From Atomos to Atom: The History of the Concept Atom 0486495841, 2004045542

Table of contents :
Contents
Introduction
Part One - The Concept Atom Before the Origin of the Physical Atomic Theory
Chapter 1 - The Philosophy of Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Importance of Grecian Philosophy
3 The First Grecian Philosophers
4 Democritus
5 The Theories of Anaxagoras and Empedocles
6 Plato
7 Aristotle
8 Grecian Philosophy After Aristotle
Chapter 2 - The Middle Ages and the Renaissance
1 General Outline
2 Aristotle's Doctrine of Minima in his Commentators
3 Scaliger
4 Atomism
5 The Development of Practical Chemistry
Chapter 3 - The Seventeenth Century
1 The Special Importance of this Century
2 Sennert
3 Basso and van Goorle
4 Gassendi
5 Descartes
6 Robert Boyle
7 The Mechanics of the Seventeenth Century
8 Review of the Seventeenth Century
Part Two - The Concept of Atom in Physical Science
Chapter 4 - The Origin of the Physical Atomic Theory
1 The Development Before Dalton
2 Dalton's Atomic Theory
3 First Development After Dalton
5 Organic Chemistry
6 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
7 The Electromagnetic Light Theory
8 The Electronic Theory
9 The Development of the Periodic Table
10 The Philosophic Background of the Atomic Theory Around 1900
Chapter 5 - The Atomic Theory in the Twentieth Century
1 The Atomic Model of Rutherford and Bohr
2 The Dualistic Character of Matter
3 Nuclear Physics
4 The Philosophic Background of the Contemporaneous Atomic Theory
Chapter 6 - Science of Nature, Philosophy, and Philosophy of Nature
1 Introduction
2 The Right of Philosophy to Exist as a Science in its Own Right
3 The Importance of Ancient Philosophic Systems as Regards Natural Science and General Philosophy
4 The Right to Existence of Natural Philosophy
5 The Value of Greek Philosophy of Nature
6 The Philosophic Background of the Science of Nature
7 Recapitulation
Chapter Seven - Epilogue
Bibliography
Index of Names
Index of Subjects

Citation preview

DOVER PHOENIX EDITIONS

From Atomos to Atom The History of the Concept Atom ANDREW G. VAN MELSEN

FROM ATOMOS TO ATOM The History of the Concept Atom

FROM ATOMOS TO ATOM The History of the Concept Atom

Andrew G.

Van

Melsen

DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. Mineola, New York

DOVER PHOENIX EDITIONS

Bibliographical Note This Dover edition, first published in 2004, is an unabridged republication of the edition published by Harper & Brothers, New York, 1960. The Harper edition was a republication of the work published by Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh, in 1952.

Library of Congress Catalogingdn-Publication Data Melsen, Andreas Gerardus Maria van, 1912[Van atomos naar atoom. English] From atomos to atom : the history of the concept atom / Andrew G. Van Melsen. p. cm. (Dover phoenix editions) “...an unabridged republication of the edition published by Harper 8: Brothers, New York, 1960. The Harper edition was a republication of the work published by Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh, in l952"—T.p. —

verso.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-486-49584-1 1. Atoms. 2. Atomism. 3. Atomic theory. I. Title. II. Series. QG173.M4724I3 2004 539.7-—dc22

2004045542

Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Tn.A.NsLA'roR’s Fomswoxua INTRODUCTION

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PART Q NE

TEE Concsrvr A ran

masons '1-ma ORIGIN or THE

A-romc Tmaony

PHYSICAL

CHAPTER 0NE—T1m Introduction

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PHILOSOPHY or GREECE .

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2. The Importance of Grecian Philosophy

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First Grecian Philosophers Thfles of Miletus p. 12. Heraclitus p.

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10 12

13. Parmenides

p. 3. 4. Democritus The Origin of the Atomic Theory p. 18.’ Evaluation of Democritus’ Atomic Theory p. 19. .

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The Theories of Anaxagoras and Empedocles 23 Empedocles p. 23. Anaxagoras p. 24. Comparison of the Three Atomic Theories p. 25.

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The Reaction Against the Materialism of Democritus p. 25. Plato's Theory of Ideas p. 27. Importance of Mathematics p. 28. Theory of Elements p. 29.

Aristotle

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A1-istot1e’s Theory of Knowledge p. 31. The Possibility of Change p. 32. The Theory of Matter and Form p. 35. Doctrine of Elements and Compounds p. 38. Aristotle's Theory of Smallest Particles p. 41. V

30

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vi

C ontents PA GE

44 After Aristotle Introduction p. 44. Philosophic Atomisrn p. 45. The Doctrine of Natural Minima in the Greek Commentators of Aristotle p. 46.

8. Grecian Philosophy

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CHAPTER TWO—Tne MIDDLE Aces AND rm: RENAISSANCE 1.

49 General Outline Development of Philosophy in the West p. 50. In the East p. 51. The Development of Philosophy in the Middle Ages p. 52. Characterization of Scholastic Philosophy p. 53. Trends in the Thirteenth Century p. 54. Subsequent Centuries p. 55. Renaissance Philosophy p. 56. Revival of Atornism p. 57. .

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in His Commentators

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Sca1iger’s Theory of Natural Minima p. 73. His importance for Physical Science p. 77.

4. Atomism

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5. The Development of Practical Chemistry

CHAPTER THREE—-THE

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SEVENTEENTE CENTURY

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The Special Importance of the Seventeenth Century...

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Summary of Physical Science p. 82. Points of Agreement and Disagreement Between the Chemists and the Followers of Aristotle and Galen p. 82. The Corpuscular Theory in the Note: on Physics p. 85. Importance of Sennert’s Corpuscular Theory p. 88. 3.

BassoandvanGoorle

4. Gassendi

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Contents

PAGE

5.

Descartes

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7. Seventeenth Century Mechanics

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The Physical Character of the Seventeenth Century Corpuscnlar Theories p. 109. The Relation Between the Revival of Atomism and Mechanics p. 110. The Development of Mechanics—Galileo and Huygens p. 111. Newton and Leibnitz p. 114. 8. Review of the Seventeenth Century

A Historical Misconception p.

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Physical Character of Atomism in the Seventeenth Century p. 118. The Merits of Philosophic Atomism p. 119. The Break with Aristotle p. 122.

PART TWO

Tm: Concmrr Aron m Pnvsrcu. SCIENCE CHAPTER FOUR—-Tm: ORIGIN

Pnvsrcm. Ammo

or rm:

Tmaomr 1.

Development of the Concept Atom Before Dalton.. 131 The Relative Value of Historical Divisions p. 131. The Phlogiston Theory and the Law of Lavoisier p. 132.

2. Da1ton’s Atomic Theory

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Its Physical Character p. 135. The Philosophic Background of Dalton's Atomic Theory p. 138. 3.

First Developments After Dalton

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Radioactivity

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Content: PAGE

Organic Chemistry Origin of the Name p. 146. Isomerism p. 147. .

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Revival of the Theories of Impact p. 148. Controversy about the Reality of Atoms and Molecules p. 149. The Twofold Aspect of the Critique p. 150. The Electromagnetic Theory of Light Difficulties of the Old Theory p. 153. Maxwell p. 154. .

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The Electronic Theory 155 The Electron p. 155. The Ionic Theory p. 156. The Electron as the Building Block of the Atom p. 157. . .

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10. The Philosophic Background of the Atomic Theory of 1900 160 ocacuauovuu -anonoopo u

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CHAPTER FIVE--THE ATOMIC THEORY IN THE TWEN'rn:'rII: CENTURY

The Atomic Model of Rutherford and Bohr 167 A Fundamental Difficulty p. 167. Bohr’s Postuiates p. 168. Planck's Quantum Theory p. 168. The Atomic Model and the .Spectra of Light p. 170. The Atomic Model and Chemistry p. 170. .

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The Dualistic Character of Matter 174 Dualism in the Theory of Light p. 174. Dualism for the Particulars of Matter p. 177. Quantum Mechanics p. 179. . . .

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Nuclear Physics 180 The Transmutation of Nuclei p. 181. The Neutron and the Composition of the Nucleus p. 181. Nuclear Fission p. 184. Relationship of Energy and Mass p. 184. .

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The Philosophic Background of the Contemporaneous Atomic Theory Insufficient Data p. 185. Difference of the Nineteenth and the Twentieth Century 13. 186. Positivism p. 191. .

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CHAPTER SIX-—Scn:Ncs

NATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND

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PHILOSOPHY or NATURE 1.

Introduction

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Right of Philosophy to Etlst

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Material Thing? p. 195. The Inevitableness

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Scientific Value of the Ancient. Systems p. 201. Physical Science Proceeds by Successive Stages p. 202. Differs from Philosophy p. 203. The Importance of Ancient Systems in Respect to Philosophy in General 13. 204.

The Right of Philosophy of Nature to Exist 205 Philosophy of Nature as the Meeting Ground of General Philosophy and Physical Science 1:. 205. Physical Science Fails to Realize Its Philosophic Implications p. 206. The Twofold Character of Philosophy of Nature p. 208. . .

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7. Recapitulation

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CHAPTER SEVEN-—Epilogue Pnn1on1cT.u3u«:..... TABLE or Sunxromc PARTICLES . .

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TRANSLATOR’S FOREWORD From the moment modern science made its entrance into history and began to reshape intellectual life and civilization, the relationship between philosophy and science has been a subject of discussion among philosophers and scientists. This book intends to contribute to this discussion through a study of the historical relationship between science and philosophy, by tracing the history of the concept atom, which plays such an important role in both philosophic and scientific theories, from its earliest beginnings down to our time. The present study is not the first work of the author on the history of the concept atom. In an earlier work‘ he traced the origin and development of the philosophic atomic theories of the past, and made clear that there is a historical connection between philosophic and physical atomic theories. In the course of this earlier work he had opportunity to show that the atomic theory, as it developed in the seventeenth century, was an outgrowth not only of the revived atomic theory of Democritns, but also of Aristotle's minima theory, which had survived in medieval philosophic circles. The present study may be considered, partly as a revision and abbreviation of this earlier work,—but in addition the author considers the history of the physical atomic theory, and offers a profound confrontation of the philosophic and physical atomic theories.’ At a. time when the atom bomb has created an almost universal ‘interest in the fascinating problem of the atom, this study should not fail to arouse the interest of those who have some acquaintance with science and philosophy. The book does not require any profound insight into either scientific or philosophic problems, but a certain amount of elementary knowledge is presupposed. A few words may be added here concerning the author. Dr. Andrew G. van Melsen was born in 1912 in the Netherlands. At the youthful age of thirty-four he became professor of natural philosophy and of philosophy of science at the Charlemagne University of Nijmegen. His brilliant studies in the sciences of chemistry, physics, and philosophy at the University of Utrecht, which culminated in his dissertation on the philosophic past of the atomic theory, had given

lflct

urijrgerig werleden der atoomthearie, Amsterdam 1941, (The PhiloPart of the Atom: Theory). 2In another work Dr. van Melsen offers a general confrontation of philosophy and physical science. This work was published under the title Naiuurwetcmchap

saphsc

m

Wijsbegcerfc, Utrecht-Brussels 1946, (Physical Science and Philosophy).

,xi

n’.

xii

Translator’: Foreword

him an excellent preparation for this arduous position. Since the reopening ot the Netherlands universities after the war, Dr. van Melsen has published numerous articles and several books on philosophicascientific problems. The present work appeared in Dutch in 1949 as the second volume of the Dutch Scientific and Philosophic Library,‘ and was widely acclaimed by the critics as an outstanding contribution to both science and philosophy. It has since then appeared in German, Spanish and Italian editions, as well as in English. In 1951 the author came to the United States as a visiting professor to lecture on the philosophy of nature and science at Duquesne University, where he published a treatise on the philosophy of nature. This work has been reprinted three times. A Dutch edition has already appeared, and ‘Italian and Polish translations are in preparation.

A few minor changes have been made in this reprint to bring the work up to date. HENRY J. KOREN, C.S.Sp.

Duquesne University Pittsburgh, December 15, 1959.

3Wetenschappeli;'lz-Wijsgerige Bibliotheek, edited by A. de Froe, W. Hel~ linga, and H. Groot, and published by J. M. Meulenhoff, Amsterdam.

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INTRODUCTION Having And justly

history is generally considered a mark of distinction. for whatever has a history shows that its importance transcends the ephemeral temporariness which is the lot of so many things. It has proved its resistance to the forces of destruction which experience shows at work in everything. Of course, having a history can never be the sole standard of importance, because there are too many things whose sole value for theipresent time seems to lie in the fact that they have a history. However enticing it may be to speculate upon the general importance of having a history, we will not pursue this line of thought, but restrict ourselves at once to the object of our study, the concept atom. This is a concept which can pride itself both on a long history and eminently actual importance. We first encounter it as the central concept of Greek philosophy. Although later it withdrew somewhat into the background, neverthelms it maintained itself through almost all centuries till again it began to occupy the center of attention in the scientific discussions of the seventeenth centry, when physical science, in the modern sense of the word, clearly began to take shape. Immediately it became one of the fundamental concepts of this science and it has remained so until this very day. This brief sketch not only indicates the importance of the concept atom, but also reveals a serious difficulty in the study of its history. Its history, so to speak, does not run in a straight line. If, for instance, in our historical investigations we base ourselves upon the’ knowledge of the concept atom as it has become familiar to us through the study of modern physical science, we will easily lose track of it in the more distant past. We would expect to find in the past a concept which is less complicated, perhaps, and simpler in structure, but at any rate built along the same lines as the concept familiar to us. But we would be disappointed in our expectations, because among the Greeks the concept atom was seen in the frame of a different problem which is wider and more embracing than that of our contemporary physical science. The physicist who is interested in the history of his science encounters among the Grecian thinkers many considerations which seem to him beside the point, and he fails to find others which he considers of the greatest importance. Thus he is easily tempted to conclude that the Greeks did not really understand very much of the essential problem. Yet this conclusion would involve a grave injustice a

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224

From Atoma: To Atom

219: The same idea could he expressed also in this way. Before it was possible to build specialized sciences, man had first to reflect on the general conditions of science for, as we have seen above, every science starts from certain presuppositions. In this way, the struggle of the Greeks (Heraclitus, Parmenides, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle) with the problem of mutability and immutability assumes the form of a struggle for clarity with respect to what has to enter science as its presupposition. Thus the entire intellectual activity at first bore the stamp of a philosophic reflection on the essence of nature and the essence of man. It was thought that a clarification of these philosophic problems was a sine qua non condition of all science. This view was right insofar as philosophy could not be dispensed with in the search for the scientific attitude and method. It was wrong, however. insofar as the philosophic clarification of the philosophical problems is no longer strictly necessary ‘for science itself, once the method of science has been discovered. But the ancient Greeks could not know this, for at that time no autonomous science of nature was known.

__,,_.

,

SUPPLEMI-LN"'ARY NOTE FOR P.

u..n_.._

BIBLIOGRAPHY

At the request of the editor

and

for the convenience of the reader

bibliography which may be useful for a. more detailed study of our subject. The list does not aim at completeness. As a rule books which are important only for specialists are not mentioned. This applies especially to purely scientific works. we

add here

a

Translators Note

As far as possible English equivalents have been substituted for Dutch works mentioned in the original bibliography, because the latter would be of little interest to the general reader. These substitutions are marked with an asterisk. Other additions to the bibliography also are marked with an asterisk.

PHILOSOPHY

History of Philosophy

..

Friedrich Ueberweg: Grundrisr der Gesdiichte der Philoraphie. 5 vol. 12th ed. Berlin I924-1928. Reprinted Tiibingen, 1955. This basic work is an almost infallible book of reference. It contains an

..

General Works

extensive bibliography about every philosopher of the past.

*0f

the earlier editions English translations are available under the

History of Philosophy.

Emile Bréhier: Histoire de

la.

title:

philorophie. 7 vol. Paris 1945.

Less documented than Ueberweg, but still very complete.

Frederic Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Vol. I-111, Westminster, 1950 ff. Vol. IV, London, 1958. A comprehensive history, still incomplete. Vol. IV ends with Leibniz.

*Bertra.nd Russell: A

istory of Western Philosophy.

New York

1946.

225

...——__._.......-.._u-'

The work of this English ernpiricist endeavors to show the development of philosophy against its political and social background.

From Atomos To Atoms

226

History of Period: and Monogmph:

*E. Zellerz Outline: of the History of Greek Phz'lo.roph;v- New York 13th edition, 1951 (Revised by W. Nestle). A translation of Grundriss

o'er Gesehichte der Griechisehen Philosophie, 13th impr. Leipzig 1928. Contains the essence of the author's well-known complete history of Greek philosophy Die Philosophie der Griechen.

John Burnet: Early Greek Philosophy. 3rd ed. London 1930.

John Burnet: Greek Philosophy (From Thales to Plato). London 1928.

*Theodor Gomperz: Greek Thinkers. 4 vol. London 1901-1912. A translation of Die Griechische Denker.

*B. Fuller: History of Greek Philosophy. 3 vol. New York 19231931.

W. Ross: Aristotle. 4th ed. London 1945. Léon Robin: Aristote. Paris 1944.

A. Mansion: Introduction Louvain 1945.

1%

la physique an'stote'l£en.ne. 2nd ed.

Three works on Aristotelian philosophy. The firs: two are comprehensive studies of Aristotle’s philosophy in its entirety, the last deals more espe-' cially with Aristotle’s philosophy of nature.

*C. Bailey: The Greek A tomists and Epicums. Oxford 1928.

*Paul E. More: Platonism. Princeton 1931. For the study of Arabic and Medieval philosophy the following may be consulted:

Maurice dc Wulf : History of Medieval Philosophy. 2 vol. 3rd ed. New

York 1935-1937.

*A translation of Histoire de la philosophic médiévale. A

new

translation of Vol. I was published in 1952.

G. Quadri: La philoiophie arabe dam‘ l’Europe médiévale. Paris 1947. »

or.«.a.||-4.

Bibliography

227

Etienne Gilson: The Spirit of Medievat Philosophy.

London

1936.

A translation of L'e.rpri£ de la philasaphie médiéuale. ‘The following three works contain selections of the great philosophers from the early Greeks to Kant:

*T. V. Smith: Philosophers Speak for Themselves. 6th impr. Chicago 1949. Extracts from Greek, Roman and early Christian philosophers.

*Richard_McKeon: Selections from Medieval Philosophers. 2 vol., New York 1929.

*Smith and Grene: From Destartes to Kant. 6th impr. Chicago 1950.

Introductions Among the

to Philosophy

numerous

works of this kind

we select

the following:

*Jacques Maritain: An Introduction to Philosophy. New

York

1933.

A translation of Introduction ii to philosophic.

*Ray H. Dotterer: Philosophy by way of the Sciences. New York 1933.

*Durant Drake: Invitation to Philosophy. New York 1933. Louis de Raeymaker: Introduction to Philosophy. New York 1948.

A translation of Introduction

la philosophic. Rather concise, but interesting on account of its extensive survey of philosophic organizations and publications. 1.‘:

*D. Hawkins: Approach to Philosophy. London

1938.

Philosophic Trends philosophic work is without some definite philosophic here a few books which are especially intended as introductions to some particular system of philosophy. We will limit ourselves to those trends which are connected with the subject of our study.

Although

basis, we

no

will mention

._

From Atomos To Atom

228

I. M. Bochenski: Contemporary European Philosophy. Berkeley, 1957. Bern, 1947.

'

'

A penetrating general survey of current trends. Dagobert Runes (editor)

York

:

Twentieth Century Philosophy. New

1947.

Contains 22 short studies by various authors on different schools of thought. Gives an excellent idea of modern problems in philosophy.

R.

von

Mises : Kleines Lehrbuch des Positlvismus. Chicago 1939.

A good introduction to positivistic and empiricistic philosophy.

Bertrand Russell: Human Knowledge. London 1948. A theory of knowledge upon of its limitations.

an

ernpiricistic basis but with

.-..v.-.-vn..._v -.,-._._.

.«

,

A. J. Ayer: Language, Truth and Logic. 2nd

realization

a

ed. London 1946.

Positivistic-empiricistic. Emphasizes the analysis of scientific language

as

the task of philosophy. ‘For a critical analysis of this work see C. Joad: Critique of Logical Positivism. Chicago I950.

B. J. Ovinlc: Philoso;-hie uml Saphistik. Den Haag 1940. An explanation of philosophy according to Kantian principles.

*F. Caird: Critical Philosophy of Kant. London

i

1889.

*Harold A. Prichard: Kant’: Theory of Knowledge. Oxford 1909.

*Martin Grabmann: Thomas Aquinas. New York lation of Thomas van Aquin.

1935.

A trans-

*Hans Meyer: The Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. St. Louis 1944. A translation of Thomas van Aquin. Thomism is one of the most important realistic trends in philosophy. These two works are brief introductions to the life and philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.

Philosophy of Nature and Philosophy of Natural Science Peter Hoenen: Filasofia della naturo inorganico. Brescia, 1949. A systematically constructed philosophy of nature with *Exists also in German and Dutch editions.

a

realistic basis.

...4.n...

Bibliography

.,

229

B. Bavink: Ergebnisse und Probleme der Naturwissenschaften. 9th impr. Ziirich 1948. An excellent survey of the achievements of the natural sciences and of connected philosophic problems.

A. S. Eddington: The Philosophy of Physical Science. Cambridge 1939. A plea for the a-prion‘ tendency of natural science. A. N. Whitehead: Science and the Modern World. 11th bridge 1946. A philosophic evaluation of the development of

ed. Cam-

science.

P. Jordan: Physics of the Twentieth Century. New York A translation of Die Physik de: 20 Jahrhmzderts.

It a

1944.

sketches the latest developments of physicalscience, to which it gives positivistic interpretation.

G. Hennann, E. May, Th. Vogel: Die Bedeutung der modernen Physik ffir die Thearie der Erkenntnis. Leipzig 1937.

Three important philosophic studies of the quantum theory and relativity. each from its own philosophic viewpoint.

F. Renoirte: C ormology. Elements of of Carmology. New York 1950.

a

Critique of Sciences and

New York

1950.

A discussion of the philosophy of nature which takes into account modern scientific data, especially in the field of atomic physics.

A. G. M. van Melsenz Nmtuurwetenschap Utrecht-Brussels 1946.

en

Wijsbegeerte.

A general study of the relationship of philosophy physical science, and a critical analysis of the consequences of modern physics.

‘P. H.

van

Lacr: Philasophico-Scientific Problems. Pittsburgh,

1953.

Action at

*P. H.

a

van

distance. Causality.

Laer: Matter and Light. New York 1939

Modern physics and philosophy.

L.

de 1941.

Broglie: Continu et discontinu

en physique

A philosophical study of quantum mechanics.

modems. Paris

.

*Vincent Edward Smith: Philosophical Physics.

_

An introduction to the philosophy of natural science. A translation of Elément: de critique de: sciences at de cosmologie.

From Atomo: To Atom

230

*C. F.

von

Weizsiicker, The World View of Physics. Chicago,

1952. Modern physics and Kantian philosophy.

*Herbert Dingle, The Scientific Adventure. New York 1953. Stimulating essays in the history and philosophy of science.

E. Meyerson: Du cheminement de la pensée. 3 vol., Paris 1931. A richly documented work in which the development of of a theory of knowledge.

as the basis

science is {aken

~

*Herman Weyl : Philosophy of M athemoiics and Natural Science. Princeton 1949. A critical study of man's

endeavor_ to analyze his knowledge

of nature.

*Henry Margenau: The Nature of Physical Reality. New York 1950.

A discussion of the philosophical implications of modern science. followed by a philosophical synthesis which is partly idealistic and positivistic.

‘Philipp Frank, M odern Science and its Philosophy. Cambridge, 1950.

NAHIRAL SCIENCE The History of Natural Science in General and of the Atomic Theory in Particular G eneml Works

F. Danneman: Die Naturwimensclzaften in ihrer Entwicklung und ihrem Z ummmenhcmge. 4 vol., 2nd impr. Leipzig 1920.

W. Sedgwick and H. W. Tyler: A Short Hixtory of Science. New York i935. Charles J. Singer: A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century. 4th impr. Oxford 1946.

E. Mach: Die M echanik in ihrer En!-wicklung. 9th impr. Leipzig 1933.

F. Cajori: A History of Physics. 2nd ed. New York 1929.

0. von Lippmann: Entstehzmg and A usbreitung der Alche-mie. Berlin 1919. E‘.

Bibliography '

231

H. Kopp: Geschichte der Chemie. 4 vol., Braunschweig 18431847.

'

H. Kopp: Die Entwickhmg der Chemie in der Miinchen 1873.

neueren

Zeit.

*Harvey Brace Lemon: From Galileo to the Nuclear Age. New York 1946.

*A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo. London

1952.

*A. C. Crombie, Robert Grosseteste and the Origin: of Experimental Science 1100-1700. Oxford 1953.

*H.

S. Redgrove : Alchemy Ancient and 1922.

1

Modern: 2nd ed. London

*J. R. Partington: A Short History of Chemistry. 2nd ed. London 1939. ‘Cohen and Drabkin: A Source Book in Greek Science. New

York

1948.

*W. F. Magic: A Source Book in Physics. New York

*W. Whewellz History of the Inductive

1935.

Sciences. 3 vol., 3rd ed.

London 1857.

‘

*F. H. Loring: Atomic Theories. London 1921.

A. G. M.

van

Melsen: I-Iet Wijsgeerig V erleden o'er Atoorn-

theorie._ Amsterdam 1941.

*_Ioshua Crayen Gregory: 1931.

A Short History of Atomism. London '

F. A. Lange: Geschichte o'er Materialismus und Critik seiner Bedeutimg in der Gegenwart. 10th impr. Leipzig 1921. This work indicates also the philosophic background of the various stages in the deveiopment of the atomic theory.

*A. Wurtz: A History of Chemical Theory From the Age of

.

Mittelalter bi: New-

.—

van

....,a..~......,-..

K. Lasswitz: Geschichte der Atomistik ton. 2 vol., 2nd ed. Leipzig 1926.

.

History of the Atomic Theory

From Atomos To Atom

232

Lavoisier to the Present Time. London 1869.

*A. Wurtz: The Atomic Theory. London

1880.

Development of the Atomic Theory in the Last Decennia

The number of books on this subject is almost inexhaustible. Many combine a. sketch of scientific development with insuFficiently founded philosophic considerations. The following works about this difficult subject can be understood even by those who do not specialize in atomic science.

L.

de

Broglie: Ondes. corpuscules, méchanique ondulatoire.

Paris 1945.

i

A. Haas: Wave Mechanics and the New Quantum Theory. A translation of M aterirwellen and Quantenmechanielz. 4-5th impr. Leipzig 1934.

*Herman T. Briscoe: The Structure and Properties of Matter. New York 1935. *_l. D. Stranathan: The ‘Particles’ of M odern Physics. Philadelphia 1942.

*Lord Rutherford: The Newer Alchemy. New York

*M. Born: Atomic Physics. London

1937.

1945.

*George Gamow: Atomic Energy in .Cosmt°c and Human Life.. Cambridge and New York 1946.

*The Smyth Report. U.

S. Government 1945.

F. K. Richtmeyer, E. H. Kennard, and T. Lauritsen, Introduction to M odern Physics. New York 1955. R. S. Shankland, Atomic and Nuclear Physics. New York 1955.

H. A. Bette and P. Morrison, Elementary Nuclear Theory. New York 1956. D. Halliday, Introductory Nuclear Physics. New York 1955.

I. Kaplan, Nuclear Physics. Cambridge

1955.

.

.r._n4... ..,_

INDEX OF NAMES 71.

Adelard of Bath, 77. Aegidius the Roman, 61. Albergs the Great, 5, 52, 55, 605., 7], Albert of Saxony, 5, S6, 63. Al;6:ander of Aphrodisias, 4.7, 66,.

Amfiére. A. M., 143,155. Alfiaéagoras, 17, 23fl'., 58, 66; 77, 90, Anaximenes,

13.

A1-ago, 155.

Archimedes, 112.

Aristotle,

II,

5, 18, 24, 3017., 5711., 6611., 73, 76f.-, 825., 1001-'f., 10917.,

114, 116, I19, I2IFf., 138, 194, 196, 203, 20917., 218, 219, 220. Arrhenius, S. A., 151, I56. 157. Asclepiades of Bithynia, 46. Augustine, 50, 51. Aureolus, 72. Averroes, 5, 52, 5817., 64, 6617., 73, 83, 117, 119. Avicenna, S, 52, 71, 88, 119.

Avogadro. A., 1423. Ayer, A. J., 198.

Dalton, J.,

3, 131, 135fl"., 158, 160,

16311., 187, I88, I89, I91, 202. Davisson, C. _I., 178. Democritus, 5, 17 ., 25fi'., 305., 40, 44, 455., 50, 68, 0, 77f.,_81fl'., 90f., 94fi°., 110, 111, 11611., 122, 1385., l62f., 165, 190, 194, 2093., 2181?. .Descartes, R., 5, 8], 93,6’, 995., 10911., 1123., 134, 203, 220. Diels, H., 14, 23, 47. Dijksterhuis, E. L, 29, 56. Diogenes Laertius, 91. Dirac, P. A. M., 178. Duhem, P. M. M., 56, 61, 62, 63. Duns Scotus, 62.

Einstein, A.,

1751?.

Empedocle

17, 23fl’., 39, 70, 72, 77. 86, 106, -138, 140. Epicurus, 45, 76, 86, 91fi'., 94, 98.

Eudoxos, 28.

Baeumker, C1., 24. Bagg, S., 81, fl'., 95, 100, 117, 118, Becquerel, A., 146. Bergson, H., 203. Berthollet, CL. 134, 136. Berzelius, J. J., 1403. Blackett, P. M. N., 178, Boethius, 51.

Cohen, E. J., 151. Constantine the African, 77. Copernicus, N., 57. Coulomb, C. H., de, 148. Cuties, the, 146.

Faraday, M., 155, 156. Feigl, H., 200. Fermat, P. de, 175. Foucault, J’. B. _L.. 153. Francis of Aqmlo, 86. Galen, 82.

»

Bohr, N., 9, 158, 16717., 1775., 180. Boltzmann, L., 149. Bonaventure, 54. Boodt, Anselm de, 116, 118. Boscovich, R. G., 148. Boyle, R., S, , 89, 93, 9917., 114, '

£22811, 126, 138, 139, 141, 149, 166,

Bréhier, E., 12. Broglie, L. V. de, 1, 17717., 207. Brown, R., 2. Buridan, _I., 56, 62. Burleigh, W., 62, 63. Burnet, J., 12.

V

Galileo. 57, 97, 99, 1115., 131. Gassendi, P., 91 fi., 94, 98ff., 138, 220. Gay-Lussac, J. L., 141, 149. Geber, _80. Germer, L. H., 173. Giordano Bruno, 57, 78, l17ff. Golcérlle, D. van, 77, 81, 893., 95, 1171.,

Hamilton, W.,

16.

Heisenberg, W., I79fl'., 192. Helias, 64. Helmholtz,-H. F. Von, 149. Heraclides Ponttcus, 45.

Heraclitus, I3fl'., 26, 33, 219. Hertz, H. R., 155. Heymans, G.,8g6. Hippocrates, Hoenen, P., 61, 165. Hoff, J. H. van ’t, 147, I5]. I-Iooykaas, R.,-76, 80, 89, 102. 121. Huffer, E. J. E., 132. Hugo of St. Victor, 77. Hume. D., 196. .

Cardano, H., 57, 6811'. Carnot, N. I... 149.

Cauchy, A, L.,._148. Cavendish, H., 133. Cicero, 45. Clausius, R. I. E., 149.

233

.....,,..

Achillinus,

,,._,_._,_.

Index of Names

234 Huygens,

C1111,

57,

I11f.,

Parmenides, 13,32, 26, 31fi., 44, 110,

153, 176,

219

,_M__.«_,,_

,,

202.

Pérerius, 70. Perrin, J. B., 152. Philoponus, 47. Planék, M. K. E. L., 67, 1685., 174f.,

M

Jaeger. F ., 116.. Jeans, J. H., 49. John de Jandun, 64, 66. Jordan, P., 192. Joule, J. P., 149.

17

Kant, E., 196)‘., 203. Kelvin, W. T.. 164. Kirchhoff, G. R., 150.

5

Prout, W., 141, 145, 159. Psellus, Michael, 47. Pythagoras, 28.

Kohnstamrn, Ph., 165. Kolbe, A. W. H., 147.

Lactantius,

.

Plato, 255., 31, 54, 57, 110, 215, 219. Poincaré, J. H., 164. Priestley, J., 133. Proust, J. L., 134f., 137, 141.

Renan, J. E., 58. Renoirte, F., 209. Rousseau, P., 140. Rutherford, E., 8,

92.

Laplace, P. S. de, 148, 164.5. Lasswitz, K., 91, 112, I16, I17. Lavozisier, A. L., 102, 131, 132}?'., 135,

167117., 181.

14

Leibnitz, G. W. von, 5, 114,5. Leonardo da Vinci, 57.

Salam, AL, 186. Scaliger, J. C., 735., 815., 90fl’.. 95,

II

Leucippus, 17. Lippman, E. 0. Von, 44. Locke, J., 22. Lomonosov, M. V., 133. Lothar Meyer, J., 143.

Scholz, H., 123. Schrodinger, E., 1793'. Scotus, J. Duns, 62.

Lubin, Eilard, 78. Lucretius Cams, 45, 50.

Mach, E., 1511., 161. Maxwell, J. C., 148. 149, 1541?‘. Mayer, J. R. von, 149. Melsen, A. G. M. van, 61, 89,

Seneca, 45.

121

190, 192.

Mendelejeff, D., 143f‘i. Mennens, 76.

'

Sennert, D., 81fi'., 90f., 95, l03f., 107fl‘., 116, 11%, 126, 138, 220. Siger of Brabant, SS, 63. Simplicius, 47, S8f., 70. Socrates, 27, 110. Soto, D., 70. Stahl, G. E., 132. Steenberghen, F. van, 63.

Metzger, H., 114. Meyerson, E., 16, I34. Morinus, J. B., Moseley, H. G. J., 160. Muskens, G., 42.

Thales of Milete, I2.

Newton, I., 3,

Ueberweg, F.,

.

1

126

Scheele, K. W., 133.

S, 57, 99, 11251, 135, 153f 1751' Nicholas o1"Aut1-ecouri, 78. Nicholas of Oresme, 56. Nifo, 64fi'., 74, 75.

Themistius, 47. Thomas Aquinas 52, 54f.. 60fl’., 71. Thomson. J. J., 136. Toletus, 69]., 76. 53.

136

5

Occialini,

178.

William of Ockham, Winkler, 143. Wiililer, F., 147.

Oersted, H. C., 155. 05, C. H. van, I15. Ostwalcl, W., 151.

i 1

'

Pantheus. 76. Paracelsus, P. A.,

Weber, W. E., 155. Westerink, L., 47. Whewell, W., 97. Whittaker, E., 174. William of Couches, 77.

Zarabella, 57, 80, 101, 113.

56.

72, 84, 88. 107. Zeeman, P., 157, 207.

.

.sg...»..

,_

INDEX OF SUBJECTS Actinicle Series, 184, 222.

Atomic Theory (See also Corpuscular Theor and Natural Minima Theory) 0 Democritus, 17 tf., 25 f., 45, S8. 77 1%., 81 if., 97 i., 110, 119 f., 163 f., 218 f.; origin, 17 5.; critique, 19 ff.;~ meta-~

Acitggni from a distance, 112, 149,

Actual, 33. 135.

Aggregation, States of Aggregation according to Democritus, 21 L; Empedocles, 24; Scaliger, 75. 77, 117; Sennert, 87; van Goorle, 77, 90 5., 117; Basso, 91, 1173 Descartes, 96: Boyle, 102; Dalton, 135. Americium, 184. Aristotelian Thought, break with, 78, 81 if., 89, 93, 111, 120 17.; forcefulness of, 120 H.’ influence on Boyle, 101; Boyles critique of, 100

if.

122 1.

Astronomy, 28 f., 99, 113 f. Atom, 1 E. (See also Particle, Natural Minimum); according to Democritus, 3. 18 5., 25 f., 84; Empedocles, 23, 24; Anaxagoras, 24; Epicurus, 45, 93; Sennert, 82, 85, 120; Gassendi, 92 f., 103, 211: Descartes, 94 ff., 98; Boyle, 99 fl’., 166; Dalton, 131, 135 f., 138 f., 166; Ostwald, 152; Bohr, 158. 167 f.; its concept in the 19th century, 163 f.; immutability, 19, 22 ff. 70, 84, 92, 102, I34, 139, 167, 186 E.; mutability, 43, 70 17., 76, 83 11., 90, 103, 106. 146, 156. 159, 164 fi., 167 5., 189; divisibility

and indivisibility, see Divisibility; juxtaposition of atoms, 139, 163, 189; reality of atom, 149 fl’., 152: of electricity 155 £., 169, see also Electron; ‘building blocks of atom, 141, 145 f., 157 5., 166, 171 ff., 131

Ailing»:

ff.;

states of energy of atom, specific spectral lines of atom,

Bomb, the Principle of the,

Atomic Charge, 159, 166 f., 171, 223. Atomic Model’, of Rutherford and Bohr, 158, 167, 173; the spectra of light and the, 170; chemistry and the, 170 E.

Atomic Nucleus, 158, 167, 171, 181 ff.; building blocks of the, 181 ff.; radioactivity and the, 181 ff.; transmutation of the, see Transmittation; bombardment of nucleus with alpha particles, 181 ff.; with neutrons, 183 E.

physical aspect, 12, 19 fli, 26, I22, 163, 218 ft’.; physical aspect. 12, 19 1%., 26, 98 f.. 110 f., 119, 218 ft‘.; of Empedocles, 23, 24; of Annagoras, 24; comparison of the theories of Democritus, Ernpedocles, and Anaxagoras, 25: of Plato, 29; of Aristotle, 30 L, 41 E.; of Asclepiacles, 45; medieval and Renaissance theories, 77, 78, I10; mathematical development. 57. Philosophic Atomic Theory, revival in the seventeenth century, 57 f., 78, 81, 85, 89 3., 111, 116 15.; scientific aspect in the seventeenth century, 81 £1, 92 11"., 110 fi., 118 ff.; cause of the scientific aspect, 118 ff.; relation between revival and mechanics, 110_fi., 119 f., 122; atomism as the philosophic background of the physical atomic theory, 209 ff., 218; see also Phiiosophic Background; value of the, 119 f., 123, 210 ff. Physical Atomic Theory, 81 E., 140, 218; of Sennert, 84 fl"., 120, 220; of Gassendi, 92, I01, 220; of van Goorle, 89 1., 103, 1181; of Basso, 90, 100 f.; of Boyle, 99 fl'., 108, 109, 139: scientific value of Descartes’ theory. 96, 100; of Boyle’s theory, 100 ft'.; of Newton's Law of Gravitation, 114; of the mathematical methods oi Newton and Leibnitz, 114; autonomy in the seventeenth century, 128, 131 ii; phenomena of heat and the, 96, 140, 149, 157; the theory of electrieity and the, 155 fr, 153, 157 ii; laws of mechanics and electrodynarnics and the, 164, 167 ft‘.; the natural minima theory and the, 103 f., 117 3., 136 fl'., 220; atomism and the, 93, 110 13., 119 1&’., 138 E., 220; the theory after Dalton, 140-146, 155-167 ; the theory of Rutherford and Bohr, 158, 167 if.; the twentieth century theory, 167 fl-'., 175 if. Atomic Weight, according to Dalton, 136, 189; Berzeltus, 140 i.; A

_

‘

235

;;.-‘.1:

Afiinity,

-—---

...-.--4----w .... 4 .u_.....

....... \..