300 449238 301 448722 302 449377 303 449898 304 450095 305 450116 306 450019 307 450030 308 449991 309 449998 310 449998 311 450016 312 450048 313 450025 314 450012 315 450027 316 450002 317 449929 318 449687 319 449465 320 449780 321 449707 322 449699 323 449843 324 450052 325 450370 326 447123 327 453553 328 452824 329 452878 330 450527 331 450413 332 450155 333 450081 334 449974 335 449962 336 449996 337 449935 338 449868 339 449964 340 449948 341 450033 342 449974 343 449951 344 449965 345 450026 346 450013 347 450039 348 450090 349 450243 350 450741 351 450618 352 452715 353 457942 354 446224 355 446053 356 449804 357 449826 358 449566 359 449185 360 449189 361 449969 362 449880 363 449906 364 450014 365 449967 366 449988 367 449860 368 450022 369 450034 370 450033 371 449983 372 450053 373 450004 374 450012 375 450091 376 449993 377 449991 378 450022 379 450007 380 449991 381 449863 382 449826 383 448172

194

384 447679 385 449202 386 449678 387 449638 388 448935 389 448413 390 448714 391 451692 392 450647 393 450395 394 450186 395 450061 396 450027 397 450013 398 450009 399 449992 400 449987 401 449994 402 450046 403 450109 404 450054 405 450071 406 450043 407 450046 408 450030 409 450040 410 450089 411 450154 412 450222 413 450278 414 450151 415 449808 416 449904 417 450032 418 450224 419 450056 420 449327 421 448584 422 449464 423 449784 424 449919 425 449992 426 449984 427 449983 428 449964 429 450002 430 450028 431 450047 432 450014 433 450041 434 450141 435 450105 436 450079 437 450025 438 450000 439 450022 440 450055 441 450053 442 450076 443 450117 444 450071 445 450079 446 450182 447 450395 448 450829 449 451432 450 451758 451 450180 452 449500 453 449492 454 449825 455 449913 456 449923 457 449889 458 449912 459 449971 460 449990 461 450022 462 450050 463 450155 464 450287 465 449964 466 450008 467 450014 468 450004

161 204 182219 161 204 182229 161 204 182238 161 204 182249 161 204 182259 161 204 182307 161 204 182315 161 204 182325 161 204 182334 161 204 182348 161 204 182407 161 204 182419 161 204 182429 161 204 182439 161 204 182449 161 204 182458 161 204 182507 161 204 182516 161 204 182525 161 204 182535 161 204 182543 161 204 182552 161 204 182601 161 204 182709 161 204 182719 161 204 182729 161 204 182739 171 204 182822 171 204 182838 171 204 182847 171 204 182857 171 204 182922 171 204 182930 171 204 182939 171 204 182946 171 204 182954 171 204 183002 171 204 183012 171 204 183021 171 204 183031 171 204 183040 171 204 183051 171 204 183110 171 204 183125 171 204 183139 171 204 183151 171 204 183202 171 204 183217 171 204 183227 171 204 183310 171 204 183321 171 204 183330 171 204 183342 171 204 183352 171 204 183400 171 204 183410 171 204 183419 171 204 183427 181 204 183514 181 204 183524 181 204 183533 181 204 183546 181 204 183602 181 204 183611 181 204 183619 181 204 183628 181 204 183638 181 204 183647 181 204 183656 181 204 183704 181 204 183713 181 204 183723 181 204 183748 181 204 183757 181 204 183804 181 204 183821 181 204 183832 181 204 183845 181 204 183854 181 204 183903 181 204 183911 181 204 183931 181 204 183940 181 204 183953 181 204 184006

469 449984 470 449951 471 449899 472 449870 473 449876 474 449895 475 449796 476 449630 477 449500 478 449997 479 452403 480 453121 481 452366 482 451026 483 450291 484 450033 485 449937 486 449953 487 449982 488 449979 489 450121 490 450016 491 449984 492 450008 493 450024 494 450074 495 450129 496 450155 497 450074 498 450028 499 449993 500 449996 501 449957 502 449987 503 449896 504 449869 505 449793 506 449736 507 449636 508 449777 509 450999 510 453279 511 452495 512 450465 513 449698 514 449538 515 449606 516 449777 517 449798 518 449773 519 449860 520 449885 521 449884 522 449924 523 449966 524 450005 525 449978 526 449983 527 450016 528 450040 529 450000 530 449973 531 449894 532 449815 533 449867 534 449850 535 449796 536 449755 537 449909 538 449693 539 449601 540 449659 541 449998 542 450786 543 451373 544 450267 545 447956 546 448647 547 449303 548 449669 549 449826 550 449893 551 449954 552 449979 553 449989

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

181 204 184019 181 204 184028 181 204 184039 181 204 184050 191 204 184121 191 204 184130 191 204 184142 191 204 184150 191 204 184159 191 204 184207 191 204 184219 191 204 184227 191 204 184235 191 204 184243 191 204 184250 191 204 184258 191 204 184310 191 204 184324 191 204 184333 191 204 184355 191 204 184405 191 204 184414 191 204 184422 191 204 184431 191 204 184440 191 204 184449 191 204 184458 191 204 184507 191 204 184516 191 204 184525 191 204 184533 191 204 184541 191 204 184548 191 204 184617 191 204 184627 201 204 184715 201 204 184726 201 204 184736 201 204 184745 201 204 184753 201 204 184802 201 204 184812 201 204 184821 201 204 184830 201 204 184841 201 204 184850 201 204 184859 201 204 184910 201 204 184920 201 204 184928 201 204 184938 201 204 184947 201 204 184956 201 204 185006 201 204 185014 201 204 185028 201 204 185048 201 204 185104 201 204 185136 201 204 185147 201 204 185200 201 204 185215 201 204 185233 201 204 185243 201 204 185253 201 204 185333 211 204 185418 211 204 185431 211 204 185456 211 204 185506 211 204 185515 211 204 185525 211 204 185534 211 204 185541 211 204 185549 211 204 185556 211 204 185603 211 204 185611 211 204 185619 211 204 185626 211 204 185642 211 204 185652 211 204 185701 211 204 185712 211 204 185720

554 450027 555 450019 556 450040 557 450074 558 450001 559 450005 560 450003 561 450031 562 450035 563 449995 564 449953 565 449972 566 449914 567 449596 568 448892 569 446816 570 445099 571 449706 572 450554 573 450320 574 450014 575 449987 576 449728 577 449735 578 449814 579 449813 580 449817 581 449852 582 449926 583 449859 584 449947 585 449983 586 450007 587 449990 588 449969 589 449995 590 450042 591 450042 592 450009 593 449965 594 449920 595 449883 596 449862 597 449840 598 449794 599 449732 600 449755 601 449760 602 449857 603 449966 604 450181 605 450275 606 449922 607 448830 608 447550 609 449019 610 449875 611 450131 612 450082 613 450079 614 450040 615 450051 616 450030 617 450039 618 450036 619 450030 620 450051 621 450067 622 450066 623 450040 624 450074 625 450106 626 450155 627 450275 628 450528 629 450455 630 449231 631 448999 632 449576 633 449814 634 450053 635 450001 636 449908 637 449812 638 449760

21 205 085810 21 205 085820 21 205 085830 21 205 085839 21 205 085847 21 205 085857 21 205 085906 21 205 085916 21 205 085927 21 205 085938 31 205 090013 31 205 090024 31 205 090037 31 205 090050 31 205 090101 31 205 090114 31 205 090127 31 205 090137 31 205 090148 31 205 090200 31 205 090212 31 205 090224 31 205 090235 31 205 090246 31 205 090257 31 205 090308 31 205 090317 31 205 090327 31 205 090339 31 205 090349 31 205 090358 31 205 090406 31 205 090417 31 205 090426 31 205 090436 31 205 090444 31 205 090454 31 205 090503 31 205 090513 31 205 090524 31 205 090544 41 205 090624 41 205 090638 41 205 090658 41 205 090713 41 205 090726 41 205 090740 41 205 090755 41 205 090808 41 205 090821 41 205 090833 41 205 090846 41 205 090902 41 205 090913 41 205 090924 41 205 090936 41 205 090946 41 205 090957 41 205 091008 41 205 091020 41 205 091030 41 205 091046 41 205 091057 41 205 091106 41 205 091117 41 205 091128 41 205 091137 41 205 091148 41 205 091158 41 205 091211 41 205 091221 41 205 091231 51 205 091312 51 205 091331 51 205 091341 51 205 091354 51 205 091405 51 205 091417 51 205 091425 51 205 091435 51 205 091445 51 205 091454 51 205 091503 51 205 091513 51 205 091522

211 204 185729 639 449763 211 204 185736 640 449791 211 204 185746 641 449837 211 204 185754 642 449855 211 204 185802 643 449859 211 204 185811 644 449872 211 204 185819 645 449889 211 204 185828 646 449963 211 204 185835 647 449995 211 204 185843 648 450062 211 204 185855 649 450079 211 204 185905 650 450022 Area 24 Base Station Readings 999 204 154900 1 449885 999 204 154906 2 449884 999 204 154913 3 449885 999 204 155910 4 449876 999 204 155916 5 449883 999 204 155921 6 449876 999 204 164800 7 449847 999 204 164807 8 449844 999 204 164812 9 449845 999 204 173000 10 449874 999 204 173007 11 449871 999 204 173013 12 449869 999 204 181100 13 449893 999 204 181106 14 449896 999 204 181114 15 449892 999 204 190010 16 449947 999 204 190016 17 449948 999 204 190021 18 449949 Area 25 Field Readings 11 205 084729 0 455536 11 205 084743 1 450794 11 205 084753 2 449369 11 205 084803 3 449647 11 205 084813 4 449823 11 205 084824 5 449924 11 205 084834 6 449949 11 205 084845 7 449945 11 205 084855 8 449921 11 205 084904 9 449889 11 205 084914 10 449870 11 205 084923 11 449877 11 205 084936 12 449881 11 205 084945 13 449889 11 205 084956 14 449880 11 205 085005 15 449888 11 205 085017 16 449902 11 205 085027 17 449869 11 205 085035 18 449856 11 205 085043 19 449903 11 205 085053 20 450039 11 205 085109 21 449976 11 205 085129 22 449963 11 205 085139 23 449905 11 205 085148 24 449929 11 205 085157 25 449978 11 205 085206 26 449986 11 205 085214 27 449987 11 205 085223 28 450009 11 205 085238 29 450080 11 205 085306 30 449860 21 205 085352 31 449911 21 205 085410 32 450003 21 205 085423 33 450032 21 205 085435 34 450021 21 205 085448 35 450000 21 205 085459 36 450015 21 205 085509 37 450006 21 205 085521 38 449929 21 205 085532 39 449940 21 205 085543 40 449936 21 205 085554 41 449886 21 205 085607 42 449913 21 205 085618 43 449872 21 205 085634 44 449894 21 205 085646 45 449900 21 205 085658 46 449903 21 205 085709 47 449889 21 205 085719 48 449902 21 205 085732 49 449935 21 205 085744 50 449942 21 205 085757 51 449916

195

52 449899 53 449869 54 449907 55 449923 56 449855 57 449754 58 449684 59 449607 60 450294 61 453809 62 450743 63 450101 64 449807 65 449758 66 449795 67 449897 68 449902 69 450057 70 449849 71 449898 72 449932 73 449937 74 449944 75 449920 76 449902 77 449911 78 449931 79 449908 80 449931 81 449902 82 449903 83 449936 84 449920 85 449953 86 449970 87 449990 88 450032 89 450042 90 450065 91 450114 92 449942 93 449998 94 449998 95 450077 96 450061 97 450010 98 449930 99 449968 100 449972 101 449936 102 449960 103 449907 104 449955 105 449935 106 449940 107 449919 108 449915 109 449930 110 449962 111 449982 112 449965 113 449947 114 449943 115 449889 116 449925 117 449891 118 449726 119 449860 120 449836 121 449890 122 450048 123 450150 124 449904 125 449998 126 449926 127 449775 128 449875 129 449904 130 449880 131 449948 132 449943 133 449947 134 449953 135 449978 136 449986

51 205 091532 51 205 091545 51 205 091555 51 205 091604 51 205 091614 51 205 091626 51 205 091637 51 205 091648 51 205 091659 51 205 091711 51 205 091719 51 205 091728 51 205 091735 51 205 091744 51 205 091753 51 205 091801 51 205 091811 51 205 091829 61 205 091903 61 205 091914 61 205 091925 61 205 091936 61 205 091947 61 205 091958 61 205 092008 61 205 092018 61 205 092029 61 205 092042 61 205 092053 61 205 092103 61 205 092114 61 205 092125 61 205 092137 61 205 092148 61 205 092159 61 205 092209 61 205 092219 61 205 092229 61 205 092238 61 205 092248 61 205 092257 61 205 092305 61 205 092313 61 205 092323 61 205 092332 61 205 092347 61 205 092400 61 205 092412 61 205 092421 71 205 092638 71 205 092650 71 205 092701 71 205 092712 71 205 092722 71 205 092734 71 205 092745 71 205 092757 71 205 092811 71 205 092824 71 205 092832 71 205 092840 71 205 092850 71 205 092858 71 205 092907 71 205 092916 71 205 092925 71 205 092935 71 205 092945 71 205 092955 71 205 093005 71 205 093013 71 205 093022 71 205 093030 71 205 093038 71 205 093047 71 205 093055 71 205 093107 71 205 093117 71 205 093127 71 205 093153 81 205 093221 81 205 093234 81 205 093246 81 205 093257 81 205 093309

137 449947 138 449945 139 449938 140 449959 141 449966 142 449969 143 449956 144 450004 145 449946 146 449960 147 450018 148 449991 149 449970 150 450002 151 450043 152 450037 153 450099 154 450111 155 450073 156 450073 157 450022 158 450022 159 450008 160 449974 161 449993 162 449990 163 449995 164 450053 165 450025 166 449950 167 450081 168 449992 169 449971 170 449988 171 449982 172 449940 173 449986 174 449980 175 449967 176 449953 177 449939 178 449940 179 449940 180 449972 181 449870 182 450171 183 450085 184 449999 185 450052 186 450000 187 449993 188 449995 189 450025 190 449999 191 450060 192 449983 193 449929 194 449951 195 449960 196 449968 197 449988 198 449985 199 449970 200 449997 201 450005 202 449984 203 449962 204 450030 205 449907 206 449951 207 449995 208 449999 209 449993 210 449972 211 450005 212 450040 213 450029 214 450072 215 450172 216 450095 217 450110 218 450110 219 450106 220 450114 221 450059

APPENDIX III

81 205 093319 222 450045 81 205 093330 223 449998 81 205 093341 224 449973 81 205 093354 225 449978 81 205 093406 226 449978 81 205 093416 227 449961 81 205 093426 228 449931 81 205 093436 229 449953 81 205 093447 230 449947 81 205 093500 231 449945 81 205 093511 232 450013 81 205 093522 233 449990 81 205 093534 234 449956 81 205 093543 235 449961 81 205 093553 236 449963 81 205 093603 237 449957 81 205 093614 238 449945 81 205 093623 239 449940 81 205 093632 240 449917 81 205 093643 241 449988 81 205 093653 242 450088 81 205 093703 243 450080 81 205 093711 244 450040 81 205 093720 245 449938 81 205 093733 246 449967 81 205 093743 247 449999 91 205 093801 1000 450030 91 205 093812 248 449976 91 205 093822 249 450009 91 205 093832 250 449975 91 205 093842 251 449994 91 205 093856 252 449996 91 205 093906 253 449985 91 205 093916 254 449971 91 205 093925 255 449945 91 205 093935 256 449985 91 205 093946 257 449949 91 205 093955 258 449963 91 205 094005 259 449932 91 205 094014 260 449954 91 205 094024 261 449975 91 205 094034 262 449976 91 205 094044 263 449962 91 205 094054 264 449947 91 205 094104 265 449958 91 205 094114 266 449955 91 205 094123 267 450004 91 205 094133 268 449979 91 205 094142 269 449982 91 205 094152 270 449994 91 205 094200 271 450036 91 205 094211 272 450062 91 205 094219 273 450068 91 205 094229 274 450113 91 205 094238 275 450129 91 205 094248 276 450173 91 205 094310 277 449969 101 205 094353 278 450007 101 205 094407 279 450083 101 205 094418 280 450133 101 205 094430 281 450077 101 205 094443 282 450071 101 205 094456 283 450052 101 205 094507 284 450011 101 205 094520 285 450029 101 205 094534 286 449993 101 205 094546 287 449990 101 205 094556 288 449994 101 205 094606 289 449966 101 205 094622 290 449925 101 205 094635 291 449917 101 205 094645 292 449973 101 205 094654 293 449954 101 205 094703 294 449941 101 205 094712 295 449927 101 205 094721 296 449921 101 205 094730 297 449971 101 205 094740 298 449985 101 205 094750 299 449986 101 205 094759 300 449962 101 205 094810 301 449939 101 205 094820 302 449919 101 205 094829 303 449894 101 205 094839 304 449974 101 205 094848 305 449958

101 205 094858 101 205 094908 101 205 094928 111 205 095023 111 205 095036 111 205 095046 111 205 095057 111 205 095107 111 205 095136 111 205 095146 111 205 095156 111 205 095206 111 205 095216 111 205 095227 111 205 095238 111 205 095249 111 205 095303 111 205 095314 111 205 095326 111 205 095339 111 205 095350 111 205 095400 111 205 095408 111 205 095420 111 205 095430 111 205 095439 111 205 095450 111 205 095459 111 205 095508 111 205 095517 111 205 095525 111 205 095534 111 205 095543 111 205 095557 121 205 095644 121 205 095655 121 205 095708 121 205 095718 121 205 095730 121 205 095740 121 205 095752 121 205 095803 121 205 095813 121 205 095824 121 205 095835 121 205 095848 121 205 095902 121 205 095913 121 205 095924 121 205 095935 121 205 095945 121 205 095954 121 205 100012 121 205 100022 121 205 100031 121 205 100041 121 205 100050 121 205 100101 121 205 100110 121 205 100119 121 205 100129 121 205 100137 121 205 100146 121 205 100157 121 205 100205 131 205 100432 131 205 100443 131 205 100454 131 205 100505 131 205 100515 131 205 100526 131 205 100536 131 205 100546 131 205 100557 131 205 100609 131 205 100617 131 205 100626 131 205 100636 131 205 100656 131 205 100704 131 205 100714 131 205 100723 131 205 100731 131 205 100739 131 205 100748

131 205 100757 391 449905 131 205 100805 392 449957 131 205 100813 393 449963 131 205 100822 394 449997 131 205 100830 395 450068 131 205 100839 396 450038 131 205 100848 397 450100 131 205 100856 398 450118 131 205 100904 399 450054 131 205 100913 400 450077 131 205 100924 401 449892 141 205 100947 402 449931 141 205 101001 403 449933 141 205 101014 404 449948 141 205 101027 405 450018 141 205 101039 1001 450075 141 205 101057 406 450065 141 205 101108 407 450051 141 205 101119 408 450002 141 205 101131 409 449956 141 205 101143 410 449899 141 205 101154 411 449883 141 205 101204 412 449907 141 205 101214 413 449946 141 205 101226 414 449902 141 205 101237 415 449809 141 205 101249 416 449868 141 205 101258 417 449894 141 205 101306 418 449825 141 205 101316 419 449851 141 205 101325 420 449916 141 205 101335 421 449927 141 205 101344 422 449968 141 205 101353 423 449969 141 205 101403 424 449934 141 205 101412 425 449950 141 205 101421 426 449989 141 205 101429 427 450004 141 205 101438 428 450025 141 205 101447 429 449978 141 205 101457 430 449944 141 205 101506 431 450006 151 205 101525 1002 450184 151 205 101540 432 449905 151 205 101550 433 450005 151 205 101600 434 450049 151 205 101610 435 450045 151 205 101620 436 450034 151 205 101631 437 449937 151 205 101643 438 449921 151 205 101657 439 449920 151 205 101711 440 449950 151 205 101723 441 449970 151 205 101735 442 449924 151 205 101746 443 449854 151 205 101758 444 449796 151 205 101808 445 449814 151 205 101818 446 449805 151 205 101827 447 449826 151 205 101837 448 449878 151 205 101847 449 449869 151 205 101858 450 449951 151 205 101909 451 449895 151 205 101920 452 449927 151 205 101930 453 449959 151 205 101938 454 449991 151 205 101950 455 450023 151 205 101959 456 450035 151 205 102007 457 449998 151 205 102016 458 449944 151 205 102025 459 449936 151 205 102039 460 449989 151 205 102052 461 449871 161 205 102125 462 449805 161 205 102139 463 449849 161 205 102153 464 449917 161 205 102206 465 449946 161 205 102219 466 449993 161 205 102233 467 450030 161 205 102246 468 449987 161 205 102304 469 449971 161 205 102316 470 449942 161 205 102327 471 449908 161 205 102338 472 449917 161 205 102351 473 449890

306 449986 307 450066 308 450055 309 450075 310 450070 311 450037 312 450038 313 450014 314 449973 315 449941 316 449920 317 449975 318 449985 319 450005 320 449944 321 449896 322 449950 323 449978 324 449937 325 449894 326 449881 327 449906 328 449941 329 449943 330 449948 331 449996 332 450009 333 450039 334 450077 335 450046 336 450043 337 450084 338 450102 339 450041 340 449819 341 450083 342 450111 343 450095 344 450083 345 450076 346 450041 347 449984 348 449951 349 449951 350 449937 351 449932 352 449868 353 449880 354 449881 355 449896 356 449949 357 449978 358 449887 359 449914 360 449940 361 449950 362 449953 363 449958 364 450005 365 449921 366 450273 367 450065 368 450027 369 450055 370 450034 371 450028 372 450009 373 450000 374 450005 375 450000 376 449952 377 449968 378 449972 379 449985 380 449960 381 449909 382 449860 383 449880 384 449935 385 449913 386 449881 387 449826 388 449883 389 449909 390 449878

196

161 205 102404 474 449835 161 205 102416 475 449806 161 205 102430 476 449796 161 205 102443 477 449791 161 205 102456 478 449800 161 205 102506 479 449870 161 205 102515 480 449897 161 205 102524 481 449906 161 205 102533 482 449926 161 205 102544 483 449891 161 205 102554 484 449881 161 205 102603 485 449928 161 205 102611 486 450062 161 205 102620 487 450132 161 205 102629 488 450051 161 205 102637 489 449993 161 205 102646 490 449942 161 205 102659 491 449923 161 205 102707 492 449896 171 205 102724 1003 449953 171 205 102748 493 449961 171 205 102806 494 449967 171 205 102818 495 450004 171 205 102829 496 450111 171 205 102840 497 450364 171 205 102852 498 450303 171 205 102902 499 449900 171 205 102913 500 449921 171 205 102925 501 449958 171 205 102935 502 449971 171 205 102945 503 449988 171 205 103002 504 449917 171 205 103014 505 449845 171 205 103024 506 449835 171 205 103034 507 449794 171 205 103045 508 449790 171 205 103055 509 449786 171 205 103102 510 449818 171 205 103110 511 449844 171 205 103117 512 449892 171 205 103124 513 449937 171 205 103132 514 449956 171 205 103139 515 449975 171 205 103147 516 449959 171 205 103154 517 449979 171 205 103203 518 449977 171 205 103210 519 449936 171 205 103218 520 449910 171 205 103225 521 449978 171 205 103236 522 449901 181 205 103558 523 449976 181 205 103610 524 449956 181 205 103625 525 450015 181 205 103640 526 450042 181 205 103650 527 450123 181 205 103705 528 450313 181 205 103720 529 450635 181 205 103747 530 450132 181 205 103800 531 449990 181 205 103812 532 450035 181 205 103823 533 450049 181 205 103834 534 450063 181 205 103848 535 450014 181 205 103858 536 449879 181 205 103910 537 449850 181 205 103921 538 449821 181 205 103933 539 449769 181 205 103944 540 449788 181 205 103956 541 449812 181 205 104007 542 449783 181 205 104018 543 449814 181 205 104029 544 449854 181 205 104040 545 449908 181 205 104052 546 449892 181 205 104105 547 449907 181 205 104118 548 449895 181 205 104126 549 449942 181 205 104135 550 449909 181 205 104143 551 449925 181 205 104150 552 449974 181 205 104202 553 449763 191 205 104222 554 449794 191 205 104235 555 449835 191 205 104246 556 449866 191 205 104300 557 449905

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

191 205 104311 191 205 104322 191 205 104332 191 205 104345 191 205 104356 191 205 104407 191 205 104418 191 205 104431 191 205 104443 191 205 104456 191 205 104507 191 205 104519 191 205 104530 191 205 104541 191 205 104550 191 205 104601 191 205 104611 191 205 104619 191 205 104628 191 205 104637 191 205 104647 191 205 104656 191 205 104705 191 205 104716 191 205 104726 191 205 104734 191 205 104742 201 205 104814 201 205 104826 201 205 104838 201 205 104849 201 205 104859 201 205 104908 201 205 104922 201 205 104935 201 205 104948 201 205 105001 201 205 105009 201 205 105018 201 205 105026 201 205 105035 201 205 105043 201 205 105052 201 205 105100 201 205 105110 201 205 105119 201 205 105128 201 205 105137 201 205 105147 201 205 105156 201 205 105204 201 205 105212 201 205 105220 201 205 105229 201 205 105236 201 205 105245 201 205 105252 201 205 105302 211 205 105347 211 205 105400 211 205 105413 211 205 105427 211 205 105440 211 205 105450 211 205 105502 211 205 105514 211 205 105526 211 205 105538 211 205 105546 211 205 105605 211 205 105616 211 205 105626 211 205 105637 211 205 105647 211 205 105659 211 205 105713 211 205 105725 211 205 105736 211 205 105747 211 205 105759 211 205 105811 211 205 105826 211 205 105838 211 205 105859 211 205 105913

558 449906 559 449866 560 449853 561 449819 562 449832 563 449832 564 449753 565 449729 566 449733 567 449787 568 449812 569 449924 570 449921 571 449913 572 450009 573 450010 574 450011 575 450368 576 450176 577 450294 578 450116 579 450070 580 450194 581 450015 582 449957 583 449945 584 449954 585 449957 586 449937 587 449946 588 449972 589 449906 590 449839 591 450022 592 450109 593 450489 594 450572 595 449927 596 450101 597 449910 598 449943 599 450035 600 450060 601 450053 602 449856 603 449657 604 449427 605 449736 606 449798 607 449668 608 449743 609 449797 610 449833 611 449863 612 449854 613 449828 614 449830 615 449727 616 449671 617 449681 618 449682 619 449761 620 449722 621 449667 622 449678 623 449664 624 449634 625 449743 626 449739 627 449676 628 449882 629 450248 630 450354 631 450176 632 450160 633 449965 634 450028 635 450027 636 449921 637 450075 638 450118 639 449994 640 449993 641 449899 642 449869

21 207 091510 21 207 091533 31 207 091610 31 207 091624 31 207 091636 31 207 091650 31 207 091700 31 207 091711 31 207 091727 31 207 091746 31 207 091758 31 207 091808 31 207 091820 31 207 091832 31 207 091846 31 207 091901 31 207 091912 31 207 091922 31 207 091941 31 207 091956 31 207 092008 31 207 092019 31 207 092030 31 207 092044 31 207 092100 31 207 092112 31 207 092130 31 207 092140 31 207 092153 31 207 092202 31 207 092211 31 207 092221 31 207 092231 41 207 092256 41 207 092306 41 207 092315 41 207 092326 41 207 092335 41 207 092343 41 207 092352 41 207 092400 41 207 092410 41 207 092419 41 207 092429 41 207 092437 41 207 092448 41 207 092457 41 207 092514 41 207 092534 41 207 092544 41 207 092553 41 207 092603 41 207 092613 41 207 092624 41 207 092637 41 207 092649 41 207 092703 41 207 092716 41 207 092726 41 207 092739 41 207 092751 41 207 092803 41 207 092815 41 207 092828 51 207 092906 51 207 092920 51 207 092933 51 207 092946 51 207 092959 51 207 093010 51 207 093021 51 207 093035 51 207 093049 51 207 093102 51 207 093114 51 207 093216 51 207 093228 51 207 093242 51 207 093256 51 207 093307 51 207 093326 51 207 093338 51 207 093349 51 207 093400 51 207 093410

211 205 105925 643 449908 211 205 105936 644 449901 211 205 105955 645 449881 211 205 110009 646 449925 Area 25 Base Station Readings 999 205 084100 1 449961 999 205 084106 2 449951 999 205 084113 3 449960 999 205 084600 4 449949 999 205 084607 5 449949 999 205 084612 6 449949 999 205 092520 7 449914 999 205 092526 8 449914 999 205 092532 9 449916 999 205 100310 10 449876 999 205 100316 11 449877 999 205 100323 12 449874 999 205 103415 13 449843 999 205 103422 14 449842 999 205 103429 15 449843 999 205 110120 16 449823 999 205 110125 17 449825 999 205 110131 18 449825 Area 26 Field Readings 11 207 090216 0 450115 11 207 090231 1 450130 11 207 090244 2 450098 11 207 090258 3 450144 11 207 090310 4 450098 11 207 090322 5 450120 11 207 090333 6 450153 11 207 090348 7 450120 11 207 090401 8 450102 11 207 090427 9 450124 11 207 090445 10 450064 11 207 090457 11 450083 11 207 090509 12 449982 11 207 090528 13 450013 11 207 090546 14 450001 11 207 090602 15 449983 11 207 090612 16 449959 11 207 090622 17 449968 11 207 090634 18 449934 11 207 090645 19 449882 11 207 090654 20 449868 11 207 090705 21 449798 11 207 090718 22 449870 11 207 090729 23 449860 11 207 090739 24 449839 11 207 090755 25 449819 11 207 090805 26 449811 11 207 090819 27 449806 11 207 090831 28 449784 11 207 090844 29 449745 11 207 090856 30 449776 21 207 090934 31 449875 21 207 090944 32 450030 21 207 090957 33 449886 21 207 091012 34 449813 21 207 091023 35 449830 21 207 091034 36 449873 21 207 091045 37 449796 21 207 091055 38 450072 21 207 091107 39 449841 21 207 091119 40 449822 21 207 091133 41 449884 21 207 091144 42 449900 21 207 091154 43 449934 21 207 091205 44 449984 21 207 091219 45 449961 21 207 091231 46 449967 21 207 091244 47 449946 21 207 091255 48 449951 21 207 091305 49 449974 21 207 091316 50 450031 21 207 091329 51 450062 21 207 091339 52 450083 21 207 091349 53 450136 21 207 091401 54 450127 21 207 091415 55 450099 21 207 091426 56 450090 21 207 091436 57 450066 21 207 091448 58 450045 21 207 091458 59 450055

197

60 450108 61 450065 62 450085 63 450033 64 450038 65 450117 66 450113 67 450077 68 450045 69 450106 70 450122 71 449968 72 449999 73 450018 74 449951 75 449868 76 449802 77 449868 78 449924 79 449916 80 449869 81 449885 82 449811 83 449766 84 449729 85 449737 86 449722 87 449732 88 449737 89 449719 90 449758 91 449724 92 449830 93 449852 94 449734 95 449721 96 449736 97 449776 98 449762 99 449751 100 449819 101 449761 102 449735 103 449790 104 449875 105 449879 106 449867 107 449839 108 449883 109 449886 110 449992 111 450010 112 449990 113 450038 114 450006 115 450116 116 450064 117 449989 118 450029 119 450025 120 449994 121 449997 122 449979 123 450035 124 450054 125 450027 126 449998 127 449963 128 449945 129 450034 130 450041 131 450078 132 450079 133 450040 134 450063 135 449952 136 449984 137 450007 138 449945 139 449938 140 449825 141 449819 142 449862 143 449829 144 449811

51 207 093421 51 207 093431 51 207 093442 51 207 093453 51 207 093504 51 207 093514 51 207 093528 51 207 093538 51 207 093550 51 207 093613 61 207 093827 61 207 093842 61 207 093859 61 207 093910 61 207 093920 61 207 093932 61 207 093940 61 207 093958 61 207 094005 61 207 094012 61 207 094020 61 207 094029 61 207 094038 61 207 094049 61 207 094103 61 207 094113 61 207 094121 61 207 094135 61 207 094144 61 207 094154 61 207 094203 61 207 094214 61 207 094228 61 207 094236 61 207 094245 61 207 094253 61 207 094303 61 207 094311 61 207 094321 61 207 094335 61 207 094346 71 207 094411 71 207 094421 71 207 094431 71 207 094440 71 207 094450 71 207 094459 71 207 094507 71 207 094517 71 207 094526 71 207 094534 71 207 094544 71 207 094552 71 207 094603 71 207 094615 71 207 094631 71 207 094641 71 207 094652 71 207 094709 71 207 094719 71 207 094730 71 207 094741 71 207 094750 71 207 094805 71 207 094815 71 207 094829 71 207 094837 71 207 094845 71 207 094854 71 207 094903 71 207 094911 71 207 094920 81 207 094946 81 207 094957 81 207 095008 81 207 095017 81 207 095026 81 207 095035 81 207 095044 81 207 095053 81 207 095103 81 207 095111 81 207 095121 81 207 095130 81 207 095139

145 449777 146 449811 147 449812 148 449785 149 449795 150 449769 151 449723 152 449720 153 449761 154 450204 155 449730 156 449709 157 449713 158 449779 159 449794 160 449848 161 449812 162 449848 163 449843 164 449791 165 449788 166 449804 167 449871 168 449872 169 449802 170 449960 171 450033 172 450029 173 450005 174 449933 175 450015 176 450065 177 450002 178 450030 179 449993 180 449951 181 450002 182 450018 183 450093 184 450047 185 450009 186 450078 187 450071 188 450087 189 450088 190 449999 191 449950 192 449983 193 450058 194 450007 195 450013 196 450014 197 449966 198 449987 199 450018 200 449988 201 449944 202 449835 203 449824 204 449954 205 449849 206 449845 207 449878 208 449831 209 449850 210 449882 211 449817 212 449869 213 449799 214 449747 215 449796 216 449913 217 449683 218 449769 219 449795 220 449835 221 449843 222 449783 223 449853 224 449860 225 449826 226 449919 227 449865 228 449926 229 449883

APPENDIX III

81 207 095148 230 449567 81 207 095202 231 449876 81 207 095213 232 449926 81 207 095223 233 449961 81 207 095242 234 449975 81 207 095253 235 449940 81 207 095309 236 449931 81 207 095321 237 449960 81 207 095330 238 449955 81 207 095343 239 449930 81 207 095355 240 449959 81 207 095406 241 449873 81 207 095420 242 449903 81 207 095432 243 449974 81 207 095443 244 450084 81 207 095453 245 450038 81 207 095504 246 449989 81 207 095514 247 449977 91 207 095537 248 449935 91 207 095548 249 449950 91 207 095557 250 450012 91 207 095608 251 450015 91 207 095618 252 449963 91 207 095631 253 449911 91 207 095641 254 449938 91 207 095657 255 449975 91 207 095708 256 449886 91 207 095720 257 449886 91 207 095729 258 449885 91 207 095739 259 449957 91 207 095747 260 449950 91 207 095756 261 449971 91 207 095805 262 449960 91 207 095814 263 449897 91 207 095824 264 450105 91 207 095836 265 449694 91 207 095854 266 449917 91 207 095903 267 449911 91 207 095910 268 449926 91 207 095920 269 449911 91 207 095929 270 449819 91 207 095937 271 449862 91 207 095947 272 449787 91 207 095955 273 449792 91 207 100004 274 449844 91 207 100012 275 449845 91 207 100021 276 449822 91 207 100031 277 449765 91 207 100042 278 449751 101 207 100115 279 449833 101 207 100125 280 449793 101 207 100135 281 449832 101 207 100144 282 449872 101 207 100152 283 449857 101 207 100203 284 449822 101 207 100213 285 449879 101 207 100222 286 449907 101 207 100231 287 449884 101 207 100242 288 449918 101 207 100253 289 449952 101 207 100303 290 449930 101 207 100312 291 449962 101 207 100320 292 449892 101 207 100328 293 449848 101 207 100337 294 449972 101 207 100349 295 450029 101 207 100407 296 449988 101 207 100420 297 449951 101 207 100433 298 449929 101 207 100445 299 449742 101 207 100458 300 449864 101 207 100509 301 449681 101 207 100520 302 450121 101 207 100534 303 450003 101 207 100545 304 449971 101 207 100556 305 449942 101 207 100607 306 449917 101 207 100619 307 449962 101 207 100638 308 449911 101 207 100650 309 449922 111 207 100735 310 449965 111 207 100747 311 449951 111 207 100803 312 449930 111 207 100814 313 449965 111 207 100825 314 449957

131 207 102702 131 207 102711 131 207 102725 141 207 102805 141 207 102817 141 207 102827 141 207 102839 141 207 102850 141 207 102901 141 207 102911 141 207 102923 141 207 102934 141 207 102946 141 207 102956 141 207 103008 141 207 103020 141 207 103033 141 207 103044 141 207 103100 141 207 103113 141 207 103125 141 207 103138 141 207 103149 141 207 103203 141 207 103211 141 207 103223 141 207 103231 141 207 103240 141 207 103249 141 207 103259 141 207 103308 141 207 103317 141 207 103327 141 207 103338 151 207 103401 151 207 103411 151 207 103419 151 207 103427 151 207 103436 151 207 103445 151 207 103453 151 207 103501 151 207 103509 151 207 103520 151 207 103531 151 207 103540 151 207 103549 151 207 103559 151 207 103607 151 207 103616 151 207 103624 151 207 103637 151 207 103645 151 207 103654 151 207 103707 151 207 103720 151 207 103732 151 207 103744 151 207 103756 151 207 103808 151 207 103819 151 207 103829 151 207 103839 151 207 103854 151 207 103910 161 207 103958 161 207 104008 161 207 104022 161 207 104033 161 207 104043 161 207 104055 161 207 104103 161 207 104114 161 207 104131 161 207 104144 161 207 104156 161 207 104205 161 207 104215 161 207 104224 161 207 104232 161 207 104241 161 207 104251 161 207 104259 161 207 104309 161 207 104320

111 207 100835 315 449998 111 207 100845 316 450008 111 207 100856 317 449907 111 207 100907 318 449705 111 207 100917 319 449890 111 207 100932 320 449886 111 207 100941 321 449944 111 207 100952 322 449905 111 207 101011 323 449933 111 207 101022 324 449941 111 207 101032 325 449939 111 207 101043 326 449868 111 207 101055 327 449918 111 207 101107 328 449921 111 207 101118 329 449879 111 207 101129 330 449947 111 207 101139 331 449898 111 207 101153 332 449917 111 207 101207 333 449903 111 207 101217 334 449889 111 207 101230 335 449870 111 207 101242 336 449871 111 207 101250 337 449825 111 207 101302 338 449758 111 207 101312 339 449707 111 207 101323 340 449686 121 207 101542 341 449706 121 207 101557 342 449757 121 207 101608 343 449817 121 207 101621 344 449823 121 207 101633 345 449835 121 207 101645 346 449851 121 207 101657 347 449907 121 207 101739 348 449970 121 207 101749 349 449949 121 207 101800 350 449910 121 207 101810 351 449880 121 207 101820 352 449865 121 207 101832 353 449904 121 207 101842 354 449966 121 207 101853 355 449970 121 207 101904 356 449832 121 207 101915 357 449835 121 207 101927 358 449868 121 207 101940 359 449890 121 207 101953 360 449846 121 207 102006 361 449899 121 207 102024 362 449902 121 207 102036 363 449866 121 207 102049 364 449920 121 207 102100 365 449962 121 207 102109 366 449944 121 207 102118 367 449961 121 207 102129 368 449925 121 207 102142 369 449921 121 207 102151 370 449951 121 207 102200 371 449986 131 207 102224 372 449962 131 207 102235 1000 449998 131 207 102245 373 449974 131 207 102255 374 449920 131 207 102310 375 449905 131 207 102320 376 450029 131 207 102330 377 449942 131 207 102339 378 449849 131 207 102349 379 449872 131 207 102359 380 449907 131 207 102409 381 449903 131 207 102418 382 449863 131 207 102428 383 449867 131 207 102437 384 449914 131 207 102446 385 449876 131 207 102455 386 449891 131 207 102504 387 449868 131 207 102512 388 449849 131 207 102520 389 449836 131 207 102529 390 449864 131 207 102538 391 449878 131 207 102547 392 449915 131 207 102558 393 449947 131 207 102607 394 449953 131 207 102616 395 449879 131 207 102625 396 449810 131 207 102640 397 449820 131 207 102653 398 449849

198

399 449763 400 449745 401 449633 402 449658 403 449677 404 449745 405 449836 406 449842 407 449855 408 449921 409 449923 410 449944 411 449926 412 449910 413 449880 414 449875 415 449831 416 449938 417 449970 418 449909 419 449927 420 449924 421 449901 422 449917 423 449931 424 449869 425 449838 426 449916 427 449977 428 449919 429 449931 430 449968 431 449987 432 449926 433 449911 434 449945 435 449915 436 449904 437 449886 438 449876 439 449901 440 449861 441 449849 442 449904 443 449922 444 449899 445 449902 446 449882 447 449874 448 449867 449 449843 450 449857 451 449891 452 449903 453 449929 454 449934 455 449908 456 449918 457 449887 458 449841 459 449844 460 449830 461 449755 462 449758 463 449632 464 449523 465 449723 466 449784 467 449841 468 449869 469 449883 470 449910 471 449883 472 449885 473 449904 474 449899 475 449887 476 449826 477 449809 478 449833 479 449828 480 449823 481 449841 482 449879 483 449843

161 207 104329 161 207 104338 161 207 104348 161 207 104357 161 207 104406 161 207 104416 161 207 104425 161 207 104433 161 207 104442 161 207 104450 161 207 104459 171 207 104518 171 207 104528 171 207 104536 171 207 104545 171 207 104555 171 207 104604 171 207 104615 171 207 104704 171 207 104715 171 207 104726 171 207 104736 171 207 104745 171 207 104753 171 207 104803 171 207 104813 171 207 104828 171 207 104839 171 207 104850 171 207 104901 171 207 104916 171 207 104928 171 207 104942 171 207 104957 171 207 105008 171 207 105020 171 207 105030 171 207 105041 171 207 105051 171 207 105104 171 207 105114 171 207 105124 181 207 105413 181 207 105432 181 207 105442 181 207 105451 181 207 105500 181 207 105509 181 207 105520 181 207 105528 181 207 105535 181 207 105543 181 207 105552 181 207 105607 181 207 105622 181 207 105631 181 207 105641 181 207 105650 181 207 105658 181 207 105707 181 207 105716 181 207 105727 181 207 105736 181 207 105744 181 207 105755 181 207 105806 181 207 105815 181 207 105826 181 207 105834 181 207 105843 181 207 105852 181 207 105900 181 207 105913 191 207 105939 191 207 105950 191 207 110001 191 207 110012 191 207 110021 191 207 110032 191 207 110043 191 207 110053 191 207 110104 191 207 110116 191 207 110124 191 207 110133

484 449821 485 449814 486 449773 487 449863 488 449885 489 449857 490 449820 491 449815 492 449823 493 449858 494 449823 495 449867 496 449860 497 449819 498 449839 499 449845 500 449880 501 449828 502 449760 503 449749 504 449810 505 449789 506 449834 507 449822 508 449796 509 449805 510 449836 511 449878 512 449626 513 449814 514 449840 515 449867 516 449856 517 449868 518 449872 519 449855 520 449843 521 449835 522 449789 523 449825 524 449742 525 449463 526 449495 527 449710 528 449839 529 449833 530 449859 531 449854 532 449856 533 449876 534 449867 535 449864 536 449811 537 449808 538 449765 539 449785 540 449797 541 449805 542 449781 543 449768 544 449799 545 449813 546 449791 547 449831 548 449745 549 449761 550 449813 551 449878 552 449872 553 449855 554 449788 555 449832 556 449829 557 449826 558 449853 559 449816 560 449862 561 449909 562 449872 563 449825 564 449764 565 449740 566 449761 567 449769 568 449775

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

191 207 110141 569 449786 191 207 110151 570 449765 191 207 110204 571 449776 191 207 110212 572 449775 191 207 110224 573 449749 191 207 110237 574 449791 191 207 110254 575 449816 191 207 110310 576 449910 191 207 110328 577 449817 191 207 110340 578 449837 191 207 110351 579 449868 191 207 110402 580 449884 191 207 110411 581 449876 191 207 110420 582 449853 191 207 110429 583 449941 191 207 110437 584 449922 191 207 110447 585 449930 191 207 110457 586 449873 191 207 110517 588 449647 201 207 110552 589 450859 201 207 110611 590 450704 201 207 110623 591 450301 201 207 110635 592 450023 201 207 110647 593 449962 201 207 110656 594 449936 201 207 110705 595 449873 201 207 110714 596 449900 201 207 110722 597 449869 201 207 110731 598 449837 201 207 110741 599 449813 201 207 110749 600 449851 201 207 110759 601 449827 201 207 110807 602 449804 201 207 110814 603 449764 201 207 110822 604 449753 201 207 110830 605 449751 201 207 110840 606 449745 201 207 110849 607 449774 201 207 110858 608 449747 201 207 110910 609 449767 201 207 110920 610 449583 201 207 110930 611 449755 201 207 110939 612 449773 201 207 110948 613 449843 201 207 110956 614 449880 201 207 111007 615 449930 201 207 111019 616 449938 201 207 111029 617 449933 201 207 111042 618 449859 201 207 111056 619 449787 211 207 111202 620 449809 211 207 111210 621 449848 211 207 111218 622 449942 211 207 111227 623 449921 211 207 111235 624 449920 211 207 111244 625 449932 211 207 111252 626 449854 211 207 111301 627 449831 211 207 111311 628 449894 211 207 111327 629 449718 211 207 111339 630 449757 211 207 111347 631 449738 211 207 111356 632 449760 211 207 111404 633 449771 211 207 111413 634 449743 211 207 111423 635 449777 211 207 111431 636 449776 211 207 111440 637 449792 211 207 111451 638 449804 211 207 111459 639 449782 211 207 111508 640 449785 211 207 111516 641 449836 211 207 111524 642 449868 211 207 111535 643 449919 211 207 111543 644 450053 211 207 111552 645 449853 211 207 111605 646 450016 211 207 111614 647 450211 211 207 111623 648 450786 211 207 111633 649 452030 211 207 111828 650 451959 Area 26 Base Station Readings 999 207 085300 1 449850 999 207 085307 2 449852 999 207 085312 3 449852

999 207 090100 999 207 090105 999 207 090113 999 207 093720 999 207 093725 999 207 093733 999 207 101400 999 207 101406 999 207 101412 999 207 105220 999 207 105226 999 207 105232 999 207 112030 999 207 112036 999 207 112041

31 207 120859 31 207 120909 31 207 120921 31 207 120932 31 207 120943 31 207 120954 31 207 121009 31 207 121023 31 207 121034 31 207 121049 31 207 121104 31 207 121330 31 207 121343 31 207 121354 31 207 121404 31 207 121413 31 207 121427 31 207 121437 31 207 121446 31 207 121454 31 207 121503 31 207 121512 31 207 121521 31 207 121531 31 207 121545 41 207 121639 41 207 121652 41 207 121704 41 207 121716 41 207 121729 41 207 121743 41 207 121755 41 207 121807 41 207 121817 41 207 121829 41 207 121842 41 207 121854 41 207 121908 41 207 121916 41 207 121925 41 207 121933 41 207 121943 41 207 121951 41 207 122004 41 207 122013 41 207 122021 41 207 122029 41 207 122037 41 207 122046 41 207 122055 41 207 122103 41 207 122116 41 207 122125 41 207 122136 41 207 122146 41 207 122156 51 207 122246 51 207 122257 51 207 122306 51 207 122318 51 207 122333 51 207 122345 51 207 122357 51 207 122417 51 207 122427 51 207 122436 51 207 122446 51 207 122456 51 207 122507 51 207 122517 51 207 122525 51 207 122533 51 207 122542 51 207 122552 51 207 122600 51 207 122608 51 207 122616 51 207 122623 51 207 122634 51 207 122641 51 207 122648 51 207 122656 51 207 122704 51 207 122714 51 207 122723

4 449858 5 449858 6 449858 7 449771 8 449775 9 449774 10 449768 11 449764 12 449763 13 449710 14 449712 15 449714 16 449686 17 449685 18 449683

Area 27 Field Readings 11 207 115540 651 454772 11 207 115604 652 450810 11 207 115615 653 449044 11 207 115629 654 449292 11 207 115642 655 449539 11 207 115653 656 449650 11 207 115704 657 449668 11 207 115714 658 449675 11 207 115725 659 449656 11 207 115734 660 449634 11 207 115746 661 449593 11 207 115758 662 449631 11 207 115809 663 449606 11 207 115817 664 449633 11 207 115825 665 449613 11 207 115833 666 449626 11 207 115842 667 449631 11 207 115849 668 449615 11 207 115857 669 449595 11 207 115905 670 449637 11 207 115913 671 449635 11 207 115923 672 449688 11 207 115938 673 449697 11 207 115946 674 449642 11 207 115955 675 449650 11 207 120002 676 449710 11 207 120011 677 449717 11 207 120018 678 449718 11 207 120025 679 449737 11 207 120034 680 449762 11 207 120104 681 449638 21 207 120132 682 449711 21 207 120145 683 449661 21 207 120202 684 449747 21 207 120213 685 449751 21 207 120224 686 449730 21 207 120236 687 449679 21 207 120246 688 449628 21 207 120256 689 449658 21 207 120308 690 449670 21 207 120319 691 449635 21 207 120331 692 449635 21 207 120342 693 449610 21 207 120356 694 449599 21 207 120409 695 449608 21 207 120417 696 449610 21 207 120425 697 449617 21 207 120433 698 449600 21 207 120441 699 449597 21 207 120449 700 449564 21 207 120459 701 449551 21 207 120515 702 449579 21 207 120523 703 449647 21 207 120531 704 449654 21 207 120540 705 449687 21 207 120547 706 449722 21 207 120555 707 449742 21 207 120603 708 449495 21 207 120619 709 448988 21 207 120635 710 448063 21 207 120644 711 449324 21 207 120700 712 450704 31 207 120726 713 449654 31 207 120743 714 448697 31 207 120802 715 447307 31 207 120821 716 446961 31 207 120835 717 449284 31 207 120847 718 449830

199

719 449833 720 449735 721 449664 722 449605 723 449545 724 449509 725 449528 726 449575 727 449587 728 449570 729 449600 730 449594 731 449570 732 449575 733 449631 734 449647 735 449621 736 449628 737 449629 738 449662 739 449715 740 449737 741 449728 742 449732 743 449670 744 449623 745 449815 746 449747 747 449720 748 449622 749 449635 750 449589 751 449593 752 449566 753 449547 754 449568 755 449512 756 449537 757 449555 758 449526 759 449515 760 449452 761 449423 762 449423 763 449431 764 449476 765 449579 766 449675 767 449799 768 449881 769 449799 770 447885 771 444809 772 447808 773 448903 774 449459 775 449450 776 449265 777 448833 778 448111 779 447765 780 448849 781 449694 782 449844 783 449712 784 449570 785 449377 786 449357 787 449330 788 449295 789 449328 790 449359 791 449396 792 449473 793 449488 794 449486 795 449483 796 449542 797 449584 798 449562 799 449579 800 449617 801 449603 802 449633 803 449768

51 207 122739 804 449863 51 207 122819 805 449673 61 207 122844 806 449684 61 207 122906 807 449668 61 207 122923 808 449713 61 207 122936 809 449606 61 207 122949 810 449544 61 207 122958 811 449554 61 207 123008 812 449559 61 207 123017 813 449512 61 207 123026 814 449559 61 207 123036 815 449495 61 207 123045 816 449438 61 207 123053 817 449445 61 207 123100 818 449431 61 207 123109 819 449362 61 207 123118 820 449301 61 207 123126 821 449189 61 207 123135 822 449107 61 207 123145 823 449112 61 207 123154 824 449126 61 207 123202 825 449238 61 207 123211 826 449354 61 207 123219 827 449557 61 207 123226 828 449687 61 207 123234 829 449888 61 207 123241 830 449451 61 207 123250 831 448734 61 207 123257 832 448964 61 207 123304 833 449069 61 207 123314 834 449269 61 207 123323 835 449436 61 207 123332 836 449523 71 207 155334 0 449604 71 207 155345 1 449541 71 207 155353 2 449477 71 207 155402 3 449427 71 207 155410 4 449437 71 207 155418 5 449392 71 207 155426 6 449802 71 207 155434 7 450477 71 207 155443 8 449706 71 207 155452 9 449393 71 207 155459 10 449268 71 207 155507 11 449156 71 207 155515 12 449018 71 207 155524 13 448943 71 207 155534 14 448953 71 207 155542 15 448952 71 207 155556 16 449171 71 207 155606 17 449156 71 207 155614 18 449312 71 207 155622 19 449319 71 207 155631 20 449320 71 207 155639 21 449405 71 207 155650 22 449441 71 207 155658 23 449490 71 207 155708 24 449493 71 207 155717 25 449506 71 207 155727 26 449514 71 207 155735 27 449560 71 207 155744 28 449639 71 207 155753 29 449698 71 207 155810 30 449659 81 207 155856 31 449456 81 207 155916 32 449596 81 207 155940 33 449591 81 207 160012 34 449539 81 207 160025 35 449497 81 207 160039 36 449515 81 207 160058 37 449486 81 207 160110 1000 449493 81 207 160125 38 449452 81 207 160141 39 449360 81 207 160151 40 449272 81 207 160201 41 449255 81 207 160210 42 449164 81 207 160218 43 449075 81 207 160228 44 448867 81 207 160237 45 448656 81 207 160247 46 448587 81 207 160256 47 448634 81 207 160305 48 448728 81 207 160314 49 448934 81 207 160323 50 449037

APPENDIX III

81 207 160331 81 207 160340 81 207 160356 81 207 160406 81 207 160416 81 207 160426 81 207 160435 81 207 160445 81 207 160457 81 207 160505 91 207 160540 91 207 160552 91 207 160603 91 207 160614 91 207 160624 91 207 160635 91 207 160647 91 207 160658 91 207 160716 91 207 160728 91 207 160744 91 207 160756 91 207 160810 91 207 160822 91 207 160830 91 207 160841 91 207 160853 91 207 160903 91 207 160943 91 207 160955 91 207 161004 91 207 161014 91 207 161024 91 207 161040 91 207 161052 91 207 161101 91 207 161110 91 207 161118 91 207 161128 91 207 161137 91 207 161151 101 207 161221 101 207 161236 101 207 161258 101 207 161310 101 207 161325 101 207 161339 101 207 161359 101 207 161412 101 207 161423 101 207 161436 101 207 161449 101 207 161501 101 207 161513 101 207 161522 101 207 161531 101 207 161541 101 207 161550 101 207 161613 101 207 161628 101 207 161639 101 207 161649 101 207 161657 101 207 161707 101 207 161715 101 207 161723 101 207 161731 101 207 161740 101 207 161748 101 207 161757 101 207 161805 101 207 161812 111 207 161833 111 207 161846 111 207 161858 111 207 161908 111 207 161919 111 207 161930 111 207 161941 111 207 161953 111 207 162003 111 207 162015 111 207 162047 111 207 162100 111 207 162115

51 449284 52 450314 53 450916 54 450091 55 449725 56 449626 57 449592 58 449626 59 449652 60 449687 61 449692 62 449684 63 449676 64 449650 65 449647 66 449733 67 449911 68 450270 69 450603 70 449418 71 448853 72 448551 73 448257 74 448034 75 447936 76 448352 77 448611 78 448822 79 449070 80 449214 81 449256 82 449286 83 449347 84 449442 85 449442 86 449494 87 449478 88 449665 89 449601 90 449614 91 449564 92 449405 93 449455 94 449832 95 449880 96 449614 97 449443 98 449368 99 449309 100 449253 101 449252 102 449245 103 449150 104 448956 105 448533 106 447971 107 447391 108 446874 109 447091 110 447675 111 448248 112 448685 113 449530 114 449808 115 449817 116 449749 117 449711 118 449691 119 449740 120 449747 121 449732 122 449793 123 449729 124 449733 125 449728 126 449716 127 449698 128 449611 129 449566 130 449487 131 449298 132 449042 133 448275 134 447900 135 447585

111 207 162141 111 207 162153 111 207 162202 111 207 162213 111 207 162234 111 207 162245 111 207 162253 111 207 162303 111 207 162327 111 207 162341 111 207 162350 111 207 162358 111 207 162406 111 207 162415 111 207 162424 111 207 162432 111 207 162442 111 207 162457 121 207 162742 121 207 162800 121 207 162821 121 207 162829 121 207 162838 121 207 162846 121 207 162855 121 207 162903 121 207 162911 121 207 162919 121 207 162928 121 207 162943 121 207 162953 121 207 163006 121 207 163027 121 207 163041 121 207 163051 121 207 163100 121 207 163108 121 207 163115 121 207 163123 121 207 163133 121 207 163143 121 207 163156 121 207 163205 121 207 163213 121 207 163221 121 207 163228 121 207 163237 121 207 163245 121 207 163255 131 207 163334 131 207 163347 131 207 163359 131 207 163411 131 207 163420 131 207 163430 131 207 163441 131 207 163453 131 207 163503 131 207 163515 131 207 163534 131 207 163545 131 207 163559 131 207 163606 131 207 163614 131 207 163623 131 207 163638 131 207 163657 131 207 163710 131 207 163719 131 207 163727 131 207 163736 131 207 163744 131 207 163753 131 207 163801 131 207 163810 131 207 163818 131 207 163827 131 207 163835 131 207 163848 131 207 163900 141 207 163923 141 207 163937 141 207 163949 141 207 164000 141 207 164010

141 207 164020 141 207 164029 141 207 164039 141 207 164049 141 207 164058 141 207 164108 141 207 164124 141 207 164134 141 207 164145 141 207 164155 141 207 164207 141 207 164219 141 207 164229 141 207 164240 141 207 164248 141 207 164256 141 207 164304 141 207 164312 141 207 164321 141 207 164330 141 207 164339 141 207 164348 141 207 164358 141 207 164408 141 207 164416 141 207 164429 151 207 164451 151 207 164508 151 207 164522 151 207 164534 151 207 164549 151 207 164559 151 207 164613 151 207 164630 151 207 164641 151 207 164654 151 207 164706 151 207 164722 151 207 164735 151 207 164746 151 207 164758 151 207 164808 151 207 164815 151 207 164823 151 207 164832 151 207 164840 151 207 164849 151 207 164857 151 207 164905 151 207 164914 151 207 164922 151 207 164930 151 207 164938 151 207 164947 151 207 164957 151 207 165009 151 207 165018 161 207 165116 161 207 165131 161 207 165144 161 207 165156 161 207 165205 161 207 165214 161 207 165225 161 207 165234 161 207 165244 161 207 165254 161 207 165305 161 207 165315 161 207 165324 161 207 165341 161 207 165352 161 207 165403 161 207 165414 161 207 165425 161 207 165435 161 207 165446 161 207 165459 161 207 165513 161 207 165525 161 207 165537 161 207 165623 161 207 165643 161 207 165656 161 207 165711

136 445723 137 444362 138 446447 139 447702 140 448497 141 448938 142 449127 143 449141 144 449178 145 449218 146 449282 147 449372 148 449429 149 449619 150 449838 151 449461 152 449516 153 449375 154 449738 155 449691 156 449676 157 449699 158 449674 159 449572 160 449526 161 449396 162 449151 163 448870 164 448672 165 447643 166 446113 167 457326 168 440984 169 444077 170 447059 171 448344 172 448661 173 449091 174 449430 175 448833 176 449278 177 449305 178 449204 179 449294 180 449362 181 449464 182 449467 183 449366 184 449451 185 449406 186 449433 187 449381 188 449200 189 449218 190 449055 191 448931 192 449024 193 449072 194 447525 195 449813 196 448908 197 448968 198 448372 199 447169 200 444795 201 440747 202 440569 203 442624 204 447072 205 448203 206 448734 207 449171 208 449362 209 449505 210 449598 211 449642 212 449695 213 449723 214 449715 215 449767 216 449804 217 449778 218 449760 219 449697 220 449708

200

221 449592 222 449540 223 449375 224 449160 225 448705 226 448093 227 446907 228 444145 229 443470 230 444570 231 446076 232 447621 233 448440 234 448732 235 448983 236 448875 237 448705 238 448665 239 448596 240 448617 241 448881 242 449017 243 449076 244 449333 245 449547 246 449419 247 449318 248 449330 249 449242 250 448893 251 448970 252 448586 253 448275 254 447906 255 448023 256 448679 257 449130 258 449208 259 448984 260 448638 261 448160 262 447614 263 447290 264 446908 265 446685 266 447581 267 448241 268 448789 269 449081 270 449386 271 449540 272 449559 273 449725 274 449753 275 449761 276 449790 277 449832 278 449834 279 449650 280 449777 281 449890 282 449703 283 449695 284 449591 285 449421 286 449273 287 448983 288 448725 289 448457 290 448499 291 449712 292 450159 293 448456 294 448492 295 448857 296 449243 297 449803 298 450037 299 447790 300 445921 301 446135 302 447212 303 448034 304 448592 305 448814

161 207 165723 161 207 165732 161 207 165750 171 207 165821 171 207 165837 171 207 165853 171 207 165909 171 207 165932 171 207 165944 171 207 165958 171 207 170020 171 207 170044 171 207 170055 171 207 170104 171 207 170114 171 207 170123 171 207 170135 171 207 170144 171 207 170154 171 207 170201 171 207 170209 171 207 170218 171 207 170230 171 207 170240 171 207 170249 171 207 170258 171 207 170306 171 207 170314 171 207 170322 171 207 170331 171 207 170339 171 207 170348 171 207 170357 171 207 170406 181 207 170552 181 207 170606 181 207 170618 181 207 170630 181 207 170644 181 207 170654 181 207 170703 181 207 170713 181 207 170723 181 207 170733 181 207 170744 181 207 170752 181 207 170759 181 207 170808 181 207 170816 181 207 170823 181 207 170830 181 207 170839 181 207 170846 181 207 170859 181 207 170909 181 207 170919 181 207 170929 181 207 170946 181 207 171002 181 207 171016 181 207 171024 181 207 171033 181 207 171041 181 207 171049 181 207 171100 191 207 171138 191 207 171149 191 207 171202 191 207 171212 191 207 171223 191 207 171237 191 207 171257 191 207 171318 191 207 171332 191 207 171346 191 207 171359 191 207 171409 191 207 171418 191 207 171427 191 207 171435 191 207 171443 191 207 171451 191 207 171459 191 207 171507 191 207 171515

306 449154 307 449350 308 449376 309 449287 310 449269 311 449018 312 448775 313 448329 314 447316 315 445223 316 440455 317 456442 318 450896 319 452991 320 450492 321 449553 322 448998 323 448694 324 448981 325 450054 326 449456 327 448879 328 448829 329 448879 330 449324 331 449430 332 449395 333 449447 334 449565 335 449760 336 449808 337 449772 338 449767 339 449792 340 449819 341 449788 342 449751 343 449696 344 449642 345 449534 346 449482 347 449442 348 449430 349 449304 350 449160 351 448986 352 449053 353 449172 354 449156 355 449100 356 448677 357 449064 358 449626 359 450971 360 454755 361 455134 362 452969 363 433038 364 442324 365 446688 366 448091 367 448692 368 448919 369 449103 370 449130 371 449107 372 449014 373 448943 374 448713 375 448277 376 447032 377 444013 378 437632 379 437879 380 447680 381 449511 382 449722 383 449256 384 448896 385 447463 386 448481 387 448827 388 449022 389 449080 390 449075

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

191 207 171523 391 449285 191 207 171530 392 449352 191 207 171539 393 449444 191 207 171547 394 449545 191 207 171554 395 449511 191 207 171602 396 449531 191 207 171611 397 449627 191 207 171619 398 449683 191 207 171628 399 449724 191 207 171636 400 449798 191 207 171647 401 449840 201 207 171802 402 449746 201 207 171814 403 449803 201 207 171827 404 449767 201 207 171843 405 449687 201 207 171855 406 449646 201 207 171902 407 449572 201 207 171911 408 449551 201 207 171918 409 449527 201 207 171927 410 449464 201 207 171936 411 449419 201 207 171944 412 449295 201 207 171952 413 449213 201 207 172000 414 449023 201 207 172008 415 448990 201 207 172016 416 448859 201 207 172024 417 448604 201 207 172032 418 448250 201 207 172039 419 449042 201 207 172048 420 448866 201 207 172056 421 448547 201 207 172104 422 447936 201 207 172112 423 445745 201 207 172121 424 442735 201 207 172130 425 442068 201 207 172138 426 444769 201 207 172146 427 446985 201 207 172154 428 447970 201 207 172202 429 448470 201 207 172210 430 448731 201 207 172218 431 448946 201 207 172228 432 449005 211 207 172259 433 448924 211 207 172313 434 448715 211 207 172325 435 448557 211 207 172336 436 448338 211 207 172348 437 447866 211 207 172358 438 447105 211 207 172410 439 445972 211 207 172421 440 445521 211 207 172435 441 445630 211 207 172442 442 446304 211 207 172451 443 447263 211 207 172502 444 447668 211 207 172510 445 448343 211 207 172529 446 449448 211 207 172539 447 448870 211 207 172547 448 448739 211 207 172555 449 448843 211 207 172604 450 448971 211 207 172613 451 449082 211 207 172621 452 449179 211 207 172629 453 449308 211 207 172637 454 449426 211 207 172645 455 449487 211 207 172653 456 449524 211 207 172701 457 449539 211 207 172708 458 449579 211 207 172716 459 449663 211 207 172724 460 449713 211 207 172732 461 449781 211 207 172743 462 449818 211 207 172751 463 449798 Area 27 Base Station Readings 999 207 114900 1 449661 999 207 114905 2 449661 999 207 114913 3 449662 999 207 115400 4 449670 999 207 115406 5 449669 999 207 115412 6 449668 999 207 123413 7 449710 999 207 123420 8 449713 999 207 123426 9 449712 999 207 155200 10 449672 999 207 155205 11 449674

999 207 155213 999 207 162630 999 207 162636 999 207 162642 999 207 170425 999 207 170430 999 207 170435 999 207 172840 999 207 172846 999 207 172851

31 208 090927 31 208 090954 31 208 091006 31 208 091030 31 208 091039 31 208 091059 31 208 091109 31 208 091118 31 208 091127 31 208 091137 31 208 091146 31 208 091156 31 208 091204 31 208 091211 31 208 091219 31 208 091228 31 208 091235 31 208 091244 31 208 091253 31 208 091306 41 208 091343 41 208 091354 41 208 091403 41 208 091413 41 208 091422 41 208 091428 41 208 091436 41 208 091445 41 208 091453 41 208 091501 41 208 091509 41 208 091517 41 208 091527 41 208 091536 41 208 091544 41 208 091558 41 208 091608 41 208 091623 41 208 091647 41 208 091658 41 208 091710 41 208 091720 41 208 091730 41 208 091741 41 208 091752 41 208 091803 41 208 091813 41 208 091822 41 208 091833 41 208 091844 41 208 091855 51 208 091930 51 208 091943 51 208 091953 51 208 092003 51 208 092014 51 208 092024 51 208 092035 51 208 092045 51 208 092101 51 208 092109 51 208 092117 51 208 092131 51 208 092141 51 208 092202 51 208 092220 51 208 092232 51 208 092243 51 208 092255 51 208 092305 51 208 092320 51 208 092336 51 208 092346 51 208 092355 51 208 092405 51 208 092420 51 208 092430 51 208 092439 51 208 092450 51 208 092501 51 208 092510 51 208 092519 61 208 092751 61 208 092814 61 208 092822

12 449677 13 449853 14 449855 15 449852 16 449935 17 449930 18 449931 19 449975 20 449976 21 449974

Area 28 Field Readings 11 208 085345 0 450128 11 208 085400 1 450181 11 208 085410 2 450100 11 208 085421 3 450120 11 208 085433 4 450093 11 208 085442 5 450042 11 208 085450 6 450109 11 208 085528 7 450153 11 208 085541 8 450171 11 208 085551 9 450029 11 208 085601 10 449822 11 208 085614 11 449462 11 208 085631 12 449022 11 208 085648 13 448820 11 208 085659 14 449192 11 208 085708 15 449518 11 208 085730 16 449702 11 208 085747 17 449845 11 208 085758 18 449876 11 208 085812 19 449873 11 208 085825 20 449932 11 208 085844 21 449996 11 208 085857 22 449986 11 208 085913 23 449949 11 208 085923 24 449945 11 208 085933 25 449877 11 208 085943 26 449793 11 208 085952 27 449860 11 208 090001 28 449808 11 208 090010 29 450073 11 208 090035 30 449598 21 208 090151 31 449593 21 208 090200 32 449657 21 208 090210 33 449789 21 208 090217 34 449868 21 208 090225 35 449856 21 208 090235 36 449863 21 208 090245 37 449892 21 208 090252 38 449931 21 208 090300 39 449973 21 208 090309 40 449991 21 208 090320 41 449998 21 208 090327 42 449952 21 208 090335 43 449902 21 208 090344 44 449866 21 208 090352 45 449676 21 208 090401 46 449327 21 208 090411 47 448829 21 208 090418 48 448366 21 208 090426 49 448581 21 208 090436 50 449206 21 208 090445 51 449748 21 208 090457 52 450096 21 208 090510 53 450258 21 208 090525 54 450277 21 208 090536 55 450174 21 208 090547 56 450110 21 208 090556 57 450097 21 208 090606 58 450122 21 208 090615 59 450100 21 208 090625 60 450150 21 208 090641 61 450203 31 208 090718 62 450135 31 208 090737 63 450092 31 208 090749 64 450076 31 208 090804 65 450083 31 208 090815 66 450106 31 208 090823 67 450130 31 208 090834 68 450201 31 208 090843 69 450298 31 208 090858 70 450330 31 208 090909 71 450239 31 208 090918 72 449777

201

73 448816 74 447496 75 447589 76 448340 77 449267 78 449735 79 449949 80 449932 81 450011 82 449984 83 449965 84 449947 85 449905 86 449878 87 449853 88 449844 89 449854 90 449746 91 449675 92 449645 93 449656 94 449683 95 449748 96 449911 97 449861 98 449843 99 449843 100 449879 101 449895 102 449946 103 449989 104 450031 105 450013 106 450015 107 449812 108 449203 109 448013 110 446759 111 446281 112 448220 113 449927 114 450381 115 450356 116 450258 117 450155 118 450161 119 450148 120 450093 121 450071 122 450049 123 450157 124 450075 125 450043 126 450093 127 450090 128 450159 129 450145 130 450190 131 450300 132 450393 133 450597 134 450302 135 448285 136 445318 137 445806 138 447814 139 449326 140 449966 141 450123 142 450135 143 450092 144 449998 145 449927 146 449865 147 449854 148 449869 149 449849 150 449824 151 449796 152 449690 153 449639 154 449635 155 449592 156 449636 157 449663

61 208 092831 61 208 092839 61 208 092848 61 208 092857 61 208 092906 61 208 092914 61 208 092923 61 208 092941 61 208 092951 61 208 093003 61 208 093013 61 208 093022 61 208 093030 61 208 093047 61 208 093102 61 208 093119 61 208 093129 61 208 093142 61 208 093151 61 208 093159 61 208 093207 61 208 093216 61 208 093223 61 208 093233 61 208 093246 61 208 093257 61 208 093306 61 208 093316 71 208 093346 71 208 093400 71 208 093416 71 208 093431 71 208 093449 71 208 093502 71 208 093513 71 208 093523 71 208 093533 71 208 093543 71 208 093555 71 208 093607 71 208 093643 71 208 093704 71 208 093716 71 208 093727 71 208 093740 71 208 093756 71 208 093806 71 208 093820 71 208 093830 71 208 093838 71 208 093847 71 208 093856 71 208 093905 71 208 093914 71 208 093923 71 208 093933 71 208 093942 71 208 093950 71 208 094000 81 208 094028 81 208 094039 81 208 094048 81 208 094100 81 208 094109 81 208 094120 81 208 094129 81 208 094138 81 208 094146 81 208 094157 81 208 094206 81 208 094214 81 208 094222 81 208 094230 81 208 094241 81 208 094251 81 208 094300 81 208 094309 81 208 094317 81 208 094326 81 208 094335 81 208 094344 81 208 094355 81 208 094403 81 208 094411 81 208 094419

158 449676 159 449761 160 449807 161 449815 162 449824 163 449851 164 449854 165 449904 166 450003 167 450106 168 450150 169 450004 170 449484 171 447819 172 446202 173 448196 174 450347 175 450888 176 450775 177 450456 178 450268 179 450158 180 450130 181 450123 182 450092 183 450043 184 450021 185 450039 186 450003 187 450038 188 450072 189 450010 190 450100 191 450093 192 450175 193 450329 194 450624 195 450941 196 451295 197 451475 198 450947 199 449360 200 449355 201 450186 202 450318 203 450166 204 450000 205 449825 206 449850 207 449827 208 449833 209 449815 210 449783 211 449749 212 449713 213 449630 214 449598 215 449551 216 449482 217 449516 218 449573 219 449607 220 449678 221 449725 222 449770 223 449816 224 449836 225 449826 226 449850 227 449824 228 449898 229 449889 230 450108 231 450233 232 449963 233 449574 234 449659 235 450692 236 450862 237 450765 238 450608 239 450465 240 450300 241 450125 242 450029

APPENDIX III

81 208 094427 243 450035 81 208 094441 244 449975 81 208 094452 245 449972 81 208 094503 246 449987 81 208 094516 247 449991 91 208 094541 248 450012 91 208 094551 249 449934 91 208 094559 250 449922 91 208 094608 251 449991 91 208 094616 252 450057 91 208 094625 253 450070 91 208 094633 254 450186 91 208 094641 255 450294 91 208 094650 256 450349 91 208 094701 257 450364 91 208 094712 258 450244 91 208 094723 259 449995 91 208 094731 260 449609 91 208 094740 261 449453 91 208 094754 262 449773 91 208 094802 263 449930 91 208 094812 264 449968 91 208 094821 265 449934 91 208 094829 266 449848 91 208 094839 267 449790 91 208 094848 268 449832 91 208 094858 269 449829 91 208 094907 270 449814 91 208 094916 271 449797 91 208 094927 272 449787 91 208 094942 273 449800 91 208 094952 274 449719 91 208 095003 275 449653 91 208 095012 276 449582 91 208 095021 277 449524 91 208 095032 278 449567 101 208 095243 279 449597 101 208 095259 280 449611 101 208 095312 281 449617 101 208 095326 282 449649 101 208 095344 283 449732 101 208 095405 284 449797 101 208 095414 285 449788 101 208 095423 286 449817 101 208 095432 287 449809 101 208 095441 288 449817 101 208 095450 289 449806 101 208 095517 290 449823 101 208 095525 291 449823 101 208 095534 292 449859 101 208 095542 293 449900 101 208 095550 294 449870 101 208 095605 295 449845 101 208 095613 296 449712 101 208 095623 297 449681 101 208 095631 298 449789 101 208 095639 299 449896 101 208 095649 300 450065 101 208 095703 301 450138 101 208 095710 302 450158 101 208 095720 303 450117 101 208 095730 304 450101 101 208 095739 305 450036 101 208 095749 306 449941 101 208 095759 307 449872 101 208 095810 308 449890 101 208 095820 309 449996 111 208 100026 310 449618 111 208 100037 311 449640 111 208 100047 312 449632 111 208 100055 313 449608 111 208 100105 314 449705 111 208 100114 315 449738 111 208 100147 316 449797 111 208 100159 317 449804 111 208 100208 318 449781 111 208 100216 319 449796 111 208 100224 320 449778 111 208 100235 321 449792 111 208 100244 322 449805 111 208 100253 323 449790 111 208 100302 324 449826 111 208 100311 325 449839 111 208 100319 326 449805 111 208 100329 327 449807

111 208 100337 111 208 100346 111 208 100355 111 208 100404 111 208 100412 111 208 100448 111 208 100459 111 208 100511 111 208 100522 111 208 100532 111 208 100541 111 208 100551 111 208 100601 121 208 100633 121 208 100645 121 208 100708 121 208 100718 121 208 100730 121 208 100745 121 208 100755 121 208 100806 121 208 100816 121 208 100826 121 208 100834 121 208 100842 121 208 100852 121 208 100902 121 208 100915 121 208 100923 121 208 100931 121 208 100939 121 208 100949 121 208 101002 121 208 101010 121 208 101020 121 208 101032 121 208 101040 121 208 101049 121 208 101058 121 208 101109 121 208 101122 121 208 101134 121 208 101147 121 208 101157 131 208 101231 131 208 101245 131 208 101259 131 208 101313 131 208 101329 131 208 101351 131 208 101403 131 208 101415 131 208 101428 131 208 101443 131 208 101500 131 208 101518 131 208 101531 131 208 101541 131 208 101550 131 208 101601 131 208 101612 131 208 101630 131 208 101640 131 208 101650 131 208 101701 131 208 101712 131 208 101720 131 208 101728 131 208 101736 131 208 101745 131 208 101754 131 208 101804 131 208 101816 131 208 101829 131 208 101840 141 208 101916 141 208 101925 141 208 101949 141 208 101958 141 208 102010 141 208 102021 141 208 102033 141 208 102044 141 208 102054 141 208 102103

141 208 102113 141 208 102123 141 208 102134 141 208 102144 141 208 102153 141 208 102204 141 208 102218 141 208 102229 141 208 102240 141 208 102251 141 208 102302 141 208 102315 141 208 102326 141 208 102336 141 208 102348 141 208 102401 141 208 102411 141 208 102423 141 208 102435 141 208 102446 141 208 102456 151 208 102533 151 208 102548 151 208 102600 151 208 102610 151 208 102622 151 208 102636 151 208 102650 151 208 102702 151 208 102718 151 208 102731 151 208 102743 151 208 102802 151 208 102823 151 208 102836 151 208 102847 151 208 102856 151 208 103012 151 208 103023 151 208 103035 151 208 103049 151 208 103103 151 208 103113 151 208 103123 151 208 103132 151 208 103140 151 208 103149 151 208 103156 151 208 103206 151 208 103216 151 208 103226 151 208 103247 161 208 103314 161 208 103324 161 208 103333 161 208 103410 161 208 103430 161 208 103443 161 208 103456 161 208 103508 161 208 103519 161 208 103532 161 208 103546 161 208 103555 161 208 103606 161 208 103615 161 208 103626 161 208 103640 161 208 103656 161 208 103707 161 208 103719 161 208 103732 161 208 103745 161 208 103759 161 208 103811 161 208 103823 161 208 103835 161 208 103848 161 208 103901 161 208 103912 161 208 103925 161 208 103937 161 208 103957 171 208 104151 171 208 104202

328 449799 329 449830 330 449868 331 449903 332 449985 333 449991 334 450018 335 449984 336 449879 337 449821 338 449796 339 449763 340 449756 341 449721 342 450037 343 450043 344 449838 345 449713 346 449840 347 449867 348 449870 349 449845 350 449854 351 449870 352 449897 353 449849 354 449808 355 449760 356 449802 357 449818 358 449819 359 449804 360 449762 361 449751 362 449766 363 449792 364 449818 365 449824 366 449727 367 449666 368 449619 369 449616 370 449587 371 449552 372 449515 373 449564 374 449592 375 449603 376 449633 377 449678 378 449738 379 449801 380 449751 381 449756 382 449766 383 449770 384 449810 385 449844 386 449824 387 449788 388 449747 389 449744 390 449805 391 449846 392 449855 393 449863 394 449851 395 449841 396 449779 397 449801 398 449683 399 450046 400 450347 401 450238 402 449958 403 449951 404 450231 405 450287 406 450105 407 449876 408 449800 409 449747 410 449886 411 449962 412 449934

202

413 449923 414 449886 415 449820 416 449758 417 449779 418 449817 419 449829 420 449886 421 449888 422 449899 423 449857 424 449800 425 449779 426 449797 427 449738 428 449693 429 449658 430 449625 431 449652 432 449624 433 449580 434 449563 435 449605 436 449636 437 449606 438 449652 439 449682 440 449722 441 449751 442 449737 443 449772 444 449848 445 449882 446 449828 447 449839 448 449826 449 449891 450 449822 451 449775 452 449801 453 449839 454 449888 455 449941 456 449962 457 449891 458 449729 459 449723 460 449844 461 449892 462 449882 463 449906 464 449817 465 449689 466 449959 467 449684 468 449799 469 449762 470 449792 471 449842 472 449911 473 449967 474 449926 475 449845 476 449846 477 449876 478 449858 479 449851 480 449865 481 449846 482 449860 483 449878 484 449944 485 449733 486 449739 487 449731 488 449728 489 449674 490 449687 491 449673 492 449675 493 449666 494 449632 495 449549 496 449545 497 449641

171 208 104216 171 208 104230 171 208 104242 171 208 104253 171 208 104307 171 208 104318 171 208 104332 171 208 104346 171 208 104358 171 208 104510 171 208 104523 171 208 104535 171 208 104557 171 208 104610 171 208 104623 171 208 104638 171 208 104651 171 208 104706 171 208 104722 171 208 104737 171 208 104750 171 208 104802 171 208 104813 171 208 104825 171 208 104837 171 208 104847 171 208 104859 171 208 105021 171 208 105058 181 208 105505 181 208 105514 181 208 105528 181 208 105538 181 208 105549 181 208 105600 181 208 105609 181 208 105617 181 208 105625 181 208 105632 181 208 105642 181 208 105649 181 208 105658 181 208 105709 181 208 105719 181 208 105728 181 208 105738 181 208 105747 181 208 105756 181 208 105806 181 208 105815 181 208 105825 181 208 105836 181 208 105847 181 208 105858 181 208 105909 181 208 105920 181 208 105929 181 208 105937 181 208 105948 181 208 110009 191 208 110246 191 208 110318 191 208 110326 191 208 110333 191 208 110341 191 208 110349 191 208 110356 191 208 110407 191 208 110416 191 208 110425 191 208 110434 191 208 110441 191 208 110449 191 208 110457 191 208 110504 191 208 110514 191 208 110522 191 208 110531 191 208 110540 191 208 110550 191 208 110558 191 208 110605 191 208 110614 191 208 110622 191 208 110629

498 449651 499 449669 500 449658 501 449674 502 449679 503 449713 504 449724 505 449728 506 449746 507 449925 508 449876 509 449855 510 449847 511 449869 512 449856 513 449860 514 449875 515 449846 516 449837 517 449897 518 449963 519 449922 520 449874 521 449795 522 449764 523 449795 524 449698 525 449999 526 449675 527 449903 528 449729 529 449739 530 449845 531 449831 532 449923 533 449951 534 449946 535 449945 536 449919 537 449849 538 449832 539 449864 540 449850 541 449791 542 449844 543 449850 544 449852 545 449872 546 449770 547 449717 548 449695 549 449690 550 449682 551 449668 552 449657 553 449634 554 449675 555 449654 556 449637 557 449626 558 449559 559 449629 560 449654 561 449651 562 449640 563 449678 564 449672 565 449634 566 449638 567 449708 568 449894 569 449907 570 449857 571 449856 572 449910 573 449873 574 449871 575 449870 576 449858 577 449822 578 449867 579 449896 580 449920 581 449964 582 449889

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

191 208 110638 191 208 110646 191 208 110654 191 208 110703 191 208 110714 191 208 110725 201 208 110752 201 208 110806 201 208 110816 201 208 110824 201 208 110833 201 208 110842 201 208 110851 201 208 110901 201 208 110910 201 208 110918 201 208 110926 201 208 110935 201 208 110943 201 208 110953 201 208 111003 201 208 111013 201 208 111022 201 208 111030 201 208 111038 201 208 111047 201 208 111054 201 208 111101 201 208 111109 201 208 111118 201 208 111127 201 208 111135 201 208 111143 201 208 111151 201 208 111201 201 208 111214 201 208 111226 211 208 111447 211 208 111502 211 208 111515 211 208 111528 211 208 111538 211 208 111549 211 208 111601 211 208 111613 211 208 111627 211 208 111638 211 208 111649 211 208 111703 211 208 111717 211 208 111730 211 208 111738 211 208 111747 211 208 111756 211 208 111805 211 208 111813 211 208 111821 211 208 111831 211 208 111840 211 208 111851 211 208 111859 211 208 111908 211 208 111917 211 208 111926 211 208 111934 211 208 111942 211 208 111951 211 208 112001 221 208 112312 221 208 112328 221 208 112336 221 208 112344 221 208 112400 221 208 112410 221 208 112419 221 208 112428 221 208 112436 221 208 112445 221 208 112454 221 208 112504 221 208 112513 221 208 112522 221 208 112533 221 208 112543 221 208 112555

583 449961 584 449916 585 449802 586 449737 587 449809 588 449820 589 449736 590 449811 591 449842 592 449894 593 449941 594 449913 595 449822 596 449917 597 449974 598 449973 599 449949 600 449920 601 449815 602 449920 603 449844 604 449871 605 449849 606 449899 607 449749 608 449758 609 449792 610 449664 611 449550 612 449607 613 449640 614 449623 615 449641 616 449653 617 449668 618 449845 619 449444 620 449606 621 449591 622 449863 623 449701 624 449637 625 449620 626 449640 627 449664 628 449628 629 449636 630 449714 631 449670 632 449746 633 449845 634 449878 635 449798 636 449708 637 449860 638 449812 639 449925 640 449980 641 449973 642 449907 643 449873 644 449840 645 449858 646 449899 647 449932 648 449898 649 449805 650 449869 651 449930 652 449933 653 449989 654 449970 655 450016 656 449961 657 449902 658 449943 659 449979 660 449972 661 449938 662 449883 663 449801 664 449864 665 449907 666 449821 667 449855

221 208 112603 221 208 112611 221 208 112619 221 208 112628 221 208 112637 221 208 112646 221 208 112655 221 208 112706 221 208 112715 221 208 112724 221 208 112737 221 208 112748 221 208 112756 221 208 112807 231 208 113128 231 208 113138 231 208 113148 231 208 113159 231 208 113211 231 208 113224 231 208 113236 231 208 113243 231 208 113252 231 208 113300 231 208 113307 231 208 113315 231 208 113322 231 208 113329 231 208 113346 231 208 113353 231 208 113402 231 208 113410 231 208 113418 231 208 113429 231 208 113452 231 208 113504 231 208 113514 231 208 113526 231 208 113535 231 208 113544 231 208 113552 231 208 113602 231 208 113613 231 208 113622 231 208 113640 241 208 113725 241 208 113738 241 208 113749 241 208 113759 241 208 113808 241 208 113816 241 208 113826 241 208 113834 241 208 113843 241 208 113852 241 208 113901 241 208 113910 241 208 113923 241 208 113932 241 208 113942 241 208 113953 241 208 114002 241 208 114013 241 208 114021 241 208 114031 241 208 114041 241 208 114052 241 208 114102 241 208 114111 241 208 114134 241 208 114143 241 208 114319 241 208 114335 241 208 114349 241 208 114401 241 208 114411 251 208 114704 251 208 114716 251 208 114728 251 208 114740 251 208 114750 251 208 114758 251 208 114805 251 208 114815 251 208 114823

251 208 114832 251 208 114840 251 208 114848 251 208 114856 251 208 114906 251 208 114916 251 208 114924 251 208 114933 251 208 114941 251 208 114950 251 208 114958 251 208 115006 251 208 115014 251 208 115022 251 208 115030 251 208 115038 251 208 115045 251 208 115053 251 208 115107 251 208 115116 251 208 115131 251 208 115142 261 208 115308 261 208 115318 261 208 115327 261 208 115335 261 208 115343 261 208 115352 261 208 115400 261 208 115409 261 208 115418 261 208 115427 261 208 115437 261 208 115445 261 208 115454 261 208 115507 261 208 115516 261 208 115524 261 208 115536 261 208 115545 261 208 115555 261 208 115604 261 208 115613 261 208 115621 261 208 115630 261 208 115639 261 208 115647 261 208 115655 261 208 115705 261 208 115716 261 208 115725 261 208 115734 261 208 115745 271 208 115945 271 208 115957 271 208 120008 271 208 120021 271 208 120032 271 208 120042 271 208 120052 271 208 120103 271 208 120115 271 208 120123 271 208 120131 271 208 120139 271 208 120148 271 208 120158 271 208 120206 271 208 120214 271 208 120223 271 208 120232 271 208 120242 271 208 120250 271 208 120257 271 208 120306 271 208 120315 271 208 120323 271 208 120331 271 208 120339 271 208 120348 271 208 120433 271 208 120443 271 208 120454 271 208 120509 281 208 120708

668 449836 669 449825 670 449699 671 449699 672 449674 673 449695 674 449694 675 449649 676 449598 677 449605 678 449630 679 449443 680 449600 681 449595 682 449588 683 449592 684 449607 685 449622 686 449614 687 449617 688 449644 689 449687 690 449642 691 449722 692 449762 693 449704 694 449737 695 449780 696 449768 697 449799 698 449852 699 449849 700 449932 701 449906 702 449950 703 449955 704 449978 705 449936 706 449956 707 449879 708 450034 709 449957 710 449938 711 449883 712 449926 713 449989 714 449866 715 449932 716 449938 717 449908 718 449929 719 449905 720 449903 721 449925 722 449901 723 449913 724 449883 725 449874 726 449863 727 449881 728 449831 729 449757 730 449729 731 449706 732 449708 733 449694 734 449660 735 449668 736 449645 737 449626 738 449600 739 449577 740 449582 741 449565 742 449513 743 449502 745 449483 746 449491 747 449540 748 449549 749 449557 750 449556 751 449601 752 449595 753 449636

203

754 449609 755 449650 756 449631 757 449625 758 449636 759 449704 760 449812 761 449838 762 449781 763 449752 764 449744 765 449739 766 449702 767 449725 768 449748 769 449782 770 449868 771 449861 772 449799 773 449821 774 449828 775 449824 776 449715 777 449774 778 449837 779 449853 780 449907 781 449876 782 449751 783 449705 784 449668 785 449683 786 449676 787 449638 788 449679 789 449751 790 449767 791 449678 792 449557 793 449642 794 449532 795 449503 796 449480 797 449480 798 449542 799 449540 800 449537 801 449495 802 449508 803 449477 804 449427 805 449397 806 449364 807 449369 808 449386 809 449445 810 449464 811 449500 812 449507 813 449503 814 449472 815 449447 816 449494 817 449511 818 449518 819 449547 820 449619 821 449527 822 449597 823 449649 824 449677 825 449647 826 449651 827 449681 828 449681 829 449649 830 449729 831 449730 832 449827 833 449847 834 449781 835 449727 836 449707 837 449820 838 449792

281 208 120720 839 449663 281 208 120729 840 449727 281 208 120737 841 449744 281 208 120745 842 449743 281 208 120754 843 449734 281 208 120803 844 449764 281 208 120813 845 449758 281 208 120824 846 449688 281 208 120834 847 449723 281 208 120844 848 449718 281 208 120853 849 449675 281 208 120903 850 449693 281 208 120913 851 449651 281 208 120921 852 449685 281 208 120930 853 449605 281 208 120940 854 449539 281 208 120949 855 449530 281 208 120957 856 449546 281 208 121004 857 449511 281 208 121013 858 449507 281 208 121021 859 449499 281 208 121030 860 449483 281 208 121041 861 449458 281 208 121049 862 449470 281 208 121057 863 449484 281 208 121105 864 449476 281 208 121113 865 449436 281 208 121122 866 449409 281 208 121131 867 449367 281 208 121142 868 449361 291 208 121234 869 449349 291 208 121245 870 449388 291 208 121257 871 449401 291 208 121308 872 449434 291 208 121319 873 449487 291 208 121328 874 449495 291 208 121339 875 449469 291 208 121348 876 449476 291 208 121359 877 449494 291 208 121410 878 449528 291 208 121425 879 449581 291 208 121437 880 449515 291 208 121451 881 449493 291 208 121502 882 449524 291 208 121514 883 449584 291 208 121525 884 449652 291 208 121537 885 449678 291 208 121551 886 449648 291 208 121608 887 449702 291 208 121627 888 449717 291 208 121640 889 449667 291 208 121655 890 449626 291 208 121708 891 449619 291 208 121722 892 449731 291 208 121734 893 449739 291 208 121747 894 449717 291 208 121754 1000 449836 291 208 121800 895 449836 291 208 121813 896 449726 291 208 121827 897 449739 291 208 121922 898 449818 301 208 122334 899 449769 301 208 122346 900 449833 301 208 122403 901 449741 301 208 122419 902 449779 301 208 122426 903 449815 301 208 122435 904 449765 301 208 122445 905 449814 301 208 122454 906 449764 301 208 122504 907 449698 301 208 122512 908 449680 301 208 122523 909 449656 301 208 122532 910 449671 301 208 122544 911 449714 301 208 122555 912 449673 301 208 122603 913 449606 301 208 122612 914 449669 301 208 122620 915 449614 301 208 122629 916 449556 301 208 122640 917 449500 301 208 122648 918 449453 301 208 122657 919 449519 301 208 122706 920 449498 301 208 122715 921 449375 301 208 122724 922 449544

APPENDIX III

301 208 122733 923 449481 301 208 122747 924 449485 301 208 122756 925 449455 301 208 122803 926 449415 301 208 122811 927 449385 301 208 122818 928 449353 301 208 122825 929 449316 311 208 122915 930 449318 311 208 122931 931 449389 311 208 122942 932 449394 311 208 122950 933 449416 311 208 122959 934 449456 311 208 123007 935 449472 311 208 123019 936 449463 311 208 123028 937 449514 311 208 123038 938 449420 311 208 123047 939 449425 311 208 123056 940 449409 311 208 123107 941 449475 311 208 123115 942 449575 311 208 123124 943 449574 311 208 123132 944 449598 311 208 123139 945 449611 311 208 123146 946 449602 311 208 123154 947 449641 311 208 123202 948 449525 311 208 123214 949 449613 311 208 123224 950 449669 311 208 123233 951 449633 311 208 123242 952 449629 311 208 123250 953 449741 311 208 123300 954 449716 311 208 123309 955 449665 311 208 123317 956 449711 311 208 123327 957 449712 311 208 123335 958 449717 311 208 123343 959 449688 311 208 123357 960 449763 321 208 123431 961 449653 321 208 123438 962 449657 321 208 123446 963 449725 321 208 123453 964 449691 321 208 123500 965 449734 321 208 123508 966 449699 321 208 123514 967 449736 321 208 123521 968 449763 321 208 123529 969 449714 321 208 123537 970 449692 321 208 123545 971 449726 321 208 123557 972 449639 321 208 123606 973 449678 321 208 123614 974 449583 321 208 123622 975 449591 321 208 123630 976 449616 321 208 123639 977 449572 321 208 123649 978 449566 321 208 123656 979 449586 321 208 123703 980 449519 321 208 123711 981 449484 321 208 123719 982 449455 321 208 123727 983 449396 321 208 123738 984 449463 321 208 123747 985 449436 321 208 123758 986 449451 321 208 123808 987 449418 321 208 123817 988 449411 321 208 123826 989 449383 321 208 123836 990 449347 321 208 123846 991 449261 Area 28 Base Station Readings 999 208 084700 1 449862 999 208 084706 2 449857 999 208 084713 3 449856 999 208 085200 4 449849 999 208 085206 5 449849 999 208 085212 6 449849 999 208 092630 7 449821 999 208 092636 8 449821 999 208 092642 9 449824 999 208 095935 10 449787 999 208 095941 11 449787 999 208 095948 12 449787 999 208 104410 13 449761 999 208 104417 14 449765 999 208 104423 15 449761

999 208 112434 999 208 112440 999 208 112447 999 208 114540 999 208 114546 999 208 114553 999 208 122220 999 208 122226 999 208 122234 999 208 123940 999 208 123946 999 208 123953

41 208 155827 71 449194 41 208 155837 72 449263 41 208 155845 73 449339 41 208 155854 74 449421 41 208 155902 75 449437 41 208 155911 76 449478 41 208 155919 77 449577 41 208 155927 78 449641 41 208 155935 79 449665 41 208 155943 80 449650 41 208 155952 81 449347 41 208 160001 82 449690 41 208 160009 83 449715 51 208 160104 84 449730 51 208 160113 85 449709 51 208 160126 86 449688 51 208 160136 87 449671 51 208 160143 88 449628 51 208 160151 89 449583 51 208 160159 90 449530 51 208 160209 91 449533 51 208 160218 92 449397 51 208 160227 93 449347 51 208 160234 94 449231 51 208 160242 95 449187 51 208 160249 96 449068 51 208 160259 97 448862 51 208 160308 98 448771 51 208 160316 99 448657 51 208 160325 100 448591 51 208 160334 101 448616 51 208 160344 102 448308 51 208 160353 103 448162 51 208 160401 104 448268 61 208 160425 1000 447994 61 208 160442 105 447892 61 208 160451 106 448022 61 208 160501 107 448284 61 208 160509 108 448420 61 208 160517 109 448556 61 208 160525 110 448698 61 208 160533 111 448648 61 208 160540 112 449355 61 208 160548 113 449119 61 208 160558 114 449188 61 208 160606 115 449307 61 208 160614 116 449408 61 208 160621 117 449474 61 208 160628 118 449490 61 208 160637 119 449635 61 208 160644 120 449646 61 208 160652 121 449677 61 208 160659 122 449675 61 208 160706 123 449709 61 208 160716 124 449690 71 208 160800 125 449667 71 208 160809 126 449682 71 208 160816 127 449704 71 208 160824 128 449661 71 208 160832 129 449612 71 208 160839 130 449564 71 208 160849 131 449534 71 208 160858 132 449515 71 208 160906 133 449549 71 208 160914 134 449273 71 208 160923 135 449143 71 208 160931 136 449034 71 208 160941 137 448902 71 208 160950 138 448713 71 208 160958 139 448539 71 208 161007 140 448420 71 208 161018 141 448233 71 208 161028 142 447973 71 208 161048 143 447755 71 208 161057 144 447589 71 208 161107 145 447392 81 208 161250 146 446788 81 208 161307 147 447135 81 208 161330 148 447395 81 208 161339 149 447675 81 208 161349 150 448113 81 208 161357 151 448271 81 208 161405 152 448380 81 208 161413 153 448635 81 208 161421 154 448778

16 449760 17 449760 18 449741 19 449642 20 449644 21 449641 22 449456 23 449457 24 449459 25 449425 26 449427 27 449429

Area 29 Field Readings 11 208 154351 0 449621 11 208 154421 1 449756 11 208 154440 2 449751 11 208 154448 3 449749 11 208 154510 4 449740 11 208 154521 5 449748 11 208 154530 6 449655 11 208 154540 7 449601 11 208 154549 8 449566 11 208 154557 9 449496 11 208 154605 10 449168 11 208 154629 11 449400 11 208 154640 12 449349 11 208 154649 13 449303 11 208 154657 14 449171 11 208 154706 15 449103 11 208 154720 16 449081 11 208 154731 17 449048 11 208 154741 18 449044 11 208 154752 19 449013 11 208 154802 20 448897 21 208 154915 21 449017 21 208 154927 22 449118 21 208 154935 23 449034 21 208 154944 24 448984 21 208 155000 25 448992 21 208 155009 26 449021 21 208 155019 27 449108 21 208 155030 28 449217 21 208 155043 29 449322 21 208 155103 30 449342 21 208 155112 31 449430 21 208 155121 32 449464 21 208 155130 33 449538 21 208 155140 34 449574 21 208 155148 35 449612 21 208 155157 36 449674 21 208 155205 37 449703 21 208 155214 38 449702 21 208 155222 39 449723 21 208 155233 40 449729 21 208 155253 41 449721 31 208 155334 42 449706 31 208 155345 43 449719 31 208 155353 44 449704 31 208 155401 45 449673 31 208 155409 46 449692 31 208 155418 47 449639 31 208 155427 48 449598 31 208 155436 49 449557 31 208 155444 50 449483 31 208 155452 51 449452 31 208 155459 52 449380 31 208 155507 53 449290 31 208 155515 54 449244 31 208 155523 55 449126 31 208 155532 56 449101 31 208 155541 57 448955 31 208 155550 58 448890 31 208 155558 59 448967 31 208 155607 60 449022 31 208 155617 61 448843 31 208 155626 62 448905 41 208 155706 63 448632 41 208 155729 64 448674 41 208 155738 65 448898 41 208 155746 66 448897 41 208 155754 67 448818 41 208 155801 68 448835 41 208 155808 69 448939 41 208 155818 70 449049

204

81 208 161429 155 448929 81 208 161437 156 449052 81 208 161445 157 449193 81 208 161454 158 449383 81 208 161507 159 449453 81 208 161516 160 449495 81 208 161523 161 449530 81 208 161530 162 449566 81 208 161537 163 449642 81 208 161546 164 449684 81 208 161553 165 449662 81 208 161602 166 449660 91 208 161728 167 449676 91 208 161739 168 449689 91 208 161746 169 449681 91 208 161754 170 449644 91 208 161801 171 449551 91 208 161810 172 449507 91 208 161819 173 449471 91 208 161828 174 449375 91 208 161839 175 449284 91 208 161848 176 449130 91 208 161858 177 448993 91 208 161907 178 448870 91 208 161916 179 448658 91 208 161927 180 448524 91 208 161936 181 448328 91 208 161945 182 448186 91 208 161953 183 447914 91 208 162002 184 447568 91 208 162010 185 447172 91 208 162018 186 446819 91 208 162028 187 446301 101 208 162254 188 449687 101 208 162309 189 449689 101 208 162316 190 449674 101 208 162323 191 449645 101 208 162332 192 449560 101 208 162340 193 449519 101 208 162348 194 449432 101 208 162357 195 449334 101 208 162405 196 449226 101 208 162412 197 449103 101 208 162421 198 448984 101 208 162429 199 448852 101 208 162438 200 448664 101 208 162447 201 448479 101 208 162454 202 448213 101 208 162502 203 447939 101 208 162510 204 447679 101 208 162516 205 447279 101 208 162524 206 446782 101 208 162532 207 446310 101 208 162539 208 445675 111 208 162627 209 444986 111 208 162637 210 445817 111 208 162645 211 446461 111 208 162654 212 446946 111 208 162703 213 447376 111 208 162711 214 447745 111 208 162719 215 448539 111 208 162730 216 448542 111 208 162738 217 448593 111 208 162748 218 448759 111 208 162757 219 448933 111 208 162806 220 449081 111 208 162816 221 449185 111 208 162825 222 449279 111 208 162835 223 449363 111 208 162843 224 449500 111 208 162852 225 449523 111 208 162859 226 449591 111 208 162907 227 449684 111 208 162914 228 449708 111 208 162924 229 449713 121 208 163010 230 449677 121 208 163021 231 449647 121 208 163029 232 449544 121 208 163038 233 449555 121 208 163047 234 449471 121 208 163055 235 449421 121 208 163104 236 449360 121 208 163112 237 449261 121 208 163122 238 449167 121 208 163133 239 449068

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

121 208 163143 121 208 163152 121 208 163200 121 208 163209 121 208 163218 121 208 163231 121 208 163240 121 208 163249 121 208 163258 121 208 163307 121 208 163318 131 208 163349 131 208 163358 131 208 163411 131 208 163419 131 208 163427 131 208 163435 131 208 163443 131 208 163451 131 208 163458 131 208 163504 131 208 163512 131 208 163519 131 208 163528 131 208 163537 131 208 163545 131 208 163553 131 208 163602 131 208 163611 131 208 163619 131 208 163627 131 208 163635 141 208 163729 141 208 163738 141 208 163746 141 208 163804 141 208 163812 141 208 163820 141 208 163830 141 208 163838 141 208 163847 141 208 163856 141 208 163906 141 208 163918 141 208 163927 141 208 163936 141 208 163944 141 208 163952 141 208 164002 141 208 164010 141 208 164023 141 208 164034 141 208 164043 151 208 164122 151 208 164142 151 208 164153 151 208 164203 151 208 164211 151 208 164220 151 208 164227 151 208 164235 151 208 164243 151 208 164250 151 208 164257 151 208 164308 151 208 164316 151 208 164325 151 208 164333 151 208 164339 151 208 164346 151 208 164353 151 208 164400 151 208 164406 151 208 164414 161 208 164654 161 208 164702 161 208 164710 161 208 164717 161 208 164726 161 208 164733 161 208 164739 161 208 164747 161 208 164754 161 208 164802 161 208 164810

240 448915 241 448715 242 448516 243 448364 244 448008 245 447632 246 447198 247 446691 248 446087 249 445447 250 444387 251 443667 252 444903 253 445781 254 446570 255 447043 256 447483 257 447907 258 448188 259 448561 260 448596 261 448848 262 449056 263 449127 264 449229 265 448904 266 449389 267 449451 268 449510 269 449579 270 449613 271 449626 272 449624 273 449585 274 449519 275 449454 276 449431 277 449363 278 449257 279 449129 280 449075 281 449025 282 448899 283 448443 284 448434 285 448134 286 447728 287 447359 288 446975 289 446326 290 445491 291 444590 292 443105 293 442677 294 444380 295 445204 296 446158 297 446994 298 447289 299 447743 300 448103 301 448408 302 448572 303 448858 304 449018 305 449110 306 449145 307 449242 308 449341 309 449409 310 449460 311 449514 312 449583 313 449622 314 449576 315 449611 316 449483 317 449436 318 449384 319 449333 320 449221 321 449117 322 449048 323 448918 324 448771

161 208 164816 161 208 164822 161 208 164829 161 208 164836 161 208 164842 161 208 164849 161 208 164857 161 208 164904 161 208 164913 161 208 164921 171 208 165005 171 208 165018 171 208 165026 171 208 165033 171 208 165040 171 208 165046 171 208 165053 171 208 165100 171 208 165108 171 208 165116 171 208 165124 171 208 165131 171 208 165141 171 208 165150 171 208 165159 171 208 165205 171 208 165212 171 208 165219 171 208 165231 171 208 165250 171 208 165259 181 208 165430 181 208 165440 181 208 165451 181 208 165500 181 208 165512 181 208 165522 181 208 165531 181 208 165539 181 208 165553 181 208 165601 181 208 165632 181 208 165642 181 208 165651 181 208 165659 181 208 165709 181 208 165717 181 208 165731 181 208 165739 181 208 165748 181 208 165758 181 208 165808 191 208 165906 191 208 165916 191 208 165926 191 208 165935 191 208 165949 191 208 165958 191 208 170008 191 208 170028 191 208 170036 191 208 170045 191 208 170054 191 208 170107 191 208 170116 191 208 170125 191 208 170135 191 208 170144 191 208 170154 191 208 170202 191 208 170210 191 208 170219 191 208 170229 201 208 170311 201 208 170325 201 208 170338 201 208 170348 201 208 170357 201 208 170406 201 208 170418 201 208 170435 201 208 170446 201 208 170457 201 208 170507 201 208 170517

201 208 170530 201 208 170542 201 208 170554 201 208 170608 201 208 170617 201 208 170626 201 208 170636 201 208 170645 201 208 170656 211 208 170927 211 208 170937 211 208 170948 211 208 170957 211 208 171006 211 208 171015 211 208 171024 211 208 171033 211 208 171044 211 208 171052 211 208 171106 211 208 171117 211 208 171129 211 208 171139 211 208 171150 211 208 171201 211 208 171211 211 208 171220 211 208 171229 211 208 171239 211 208 171248 221 208 171340 221 208 171354 221 208 171405 221 208 171415 221 208 171424 221 208 171433 221 208 171442 221 208 171451 221 208 171500 221 208 171510 221 208 171518 221 208 171529 221 208 171539 221 208 171549 221 208 171559 221 208 171609 221 208 171617 221 208 171625 221 208 171637 221 208 171645 221 208 171702 231 208 171800 231 208 171820 231 208 171833 231 208 171845 231 208 171856 231 208 171909 231 208 171928 231 208 171940 231 208 171952 231 208 172010 231 208 172023 231 208 172033 231 208 172043 231 208 172054 231 208 172108 231 208 172118 231 208 172131 231 208 172144 231 208 172157 231 208 172207 231 208 172217 241 208 172451 241 208 172501 241 208 172510 241 208 172519 241 208 172708 241 208 172721 241 208 172731 241 208 172742 241 208 172751 241 208 172801 241 208 172809 241 208 172817 241 208 172825

325 448716 326 448476 327 448106 328 447762 329 447462 330 446799 331 446248 332 445102 333 444298 334 442768 335 442532 336 444163 337 445298 338 446409 339 446896 340 447388 341 447868 342 448246 343 448347 344 448655 345 448785 346 448883 347 449024 348 449118 349 449225 350 449359 351 449324 352 449288 353 449658 354 449602 355 449650 356 449618 357 449608 358 449637 359 449759 360 449360 361 449324 362 449199 363 449104 364 449029 365 448776 366 448647 367 447657 368 447567 369 448310 370 447757 371 447355 372 446822 373 446088 374 445061 375 444168 376 442479 377 442659 378 444419 379 445401 380 446238 381 446955 382 447425 383 447862 384 448237 385 445375 386 448269 387 448833 388 448933 389 449033 390 449109 391 449207 392 449359 393 449349 394 449377 395 449531 396 449584 397 449525 398 449583 399 449524 400 449494 401 449447 402 449424 403 449290 404 449241 405 449123 406 449052 407 449049 408 448949 409 449343

205

410 448293 411 448123 412 447866 413 447409 414 446814 415 446105 416 445289 417 444269 418 442829 419 442978 420 444618 421 445509 422 446426 423 446901 424 447534 425 447983 426 448164 427 448448 428 448703 429 448796 430 449005 431 449070 432 449156 433 449242 434 449295 435 449386 436 449461 437 449501 438 449518 439 449700 440 449637 441 449598 442 449577 443 449515 444 449415 445 449335 446 449246 447 449229 448 449135 449 449035 450 448885 451 448693 452 448540 453 448404 454 448061 455 447624 456 447209 457 446531 458 445868 459 444861 460 443376 461 443526 462 444677 463 445632 464 446357 465 446920 466 447457 467 447973 468 448164 469 448489 470 448576 471 448755 472 448889 473 449062 474 449170 475 449186 476 449311 477 449403 478 449487 479 449534 480 449586 481 449638 482 449621 483 449599 484 449550 485 449467 486 449432 487 449335 488 449221 489 449177 490 449062 491 448900 492 448730 493 448633 494 448528

241 208 172835 241 208 172844 241 208 172853 241 208 172903 241 208 172913 241 208 172923 241 208 172934 241 208 172946 251 208 173020 251 208 173031 251 208 173042 251 208 173051 251 208 173058 251 208 173107 251 208 173114 251 208 173122 251 208 173129 251 208 173137 251 208 173145 251 208 173153 251 208 173203 251 208 173213 251 208 173223 251 208 173231 251 208 173241 251 208 173251 251 208 173301 251 208 173312 251 208 173322 261 208 173351 261 208 173401 261 208 173412 261 208 173420 261 208 173431 261 208 173441 261 208 173452 261 208 173503 261 208 173514 261 208 173525 261 208 173536 261 208 173547 261 208 173558 261 208 173611 261 208 173620 261 208 173628 261 208 173638 261 208 173646 261 208 173656 261 208 173705 261 208 173715 271 208 173754 271 208 173805 271 208 173816 271 208 173829 271 208 173838 271 208 173848 271 208 173859 271 208 173907 271 208 173916 271 208 173927 271 208 173936 271 208 173946 271 208 173954 271 208 174004 271 208 174016 271 208 174027 271 208 174036 271 208 174046 271 208 174057 271 208 174108 271 208 174117 281 208 174153 281 208 174204 281 208 174214 281 208 174225 281 208 174236 281 208 174246 281 208 174255 281 208 174305 281 208 174314 281 208 174323 281 208 174331 281 208 174339 281 208 174350 281 208 174431

495 448292 496 448216 497 447587 498 447122 499 446615 500 445921 501 444938 502 444387 503 444798 504 445276 505 446116 506 446726 507 447224 508 447696 509 448054 510 448296 511 448495 512 448695 513 448784 514 448922 515 449064 516 449166 517 449292 518 449412 519 449431 520 449482 521 449562 522 449621 523 449632 524 449660 525 449611 526 449597 527 449519 528 449476 529 449396 530 449264 531 449196 532 449091 533 448919 534 448793 535 448708 536 448572 537 448193 538 447907 539 447546 540 447091 541 446635 542 446027 543 445247 544 443799 545 444702 546 445304 547 445995 548 446622 549 447046 550 447471 551 447881 552 448210 553 448526 554 448695 555 448782 556 448958 557 449098 558 449200 559 449314 560 449419 561 449465 562 449552 563 449544 564 449686 565 449686 566 449691 567 449652 568 449631 569 449641 570 449536 571 449491 572 449433 573 449312 574 449227 575 449182 576 449180 577 448985 578 448844 579 448631

APPENDIX III

281 208 174441 580 448463 281 208 174450 581 448196 281 208 174458 582 447940 281 208 174507 583 447414 281 208 174516 584 446397 281 208 174526 585 444843 281 208 174538 586 445844 291 208 174604 587 446579 291 208 174615 588 445576 291 208 174626 589 446028 291 208 174637 590 447451 291 208 174646 591 448078 291 208 174656 592 448356 291 208 174705 593 448521 291 208 174714 594 448739 291 208 174723 595 448859 291 208 174733 596 449019 291 208 174749 597 449104 291 208 174800 598 449236 291 208 174810 599 449284 291 208 174819 600 449353 291 208 174829 601 449403 291 208 174840 602 449437 291 208 174850 603 449493 291 208 174901 604 449598 291 208 174912 605 449580 291 208 174922 606 449650 291 208 174935 607 449687 301 208 175003 608 449698 301 208 175014 609 449728 301 208 175024 610 449685 301 208 175033 611 449567 301 208 175043 612 449515 301 208 175052 613 449458 301 208 175100 614 449412 301 208 175109 615 449394 301 208 175118 616 449333 301 208 175125 617 449265 301 208 175133 618 449214 301 208 175142 619 449072 301 208 175154 620 448962 301 208 175204 621 448828 301 208 175215 622 448643 301 208 175225 623 448512 301 208 175235 624 448382 301 208 175243 625 448176 301 208 175252 626 447230 301 208 175302 627 446931 301 208 175312 628 446809 311 208 175339 629 447200 311 208 175350 630 447651 311 208 175358 631 448269 311 208 175407 632 449488 311 208 175417 633 448734 311 208 175426 634 448589 311 208 175435 635 448701 311 208 175442 636 448834 311 208 175452 637 448942 311 208 175503 638 449040 311 208 175514 639 449167 311 208 175525 640 449273 311 208 175534 641 449336 311 208 175541 642 449385 311 208 175549 643 449399 311 208 175557 644 449445 311 208 175607 645 449525 311 208 175618 646 449566 311 208 175631 647 449639 311 208 175641 648 449670 311 208 175655 649 449661 Area 29 Base Station Readings 999 208 152900 1 449870 999 208 152906 2 449869 999 208 152912 3 449869 999 208 154300 4 449871 999 208 154305 5 449874 999 208 154312 6 449875 999 208 162110 7 449845 999 208 162116 8 449850 999 208 162122 9 449849 999 208 164613 10 449812 999 208 164619 11 449809 999 208 164626 12 449807 999 208 172345 13 449803 999 208 172350 14 449802

999 208 172356 999 208 175847 999 208 175852 999 208 175858

31 209 091357 31 209 091405 31 209 091413 31 209 091421 31 209 091429 31 209 091437 31 209 091445 31 209 091453 31 209 091501 31 209 091510 31 209 091519 31 209 091527 31 209 091536 31 209 091547 41 209 091610 41 209 091618 41 209 091628 41 209 091637 41 209 091645 41 209 091701 41 209 091712 41 209 091726 41 209 091735 41 209 091743 41 209 091752 41 209 091801 41 209 091810 41 209 091826 41 209 091835 41 209 091850 41 209 091904 41 209 091920 41 209 091934 41 209 091949 41 209 092002 41 209 092013 41 209 092026 41 209 092038 41 209 092050 41 209 092102 41 209 092117 41 209 092128 41 209 092141 41 209 092200 41 209 092213 51 209 092243 51 209 092253 51 209 092308 51 209 092319 51 209 092330 51 209 092342 51 209 092353 51 209 092404 51 209 092418 51 209 092429 51 209 092439 51 209 092450 51 209 092502 51 209 092510 51 209 092519 51 209 092531 51 209 092542 51 209 092550 51 209 092600 51 209 092608 51 209 092616 51 209 092628 51 209 092638 51 209 092646 51 209 092655 51 209 092704 51 209 092712 51 209 092723 51 209 092739 51 209 092747 51 209 092756 61 209 092945 61 209 092955 61 209 093006 61 209 093018 61 209 093029 61 209 093041 61 209 093053 61 209 093104 61 209 093116

15 449809 16 449826 17 449823 18 449823

Area 30 Field Readings 11 209 090027 0 450307 11 209 090040 1 450405 11 209 090052 2 450330 11 209 090100 3 450300 11 209 090109 4 450220 11 209 090117 5 450157 11 209 090125 6 450088 11 209 090134 7 450046 11 209 090144 8 450011 11 209 090152 9 450034 11 209 090200 10 450042 11 209 090208 11 450073 11 209 090218 12 450142 11 209 090226 13 450254 11 209 090234 14 450080 11 209 090244 15 449955 11 209 090252 16 450038 11 209 090300 17 450092 11 209 090308 18 450050 11 209 090318 19 450030 11 209 090329 20 449924 11 209 090339 21 449904 11 209 090348 22 449952 11 209 090357 23 449965 11 209 090406 24 449970 11 209 090415 25 449953 11 209 090424 26 450029 11 209 090433 27 449967 11 209 090443 28 450003 11 209 090453 29 450093 11 209 090507 30 449879 21 209 090527 31 449821 21 209 090535 32 449902 21 209 090543 33 449962 21 209 090551 34 449950 21 209 090559 35 449979 21 209 090609 36 450014 21 209 090618 37 449966 21 209 090627 38 449964 21 209 090636 39 449966 21 209 090647 40 449844 21 209 090701 41 449781 21 209 090711 42 449962 21 209 090721 43 450062 21 209 090734 44 450070 21 209 090746 45 450032 21 209 090757 46 449989 21 209 090807 47 450066 21 209 090819 48 450125 21 209 090829 49 450082 21 209 090837 50 450057 21 209 090850 51 450073 21 209 090859 52 450090 21 209 090907 53 450053 21 209 090915 54 450064 21 209 090924 55 450073 21 209 090932 56 450109 21 209 090945 57 450186 21 209 090955 58 450247 21 209 091005 59 450293 21 209 091014 60 450329 21 209 091027 61 450409 31 209 091050 62 450390 31 209 091101 63 450289 31 209 091110 64 450212 31 209 091121 65 450199 31 209 091132 66 450179 31 209 091140 67 450066 31 209 091149 68 450023 31 209 091157 69 450043 31 209 091211 70 450068 31 209 091221 71 450109 31 209 091232 72 450075 31 209 091245 73 450056 31 209 091257 74 450064 31 209 091308 75 450049 31 209 091321 76 450057 31 209 091332 77 449994 31 209 091344 78 450025

206

79 450031 80 450065 81 449987 82 449806 83 449875 84 449946 85 449983 86 449949 87 449973 88 449972 89 449902 90 449910 91 449932 92 449881 93 449960 94 449912 95 449893 96 449940 97 449981 98 449904 99 449900 100 449948 101 449931 102 449902 103 449917 104 450073 105 450107 106 450000 107 449976 108 449996 109 450017 110 450012 111 450020 112 450039 113 450047 114 450069 115 450095 116 450018 117 450001 118 450054 119 450123 120 450185 121 450189 122 450222 123 450343 124 450290 125 450195 126 450169 127 450097 128 450052 129 450026 130 450026 131 450053 132 450098 133 450057 134 450056 135 450036 136 450007 137 449995 138 450022 139 450030 140 450022 141 450048 142 450061 143 449941 144 449945 145 449932 146 449908 147 449920 148 449901 149 449933 150 449940 151 449895 152 449848 153 449886 154 449867 155 449806 156 449723 157 449780 158 449848 159 449892 160 449926 161 449872 162 449911 163 449916

61 209 093129 164 449935 61 209 093141 165 449992 61 209 093153 166 449930 61 209 093204 167 449865 61 209 093216 168 449914 61 209 093229 169 449992 61 209 093241 170 450042 61 209 093252 171 450030 61 209 093303 172 450039 61 209 093316 173 450034 61 209 093325 174 450040 61 209 093334 175 450056 61 209 093345 176 450068 61 209 093356 177 450072 61 209 093404 178 450046 61 209 093413 179 450031 61 209 093422 180 450031 61 209 093434 181 450042 61 209 093443 182 450076 61 209 093452 183 450108 61 209 093501 184 450149 61 209 093514 185 450229 71 209 093533 186 450206 71 209 093548 187 450142 71 209 093603 188 450043 71 209 093612 189 450041 71 209 093620 190 450037 71 209 093630 191 450046 71 209 093640 192 450076 71 209 093650 193 450037 71 209 093703 194 450066 71 209 093715 195 450022 71 209 093726 196 450019 71 209 093739 197 450000 71 209 093751 198 450023 71 209 093801 199 450052 71 209 093813 1000 450066 71 209 093824 200 450031 71 209 093833 201 450014 71 209 093848 202 449969 71 209 093900 203 449906 71 209 093914 204 450004 71 209 093925 205 450016 71 209 093938 206 449985 71 209 093950 207 449943 71 209 094002 208 449920 71 209 094013 209 449907 71 209 094024 210 449886 71 209 094035 211 449931 71 209 094045 212 449817 71 209 094055 213 449801 71 209 094106 214 449724 71 209 094117 215 449756 81 209 094140 216 449767 81 209 094151 217 449814 81 209 094207 218 449779 81 209 094225 219 449776 81 209 094237 220 449849 81 209 094250 221 449896 81 209 094302 222 449886 81 209 094317 223 449883 81 209 094328 224 449889 81 209 094340 225 449948 81 209 094354 226 450007 81 209 094407 227 450021 81 209 094419 228 450020 81 209 094435 229 449998 81 209 094447 230 450005 81 209 094458 231 449966 81 209 094514 232 450047 81 209 094528 233 450091 81 209 094541 234 450037 81 209 094553 235 450025 81 209 094605 236 450012 81 209 094613 237 449957 81 209 094622 238 449978 81 209 094639 239 450006 81 209 094647 240 450052 81 209 094655 241 450076 81 209 094704 242 450054 81 209 094712 243 450017 81 209 094719 244 449989 81 209 094727 245 450095 81 209 094735 246 450180 91 209 094800 247 450123

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

91 209 094809 248 450049 91 209 094818 249 450029 91 209 094827 250 449983 91 209 094836 251 450012 91 209 094847 252 450020 91 209 094855 253 449976 91 209 094904 254 449952 91 209 094912 255 449952 91 209 094921 256 449994 91 209 094931 257 450017 91 209 094939 258 450024 91 209 094948 259 450015 91 209 094958 260 450010 91 209 095006 261 450012 91 209 095016 262 449974 91 209 095026 263 449939 91 209 095034 264 449974 91 209 095043 265 450007 91 209 095054 266 450044 91 209 095106 267 450035 91 209 095122 268 449919 91 209 095133 269 449829 91 209 095145 270 449839 91 209 095158 271 449888 91 209 095209 272 449890 91 209 095220 273 449800 91 209 095231 274 449789 91 209 095243 275 449760 91 209 095254 276 449746 91 209 095311 277 449734 101 209 095402 278 449740 101 209 095415 279 449789 101 209 095426 280 449822 101 209 095439 281 449764 101 209 095450 282 449765 101 209 095458 283 449806 101 209 095505 284 449798 101 209 095514 285 449829 101 209 095523 286 449916 101 209 095530 287 449979 101 209 095538 288 450012 101 209 095548 289 449997 101 209 095559 290 449966 101 209 095607 291 449957 101 209 095616 292 449952 101 209 095624 293 449948 101 209 095632 294 449933 101 209 095640 295 449932 101 209 095648 296 449952 101 209 095657 297 450005 101 209 095704 298 450020 101 209 095714 299 449977 101 209 095721 300 449953 101 209 095729 301 449916 101 209 095737 302 449957 101 209 095746 303 450034 101 209 095754 304 450008 101 209 095804 305 449981 101 209 095812 306 449993 101 209 095820 307 450008 101 209 095827 308 450062 111 209 095855 309 450021 111 209 095910 310 449982 111 209 095925 311 450012 111 209 095936 312 449956 111 209 095950 313 449916 111 209 100001 314 449928 111 209 100015 315 449921 111 209 100027 316 449959 111 209 100038 317 449969 111 209 100049 318 449966 111 209 100059 319 449970 111 209 100110 320 449912 111 209 100121 321 449887 111 209 100134 322 449903 111 209 100142 323 449944 111 209 100151 324 449952 111 209 100200 325 449923 111 209 100208 326 449939 111 209 100216 327 449932 111 209 100224 328 449946 111 209 100232 329 449978 111 209 100241 330 449960 111 209 100250 331 449885 111 209 100259 332 449789

111 209 100307 111 209 100316 111 209 100323 111 209 100332 111 209 100340 111 209 100349 111 209 100359 121 209 100638 121 209 100650 121 209 100702 121 209 100712 121 209 100722 121 209 100732 121 209 100743 121 209 100757 121 209 100809 121 209 100821 121 209 100836 121 209 100847 121 209 100859 121 209 100911 121 209 100923 121 209 100935 121 209 100946 121 209 100956 121 209 101008 121 209 101021 121 209 101032 121 209 101041 121 209 101049 121 209 101058 121 209 101106 121 209 101114 121 209 101124 121 209 101135 121 209 101143 121 209 101153 121 209 101204 131 209 101223 131 209 101233 131 209 101241 131 209 101249 131 209 101258 131 209 101307 131 209 101318 131 209 101327 131 209 101337 131 209 101346 131 209 101356 131 209 101405 131 209 101413 131 209 101421 131 209 101430 131 209 101439 131 209 101447 131 209 101457 131 209 101511 131 209 101524 131 209 101536 131 209 101547 131 209 101602 131 209 101614 131 209 101624 131 209 101635 131 209 101644 131 209 101653 131 209 101704 131 209 101716 131 209 101727 141 209 101804 141 209 101815 141 209 101826 141 209 101836 141 209 101847 141 209 101858 141 209 101910 141 209 101922 141 209 101937 141 209 101951 141 209 102005 141 209 102014 141 209 102116 141 209 102125 141 209 102133 141 209 102140

141 209 102152 141 209 102201 141 209 102210 141 209 102220 141 209 102229 141 209 102238 141 209 102247 141 209 102256 141 209 102306 141 209 102315 141 209 102323 141 209 102332 141 209 102342 141 209 102350 141 209 102359 151 209 102421 151 209 102429 151 209 102437 151 209 102449 151 209 102504 151 209 102515 151 209 102526 151 209 102540 151 209 102553 151 209 102605 151 209 102616 151 209 102631 151 209 102642 151 209 102655 151 209 102705 151 209 102713 151 209 102722 151 209 102730 151 209 102738 151 209 102747 151 209 102755 151 209 102803 151 209 102811 151 209 102819 151 209 102827 151 209 102835 151 209 102843 151 209 102851 151 209 102859 151 209 102909 151 209 102917 161 209 102941 161 209 102950 161 209 102958 161 209 103017 161 209 103029 161 209 103040 161 209 103052 161 209 103104 161 209 103117 161 209 103129 161 209 103141 161 209 103155 161 209 103206 161 209 103214 161 209 103222 161 209 103231 161 209 103239 161 209 103249 161 209 103258 161 209 103306 161 209 103315 161 209 103323 161 209 103331 161 209 103340 161 209 103353 161 209 103405 161 209 103414 161 209 103422 161 209 103430 161 209 103437 161 209 103446 171 209 103511 171 209 103525 171 209 103539 171 209 103552 171 209 103604 171 209 103617 171 209 103628 171 209 103638

333 449792 334 449780 335 449772 336 449750 337 449762 338 449773 339 449788 340 449756 341 449719 342 449772 343 449766 344 449753 345 449794 346 449777 347 449765 348 449812 349 449758 350 449941 351 449919 352 449939 353 449970 354 449911 355 449943 356 449904 357 449881 358 449876 359 449912 360 449925 361 449929 362 449939 363 449929 364 449931 365 449860 366 449878 367 449905 368 449978 369 450006 370 450018 371 450006 372 450000 373 449932 374 449849 375 449855 376 449873 377 449903 378 449912 379 449937 380 449885 381 449906 382 449889 383 449876 384 449910 385 449934 386 449869 387 449872 388 449984 389 449929 390 449927 391 449970 392 450226 393 449533 394 449735 395 449785 396 449767 397 449743 398 449746 399 449772 400 449843 401 449574 402 449782 403 449780 404 449753 405 449747 406 449747 407 449760 408 449774 409 449769 410 449839 411 449957 412 449915 413 449935 414 449892 415 449941 416 449867 417 449892

207

418 449901 419 449937 420 449963 421 449941 422 449876 423 449852 424 449901 425 449899 426 449874 427 449910 428 449889 429 449858 430 449878 431 449954 432 449989 433 449921 434 449902 435 449891 436 449887 437 449941 438 449853 439 449902 440 449912 441 449880 442 449906 443 449945 444 449976 445 449940 446 449905 447 449913 448 449899 449 449914 450 449948 451 449943 452 449942 453 449879 454 449844 455 449802 456 449780 457 449757 458 449747 459 449752 460 449780 461 449821 462 449738 463 449672 464 449680 465 449698 466 449722 467 449724 468 449736 469 449713 470 449755 471 449772 472 449789 473 449802 474 449847 475 449861 476 449908 477 449932 478 449884 479 449870 480 449890 481 449881 482 449905 483 449922 484 449921 485 449894 486 449877 487 449872 488 449889 489 449861 490 449870 491 449859 492 449847 493 449872 494 449909 495 449865 496 449851 497 449811 498 449807 499 449778 500 449783 501 449835 502 449884

171 209 103650 171 209 103701 171 209 103713 171 209 103725 171 209 103739 171 209 103751 171 209 103803 171 209 103813 171 209 103830 171 209 103843 171 209 103854 171 209 103906 171 209 103925 171 209 103936 171 209 103947 171 209 103958 171 209 104010 171 209 104020 171 209 104030 171 209 104042 171 209 104053 171 209 104105 171 209 104119 181 209 104435 181 209 104447 181 209 104457 181 209 104505 181 209 104513 181 209 104520 181 209 104528 181 209 104537 181 209 104545 181 209 104553 181 209 104603 181 209 104610 181 209 104619 181 209 104632 181 209 104640 181 209 104648 181 209 104657 181 209 104704 181 209 104713 181 209 104721 181 209 104731 181 209 104740 181 209 104748 181 209 104757 181 209 104806 181 209 104814 181 209 104823 181 209 104831 181 209 104840 181 209 104848 181 209 104857 191 209 104930 191 209 104943 191 209 104954 191 209 105011 191 209 105024 191 209 105036 191 209 105049 191 209 105101 191 209 105114 191 209 105126 191 209 105139 191 209 105151 191 209 105205 191 209 105214 191 209 105222 191 209 105231 191 209 105243 191 209 105251 191 209 105301 191 209 105316 191 209 105325 191 209 105336 191 209 105347 191 209 105359 191 209 105410 191 209 105418 191 209 105426 191 209 105435 191 209 105443 191 209 105453 191 209 105516

503 449910 504 449897 505 449872 506 449883 507 449883 508 449875 509 449894 510 449892 511 449918 512 449911 513 449826 514 449910 515 449864 516 449763 517 449754 518 449786 519 449851 520 449679 521 449686 522 449684 523 449660 524 449611 525 449617 526 449512 527 449587 528 449684 529 449674 530 449686 531 449672 532 449730 533 449727 534 449709 535 449707 536 449762 537 449639 538 449797 539 449820 540 449891 541 449876 542 449852 543 449799 544 449815 545 449837 546 449810 547 449853 548 449857 549 449858 550 449735 551 449673 552 449611 553 449617 554 449658 555 449731 556 449849 557 449836 558 449739 559 449594 560 449500 561 449525 562 449571 563 449680 564 449765 565 449804 566 449830 567 449834 568 449821 569 449800 570 449809 571 450057 572 449834 573 449863 574 449780 575 449699 576 449917 577 449741 578 449701 579 449709 580 449668 581 449650 582 449641 583 449630 584 449626 585 449608 586 449608 587 449517

APPENDIX III

201 209 105538 588 449454 201 209 105550 589 449541 201 209 105559 590 449559 201 209 105607 591 449594 201 209 105616 592 449633 201 209 105625 593 449644 201 209 105634 594 449651 201 209 105643 595 449652 201 209 105654 596 449690 201 209 105703 597 449673 201 209 105712 598 449725 201 209 105721 599 449764 201 209 105730 600 449768 201 209 105739 601 449769 201 209 105749 602 449832 201 209 105759 603 449863 201 209 105809 604 449871 201 209 105819 605 449853 201 209 105829 606 449810 201 209 105839 607 449819 201 209 105849 608 449830 201 209 105859 609 449785 201 209 105907 610 449790 201 209 105918 611 449759 201 209 105928 612 449656 201 209 105937 613 449547 201 209 105946 614 449381 201 209 105955 615 449268 201 209 110004 616 449456 201 209 110014 617 449570 201 209 110026 618 449822 211 209 110114 619 449755 211 209 110122 620 449347 211 209 110131 621 448918 211 209 110138 622 448953 211 209 110147 623 449281 211 209 110157 624 449479 211 209 110208 625 449625 211 209 110217 626 449750 211 209 110228 627 449761 211 209 110237 628 449770 211 209 110245 629 449798 211 209 110253 630 449799 211 209 110302 631 449859 211 209 110311 632 449878 211 209 110338 633 449858 211 209 110350 634 449845 211 209 110359 635 449752 211 209 110408 636 449748 211 209 110416 637 449761 211 209 110425 638 449734 211 209 110433 639 449683 211 209 110441 640 449644 211 209 110450 641 449636 211 209 110459 642 449617 211 209 110507 643 449622 211 209 110516 644 449601 211 209 110525 645 449600 211 209 110533 646 449566 211 209 110542 647 449519 211 209 110551 648 449466 211 209 110612 649 449351 Area 30 Base Station Readings 999 209 085600 1 449920 999 209 085606 2 449921 999 209 085612 3 449920 999 209 085920 4 449922 999 209 085926 5 449922 999 209 085932 6 449925 999 209 092930 7 449912 999 209 092936 8 449911 999 209 092943 9 449914 999 209 100540 10 449886 999 209 100545 11 449886 999 209 100552 12 449886 999 209 104238 13 449830 999 209 104243 14 449832 999 209 104249 15 449828 999 209 110745 16 449756 999 209 110752 17 449756 999 209 110757 18 449757 Area 31 Field Readings 11 209 115111 650 450238 11 209 115120 651 449597

11 209 115129 11 209 115137 11 209 115145 11 209 115153 11 209 115201 11 209 115209 11 209 115215 11 209 115222 11 209 115229 11 209 115237 11 209 115243 11 209 115250 11 209 115259 11 209 115307 11 209 115315 11 209 115322 11 209 115347 11 209 115403 11 209 115412 21 209 115518 21 209 115525 21 209 115532 21 209 115539 21 209 115549 21 209 115557 21 209 115603 21 209 115610 21 209 115617 21 209 115624 21 209 115645 21 209 115653 21 209 115701 21 209 115709 21 209 115717 21 209 115724 21 209 115735 21 209 115745 21 209 115755 21 209 115804 21 209 115816 31 209 115909 31 209 115925 31 209 115936 31 209 115946 31 209 115958 31 209 120008 31 209 120017 31 209 120030 31 209 120039 31 209 120051 31 209 120103 31 209 120114 31 209 120126 31 209 120230 31 209 120240 31 209 120251 31 209 120303 31 209 120313 31 209 120324 31 209 120333 31 209 120347 41 209 120422 41 209 120435 41 209 120445 41 209 120550 41 209 120557 41 209 120604 41 209 120610 41 209 120617 41 209 120624 41 209 120630 41 209 120637 41 209 120643 41 209 120649 41 209 120656 41 209 120703 41 209 120711 41 209 120720 41 209 120728 41 209 120736 41 209 120743 41 209 120753 51 209 120847 51 209 120903 51 209 120914

51 209 120929 51 209 120939 51 209 120949 51 209 121004 51 209 121013 51 209 121022 51 209 121032 51 209 121044 51 209 121055 51 209 121119 51 209 121128 51 209 121138 51 209 121147 51 209 121157 51 209 121211 51 209 121220 51 209 121229 51 209 121237 61 209 121302 61 209 121308 61 209 121314 61 209 121320 61 209 121332 61 209 121346 61 209 121355 61 209 121405 61 209 121414 61 209 121423 61 209 121440 61 209 121452 61 209 121505 61 209 121512 61 209 121521 61 209 121528 61 209 121535 61 209 121542 61 209 121552 61 209 121605 61 209 121617 71 209 121940 71 209 121951 71 209 121957 71 209 122005 71 209 122013 71 209 122029 71 209 122036 71 209 122042 71 209 122050 71 209 122057 71 209 122104 71 209 122111 71 209 122118 71 209 122125 71 209 122132 71 209 122139 71 209 122145 71 209 122151 71 209 122158 71 209 122205 71 209 122213 81 209 122242 81 209 122253 81 209 122310 81 209 122349 81 209 122356 81 209 122403 81 209 122410 81 209 122418 81 209 122426 81 209 122435 81 209 122441 81 209 122448 81 209 122458 81 209 122506 81 209 122513 81 209 122521 81 209 122534 81 209 122548 81 209 122556 81 209 122602 81 209 122613 91 209 122641 91 209 122649 91 209 122659 91 209 122706

652 449988 653 449976 654 449911 655 449888 656 449818 657 449782 658 449775 659 449833 660 449879 661 449823 662 449809 663 449790 664 449772 665 449774 666 449770 667 449745 668 449754 669 449686 670 449703 671 449752 672 449715 673 449737 674 449739 675 449765 676 449765 677 449776 678 449797 679 449791 680 449818 681 449837 682 449867 683 449814 684 449763 685 449799 686 449825 687 449880 688 449960 689 449997 690 450090 691 450282 692 450042 693 450082 694 450012 695 449942 696 449897 697 449828 698 449785 699 449756 700 449835 701 449851 702 449844 703 449837 704 449772 705 449799 706 449813 707 449791 708 449790 709 449781 710 449755 711 449774 712 449760 713 449814 714 449803 715 449783 716 449754 717 449742 718 449815 719 449856 720 449813 721 449801 722 449808 723 449805 724 449827 725 449845 726 449873 727 449811 728 449849 729 449889 730 449935 731 449962 732 450009 733 450018 734 449937 735 449950 736 449946

208

737 449927 738 449887 739 449848 740 449877 741 449874 742 449830 743 449776 744 449773 745 449802 746 449823 747 449835 748 449866 749 449824 750 449770 751 449768 752 449782 753 449836 754 449865 755 449841 756 449812 757 449775 758 449765 759 449762 760 449778 761 449833 762 449806 763 449816 764 449772 765 449692 766 449756 767 449782 768 449887 769 449794 770 449845 771 449835 772 449868 773 449905 774 449960 775 450015 776 449998 777 449899 778 449902 779 449809 780 449813 781 449842 782 449717 783 449878 784 449756 785 449770 786 449767 787 449797 788 449800 789 449826 790 449697 791 449700 792 449714 793 449723 794 449737 795 449764 796 449859 797 449268 798 449731 799 449776 800 449755 801 449730 802 449748 803 449817 804 449915 805 449809 806 449742 807 449787 808 449839 809 449774 810 449755 811 449739 812 449760 813 449783 814 449796 815 449850 816 449871 817 449911 818 449949 819 449884 820 449826 821 449794

91 209 122713 822 449775 91 209 122719 823 449750 91 209 122725 824 449733 91 209 122732 825 449738 91 209 122739 826 449834 91 209 122747 827 449878 91 209 122754 828 449858 91 209 122801 829 449798 91 209 122809 830 449716 91 209 122816 831 449825 91 209 122824 832 449854 91 209 122831 833 449764 91 209 122838 834 449759 91 209 122845 835 449766 91 209 122852 836 449770 91 209 122859 837 449788 91 209 122908 838 449741 101 209 122935 839 449763 101 209 122946 840 449778 101 209 122954 841 449780 101 209 123001 842 449765 101 209 123008 843 449710 101 209 123015 844 449754 101 209 123022 845 449780 101 209 123028 846 449815 101 209 123038 847 449724 101 209 123045 848 449803 101 209 123052 849 449847 101 209 123058 850 449843 101 209 123106 851 449804 101 209 123112 852 449764 101 209 123119 853 449756 101 209 123125 854 449739 101 209 123132 855 449741 101 209 123139 856 449822 101 209 123146 857 449821 101 209 123153 858 449846 101 209 123202 859 449878 111 209 123228 860 449846 111 209 123238 861 449821 111 209 123247 862 449822 111 209 123254 863 449844 111 209 123300 864 449772 111 209 123307 865 449731 111 209 123313 866 449761 111 209 123321 867 449775 111 209 123327 868 449824 111 209 123333 869 449816 111 209 123340 870 449786 111 209 123347 871 449861 111 209 123355 872 449775 111 209 123401 873 449845 111 209 123408 874 449802 111 209 123416 875 449684 111 209 123423 876 449690 111 209 123430 877 449745 111 209 123438 878 449737 111 209 123458 879 449702 111 209 123506 880 449663 121 209 123531 881 449692 121 209 123537 882 449642 121 209 123548 883 449830 121 209 123603 884 449811 121 209 123613 885 449701 121 209 123622 886 449670 121 209 123628 887 449743 121 209 123635 888 449851 121 209 123641 889 449802 121 209 123648 890 449811 121 209 123655 891 449792 121 209 123703 892 449812 121 209 123710 893 449799 121 209 123718 894 449803 121 209 123725 895 449825 121 209 123733 896 449818 121 209 123740 897 449794 121 209 123748 898 449812 121 209 123755 899 449820 121 209 123802 900 449790 121 209 123809 901 449792 131 209 123830 902 449805 131 209 123838 903 449828 131 209 123845 904 449841 131 209 123851 905 449822 131 209 123857 906 449782

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

131 209 123903 907 449815 131 209 123910 908 449825 131 209 123916 909 449783 131 209 123923 910 449783 131 209 123929 911 449771 131 209 123937 912 449758 131 209 123943 913 449794 131 209 123951 914 449795 131 209 123958 915 449767 131 209 124005 916 449734 131 209 124012 917 449700 131 209 124018 918 449695 131 209 124025 919 449716 131 209 124032 920 449691 131 209 124043 921 449637 131 209 124051 922 449667 141 209 124322 923 449670 141 209 124330 924 449626 141 209 124335 925 449674 141 209 124342 926 449657 141 209 124347 927 449712 141 209 124354 928 449790 141 209 124401 929 449691 141 209 124407 930 449763 141 209 124414 931 449831 141 209 124421 932 449837 141 209 124429 933 449773 141 209 124437 934 449793 141 209 124444 935 449800 141 209 124450 936 449828 141 209 124456 937 449806 141 209 124505 938 449801 141 209 124511 939 449796 141 209 124517 940 449837 141 209 124524 941 449821 141 209 124532 942 449816 141 209 124539 943 449811 151 209 124559 944 449756 151 209 124606 945 449801 151 209 124612 946 449852 151 209 124618 947 449888 151 209 124626 948 449827 151 209 124633 949 449746 151 209 124640 950 449786 151 209 124647 951 449861 151 209 124654 952 449862 151 209 124700 953 449810 151 209 124706 954 449859 151 209 124713 955 449830 151 209 124720 956 449840 151 209 124727 957 449707 151 209 124733 958 449661 151 209 124742 959 449721 151 209 124748 960 449749 151 209 124754 961 449708 151 209 124801 962 449703 151 209 124806 963 449697 151 209 124814 964 449598 161 209 124843 965 449565 161 209 124851 966 449725 161 209 124859 967 449704 161 209 124905 968 449725 161 209 124912 969 449770 161 209 124918 970 449665 161 209 124924 971 449713 161 209 124931 972 449725 161 209 124938 973 449683 161 209 125225 974 449704 161 209 125241 975 449724 161 209 125250 976 449778 161 209 125300 977 449873 161 209 125307 978 449861 161 209 125314 979 449756 161 209 125346 980 449709 161 209 125353 981 449895 161 209 125400 982 449979 161 209 125408 983 449870 161 209 125417 984 449827 161 209 125425 985 449732 Area 31 Base Station Readings 999 209 114300 1 449699 999 209 114305 2 449701 999 209 114311 3 449702 999 209 114800 4 449679 999 209 114805 5 449680

999 209 114811 999 209 121710 999 209 121716 999 209 121721 999 209 124214 999 209 124220 999 209 124225 999 209 125620 999 209 125625 999 209 125630

31 209 171410 31 209 171419 31 209 171428 31 209 171436 31 209 171446 31 209 171453 31 209 171501 31 209 171508 31 209 171516 31 209 171523 31 209 171530 31 209 171537 31 209 171544 31 209 171551 31 209 171558 31 209 171605 31 209 171613 31 209 171620 31 209 171631 31 209 171641 41 209 171659 41 209 171710 41 209 171722 41 209 171738 41 209 171748 41 209 171805 41 209 171816 41 209 171826 41 209 171836 41 209 171845 41 209 171853 41 209 171902 41 209 171910 41 209 171920 41 209 171931 41 209 171941 41 209 171951 41 209 172014 41 209 172029 41 209 172036 41 209 172043 41 209 172050 41 209 172057 41 209 172105 41 209 172112 41 209 172120 41 209 172129 41 209 172137 41 209 172145 41 209 172154 41 209 172203 51 209 172251 51 209 172301 51 209 172313 51 209 172325 51 209 172334 51 209 172345 51 209 172354 51 209 172403 51 209 172412 51 209 172421 51 209 172519 51 209 172526 51 209 172533 51 209 172541 51 209 172550 51 209 172558 51 209 172606 51 209 172614 51 209 172621 51 209 172629 51 209 172636 51 209 172643 51 209 172650 51 209 172657 51 209 172704 51 209 172711 51 209 172718 51 209 172725 51 209 172733 51 209 172740 51 209 172750 61 209 172909 61 209 172930 61 209 172939

6 449676 7 449680 8 449681 9 449679 10 449672 11 449676 12 449678 13 449697 14 449702 15 449701

Area 32 Field Readings 11 209 170205 0 449973 11 209 170215 1 450075 11 209 170223 2 449857 11 209 170231 3 449889 11 209 170239 4 449968 11 209 170248 5 449831 11 209 170256 6 449947 11 209 170303 7 449899 11 209 170312 8 449786 11 209 170319 9 449832 11 209 170327 10 449824 11 209 170334 11 449818 11 209 170341 12 449812 11 209 170347 13 449766 11 209 170354 14 449783 11 209 170401 15 449770 11 209 170408 16 449785 11 209 170415 17 449790 11 209 170422 18 449771 11 209 170428 19 449781 11 209 170435 20 449800 11 209 170442 21 449811 11 209 170449 22 449789 11 209 170457 23 449804 11 209 170504 24 449789 11 209 170511 25 449829 11 209 170519 26 449882 11 209 170526 27 450117 11 209 170533 28 450101 11 209 170541 29 450040 11 209 170549 30 450130 21 209 170615 31 449778 21 209 170624 32 449863 21 209 170633 33 449971 21 209 170642 34 450106 21 209 170652 35 450047 21 209 170701 36 449960 21 209 170711 37 449830 21 209 170725 38 449801 21 209 170735 39 449817 21 209 170746 40 449853 21 209 170757 41 449807 21 209 170807 42 449816 21 209 170817 43 449804 21 209 170826 44 449790 21 209 170944 45 449802 21 209 170954 46 449795 21 209 171004 47 449739 21 209 171012 48 449789 21 209 171020 49 449822 21 209 171027 50 449824 21 209 171035 51 449861 21 209 171042 52 449853 21 209 171050 53 449809 21 209 171058 54 449893 21 209 171106 55 449941 21 209 171114 56 449855 21 209 171123 57 449791 21 209 171133 58 449867 21 209 171141 59 449904 21 209 171148 60 449937 21 209 171200 61 449952 31 209 171221 62 450022 31 209 171232 63 449938 31 209 171244 64 449896 31 209 171255 65 449801 31 209 171308 66 449833 31 209 171319 67 449852 31 209 171328 68 449873 31 209 171336 69 449879 31 209 171344 70 449863 31 209 171351 71 449835 31 209 171401 72 449884

209

73 449802 74 449800 75 449811 76 449789 77 449803 78 449827 79 449795 80 449815 81 449803 82 449842 83 449858 84 449904 85 449817 86 449861 87 449976 88 450283 89 450523 90 449698 91 449801 92 449740 93 449693 94 449891 95 449510 96 449402 97 450201 98 449923 99 449860 100 449826 101 449838 102 449832 103 449866 104 449846 105 449842 106 449821 107 449827 108 449833 109 449841 110 449847 111 449814 112 449827 113 449918 114 449848 115 449996 116 449925 117 449884 118 449798 119 449828 120 449663 121 449866 122 449925 123 449989 124 449926 125 449871 126 449799 127 449866 128 450007 129 449878 130 449888 131 449922 132 449947 133 449950 134 449872 135 449857 136 449807 137 449851 138 449857 139 449853 140 449849 141 449828 142 449839 143 449853 144 449868 145 449839 146 449847 147 449825 148 449849 149 449844 150 449763 151 449501 152 449800 153 449979 154 449704 155 449822 156 449737 157 449875

61 209 174022 61 209 174030 61 209 174038 61 209 174046 61 209 174055 61 209 174102 61 209 174110 61 209 174237 61 209 174248 61 209 174255 61 209 174303 61 209 174309 61 209 174317 61 209 174324 61 209 174331 61 209 174339 61 209 174346 61 209 174353 61 209 174400 61 209 174409 61 209 174417 61 209 174424 61 209 174431 61 209 174448 61 209 174456 61 209 174505 61 209 174513 61 209 174524 71 209 174544 71 209 174553 71 209 174601 71 209 174611 71 209 174621 71 209 174630 71 209 174638 71 209 174651 71 209 174701 71 209 174711 71 209 174721 71 209 174733 71 209 174744 71 209 174753 71 209 174802 71 209 174812 71 209 174821 71 209 174827 71 209 174834 71 209 174841 71 209 174848 71 209 174855 71 209 174901 71 209 174908 71 209 174915 71 209 174922 71 209 174928 71 209 174935 71 209 174941 71 209 174948 71 209 174954 81 209 175010 81 209 175020 81 209 175033 81 209 175044 81 209 175054 81 209 175105 81 209 175114 81 209 175124 81 209 175136 81 209 175146 81 209 175155 81 209 175205 81 209 175214 81 209 175223 81 209 175230 81 209 175237 81 209 175244 81 209 175251 81 209 175258 81 209 175306 81 209 175313 81 209 175320 81 209 175327 81 209 175334 81 209 175342 81 209 175349

158 449810 159 449820 160 449834 161 449840 162 449835 163 449848 164 449822 165 449825 166 449862 167 449880 168 449887 169 449880 170 449890 171 449875 172 449876 173 449872 174 449876 175 449874 176 449931 177 449980 178 449912 179 449893 180 449894 181 449911 182 449920 183 449738 184 449717 185 449852 186 449798 187 449712 188 449813 189 449899 190 449905 191 449903 192 449922 193 449954 194 449955 195 449897 196 449905 197 449896 198 449884 199 449879 200 449882 201 449899 202 449914 203 449933 204 449913 205 449858 206 449847 207 449854 208 449827 209 449849 210 449866 211 449862 212 449816 213 449856 214 449825 215 449918 216 449649 217 449844 218 449833 219 449897 220 449868 221 449851 222 449871 223 449872 224 449854 225 449860 226 449864 227 449872 228 449883 229 449958 230 449947 231 449932 232 449919 233 449886 234 449888 235 449916 236 449898 237 449979 238 449914 239 449996 240 449964 241 449869 242 450177

APPENDIX III

81 209 175356 243 449984 81 209 175404 244 449909 81 209 175416 245 449844 81 209 175427 246 449734 81 209 175436 247 449775 91 209 175450 248 449740 91 209 175500 249 449839 91 209 175510 250 449919 91 209 175520 251 449904 91 209 175528 252 449933 91 209 175539 253 449951 91 209 175556 254 449913 91 209 175625 255 449970 91 209 175637 256 449995 91 209 175744 257 449902 91 209 175751 258 449924 91 209 175758 259 449907 91 209 175805 260 449954 91 209 175812 261 449910 91 209 175819 262 449901 91 209 175825 263 449922 91 209 175832 264 449940 91 209 175838 265 449922 91 209 175844 266 449946 91 209 175856 267 449950 91 209 175903 268 449941 91 209 175911 269 449930 91 209 175918 270 449886 91 209 175925 271 449904 91 209 175931 272 449949 91 209 175938 273 449894 91 209 175945 274 449903 91 209 175953 275 449903 91 209 180006 276 449954 91 209 180016 277 449905 91 209 180027 278 449851 101 209 180137 279 449839 101 209 180149 280 449929 101 209 180200 281 449991 101 209 180211 282 449952 101 209 180223 283 449930 101 209 180235 284 449906 101 209 180244 285 449949 101 209 180251 286 449924 101 209 180259 287 449909 101 209 180306 288 449928 101 209 180313 289 449971 101 209 180321 290 450009 101 209 180329 291 449954 101 209 180336 292 449951 101 209 180344 293 449974 101 209 180351 294 449952 101 209 180358 295 449932 101 209 180405 296 449923 101 209 180412 297 449928 101 209 180420 298 449927 101 209 180427 299 449933 101 209 180433 300 449942 101 209 180440 301 449938 101 209 180623 302 449986 101 209 180631 303 449983 101 209 180639 304 449955 101 209 180646 305 449941 101 209 180654 306 449924 101 209 180700 307 449908 101 209 180707 308 449903 101 209 180716 309 449879 111 209 180734 310 449925 111 209 180741 311 449933 111 209 180749 312 449909 111 209 180755 313 449901 111 209 180802 314 449935 111 209 180809 315 450018 111 209 180817 316 450008 111 209 180823 317 449975 111 209 180830 318 449950 111 209 180837 319 449949 111 209 180844 320 449957 111 209 180851 321 449935 111 209 180858 322 449928 111 209 180905 323 449935 111 209 180912 324 449940 111 209 180919 325 449968 111 209 180926 326 449964 111 209 180932 327 449932

21 210 091133 21 210 091140 21 210 091147 21 210 091155 21 210 091208 21 210 091221 21 210 091232 21 210 091245 31 210 091335 31 210 091354 31 210 091404 31 210 091413 31 210 091421 31 210 091430 31 210 091439 31 210 091447 31 210 091455 31 210 091501 31 210 091508 31 210 091516 31 210 091524 31 210 091532 31 210 091538 31 210 091545 31 210 091553 31 210 091601 31 210 091608 31 210 091615 31 210 091624 31 210 091632 31 210 091640 31 210 091647 31 210 091655 31 210 091702 31 210 091711 31 210 091719 31 210 091727 31 210 091735 31 210 091746 41 210 091821 41 210 091831 41 210 091838 41 210 091847 41 210 091854 41 210 091901 41 210 091908 41 210 091914 41 210 091920 41 210 091929 41 210 091937 41 210 091945 41 210 091952 41 210 092001 41 210 092008 41 210 092015 41 210 092021 41 210 092028 41 210 092035 41 210 092042 41 210 092049 41 210 092058 41 210 092105 41 210 092113 41 210 092120 41 210 092128 41 210 092137 41 210 092149 41 210 092158 41 210 092207 41 210 092224 51 210 092254 51 210 092313 51 210 092319 51 210 092325 51 210 092333 51 210 092339 51 210 092347 51 210 092355 51 210 092402 51 210 092431 51 210 092440 51 210 092448 51 210 092502 51 210 092519 51 210 092614

111 209 180940 328 449909 111 209 180946 329 449880 111 209 180954 330 449922 111 209 181001 331 449904 111 209 181008 332 449915 111 209 181016 333 449933 111 209 181023 334 449933 111 209 181033 335 449960 111 209 181103 336 450008 111 209 181111 337 450016 111 209 181119 338 450016 111 209 181126 339 450148 111 209 181140 340 449860 Area 32 Base Station Readings 999 209 165600 1 449945 999 209 165605 2 449946 999 209 165610 3 449946 999 209 170100 4 449942 999 209 170106 5 449940 999 209 170111 6 449941 999 209 172815 7 449965 999 209 172820 8 449963 999 209 172825 9 449964 999 209 180010 10 450010 999 209 180016 11 450011 999 209 180022 12 450014 999 209 181230 13 450028 999 209 181236 14 450027 999 209 181241 15 450027 Area 33 Field Readings 11 210 090413 0 449410 11 210 090421 1 449577 11 210 090430 2 449787 11 210 090441 3 449988 11 210 090449 4 449971 11 210 090456 5 449962 11 210 090503 6 449928 11 210 090510 7 450017 11 210 090517 8 449989 11 210 090524 9 449901 11 210 090531 10 449914 11 210 090538 11 449912 11 210 090544 12 449885 11 210 090551 13 449865 11 210 090558 14 449845 11 210 090605 15 449897 11 210 090611 16 449924 11 210 090619 17 449899 11 210 090625 18 449893 11 210 090632 19 449926 11 210 090639 20 449901 11 210 090645 21 449871 11 210 090652 22 449865 11 210 090700 23 449854 11 210 090708 24 449871 11 210 090714 25 449857 11 210 090721 26 449868 11 210 090728 27 449889 11 210 090734 28 449877 11 210 090742 29 449986 11 210 090806 30 449778 21 210 090846 31 449718 21 210 090854 32 449959 21 210 090901 33 449909 21 210 090908 34 449914 21 210 090915 35 449851 21 210 090921 36 449904 21 210 090928 37 449882 21 210 090935 38 449862 21 210 090942 39 449870 21 210 090949 40 449893 21 210 090957 41 449916 21 210 091004 42 449942 21 210 091010 43 449931 21 210 091018 44 449927 21 210 091025 45 449918 21 210 091032 46 449913 21 210 091038 47 449878 21 210 091046 48 449871 21 210 091053 49 449876 21 210 091102 50 449899 21 210 091110 51 449909 21 210 091116 52 449895 21 210 091124 53 449930

210

54 449948 55 449981 56 449950 57 449972 58 449941 59 449964 60 449766 61 449591 62 449469 63 449786 64 449932 65 449974 66 450063 67 450014 68 449942 69 449917 70 449931 71 449905 72 449907 73 449899 74 449911 75 449922 76 449905 77 449905 78 449923 79 449927 80 449948 81 450000 82 450009 83 449966 84 449870 85 449829 86 449874 87 449880 88 449869 89 449905 90 449910 91 449892 92 449864 93 449961 94 449892 95 449866 96 449888 97 449873 98 449862 99 449857 100 449815 101 450003 102 450191 103 450177 104 450040 105 449977 106 449932 107 449921 108 449903 109 449918 110 449931 111 449924 112 449909 113 449915 114 449911 115 449924 116 449940 117 449895 118 449964 119 450062 120 449977 121 449969 122 449814 123 449459 124 449712 125 449888 126 449958 127 450035 128 450008 129 449933 130 449927 131 449900 132 449916 133 449915 134 449937 135 449930 136 449926 137 449953 138 449915

51 210 092626 51 210 092634 51 210 092640 51 210 092647 51 210 092653 51 210 092701 51 210 092708 51 210 092716 51 210 092724 51 210 092731 51 210 092739 51 210 092750 51 210 092758 51 210 092805 51 210 092813 51 210 092831 61 210 093216 61 210 093227 61 210 093236 61 210 093243 61 210 093250 61 210 093257 61 210 093304 61 210 093312 61 210 093319 61 210 093325 61 210 093333 61 210 093340 61 210 093347 61 210 093354 61 210 093403 61 210 093411 61 210 093418 61 210 093425 61 210 093431 61 210 093440 61 210 093447 61 210 093454 61 210 093501 61 210 093509 61 210 093516 61 210 093522 61 210 093529 61 210 093538 61 210 093546 61 210 093554 61 210 093615 71 210 093805 71 210 093813 71 210 093822 71 210 093830 71 210 093837 71 210 093844 71 210 093852 71 210 093900 71 210 093913 71 210 093920 71 210 093927 71 210 093933 71 210 093940 71 210 093947 71 210 093953 71 210 094000 71 210 094006 71 210 094012 71 210 094019 71 210 094027 71 210 094033 71 210 094040 71 210 094048 71 210 094055 71 210 094102 71 210 094110 71 210 094116 71 210 094123 71 210 094132 71 210 094139 71 210 094155 81 210 094222 81 210 094231 81 210 094238 81 210 094247 81 210 094254 81 210 094301 81 210 094308

139 449924 140 449929 141 449936 142 449977 143 450057 144 450193 145 450183 146 449995 147 449799 148 449852 149 449890 150 449900 151 449915 152 449905 153 449951 154 449938 155 450168 156 449951 157 450025 158 449942 159 449915 160 449896 161 449872 162 449840 163 449919 164 450070 165 450056 166 450013 167 449960 168 449920 169 449917 170 449920 171 449903 172 449937 173 449957 174 449948 175 449931 176 449931 177 449923 178 449911 179 449918 180 449949 181 449996 182 450027 183 450018 184 449966 185 449820 186 449791 187 449974 188 450055 189 450020 190 449984 191 449900 192 449905 193 449922 194 449923 195 449955 196 449925 197 449943 198 449930 199 449923 200 449913 201 449925 202 449930 203 449930 204 449941 205 449947 206 449951 207 449954 208 449881 209 449870 210 449894 211 449897 212 449924 213 449932 214 449908 215 449922 216 449984 217 449844 218 449926 219 449890 220 449906 221 449920 222 449924 223 449912

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

81 210 094315 224 449909 81 210 094322 225 449904 81 210 094330 226 449936 81 210 094343 227 449923 81 210 094404 228 449929 81 210 094416 229 449932 81 210 094423 230 449920 81 210 094432 231 449920 81 210 094440 232 449914 81 210 094448 233 449938 81 210 094455 234 449926 81 210 094502 235 449938 81 210 094510 236 449936 81 210 094517 237 449874 81 210 094525 238 449989 81 210 094536 239 449933 81 210 094545 240 449930 81 210 094552 241 449906 81 210 094601 242 449905 81 210 094613 243 449992 81 210 094623 244 450039 81 210 094632 245 450115 81 210 094641 246 450004 81 210 094654 247 449807 91 210 094723 248 449935 91 210 094733 249 450012 91 210 094740 250 450069 91 210 094747 251 449985 91 210 094754 252 449950 91 210 094800 253 449917 91 210 094808 254 449912 91 210 094817 255 449922 91 210 094825 256 449944 91 210 094834 257 449999 91 210 094841 258 449911 91 210 094849 259 449939 91 210 094858 260 449932 91 210 094905 261 449920 91 210 094912 262 449919 91 210 094919 263 449922 91 210 094927 264 449935 91 210 094935 265 449916 91 210 094943 266 449923 91 210 094950 267 449905 91 210 094956 268 449928 91 210 095003 269 449935 91 210 095011 270 449925 91 210 095021 271 449932 91 210 095030 272 449924 91 210 095038 273 449936 91 210 095046 274 449941 91 210 095055 275 449926 91 210 095103 276 449926 91 210 095113 277 449930 91 210 095126 278 449912 101 210 095151 279 449878 101 210 095159 280 449965 101 210 095205 281 449947 101 210 095212 282 449911 101 210 095239 283 449931 101 210 095246 284 449955 101 210 095253 285 449954 101 210 095259 286 449838 101 210 095307 287 449957 101 210 095315 288 449941 101 210 095322 289 449939 101 210 095329 290 449946 101 210 095337 291 449933 101 210 095345 292 449916 101 210 095352 293 449928 101 210 095400 294 449923 101 210 095407 295 449874 101 210 095414 296 449978 101 210 095421 297 449948 101 210 095428 298 449947 101 210 095436 299 449954 101 210 095444 300 449947 101 210 095451 301 449956 101 210 095458 302 449942 101 210 095507 303 449931 101 210 095514 304 449937 101 210 095522 305 449922 101 210 095530 306 449969 101 210 095537 307 450028 101 210 095550 308 450044

101 210 095601 111 210 095655 111 210 095702 111 210 095709 111 210 095716 111 210 095723 111 210 095731 111 210 095740 111 210 095749 111 210 095756 111 210 095803 111 210 095810 111 210 095818 111 210 095826 111 210 095834 111 210 095843 111 210 095852 111 210 095902 111 210 095911 111 210 095920 111 210 095927 111 210 095934 111 210 095941 111 210 095948 111 210 095956 111 210 100003 111 210 100010 111 210 100017 111 210 100024 111 210 100030 111 210 100036 111 210 100048 121 210 100255 121 210 100302 121 210 100309 121 210 100316 121 210 100324 121 210 100331 121 210 100338 121 210 100346 121 210 100435 121 210 100442 121 210 100449 121 210 100457 121 210 100504 121 210 100512 121 210 100519 121 210 100526 121 210 100532 121 210 100540 121 210 100547 121 210 100555 121 210 100603 121 210 100611 121 210 100634 121 210 101009 121 210 101018 121 210 101025 121 210 101032 121 210 101040 121 210 101048 121 210 101056 121 210 101107 131 210 101153 131 210 101201 131 210 101208 131 210 101215 131 210 101222 131 210 101229 131 210 101238 131 210 101244 131 210 101252 131 210 101300 131 210 101309 131 210 101316 131 210 101337 131 210 101346 131 210 101354 131 210 101402 131 210 101409 131 210 101415 131 210 101422 131 210 101430 131 210 101444 131 210 101452

131 210 101500 131 210 101507 131 210 101514 131 210 101521 131 210 101529 131 210 101537 131 210 101545 131 210 101553 131 210 101608 141 210 101632 141 210 101642 141 210 101650 141 210 101658 141 210 101706 141 210 101715 141 210 101722 141 210 101728 141 210 101736 141 210 101744 141 210 101756 141 210 101804 141 210 101812 141 210 101821 141 210 101828 141 210 101835 141 210 101843 141 210 101850 141 210 101859 141 210 101907 141 210 101914 141 210 101922 141 210 101929 141 210 101936 141 210 101944 141 210 101951 141 210 101958 141 210 102006 141 210 102013 141 210 102020 141 210 102030 151 210 102103 151 210 102109 151 210 102116 151 210 102123 151 210 102130 151 210 102137 151 210 102144 151 210 102153 151 210 102200 151 210 102207 151 210 102216 151 210 102229 151 210 102238 151 210 102246 151 210 102253 151 210 102300 151 210 102310 151 210 102319 151 210 102327 151 210 102335 151 210 102343 151 210 102350 151 210 102357 151 210 102406 151 210 102415 151 210 102425 151 210 102433 151 210 102441 151 210 102450 151 210 102456 151 210 102507 161 210 102721 161 210 102729 161 210 102736 161 210 102744 161 210 102752 161 210 102800 161 210 102811 161 210 102818 161 210 102825 161 210 102832 161 210 102842 161 210 102850 161 210 102858 161 210 102905

309 449957 310 449890 311 449998 312 449969 313 449927 314 449961 315 449918 316 449934 317 449945 318 449953 319 449950 320 449932 321 449929 322 449931 323 449884 324 449903 325 449922 326 449920 327 449932 328 449934 329 449936 330 449932 331 449941 332 449991 333 449865 334 449948 335 449933 336 449919 337 449921 338 449934 339 449964 340 449924 341 449856 342 449947 343 449955 344 449935 345 449917 346 449934 347 449955 348 449956 349 449964 350 449955 351 449938 352 449932 353 449941 354 449941 355 449932 356 449930 357 449828 358 449914 359 449939 360 449924 361 449919 362 449948 363 449969 364 449950 365 449929 366 449996 367 449967 368 449931 369 449935 370 449890 371 449924 372 449895 373 449853 374 449925 375 449941 376 449953 377 449956 378 449939 379 449967 380 449932 381 449924 382 449920 383 449923 384 449882 385 449949 386 449890 387 449916 388 449919 389 449933 390 449924 391 449918 392 449941 393 449946

211

394 449935 395 449935 396 449931 397 449923 398 449911 399 449929 400 449958 401 450068 402 449888 403 449834 404 449923 405 449936 406 449945 407 449929 408 449919 409 449930 410 449937 411 449935 412 449925 413 449926 414 449916 415 450217 416 449884 417 449940 418 449905 419 449907 420 449896 421 449881 422 449953 423 449953 424 449940 425 449943 426 450004 427 449978 428 449956 429 449974 430 449964 431 449949 432 449924 433 450059 434 450048 435 449991 436 449947 437 449994 438 449999 439 449930 440 449972 441 449957 442 449932 443 449951 444 449965 445 449925 446 449858 447 449911 448 449885 449 449900 450 449908 451 449897 452 449924 453 449928 454 449926 455 449902 456 449921 457 449917 458 449920 459 449917 460 449932 461 449942 462 449953 463 449931 464 449911 465 449906 466 449920 467 449945 468 449931 469 449952 470 449924 471 449942 472 449924 473 449930 474 449906 475 449916 476 449924 477 449913 478 449904

161 210 102914 161 210 102922 161 210 102930 161 210 102938 161 210 102945 161 210 102953 161 210 103000 161 210 103007 161 210 103015 161 210 103022 161 210 103028 161 210 103035 161 210 103043 161 210 103051 161 210 103057 161 210 103105 161 210 103114 171 210 103134 171 210 103142 171 210 103148 171 210 103156 171 210 103302 171 210 103311 171 210 103318 171 210 103325 171 210 103332 171 210 103340 171 210 103348 171 210 103357 171 210 103404 171 210 103412 171 210 103422 171 210 103429 171 210 103436 171 210 103444 171 210 103452 171 210 103459 171 210 103507 171 210 103515 171 210 103523 171 210 103531 171 210 103539 171 210 103548 171 210 103558 171 210 103606 171 210 103615 171 210 103623 171 210 103634 181 210 103718 181 210 103727 181 210 103736 181 210 103744 181 210 103753 181 210 103801 181 210 103809 181 210 103821 181 210 103830 181 210 103838 181 210 103846 181 210 103853 181 210 103901 181 210 103907 181 210 103914 181 210 103922 181 210 103930 181 210 103938 181 210 103946 181 210 103955 181 210 104005 181 210 104011 181 210 104017 181 210 104023 181 210 104030 181 210 104037 181 210 104046 181 210 104056 181 210 104103 181 210 104111 181 210 104121 191 210 104155 191 210 104204 191 210 104211 191 210 104219 191 210 104226 191 210 104235

479 449908 480 449894 481 449894 482 449899 483 449902 484 449928 485 449959 486 449944 487 449912 488 449908 489 449909 490 449678 491 450089 492 449964 493 449918 494 449917 495 449979 496 449964 497 449925 498 449865 499 449918 500 449937 501 449871 502 449862 503 449876 504 449842 505 449869 506 449919 507 449893 508 449876 509 449876 510 449880 511 449873 512 449876 513 449878 514 449886 515 449884 516 449889 517 449890 518 449896 519 449902 520 449919 521 449924 522 449908 523 449887 524 449902 525 449872 526 449874 527 449856 528 449928 529 449927 530 449882 531 449907 532 449929 533 449915 534 449916 535 449890 536 449878 537 449870 538 449865 539 449856 540 449850 541 449857 542 449852 543 449863 544 449862 545 449856 546 449880 547 449872 548 449784 549 449827 550 449775 551 449856 552 449869 553 449773 554 449775 555 449858 556 449885 557 449961 558 447643 559 449814 560 449860 561 449811 562 449782 563 449811

APPENDIX III

191 210 104242 191 210 104249 191 210 104256 191 210 104302 191 210 104310 191 210 104316 191 210 104324 191 210 104332 191 210 104341 191 210 104348 191 210 104354 191 210 104400 191 210 104407 191 210 104414 191 210 104420 191 210 104427 191 210 104437 191 210 104446 191 210 104453 191 210 104500 191 210 104508 191 210 104516 191 210 104524 191 210 104532 191 210 104542 201 210 104639 201 210 104648 201 210 104656 201 210 104704 201 210 104711 201 210 104720 201 210 104727 201 210 104735 201 210 104742 201 210 104750 201 210 104758 201 210 104812 201 210 104820 201 210 104827 201 210 104837 201 210 104847 201 210 104855 201 210 104902 201 210 104910 201 210 104918 201 210 104926 201 210 104934 201 210 104942 201 210 104949 201 210 104956 201 210 105007 201 210 105016 201 210 105024 201 210 105033 201 210 105039 201 210 105051 211 210 105325 211 210 105333 211 210 105341 211 210 105347 211 210 105354 211 210 105403 211 210 105410 211 210 105417 211 210 105424 211 210 105432 211 210 105441 211 210 105448 211 210 105456 211 210 105503 211 210 105511 211 210 105518 211 210 105526 211 210 105533 211 210 105541 211 210 105548 211 210 105554 211 210 105602 211 210 105609 211 210 105616 211 210 105624 211 210 105632 211 210 105639 211 210 105647 211 210 105654

564 449844 565 449789 566 449792 567 449784 568 449826 569 449832 570 449830 571 449837 572 449841 573 449841 574 449847 575 449845 576 449856 577 449879 578 449873 579 449894 580 449900 581 449914 582 449903 583 449903 584 449878 585 449857 586 449843 587 449860 588 449828 589 449821 590 449809 591 449811 592 449834 593 449861 594 449869 595 449877 596 449900 597 449906 598 449898 599 449903 600 449945 601 449867 602 449873 603 449868 604 449867 605 449833 606 449815 607 449801 608 449782 609 449720 610 449640 611 449679 612 449766 613 449808 614 449829 615 449832 616 449840 617 449842 618 449846 619 450027 620 450055 621 449910 622 449799 623 449825 624 449844 625 449796 626 449823 627 449695 628 449553 629 449519 630 449639 631 449761 632 449802 633 449818 634 449835 635 449869 636 449875 637 449887 638 449907 639 449925 640 449898 641 449901 642 449875 643 449849 644 449841 645 449827 646 449829 647 449815 648 449815

211 210 105702 211 210 105712 221 210 105833 221 210 105841 221 210 105847 221 210 105855 221 210 105902 221 210 105909 221 210 105915 221 210 105936 221 210 105944 221 210 105951 221 210 105956 221 210 110003 221 210 110010 221 210 110016 221 210 110025 221 210 110042 221 210 110049 221 210 110057 221 210 110108 221 210 110115 221 210 110135 221 210 110144 221 210 110152 221 210 110202 221 210 110208 221 210 110215 221 210 110222 221 210 110228 221 210 110234 221 210 110242 221 210 110250 231 210 110313 231 210 110324 231 210 110334 231 210 110345 231 210 110354 231 210 110403 231 210 110412 231 210 110422 231 210 110431 231 210 110448 231 210 110456 231 210 110505 231 210 110512 231 210 110519 231 210 110526 231 210 110534 231 210 110542 231 210 110550 231 210 110558 231 210 110606 231 210 110612 231 210 110622 231 210 110629 231 210 110637 231 210 110645 231 210 110652 231 210 110700 231 210 110710 231 210 110718 231 210 110725 231 210 110734 241 210 110759 241 210 110809 241 210 110817 241 210 110826 241 210 110835 241 210 110842 241 210 110850 241 210 110857 241 210 110904 241 210 110910 241 210 110917 241 210 110923 241 210 110929 241 210 110935 241 210 110942 241 210 110949 241 210 110957 241 210 111004 241 210 111012 241 210 111020 241 210 111027

241 210 111034 241 210 111042 241 210 111049 241 210 111056 241 210 111104 241 210 111113 241 210 111122 241 210 111130 241 210 111137 241 210 111147 251 210 111213 251 210 111221 251 210 111246 251 210 111253 251 210 111300 251 210 111307 251 210 111314 251 210 111323 251 210 111329 251 210 111336 251 210 111343 251 210 111352 251 210 111400 251 210 111406 251 210 111413 251 210 111420 251 210 111427 251 210 111433 251 210 111441 251 210 111448 251 210 111456 251 210 111502 251 210 111508 251 210 111514 251 210 111521 251 210 111529 251 210 111537 251 210 111544 251 210 111551 251 210 111558 251 210 111608 261 210 111636 261 210 111644 261 210 111651 261 210 111659 261 210 111710 261 210 111716 261 210 111723 261 210 111738 261 210 111744 261 210 111751 261 210 111757 261 210 111804 261 210 111811 261 210 111817 261 210 111824 261 210 111831 261 210 111838 261 210 111845 261 210 111853 261 210 111859 261 210 111907 261 210 111914 261 210 111921 261 210 111927 261 210 111936 261 210 111942 261 210 111949 261 210 111955 261 210 112003 261 210 112009 261 210 112019 271 210 112043 271 210 112059 271 210 112108 271 210 112124 271 210 112131 271 210 112140 271 210 112148 271 210 112154 271 210 112205 271 210 112212 271 210 112231 271 210 112238 271 210 112245

649 449808 650 449902 651 449827 652 449813 653 449828 654 449842 655 449837 656 449828 657 449822 658 449819 659 449850 660 449854 661 449866 662 449883 663 449910 664 449882 665 449859 666 449853 667 449837 668 449872 669 449748 670 449585 671 446879 672 447162 673 449264 674 449634 675 449719 676 449745 677 449803 678 449766 679 449776 680 450007 681 450036 682 449981 683 450037 684 449824 685 449756 686 449805 687 449788 688 449762 689 449740 690 449401 691 447879 692 446641 693 449185 694 449681 695 449801 696 449878 697 449892 698 449897 699 449892 700 449878 701 449865 702 449871 703 449847 704 449838 705 449828 706 449823 707 449819 708 449843 709 449851 710 449817 711 449837 712 449772 713 449817 714 449798 715 449857 716 449850 717 449828 718 449808 719 449801 720 449821 721 449828 722 449853 723 449845 724 449867 725 449861 726 449865 727 449861 728 449829 729 449865 730 449837 731 449789 732 449651 733 449486

212

734 449483 735 449616 736 449839 737 449818 738 449825 739 449813 740 449788 741 449923 742 449943 743 449922 744 449814 745 449857 746 449880 747 449821 748 449803 749 449814 750 449797 751 449810 752 449748 753 449703 754 449712 755 449689 756 449817 757 449848 758 449865 759 449841 760 449841 761 449847 762 449850 763 449847 764 449858 765 449844 766 449819 767 449832 768 449801 769 449825 770 449866 771 449864 772 449873 773 449943 774 449788 775 449924 776 449844 777 449838 778 449856 779 449860 780 449822 781 449806 782 449807 783 449808 784 449829 785 449828 786 449841 787 449833 788 449852 789 449829 790 449840 791 449850 792 449849 793 449826 794 449806 795 449808 796 449835 797 449830 798 449835 799 449821 800 449845 801 449837 802 449890 803 449845 804 449706 805 449811 806 449794 807 449823 808 449816 809 449871 810 449887 811 449869 812 449822 813 449902 814 449862 815 449829 816 449828 817 449844 818 449820

271 210 112253 271 210 112300 271 210 112313 271 210 112320 271 210 112330 271 210 112337 271 210 112345 271 210 112352 271 210 112359 271 210 112407 271 210 112414 271 210 112421 271 210 112428 271 210 112438 271 210 112445 271 210 112452 271 210 112500 271 210 112518 281 210 112737 281 210 112748 281 210 112800 281 210 112808 281 210 112815 281 210 112821 281 210 112828 281 210 112836 281 210 112842 281 210 112849 281 210 112857 281 210 112903 281 210 112909 281 210 112915 281 210 112922 281 210 112930 281 210 112937 281 210 112943 281 210 112950 281 210 112958 281 210 113006 281 210 113012 281 210 113018 281 210 113138 281 210 113158 281 210 113208 281 210 113219 281 210 113227 281 210 113236 281 210 113244 281 210 113256 291 210 113319 291 210 113327 291 210 113334 291 210 113343 291 210 113351 291 210 113358 291 210 113404 291 210 113412 291 210 113421 291 210 113429 291 210 113437 291 210 113445 291 210 113453 291 210 113501 291 210 113509 291 210 113517 291 210 113525 291 210 113534 291 210 113543 291 210 113550 291 210 113559 291 210 113607 291 210 113615 291 210 113624 291 210 113633 291 210 113642 291 210 113650 291 210 113658 291 210 113710 291 210 113719 291 210 113734 301 210 113810 301 210 113818 301 210 113826 301 210 113836 301 210 113843

819 449854 820 449861 821 449928 822 449700 823 449840 824 449831 825 449842 826 449825 827 449799 828 449809 829 449806 830 449817 831 449816 832 449830 833 449840 834 449836 835 449932 836 449797 837 449738 838 449830 839 449864 840 449838 841 449835 842 449842 843 449818 844 449813 845 449802 846 449807 847 449791 848 449809 849 449826 850 449840 851 449790 852 449924 853 449852 854 449873 855 449827 856 449846 857 449816 858 449815 859 449819 860 449836 861 449895 862 449928 863 449913 864 449850 865 449793 866 449777 867 449745 868 449776 869 449791 870 449785 871 449806 872 449901 873 449885 874 449897 875 449829 876 449795 877 449796 878 449825 879 449836 880 449836 881 449833 882 449830 883 449851 884 449823 885 449828 886 449816 887 449811 888 449808 889 449807 890 449806 891 449823 892 449833 893 449883 894 449888 895 449871 896 449870 897 449876 898 449756 899 449745 900 449834 901 449878 902 449898 903 449883

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

301 210 113851 904 449873 301 210 113859 905 449833 301 210 113906 906 449811 301 210 113914 907 449808 301 210 113922 908 449802 301 210 113930 909 449788 301 210 113938 910 449802 301 210 113946 911 449812 301 210 113954 912 449831 301 210 114002 913 449859 301 210 114009 914 449858 301 210 114021 915 449853 301 210 114029 916 449840 301 210 114038 917 449839 301 210 114047 918 449838 301 210 114056 919 449840 301 210 114105 920 449815 301 210 114114 921 449838 301 210 114123 922 449870 301 210 114131 923 449886 301 210 114141 924 449868 301 210 114153 925 449843 301 210 114204 926 449803 301 210 114214 927 449836 301 210 114227 928 449816 301 210 114236 929 449817 311 210 114258 930 449800 311 210 114305 931 449833 311 210 114312 932 449810 311 210 114320 933 449801 311 210 114327 934 449832 311 210 114334 935 449908 311 210 114342 936 449943 311 210 114349 937 449895 311 210 114356 938 449862 311 210 114406 939 449855 311 210 114415 940 449858 311 210 114424 941 449841 311 210 114432 942 449825 311 210 114440 943 449843 311 210 114449 944 449846 311 210 114456 945 449872 311 210 114504 946 449869 311 210 114512 947 449848 311 210 114521 948 449821 311 210 114528 949 449795 311 210 114536 950 449823 311 210 114545 951 449822 311 210 114554 952 449806 311 210 114603 953 449848 311 210 114613 954 449842 311 210 114623 955 449867 311 210 114632 956 449921 311 210 114641 957 449929 311 210 114651 958 449882 311 210 114701 959 449860 311 210 114710 960 449798 Area 33 Base Station Readings 999 210 085500 1 450059 999 210 085507 2 450056 999 210 085512 3 450058 999 210 090200 4 450065 999 210 090205 5 450065 999 210 090210 6 450064 999 210 093020 7 450068 999 210 093025 8 450068 999 210 093030 9 450068 999 210 100120 10 450055 999 210 100126 11 450054 999 210 100132 12 450055 999 210 102605 13 450017 999 210 102610 14 450019 999 210 102616 15 450018 999 210 105808 16 449906 999 210 105815 17 449908 999 210 105821 18 449908 999 210 112610 19 449886 999 210 112615 20 449889 999 210 112621 21 449894 999 210 114740 22 449947 999 210 114746 23 449943 999 210 114751 24 449946 Area 34 Field Readings 11 210 121235 961 449231

51 210 123047 1046 449562 51 210 123056 1047 449618 51 210 123148 1048 449629 51 210 123157 1049 449658 51 210 123206 1050 449671 51 210 123244 1051 449669 51 210 123253 1052 449715 51 210 123301 1053 449734 51 210 123310 1054 449714 51 210 123319 1055 449706 51 210 123327 1056 449687 51 210 123337 1057 449701 51 210 123345 1058 449726 51 210 123355 1059 449754 51 210 123406 1060 449799 51 210 123425 1061 449860 51 210 123438 1062 449848 51 210 123448 1063 449822 51 210 123458 1064 449810 61 210 123524 1065 449832 61 210 123539 1066 449833 61 210 123548 1067 449811 61 210 123557 1068 449837 61 210 123609 1069 449790 61 210 123618 1070 449743 61 210 123626 1071 449722 61 210 123635 1072 449716 61 210 123644 1073 449718 61 210 123652 1074 449729 61 210 123701 1075 449724 61 210 123711 1076 449731 61 210 123719 1077 449728 61 210 123728 1078 449731 61 210 123737 1079 449717 61 210 123745 1080 449682 61 210 123753 1081 449680 61 210 123801 1082 449660 61 210 123811 1083 449635 61 210 123821 1084 449605 61 210 123831 1085 449582 71 210 124113 1086 449627 71 210 124123 1087 449628 71 210 124132 1088 449695 71 210 124141 1089 449708 71 210 124152 1090 449694 71 210 124201 1091 449679 71 210 124209 1092 449700 71 210 124219 1093 449753 71 210 124228 1094 449758 71 210 124238 1095 449779 71 210 124246 1096 449749 71 210 124256 1097 449746 71 210 124306 1098 449727 71 210 124316 1099 449732 71 210 124324 1100 449746 71 210 124333 1101 449795 71 210 124344 1102 449761 71 210 124353 1103 449833 71 210 124402 1104 449842 71 210 124414 1105 449921 71 210 124423 1106 449934 81 210 124459 1107 449899 81 210 124506 1108 449890 81 210 124516 1109 449844 81 210 124525 1110 449822 81 210 124534 1111 449812 81 210 124543 1112 449804 81 210 124553 1113 449787 81 210 124601 1114 449769 81 210 124612 1115 449764 81 210 124622 1116 449799 81 210 124631 1117 449820 81 210 124640 1118 449815 81 210 124652 1119 449818 81 210 124701 1120 449826 81 210 124710 1121 449767 81 210 124729 1122 449726 81 210 124739 1123 449745 81 210 124751 1124 449747 81 210 124801 1125 449731 81 210 124812 1126 449710 81 210 124823 1127 449659 91 210 124851 1128 449694 91 210 124901 1129 449729 91 210 124911 1130 449747

11 210 121244 962 449317 11 210 121253 963 449359 11 210 121305 964 449427 11 210 121314 965 449482 11 210 121322 966 449493 11 210 121329 967 449481 11 210 121338 968 449483 11 210 121346 969 449498 11 210 121354 970 449533 11 210 121403 971 449549 11 210 121420 972 449558 11 210 121430 973 449573 11 210 121441 974 449610 11 210 121451 975 449664 11 210 121502 976 449710 11 210 121513 977 449691 11 210 121522 978 449613 11 210 121531 979 449606 11 210 121540 980 450129 11 210 121608 981 448225 21 210 121641 982 449811 21 210 121725 983 449809 21 210 121737 984 449715 21 210 121745 985 449639 21 210 121753 986 449720 21 210 121803 987 449718 21 210 121815 988 449724 21 210 121829 989 449682 21 210 121838 990 449631 21 210 121847 991 449627 21 210 121859 992 449599 21 210 121907 993 449596 21 210 121914 994 4495782 21 210 121922 995 449552 21 210 121931 996 449572 21 210 121939 997 449535 21 210 121947 998 449565 21 210 121955 999 449519 21 210 122003 1000 449450 21 210 122011 1001 449390 21 210 122018 1002 449370 31 210 122213 1003 449386 31 210 122222 1004 449406 31 210 122231 1005 449440 31 210 122305 1006 449610 31 210 122404 1007 449597 31 210 122414 1200 449595 31 210 122418 1008 449586 31 210 122428 1009 449604 31 210 122437 1010 449623 31 210 122446 1011 449656 31 210 122455 1012 449643 31 210 122503 1013 449659 31 210 122512 1014 449657 31 210 122521 1015 449662 31 210 122531 1016 449696 31 210 122541 1017 449767 31 210 122552 1018 449794 31 210 122602 1019 449762 31 210 122613 1020 449869 31 210 122622 1021 449752 31 210 122631 1022 449684 41 210 122655 1023 449745 41 210 122707 1024 449814 41 210 122718 1025 449843 41 210 122727 1026 449843 41 210 122738 1027 449813 41 210 122749 1028 449734 41 210 122801 1029 449707 41 210 122811 1030 449700 41 210 122819 1031 449681 41 210 122827 1032 449683 41 210 122836 1033 449695 41 210 122845 1034 449715 41 210 122853 1035 449659 41 210 122902 1036 449634 41 210 122910 1037 449636 41 210 122919 1038 449640 41 210 122927 1039 449633 41 210 122936 1040 449595 41 210 122946 1041 449536 41 210 122956 1042 449492 41 210 123005 1043 449447 51 210 123026 1044 449503 51 210 123037 1045 449556

213

91 210 124920 1131 449757 91 210 124929 1132 449737 91 210 124939 1133 449752 91 210 124948 1134 449782 91 210 124957 1135 449804 91 210 125006 1136 449841 91 210 125017 1137 449823 91 210 125028 1138 449825 91 210 125038 1139 449804 91 210 125047 1140 449799 91 210 125101 1141 449797 91 210 125110 1142 449806 91 210 125118 1143 449793 91 210 125127 1144 449815 91 210 125137 1145 449798 91 210 125145 1146 449818 91 210 125156 1147 449867 91 210 125207 1148 449886 101 210 125243 1149 449866 101 210 125252 1150 449886 101 210 125300 1151 449842 101 210 125308 1152 449813 101 210 125317 1153 449830 101 210 125326 1154 449814 101 210 125336 1155 449830 101 210 125345 1156 449805 101 210 125354 1157 449816 101 210 125403 1158 449848 101 210 125412 1159 449821 101 210 125421 1160 449826 101 210 125431 1161 449831 101 210 125441 1162 449743 101 210 125450 1163 449768 101 210 125500 1164 449779 101 210 125509 1165 449764 101 210 125518 1166 449762 101 210 125529 1167 449779 101 210 125538 1168 449750 101 210 125547 1169 449721 111 210 125611 1170 449739 111 210 125621 1171 449771 111 210 125631 1172 449787 111 210 125640 1173 449810 111 210 125649 1174 449787 111 210 125659 1175 449791 111 210 125709 1176 449805 111 210 125720 1177 449790 111 210 125731 1178 449802 111 210 125741 1179 449809 111 210 125750 1180 449841 111 210 125801 1181 449860 111 210 125811 1182 449828 111 210 125822 1183 449833 111 210 125833 1184 449864 111 210 125846 1185 449839 111 210 125856 1186 449785 111 210 125908 1187 449802 111 210 125917 1188 449821 111 210 125925 1189 449845 111 210 125935 1190 449846 Area 34 Base Station Readings 999 210 120900 1 449968 999 210 120906 2 449968 999 210 120913 3 449970 999 210 121100 4 449971 999 210 121105 5 449973 999 210 121111 6 449971 999 210 124020 7 450001 999 210 124026 8 450004 999 210 124032 9 450004 999 210 130000 10 450014 999 210 130005 11 450013 999 210 130011 12 450010 Area 35 Field Readings 11 210 160033 0 449744 11 210 160042 1 449653 11 210 160051 2 449648 11 210 160058 3 449641 11 210 160105 4 449620 11 210 160112 5 449630 11 210 160120 6 449595 11 210 160127 7 449539 11 210 160134 8 449561 11 210 160142 9 449561

APPENDIX III

11 210 160149 11 210 160156 11 210 160205 11 210 160212 11 210 160222 11 210 160230 11 210 160237 11 210 160244 11 210 160252 11 210 160259 11 210 160312 21 210 160340 21 210 160351 21 210 160404 21 210 160417 21 210 160431 21 210 160441 21 210 160452 21 210 160500 21 210 160508 21 210 160516 21 210 160524 21 210 160532 21 210 160539 21 210 160547 21 210 160556 21 210 160604 21 210 160613 21 210 160620 21 210 160629 21 210 160637 21 210 160645 31 210 160704 31 210 160718 31 210 160730 31 210 160743 31 210 160756 31 210 160822 31 210 160832 31 210 160840 31 210 160848 31 210 160855 31 210 160902 31 210 160909 31 210 160916 31 210 160923 31 210 160930 31 210 160937 31 210 160945 31 210 160952 31 210 160959 31 210 161006 31 210 161015 41 210 161031 41 210 161043 41 210 161055 41 210 161106 41 210 161119 41 210 161127 41 210 161134 41 210 161142 41 210 161150 41 210 161158 41 210 161208 41 210 161236 41 210 161243 41 210 161251 41 210 161259 41 210 161308 41 210 161316 41 210 161324 41 210 161333 41 210 161341 41 210 161349 51 210 161428 51 210 161439 51 210 161450 51 210 161502 51 210 161510 51 210 161517 51 210 161524 51 210 161531 51 210 161541 51 210 161548 51 210 161555

10 449584 11 449583 12 449579 13 449587 14 449582 15 449585 16 449459 17 449342 18 449346 19 449256 20 449163 21 449194 22 449294 23 449321 24 449365 25 449473 26 449558 27 449567 28 449577 29 449590 30 449578 31 449561 32 449546 33 449504 34 449516 35 449564 36 449581 37 449591 38 449618 39 449607 40 449643 41 449665 42 449634 43 449620 44 449653 45 449603 46 449603 47 449575 48 449548 49 449533 50 449524 51 449571 52 449605 53 449643 54 449580 55 449539 56 449520 57 449473 58 449413 59 449355 60 449323 61 449296 62 449237 63 449268 64 449310 65 449353 66 449399 67 449461 68 449479 69 449509 70 449541 71 449570 72 449596 73 449620 74 449578 75 449514 76 449519 77 449531 78 449555 79 449600 80 449673 81 449641 82 449602 83 449628 84 449661 85 449583 86 449606 87 449619 88 449572 89 449553 90 449513 91 449531 92 449543 93 449617 94 449621

51 210 161602 51 210 161609 51 210 161616 51 210 161623 51 210 161632 51 210 161640 51 210 161648 51 210 161656 51 210 161704 51 210 161714 61 210 161733 61 210 161746 61 210 161800 61 210 161812 61 210 161825 61 210 161838 61 210 161849 61 210 161857 61 210 161905 61 210 161914 61 210 161922 61 210 161930 61 210 161938 61 210 161946 61 210 161953 61 210 162006 61 210 162015 61 210 162023 61 210 162032 61 210 162041 61 210 162049 71 210 162104 71 210 162116 71 210 162128 71 210 162137 71 210 162145 71 210 162152 71 210 162159 71 210 162206 71 210 162213 71 210 162220 71 210 162228 71 210 162236 71 210 162242 71 210 162250 71 210 162258 71 210 162305 71 210 162314 71 210 162322 71 210 162330 71 210 162338 71 210 162346 81 210 162411 81 210 162425 81 210 162435 81 210 162447 81 210 162500 81 210 162513 81 210 162526 81 210 162537 81 210 162545 81 210 162553 81 210 162601 81 210 162609 81 210 162617 81 210 162625 81 210 162632 81 210 162640 81 210 162647 81 210 162656 81 210 162704 81 210 162711 81 210 162719 91 210 162826 91 210 162834 91 210 162842 91 210 162849 91 210 162856 91 210 162903 91 210 162911 91 210 162919 91 210 162927 91 210 162934 91 210 162944 91 210 162951

91 210 163000 180 449514 91 210 163008 181 449504 91 210 163017 182 449700 91 210 163024 183 449415 91 210 163035 184 449477 91 210 163043 185 449443 91 210 163051 186 449428 91 210 163059 187 449386 91 210 163107 188 449358 101 210 163128 189 449340 101 210 163141 190 449367 101 210 163152 191 449412 101 210 163205 192 449450 101 210 163217 193 449448 101 210 163225 194 449432 101 210 163233 195 449470 101 210 163241 196 449421 101 210 163249 197 449518 101 210 163257 198 449576 101 210 163304 199 449591 101 210 163312 200 449666 101 210 163320 201 449634 101 210 163328 202 449649 101 210 163336 203 449626 101 210 163345 204 449592 101 210 163353 205 449607 101 210 163402 206 449629 101 210 163410 207 449657 101 210 163419 208 449685 101 210 163426 209 449661 111 210 163444 210 449642 111 210 163455 211 449670 111 210 163507 212 449632 111 210 163519 213 449626 111 210 163530 214 449624 111 210 163539 215 449626 111 210 163546 216 449667 111 210 163553 217 449651 111 210 163601 218 449695 111 210 163608 219 449774 111 210 163645 220 449673 111 210 163653 221 449578 111 210 163700 222 449507 111 210 163708 223 449473 111 210 163715 224 449496 111 210 163723 225 449483 111 210 163737 226 449483 111 210 163745 227 449475 111 210 163754 228 449457 111 210 163801 229 449378 111 210 163809 230 449327 121 210 163828 231 449320 121 210 163849 232 449386 121 210 163903 233 449537 121 210 163915 234 449505 121 210 163923 235 449491 121 210 163931 236 449487 121 210 163939 237 449476 121 210 163946 238 449484 121 210 163954 239 449526 121 210 164002 240 449590 121 210 164010 241 449615 121 210 164018 242 449673 121 210 164026 243 449677 121 210 164034 244 449623 121 210 164042 245 449660 121 210 164050 246 449676 121 210 164058 247 449649 121 210 164106 248 449622 121 210 164115 249 449636 121 210 164129 250 449670 121 210 164141 251 449631 131 210 164220 252 449633 131 210 164230 253 449701 131 210 164241 254 449642 131 210 164251 255 449736 131 210 164259 256 449793 131 210 164312 257 449980 131 210 164337 258 449628 131 210 164345 259 449660 131 210 164353 260 449674 131 210 164400 261 449644 131 210 164409 262 449642 131 210 164417 263 449495 131 210 164425 264 449490

95 449591 96 449514 97 449516 98 449483 99 449456 100 449493 101 449431 102 449381 103 449361 104 449302 105 449309 106 449349 107 449386 108 449439 109 449456 110 449509 111 449468 112 449460 113 449465 114 449584 115 449651 116 449627 117 449572 118 449550 119 449539 120 449589 121 449599 122 449611 123 449648 124 449589 125 449783 126 449632 127 449628 128 449724 129 449775 130 449577 131 449635 132 449533 133 449547 134 449590 135 449643 136 449647 137 449575 138 449473 139 449478 140 449476 141 449538 142 449478 143 449477 144 449381 145 449377 146 449340 147 449345 148 449399 149 449382 150 449536 151 449541 152 449491 153 449486 154 449472 155 449487 156 449574 157 449620 158 449647 159 449607 160 449597 161 449571 162 449578 163 449592 164 449665 165 449712 166 449560 167 449615 168 449621 169 449669 170 449668 171 449646 172 449593 173 449571 174 449582 175 449633 176 449648 177 449638 178 449625 179 449546

214

131 210 164434 131 210 164442 131 210 164450 131 210 164457 131 210 164504 131 210 164512 131 210 164520 131 210 164527 141 210 164550 141 210 164603 141 210 164619 141 210 164631 141 210 164639 141 210 164649 141 210 164657 141 210 164705 141 210 164714 141 210 164722 141 210 164730 141 210 164738 141 210 164749 141 210 164757 141 210 164805 141 210 164814 141 210 164824 141 210 164832 141 210 164841 141 210 164850 141 210 164859 151 210 165041 151 210 165054 151 210 165101 151 210 165109 151 210 165116 151 210 165125 151 210 165134 151 210 165142 151 210 165150 151 210 165157 151 210 165206 151 210 165215 151 210 165222 151 210 165231 151 210 165239 151 210 165246 151 210 165255 151 210 165305 151 210 165318 151 210 165327 151 210 165335 161 210 165359 161 210 165424 161 210 165436 161 210 165446 161 210 165453 161 210 165501 161 210 165510 161 210 165522 161 210 165530 161 210 165539 161 210 165548 161 210 165557 161 210 165605 161 210 165614 161 210 165622 161 210 165631 161 210 165640 161 210 165649 161 210 165700 161 210 165708 161 210 165720 171 210 165740 171 210 165752 171 210 165803 171 210 165815 171 210 165825 171 210 165839 171 210 165850 171 210 165858 171 210 165907 171 210 165918 171 210 165927 171 210 165935 171 210 165944 171 210 165952

265 449464 266 449523 267 449530 268 449534 269 449501 270 449421 271 449388 272 449333 273 449333 274 449365 275 449450 276 449484 277 449498 278 449513 279 449481 280 449523 281 449460 282 449547 283 449622 284 449638 285 449662 286 449685 287 449647 288 449405 289 449649 290 449663 291 449642 292 449659 293 449650 294 449334 295 449553 296 449607 297 449644 298 449642 299 449605 300 449706 301 449673 302 449637 303 449685 304 449657 305 449538 306 449473 307 449500 308 449490 309 449537 310 449536 311 449512 312 449491 313 449382 314 449358 315 449317 316 449428 317 449473 318 449504 319 449579 320 449534 321 449497 322 449546 323 449457 324 449592 325 449694 326 449704 327 449616 328 449731 329 449690 330 449648 331 449707 332 449640 333 449555 334 449630 335 449532 336 449520 337 449675 338 449538 339 449611 340 449686 341 449669 342 449657 343 449657 344 449614 345 449627 346 449595 347 449550 348 449521 349 449564

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE

171 210 170001 171 210 170010 171 210 170018 171 210 170025 171 210 170037 171 210 170045 171 210 170052 181 210 170117 181 210 170132 181 210 170144 181 210 170153 181 210 170201 181 210 170209 181 210 170218 181 210 170226 181 210 170234 181 210 170244 181 210 170254 181 210 170303 181 210 170311 181 210 170319 181 210 170327 181 210 170337 181 210 170346 181 210 170357 181 210 170405 181 210 170434 181 210 170449 191 210 170640 191 210 170648 191 210 170707 191 210 170715 191 210 170727 191 210 170737 191 210 170749 191 210 170803 191 210 170821 191 210 170830 191 210 170838 191 210 170846 191 210 170856 191 210 170904 191 210 170912 191 210 170920 191 210 170928 191 210 170936 191 210 170945 191 210 170953 191 210 171001 201 210 171023 201 210 171032 201 210 171040 201 210 171049 201 210 171058 201 210 171107 201 210 171115 201 210 171122 201 210 171130 201 210 171139 201 210 171153 201 210 171203 201 210 171213 201 210 171222 201 210 171230 201 210 171240 201 210 171249 201 210 171259 201 210 171308 201 210 171324 201 210 171332 211 210 171357 211 210 171412 211 210 171426 211 210 171434 211 210 171444 211 210 171452 211 210 171503 211 210 171512 211 210 171528 211 210 171539 211 210 171548 211 210 171556 211 210 171605 211 210 171615 211 210 171624

350 449580 351 449554 352 449525 353 449454 354 449492 355 449426 356 449314 357 449359 358 449419 359 449438 360 449459 361 449480 362 449546 363 449558 364 449607 365 449574 366 449504 367 449463 368 449603 369 449615 370 449588 371 449618 372 449742 373 449663 374 449708 375 449532 376 450106 377 449602 378 449682 379 450056 380 449539 381 449680 382 449728 383 449680 384 449612 385 449617 386 449528 387 449502 388 449426 389 449510 390 449559 391 449599 392 449573 393 449523 394 449518 395 449489 396 449476 397 449412 398 449306 399 449470 400 449499 401 449500 402 449561 403 449553 404 449541 405 449593 406 449642 407 449590 408 449502 409 449089 410 449518 411 449120 412 449911 413 449696 414 450129 415 449816 416 449745 417 449557 418 449479 419 449691 420 450082 421 449921 422 449384 423 449971 424 449713 425 449928 426 449781 427 450403 428 447308 429 449307 430 449224 431 449527 432 449579 433 449628 434 449613

61 211 090427 60 449851 61 211 090434 61 449855 61 211 090440 62 449848 61 211 090447 63 449516 61 211 090454 64 450144 71 211 090524 65 449925 71 211 090532 66 449777 71 211 090539 67 449832 71 211 090545 68 449849 71 211 090551 69 449826 71 211 090558 70 449823 71 211 090603 71 449763 71 211 090609 72 449659 71 211 090614 73 449539 71 211 090620 74 449450 71 211 090629 75 449278 81 211 090650 76 449372 81 211 090657 77 449511 81 211 090703 78 449599 81 211 090710 79 449691 81 211 090716 80 449788 81 211 090722 81 449817 81 211 090728 82 449812 81 211 090734 83 449854 81 211 090741 84 449864 81 211 090747 85 449858 81 211 090756 86 449875 91 211 090817 87 449906 91 211 090826 88 449958 91 211 090833 89 449879 91 211 090839 90 449842 91 211 090845 91 449820 91 211 090851 92 449824 91 211 090857 93 449810 91 211 090903 94 449723 91 211 090910 95 449618 91 211 090916 96 449539 91 211 090924 97 449456 101 211 090946 98 449510 101 211 090952 99 449574 101 211 090959 100 449654 101 211 091005 101 449735 101 211 091010 102 449796 101 211 091016 103 449799 101 211 091022 104 449833 101 211 091028 105 449874 101 211 091034 106 449901 101 211 091040 107 449902 101 211 091047 108 449897 111 211 091107 109 449903 111 211 091114 110 449882 111 211 091120 111 449893 111 211 091126 112 449869 111 211 091132 113 449827 111 211 091138 114 449794 111 211 091144 115 449793 111 211 091151 116 449747 111 211 091157 117 449671 111 211 091204 118 449617 111 211 091212 119 449559 121 211 091234 120 449615 121 211 091241 121 449616 121 211 091248 122 449684 121 211 091254 123 449802 121 211 091300 124 449804 121 211 091305 125 449800 121 211 091312 126 449837 121 211 091318 127 449877 121 211 091325 128 449904 121 211 091331 129 449827 121 211 091338 130 449910 131 211 091520 131 449864 131 211 091528 132 449893 131 211 091535 133 449882 131 211 091542 134 449902 131 211 091549 135 449850 131 211 091556 136 449785 131 211 091603 137 449785 131 211 091611 138 449785 131 211 091619 139 449724 131 211 091627 140 449680 131 211 091645 1001 449626 141 211 091702 141 449656 141 211 091709 142 449705 141 211 091716 143 449817

211 210 171632 435 449535 211 210 171640 436 449564 211 210 171652 437 449562 211 210 171702 438 449471 211 210 171710 439 449479 211 210 171720 440 449416 Area 35 Base Station Readings 999 210 160000 1 449744 999 210 160006 2 449745 999 210 160013 3 449743 999 210 162720 4 449763 999 210 162725 5 449766 999 210 162730 6 449765 999 210 164930 7 449808 999 210 164935 8 449811 999 210 164940 9 449812 999 210 170530 10 449865 999 210 170535 11 449864 999 210 170540 12 449865 999 210 171800 13 449913 999 210 171805 14 449914 999 210 171810 15 449915 Area 36 Field Readings 11 211 085500 1000 449744 11 211 085512 0 449729 11 211 085519 1 449730 11 211 085525 2 449715 11 211 085532 3 449639 11 211 085539 4 449583 11 211 085545 5 449424 11 211 085550 6 449269 11 211 085557 7 448987 11 211 085603 8 448457 11 211 085616 9 447929 21 211 085751 10 448404 21 211 085759 11 448765 21 211 085807 12 449171 21 211 085815 13 449364 21 211 085822 14 449496 21 211 085829 15 449652 21 211 085836 16 449715 21 211 085842 17 449763 21 211 085848 18 449764 21 211 085856 19 449781 21 211 085903 20 449772 31 211 085924 21 449798 31 211 085932 22 449818 31 211 085938 23 449861 31 211 085944 24 449795 31 211 085951 25 449753 31 211 085957 26 449696 31 211 090004 27 449558 31 211 090010 28 449422 31 211 090016 29 449241 31 211 090023 30 448988 31 211 090030 31 448714 41 211 090053 32 448959 41 211 090102 33 449204 41 211 090110 34 449366 41 211 090116 35 449497 41 211 090122 36 449654 41 211 090128 37 449743 41 211 090133 38 449808 41 211 090139 39 449785 41 211 090145 40 449789 41 211 090151 41 449820 41 211 090158 42 449830 51 211 090223 43 449868 51 211 090230 44 449805 51 211 090236 45 449814 51 211 090242 46 449822 51 211 090248 47 449811 51 211 090254 48 449759 51 211 090300 49 449658 51 211 090306 50 449569 51 211 090313 51 449461 51 211 090320 52 449259 51 211 090329 53 449087 61 211 090351 54 449219 61 211 090358 55 449358 61 211 090404 56 449493 61 211 090410 57 449610 61 211 090416 58 449684 61 211 090422 59 449802

215

141 211 091722 141 211 091728 141 211 091735 141 211 091741 141 211 091748 141 211 091755 141 211 091802 141 211 091818 151 211 091842 151 211 091852 151 211 091900 151 211 091907 151 211 091914 151 211 091923 151 211 091930 151 211 091937 151 211 091944 151 211 091952 151 211 092001 161 211 092025 161 211 092033 161 211 092041 161 211 092049 161 211 092058 161 211 092105 161 211 092112 161 211 092119 161 211 092126 161 211 092134 161 211 092145 171 211 092205 171 211 092212 171 211 092219 171 211 092230 171 211 092238 171 211 092245 171 211 092252 171 211 092258 171 211 092306 171 211 092314 171 211 092323 181 211 092351 181 211 092400 181 211 092407 181 211 092414 181 211 092421 181 211 092428 181 211 092436 181 211 092444 181 211 092451 181 211 092458 181 211 092512 191 211 092535 191 211 092544 191 211 092551 191 211 092559 191 211 092605 191 211 092612 191 211 092618 191 211 092625 191 211 092632 191 211 092638 191 211 092645 201 211 092705 201 211 092713 201 211 092719 201 211 092725 201 211 092732 201 211 092739 201 211 092745 201 211 092811 201 211 092819 201 211 092827 201 211 092836 211 211 092857 211 211 092905 211 211 092912 211 211 092919 211 211 092926 211 211 092935 211 211 092943 211 211 092949 211 211 092957 211 211 093005 211 211 093014

144 449814 145 449794 146 449806 147 449872 148 449898 149 449908 150 449934 151 449898 152 449886 153 449888 154 449920 155 449885 156 449895 157 449793 158 449778 159 449794 160 449772 161 449730 162 449704 163 449729 164 449792 165 449824 166 449811 167 449813 168 449896 169 449906 170 449919 171 449916 172 449920 173 449894 174 449875 175 449934 176 450016 177 449891 178 449884 179 449858 180 449822 181 449838 182 449847 183 449814 184 449739 185 449781 186 449825 187 449907 188 449763 189 449827 190 449875 191 449902 192 449908 193 449977 194 449954 195 449910 196 449911 197 449936 198 449901 199 449886 200 449891 201 449884 202 449842 203 449812 204 449835 205 449855 206 449819 207 449830 208 449856 209 449820 210 449811 211 449843 212 449874 213 449897 214 449909 215 449920 216 449926 217 449901 218 450004 219 449917 220 449919 221 449913 222 449891 223 449901 224 449851 225 449805 226 449818 227 449837 228 449844

APPENDIX III

Area 36 Base Station Readings 999 211 084700 450007 999 211 084705 450008 999 211 084711 450006 999 211 085300 449998 999 211 085306 449997 999 211 085311 449999 999 211 091420 449994 999 211 091426 449993 999 211 091431 449996 999 211 093045 450010 999 211 093050 450008 999 211 093056 450002

216

APPENDIX 4 DATA FROM THE 1985 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEY IN THE FORTRESS The electrical resistivity survey encompassed 5,632 m2 of the Fortress interior. The surveyed zone was subdivided into four grids. Readings were taken with a Strata Scout R 40 Resistivity Meter using a Wenner array with an aspacing of 2 m between the electrical probes. The

readings in each line within each grid were taken in a north-south direction and were recorded by hand in a field notebook. For Areas 1 and 3, the letter N indicates that no reading was obtained, probably due to the extremely dry condition of the soil.

217

APPENDIX IV Resistivity Survey Area 1 84W 82W 80W 50N 0 N 257 48N 0 N 507 46N 0 N 481 44N 0 N 368 42N 0 N 426 40N 0 N 359 38N 0 N 364 36N 0 469 383 34N 0 426 335 32N 0 445 270 30N 0 480 371 28N 0 515 301 26N 0 408 314 24N 0 382 N 22N 0 255 N 20N 0 N N 18N 0 N N 16N N N N 14N N N N 12N N N 178 10N N N 216 8N N 191 170 6N N 156 157 4N N 176 222 2N 192 177 176

78W 257 507 481 368 426 196 188 224 N N N N N N 285 275 293 472 373 441 271 437 445 384 397

76W 353 288 379 376 359 355 328 301 205 175 N N N N N N 191 201 119 146 206 166 191 225 244

74W 281 203 151 167 188 107 116 188 185 122 261 N N N N N N 291 318 369 365 354 303 255 260

72W 219 337 260 338 275 313 275 N N N N N N 254 237 220 210 177 166 162 163 202 198 214 242

70W 249 198 314 305 286 274 288 N N N N N 211 235 216 202 225 190 182 153 161 161 178 187 201

68W 178 183 114 142 160 139 127 182 187 116 234 192 181 173 N N N N N N 185 330 270 270 283

66W 299 315 251 226 N N N N N 239 222 178 160 165 210 136 188 193 163 186 175 165 153 183 195

64W 210 196 221 205 214 224 254 254 106 240 216 185 183 190 225 201 166 N N N N N N 210 247

62W N N N N N N 142 156 172 151 208 156 197 172 268 235 379 310 269 291 311 214 263 193 247

60W 239 208 246 176 378 237 344 232 435 187 227 178 156 117 158 160 97 148 147 111 N N N N N

58W N N N N 114 131 127 137 122 142 128 146 146 149 225 N N N N N N N 207 234 200

40W 224 205 271 207 235 300 225 182 211 185 177 193 279 310 399 286 313 171 187 176 221 249 324 256 284

38W 216 236 234 289 215 202 234 152 369 374 364 465 274 217 217 208 236 191 229 281 227 250 176 279 191

36W 224 214 266 222 226 237 212 221 245 241 249 225 309 368 514 374 462 229 178 166 195 208 220 196 263

34W 251 286 252 304 211 195 247 225 298 382 325 318 374 236 236 215 224 180 170 241 195 182 219 205 146

32W 217 195 268 214 237 241 216 176 234 263 250 299 305 365 271 327 337 215 270 133 283 314 334 340 280

30W 251 224 306 263 259 198 236 203 324 304 368 334 363 335 280 304 211 245 181 266 193 222 324 193 N

28W 229 175 242 156 191 182 188 187 201 257 193 308 283 337 294 358 313 285 180 156 245 211 250 198 220

26W 216 207 299 193 288 139 224 212 354 368 306 347 360 327 237 260 214 154 165 198 176 146 196 178 261

24W 208 183 210 196 203 193 177 202 211 271 374 359 435 403 452 332 428 191 304 196 344 311 479 337 374

56W 202 182 168 151 161 211 212 221 196 172 158 142 131 137 133 137 133 134 129 137 132 132 N N N

54W 191 195 162 134 166 152 139 129 143 151 123 123 139 143 89 143 118 117 107 121 141 111 141 N N

52W N 94 133 107 87 113 129 90 113 116 128 84 142 143 94 146 131 165 139 158 151 129 193 285 187

50W 122 124 118 134 111 118 118 113 112 119 109 128 132 128 143 123 134 165 156 162 153 176 186 182 187

20W 185 208 219 202 273 245 197 227 249 330 220 414 392 383 416 406 506 227 304 295 379 358 412 241 365

18W 337 268 363 303 338 288 249 319 548 414 533 412 462 368 240 327 226 322 220 289 266 219 242 247 211

16W 323 352 372 443 354 397 328 330 310 269 362 561 452 460 455 309 546 382 345 325 389 401 364 421 293

Resistivity Survey Area 2 2S 4S 6S 8S 10S 12S 14S 16S 18S 20S 22S 24S 26S 28S 30S 32S 34S 36S 38S 40S 42S 44S 46S 48S 50S

50W 191 252 232 318 368 506 484 535 431 560 309 491 306 236 303 216 226 266 182 299 496 284 266 260 141

48W 201 217 412 203 432 198 250 270 234 193 210 211 311 347 320 402 485 339 578 438 496 284 266 260 141

46W 158 288 299 294 550 502 521 528 494 407 353 357 290 256 266 233 274 265 254 214 327 260 362 240 201

44W 222 202 294 237 298 202 251 300 318 333 368 421 294 379 300 352 642 398 594 325 491 322 279 283 227

42W 236 328 182 311 175 180 147 186 349 237 303 306 246 254 193 237 232 260 369 280 315 244 250 257 220

218

22W 337 391 435 360 373 271 322 227 461 353 441 416 404 381 363 294 236 208 222 203 242 203 202 196 177

14W 303 372 435 463 432 539 323 N N N 555 441 430 416 369 299 250 261 226 303 294 329 248 294 294

12W 137 260 285 263 269 274 191 208 288 284 269 432 375 430 349 388 320 420 255 494 447 535 378 221 260

10W 240 244 327 301 337 344 374 343 384 320 382 451 422 552 569 569 595 490 374 416 422 417 335 271 288

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Resistivity Survey Area 3 70N 68N 66N 64N 62N 60N 58N 56N 54N 52N 50N 48N 46N 44N 42N

0E 217 276 176 178 144 168 151 183 191 211 270 278 374 306 388

2E 221 227 180 126 146 146 160 181 229 236 224 229 263 337 291

4E 291 163 207 225 168 190 214 185 116 131 165 141 153 172 193

6E 167 221 167 176 162 162 139 206 187 187 190 217 224 203 255

8E 148 229 152 165 177 200 188 192 185 207 216 205 237 212 217

10E 198 165 132 143 152 178 124 166 195 168 171 197 203 158 193

12E 183 181 118 148 143 153 103 153 171 168 163 196 251 161 264

14E 148 126 128 143 134 157 149 214 162 236 192 201 221 N N

16E 134 123 126 133 146 168 149 170 187 177 217 190 191 289 N

Resistivity Survey Area 4 2S 4S 6S 8S 10S 12S 14S 16S 18S 20S 22S 24S 26S 28S 30S 32S 34S 36S 38S 40S 42S 44S 46S 48S 50S

84W 235 231 217 257 221 236 190 215 256 227 295 266 273 245 219 122 251 119 136 156 177 182 170 126 200

82W 149 172 207 216 137 196 167 190 134 270 202 188 239 207 231 103 171 127 126 137 173 176 151 160 173

80W 220 245 235 230 185 203 176 221 163 378 153 294 274 192 288 168 177 173 175 226 197 271 183 227 208

78W 314 360 257 273 245 239 234 284 214 391 221 355 269 273 279 244 206 214 230 236 200 227 227 214 219

76W 240 289 249 252 252 265 172 234 365 235 317 283 249 271 205 229 229 220 198 207 196 249 175 216 206

74W 193 183 113 249 161 197 187 234 191 196 206 240 296 329 324 306 219 193 168 208 202 227 249 251 182

72W 255 245 252 229 241 236 275 222 197 305 266 329 268 276 212 215 220 226 229 210 197 197 181 224 219

70W 206 259 237 241 237 286 242 241 240 254 275 230 298 215 273 201 259 234 266 203 216 207 207 205 226

68W 154 220 273 201 237 288 266 181 220 273 234 153 234 188 154 168 188 220 171 182 172 214 193 165 216

66W 205 250 235 261 252 318 285 299 309 275 318 208 278 201 207 191 203 212 187 175 196 202 195 192 236

64W 216 344 271 352 363 349 367 339 363 343 298 317 283 279 255 263 286 273 288 232 288 242 281 281 298

219

62W 317 311 251 296 239 301 249 315 293 286 216 236 330 161 279 309 325 310 338 402 288 382 284 357 147

60W 197 305 284 334 242 343 286 264 353 271 328 183 324 236 224 231 246 235 212 230 221 276 215 224 254

58W 246 168 229 188 216 208 180 299 230 293 268 283 314 285 275 328 275 300 234 313 286 343 296 320 274

56W 240 270 300 289 337 350 364 273 381 284 293 242 250 275 186 249 242 244 240 261 275 269 349 289 324

54W 273 284 320 319 353 332 327 273 289 215 191 257 309 303 396 357 352 345 325 342 300 236 274 222 183

52W 245 289 264 294 363 418 568 458 594 515 520 515 364 333 330 273 284 311 270 318 274 372 214 256 210

APPENDIX 5 DATA FROM THE 1985 ELECTRICAL SOIL RESISTANCE SURVEY IN THE FORTRESS The electrical soil resistance survey covered 1,120 m2 of the Fortress interior. The surveyed zone was subdivided into three grids, two of which were 20 x 20 m in the southeast corner of the Fortress, and one measuring 320 m2 in an L-shaped configuration in the modern churchyard at the north end of the enclosure. Readings were taken at intervals of 1 m with a Bradphys MK 4 Earth Resistance

Meter. The readings in each line within each grid were taken in a north-south direction and were recorded by hand on forms in the field. The readings from the churchyard are not included below because the hardpacked modern ground level made it impossible to obtain any meaningful results.

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APPENDIX V Electrical Resistance Data 50S 49S 48S 47S 46S 45S 44S 43S 42S 41S 40S 39S 38S 37S 36S 35S 34S 33S 32S 31S 30S 29S 28S 27S 26S 25S 24S 23S 22S 21S 20S 19S 18S 17S 16S 15S 14S 13S 12S 11S 10S 9S

10W 242 267 267 248 232 229 243 268 272 272 269 269 267 279 275 279 277 272 277 270 268 265 257 248 240 242 230 251 280 299 279 269 274 270 305 306 305 306 282 280 266 279

11W 245 240 225 228 232 239 274 319 319 284 264 259 265 307 307 312 321 312 276 261 270 264 252 242 224 220 271 321 359 337 280 262 263 257 321 326 333 326 286 265 260 244

12W 295 264 272 224 238 253 283 372 372 301 265 259 267 318 341 367 333 278 302 260 254 316 309 284 290 277 324 374 376 382 327 308 271 263 315 342 355 369 316 303 280 266

13W 348 328 295 284 312 306 339 350 353 338 316 301 303 324 344 371 415 392 321 294 280 320 299 278 288 244 274 276 305 300 318 318 307 274 311 336 352 406 411 373 362 316

14S 15W 317 242 275 225 281 229 288 218 312 227 279 237 257 252 330 314 309 279 318 312 318 315 310 301 279 310 307 300 319 301 335 318 402 358 416 402 392 372 294 338 339 347 246 235 245 219 234 220 266 217 247 213 247 221 261 246 320 281 323 278 321 301 304 272 308 274 301 275 303 303 310 300 321 315 371 364 419 364 418 342 380 320 336 286

16W 310 223 226 227 222 222 254 312 271 268 254 246 257 307 316 320 350 352 328 280 276 302 239 231 234 222 259 309 316 304 276 283 247 255 265 328 327 420 306 303 267 280

17W 222 232 230 228 238 257 251 321 304 282 274 270 277 319 0 362 345 340 316 323 319 328 233 233 232 234 234 232 277 303 266 265 272 271 300 307 274 362 334 323 345 376

18W 255 246 250 241 237 238 236 268 255 269 264 278 269 278 278 276 317 312 295 344 446 357 336 314 277 275 284 388 318 326 283 301 312 322 287 311 278 332 311 316 254 398

19W 311 324 314 295 298 348 350 428 412 412 380 414 464 0 0 0 0 339 224 344 542 272 286 302 296 295 318 338 366 357 355 361 370 302 480 355 330 279 278 294 322 542

20W 267 277 273 252 254 282 313 343 339 324 320 322 343 328 302 273 264 263 234 320 378 000 271 262 246 282 293 336 342 245 333 350 349 368 386 366 256 259 236 000 239 378

21W 000 268 243 245 282 278 333 346 343 331 340 348 358 394 364 272 244 254 000 000 124 000 277 260 264 282 284 336 342 343 339 342 345 359 371 356 286 267 000 000 314 244

222

22W 000 264 264 257 287 286 335 340 342 334 349 346 361 378 368 348 264 000 000 454 180 000 265 268 262 289 292 338 333 342 346 346 354 356 369 448 362 264 262 000 340 192

23W 000 256 266 265 293 285 333 335 331 341 330 344 360 374 474 444 368 330 338 327 220 000 253 263 260 292 275 329 339 337 346 347 344 354 364 434 384 363 282 325 250 274

24W 000 254 257 259 281 292 338 342 347 343 346 337 353 372 440 374 353 297 320 350 218 000 260 248 256 272 285 333 340 341 340 338 341 340 352 420 358 328 270 260 281 256

25W 000 266 252 262 275 281 325 338 331 336 350 330 338 342 386 356 309 262 254 266 245 000 268 246 254 249 275 314 294 336 329 335 333 332 344 274 356 313 307 272 294 350

26W 000 240 251 252 272 278 310 280 319 335 338 337 342 342 386 334 330 310 357 281 290 000 255 234 249 265 269 304 279 317 330 333 321 342 362 384 344 332 320 322 342 271

27W 000 244 253 259 262 264 302 276 314 326 329 332 344 356 378 360 326 320 275 356 340 000 253 252 242 262 254 301 280 313 326 329 338 343 353 372 338 317 242 264 170 266

28W 000 247 257 247 263 266 273 279 315 312 322 326 331 366 414 352 272 262 246 246 310 000 242 245 256 275 270 277 280 311 349 319 329 340 348 382 338 268 261 240 246 258

29W 000 256 247 252 266 266 280 276 312 322 327 335 350 363 406 342 258 250 238 240 240 000 259 259 256 267 274 302 275 314 325 324 338 355 366 420 348 273 257 249 257 268

30W 000 296 259 265 284 314 306 316 322 342 342 350 351 382 430 360 294 320 276 318 285 000 246 257 274 230 334 336 326 345 354 349 340 346 302 412 240 282 261 273 272 276

APPENDIX 6 CATALOGUE OF SELECT ARTIFACTS FROM THE SYSTEMATIC SURFACE COLLECTION IN THE FORTRESS During the 1986 season, field teams collected a small sample of diagnostic artifacts, which are described below in a catalogue format. Following the specimen number is the inventory number (year; location [FS=Fortress Survey]; sequence number), brief label, figure in text, preserved dimensions, and a description of the piece(s). All measurements are in meters. Modified slightly from Catalogue in Gregory and Kardulias (1990).

E. Rim Fragment with incised parallel horizontal lines on exterior Pres. L. .029 Pres. W. .025 Coarse reddish yellow clay (5YR 6/6) with many medium to large white and black inclusions and some sparkling inclusions. Fragments are blackened on interior and exterior. Cf. Pierre Aupert, Céramique Slave à Argos (585 ap. J.-C.), Études Argiènnes, Bulletin Correspondence Hellénique, Supplement VI, Paris, 1980, pp. 373-394, dating the ware to A.D. 585. Excavation at Isthmia suggests that the pottery may span a greater time, extending well into the 7th century (see Gregory 1993b).

No. 1 (86-FS-7) Stamped Roman Plate Fragment (Figure 6.31) Pres. L. .037 Pres. W. .028 Fine reddish yellow clay (5YR 7/8) with tiny grits. Traces of red slip on interior. On Interior preserves stamp in shape of a foot: inscription preserves letters ĬȊȆ or ĬȊȃ or ȃȁĬ. 1st-2nd century A.D.

No. 5 (86-FS-4 A & B) Mosaic Tesserae (Figure 6.35) A. Pres H. .020 Pres. L. .050 Pres. W. .031 Largest individual tessera .017 x .011 Six white tesserae in two rows of three each are held in place by cement that contains tiny pieces of clay, pebbles, and grit. B. Pres. H. .020 Pres L. .060 Pres. W. .033 Largest individual tessera .015 x .012. Nine reddish brown tesserae, five in one row, four in other, are set in cement with tiny pieces of clay, pebbles, and grit.

No. 2 (86-FS-2 A-C) Lamp Fragments (Figure 6.29) A. Pres. H. .030 Pres. L. .028Pres. W. .040 Fine reddish yellow clay (5YR 6/8) with some sparkling inclusions; red slip (10R 4/8). Broken body preserves handle attachment. Italian, late 1st century A.D. B. Pres. H. .045 Pres. L. .023 Pres W. .032 Fine very pale brown clay (10YR 7/4). Preserves handle and fragment of body. Cf. Broneer, Isthmia III, p. 161, pl. 10. Type XXVII, 2nd century A.D. C. Pres. H. .025 Pres. L. .021 Pres W. .016 Coarse reddish yellow clay (5YR 7/8). Only handle is preserved. Athenian Pre-Glaze, 3rd century A.D.

No. 6 (86-FS-8) Diamond-Shaped Floor Tile (Figure 6.28) Pres. L. .125 Pres. W. .072 Th. .043 Coarse reddish yellow clay (7.5YR 7/6) with many large inclusions and voids. The sides are roughly .075 long. Cf. O. Broneer, Isthmia II Topography and Architecture, p. 96: a tile from the Late Roman Cistern. No. 6 has the same dimensions as IA 78-51, from RB 78-25, along the west edge of Room XIX of the Roman Bath, otherwise unexcavated.

No. 3 (86-FS-6) Beehive Rim (Figure 6.27) Pres. H. .050 Pres. L. .105 Est. Diam Rim .28 Coarse red clay (2.5YR 5/8) with some white inclusions and sparkling inclusions. Beehive with straight vertical sides to plain horizontal vertically thickened rim. Interior is marked with horizontal and vertical roughly perpendicular combing. Cf. E. Crane, The Archaeology of Beekeeping, Ithaca, 1983, pp. 45-51; O. Broneer, Hesperia 28, 1959, p. 337, no. 17, from Tower 7 in the Fortress, and IPR 68-40, from Tower 2; V. R. AndersonStojanoviü, and J. E. Jones, Ancient Beehives from Isthmia, Hesperia 71, 2002, pp. 345-376

No. 7 (86-FS-1) Marble Revetment. Probably from anta (Figure 6.34) Pres. H. .178 Pres W. .150 Th. .036-.045 Rectangular piece of white large-grained marble, broken along upper or lower surface and on one vertical side. Smooth groove ca. .032 wide along one side of back; back otherwise roughly finished. Traces of mortar on back. On front three shallow vertical grooves or “flutes” ca. .37 wide, rounded on at least one end. Many similar pieces have been found in the Roman Bath (e.g., IA 7616, 76-165, 78-49, 78-98, 78-105), but these have shallower and deeper flutes and are not from the same series.

No. 4 (86-FS-3 ) Slavic Ware Fragments A. Body Sherd Pres. L. .028 Pres. W. .022 B. Body sherd with incised parallel lines on exterior Pres. L. .022 Pres. W. .018 C. Base Fragment Pres. L. .034 Pres. W. .024 Pres. H. .016 D. Base Fragment Pres. L. .015 Pres. W. .013 Pres. H. .015

No. 8 (86-FS-5) Inscription Pres. H. .033 Pres. L. .072 Pres. W. .055 Gray grainy marble, all sides broken. Letters have simple serifs:] PE [.

223

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INDEX Abrams, Elliot, 9, 102, 103 Aegean, v, 1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 32, 47, 52, 56, 95, 99, 107, 109, 110, 115, 116, 117, 122, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132 African Red Slip, 92, 114, 117, 118 agora 54, 109; Athenian, 1, 15, 44, 117, 118 Akra Sofia, 40, 92, 99, 112, 114, 121 Akrokorinth, 31, 111, 123 Alaric, 38, 40, 46, 103, 119, 130 Albania, 20 Amphitheater (Korinth), 113 amphora(e), 73, 77, 79, 91, 92, 114, 116, 117, 118 analogy, 49, 53; ethnographic, 14, 95; historical, 95-96 Anemurium, 108, 132 anomaly(-ies), 26, 26, 27, 28, 29, 42, 58, 60, 64, 70, 79 87, 88, 90, 91, 126, dipole, 26, 59, 60; monopole 26, 59; thermoremanent, 25, 59, 60, 61 Apollo, 15; Temple of (Korinth), 42 Arab(s), 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 105, 108, 109, 115, 117, 133; Arabian frontier, 84, 96, 98 Archaic, ix, 1, 13, 35, 37, 43, 46, 75, 99, 116 architecture, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 36, 42, 44, 45, 46 52, 95, 101, 102, 105, 111, 124, 126 Argolid, 17, 32, 33, 52, 53, 113, 114, 115, 116 Argos, 40, 113, 115, 122 Arkadia, 49, 113 artifact(s), 1, 11, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 44, 46, 57, 58, 61, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 81, 83, 84, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 114, 123, 125, 126 Asia Minor, 55, 107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 132 Athens, vii, 29, 33, 38, 44, 52, 53, 55, 109, 132 Avars, 48, 51, 53, 99, 123 Avramea, Anna, 2, 111, 112, 113, 116, 128, 130 Balkan(s), 48, 119, 121, 122, 123, 128 barracks, 59, 64, 79, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 97, 98, 127 basilica, 111, 113, 124 bees, 99 Berbati, 17, 115 Bintliff, John, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 52, 71, 78, 92, 116 bishop(s), 109, 110, 112, 113, 115, 124 bishopric, 109 block(s), 21, 26, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 40, 41, 43, 44, 58, 60, 62, 70, 74, 87, 91, 92, 97, 103, 119, 122, 123, 125, 129, 130; ashlar, 44, 59, 60, 91, 105, 119; worked, 60, 71, 87, 91, 92, 126 Boeotia, 17, 18, 71, 78, 92, 116 bone(s), 91, 100, 120 boule, 1, 49, 108, 110, 112, 118, 128 Britain, 51, 59, 84 Broneer, Oscar, 1, 17, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 46, 74, 75, 78, 84, 92, 102, 103, 105 bronze, 34, 36, 82, 89, 102, 109 Bronze Age, ix, 1, 15, 18, 26, 33, 34, 36, 43, 53, 71, 75, 90, 96, 111, 114, 116 Bulgars, 123 burial(s), 20, 44, 46, 99, 101, 109, 113, 119, 121, 123, 124

Byzantine, ix, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 18, 20, 23, 27, 32, 33, 34, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 63, 71, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 113, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 135; Empire 56, 110, 107, 119 Byzantium, 47, 48, 127, 133 Caesarea, 108, 109 canal, 27, 43; Korinth, 31, 32, 33 Çandarli Ware, 117 centurion, 97 ceramic(s) (see also pottery), 24, 31, 33, 34, 43, 48, 53, 57, 58, 61, 70, 73, 74, 78, 83, 84, 91, 92, 93, 103, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126 chapel, 53, 91, 96, 100 Chios, 122 chora, 109 Christian(ity), 38, 42, 48, 54, 90, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 119, 123, 124, 129, 131 chronology(-ical), ix, 13, 17, 18, 21 23, 30, 41, 44, 46, 50, 52, 67, 70, 72, 75, 87, 123 church, 26, 29, 41, 45, 52, 55, 61, 90, 109, 110, 112, 113, 124, 127 Church of St. John, 29, 42, 57 cistern, 36, 41, 53, 59, 84, 90 Classical, ix, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 32, 34, 35, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 71, 73, 75, 76 99, 100, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118, 121, 123, 124, 127, 129, 130, 131, 131 Classical Historical Archaeology (CHA), 14, 15, 16, 17, 20 coin(s), 24, 44, 45, 52, 55, 71, 73, 74, 81, 82, 108, 114, 117, 119, 121, 125, 127, 128, 133 collapse, 1, 9, 17, 18, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 59, 61, 64, 70, 86, 93, 99, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112, 118, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126 comitatenses, 97, 99 commerce, 117 Constantinople, 98, 105, 101, 113, 116, 117, 119, 128, 130 continuity, 5, 20, 23, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 106, 107, 110, 112, 116, 120, 124, 126, 127, 129, 130 contubernium(a), 59, 97, 98 cost/benefit, 10 Crete, 17, 33, 53, 111, 117, 129 cult, 17, 19, 33, 34, 37, 38, 104, 109, 111, 112, 123, 134, 132 Cult Caves (Isthmia), 35, 44 cultural evolutionism, 6 cultural materialism, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14 culture, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8-9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 36, 37, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 93, 107, 111, 112, 116, 117, 118, 122, 124, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, model of, 8-9, 10 (Figure 1.4) curia, 118 Cyclopean Wall (Isthmia), 43 Cypriot Red Slip, 114, 118 241

INDEX Cyprus, 26, 114, 117 Dark Age, 79, 113, 115, 118, 127, 133 Darwin, Charles, v, 6, 8, 129 Demeter and Kore, Sanctuary of (Korinth), 111 De Re Strategica, 97, 119 diagnostic(s), 24, 33, 48, 57, 59, 71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 81, 82, 92, 125, 126, 130 Diocletian, 38, 124 discontinuity, 6, 20, 23, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 107, 108, 1110 111, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 133 dyeing, 36, 133 Early Byzantine (EB), 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 20, 23, 25, 30, 33, 40, 44, 47, 50, 51. 52, 54, 55, 73, 93, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 105, 109, 113, 124, 130, 131, Early Helladic (EH), 33, 51 Early Hellenistic, 52 114 Early Modern, 13, 145 Early Roman (ER), ix, 1, 38, 44, 73, 81, 83, 87, 103, 115, 133 East Field (Isthmia), 46, 100, 133 Eastern Empire, 1, 47, 51, 52, 55, 103, 112 Eastern Korinthia Archaeological Survey (EKAS), 18, 20, 114, 128, ecology, v, 8, 14, 19, 129 economic, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 18, 19, 20, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 85, 90, 95, 99, 100, 102, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 117, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134 economy, 1, 7, 38, 49, 51, 55, 82, 107, 108, 109, 111, 117, 122, 127, 126, 132, 133, Efesos, 52, 108, 131 Efyra, 36, 42 Egypt(ian), 118 electrical resistance (see also geophysics, and soil resistance), 5, 27, 64, 91 electrical resistivity (see also geophysics), 5, 18, 25, 27, 28, 29, 57, 62, 64, 91 Elis, 113 emic, 7 energetics, 106 energy, 7, 8, 9, 51, 95, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 126, 129 environment, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 18, 19, 31, 41, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 99, 127 eparchia, 109 Epidauros, 32, 113, 119 etic, 7 evolution, 1, 6-9, 11, 17, 47, 51, 55, 95, 97, 102, 122; urban, 51, 109 evolutionary model, 1, 7-9, 20, 47, 48, 57, 98, 99, 103, 107, 129, 133 Evraionisos, 53, 114 excavation, 1, 5, 11, 15, 16, 18, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 52, 54, 55, 56, 71, 74, 76, 87, 91, 93, 97, 100, 117, 120, 122, 123, 125 farms, 114 farmstead, 124 faunal, 11, 17, 100, 120, 121 feature(s), viii, 3, 5, 9, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 34, 38, 41, 44, 46, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 70, 71, 89, 90, 91, 100, 102, 103, 106, 108, 109,

116, 118, 122, 124, 125, 128 festival, 128, 130 fieldwork, viii, 1, 2, 6, 11, 15, 23, 24, 46, 57, 88, 91, 125, 127 foederati, 97 forge, 16, 48, 62, 85, 98, 126 formation process(es), 5, 24, 65, 69, 70, 125, 126; ctransform, 93, 126; n-transform, 70, 93, 126 fort, 1, 62, 122 fortification(s), 1, 3, 5, 10, 23, 33, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 57, 70, 74, 77, 78, 80, 84, 88, 92, 93, 99, 101, 105, 118, 119, 121, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132 Fortress (Isthmia), xv, 1, 2, 5, 6, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 95, 97, , 99, 104, 105, 107, 110, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 125, 126, 128, 131, 133, 136, forum, 49; Forum of Korinth, 111-113, 122 Foss, Clive, 5, 20, 49, 50, 52, 107, 108, 109, 110, 127 Frankish, 18, 19, 20, 44 Franks, 41 furnace, 59, 83 garrison, 1, 4, 37, 40, 43, 81, 85, 90, 98, 109, 111, 118, 120, 133 Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 13, 19 geology, 6 geomorphology, 11, 114 geophysics, 92, 126; geophysical anomalies, 46, 78, 87, 87, 88, 90, 92; geophysical data, viii, 88, 92, 96; geophysical prospecting, 5, 13, 18, 57, 95; geophysical survey(s), 2, 5, 6, 57, 58-67, 92, 100; geophysical techniques, 5, 18, 25-31, 87, 125 glass, 25, 43, 84, 91, 119, 125, 126 grave(s), 35, 40, 44, 44, 115, 119, 123 Great Bath (Korinth), 111 Greco-Roman, 1, 13, 113, 116 Greece, v, viii, , 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 28, 32, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 70, 72, 97, 107, 109, 112, 113, 116, 117, 118, 120, 122, 127, 133 Gregory, Timothy, viii, 1, 11, 14, 17, 18, 20, 24, 31, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 51, 52, 53, 54, 70, 72, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 104, 105, 112, 113, 117, 118, 120, 122, 128, 129, 130, 132 Gulf of Korinth, 1, 46, 53 Gymnasium (Korinth), 111 Harris, Marvin, 6, 7, 9, 10, 19, 129 Hellas, 110, 116 Hellenic, viii, 10, 16, 18, 20, 33, 35, 38, 47, 103, 129, 133 Hellenistic, ix, 1, 36, 44, 52, 54, 71, 73, 75, 76, 119, 120 Hellenization, 55 Herulian, 54, 129, 132 Hexamilion, 1, 2, 5, 23, 27, 32, 34, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 58, 66, 70, 74, 91, 92, 98, 99, 100, 103, 112, 119, 121, 122, 124, 128, 130, 131 Hippodrome (Isthmia), 36 house(s), 1, 7, 16, 24, 25, 26, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 79, 89, 90, 92, 93, 98, 107, 112, 120, 122, 123, 129, 132 242

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Illyricum, 112 imperial troops, 99, 119, 120 infrastructure, 7, 50, 55 iron, 25, 58, 61, 62, 93, 108, 114, 116 Isthmia, xv, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 11, 16, 18, 19, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 47, 54, 55, 57, 61, 70, 73, 75, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131 Isthmian Games, 1, 33, 35, 37, 38, 44, 111, 134 Isthmus, 1, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 43, 55, 75, 99, 133 Jerusalem, 109 Julian Basilica (Korinth), 111, 113 Justinian, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 99, 119, 126 Kazhdan, Alexander, 20, 49, 50, 51, 55, 107, 108, 118, 127 Kenchreai, 35, 40, 92, 110, 112, 114 Keos, 17, 113, 115, 116 kommerkiarioi, 123 Korinth, 1, 2, 5, 15, 23, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 52, 54, 55, 72, 81, 93, 97, 104, 109, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 128, 131 Korinthia, ixi, 11, 18, 19, 31, 34, 35, 36, 41, 46, 55, 71, 92, 95, 103, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 119, 121, 128, 129 Korinthia Regional Research Consortium (KRRC), 19, 20 Korinthian, 31, 33, 35, 36, 92, 106, 110, 123, 128, 129 Kyras Vrysi, 32, 33, 35, 41, 44, 43, 57 Lakonia, 17, 74, 113, 116 Late Antiquity, ix, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 17, 19, 33, 38, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 72, 81, 93, 97, 99, 101, 108, 110, 113, 114, 120, 123, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131 Late Byzantine (LB), 20, 23, 27, 33, 35, 37, 48, 73 Late Helladic (LH), 33, 34, 52 Late Roman (LR), xvi, 1, 2, 13, 17, 19, 23, 24, 38, 44, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 89, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 102, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 133 Later Stadium (Isthmia), 31, 32, 41, 44, 103, 114 law, 96 Lechaion Road (Korinth), 111 legion, 97, 98 legionary camp, 97, 98 limitanei, 97, 99, 118, 121 livestock, 99, 115, 120 Lucius Kornelios Korinthos, 44, 130 Macedonia, 20, 127 magnetometry (see also geophysics), 5, 18, 25, 26, 28, 57, 58, 83, 91, 125, 126 Manuel II, 41, 44, 78, 81, 126 marble, 35, 37, 41, 42, 43, 44, 86, 88, 91, 92, 111, 112, 115, 130, 131 market economy, 109 materialist, 8, 9, 10, 101, 129 Medieval, ixv, 1, 2, 5, 6, 13, 19, 23, 30, 40, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 51, 55, 57, 64, 73, 95, 98, 107, 109, 113, 115, 118, 123, 125, 128, 129, 130 Melos, 17, 18, 52, 96

Messenia, 17, 18, 19, 52, 113, 115, 116 metal, 15, 25, 27, 28, 29, 36, 46, 49, 59, 62, 83, 85, 90, 91, 99, 111, 117, 121, 123, 125 Methana, 17, 114 Middle Ages, 48 Middle Bronze Age, ix, 96 Middle Byzantine, 40 Middle Helladic (MH), 33 military, 1, 5, 6, 18, 20, 36, 39, 40, 41, 43, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 61, 62, 63, 70, 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 105, 107, 110, 111, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133 militia, 85, 119 millstone(s), 70, 114, 112, 122 modern, ix, 10, 13, 18, 19, 20, 27, 31, 33, 40, 44, 47, 48, 57, 58, 59, 62, 90, 94, 96, 98, 99, 105, 113, 116, 120, 127, 129, 130, 131 Monceaux, Paul, 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 74, 90, 130 Morris, Ian, 15, 16 mosaic, 14, 38, 45, 46, 87, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 119 Mycenaean, ix, 33, 34, 37, 53 Naroll coefficient, 93, 94, 96 national(ist), 20, 101, 120 Nema Valley Archaeological Project (NVAP), 18 Nemea, 17, 18, 52, 103, 113, 116, 130 Neolithic, ix, 16, 33, 75, 95 Nero, 36, 37 New Archaeology, 8, 13, 14, 17 New Korinth, 31, 112 New World Historical Archaeology (NWHA), 13, 16, 21 Northeast Gate (Isthmian Fortress), 24, 26, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 70, 79, 105, 117, 119, 130 Odeion (Korinth), 110 Ohio State University, v, ix, 26, 27, 121 Olympia, 15, 34, 35, 103, 113, 123 Ostrogorsky, George, 5, 19, 49, 109 Ottoman, xvi, 18, 19, 20, 48 pagan(ism), 10, 38, 48, 100, 110, 111, 113, 115, 119, 131 Palaimonion (Isthmia), 37, 44, 103 Palestine, 108, 109 Panhellenic, 1, 10, 18, 33, 35, 103, 131 Pausanias, 15, 17, 32, 36, 37, 41, 43, 104, 132 Peloponnesos, 1, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 46, 52, 92, 99, 103, 112, 113, 114, 116, 116 119, 122, 131 Periander, 35 Persian(s), 15, 35, 36, 50, 52, 54, 55, 105, 107, 109, 111, 128, 133 person-day(s), 102, 103 Phocaean (pottery), 114, 116 plague, 110, 115 Pleistocene, 31 polis, 1, 15, 37, 48, 49, 50, 107, 115, 117, 123, 127, 128, 129, 131 population, 7, 18, 19, 35, 38, 40, 50, 51, 52, 53, 79, 82, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 125, 130, 131, 133 population estimates, 95, 96, 97, 99, 105 Poseidon, cult of, 33; Temple of (Isthmia), 1, 17, 34, 35, 243

INDEX 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 45, 82, 84, 104, 112, 121, 131 pottery (see also ceramics), 5, 13, 14, 16, 18, 24, 33, 34, 42, 43, 44, 45, 57, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 90, 91, 97, 103, 106, 109, 112, 113, 114, 115, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 126, 128, 131, 133 principia, 84, 91, 96, 126 Pringle coefficient, 99 Procopius, 5, 39, 43, 84, 97, 119, 128 province, 107, 108, 109, 11, 115; provincial, 108, 109, 110, 115, 117, 119, 128, 133 Pylos Regional Archaeological Project (PRAP), 19, 115 Rachi (Kyras Vrysi/Isthmia), 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 98, 119, 133 Resafa, 119, 128 revetment, 37, 88, 92, 115, 126 road(s), 26, 28, 31, 33, 37, 40, 41, 43, 44, 49, 58, 59, 62, 75, 90, 96, 104, 110, 113, 130, 133 Roman Bath (Isthmia), 2, 23, 27, 32, 38, 41, 43, 44, 45, 58, 79, 82, 83, 87, 119, 120, 122, 130, 131 Roman Empire, 1, 5, 47, 48, 49, 51, 55 Roman Greece, 38, 53 rooftiles, 24, 57, 62, 69, 73, 74, 86, 91, 92, 125, 127 sacellum, 96 Sacred Glen (Isthmia), 32, 35, 40, 44 Salona, 123 sanctuary, 2, 55, 94, 125; of Asklepios (Epidauros), 111; of Demeter and Kore (Korinth), 109; of Isis (Kenchreai), 109; of Poseidon (Isthmia), 1, 5, 6, 10, 18, 23, 24, 31-38, 40-46, 57, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 82, 83, 87, 91, 98, 102, 104, 105, 110, 112, 118, 119, 123, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133; of Zeus (Nemea), 115; of Zeus (Olympia), 122 Sardis, 15, 52, 107, 106, 108, 127, 129, 130 Saronic Gulf, 1, 31, 34, 35, 44, 53 Schoenos, 35, 40, 41, 76 seismic, 31, 43, 112 self-potential (see also geophysics), ix, 5, 18, 25, 29, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69, 92, 125 settlement, 1, 5, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 45, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 73, 93, 94, 96, 98, 99, 101, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118, 123, 127, 133 ship(s), 35, 116 skeleton(s), 44, 45, 99 slag, 25, 62, 82, 90, 114, 126 Slavic, 20, 39, 40, 52, 54, 72, 77, 78, 80, 105, 114, 115, 117, 121, 122, 123 Slavs, 48, 50, 52, 53, 54, 99, 105, 113, 114, 115, 121, 122, 132 social change, 1, 3, 6, 13, 16, 19, 50, 51, 101, 127, 128 soil resistance (see also electrical resistance, and geophysics), 19, 25, 28, 29, 57, 58, 64, 66 South Gate (Isthmian Fortress), 24, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 89 Sparta, 55, 109, 113, 115, 116, 117, 121 specialization, 55, 111 Split, 124 spolia, 39, 70, 74, 119, 126, 130 Stadium (Isthmia), 1, 35, 37, 43, 105 status, 5, 9, 10, 23, 33, 35, 36, 47, 48, 53, 108, 109, 116, 126, 127, 128, 132

stone tool(s), 75, 124; flaked, 24, 58, 74, 75; ground, 24, 57, 74 structure(s), 1, 5, 6, 7, 16, 17, 23, 27, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 70, 78, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 113, 116, 118, 119, 126, 127, 128, 131, 133 subsistence, 7, 13, 17, 49, 117, 118, 121, 123, 133 superstructure, 7, 50, 70, 129, 133 surface survey, 2, 5, 6, 17, 18, 23, 24, 26, 28, 52, 54, 55, 57, 62, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 80, 81, 83, 87, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128 Sydney Cyprus Survey Project, 117 Syndekmos of Hierokles, 113 synod, 109 Syria, 49, 109, 115, 117 systems, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 50, 52, 112, 118, 121, 128, 133 Tabula Peutingeriana, 113 tagma(ta), 97, 99 tanning, 36, 46, 133 Temenos (Isthmia), 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 48 temple, 17, 32, 35, 37, 41, 111, 130 tesserae, 25, 87, 87, 91, 125, 126 theater, 49, 50, 127; Theater (Isthmia), 1, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 104, 105, 111, 130 themes, 123, 133 Theodosian Code, 121 Thermopylae, 40, 99 Theseus, 33 Thessaloniki, 105, 109, 119 Thessaly, 17, 54 topography, 6, 32, 37, 42, 43, 44, 92, towers, 34, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 78, 86, 89, 91, 103, 121, 124, 130; of Isthmian Fortress: Tower 1, 24, 40, 43, 44, 115, 116, 128; Tower 2, 44, 89; Tower 3, 86, 89, 124; Tower 4, 62, 86, 89, 92, 124; Tower 5, 42, 57, 76, 89; Tower 6, 43, 89, 91; Tower 7, 43, 78; Tower 8, 43; Tower 9, 44; Tower 10, 42, 44; Tower 11, 42; Tower 13, 89; Tower 14, 40, 43, 44, 115, 116, 128; Tower 15, 24, 40, 44, 130 trade, 14, 17, 36, 54, 92, 111, 114, 116, 117, 121, 122, 123, 127 transformation, ix, 1, 2, 7, 8, 11, 19, 23, 48, 70, 93, 101, 102, 111, 112, 118, 133, 134 transition, ix, 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 19, 23, 34, 35, 40, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 72, 95, 101, 110, 112, 113, 115, 119, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 133, 135 troops, 82, 84, 86, 89, 97, 98, 99, 105, 107, 117, 120 Troy, 33; Trojan War, 34 Turkey, 20, 117 Turks, 40, 51 turma, 97 University of Chicago, 43 urban, 1, 5, 14, 15, 16, 19, 23, 37, 38, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 115, 118, 123, 127, 128, 129, 133, 134; collapse, 54, 55, 125; life, 5, 47, 48, 50, 55, 107, 108, 109, 110, 127 Urban Survey Project (Sardis), 107 244

FROM CLASSICAL TO BYZANTINE: SOCIAL EVOLUTION IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE FORTRESS AT ISTHMIA, GREECE Venetian(s), ix, 20, 21, 40, 44 vessel, 24, 71, 73, 79, 115, 117 villa(s), 40, 54, 55, 99, 111, 112, 114, 115, 120 Vitruvius, 119, 130

Western Empire, 47, 49, 51, 55 Yassi Ada, 116 Zeus, 18; Temple of (Nemea), 130; Temple of (Olympia), 35

245