From Assessment to Feedback: Applications in the Second/Foreign Language Classroom 9781009218924, 9781009218948, 9781009218931, 1009218921

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FROM ASSESSMENT TO FEEDBACK From Assessment to Feedback addresses the need for practical and enriching literature on assessment and feedback in language teaching and learning. De Florio documents research-based forms of assessment and feedback in a succinct and accessible way, as the basis for classroom-oriented procedures in foreign/ second language teaching. The multiple TEFL examples lend themselves to direct use in language classrooms but can be easily adapted to other subject matters too. This book is divided into three parts – prerequisites, formative feedback, and summative feedback – promoting clear understanding. Each chapter ends with a “Review, Reflect, Practice” section to summarize the chapter’s content and facilitate the concrete application of these practice-oriented suggestions. Language teachers, other educational professionals, and teacher education students will benefit from this evidence-based research. Inez De Florio is Emerita Professor of Humanities at the University of Kassel, Germany. Recently, she has engaged in research of educational psychology, broadening her interests from language learning to include the use of digital technologies in classrooms as well as different forms of feedback. She also offers practical advice in the form of teaching units, adaptable to most learning contexts.

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From Assessment to Feedback Applications in the Second/Foreign Language Classroom INEZ DE FLORIO University of Kassel

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Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 103 Penang Road, #05–06/07, Visioncrest Commercial, Singapore 238467 Cambridge University Press is part of Cambridge University Press & Assessment, a department of the University of Cambridge. We share the University’s mission to contribute to society through the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781009218924 DOI: 10.1017/9781009218948 © Inez De Florio 2023 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press & Assessment. First published 2023 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-009-21892-4 Hardback ISBN 978-1-009-21893-1 Paperback Cambridge University Press & Assessment has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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CONTENTS List of TEFL Examples INTRODUCTION

page x 1

Part I Basic Concepts of Assessment and Feedback in the Foreign-Language Classroom 1

2

FEEDBACK IN EVERYDAY LIFE AND IN FOREIGN-LANGUAGE EDUCATION 1.1 Feedback in Everyday Life 1.2 Feedback in Foreign-Language Education Review, Reflect, Practice DIFFERENT FORMS OF ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK IN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING 2.1 From Everyday Communication to Foreign-Language Teaching in Schools 2.2 The Development of Feedback in the Context of Language Learning 2.3 Assessment in the Context of Language Learning 2.4 The Importance of Grading 2.5 Different Forms of Feedback 2.6 The Four Steps of the Assessment Cycle Review, Reflect, Practice

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7 7 9 17

18 18 19 21 23 26 27 30

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EVIDENCE-BASED OR AT LEAST SCIENCE-ORIENTED RESEARCH: FEEDBACK MODELS 3.1 Kluger and DeNisi’s Analysis 3.2 Green’s Contribution 3.3 A Model of Formative Feedback: From Wiliam to Hattie Review, Reflect, Practice THE EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION AND FOREIGN-LANGUAGE TEACHING AS A PREREQUISITE OF FEEDBACK 4.1 Student Activation 4.2 Action Orientation 4.3 Cooperative Learning Review, Reflect, Practice

31 31 34 39 44

45 46 50 53 62

Part II Assessment and Feedback in Its Different Manifestations 5

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HOW TO IMPLEMENT SUCCESSFUL FEEDBACK IN FOREIGN-LANGUAGE TEACHING 5.1 Classroom Management 5.2 Motivation 5.3 The Implementation of a Feedback Culture 5.4 Not All Feedback Is Useful Review, Reflect, Practice INVOLVING THE LEARNERS IN IMPORTANT DECISIONS 6.1 Teacher Questions 6.2 Examples of Learner Involvement 6.2.1 Alternative Suggestions for Possible Learning Objectives

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6.2.2

Identifying Success Criteria Based on Reciprocal Teaching/Learning and Worked Examples 6.2.3 Using Rubrics 6.2.4 Redesigning the Starting Point of a Textbook Lesson 6.2.5 Redesigning a Lesson about the Roots of Jazz Review, Reflect, Practice

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FEEDBACK IS NO ONE-WAY STREET: TEACHERS AND LEARNERS 7.1 Teacher Feedback for Individual Learners 7.1.1 Learning Level Diagnosis and Learning Level Assessment 7.1.2 Feedback Regarding the Task, the Learning Processes, and Self-Regulation 7.2 Feedback from Learners for the Teacher 7.2.1 Learner Feedback at the End of a Teaching Unit Review, Reflect, Practice PEER FEEDBACK NEEDS TO BE LEARNED 8.1 What Do We Know about Peer Feedback? 8.2 Hattie’s Model Adapted to the Context of Peer Feedback by Mark Gan 8.3 Jigsaw (Group Puzzle) Review, Reflect, Practice SELF-ASSESSMENT: TAKING RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE’S ACTIONS 9.1 Self-Assessment in Foreign- Language Teaching and Learning 9.2 Self-Assessment of Teachers 9.3 Self-Assessment of Students 9.3.1 On the Use of Digital Technologies

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107 108 112 114 115 118 123

124 125 131 131 136

137 137 139 142 144

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9.3.2

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Self-Assessment Based on the European Language Portfolio Review, Reflect, Practice

145 157

COLLEGIAL FEEDBACK STRENGTHENS LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING 10.1 Starting Points of Effective Collegial Feedback 10.2 From Wiliam and Hattie to Helmke 10.3 Observation Sheets for Colleagues 10.4 Person-Related Feedback Review, Reflect, Practice

159 159 162 167 172 174

WHAT ABOUT ELECTRONIC ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK? 11.1 Update: Digitization and Beyond 11.2 Until Now: Limited Use of Educational Technology in the Foreign-Language Classroom Review, Reflect, Practice REMOTE AND HYBRID LEARNING: THE NEW NORMAL? 12.1 Diversity of Teaching and Learning Approaches 12.2 Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning 12.3 The Relationship Aspect: Video Conferencing Review, Reflect, Practice

175 175

185 192

193 193 198 200 207

Part III Summative Assessment in Combination with Formative Feedback 13

FROM BLOOM’S TAXONOMY TO THE SOLO-TAXONOMY 13.1 Learning Models 13.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy 13.3 The SOLO-Taxonomy Review, Reflect, Practice

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211 211 213 215 224

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HOW TO COMBINE SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT WITH FORMATIVE FEEDBACK 14.1 Pros and Cons of Grading 14.1.1 Pros of Grading 14.1.2 Cons of Grading 14.2 How to Combine Summative and Formative Procedures 14.2.1 Applying Written Feedback to Performance Assessments Review, Reflect, Practice STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK IN FOREIGN-LANGUAGE TEACHING 15.1 The Grading of Oral and Written Performance 15.2 Giving Learners First Insights into the Assessment of Written Performance 15.3 Further Details on Evaluating and Grading Final Papers 15.4 Practice Tests as a Starting Point 15.5 A Comparison Between ACTFL and CEFR Ratings Review, Reflect, Practice WHAT TEACHERS CAN AND SHOULD DO ABOUT ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK 16.1 Teachers as the Starting Point of Assessment and Feedback 16.2 Four Essential Requirements 16.3 A New Approach to Student Performance

Glossary References

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238 239 239 241 243 244 247

248 248 249 250

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TEFL EXAMPLES 1.1 1.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 8.1 8.2 9.1 9.2 11.1 11.2 11.3 12.1 12.2 13.1 14.1 15.1

How to Write a Re´sume´ page 10 Englishes? Yes Englishes! 12 Competition: A Problem? 56 Staying Focused on Your Goals 58 Have You Ever Thought: Dare to Succeed? 61 How to Implement a Classroom Contract 68 Reflecting on Oneself 74 How to Practice Newly Acquired Knowledge and Skills 80 A Really Wise Man 97 Finding Appropriate and Motivating Starting Points 101 The Roots of Jazz 103 Love Does Not Have to Be Blind 121 “Julia’s Sniffles” and “Daniel’s Left” 128 How to Improve the Executive Function of Your Brain 133 My Learning Diary 150 Unfounded Worries 152 Do You Know the Functions of Your Smartphone? 181 What to Do to Monitor, Control, and Evaluate Learning Processes? 183 Writing a Customer Review of a Computer Game 190 Maintaining What Matters 203 Maximilian’s Fantasy Trip 205 A Travel Through Time 220 Why Not Create a Video Game in Cooperation with Other Subjects Like Math or Art? 236 A Concept Map of Friendship and Love 246

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INTRODUCTION

In this publication, feedback is presented in its many forms, with a special focus on language teaching and learning in the school classroom, especially in relation to teaching English as a second or foreign language. Despite this focus, the contents of the individual chapters can easily be transferred to other school subjects. The book’s emphasis on school-based foreign-language teaching is also due to the fact that relevant practice-oriented presentations, such as those by Wiliam, Hattie, and their colleagues, are primarily focused on teaching mathematics and science. In contrast, the publications of the renowned scholars do focus to some extent on language teaching; however, the few examples with practical relevance relate to higher education and second/foreign language writing. Consequently, the subtitle of this book could be: Applications in the Second/Foreign Language Classroom and Beyond. The book is aimed at teachers in training (undergraduates and graduates) who, with the help of their instructors, can learn about and try out the various feedback practices. In-service teachers who wish to give feedback greater prominence in their teaching may also benefit from the publication. The presentation is designed to allow students and in-service teachers to select and implement individual feedback strategies and techniques entirely on their own. Therefore, the individual teaching examples that are an important part of the following presentation are presented in a concrete context. They provide elaborated worksheets for the learner, usually preceded by brief explanations for the teacher. They are also available for download and can be adapted to the specific learning context. When using the strategies and techniques presented (cf. Chapter 2), there are numerous aspects to consider:

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INTRODUCTION

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Most feedback recommendations contrast poor classroom instruction with independent learning (cf. Chapters 3 and 4). They ignore the scientific evidence for the effectiveness of direct instruction, which is quite different from didactic teaching and can also be integrated into so-called open forms of instruction (cf. De Florio, 2016). – There is often a misunderstanding underlying the approach to instruction: the desirable independent learning is not usually achieved by letting students work independently without preparation. In order to gradually approach the desired level of learner independence, it is necessary to explain to learners the reasons for independent learning and the procedures associated with it, as well as to practice the respective procedures with them. – The unconditional demand for variety of methods is too broad a demand for two main reasons. First, the chosen “methods” in a teaching unit must be coordinated with each other. Second, the learning context, the needs and interests of the individual learners, and, last but not least, the personality of the teacher are decisive. – The choice of a strategy as well as the associated teaching and learning techniques depend primarily on subjectspecific goals and content. In scientific publications, the approach is sometimes described; however, subjectspecific goals and content are rarely specified. – The rightly propagated orientation toward real-life situations and real communication should also be transferred to the methodological approach in foreign-language teaching. While cooperative learning in the sense of thinkpair-share can easily be transferred to real life, many “methods” are characterized by artificiality. Moreover, their implementation usually involves a great deal of effort. The book is divided into three parts: Part I Basic Concepts of Assessment and Feedback in the Foreign-Language Classroom 1 Feedback in Everyday Life and in ForeignLanguage Education

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Introduction

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Different Forms of Assessment and Feedback in Language Teaching and Learning 3 Evidence-Based or at Least Science-Oriented Research: Feedback Models 4 The Evolution of Education and Foreign Language Teaching as a Prerequisite of Feedback Part II Assessment and Feedback in Its Different Manifestations 5 How to Implement Successful Feedback in Foreign-Language Education 6 Involving the Learners in Important Decisions 7 Feedback Is No One-Way Street: Teachers and Learners 8 Peer Feedback Needs to Be Learned 9 Self-Assessment: Taking Responsibility for One’s Actions 10 Collegial Feedback Strengthens Language Teaching and Learning 11 What about Electronic Assessment and Feedback? 12 Remote and Hybrid Learning: the New Normal? Part III Summative Assessment in Combination with Formative Feedback 13 From Bloom’s Taxonomy to the SOLOTaxonomy 14 How to Combine Summative Assessment with Formative Feedback 15 State Requirements for Assessment and Feedback in Foreign-Language Teaching 16 What Teachers Can and Should Do about Assessment and Feedback Each of these parts as well as each individual chapter can be read separately and in the sequence that makes sense for the purposes of study or teaching. In virtually all of the chapters, the aim is to go beyond the linguistic and (inter)cultural goals

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INTRODUCTION

and to relate them to life. The learners act as themselves and, depending on their circumstances and personality, can transfer insights acquired in class, in whole or in part, to their (later) lives. In order to actually achieve all the intended goals for (most of) the learners, (almost) all proposals are based on cooperative learning in the sense of think-pair-share; partner and group work are consequently the norm. In addition, teachers are required to provide appropriate support in the sense of scaffolding. When looking through the chapters and especially the teaching examples, one realizes that individual approaches and methods, such as cooperative learning, allow and require a whole range of approaches. This shows that “methods” are rarely found in pure form. Questions such as “What can I achieve with this method or with a special form of feedback?” or “Where can I use it?” are consequently difficult to answer without a concrete reference to teaching, quite apart from the fact that they do not sufficiently involve the learners.

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Part I Basic Concepts of Assessment and Feedback in the Foreign-Language Classroom In Chapter 1, I argue that we should first consider everyday forms of feedback, which differ from language to language, before we turn to pedagogically and didactically oriented feedback in the classroom. Then, in Chapter 2, the relevant terminology used throughout this book is presented. Evaluation and assessment as well as different forms of feedback are explained and related to second-/foreign-language learning. This leads to an overview of the most important scientific studies that determined the emergence of the feedback models created by Dylan Wiliam and John Hattie and their respective coauthors (Chapter 3). In Chapter 4, I briefly trace developments in pedagogy and didactics that have favored the implementation of feedback and continue to shape it in the foreign-language classroom.

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1.1

FEEDBACK IN EVERYDAY LIFE AND IN FOREIGN-LANGUAGE EDUCATION Feedback in Everyday Life

At some point in our lives, we all feel the need to get feedback from friends and acquaintances. This is especially true when we are not satisfied with the results of our efforts and cannot quite explain what went wrong or what we should have done to better achieve our goals. We depend on feedback in our everyday life – be it our private or professional life. In everyday communication, the term “feedback” stands for verbal or (more rarely) written feedback from a trusted person or a superior on our performance, but also on our behavior and our personality (for scientific terminology, see Chapter 2). In general, we have certain ideas about how feedback in the private or professional sphere should be designed so that it helps us to progress. After all, we, ourselves, give feedback to others – whether asked for or not. In order for a friend’s feedback to help us move forward, it must not be too abrupt. Statements like “Too bad, and you’ve made such an effort” do not get us anywhere. Only more detailed explanations of our performance and/ or our behavior are useful (if they are indeed useful at all). Only in this way can we find out how to continue and, above all, what we can improve – next time. Brief evaluations of our actions like the following do not help us to move forward: – Really bad luck! – Unfortunately, that didn’t go well. – Actually, you did everything right.

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BASIC CONCEPTS OF ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK

One way to learn more is to engage in conversation with our counterpart. The best thing is to ask for advice. – What should I have done? Could I have handled the matter differently? – What would you have done in my place? – What advice would you give me in this situation? If even then it remains noncommittal talk, the interlocutor is unable or unwilling to formulate meaningful feedback. A positive example will help us to understand “everyday” feedback better. A thoroughly qualified young man only ever receives rejections on his applications. He is not even invited to an interview. Finally, he asks a former fellow student, with whom he has been friends for a long time, for advice. The friend takes his time. He inquires about the circumstances and finally asks to see the applications. His assumption is that potential employers sort out applications that do not correspond to certain conventions. Finally, he refers the “applicant” to a website where he can find many useful tips. Above all, helpful feedback comes about when the feedback giver discusses individual procedures with the person seeking advice and can finally refer them to further sources. It goes without saying that contrary opinions should not clash harshly in such feedback conversations. Rather, it will often be the case that the discussion partners try to avoid or at least clarify misunderstandings. – Did I understand you correctly? You have … – How did you come to do it in this way? – What did you expect from this approach? The same applies to the professional sphere. A boss or a higherranking colleague with appropriate leadership qualities will not just abruptly evaluate the performance(s) of subordinates, but will first acknowledge the positive aspects of their actions. Only then will he carefully address what, for example, a subordinate could have done better – what may have been lacking. If bosses or other supervisors were to do otherwise, it would be detrimental to the employees’ work performance and motivation.

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Feedback in Everyday Life and Foreign-Language Education

1.2

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Feedback in Foreign-Language Education

What happens or should happen in the foreign-language classroom is quite similar. But it depends on the perspective.

TEFL Example: Résumé-Writing Conventions In most countries, the writing of an application follows specific conventions. Applicants should be familiar with them; otherwise, their application may not be considered for formal reasons.

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BASIC CONCEPTS OF ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK

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TEFL Example 1.1 How to Write a Résumé Read the following dialogue: Jonas has been studying computer science at the University of California–Berkeley for two semesters. Now he wants to work at an IT start-up during the next semester break. For the application, he needs a résumé, among other documents. He suspects that not only linguistic conventions, but also other peculiarities have to be taken into account when writing it. He therefore turns to a fellow American student with whom he is good friends. Jonas: Bernie: Jonas: Bernie: Jonas: Bernie: Jonas: Bernie: Jonas: Bernie:

Jonas:

Bernie: Jonas:

Hello, Bernie, how are you doing? Fine. And you? Me too. But I have sort of a problem. Oh! May I help you? Yes, please. As I told you, I want to work in a start-up during the next semester break. And what is the problem? I have to enclose a curriculum vitae with my application. I think there are some rules I should stick to. You are perfectly right. We call it a résumé. Let me think for a moment. It isn’t that difficult, I hope. No, but let me have a look at the Internet. Sometimes they have useful tools. [He enters “curriculum vitae” and “résumé” into a search engine. After some minutes he has found what he was looking for] Have a look: This is an overview of the most important conventions you should follow and there are also annotations in German. That’s very helpful. Let me take the URL. On the basis of this overview, I can write my résumé without too many problems. May I show my final version to you? Sure. I was about to suggest that. Thanks!

(see De Florio-Hansen, 2022)

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Feedback in Everyday Life and Foreign-Language Education

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You may expect something different when it comes to feedback in the foreign-language classroom. Let us have a look at what happens in most cases. In a short introduction, the teacher explains the different ways of writing a re´sume´ in the Englishspeaking world, especially when applying for a job in the United States, in order to give the learners an orientation. The students then write up re´sume´s in tandems or groups of four and compare their drafts with the results of other groups. After a correction process, selected students present their new versions. The teacher tries to correct violations of language correctness in an appropriate procedure (corrective feedback; see Chapter 7). Depending on the learning context, she seeks discussion with individual learners and gets them to reconsider and further improve their formulations, if useful, after an exchange with their tandem partners. This simple combination of instruction and feedback in the foreign-language classroom should be preceded, wherever possible, by an example through which learners can familiarize themselves with the procedure in (some kind of) everyday world communication. Foreign-language skills (i.e. in their advanced form, Intercultural Discourse Competence), should introduce learners to the knowledge and skills to be learned in a form that approximates communication in everyday life before resorting to procedures that occur only in the classroom. In any case, the students should become more and more able to differentiate between reallife talk and classroom-determined discussions.

TEFL Example: Varieties of English The following classroom activity gives advanced students (as well as the teacher) an opportunity to recall the different varieties of English and to consider which English should be the subject of the lesson: British English, American English, or International English?

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TEFL Example 1.2 Englishes? Yes, Englishes! Task 1 Read the dialogue between Lena, a fourteen-year-old German high-school student, and Ken-Shou, a Chinese exchange student, who attends the same chemistry courses at the Technical University of Berlin as Lena’s elder brother Alex. Up to now, Ken-Shou, Alex, and Lena have always talked in German together because Ken-Shou came to Berlin mostly to improve his German. For some time, Lena has wanted to know if the Chinese student knows English too. Now she takes advantage of her brother’s lateness to start a conversation about it with Ken-Shou. Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena:

Hallo, Alex wird gleich da sein … Fein. Was ich dich fragen wollte … Sprichst Du außer Deutsch noch eine Fremdsprache? Oh yes, sure, I speak three Englishes. Three Englishes? What does that mean? Isn’t English always English more or less? I don’t think so. There is a variety of Englishes. Please, explain. I speak American English. Several years ago, I attended an American high school near LA. Oh, that’s very interesting, because me, too, I spent a year in California. And exactly where? In Monterey … I’ve been there, a very nice place. So, you speak American English, too. Yes, I learned a lot there. But what about your other Englishes? I often use International English. You mean, you use English with people from all over the world?

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Feedback in Everyday Life and Foreign-Language Education

Ken-Shou:

Lena: Ken-Shou: Lena: Ken-Shou:

Lena:

Ken-Shou:

Lena: Ken-Shou:

Lena: Alex: Lena: Alex: Ken-Shou: Lena:

Alex: Lena:

Yes, but International English is a special form we use when we communicate with our teachers or lecturers in China. In China, perhaps … No, no, it’s the same variety that is used in the English version of Spiegel online. You mean the German newspaper? Yes, for many years, they have published an English version available on the Internet. Have a look at it! I never thought that someone from so far away would tell me something about German magazines. And the third variety as you call it? Naturally, I speak Singlish, that’s sort of a dialect, a slang if you want, we use it in private conversation, especially among young people. Is that something like Denglish? Not really, Germans who don’t really know English often translate word by word, for example backshop instead of bakery. Singlish is based on British English, but it is mixed up with Asian dialects and it has its own grammar. Oh, I understand … Hi, what’s up? I heard you talking in English. Oh, yes. Why didn’t you tell me that Ken-Shou speaks English too? Because I wanted to help him to improve his German and not to improve your English. Don’t worry, Lena and I, we’ve had an interesting conversation. There was no time left to improve my English. But I learned from Ken-Shou that I speak three Englishes. Three Englishes? What do you mean? I speak British English, American English, and International English.

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Alex: You mean you speak English? Ken-Shou: No, she is right. She speaks three Englishes. Work together in a team of four students and summarize the conversation between Ken-Shou, Lena, and Alex in five sentences at most. Try to explain to a person who never heard about English varieties what Ken-Shou means when he talks about Englishes. Write down one version and present it in class. Task 2 Try to find out at least two main differences between British and American English. Have a look at spelling, but also at vocabulary (e.g. nouns), and verb forms (visit https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Comparison_of_American_and_British_English [last accessed May 2022]; on your right you will see the box “Comparison of American and British English,” with several links you can view). British English: American English: ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… Task 3 Select a passage from the textbook you use in class. Compare the chosen passage to a descriptive text in Spiegel online (www .spiegel.de/international/europe or www.spiegel.de/ international/europe/archiv.html [last accessed May 2022]). Do you notice any differences between the variety in your textbook (probably British English) and the International English used in the English version of the German magazine? Work together with your tandem partner and make notes to present in plenary. In whole-class interaction your teacher will help you to find the main differences. (adapted from De Florio-Hansen, 2022)

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Feedback in Everyday Life and Foreign-Language Education

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Foreign-language teaching, like school teaching in general, has undergone significant changes in recent decades (see Chapter 4 for more detail). It has moved away from its one-sided orientation toward Latin and the dominance of fine arts literature toward the objective of real-life communication with native speakers of the respective foreign language, or communicative exchange with speakers of English as an international language or as a lingua franca. However, the detachment from the all-dominant goal of (near-)nativeness must not be misunderstood as meaning that violations of grammatical rules or the wrong choice of words do not matter (see Chapter 4). In any case, linguistic correctness is no longer the sole goal of foreign-language teaching; rather, successful communication in the respective second and foreign language is in the foreground. This is true at least for the Western world, even if native speakers of English can communicate more easily in many countries than Italians, for example. Since scientific studies have shown that speakers of at least two languages clearly benefit from bilingualism or multilingualism in the cognitive as well as the social and emotional spheres, foreign-language instruction has also become more popular in the United States. Nevertheless, it should be noted that foreign-language teaching, including feedback in the teaching and learning of second and foreign languages, is by no means of equal importance everywhere. In some Asian countries in particular, feedback in the foreign-language classroom still does not have the desired status. In China, for example, there is often a lack of direct contact with native English speakers; therefore, suggestions for feedback often refer to written performance records. Even where feedback is practiced in the classroom itself, the expectation that the teacher will dominate instruction more than in many Western countries stands in the way of dialogic feedback practice. Feedback plays a highly subordinate role in Japan for other reasons. Although English was taught and learned in Japan as early as the 1600s, and even today all students who graduate https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009218948.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press

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from high school have received English instruction from native English speakers, English proficiency is poor. This is due in part to the fact that Japanese differs significantly from English in terms of grammar, syntax, and pronunciation. Furthermore, cultural differences lead to communication styles that are quite different even from those of other Asian speech communities. In addition, Japan can be described as a shame society. Consequently, the worry of making mistakes discourages children and young people from participating adequately in English classes. Above all, however, there is a great concern in Japan, not least among school supervisors, that the exclusivity of the Japanese language and above all Japanese identity could be damaged by knowledge of English as well as knowledge of foreign languages in general. It goes without saying that feedback in countries like Japan, more than in other learning contexts, has to be designed quite differently than in a Western European country, for example. The two examples – China and even more so Japan – show that feedback in everyday communication as well as in the teaching and learning of foreign languages can vary considerably from country to country and from language community to language community. Teaching methods as well as learning strategies and techniques are highly diverse, teaching and learning materials consequently differ, and last but not least, the learning context varies from learning group to learning group. Despite these varieties, this publication focuses on oral and written feedback in the foreign-language classroom, respectively, with due attention to grading as a form of feedback. In the vast majority of countries, English and the other commonly learned foreign languages, such as Spanish, French, and German, are taught and learned in the context of public schools. Nevertheless, the procedures presented in the next chapters can be transferred to other learning contexts. The success of a feedback measure depends on so many factors that the same procedure can work differently in the same learning group depending on the teaching context. Therefore, most of the suggestions in the following chapters should be taken as proposals that teachers and learners have to adapt to their contexts.

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Feedback in Everyday Life and Foreign-Language Education

Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Why is it better to ask for advice than for feedback? Think of everyday communication and of classroom procedures. 2. Imagine you want to know what someone you are speaking to means: What can you do? What can you ask him or her? 3. Why does it improve learning and motivation when the teachers first acknowledge positive aspects of students’ performance? 4. Make a short list of the varieties of English you have heard of or read about. 5. What is a lingua franca? Is there a language that is used in your country or speech community as lingua franca? 6. In what way may speakers of more than one language take advantage of their bi- or multilingualism (besides communication)? 7. Take the example of Japan and explain why feedback is not of the same importance in Asian foreign-language classrooms as in Western countries.

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2.1

DIFFERENT FORMS OF ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK IN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING From Everyday Communication to Foreign-Language Teaching in Schools

The explanations about feedback in everyday life given in Chapter 1 can be summarized as follows: Feedback plays a prominent role in everyday communication: Its main purpose is to avoid or clarify misunderstandings in conversations. Feedback is when interlocutors let their communication partners know how they perceived their remarks. Through the feedback, they give him the opportunity to confirm or correct what they have said. Although feedback procedures vary to a certain extent in everyday life, they are all referred to as feedback. Educational feedback, on the other hand, is given different terms depending on the teaching context, the addressee, and above all its different functions. In many cases, learners are the recipients of feedback, whether it is the teacher commenting on the performance of an individual student or small group, or learners trying to support each other in so-called peer feedback. In the context of newer teaching concepts that focus on independent learning, self-evaluation is becoming increasingly important. It by no means refers only to the feedback that students give themselves. Teachers, too, are challenged to continually rethink their instructional practices, as well as the

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curricular specifications and learning theories they use to on plan and deliver their lessons, and, if necessary, make appropriate changes. Ever since there have been public schools, students receive feedback on their performance in the different subject areas. This feedback has always consisted of evaluation and grading, regardless of whether the school system works with numbers or letters. As we will see in Chapter 15, attempts to do without grades have not been successful. Therefore, it does not make sense to foster a negative attitude toward grading among learners. Students generally want to know – beyond the various forms of feedback – the grade they have achieved, not least to be able to compare themselves with other learners. This does not have to result in competitive behavior with negative connotations; it can also be an incentive. Furthermore, it prepares students for later life. For example, in college and especially at work, they will have to make sure they do not fall behind the performance of other applicants/colleagues. When thinking about teaching in (public) schools, most of us know that teachers do not only grade tasks and activities, but also the students’ behavior and motivation. But feedback means much more than giving a mark accompanied by a short comment. In recent decades assessment and feedback have gained momentum, both in teaching in general and the learning of second/ foreign languages.

2.2

The Development of Feedback in the Context of Language Learning

Feedback in the school context has developed significantly over time. Initially, teachers limited their comments to their students’ respective grades orally or in writing without taking other aspects of learning into account. Based on numerous scientific studies (see Chapter 3), feedback has been extended more and more: Teachers used to give relevant comments to the whole learning group. Due to the change in teaching perspectives

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toward student activation and action orientation (see Chapter 4), the different prerequisites and personalities of the students came more and more to the fore. It was recognized that a broad-brush form of feedback was not sufficient if it was to reach individual learners. The need for differentiation led to forms of feedback that eventually resulted in conversations between the teacher and individual learners. In this context, the feedback that students give to their teacher plays a role that should not be underestimated (see Chapter 7). Thus, newer feedback arrangements in the classroom consist of teacher–learner dialogues in which both parties should gain insights into teaching and learning processes. The results of these forms of assessment are further deepened and enhanced by peer feedback and self-assessment (see Part II and III). To be successful – that is, to improve further learning – the students have to be introduced to and trained in applying the respective forms of feedback. In the foreign-language classroom, it is often convenient to use the learners’ native language. Only advanced students are able to follow feedback and give the respective explanations in English or another foreign language. Above all, teachers and other educators do not only have to broaden their knowledge of the respective terminology, but integrate the related processes into their classroom practice. What is true for the teaching profession, is also true for learners, if to a lesser extent. Teachers and students should be appropriately trained to guarantee the feedback procedures in the school context are understood and applied properly, as the term feedback is used in multiple teaching and learning contexts where it may have different meanings. So, what does feedback mean when it comes to teaching and learning? For a long time, feedback, also known as corrective feedback, referred only to the correction of mistakes and above all, as mentioned earlier, to the grades teachers assign to their students based on evidence of oral and/or written performance. Student achievement may be based on oral tests, reports, and presentations as well as written class tests, exams, and final papers. In general, feedback is the information a learner

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receives about his or her performance, but it is not the assessment itself. In the context of teaching and learning, the term feedback is often generically used in the sense of evaluating and measuring students’ achievement as well as transmitting the results to the learners. Having a closer look at what happens in classrooms or in other fields such as business, we have to state that feedback refers only to the form in which the results of formative or summative assessment are communicated (De Florio-Hansen, 2018, p. 276). Helen Timperley, who elaborated, together with John Hattie, the well-known feedback model (see Chapter 3), explains the connection between feedback and formative assessment More recently, feedback has become integrated into formative assessment processes . . . so some forms of feedback could more accurately be seen as new instruction. In these situations, feedback takes the form of extending students’ understandings and fill gaps between what is understood and what is aimed to be understood. Whichever way it is thought about, it is most powerful when it addresses faulty interpretations, not a lack of understanding. Feedback must have something on which to build. (Timperley, 2013, p. 402)

2.3

Assessment in the Context of Language Learning

How does assessment differ from feedback? Before a teacher or a student can give feedback, they need to classify and assess performance or learning behavior. Feedback is therefore based on evaluation or assessment. The term “evaluation” refers to assessment in a broad sense. At the beginning of the 1970s, Benjamin Bloom published, together with his team, the Handbook of Formative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning, pursuing the goal of fundamentally improving school teaching and learning (Bloom, Hastings & Madaus, 1971).

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Instead of the term “evaluation,” in recent years “assessment” has been used in the context of school teaching. This “involves obtaining evidence to inform inferences about a person’s language-related knowledge, skills or abilities” (Green, 2021, p. 5). Assessment is not just about tests. Rather, it is a systematic process of using empirical data related to (all) aspects of language teaching and learning to refine curricular specifications and improve student learning. Assessment serves to determine how well the learning of the students matches with expectations, and what can be done to achieve goals. Improvement depends, to a large extent, on assumptions about the nature of the human mind, the origin of knowledge, and learning processes. In the following chapters, the most important aspects of these presuppositions, which apply not only to foreign-language teaching but to all learning, will be gradually explored. Summative assessment assesses learning. It refers to the sum of learning at a certain point of time and is therefore paraphrased as assessment of learning. Formative assessment aims at promoting student learning. As it should give hints for improving, it is often called assessment for learning. (Since learning can also occur in the context of performance assessments, the term assessment as learning could be added.) All assessment can be summative, because you can always grade student learning. Only some forms of assessment are formative (e.g. formative tests). They are informal, they are not graded, and they can take a variety of forms. Here are two examples: You could invite learners to draw a concept map of the constellation of main characters in a short story. Or you could ask them to write down two sentences to identify the essential point of a lesson or a teaching unit. The basic differences between the two main forms of assessment are as follows:

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23

Summative assessment

Formative assessment

At the end of the learning

During a learning activity

activity Goal

To make a decision

To improve learning

Feedback

Final judgement

Return to material

Frame of

Sometimes normative

Always criterion

reference

(comparing each student

(evaluating students

against all others);

according to the same

sometimes criterion

criteria)

(adapted from R. Pre´gent, 1994)

As the term “assessment” is used to refer to all interventions that teachers (and learners) go back to in order to promote learning, it makes sense to differentiate at least between the following categories: 1. Asides from summative and formative assessment, teachers often go back to diagnostic assessment to find out what students know and can do with regard to (new) learning content (see Section 6.1.1). 2. Assessment can be criterion-referenced or normreferenced (the last term is often criticized because “norm” may be misleading in this case). A criterionreferenced test is based on an external (objective) norm (e.g. the driving test). A test is norm-referenced when it compares the students within a learning group; in most cases it is the teacher who administers these (oral or written) tests (see Chapter 7).

2.4

The Importance of Grading

It is certainly true that grades should not be overrated, but not including them in feedback measures is highly questionable. Most academics do not reject marks. Nor could they, because

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grades ultimately determine admission to higher education and/or certain professions. Thus, summative assessment is about demonstrating that a specified end goal has been achieved. This type of assessment is primarily for the institution of school and for society, because summative procedures enable decisions of an institutional nature to be made, for example, about the acquisition of degrees. Therefore, students cannot dismiss grades as unimportant. Rather, teachers should make it clear to them that grades provide information about their performance and, consequently, are important for their further learning if basic aspects are taken into account. It is striking that researchers and educationalists overwhelmingly emphasize the importance of assessment and grading. “Both are valuable, both need to be based on good information, and both can provide valuable feedback,” state Hattie and Clarke (2018, p. 8). Despite this, in their book they limit themselves to a single page on the aspects of grading in summative assessment (p. 135). The account by Wiliam and his co-author is more detailed, but focuses on formative aspects (e.g. written and/or oral comments without grading) in the case of tests and other evidence of performance (see Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, pp. 126 ff.). The reasons for this reluctance are mainly to be found in the fact that most experts who propagate formative assessment believe that assessment and evaluation in the form of grades provide no clues for further learning. Moreover, they are convinced that grading unnecessarily puts learners in competition with each other and thus impairs motivation. This is only partially true. With or without grades, learners will always compare themselves, to a certain extent, with classmates and other peers. It is therefore all the more important for teachers to help their students by providing oral or written feedback to help them interpret their grades appropriately and be motivated for further work.

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The few scientific studies that exist at all on summative assessment refer to higher education, as it the case with Jonathan D. Kibble’s (2017) article. Through Kibble’s evidencebased research, summative assessment is shown to be quite effective in the field of medical studies; it exhibits numerous “educational benefits,” but needs to be examined in terms of quality criteria as well as feasibility and costs incurred. This is certainly truer for medical schools, which often have several hundred students, than for an essentially manageable schoolbased learning group. Kibble’s suggestions are nevertheless valid for school teaching as well as the foreign-language classroom. The author recommends backward design and assessment procedures determined to optimally measure the respective goals, content, and methods. A criteria grid identifies the areas to be assessed and their relationship to learning outcomes. An appropriate number of items ensures the validity of the test and the reliability of the assessment. In addition, Kibble advocates collegial agreements and, above all, giving clear directions to learners and providing them with sufficient practice material. One of the few to discuss summative assessment in conjunction with formative feedback in a school context is Susan M. Brookhart (2017). In a brief section about formative and summative performance feedback, she addresses the question of which variation is appropriate. She believes that it is from summative performance feedback (after grades have been given) that opportunities for further learning arise. High-performing students will themselves find ways to use the feedback information provided by grading. Lower-performing learners, on the other hand, will rely on the teacher for help. All students can benefit from summative performance feedback if the teacher gives them opportunities to act on it (Brookhart, 2017, passim). Nottingham and Nottingham (2017) point out several times that grades are not part of the formative feedback process, but nonetheless they add:

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Grading can help your students, but only if they – understand the criteria used to determine the grade, – can identify the next steps they could take to improve their performance, – understand the grading system well enough to know what level they need to be at to achieve their long-term goals (of, for example, an A grade in the end-of-year exams). (p. 6)

In dealing with summative and formative feedback, grades and other summative assessments must not be treated casually or even given negative connotations. Rather, students need to be told how a grade is arrived at and what they need to pay attention to in order to achieve better results.

2.5

Different Forms of Feedback

To communicate the results of summative assessment and the considerations derived from formative assessment, various forms of feedback come into play. In analogy to assessment, we can distinguish summative feedback from various procedures of formative feedback. Summative feedback gives an account of the learning achieved so far. Every school examination is summative: it assesses whether students have achieved the learning objectives, but does not examine how learning has taken place or why it has not taken place. Summative feedback is based on standards, whether they are created by the teacher on the basis of the curriculum or imposed from outside (e.g. in order to compare the learning results of students all over a country so as to grant access to various professions or university studies). In addition, researchers and teachers are interested in gaining insight into how oral feedback affects the learning processes of individual students during the course of instruction. It was only with the advent of digital technologies that it became

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possible to study these types of feedback on a larger scale and use them to “form” individual learners. The so-called formative feedback became increasingly important; it is this feedback form that is now almost exclusively dealt with in the respective literature (see Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Formative feedback is mostly tailored to single learners or a small group of students, seldom to the whole class. It serves to enhance the learning of individual students through appropriate stimuli and strengthen their motivation. It is based on constructive criticism without explicit assessment. As mentioned before, an equally important aspect of formative feedback is often neglected: the feedback effect on teaching measures. Teachers can get hints from the feedback they receive directly or indirectly from their learners on how their teaching is perceived and used by the students. This gives them an opportunity to rethink their approach to teaching and, if necessary, to modify it (see Part II). Complementing relevant research, including research with a practical teaching focus (e.g. Black and Wiliam (1998); Hattie and Timperley (2007)), this publication incorporates the concept and content of summative assessment and the corresponding feedback from the outset, as this is the field in which every teacher – regardless of their stance on formative feedback – has extensive experience. Therefore, it would not make sense to initially exclude the summative aspects of assessment and feedback. For many teachers, assessment and grading are central to their feedback practice. Moreover, successful formative feedback does not change the importance of summative feedback.

2.6

The Four Steps of the Assessment Cycle

To conclude this brief overview of the relevant terminology, the following figure shows the well-known Classroom Assessment Cycle:

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(1) Clearly define and plan the learning outcomes (4) Adjust or improve ASSESSMENT following the results CYCLE of the assessment plan

(2) Assess the learning outcomes

(3) Analyze the results of the outcomes assessment (Missouri State University, n.d.) By way of explanation, experts from Missouri State University provided the following comments on the cycle: Step 1: Clearly Define and Identify the Learning Outcomes Each program should formulate between 3 and 5 learning outcomes that describe what students should be able to do (abilities), to know (knowledge), and appreciate (values and attitudes) following completion of the program. . . . Step 2: Select Appropriate Assessment Measures and Assess the Learning Outcomes Multiple ways of assessing the learning outcomes are usually selected and used. Although direct and indirect measures of learning can be used, it is usually recommended to focus on direct measures of learning. Levels of student performance for each outcome is often described and assessed with the use of rubrics. . . . Step 3: Analyze the Results of the Outcomes Assessed It is important to analyze and report the results of the assessments in a meaningful way.

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Step 4: Adjust or Improve Programs Following the Results of the Learning Outcomes Assessed Assessment results are worthless if they are not used. This step is a critical step of the assessment process. The assessment process has failed if the results do not lead to adjustments or improvements in programs. . . . (Missouri State University, n.d.)

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. What is the main purpose of feedback in everyday communication? Find an example and write a short dialogue. 2. Mention at least three reasons why in-lesson feedback has gained momentum. 3. Why is it important to differentiate between feedback procedures? 4. Make a short list of the main aims of newer forms of feedback. 5. Why is it necessary to train teachers as well as students in different feedback practices? 6. What forms of oral and written feedback are graded in foreign-language teaching in your country or speech community? 7. Why is the term feedback inappropriate to qualify a lack of understanding? 8. What are the aims of assessment beside informing students about their learning? 9. Provide at least three characteristics of formative tests. 10. Why are grades important? 11. What are negative outcomes of grading according to some scientists? 12. Why does grading impair motivation? Do you agree with the position of many researchers? Why? Why not? 13. In what ways can teachers find out if learning has taken place or not? 14. What are the main features of formative feedback? 15. Do you agree with the assumption that formative assessment and feedback should influence teaching measures? Why? Why not?

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EVIDENCE-BASED OR AT LEAST SCIENCE-ORIENTED RESEARCH Feedback Models

In the research literature, different forms of assessment and feedback have a long tradition, and have been dealt with for decades, even though the terms “summative” and “formative” did not exist from the beginning. Some scientists like Kluger and DeNisi (1996) cite publications that date back about a hundred years (e.g. Book & Norwel, 1922; Gates, 1917; Morgan & Morgan, 1935). These studies show that the idea to use feedback to improve student learning is not new. What is new, especially since the beginning of the millennium, is the tendency to favorize “feedback talks” during the lesson at the expense of grading and related student evaluation.

3.1

Kluger and DeNisi’s Analysis

“Formative and summative evaluation” appear in the title of the handbook written by published by Bloom, Hastings, and Madaus (1971; see also Chapter 2 of this book) twenty-five years before Kluger and DeNisi’s (1996) seminal article – entitled “The Effects of Feedback Interventions on Performance: A Historical Review, a Meta-Analysis, and a Preliminary Feedback Intervention Theory” – came to the fore. But Bloom and colleagues are by no means the first to differentiate between forms of student evaluation. The terms formative and summative assessment are attributed to Michael Scriven in 1967. He draws a comparison to illustrate the difference: When the cook tastes the soup, it

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is formative. When the guest tastes the soup, it is summative (Scriven, 1971, p. 169). This and other publications were of the opinion that formative feedback was in any case better than no feedback. It was supposed that all feedback given during the lessons made the students more motivated and led to better learning results. These undifferentiated approaches probably induced Kluger and DeNisi to tackle the many details of the question in their article. Even though it dates back to 1996, it is still relevant due to the detailed approach that comprises a review of research, a meta-analysis of carefully chosen research, and considerate suggestions for the teaching practice. That it is cited by a great number of scientists (see Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie & Timperley, 2007) and practitioners alike, is also due to the fact that in the 1990s Kluger dealt with important aspects of assessment and feedback in further publications. As the article title suggests, Kluger and DeNisi set themselves three goals. They explain their first intention as follows: We argue that a considerable body of evidence suggesting that feedback intervention (FI) effects on performance are quite variable has been historically disregarded by most FI researchers. This disregard has led to a widely shared assumption that FIs consistently improve performance. . . . Therefore, our first goal is to document both the evidence for inconsistent FI effects and the disregard for these data from the onset of FI research. (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996, p. 254) Their main finding is that “scholars continue to ignore findings suggesting that FI effects on performance are highly variable” (p. 256). Kluger and DeNisi admit that this variability is not fully considered, because varying results are often presented in narrative reviews and may therefore have been neglected. That is the main reason for the meta-analysis of the authors. However, inconsistent FI effects could stem from either sampling (and other) artifacts or from real phenomena that

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require theoretical explanations. Therefore, our second goal is to quantify the variability of FI effects and to rule out artifact-based explanations to FI effects variability. (p. 254) The authors looked through more than 2,500 papers and 500 technical reports, but only 5 percent (131 papers) met the criteria for inclusion. The weighted mean of the distribution is 0.41 – that is, FI has a moderate positive effect on performance. But 38 percent of the studies suggested a decrease in learningeffects. It is interesting to compare these results to those of Hattie and his co-authors (see Section 3.3). Before having a look at the Feedback Intervention Theory (FIT) that Kluger and DeNisi deduced form their meta-analysis, it is important to consider the following details. Even though Kluger and De Nisi included in their meta-analysis only experimental studies – a sign for high quality – the papers were selected from a wide range of psychology studies so that, on the whole, the results cannot be transferred to teaching and learning in public schools. The tasks that the experiments are based on differ a great deal from teaching and learning activities in a school context. Nevertheless, they can provide us with hints. Therefore, we will have a short look at Kluger and DeNisi’s third goal: We then argue that the major culprit in sustaining unwarranted assumptions about FIs is a lack of a FI theory. . . . Therefore, our third major goal is to attempt the integration of the varying theoretical and paradigmatic perspectives on FL, and thus we propose a feedback intervention theory (FIT). (p. 254) The two authors conclude that the vague hypotheses about feedback were unfalsifiable and hence nonscientific. They believe that a theory of feedback interventions could offer a remedy for this situation. Reflecting on the implications of their study, Kluger and DeNisi state that “in certain situations, FI can yield a large and positive effect on performance” due to moderators they could identify (p. 278). Among other proposals

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the authors suggest that an alternative to continuous FI may consist in designing work or learning environments “that encourage trial and error, thus maximizing learning from task feedback without a direct intervention” (p. 278). Even though their research shows certain positive effects of feedback, the authors suggest conducting a careful analysis of the learning context: Rather, additional development of FIT is needed to establish the circumstance under which positive FI effects on performance are also lasting and efficient and when these effects are transient and have questionable utility. This research must focus on the processes induced by FIs and not on the general question of whether FIs improve performance – look at how little progress 90 years of attempts to answer the latter question have yielded. (p. 278) One of the results of the various studies of Kluger (and his coauthors) has been confirmed in the meantime: Feedback interventions can have positive effects when they are related to the task, the learning processes and the self-regulation of the individual student, but not to his or her personality (see Chapter 3). In any case, teachers and other educators should keep in mind the variability of feedback, when a strategy or technique that was successful in other contexts does not have the same positive effect on their learners.

3.2

Green’s Contribution

Before focusing on the feedback models of Black and Wiliam (1998), and Hattie and Timperley (2007), it is quite informative to compare a newer study on assessment in language teaching and learning to the research of Kluger and DeNisi to understand the value of both studies. In 2021, the second edition of Anthony Green’s (2021) book Exploring Language Assessment and Testing: Language in Action was published. Green explains the main qualities of effective assessment systems (i.e. practicality, reliability, and

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validity) – and gives detailed overviews of assessment practices of receptive as well as productive and interactive skills. In the first part of his book, Green explains what assessment is about in an accessible way. Chapter 1 – “Putting Assessment in Its Place” – introduces the main goal of the book: “To focus on the relationship between how a person performs on an assessment . . . and the impact that the process has on the people involved” (p. 5). Green bases the results of his research and the ensuing suggestions on the definition of assessment as a means to gather results from task performance, which we interpret based on our beliefs about the nature of language (see Section 2.3). Assessment helps us to understand the language-related knowledge, skills, or abilities of our learners. To come as close as possible to reliable and valid results, language assessments must be of good quality. Chapter 2 – entitled “Purposes for Assessment” – analyzes the reasons for educational assessment in language teaching and learning especially. Green draws a distinction between educational assessment and proficiency assessment. The former is intended to reflect and measure learning whereas the latter “is external to any course of study and intended to reflect future performance” (p. 261). This distinction is further specified with formative and summative assessment: Formative assessment is an educational assessment that aims to guider teaching and learning processes (p. 256), whereas summative assessment is concerned with what has been learned in a given period of teaching and learning time (p. 263). Chapter 3 – entitled “The Practice of Language Assessment” – deals with the principles that valuable assessment has to take into account. Whereas the assessment cycle shown at the end of the last chapter (see Section 2.6) comprises four steps, Green’s concept is based on five principles: Planning and Reflection lead to Improvement, but only when they are combined with Cooperation and informed by Evidence (PRICE). Green underscores the essential quality

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of an assessment system that will generate useful information to help students improve their language learning. The author presents an even more detailed assessment production cycle: (1) Specifications (7) Assessment review

(2) Item writing

(6) Operational assessment

(3) Item review

(5) Pilot review

(4) Piloting

(adapted from Green, 2021, p. 42) The comparison of these specifications with the five PRICE principles and the Assessment Cycle (see Figure 2.1) with its corresponding comments from the experts at Missouri State University will help teachers to work out what they can achieve alone or in cooperation with colleagues. In Chapter 4, Green analyzes “The Qualities of Effective Assessment Systems” – namely, validity, reliability, authenticity, and practicality – underlining their importance. What teachers can and should do in this regard is analyzed and discussed in Chapter 13 of this book. Green dedicates some pages on feedback, offering an accurate picture of what it is that learners are and are not able to do (pp. 90–95). Teachers should trigger modifications that will keep learning moving forward efficiently – repeating, practicing, or revising if necessary. “The validity of a formative assessment approach is therefore closely linked to the theories of learning that support it” (p. 92). Green refers to the practices suggested by Wiliam (2011; see Section 3.3) in order to improve learning generally and narrow the performance gap between the higherachieving and lower-achieving learners. To promote the practice of formative procedures, Green provides a table showing the most important characteristics of effective feedback forms (which are explained and exemplified in the rest of this book):

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Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Effective feedback

Unproductive feedback

prospective

retrospective

looks forward to guide and encour-

only looks back at completed per-

age learners to reflect and take action to improve performance directly related to learning goals makes use of checklists or scales based on curriculum goals

formance, does not require action by the learner not related to learning goals comments are inconsistent and unfocused learner does not grasp the criteria

learner understands the criteria continuous and timely

infrequent and delayed

feedback is provided as an integral

comes only after the relevant unit

element of each unit

is complete

there are opportunities to improve before the unit ends specific

generic

“Successful use of linking words to

“Good organization”

connect sentences” frequent and continuous

infrequent

task referenced: descriptive of the

person referenced: praise and

performance, not judgmental of the person “There are three grammatical

criticism of the learner “Good job!” “Must try harder!”

errors in the second paragraph. Can you find them?” corrective: targeted and achievable requires action that is within

excessive asks too much of the learner in terms of difficulty or quantity

scope of learner abilities additional support (scaffolding) may be provided to simplify the task (Green, 2021, p. 93; based on Wiggins, 1998; Wiliam, 2011; Hill & McNamara, 2012)

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Like many other authors, Green proposes so-called “remedial work.” On the basis of the task-referenced feedback, the students should be given the possibility to represent a corrected and elaborated version of their text to their teachers (p. 94), a possibility that does not exist for graded performances in most school systems (see Chapters 11 and 12). The chapters of the second part of Green’s book are dedicated to the different procedures to assess receptive skills (Chapter 5) as well as productive and interactive skills (Chapter 6), whereas the third part deals with trends in language assessment (Chapter 7). Even though Green’s ample publication (totaling more than 250 pages) offers too many resources for a single teacher to handle without external or at least collegial help, it has a great advantage: it is not limited to a certain aspect of assessment as do others. There are dozens of publications that are either researchoriented (e.g. Shute, 2007) or deal with a particular aspect like written corrective feedback (e.g. Bitchener & Storch, 2016). Some interesting publications that focus on the language classroom refer to learning contexts that offer very limited possibilities for oral use of English (Hong Kong) so that the learners have to show their performance in written tasks (see Lee, 2017). Others focus exclusively on higher education. It is not the case that nothing can be learned by teachers from these publications, but adapting the authors’ suggestions to the contexts of practicing teachers would require lengthy work. Only at the end of the 1980s did a tripartite practice-oriented model emerge to help bridge the gap between what learners already know (and are able to do) and the next higher level in the sense of Lev S. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Without Vygotsky’s theories, the well-known feedback model(s) of Wiliam (1998) and Hattie (2007) would be inconceivable; and not only that: teaching has long since ceased to be based on the transmission of prefabricated content, as it should help learners to reach the next higher level of knowledge and skill.

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According to Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory, in the beginning, learning occurs in social interaction until the students have internalized the respective knowledge, skills and attitudes. These learning processes are supported by an adult or a peer, a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Today, the MKO can also be a computer or a digital tool. Most important is the third element of Vygotsky’s theory denominated Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86) (adapted from De Florio-Hansen, 2018, p. 89). This leads to the question of the most important feedback functions: – Feedback can show the learner whether his or her outcome is correct or in need of revision. – This can subsequently lead to alternative learning strategies or a fundamental change in understanding of the task. – Individual learners can infer from appropriate feedback how far they still are from the intended learning goals. – Most importantly, feedback should indicate to the learner how he or she can continue learning. – It can also indicate what additional information and assistance may be available. – In general, feedback is believed to increase motivation and willingness to exert effort (adapted from De Florio-Hansen, 2019a, pp. 365 ff.).

3.3

A Model of Formative Feedback: From Wiliam to Hattie

At the end of the 1990s, Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam produced a three-step feedback model, which Hattie repeatedly refers to (see Hattie & Clarke, 2018, p. 10). While Hattie and his

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co-authors try to give the impression that they are offering a comprehensive approach to feedback, Wiliam and his coauthors underline from the outset that they are talking about formative feedback. The term “formative” appears in the titles of most publications (e.g. Black, P. & Wiliam, D., 2009). The aim of Wiliam, a professor of formative (!) feedback, is to introduce his readership to formative feedback procedures that were largely neglected in most teachers’ classrooms until the late 1990s. In an important contribution to the scientific journal Assessment in Education, Black and Wiliam (1998) compared the classroom to a “black box.” Most school authorities as well as scientists and practitioners focused on the input and the output, but not at what went on inside the black box. Teaching and learning processes were neglected in favor of summative assessment. Charles Dietz explains the main intentions of Black and Wiliam: In order to restore the balance they advocated “formative assessment,” or assessment for learning (AfL). In AfL, information from marking or other means of assessment is used as feedback to modify learning activity. This might take the form of teachers giving comments on how a student can improve their work instead of awarding grades, or students assessing for themselves where their weaknesses lie. It is based on the idea that all students can improve, and fosters a spirit of cooperation in the classroom, with students actively involved in their own learning. (Dietz, n.d.) In this publication, Black and Wiliam present a wide-ranging research review on which they base their conviction that such an approach could improve both learning and examination results. In the following decades, Wiliam, together with various co-authors, provided an ample range of practical examples to promote the adoption of formative feedback practices in the classroom (e.g. Wiliam & Leahy, 2015; which many suggestions in Part II and Part III refer to).

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All relevant studies and practice-related recommendations are based on the three-step model. Consequently, without knowledge of this model, the implementation of an effective feedback culture in foreign-language teaching, in any context of teaching and learning at all, is difficult to imagine. Only using this model can language teachers fully comprehend the recommendations for practice provided throughout this book as well as conceive of how to implement them themselves. Where the learner is going

Where am I going? (Feed Up)

Where the learner is right now

How am I going? (Feed Back)

How to get there

Where to next? (Feed Forward)

(Black & Wiliam, 1998; 2009)

(Hattie & Timperley, 2007)

Primarily through formative feedback, the individuals involved should find answers to the following questions: Feed Up: What are my goals? Where do I stand? Feed Back: How am I progressing? Feed Forward: Where to next? John Hattie presented his own research on feedback long before his publications on visible learning, for example in the form of a meta-analysis published together with two others (Hattie, Biggs & Purdie, 1996). The results of Hattie’s analyses in the form of effect-sizes can be found already in Petty’s (2009) practical guide Evidence-Based Teaching. Petty dedicates four pages to Hattie’s table of effect sizes, where feedback is ranked as second major influence with 0.81 (Petty 2009, pp. 65–68). The effect sizes indicated by Hattie are often compared to those presented by Robert J. Marzano at the end of the 1990s. Petty makes clear that the effect sizes indicated by both scientists should not be compared: Hattie has usually averaged all available effect sizes for each method. Marzano has only considered a subset of experiments.

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Marzano has reviewed research that uses curriculum specific assessments, which focus only on what was taught in the experiment. He thinks this gives the best indication of what is happening in the classroom. Hattie has reviewed research that uses standardized tests. These are gold standard in research and are very reliable, but may not measure precisely what was taught in the experiment. Standardized tests are known to give effect sizes about a half or a third smaller then “curriculum specific tests.” (Petty, 2009, pp. 63–64) Practicing teachers can deduce from Petty’s statement that they have to be careful when it comes to measuring the success of a feedback procedure. There are multiple factors that may influence the results, especially the personality of teachers and learners. Hattie himself indicates eight crucial points for improving teacher feedback (Hattie, 2012; see Section 6.1). The three-step model of formative feedback refers to the timing of learning processes, which Hattie and Timperley refer to as the focus of feedback. For Hattie, the third aspect, Feed Forward, is the most important. Feedback is not an end in itself but is always aimed at giving students guidance on how to improve on what they have already done, if necessary, and, more importantly, what steps should follow to ensure that they actually achieve the learning goals. Feedback is only considered formative when it is used or can be used to modify subsequent teaching and learning, an aspect that is attributed to Bloom (1956). The effect of feedback, the second parameter in Hattie and Timperley’s model, refers to the areas of learning that can be influenced by appropriate feedback, namely the task, learning processes, and self-regulation (i.e. the control of one’s learning behavior). This involves the following questions: How well was the task understood or solved? What needs to be done to understand and master the task? How can self-regulation be improved?

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The well-known feedback model of Hattie and Timperley (Hattie, 2009, p. 176) shows that beyond self-regulation, feedback can influence the self of individual learners. However, scientific studies have proven that forms of feedback that do not relate to the task in some way are ineffective for (further) learning. But even then, careful analysis of the effects is necessary (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996, p. 278).

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Find some reasons why it took so long until (formative) feedback was (partly) applied in school teaching and in foreign-language classrooms? 2. Do you think Michael Scriven’s cook/guest comparison is appropriate? Find other examples. 3. Why is feedback intervention (FI as Kluger and DeNisi put it) so variable? What are the main factors it depends on? 4. The results from Kluger and DeNisi’s study can only serve as hints for foreign-language teaching in schools. Why? 5. Make a list of the most important aspects we can deduce from assessment according to Green. 6. What is the difference between educational assessment and proficiency assessment? 7. Do you think the seven steps presented by Green are useful for practicing teachers? 8. Mention at least three examples for effective feedback. 9. What does Vygotsky’s ZPD stand for? Explain the main characteristics. 10. Write down all important feedback functions you remember. 11. Why do Wiliam and his co-authors compare the classroom to a black box? 12. The feedback model of Wiliam and Hattie and their respective co-authors differentiates between “Feed Up,” “Feed Back” and “Feed Forward.” What do these terms mean? 13. Why are the effect sizes of Hattie and those of Marzano not comparable according to Petty? 14. Do you agree with Petty’s statement that Hattie’s effect sizes are more reliable? Why? Why not?

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THE EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION AND FOREIGN-LANGUAGE TEACHING AS A PREREQUISITE OF FEEDBACK

The fact that feedback has become increasingly important is not just borne out by the extensive research activities of scientists and other experts. It is also due to fundamental changes in teaching in general and foreign-language teaching and learning in particular. These changes have been advanced by student activation and action orientation through a teaching and learning perspective, which can be summarized under the term independent learning. Furthermore, the change of perspective in foreign-language teaching away from the grammartranslation method towards communicative competence has also contributed significantly to the spread of various forms of feedback (see also De Florio-Hansen, 2022, chapter 2). As these changes are the prerequisites of formative assessment and feedback, it makes sense to explain them in some detail. It is true that in recent decades, schooling in general, and foreign-language teaching in particular, have undergone a significant transformation. However, the change has not been as extensive as some would have liked due to the stubbornness of the institution of school.

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For practical purposes, it is of little use to trace the inflationary use of the two terms student activation and action orientation in pedagogy and didactics. It is useful to restrict the following explanations to the characteristic feature that connects both terms: independent learning – also an important requirement for teaching and learning foreign languages (Section 4.1). All other characteristics are optional. In addition, action orientation has taken on a special character in connection with the teaching and learning of foreign languages (Section 4.2). Both requirements – student activation and action orientation – are closely related to cooperative learning (Section 4.3).

4.1

Student Activation

What does student activation have to do with “individualized learning”? How does it relate to the often cited “learner autonomy”? In order to find adequate answers to these questions, we need to be more specific about student activation: In essence, student activation is about a particular quality of independent intellectual engagement with a subject matter or problem usually specified by the teacher. Instead of a mere comprehension of insights and findings . . . the students have to work them out, often laboriously struggling for them. . . . This kind of confrontation with a subject does not necessarily require elaborate methodological arrangements and cannot be forced by them. It is possible in teacher-centered instruction as well as in various variants of differentiated teaching. It is decisive to grant the individual student or the learning group as a whole the space necessary for their own mental search movements. . . . He [the teacher] must avoid direct corrective interventions as well as directing contentrelated impulses. Above all, however, he must refrain from any evaluation of student contributions. . . . In the end, successful student activation is only shown by whether the learning is educationally effective. Have the activities contributed to advancing the students’ personal

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development in the sense of the educational mission? (Mu¨hlhausen, 2012, pp. 31–32; my emphasis and translation) Individualized learning, then? To answer this question, I draw on a metaphor by Walter Herzog. If one fills a coffee machine with a fixed amount of water and coffee, one can predict the output without difficulty, namely so and so many cups. “Different from this is the outcome, which cannot be directly assigned to the system . . . . The outcome corresponds to the effect that the output of the system triggers in another system” (Herzog, 2013, p. 48; my translation). What cannot be determined, then, is the effect on the individual coffee drinker. The outcome in learning is similar: learning outcomes are always individual and depend on numerous contexts grounded in the learner, including whether he or she accepts the learning offer at all and in what way he or she uses it. To avoid a tautology, it is recommended to use “independent learning” instead of the term “individualized learning.” Furthermore, this term emphasizes the responsibility of individual learners for their learning outcomes, which is decisive when it comes to feedback. In the English-speaking world, a distinction is often made between differentiated learning, individualized learning, and personalized learning (see Basye, 2018). This division is justified by the constantly growing heterogeneity of learning groups and appropriate preparation for professional life. –

–

–

Differentiated learning refers to the “what”: the learners deal with the same topic in the curriculum, but receive different content-related pre-tasks and tasks from the teacher – depending on their ability. Individualized learning focuses on the “when”: students have the opportunity to determine the learning time and duration themselves. They can work on individual parts of the task or activity more than once if they feel the need to do so. Personalized learning means that each learner receives a learning opportunity that is personally tailored to him or her. Only in personalized learning do learners have a greater say.

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While differentiated learning usually allows for collaboration in tandems or small groups, this option rarely exists in individualized learning and personalized learning. Therefore, digital technologies are mostly used for the last two forms of learning. Individualized and personalized learning are often criticized because these two forms of learning generally prevent the all-important collaboration between learners, and contribute to the dissolution of the class community and isolation. Learning is then no longer a social activity and feedback cannot play its useful role. We know that students learn best when they can engage in dialogue and discourse, co-constructing knowledge with their peers. Resorting to web-based, adaptive programs to send students digital content takes away these opportunities for rich dialogue, not only because they are interacting with a screen, but also because each student is working on a different activity. (France, 2021) And what about learner autonomy? Student activation and independent learning cannot be equated with learner autonomy in the true literal sense. The term was introduced to emphasize the need for lifelong learning and, if possible, to lay the groundwork for later independent learning already in the school context. It is therefore not a framework condition of foreign-language teaching, but a meaningful objective. As a rule, it is the teacher who guides and supervises school learning. The fact that the teacher largely withdraws in particular phases of the lesson does not mean that he or she renounces the necessary control (e.g. through appropriate preparation of the material). The teacher makes sure that all students benefit from the lessons in the best possible way. A public school system is not designed for autonomous learning – if there is such a thing at all. Even adults who need or want to familiarize themselves with unfamiliar subjects for professional or private reasons will not refrain from seeking advice and expertise from MKOs (More Knowledgeable Others) in the spirit of Vygotsky’s ZPD (see Chapter 3). In school

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teaching, what always counts in the end is the adaptation of the respective teaching and learning methods to the requirements of the learners. What is the significance, in this context, of the cognitive style, the so-called learning style, which is often used to justify method diversity? So far, there is no scientific evidence that there is such a thing as a person’s preferred learning style at all. In their study on learning styles, Harold Pashler and colleagues (2019) were able to prove that there is no such thing as the best method for an individual learner (although around eighty learning-style models exist). Most of the time, depending on the task or activity, students use the learning strategy or technique that they believe is best to achieve the learning goals. These processes can be reinforced by adequate forms of feedback. What do foreign-language teachers need to pay attention to if they want to promote independent learning among their students? Every form of learning is based on construction processes. The first step in the sequence is superficial knowledge. It must not stop there (although this is often the case when learning is only for a test or a class assignment). More advanced learning processes must be stimulated that allow each learner to transform (reproducible) surface knowledge into interconnected concepts. An important prerequisite is that learners account for why the subject matter is important. In this first step, a personal interpretation of the content is essential. In a second step, the learners have to form a concept and in a third step they have to connect it with already existing concepts and experiences. This requires a reframing of existing concepts so that a network can emerge. Teachers encourage these processes by allowing learners to engage with the content in question in a variety of challenging contexts in different temporal sequences. Small group work has been found to be particularly effective in the third step.

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Teachers can also optimize the required processes by progressing from pure reproduction tasks to challenging thinking activities.

4.2

Action Orientation

For as long as there has been instruction in modern foreign languages in schools, the teaching of grammar has dominated. This was mainly due to the fact that teaching in the ancient languages was based on the so-called grammar-translation method. It is not surprising that the teaching of modern foreign languages initially followed this approach, since the possibilities for communicative exchange with native speakers were highly limited at the time. The development of English into the world lingua franca contributed to a fundamental change (i.e. the so-called communicative turn in the 1970s). The focus was now on communicative exchange with target-language speakers based on learners’ discourse competence. Discourse competence comprises the ability to produce – exceeding the sentence level – correct, appropriate and understandable texts. The language user has to take principles of coherence and of cohesion into account. Whereas coherence refers to aspects of text content and their interdependence, cohesion underscores the necessity of paying attention to formal aspects of the relationship “sentence to text.” With regards to the multiple intercultural connections in a world of internationalization and digitization the concept is widened to Intercultural discourse competence, the overall objective of teaching and learning foreign languages. FLT (Foreign-Language Teaching) contributes to the improvement of intercultural communication: “The study of discourse is the study of the creation of cultural worlds. . . .

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When people from distinct cultures come together, they will bring with them separate styles of discourse and sociocultural assumptions with complex grids of power relations” (Monaghan 2016, 53 f.). (De Florio-Hansen, 2018, p. 65) There is probably no foreign-language teacher today who does not agree with the guiding goal of communicative competence or better, intercultural discourse competence. It is only the way to get there that is argued about. Summer (2013, p. 8) lists the main principles of the communicative approach: 1. learning through communication 2. authentic and meaningful communication 3. fluency 4. integration of different language skills 5. learning through trial and error. Today, Communicative Competence comprises at least four competences: – It is important to underscore linguistic competence to avoid the frequent misunderstanding that communicative language teaching neglects correctness. The ability to participate in target-language communication means to be able to produce (mostly) correct (oral and written) texts with regards to lexicology, grammar, semantics, and phonology. – Sociolinguistic competence implies to be able to establish social relationships and shape them adequately. Furthermore, it comprises the faculty to choose the appropriate speech register and to recognize language varieties in communication. – Pragmatic competence refers to knowledge and skills which are necessary for an adequate and functional discourse in order to reach the own communicative goals and to understand those of others. – The ability to plan, carry out, and evaluate interaction and to possibly remove communication obstacles (e.g. misunderstandings) is denominated strategic competence. (adapted from Canale & Swain, 1980)

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Consequently, action orientation in the foreign-language classroom can be interpreted as the students’ interest in practicing the language in real-life contexts. By the end of the 1980s, this foreign-language action competence was already defined as the ability to communicate in a situation- and partner-appropriate way in the context of the common lifeworld in order to communicate about certain content and pursue certain intentions. This goal is approached through interaction in group work in which appropriate feedback is decisive. The foreign-language ability to act is the basis for the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) in the form of the well-known competence model – including descriptions of required linguistic ability (Council of Europe 2001). Action orientation in the foreign-language classroom can also be interpreted in a different way: learning by taking action as a completion of strategies and techniques that focus, in a one-sided way, on thinking activities. Unfortunately, in foreign-language teaching, a limited understanding of open teaching often prevails. Since the 1990s, the main focus has been on letting students make choices from a wide range of content controlled by the teacher. All teaching and learning efforts that work toward increasing learner independence are based on a number of closely related assumptions. In open instruction, action orientation is added, which strives for a balanced relationship between thinking and acting. It can only be realized to a limited extent in the foreignlanguage classroom. However, even in the teaching and learning of foreign-languages, more action products can be created than is currently the case (e.g. newspapers, flyers, letters to the editor, and exhibitions). There is no doubt that also in these learning contexts different forms of feedback, especially peer feedback, play an important role.

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Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning was recommended for foreign-language teaching as early as the 1980s. Since the turn of the millennium, a wealth of procedures has been established, ranging from brief engagement with a learning content in individual work, subsequent rapid exchange in the group or in tandems, and finally the presentation of the results in concise form, to the teaching principle of Think-Pair-Share with its variety of manifestations. Leading experts Johnson and Johnson summarize the effects of cooperative work in small groups as follows: Cooperative learning has powerful effects on academic achievement. It is directly based on social interdependence theory, there are hundreds of research studies validating its effectiveness, and there are clear operational procedures for education to use. (Johnson & Johnson, 2013, 372) They list five characteristics that help distinguish cooperative learning from other forms of partner and group work. – – – –

–

Learners should be given opportunities to support each other through their interactions. Cooperative learning contributes significantly to the acquisition and application of social skills. Learners are required to reflect on and share group processes. The teacher should design the task or activity in such a way that each group member – in whatever form – must contribute his or her share to the solution. A withdrawal of individual learners, as can be observed in other forms of group work, should be excluded. Cooperative learning understood in this way emphasizes the individual responsibility of each group member. (adapted from Johnson & Johnson, 2013)

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Cooperative learning largely corresponds to these characteristics if the following points are sufficiently observed, and learners adequately trained in them: – Clarify in advance the goals, learning intentions, and criteria for success. This requires that learners’ prior knowledge of the subject matter should be known or identified. The students’ knowledge of the world should also be sufficiently taken into account. – The composition of the groups must be discussed with the students. Should they work in tandems or small groups of four members each? Should certain roles, such as moderator or spokesperson, be determined in advance, or will the learners take on the distribution of roles themselves, if necessary? – What should they communicate with each other about and in what form? Is communication in the native language appropriate? Is it possibly even conducive to the intended learning goals, for example, the creation of a picture story? – Does collaboration in changing constellations within the core group make sense? Will there be collaboration with other small groups beyond a learner’s own group? – To which aspects of the content should the individual group members contribute? How or by what means can the necessary exchange among each other be promoted? – The time frame for the individual activities should be discussed with the learners in advance. In addition, it should made clear what learners who finish before the others will do. – In what form will the learners present their results? What will be done to ensure that the contribution of each individual group member remains recognizable? – How will evaluation take place? What forms of feedback will be provided to learners by the teacher? How can learners provide feedback to their teacher on individual aspects of the activity?

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To sum up: “Within cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to all other group members” (Johnson & Johnson, 2013, 372). It goes without saying that various forms of feedback are indispensable. The counterpart to cooperative learning is described as competitive learning, a learning by which the students try to attain better results for themselves at the expense of other group members. Johnson and Johnson do not completely exclude collaborative forms of group work but limit them to certain situations.

TEFL Example: Competitive Learning In the following classroom activity, it is not just the teacher who can learn what the students think about competitive behavior in learning. Peers can also learn among themselves which classmates are positive about competition among students.

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TEFL Example 4.1 Competition: A Problem? Activity 1 If cooperation is the basis of your classroom life, what role do you see for competition? Discuss this in groups of four and take notes. At the end, find out what the other groups think. Activity 2 Many video games are based on competition. What is the most important difference between these games and teamwork in your English class? Activity 3 “One for all, all for one!” or “Long live competition!” Think about whether you would like to do more competitive activities in class. Why? Why not? Discuss this with your tandem partner. Activity 4 In groups of four, come up with three competitive activities that do not destroy the climate of respect, solidarity, and mutual assistance. Think of tasks and activities that are situated in your group work (e.g. tandem vs. tandem, group of four vs. group of four), learning in stations, role-playing, and so on. Choose your best activity and display it to the class on a separate sheet. Take a look at the ideas of others and evaluate them.

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TEFL Example: Strengthening Self-Confidence An important prerequisite for the success of independent learning is belief in one’s own abilities. Self-confidence and self-efficacy are not innate but can be developed. The teacher’s positive expectations play an important role in this. If a student senses that the teacher thinks he or she is capable of mastering a more difficult task, many learners will find over time that they can do a lot more as they get more self-confident. That personal attitude is crucial in this process has been demonstrated by Carol S. Dweck in decades of research. The following two TEFL examples are mainly based on two books by Dweck (2007; 2012).

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TEFL Example 4.2 Staying Focused on Your Goals Task 1 You may have noticed that there are classmates who do not give up on their plans even though they have to work hard to achieve their goals. Others, on the contrary, give up at the first failure. The feeling that regulates a person’s commitment is called self-efficacy. It is an individual’s belief in his or her ability to perform a task. In a tandem, imagine a question or two that you could ask a classmate to discover the degree of his or her self-efficacy. For example: What do you do when you realize that a task is really demanding? What is your personal response to difficulties? Task 2 Complete the following quiz. Work on your own. Once you have finished, compare your results with those of your tandem partner. Strongly

Disagree Agree Strongly

disagree 1. I can figure out anything if I try hard enough. 2. Once I have decided to accomplish something that is important to me, I keep trying to accomplish it, even if it is harder than I thought. 3. I’m confident that I will achieve the goals that I set for myself.

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4. When I’m struggling to accomplish something difficult, I focus on my progress instead of feeling discouraged. 5. I believe hard work pays off. 6. My ability grows with effort. 7. I believe that the brain can be developed. 8. I think that no matter who you are, you can significantly change your level of talent. 9. I can change my basic level of ability considerably. (adapted from Riopel, 2019)

Task 3 After reviewing your answers, think about which conclusions you might draw about improving your personal effectiveness. Take notes: What can you do to become more focused on your goals? (If you wish you can share your good intentions with other classmates.)

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TEFL Example: Developing a Positive Mindset To encourage learners, Dweck suggests that the teacher make it clear, as early as the introduction to a new lesson, why he or she believes learners will achieve the targeted goals. Feedback that addresses specific learning outcomes for individual students has an even greater impact. Dweck and other experts advocate thinking of praise as a form of feedback. To support individual learners in their efforts, however, it must take a differentiated form. The teacher verbalizes what has already been done well in the specific task and in what way the learner can continue to work. In this way, the teacher succeeds in gradually convincing the learner that he or she can achieve the set goals. Blanket praise such as “Well done!” has been shown to be counterproductive. It causes learners to remain in their comfort zone or status quo because they do not want to lose the positive label.

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TEFL Example 4.3 Have You Ever Thought: Dare to Succeed? Task 1 Carol S. Dweck, a professor at Stanford University in the United States, is known worldwide for her psychological research. She is mainly interested in personality development and motivation. In 2007, she published a book that has been re-edited several times. It is entitled Mindset: A New Psychology of Success. Think and talk in groups of four about what the title means. What do you think Dweck is talking about in this book? What is her theory? Take notes. Afterwards, discuss in plenary. Your teacher will help you. Task 2 With your tandem partner, answer the following questions: Do you think that your intelligence is an innate given that you can’t really change? Or do you think that no matter how smart you are, you can improve it? Task 3 Work alone. What is the consequence if you answered yes to the first question? Then exchange your opinions with your tandem partner or, if you want to, in plenary.

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. What does independent learning stand for? Base your explanation on examples taken from the foreign-language classroom. 2. Describe student activation with appropriate examples. 3. What are the differences between differentiated learning, individualized learning and personalized learning? Do you think individualized learning and personalized learning are useful procedures in foreign-language classrooms? Why? Why not? 4. What sense do you attribute to autonomous learning in school contexts? 5. Do you think you have a particular learning style? If yes, describe it. If no, why not? 6. What is the grammar-translation method? 7. What are the (main) four sub-competences of discourse competence? 8. In what way does cooperative learning differ from competitive learning? In what way can teachers train their students in cooperative learning? Find examples.

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Part II Assessment and Feedback in Its Different Manifestations In Chapter 5, the main prerequisites for successful feedback are described, such as a productive classroom climate that focuses also on motivation, the necessity of implementing a feedback culture, and the fact that not every piece of feedback is useful. To implement a feedback culture, the students must be involved in important decisions from the beginning. Chapter 6 discusses how that means “No hands up, except to ask a question” and sufficient wait time for learners to answer. Examples of learner involvement comprise, for example, alternative suggestions for learning objectives, identifying success criteria based on worked examples, and the use of rubrics. Chapter 7 deals with the preconditions for successful feedback from teachers for learners, which is based on learninglevel diagnoses and the respective assessment. In order to improve learning, feedback should regard the task, the learning processes, and self-regulation, but not the personality of individual learners. Teacher feedback is mostly based on students’ statements (i.e. the feedback from students for the teacher). At the end of a teaching unit, students can explain what they learned, what the teacher could improve, and which questions remained unanswered. Research has shown that peer feedback is not always successful, because there is the official world of the teacher, the influential world of peers, and the private world of the students Chapter 8 discusses how it is up to the teacher to implement and to sufficiently train students in those feedback procedures, which lead to better learning outcomes. An aid could be the feedback model of Hattie and colleagues, which has been adapted for peer feedback by Hattie’s doctoral student Mark

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Gan. A further opportunity is the adequate use of the Jigsaw puzzle. Chapter 9 deals with an important aspect of feedback that has gained momentum in the context of independent learning (i.e. self-assessment). In foreign-language teaching and learning it can be based on self-set goals, but is often determined by externally set objectives. A neglected aspect is the self-assessment of teachers, whereas students’ self-assessment is amply discussed in the relevant literature, be it in form of multiple-choice tests frequently used in the context of digital technologies or with the help of portfolios such the European Language Portfolio (ELP). Among the valuable forms of evaluation and assessment, collegial feedback has not yet attained the importance it should have. This is the subject of Chapter 10. In most cases it is limited to external evaluation of teachers, especially trainees. A valuable proposal is the EMU project (Evidence-Based Methods of Teaching Diagnostics and Development) that compares the assessment of learners with the self-assessment of the teacher and that of a colleague. Furthermore, there are many template observation sheets that can be adapted to collegial feedback. At the end of the chapter, suggestions for giving feedback are complemented with advice on how to accept feedback to improve student learning. Chapter 11 deals with various forms of electronic assessment and the use of digital technologies to improve learning. In order to achieve this overall goal, students (and teachers) must have sufficient knowledge and experience of digital technologies. Up until now, electronic assessment and feedback is mainly used in the higher education sector, but there exist various possibilities to make use of “new media” in school-based instruction, as well as in the language classroom. In Chapter 12, teaching and learning models such as homeschooling, distance learning, and remote learning are discussed in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. This leads to the opposition of synchronous and asynchronous learning and the omnipresent use of videoconferencing as well as the proposal to maintain – even after the pandemic – forms of hybrid/blended learning as the new normal.

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HOW TO IMPLEMENT SUCCESSFUL FEEDBACK IN FOREIGN-LANGUAGE TEACHING

To promote feedback and implement it as an indispensable prerequisite of second-/foreign-language education, at least three important aspects need to be taken into account. First of all, effective feedback procedures have to be supported by a favorable learning atmosphere (Section 5.1). As dialogues are the main asset of most forms of feedback, adequate classroom management is an indispensable prerequisite of successful feedback. Essential in this context is a relationship based on trust, not only among teachers and their learners but also among the students themselves. Various possibilities will be presented in order to establish a learning atmosphere that encourages different forms of feedback. Closely linked to successful classroom management are (feedback) procedures that serve to increase student motivation (Section 5.2). To improve learning and to achieve better learning outcomes, motivation has to be seen in its different aspects. Furthermore, feedback has to be introduced, explained and trained in various contexts (Section 5.3). Only on the basis of a well-organized implementation of a particular feedback-culture in the second-/foreign-language classroom does feedback lead to better learning, an increase of motivation, and further developments of students’ personalities.

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Even though these points are taken in serious consideration and partly worked out together with the learners, not every piece of feedback is useful (Section 5.4). Under certain conditions, even the most thoughtful piece of feedback fails to make an impact.

5.1

Classroom Management

When we consider classroom management as conducive to learning, we involuntarily think of dealing with disruptions and their prevention. This is certainly an essential part of classroom management, but it is by no means limited to this aspect. This can be seen in contracts that are concluded with an entire learning group or with individual students. A teacher should not ignore inappropriate student behavior, but act consistently without losing his or her temper. A good teacher’s behavior is best described as “friendly” but “assertive.” The essential prerequisite for a classroom organization conducive to learning is, as mentioned, a successful relationship between the teacher and the learners, but also among the learners themselves. From the beginning, the teacher – with the participation of the learners – will appropriately negotiate the expectations that are essential for a cooperative learning atmosphere. If possible, the learning environment should also be designed to make learners (and the teacher) feel comfortable. Just as essential as the establishment of behavioral norms is the clear communication of the subject-specific learning objectives and the (planned) methodological approach. The focus is on the interests of individual learners. No matter how they behave, they should be able to count on the teacher’s support and, if possible, the support of their fellow learners. The goal – it should be emphasized once again – is to create a conducive learning atmosphere for the students within the framework of a positively shaped class community based on mutual respect.

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A contract between the teacher and the learners can help achieve these goals. The teacher should have a conversation with the learners to determine the most important rules together with them. The learners, each individually, create a kind of contract in which they record the agreements they have made. Finally, each learner signs his or her own copy of this jointly developed contract. With advanced learners, the class discussion, including the classroom contract, can also be done in English. But what are classroom contracts? Contracts are binding agreements between two or more persons or parties. Likewise, a Classroom Contract serves as a written document with the behavior expectations – the norms, rules and consequences of certain behaviors in class. Both the students and the teacher create these contracts as a result of a collaborative effort. Through discussions and debates, students understand the need for and the importance of acceptable behaviors. This increases students’ accountability to adhere to the behavior expectations. (Professional Learning Board, n.d.) Classroom management has a long tradition in the United States and other English-speaking countries (Kounin, 1970). It was and is frequently the subject of scientific research as well as recommendations based on appropriate studies. Therefore, it is not surprising that publications in this area, including online, are extremely numerous. TEFL Example 5.1 may help teachers to establish a classroom contract in their learning groups.

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TEFL Example: Implementation of a Classroom Contract TEFL Example 5.1 How to Implement a Classroom Contract Such agreements made with the learners (who should be involved as much as possible) set the expectations regarding behavior in the classroom. An appropriate classroom contract motivates learners to follow the established standards of behavior because they have a stake in it. Important steps include: – a discussion in the whole class to learn about the learners’ ideas – a further exchange of ideas in small groups –

relevant explanations by the teacher

Sub-aspects on which learners can contribute their ideas include: Relationship structure …………………………

Homework …………………………

Attentiveness ………………………

Noise level …………………………

Then the time has come to filter the collected ideas and determine (at most) the most important ten demands. They can be used to improve the atmosphere in the classroom and implement a culture of behavior. This works particularly well if each student puts the negotiated version of the contract down on paper for himor herself and adds his or her own signature.

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In addition to classroom contracts, there are also behavior contracts. How does the work with such a contract take shape? Behavior contracts are for individual learners who behave in an inadequate manner and thus disrupt the lesson’s progress. In a discussion after class or in a consultation session, the teacher explains the procedure and gives the learner in question appropriate instructions. The student then draws up a contract with a detailed plan, including the consequences should he or she continue to disrupt the lesson (for more details, see Walters Wright, n.d.). Beyond such contracts, there is (science-based) advice on how to deal with individual “troublemakers” based on respective feedback procedures: – In general, experts caution that the same misbehavior may have different causes in different learners. – The main strategies recommended are those that reward disruptive or misbehaving learners when they behave appropriately. If the teacher pays too much attention to a student when he or she is behaving negatively, it may reinforce the learner’s behavior. – Teachers should ignore a learner’s misbehavior but highlight the same learner’s positive behavior. – “Troublemakers” should not be allowed to get away without extra work, but assignments should be designed to be engaging. – Feedback should refer not only to performance but also to behavior in class (and beyond). To create or restore a climate conducive to learning, it is a good idea to briefly interrupt the course of the lesson with relaxation and concentration exercises. The range of such suggestions in the various foreign languages is extraordinarily wide. The following suggestion could be interesting in foreignlanguage teaching: the students gradually learn sign language and spell selected (target-language) vocabulary through the corresponding hand movements. In doing so, they can name the particular letter in the foreign language.

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Any teacher can find something that appeals to their students without much difficulty. The following examples are usually exercises for children in the primary grades, but they are also suitable for older learners: Try the Old Ear–Nose Switcheroo This is a quick and easy challenge to reset the brain. Instruct kids to touch their left ear with their right hand and at the same time touch their nose with their left hand. Then have them switch their hands and touch their right ear with their left hand and their nose with their right hand. Switch back and forth a few times. Then have them close their eyes, take a deep breath, and blow it all out. (Mulvahill, 2021) Depending on the level of knowledge of the learning group, it is advisable that the teacher first introduces the relaxation exercises in the native language, then carries them out him- or herself and verbalizes them in the foreign language. The possibility of also improving English, German, French, and Spanish skills in the context of relaxation and concentration exercises should be used. (By typing “educational brain breaks” into a search engine, one can find a wealth of suggestions.)

5.2

Motivation

Classroom management in its broadest sense comprises strategies and techniques that serve to increase student motivation. For a long time, it was assumed that motivation largely could not be changed. Now we know that outside persons such as teachers can influence a student’s motivation. It is important to remember that motivation involves at least two aspects. Scientific studies have shown that a distinction must be made between the willingness to act on the one hand and the implementation of an intention on the other. This can be seen in the fact that many students, at times, do not transform their motivation – which is certainly present – into concrete action, for various reasons.

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MOTIVATION First phase of the

Second phase of the motivation process:

motivation process: Motivation (motives)

Volition (willpower)

Starting point: emotions in

Starting point: concretization, planning

connection with a goal

and preparation of the intention

Latent disposition Readiness to act

Execution of the intention

How do students assess the probability that their learning will actually be successful? It is not enough to think that a goal is worth striving for. There must also be certainty that the goal can actually be achieved. This results in the following equation: Motivation = Value of the desired goal × expectation of its attainability. If an individual does not consider a goal worth striving for, its attainability does not matter. Conversely, people may value certain goals but assume that they cannot achieve them. In both cases, motivation is zero because the equation is not an addition but a multiplication (see De Florio-Hansen, 2019b). Because it is highly variable which goals an individual attaches particular value to, the preference for so-called intrinsic (integrative) motivation, where internal motivations are the deciding factor, is no longer tenable. Research has shown that so-called extrinsic (instrumental) motivation can also be highly relevant. It depends on a close examination of the circumstances. Often learners are intrinsically (enjoyment of learning a foreign language) and extrinsically (usefulness of certain foreign-language skills for the job) motivated. Without a doubt, if individual learners are adequately motivated, this contributes to an improvement in the classroom climate and an increase in instructional success. In this context, the feedback that learners receive from the teacher, as well as the feedback that they receive from each other, play an important role. There is a close connection between feedback and

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motivation. In addition to improving (second/foreign) language competence, it is also about exploring and improving social relationships in the sense of cooperative learning as described in the previous chapter (see Section 4.3). Everything that contributes to motivation should reach all learners equally. This, of course, includes students with a history of migration, especially if they have grown up multilingual. Until recently, integration was understood as the adaptation of these learners to the mainstream dominated by “indigenous” students. Slowly, a change in thinking is taking place. More and more, the realization is gaining ground that cultural diversity is worth striving for. The term “heterogeneity” is largely being replaced by the term diversity in the sense of a positively connoted variety. This results in a culture of recognition. Subject-specific teaching that sufficiently takes into account the different target cultures is to be enhanced by culturally responsive classroom management. The teacher is committed to the success of all students and therefore has to be sensitive to their diversity. That means: – managing different teaching modalities according to the diversity of tasks and forms of work – taking advantage of the diversity of tastes and cultures, aptitudes and learning rhythms of the students – varying the learning situations in pursuit of the same objective – using successively or simultaneously different media and different ways of instruction (collective, individualized, or group work). Where, if not in school and in the classroom, should we start to express appreciation for people with a different cultural background? This concerns not only teachers, but also the students themselves. If we want all learners, without exception, to be able to reach out to others around them, the students need to know themselves well. They must gradually develop a positive self-concept with the support of the teacher in order to strengthen their ability to empathize. After all, only those who know themselves are able to relate to others in a way

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that makes interactions motivating and enriching for both parties. For the activity in TEFL Example 5.2, it may be necessary to practice creating a mind map with the students in advance if they are not yet familiar with this versatile method of collecting ideas. Beside the example given, there is also browser-based mind mapping software like GitMIND (https:/gitmind.com). If you type “online mind mapping software” into a search engine, you will find not only a variety of templates, but also instructions on how to make the best use of these digital maps for your students.

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TEFL Example: Self-Reflection TEFL Example 5.2 Reflecting on Oneself Task 1 Have you ever reflected on your positive characteristics? No? Then go ahead. Write your first name, one letter below the other, and find a positive adjective for each letter. You can also name some traits you would like to have. Maybe this will inspire you to try harder. If you have trouble, use a print or online dictionary. Example: S: self-confident I: imaginative M: measured O: open-minded N: natural E: elegant If you want, you can talk with your tandem partner or another classmate about your ideas about yourself. Task 2 Make a mind map of your personality and experiences. This kind of diagram has a central subject in the middle. The center is the starting point for subtopics that are connected to it by branches or ramifications. Take a large piece of paper and write the word “Me” in the middle. From this word the branches can indicate your strengths and weaknesses, your possibilities and values, important experiences, and hobbies. If possible, find links between the different concepts. If you cannot find the right words and expressions in the dictionaries, ask your teacher. When you are finished, you can show your partner your card or you can exchange your mind maps. Talk about your results.

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Figure 5.1 Mind Mapping

Task 3 Based on your mind map, introduce yourself to a classmate of your choice. He or she will do the same. Your activity is limited to listening to each other. You may also ask questions if you do not understand what the other person means, but it is not about expressing judgment. Take notes.

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5.3

ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK IN ITS DIFFERENT

The Implementation of a Feedback Culture

In a recent publication on the topic of feedback, in which Hattie draws the sum of his previous research and publications together with teaching expert Shirley Clarke, he summarizes the most important points that make up a teaching culture characterized by formative feedback. In doing so, he draws not only on the modeling of Black and Wiliam (1998; 2009), but also incorporates the Dweck’s research on fixed mindset (a static, rigid way of thinking) versus growth mindset (a growth-oriented attitude). The main features of a feedback culture are as follows: – Feedback is part of instructional evaluation; it is formative assessment. The learning objectives must be known to the learners; if necessary, they can be set together with them. Success criteria are then developed with the participation of the learners; they show the students how to achieve the learning objectives. They should also know what good examples look like by being given worked examples, especially at the beginning. Effective questions and feedback that really improves learning round out successful formative assessment. – Ability, willingness to perform, and enthusiasm are also important prerequisites. Effective learning and subsequently successful feedback are based on the skills that learners bring to the task. In addition, there must be the insight and ability to use the existing learning prerequisites for the task. Ultimately, curiosity and enthusiasm for learning are crucial. – Mindset and attitude continue to be fundamental: learners should approach learning tasks with a growth-oriented mindset rather than a fixed mindset (“I’m just not gifted in language learning”), especially if they get stalled in the process and do not know what to do next. A growth mindset causes them to know how to learn and how to talk about learning. As a result, they feel responsible for improving their learning and collaborate successfully with others. – Mistakes are opportunities to learn and should not be treated as something to be avoided. They are not a sign of failure.

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–

–

–

77

Heterogeneous learning groups are a prerequisite for improving teacher and learner expectations as well as performance. They can also help intensify peer feedback. While praise can help build trust and positive relationships, praise and feedback should be separated in terms of learning. Praise can be detrimental to engagement in learning. A negative correlation exists between external rewards and learning performance. All forms of feedback should avoid comparisons with other students as much as possible.

(adapted from Hattie & Clarke, 2018, p. 47) Although one may agree with most of Hattie and Clarke’s implicit claims, it is clear that this summary is an idealistic one that deliberately excludes summative assessment and grading. This should not prevent any teacher from incorporating helpful objectives into his or her own teaching and combining them with summative approaches where appropriate. In this summary, Hattie and Clarke fail to mention another important prerequisite for the success of learning and feedback, which has gained in importance particularly in connection with multimedia and digitization (see Chapter 11). The Cognitive Load Theory, which Hattie and Clarke present elsewhere in the book (pp. 84 ff.), cannot be omitted in this context. In connection with different task formats, the cognitive load or overload of short-term memory must be taken into account. The Cognitive Load Theory was developed by John Sweller and his team as early as the 1980s based on experimental studies of learning English as a foreign language (Diao, Chandler & Sweller 2007). It states that working memory has a limited capacity to absorb and therefore learning efforts should always be adjusted to the learner’s capabilities. Indeed, cognitive overload can hinder learning. It is a challenge for any teacher to reduce negative effects on learning processes by providing appropriate guidance. (De Florio-Hansen, 2019a, p. 309) Although Hattie and Clarke assume that feedback, as they understand it, always has a positive effect, the variability of results should not be overlooked, even with Hattie himself. Whereas Petty reports that Hattie ranked feedback as the second

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major influence with 0.81 (Petty, 2009, pp. 65–68) (see Section 3.3), in the well-known 2009 Visible Learning study, Hattie quantifies feedback and related factors as follows: Feedback

0.73

Knowing learning intentions

0.59

Success criteria

0.59

Classroom discussion

0.82

Teacher/student relationships

0.75

The reported effect sizes are well above the average value of 0.40 set by Hattie himself; thus, they indicate the particular learning effectiveness of certain factors (Hattie & Clarke 2018, p. 10). Since 2010, Hattie has continued his research and almost doubled the number of factors from about 130 to more than 250 (see https://visible-learning.org/backup-hattie-ranking-256effects-2017/). It is not clear whether older values were recalculated and if so, which older values were recalculated and which factors omitted in the 2017 listing. The following effect sizes can be taken from the 2017 ranking: Feedback

0.70

Knowing learning intentions

without spec.

Success criteria

without spec.

Classroom discussion

0.82

Teacher/student relationships

0.52

These data also partly contradict what Hattie and his coauthors argue. Indeed, they confirm the position of Kluger and DeNisi (1996) presented in Chapter 3. The effect of certain feedback measures can vary significantly from learning context to learning context.

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5.4

79

Not All Feedback Is Useful

Not only Kluger and DeNisi (1996), but other researchers, too, rightly point out that (formative) feedback does not always lead to deeper learning and better learning outcomes. The most important conditions must be met for feedback to have its full effect. First of all, teachers and other educationalists have to remember that feedback is often not successful, no matter how targeted it may be. It is only effective for learning if the student already has a certain level of knowledge and ability with regard to the task. Otherwise, feedback is useless at best. It can even be harmful if a sufficient level of knowledge is lacking, because feedback must refer to something. Feedback follows instruction (see Timperley, 2013; see Section 2.2 of this book). This does not mean that the content in question only needs to be gone through once and then feedback can be given. Every experienced teacher knows that several repetitions are necessary until the majority of students in a learning group have some grasp of the task. To achieve this, spaced practice is a good way: How often should phases of guided and independent practice take place? The alternative is spaced vs. massed practice. Most teachers know that accumulated practice in the form of exercises, tasks and learning activities immediately after the students have come into contact with new knowledge or skills is not effective. At the beginning the learners seem to dispose quite well of the recently learned content, but turning back to it four weeks later already causes severe remembering problems. It becomes evident that many of the learned items have been incompletely stored in long-term memory as they are not connected with other similar content in a network. Many students remember but vaguely the content of massed practice. Therefore, many teachers prefer spaced practice, i.e. they engage their students to practice the respective content at intervals. Spaced practice at the beginning takes place quite immediately after new knowledge and skills have been introduced. Further practice follows at greater intervals, e.g. after some days, then after some weeks and finally after some months. (De Florio-Hansen, 2018, p. 266) https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009218948.006 Published online by Cambridge University Press

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TEFL Example: Practicing Newly Acquired Knowledge and Skills TEFL Example 5.3 How to Practice Newly Acquired Knowledge and Skills Having learned and understood something new is not sufficient. You have to practice the newly acquired knowledge and skills. The first part of this practice is somehow guided by your teacher whereas during the second part, the independent practice, you will proceed more or less on your own. Read about the ten steps (from 20 to 29/30) of the Teaching Model and then answer the following questions. Take notes. Discuss your results with your tandem partner and then in plenary. –

Which of the following steps are the most important to you? Why?

–

Was your teacher able to encourage your participation? At which stage? To what extent? Could your teacher make you participate more? When? How?

–

Which role does the work in tandems or small groups play during guided and independent practice? Why?

–

Should cooperative learning (as mentioned in the item before) take up greater space? Why?

Guided Practice 20.

21.

22.

Graded activities for practice including short selfassessments: under the guidance of the teacher, all students are enabled through practice to improve and evaluate their understanding of the learning content. Further worked examples with explanations of the single steps leading to the solution; in this context the worked examples are part of student practice. Decision about the social setting: by agreement with the students, it is decided whether guided practice takes place in seatwork, in tandem, or in small groups.

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23.

24.

81

Formative feedback: it is (most of the time) for the teacher to give feedback to single students in difficulty or asking for help. Short explanations directed to individual students: the teacher should invite all students to seek help when their understanding of the new learning content is found to be insufficient during practice.

Independent Practice 25.

26.

27.

28. 29.

Thoroughly planned and elaborated activities that allow for deep learning and transfer: these activities are more complex and demanding, in order to further critical and creative thinking. De-contextualization: the contexts in which the presented knowledge and the skills occur are varied so that students can transfer the learned content to relevant (new) situations. Decision about the social setting: by agreement with the students, it is decided whether independent practice takes place in seatwork/homework, in tandem, or in small groups. Formative feedback: this time it should not predominantly be given by the teacher, but rather by peers. Feedback through tests: besides grading, summative feedback possibly could take forms that lead to further learning.

Transition or Conclusion 30.

At the end of an important learning phase or at the end of the lesson, the teacher and the students summarize the learning processes so that the students can make sense of their prior learning experiences.

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It is up to the teacher’s empathy when to give feedback to individual learners. He or she must have a sense of the extent to which the students have already grasped the material and are receptive to further stimuli. In any case, feedback is usually effective only when learners have reached a certain level of knowledge regarding the respective task or activity. It is also necessary to consider the fact, already mentioned in the previous chapters, that sweeping praise such as “Well done!” is useless or even harmful (see Hattie & Clarke, 2018; see Section 4.3 of this book). Praise (i.e. feedback that refers to the self and the personality of the individual learner) is to be avoided in the context of (formative and summative) feedback. It can be given elsewhere, if necessary, to improve the relationship between teachers and learners. Dweck (2007) contrasts teacher remarks with the hidden messages that students associate with blanket praise: “You learned that so quickly! You are

If I don’t learn something quickly, I’m

so smart!” “You’re so brilliant; you got an A

not smart. I’d better quit studying or they

without even studying!”

I’m brilliant.

won’t think

In the context of feedback, praise that does not relate to the task, the learning processes, or self-regulation (i.e. the learning behavior) is ineffective or even harmful. If a teacher sufficiently takes into account the students’ level of knowledge, and if he or she is oriented toward the phases of instruction as well as the goals and content, the success of feedback is far from guaranteed, even if all participants work together constructively. Just as crucial are the personalities of the teachers and learners. It has been shown time and again that a feedback procedure that triggers impulses for further work in certain learners is not perceived or not heeded by others. Scientific studies show that the vast majority of learners would like to know how they can continue to work. Nevertheless, much

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of the feedback that teachers give their students does not reach the individual learner. The main reasons for this are: – The teacher does not draw sufficient attention to the feedback so it is not perceived as feedback by the learner in question. – Often the feedback is worded too generally to actually reach the learner. – Learners perceive the teacher’s statement as feedback, but do not relate the feedback to themselves. It is certainly not too difficult to formulate oral feedback in the classroom in such a way that it reaches the individual learners for whom it is intended. It is much more difficult to provide the learner with feedback that actually helps him or her to improve his or her learning performance and to successfully complete the task. Oral feedback in form of questions directed to individual learners have proven most effective: Questions related to content and tasks: – What does X mean to you? – Can you tell me the specific steps you used to solve the problem? Explain why you chose that step at this point. Questions related to learning processes: – Did you think about alternative strategies? – Why did you choose this strategy or technique? – Could you have benefited from additional information? Questions related to self-regulation: – Did you have doubts regarding a step you chose to solve the task? – Did you ask for help? In what way? Why not? – What support would you have needed? – How did you monitor your learning while working on the task? The effect of a feedback procedure depends not least on the learning context. The personality of the teacher and the characteristics of the individual learners play a decisive role in the success of the process. Appropriate formative feedback and

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the embedding of assessment and grading (i.e. summative feedback) in a framework conducive to learning requires a high degree of intuition on the part of the teacher and a willingness to fail occasionally. Feedback can only have a positive effect in the long run if it fits the learning context and the character traits of those involved in teaching and learning. First of all, it must be in harmony with the personality of the teacher. Learners need a certain sensitivity in peer feedback, and even more so when they give the teacher their impressions of what is happening in class, either directly or indirectly (i.e. when individual students give feedback to their teacher [see Chapter 7]). It should be kept in mind that with a little skill the teacher can formulate feedback for individual students as well as for small groups in such a way that the reactions of the learners provide the teacher with hints for his or her own approach in class.

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Describe the main aims of a classroom contract. How would you realize it in class? 2. What are the main differences between a classroom contract and a behavioral contract? 3. Find examples of important procedures teachers may practice in order to minimize disruptive behavior of students. 4. What can students learn about their second or foreign language from certain relaxation and concentration exercises? 5. Which are the two main phases of motivation? 6. Explain the equation “Motivation = value of the desired goal × expectation of its attainability.” 7. For what reasons do some experts propose to replace the term heterogeneity with diversity? 8. Why is a growth mindset an important prerequisite of successful learning? 9. What is, according to you, the most important feature of a feedback culture in the seven-point list of Hattie and Clarke? Explain why. 10. Try to explain Hattie’s varying effect sizes of feedback. 11. What should teachers avoid for their feedback to have a positive impact? 12. Describe spaced practice in the context of second-/foreignlanguage teaching and learning. 13. Why should sweeping praise be avoided in the context of feedback?

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To give adequate feedback to individual learners, teachers must know them very well (i.e. their world knowledge and their respective subject matter knowledge, skills, and attitudes). How could teachers otherwise suggest what students could do next to improve their learning? To broaden the utility of different forms of feedback, teacher questions and statements should not only refer to the learning content, but have other functions. They should help assess learners’ knowledge as well as enhance their engagement (Section 6.1). The involvement of the learners has to be limited to really important aspects (Section 6.2): learning objectives (Section 6.2.1), success criteria (Section 6.2.2), and the use of adequate rubrics adapted to their learning context (Section 6.2.3). Giving learners the opportunity to redesign a teaching unit to what – in their opinion – comes closer to their needs and interests can be a helpful exercise (Sections 6.2.4 and 6.2.5).

6.1

Teacher Questions

The main purpose of the various forms of feedback described in more detail in the following chapters is above all to promote individual learning. What is true for formative assessment and feedback should be taken into account for summative procedures, too. The task of the teacher is to combine assessment of

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learning and assessment for learning, so that, at best, the two forms complement each other. To get closer to achieving this, teachers must be able to assess not only the subject knowledge of their individual students at a given time, but also their world knowledge. In addition, they must account for learners’ readiness, engagement, and motivation to learn: What knowledge, skills, and attitudes do individual learners dispose of? What are they willing to invest when completing a task? Therefore, it goes without saying that some of the questions teachers ask their students are not exclusively about the specific learning content. The answers to specific questions allow teachers to draw conclusions about how to design their instruction to best benefit all learners. Furthermore, teacher questions as well as their statements have still another function: They make it possible to involve learners in important decisions. Thus, at the beginning of a lesson or teaching unit, a teacher has not only to find out what the learners already know and can do. Beyond diagnoses of the learning level, answers or corresponding reactions of the learners show the teacher which preferences they have with regard to one or another aspect of the (new) material. Of course, the corresponding questions and stimuli have to be carefully planned by the teacher (see Weinert, 1999). This is especially true for foreign-language teaching, where the language barrier may create further difficulties. In any case, such an approach presupposes that the teacher has a high level of diagnostic competence, which must be trained as needed. More and more frequently, scholars propagate an approach that Wiliam and Leahy (2015) title “No hands up, except to ask a question” (p. 95; see also pp. 64 ff.). Every teacher knows that the same students come forward again and again. This does not mean that some of the more passive learners do not know the answer. For various reasons, often related to personality traits,

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they leave it to others. For teachers, the fact that they usually get the “right” answers from eager learners can also give them the impression that their teaching leaves little to be desired. If one wants to involve as many students as possible in teaching, not least in feedback practice, one should change this approach. There are at least seven strategies a teacher can adopt to maximize the power of questioning. The main goal of these procedures is to involve as many students as possible in the course of the lesson. Each of the seven strategies focuses on different principles. It is their combination based on the learning context and the task or activity at hand that may lead to the desired results. Teachers as well as students should get to know these strategies little by little and practice them again and again: 1. Cold calling 2. No opt-out 3. Checking for understanding 4. Probing 5. Say it again, better 6. Think–pair–share 7. Whole-class response First, teachers have to explain the procedure to their learning groups. The teacher asks a question or sets an impulse and then calls on a student at random (cold calling). If he or she wants to find out what the learners already know and are able to do, it makes little sense to call on those who always participate with their answers. The process will initially be met with resistance from learners: The eager ones, who almost always come forward, regret not being able to show their knowledge any longer; others fear that they will be mocked by the class for answering incorrectly (no opt out). The teacher must decide whether to make the procedure “Hands up only if you have a question” the basis of their entire teaching, or to use it (initially) only in certain phases. To mitigate negative reactions, the teacher can call students at random at first, but then allow other students to contribute with their answers. It can be assumed that resistance will decrease significantly after about two weeks, and learners

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will subsequently pay more attention to their classmates’ answers. If the answer is incorrect, this should not have any negative consequences for the learner. Here are some possible reactions to incorrect answers of a learner (checking for understanding, probing): – How did you arrive at . . . ? – Can you please explain why . . . ? – Do you need additional information? To get out of it with: “(I) don’t know!” is not an option. There must be no retreat. Otherwise, a key effect of the “Hands up only if you have a question” procedure would be lost, namely, that everyone thinks about the question because they do not know who the teacher is calling on. Depending on the response of individual learners, the teacher may randomly select another student to engage in conversation with the first learner. In this way, several learners can gradually share their possible answers or views. In any case, the first response should be followed by an appropriate reaction in the subsequent conversation (say it again, better). Teachers in the English-speaking world often use a method that largely eliminates subjective decisions by the teacher. In class, there is a container of sticks – ice lolly sticks would work – with the name of a learner or a number representing an individual learner on the stick. From these, the teacher makes a selection – now really at random. Sometimes, a learner manages the container. An important condition for the described procedure to function well is based on the so-called “wait time.” This means that the teacher waits an appropriate amount of time, depending on the question, before calling on a learner. Wait time should actually be applied to all questions and stimuli, not just when the teacher is randomizing.

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In addition, it is a good idea to use the Think–Pair–Share teaching principle: The brief engagement with the learning content in individual work is followed by a quick exchange in tandems before the results are presented in a concise form in plenary (see Section 3.3). Self-assessment (see Chapter 9) does not only apply to students. Teachers, too, are required to evaluate themselves in a wide variety of areas, such as the teacher issues addressed in this section. From time to time, they should consider the extent to which they follow the principles suggested by Wiliam and Leahy: I don’t I do this

This is

I could

do this sometimes embedded support in my practice I find out what every student knows at least once a lesson, by using an all-student response system I ensure that all students have time to think about an answer to a question I pose before I choose who answers. I give a student a way out if unable to answer my question, but then I come back to that student.

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I ask a hinge question during a lesson when I need to decide whether I could move on. Students pose their own questions, which other students answer. I make “no hands up” a standard classroom policy. I use statements rather than questions to encourage more thoughtful answers. I use learning logs, exit cards, or another way of collecting extended responses from students. I test students, look at their answers, and then teach the areas that students have problems with before I move on. (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, p. 97)

6.2

Examples of Learner Involvement

It is not without reason that the chapter heading is “Involving Learners in Important Decisions.” Teaching is so diverse that it is

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by no means possible to name, let alone discuss in more detail, all the occasions when feedback can be helpful to learners. Parts II and III, therefore, present the areas that are important in any classroom, especially in foreign-language instruction. This not only allows for an adequate presentation of important forms of feedback and their potential impact. Teachers who wish to give feedback a greater place in their teaching will not be deterred by the abundance of recommendations and examples. The two researchers and their teams who give feedback a proper place in classroom practice – Wiliam and Hattie and colleagues – are not, in my opinion, worthy of emulation in this regard. In the Wiliam and Leahy’s (2015) work, the authors state that their goal is to enable individual teachers to integrate selected forms of feedback into their instruction on their own. In approximately 200 pages, they present over 120 feedback procedures, which they list at the beginning of the book (see pp. xi–xv). Hattie and Clarke limit themselves in this respect; however, they do not use certain procedures in the conventional way, such as in the SOLO-taxonomy of Biggs and Collis (1982), but propose a rather complex use of this analysis tool (Hattie & Clarke, 2018, pp. 68 ff.). 6.2.1

Alternative Suggestions for Possible Learning Objectives To enable learners to participate appropriately, they should be familiarized with the learning objectives at the beginning of a lesson. These should be set according to the principles of backward design (i.e. the objectives are essentially fixed before methods, media, and forms of feedback are selected and used). The teacher does not necessarily need to name the objectives at the very beginning of a new lesson, but early enough that the specifications help students learn. They need to know what they should and want to accomplish. Mainly advanced students can participate in selecting objectives. It is important to keep in mind that objectives and often content are dictated by the curriculum. Moreover, only the teacher has the necessary overview. Nevertheless, it is

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possible to imagine that learners in advanced classes can contribute by choosing between alternative specifications given by the teacher. In general, even in most of the examples presented here, it is helpful not to confront learners with direct questions right from the start. To ensure that students can really participate and not get the impression that they are only being included pro forma, questions that give them a credible alternative in terms of learning objectives are a good idea: Consider the following formulations: – After the end of our teaching unit about stereotypes, what do you think could be our next learning intentions? Should we deal with friendship and love across cultures or should we read a short story that is based on stereotypes in an indirect way? – In our last unit you have learned how to create a poster. What can be our aims in the next weeks? Would it make sense to create a more sophisticated poster about visiting an interesting place in the United States or should we present our school to your exchange partners in the United States using an online document?

6.2.2

Identifying Success Criteria Based on Reciprocal Teaching/Learning and Worked Examples To gradually lead learners to work more independently, they should be involved in defining learning success criteria as early as possible. As with learning objectives, it is important to keep in mind that criteria should not be tied to specific content. Otherwise, many students will have difficulty transferring the strategies and techniques to alternative learning contexts and other content. In addition, it should be considered that success criteria are sometimes mandatory, but sometimes they only designate certain tools from which learners can choose. For example, there are obligatory rules for spelling and

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grammar or the structure of a particular genre, while the description of a protagonist in a narrative leaves a lot of leeway. To give the students hints on how to proceed or on what they can see if they are on the right track, one or more worked examples can be presented right at the beginning. Sometimes teachers are reluctant to put a worked example or the solution of reciprocal teaching/learning at the start of a lesson because they fear that it will discourage students from thinking and working on their own as they will seek to copy the example. Scientific research shows that this is not the case; on the contrary, learners actually achieve better results with examples This may be because the examples guide their learning from the beginning, meaning the students do not have to rely on trial and error. In the literature, it is often recommended to use learners’ results from previous school years as a worked example. This recommendation can be useful at times; however, it assumes that the teacher will set the same tasks over and over again. This may be appropriate from time to time, but in my opinion it is questionable. Learning content and instructional activities may be similar in successive school years, and the learners may resemble one another to a certain extent, but in my view, they usually require goals, content, and methods tailored to them, and to them alone. For example, Doug Lemov (2020) declines to use the Khan Academy proposals, although they are considered viable and worthy of emulation. In short, the example worked out and similar procedures should be tailored to the particular learning group. Whether one provides more or less “perfect” examples, incorporates certain shortcomings, or provides learners with several worked examples depends on numerous factors: the learning context, the subject goals and content, and last but not least, the difficulty of the task to be accomplished. After the learners have familiarized themselves with the worked example(s) and the suggestions of reciprocal teaching/learning, they can indicate if and why they rate the examples conducive and which aspects they consider less pertinent. If you want to be

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sure that the learners really understand the guidelines and can apply them to their work, you should use – exclusively or in part – the learners’ native language. In advanced classes, the discussion of worked examples and reciprocal teaching/ learning can be done in English with the help of the following formulations: – – – –

How is the example relevant to our task? Why? What points are at odds with the task at hand? What details would you take up and modify? What would you possibly leave out? Why or why not?

TEFL Example: Reciprocal Teaching/Learning and Worked Examples This example combines reciprocal teaching/learning with a worked example. Both methods are often integrated to improve student learning. In an online article on the ZPD by Lev Vygotsky, Saul A. McLeod writes: A contemporary application of Vygotsky’s theories is “reciprocal teaching,” used to improve students’ ability to learn from text. In this method, teacher and students collaborate in learning and practicing four skills: questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher’s role in the process is reduced over time. (McLeod, 2022) Reciprocal teaching emerged as early as the 1980s and is attributed to American scholar Annemarie Palincsar and her team (Palincsar, 2013). The four sub-strategies correspond broadly to what competent readers do outside of the classroom. The content and language of the text “A Really Wise Man” are within the students’ reach (adapted from De Florio-Hansen, 2019a, p. 143). The task, namely predicting what the wise man might have answered, provides an opportunity for discussion of various hypotheses in plenary. McLeod’s brief notes on how to proceed

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in class need to be clarified in order to use the methodological approach as appropriately as possible: In order to actually exploit the possibilities of this strategy, it is first the teacher who slips into the respective roles in the four phases and gives the learners hints on how the group members can act in the individual phases. Depending on how familiar the learners are with cooperative forms of work, it may make sense to initially limit themselves to only one phase, namely asking questions. Only when learners master the role of the questioner are the following phases gradually introduced and the procedure practiced. (De Florio-Hansen, 2019a, p. 140) I have linked the two methodological procedures – reciprocal teaching and the provision of a worked example – to make it even clearer to students what is at stake in this four-phase form in which they get more and more involved in their learning practice. The proposed solutions are intentionally designed to allow for suggestions for improvement.

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TEFL Example 6.1 A Really Wise Man Task 1 In tandems, read the following text: Urban Legend At the entrance to a village, a wise old man was resting by a well. A pilgrim arrives who wants to settle in the village. He asks the old man: “Tell me what the people in your village are like. I would like to settle here. Where I was before, people are mean and slanderous. That’s why I left.” “People are the same here,” the wise man replied. And the pilgrim went on his way. A second pilgrim arrived. “How are the people in your village?” he asked the old sage. “How were the people you’ve been with so far?” “Very kind and helpful. It was hard to leave them.” “People are the same here.” A young man from the village sat in on the conversations. “I don’t understand,” he said to the wise man. “To one you say that people are bad, to the other that they are good.” And the wise man replied: . . . Task 2 Read the questions of the members of the fictitious group and the answers of the “teacher”: Phase 1: Questioning When does the story take place? Probably in the past, because the author talks about pilgrims. Why do the pilgrims ask the wise man, “What are the people in your village like?” Because they want to settle in this village. Write down your proposals (up to four).

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Task 3 Read the summary and correct or improve it: Phase 2: Summarize Two pilgrims ask a wise man how the people in his village behave toward their neighbors. To the person who has had negative experiences with his neighbors so far, the wise man replies that people are the same in his village. To the other person who has had positive experiences, he gives the same answer (i.e. that the people in the village are nice). A young person who witnessed the scene wants to know why the wise man reacted the way he did. Your suggestions: Task 4 What do you think of these explanations? Phase 3: Clarify Why do the pilgrims address the wise man? Because he is a respected person. Why does the story have the title “Urban Legend?” Because it could happen anywhere. Your suggestions: Task 5 Try to predict what the wise man answers to the youngster’s question. Work in groups of four. Phase 4: Predicting Your suggestions: What about the solution? Ask your teacher.

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6.2.3 Using Rubrics In English-speaking countries, especially in the United States, rubrics are grading guides – typically presented as a grid – used to assess and evaluate student work. However, these grids can also serve as a basis for discussion when preparing an assignment. They are recommended by most experts as feedback aids for students. Especially at the beginning of a new lesson, they can get the dialogue going with the learners. Although there are lots of English grids for foreignlanguage teaching, very few can be adopted directly. In most cases, they have to be adapted more or less toa teacher’s own learning context. This may be time-consuming at first, but it has the advantage that the rubrics are tailored to the respective learning group and cannot only be used by the teacher for grading. Through the criteria grid, the learners learn what is important and how they can understand step by step how far they are still from a good to very good solution. To familiarize students with rubrics that are designed for narrative writing in the United States, you may ask: What is such a rubric good for? Learners will note that these grids are primarily intended for teachers’ hands. They list criteria that help teachers determine a grade so that they are less dependent on subjective impressions. If not by themselves, students will succeed in changing their perspective with the help of the teacher: How can you use a rubric for your own learning? The students could have a look at the rubric created by Catlin Tucker (2018), but they will immediately understand that they should not follow it, because the learning context in an English lesson at a US middle school is quite different from their learning in a foreignlanguage classroom. So, it is best to create – possibly involving the students – a rubric that fits their needs and aspirations better than a grid taken from a quite different learning context. In any case, a criteria grid created for their use helps them to improve their learning, as they now know more precisely what is important. The following areas can serve as a rough orientation for which the teacher, together with the learners, determines

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further details adapted to the goals and contents of the learning group: – Organization and presentation – Accuracy – Comprehensibility: ability to communicate ideas and to be understood – Creativity – Language production (“Rubric for foreign language creative writing assignment,” n.d.) Once again it is advised to create your own grids or to adapt the existing ones accordingly. 6.2.4 Redesigning the Starting Point of a Textbook Lesson To involve the learners in the “everyday happenings” in class, it is a good idea to let them rewrite or flesh out the beginning of a lesson in their textbook. Surely, students have often complained about how boring they find working with the textbook. Which teacher is completely satisfied with the textbook he or she often was not involved in selecting? It should not be too difficult, therefore, to find a lesson in the textbook whose introduction can be redesigned. It is best for learners to engage with the lesson they will work on next.

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TEFL Example: Redesigning a Lesson

TEFL Example 6.2 Finding Appropriate and Motivating Starting Points Activity 1 In your English class, you use a textbook that is not very interesting. The texts of the lessons are superficial and far from your reality. Your teacher is not happy either, but she has no influence, because she started teaching at the beginning of this school year. So, she suggests something unexpected: You have the freedom to criticize the contents of the next lesson, to reformulate them, and to structure them in a way that is clearer and closer to real communication. This starting point takes into account several principles that help increase motivation and lead to better learning results. These principles are –

simplicity: expressing oneself in a simple and clear way, taking into account the knowledge and experience of the learners

–

unexpected aspects: to arouse curiosity; to show a gap in order to fill it with new ideas concreteness: appeal to emotions, avoid specific terms, use concrete language credibility: invite the students to look and listen for themselves to show that their own proposals are credible

– – –

emotions: evoke feelings; a telling example is better than an explanation

–

stories: if possible, integrate what you want to say into a story. In groups of four, explain which of these principles the teacher’s proposal to critique the textbook corresponds to. Take notes and discuss in plenary.

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Activity 2 It’s your turn. If necessary, consult your textbook or grammar book. Or enter the specific problem into a search engine. Try to follow the six principles above. To help you a bit: You could use images and videos (e.g. YouTube), audio texts, emojis, but also narratives or personal stories. Work with your tandem partner and take notes. After you finish, talk about your ideas in class.

6.2.5 Redesigning a Lesson about the Roots of Jazz The activity in TEFL Example 6.3 has been devised for advanced English learners who are used to working independently and are ready to put it to the test. It is about modifying or – if necessary – fundamentally changing the lesson unit proposed by Bernd Klewitz. A slight modification in the teaching procedure could, for example, consist of swapping Task 1 and Task 2: First, the students learn about the content of the film and only then listen to the song “Roll, Jordan, Roll.” A bigger change would be to have the song “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” performed by a singer known to the majority of the learners (e.g. via YouTube) and then have the students suggest tasks and activities to find out what this song is all about. By redesigning the lesson example, in which they partly take the role of the teacher, the students will realise how difficult it is to plan and design a lesson that the majority of learners can cope with, that nevertheless increases their linguistic and cultural knowledge, and, last but not least, that (most of) them enjoy.

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TEFL Example: The Roots of Jazz TEFL Example 6.3 The Roots of Jazz Task 1 Read the following introduction. Then watch the YouTube-video for the song “Roll, Jordan Roll” from the movie Twelve Years a Slave (www.youtube.com/watch?v=D0mZgvLVwbI [last accessed August 2022]). During the nineteenth century, this spiritual (written by Charles Wesley one century earlier) became well-known among American slaves as a coded message for escape during the American Civil War. It helped inspire the blues and was used as one of the songs in the movie 12 Years a Slave, which told the story of a free black man from upstate New York who was abducted and sold into slavery in the time before the American Civil War (1841). He was held for twelve years before being released. Lyrics Well, roll Jordan, roll (roll Jordan) Roll Jordan, roll (roll Jordan, roll Jordan) I want to go to heaven when I die Roll Jordan, roll (chorus)

Task 2 Together with your tandem partner, read the following text about the movie 12 Years a Slave, based on a memoir by Solomon Northup, the main protagonist himself. Then outline the plot and describe the historical background. Compare your results to those of other tandems before discussing in plenary. Why, in your opinion, was (and is) the movie such a great success? Twelve Years a Slave at a Glance Solomon Northup’s 12 Years a Slave recounts the author’s life story as a free black man from the North who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in the pre-Civil War South.

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The son of an emancipated slave, Northup was born free. He lived, worked, and married in upstate New York, where his family resided. He was a multifaceted laborer and also an accomplished violin player. In 1841, two con men offered him lucrative work playing fiddle in a circus, so he traveled with them to Washington, DC, where he was drugged, kidnapped, and subsequently sold as a slave into the Red River region of Louisiana. For the next twelve years, he survived as the human property of several different slave masters, with the bulk of his bondage lived under the cruel ownership of a Southern planter named Edwin Epps. In January 1853, Northup was finally freed by Northern friends who came to his rescue. He returned home to his family in New York and there, with the help of editor David Wilson, wrote his account in 12 Years a Slave (see also www.solomonnorthup.com; www.history.com/news/solomonnorthup-after-his-12-years-a-slave [last accessed May 2022]).

Task 3 Read the following text; then listen to the song “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” (www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8frEt6w4G8 [last accessed May 2022]). Gospel Soul – “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” The origins of this gospel song tune lie in the attempts of slaves escaping slavery by means of jumping on wagons to hide and get away. Working in the cotton fields, slaves would sing this gospel song about a fellow slave escaping this way – “chariot” being a euphemism for the means of transport. Lyrics I looked over Jordan and what did I see? Commin’ for to carry me home There was a band of angels, a-commin after me Commin’ for to carry me home Swing low, sweet chariot Commin’ for to carry me home Swing low, sweet chariot Commin’ for to carry me home

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Well, I’m sometimes up, and I’m sometimes down Comin’ for to carry me home But I know my soul is heavenly bound Comin’ for to carry me home In a group of four, try to find out about at least three celebrities that have performed the song. Exchange your results in plenary. The list of those who have since recorded “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” reads like a virtual “Who’s Who” of artists, ranging from concert soloists to country singers. Type it into a search engine to see. Task 4 Perhaps you have heard the following song in one or another version. Now listen to “Take the ‘A’ Train” written for Duke Ellington (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cb2w2m1JmCY [last accessed May 2022]). The “A” train is the New York subway line that leads to the Sugar Hill District of Harlem. Lyrics Take the “A” Train You must take the “A” train To go to Sugar Hill way up in Harlem If you miss the “A” train You’ll find you missed the quickest way to Harlem Hurry, get on, now it’s coming Listen to those rails a-thrumming All aboard, get on the “A” train Soon you will be on Sugar Hill in Harlem In a group of four, discuss why “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” (Task 2) and “Take the ‘A’ Train,” as well as other gospel songs and spirituals you may know are still very popular right up to the present day. Have a discussion on the results in plenary. (adapted from Klewitz, 2021, pp. 270–72)

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Why is it important to involve the students in important decisions in order to implement a successful feedback culture? 2. Describe the benefits and possible disadvantages of the method “No hands up, except to ask a question.” 3. What does “cold calling” mean? Do you think that this is a useful strategy? Why? Why not? 4. On the basis of examples taken from the second-/foreignlanguage classroom, describe the Think–Pair–Share method. 5. What does “wait time” mean? 6. Which of the principles suggested by Wiliam and Leahy is in your opinion the most important one? Why? 7. What does backward design mean? 8. Explain the strategy “reciprocal teaching/learning” on the basis of TEFL Example 6.1. You can also choose another example that you think is more convenient. 9. In what way can teachers and learners profit from a criteria grid? Why are these rubrics also useful for students? 10. Have you ever tried to redesign a lesson (in whole or in part)? What do you think about TEFL Example 6.3?

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FEEDBACK IS NO ONE-WAY STREET Teachers and Learners

Teachers’ feedback for their learners is most effective when it is based on statements of individual students, because feedback is quite often a reciprocal procedure that is, effective feedback procedures should be seen as sort of a conversation between teachers and learners (and between the peers themselves; see Chapter 8). For the most impact, students must perceive the different forms and aspects of feedback as a help for further learning in an adequate manner. Teachers have to pay attention to the formulation, timing, and many other principles of feedback (Section 7.1). In this context, an important asset is diagnostic assessment and the respective feedback that should not be seen in contrast to but as a complement to learning level assessment (Section 7.1.1). Another distinction has to be made with regard to the different feedback procedures related to the content and the task, the learning processes, and the selfregulation of the learners (Section 7.1.2). Hattie and his co-authors show how teachers can induce learners in different ways to give some sort of feedback about how they are able to profit from the behavior of the teacher (Section 7.2). This can be done quite well at the end of a more or less extensive teaching unit (Section 7.2.1).

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Teacher Feedback for Individual Learners

If the main aim of feedback is to promote individual students’ learning (i.e. to give them guidance on what they can do next and what they need to pay attention to achieve their learning goals), what the teacher says is probably not the most important thing – the statements of the learners themselves are. Only when the teacher learns how a student has conducted themselves, where problems have arisen, and what questions are still unanswered can their feedback (and/or feedback from peers) have its full effect. Therefore, teacher feedback for students and learner feedback for the teacher are not treated separately but in one chapter. Furthermore, in many teaching contexts, it is not possible to divide them, because feedback is often reciprocal. Teachers can improve their feedback practice primarily by trying to elicit the individual learner’s previous understanding of the task and then bringing into play variations regarding cognitive processes as well as additional information and alternative strategies. The students’ learning behavior as well as their perseverance should be strengthened in the process too. Of course, the teacher can and must also make the respective learners understand that their (previous) solution is not correct. This requires group cohesion and a particularly positive student– teacher relationship. An important precondition is that both sides – the teacher and the students – succeed in making themselves clearly understood. Teachers must take special care to ensure that their feedback actually reaches the learner(s) for whom it is intended. If it is perceived as a general recommendation, most students will not pay attention to it. So first of all, the teacher must make his feedback clearly identifiable as such. It must be worded in such a way that it actually reaches the student or students it is intended to benefit and is perceived appropriately by those it affects. In addition, it often happens that students classify the teacher’s remarks as feedback, but do not relate it to themselves (see Section 5.4). Feedback from the teacher needs to be as

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specific as possible to the learner or learners who are to benefit from it for their further learning. But there are many other aspects to consider if students are to improve their learning, increase their motivation, and develop their personalities. Above all, the timing of feedback is critical if feedback practices are to be helpful for the learners. It does not help students if they receive feedback from the teacher about something that happened a week ago that they have already “shelved.” The importance of the right timing in formative feedback is repeatedly pointed out in scientific research: It should not be given too early, when students have not yet completed the respective session (i.e. they do not yet have the knowledge and skills which they can relate the feedback to [see Chapter 5.4]). However, the teacher must not wait for too long with the feedback. If they do, the learners do not use it because they are now busy with something else (see Li, Zhu & Ellis, 2016, pp. 276–95). Remember: If we wait too long to give feedback, the moment can be lost and our students might not be able to connect the feedback to their original action. So, wait until they’ve made their first attempt, received self and peer feedback and edited their work; then get in there as quickly as possible and give them some excellent advice to improve their performance even more. (Nottingham & Nottingham, 2017, p. 24) Hattie (2012, pp. 115–37) lists eight crucial points for improving teacher feedback for their learners. These principles provide a fairly comprehensive overview of possible approaches: Affective Processes These relate mainly to the teacher–student relationship. Teachers need to make learners feel that everyone is accepted without distinction. They can also show learners, through short stories or biographies of famous people, that they can achieve high goals if they put in the necessary effort and act as confidently as possible.

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Increased Effort, Motivation, or Engagement When teachers notice that learners are slacking in one area or another, or are outright demotivated, admonitions or reprimands are of little help. A better option is to find out together with the learner what the (partial) failure is due to. Here, too, concrete examples, interesting stories, or riddles can help. In addition, the role model of the teacher himself is often underestimated. How can teachers expect effort, motivation, and commitment from students if they themselves do not show the corresponding characteristics? Providing Different Cognitive Processes They come into play when it is necessary to present parts or all of the subject matter again because individual students or groups of students have not reached the targeted level. The verbal explanation of unfamiliar vocabulary rarely leads to success. It makes more sense for teachers to use effective strategies such as examples or visualizations. Learners benefit most from re-presentation when they are involved in the construction of the helps. Restructuring Understanding Learners are given opportunities to recall from memory concepts or schemas that they have already learned and stored. For example, if they are asked to formulate a complaint about an incorrect or inadequate delivery from an online vendor, the teacher can remind them that in an exercise in the textbook they worked on the complaint of a guest in a restaurant. Another possibility is to provide worked examples. Correct or Incorrect Group cohesion and respectful interaction are prerequisites for learners to stand by possible mistakes or errors without fear or timidity. Feedback from the teacher or peers is particularly successful when everyone can say what they mean and the learning atmosphere allows mistakes and errors to be seen as learning opportunities. It contributes to learning success when incorrect or only partially correct statements can be addressed outright and corrected.

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More Information The teacher should always have some additional information and materials available. This way, learners can always contact the teacher if they need more information and/or cannot find the Internet sources provided. The teacher’s help or that of peers is also needed if individual students are not sure whether the sources they have found are reliable and/or whether they are sufficient to complete the task successfully. New Directions Often learners get in their own way because they have formed inappropriate habits with regard to their learning strategies or techniques. The teacher’s effort in such cases is to work with individual learners to uncover preconceived notions so that the students can expand their critical and creative thinking and give their learning a new direction. Alternative Strategies This requirement is closely related to the preceding recommendation. Even if learners are broadly successful with their learning, teachers should encourage them to try alternative practices. In advance, appropriate (rarer) strategies or their combination can be discussed and illuminated by examples in Interactive Classroom Instruction. In view of the complex problems that learners will face later in life, they have to be prepared early enough to take sometimes untraveled paths. (adapted from Hattie, 2012, pp. 115–37) After a review of the extensive literature on the effective use of feedback principles within the process of instruction Hattie and his co-author Mark Gan (2011) arrived at several significant observations. Even though many of them have already been mentioned in previous chapters, it makes sense to repeat them, underscoring the different challenges they include for teachers.

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1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

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It is important to focus on how feedback is received rather than how it is given. Feedback becomes powerful when it renders criteria for success in achieving learning goals transparent to the learner. Feedback becomes powerful when it cues a learner’s attention onto the task, and effective task-related strategies, but away from self-focus. Feedback needs to engage learners at, or just above, their current level of functioning. Feedback should challenge the learner to invest effort in setting challenging goals. The learning environment must be open to errors and disinformation. Peer feedback provides a valuable platform for elaborative discourse. Given opportunities, students readily learn appropriate methods and rules by which respectful peer feedback can be harnessed. Feedback cues teachers to deficiencies within their instructional management and can lead to efforts to improve teaching practices. (Hattie & Yates, 2014, p. 70; my emphasis)

7.1.1

Learning Level Diagnosis and Learning Level Assessment To successfully teach and provide appropriate feedback to students, teachers need to know the level of knowledge and understanding as well as the overarching competencies of their learners. Is it not enough for the teacher to know what has been covered in the last months and weeks? Providing targeted feedback to individual learners, as you can see from Hattie’s overview, requires much more than checking off what the curriculum prescribes. Assessment for learning, or rather diagnostic assessment, measures what knowledge and skills a student has at a given point in time with the goal of developing an appropriate plan for further learning. Therefore, the continuous registration of progress in learning and performance is necessary. Of course, learning assessment is only one part of a comprehensive feedback culture,

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but it is the starting point for setting or confirming goals and content for a particular group of learners. In doing so, the teacher should keep individual learners in mind. Hattie and Clarke (2018) recommend a five-minute discussion with or, better, within the learning group to diagnose learning levels. Such a discussion has numerous benefits: Learners discuss and reflect on their own understanding of the content in question. The teacher can listen to what they have to say and get an idea of the level of learning. This gives him or her an indication of how the planned lesson should proceed. In addition, the author team makes suggestions for so-called starter questions (i.e. introductory questions that can get the discussion going). Of these, only one can be related to foreign-language teaching and learning: “Does sentence start variety play a more important part in fiction or non-fiction?” In any case, what is needed are concrete questions about content, which undoubtedly stimulate and concretize exchanges among learners rather than questions like, “What do you know about . . . ?” (Hattie & Clarke, 2018, pp. 50f.). In any case, the teacher should strive to relate the learners’ statements, as a kind of ideal, to the quality criteria (mainly validity and reliability) even without being empirically evaluated. From these briefly presented learning-level diagnoses, which consist of subjective measurements, learning-level assessments are to be distinguished that are based on external evaluation criteria. The basis for this in the teaching and learning of foreign languages are often the levels of the CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages; Council of Europe, 2001) and/or other educational standards. However, the results of these learning status surveys, which are based on summative assessment, can also be used as a basis for discussion: – –

–

Did the tasks and activities of the test correspond to your expectations? Which ones did so more? Which ones less? Together with your tandem partner replace one of the tasks. Why do you think that your choice is more convenient? What would you do differently when preparing for the next test?

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7.1.2

Feedback Regarding the Task, the Learning Processes, and Self-Regulation If learners are still at the beginning of their work on a task, they focus mainly on the content and less on the learning processes and self-regulation. The last two aspects come into play only when the learners have already reached an appropriate level of knowledge and understanding (see Section 5.4). Therefore, the teacher’s feedback should initially be limited to the correction of incorrect statements; additional hints should be put aside for the time being. However, corrective feedback is by no means limited to stating the correct or desired solution. Corrective feedback can take different forms: – The teacher directly points out that there is an error and names the correct form. – The teacher indirectly indicates that the learner’s answer is incorrect by naming the correct form (with appropriate emphasis, if necessary). – The teacher asks the learner to reconsider the answer and repeat it in the correct form: Excuse me, I don’t understand (what you mean). – The teacher gives a meta-linguistic hint by indicating that, for example, the time of the verb form is not chosen appropriately: What do you mean? Today or in the past? – The teacher prompts the learner to reconsider his or her formulation by asking questions and making statements: How do you express that in English? The word . . . does not exist in English. – The teacher repeats the learner’s statement, emphasizing the incorrect word or passage. (based on Lyster & Ranta, 1997, pp. 37–66; see Ellis, 2009, pp. 97–107) Which of these correction procedures is successful on which occasions in a learning group or with individual learners should be determined by the teacher. My plea is to avoid artificial arrangements as much as possible. But this presupposes a genuine relationship at eye level.

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The listed corrective feedback procedures play a role in the context of electronic technologies (i.e. online learning offers). For cost reasons, learning software usually offers the same solutions for all learners. Indeed, individualized feedback poses great challenges to program producers. Moreover, when feedback is provided using digital tools or via learning platforms, it also poses dangers: Negative feedback can demotivate individual learners if it is not mitigated by a supportive intervention from the teacher. The latter, of course, is only possible in face-to-face encounters (for more details, see Chapter 11). As mentioned before (see Section 5.4), conversations with individual learners are of utmost importance. These may be learners who approach the teacher as he or she walks through the class during an individual or group activity. Depending on the topic and the activity, the teacher may also approach and advise tandems or small groups. The teacher’s skill lies primarily in identifying which learners need help. These short conversations are best conducted in the native language of the learners. To ensure that the foreign language is not neglected, the teacher can repeat individual aspects that various learners have found problematic in the second/foreign language to the entire learning group. Particularly in the initial phase of a lesson, reteaching is sometimes necessary because the students are not yet able to relate feedback to the task and its content.

7.2

Feedback from Learners for the Teacher

Most teachers like to know what their learners think about their teaching. While they have an idea of how their teaching behaviors and their classroom management are received by their learners, they would like to know specifics. Despite lively interest, some researchers and teachers reject learner feedback for the teacher. They consider learner–teacher feedback inappropriate for at least three reasons (see De Florio-Hansen, 2018, pp. 290 ff):

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The results could be falsified because some students may take an opportunistic position: They give positive feedback to the teacher because they fear negative consequences if they demotivate him or her. This opportunistic stance could be motivated by the education received at home. Or the parents do not accept any critical remark and/ or they have taught their children to respect authorities without any criticism. The positive feedback may also result from a misinterpretation of the questionnaire items. 2. Some teachers reject feedback given by the students because they think that the responsibility is theirs in any case. As well as many parents, they cherish a traditional image of teachers and educators. If the teacher does not know what to do, who else knows it? Teachers themselves have to deduce from the flow of the lesson and the results what did not go the right way. In any case, it is the task of the teacher to evaluate and adapt his or her behavior continuously. 3. Feedback given by students may even induce teachers to alter their strategies and techniques or even their approach to teaching a foreign language. They may feel under pressure and modify their teaching style against their conviction. Undoubtedly, every teacher can improve his or her teaching, and make it more effective and more appropriate for the particular group of learners. But the continuously necessary adaptations and modifications should derive from his or her insights and convictions. This rejection can be contrasted with a statement by Hattie: 1.

Feedback from students to teachers involves information and understanding about the tasks that make the difference in light of what the teacher already understands, misunderstands, and constructs about the learning of his or her student. (Hattie, 2009, p. 238) In addition, Hattie calls for teachers to see learning through the eyes of learners, or better yet, to become learners themselves (Hattie, 2009, passim).

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It is quite clear to Hattie that this is a long road. In the context of different approaches, he suggests that the teacher should do some kind of self-evaluation in front of the class. In my view, this is a suggestion worth considering, and one that other scholars and educators are making as well. Teachers’ assessments of their own teaching can serve as a starting point for a conversation with the students. Michaela Brohm (2012) has designed a questionnaire for this purpose: Please mark with a cross where applicable: Strongly Somewhat Somewhat Strongly disagree disagree

agree

My students can feel themselves often as self-determined in my lessons. I often introduce strange, new, big, crazy, or stimulating tasks. The “arousal level” during my lessons is in the optimal medium range. Whenever possible, I facilitate direct contact between the object of learning and the students (primary experience). I have appropriately high-performance expectations of my students.

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Can you draw a general conclusion from the answers to the questionnaire? Is there still didactic room for increasing student activation in the layout of your lessons? (p. 20; my translation) In my opinion, this questionnaire is suitable to serve as a starting point for a self-evaluation of the teacher in front of the learning group after appropriate reformulations. Some aspects will certainly provoke feedback from the learners for the teacher. This conversation could also be conducted in the native language of the learners so that they are more likely to be able to verbalize their impressions. 7.2.1 Learner Feedback at the End of a Teaching Unit At the end of a lesson, the teacher can ask individual learners what they have learned. Hattie and Clarke make the following suggestions reproduced with slight modifications to make them applicable in the foreign-language classroom: 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

What were the main . . . concepts and ideas that you learned today or that we discussed in class today? What questions do you still have about . . . ? If you don’t have a question, write a similar problem and solve it instead. Describe a mistake or misconception that you or a classmate had in class today. What did you learn from this mistake or misconception? How did you or your group approach today’s problem or problem set? Was your approach successful? What did you learn from your approach? Describe in detail how someone else in class approached a problem. How is their approach similar or different to the way you approached the problem? What new vocabulary words or terms were introduced today? What do you believe each new word means? Give an example/picture of each word.

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7. 8. 9. 10.

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What was the (big) debate about in class today? What did you learn from the debate? How is . . . similar or different to . . . ? What would happen if you changed . . . ? What were some of your strengths and weaknesses in this unit? What is your plan to improve in your areas or weakness?

(adapted from Hattie & Clarke, 2018, pp. 134 f.) Such detailed questioning should only be done occasionally (e.g. if the teacher has the impression that some learners could not follow the lesson). Otherwise, learners no longer take questions of this kind seriously or they make up answers. This is different with similar questions at the end of a teaching unit or a school (half) year, because usually the students also take stock for themselves and would presumably like to have feedback on their personal impressions. Teachers can draw on the following list of questions from Hattie and Clarke. Of course, the answers should serve as a starting point for conversations with (individual) learners. Questions at the end of a (smaller or larger) teaching unit: – Has your learning improved so far in year . . . ? How? – How has your teacher helped you to learn? – What could your teacher do differently to help you learn? (Hattie & Clarke, 2018, pp. 127ff.) In addition, Hattie and Clarke present a proposal by Wallace and Kirkman (2017) that provides further steps on the path to feedback from learners for their teacher. Feedback on a topic – What part of the topic did you find most interesting? Why? – Which part did you find least interesting? How could I make it more interesting for another class?

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– – – – –

What aspects of the topic do you remember best? Why do you think that? Which activities or tasks helped you to learn best? Which parts of the topic did you struggle to understand? Was there an aspect of the topic you wish we’d more time to explore? If you were going to teach this topic to someone else, how would you do it?

(Hattie & Clarke, 2018, p. 132) The following learning log – the suggestion comes from Wiliam and Leahy (2015, p. 102) – can be used in many ways: as feedback to the teacher by name or anonym but also in the context of peer feedback (see Chapter 8) or selfassessment (see Chapter 9). My learning log

Name:

Date:

I might have learned more if ………………………………………………… I was particularly interested in ……………………………………………… The most useful thing I have taken from this lesson is ……………………… I’m not sure about …………………………………………………………… I was surprised by …………………………………………………………… One thing I …………………………………………………………………… I want to find out more about ………………………………………………. What I most liked about the lesson was…………………………………….

TEFL Example: Antonio’s Feedback for His English Teacher The following narrative can be discussed with students in class. This presupposes, of course, that the teacher him- or herself is willing to allow criticism in some form – preferably not anonymous.

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TEFL Example 7.1 Love Does Not Have to Be Blind Antonio is a lively boy of twelve years. He likes to learn foreign languages. He likes English because almost everything is so short. Besides, he already understands quite a bit through the Englishlanguage songs he listens to passionately. Antonio is also the proud owner of a notebook and a smartphone. This also contributes to his fondness for English. Antonio attends sixth grade and has chosen Spanish as his second foreign language. He already knows it pretty well, even though German is spoken at home: Antonio’s father is from Spain. Antonio does not tell his parents that he agrees with their proposed choice for another reason as well. His favorite teacher will teach not only English but also Spanish in Antonio’s class. About two months into the school year, Ms. Berthold asks the students to report to her at intervals of about six weeks what is going well and what is not going well in class. She reserves a portion of the English class for this purpose. When this feedback initiative does not meet with the desired response, Ms. Berthold sets up a student consultation hour. But even this does not result in individual students giving her the desired feedback on her teaching in any form. So Ms. Berthold asks Antonio to come to the student consultation hour after all. Afterwards, of course, the others want to know what the teacher discussed with him. Antonio readily tells them: First, she asked him to tell her what he thought of her lessons. Then Antonio said, “Well, so far everything is going quite well.” When Ms. Berthold said that was rather meaningless, Antonio remarked that she always said that, too. The teacher had to laugh, because she really wanted to encourage the children with this phrase. Antonio was allowed to criticize her, but he had to remain fair. To the astonishment of his classmates, especially the girls, Antonio then listed his points of criticism one after the other: – “Sometimes we miss too much time with ancillary things like class bookkeeping, book lists, etc.” – “Many just need more time. You’re always too quick to take the ones who know anyway.”

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“You praise us all the time; in the last lesson you praised me three times even though I didn’t do anything special.” “Couldn’t you even tell me what I could do better?”

Some don’t believe Antonio’s narrative; others are convinced that he “screwed up” with Ms. Berthold. In the following lesson, however, the teacher mentions Antonio’s criticisms to the class and says that it taught her important things. She will try to do better in the future. The children had never heard such a thing from a teacher before. Subsequently, more and more students mustered the courage to give feedback to Ms. Berthold during the feedback session, as well as on other occasions. Antonio now raves even more about his teacher. Love doesn’t have to be blind.

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. In a group of four students divide the eight points of Hattie’s overview so that every member of your group deals with two principles in order to explain them to the other group members. 2. What does Hattie suggest instead of verbal explanations of unknown vocabulary? Find an example for the foreignlanguage classroom. 3. How do you make sure that an Internet source you use in a task is reliable? 4. Why is it important to try alternative practices? 5. In what way(s) can teachers find out what an individual student already knows and can do? 6. Do you remember how your English teacher corrected your errors in oral performances? Did you profit from this corrective feedback? What could have been done better? 7. What does “reteaching” mean? 8. What do you think about student feedback for the teacher? Are the three negative statements well-founded? Why? Why not? Are there other arguments to justify a rejection of learner feedback for teachers? 9. Do you have positive arguments for learner feedback for teachers? Which ones? 10. Why is Brohm’s questionnaire a starting point for selfassessment of teachers? 11. If appropriate, complete the statements of the learning log proposed by Wiliam and Leahy.

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PEER FEEDBACK NEEDS TO BE LEARNED

What is true for assessment and feedback between teachers and learners, has to be taken into account for peer feedback as well: The learners cannot sufficiently profit from the various forms of peer feedback without appropriate preparation and guided practice. It is the teacher – involving the learners as much as possible – to explain which feedback procedures are the most efficient and what has to be observed with regard to the timing and other important features when learners give feedback to their peers. In many cases, peer feedback is considered particularly beneficial and successful, but as with all instructional practices, it requires a differentiated view. As teachers are not directly involved when learners talk to each other in tandems or small groups, it is interesting to know what scientific research reveals about formative and even summative feedback between peers (Section 8.1). Mark Gan, a doctoral student of Hattie, presents in his thesis a version of Hattie’s feedback model adapted to the use among peers (Section 8.2). In the following, the jigsaw method is presented, which is useful in numerous other teaching and learning contexts, but lends itself to peer feedback, because it is clearly structured. Furthermore, it can create occasions for reciprocal learner feedback (Section 8.3).

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What Do We Know about Peer Feedback?

In the first decade of the new millennium, Graham A. Nuthall, a New Zealand researcher, who worked primarily in the United Kingdom, conducted extensive scholarly research on school learning processes. His research studies are based on learners’ dialogues, pre-and post-tests, and intensive periods of observation. His starting point is quite the same as expressed in the previous chapter (see Section 7.1): In order to optimize learning, the statements of the students themselves are most important. Nuthall (2007) shows that the life of learners mainly occurs in three different worlds: – the official world of the teacher – the influential world of peers – the private world of the students, which is mainly shaped by their experiences. In a 2020 blog post, Tom Sherrington introduces Nuthall’s magnum opus, The Hidden Lives of Learners. Like numerous other reviewers, he praises Nuthall’s foresight and thoroughness. Among Nuthall’s key ideas, Sherrington presents the following considerations about the various forms of learner engagement: Students engage in lesson activities in a range of ways: sometimes this is dictated by peer dynamics but it also includes unseen elements as students generate mental activities and experiences of their own, some of which are helpful – e.g. metacognitive self-talk; some of which are unhelpful – e.g. falling back on misconceptions based on previous experiences and influences or limited knowledge. (Sherrington, 2020; my emphasis). One of the key findings of Nuthall’s research is that peer feedback accounts for about 80 percent of feedback in classrooms. He emphasizes that most of this feedback, however, is false. It is based on errors regarding the task or other content aspects (see De Florio, 2016, p. 209). If this is the case, why is peer feedback considered beneficial to learning? If learners are sufficiently

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practiced in how to give feedback to group members or other classmates, and if it relates less to tasks or other content and more to learning processes and self-regulation, their feedback may be more successful than that of teachers. There are at least three reasons for this: 1.

2. 3.

Students use forms of communication among themselves that are more understandable to their classmates than teacher language. They often have the same or similar difficulties in solving a task as other group members. They can more easily find out when and where a group member is struggling.

Not to mention, learners are usually only confronted with their group members, while the teacher is engaged with the students of a whole class. As emphasized earlier, learners must be introduced to peer feedback and given ample opportunity to practice if it is to be as successful as possible. Most importantly, students must learn and internalize the appropriate verbal behavior. Instead of asking, “Couldn’t you pay attention?” They need to learn the reassuring question, “What were you doing when . . . ?” At this point, the learning process and self-regulation questions listed in Section 5.4 are quite useful as a starting point. When learners are able to provide appropriate feedback to their peers, this has a positive impact not only on their interlocutors’ learning, but also on the learners’ own learning outcomes. In many cases, peer feedback can be categorized under the strategy of Learning Through Teaching. Nevertheless, in many cases, appropriate teacher support is important.

TEFL Example: “Julia’s Sniffles” and “Daniel’s Left” The following two lesson examples can be worked on individually or in pairs. Both focus on intercultural learning. The teacher decides which method is appropriate for partner work within

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the context of his or her knowledge of the individual students. Do the learners first receive the entire text of “Julia’s Sniffles” and “Daniel’s Left,” or does only one of the two students (partner A) receive the complete text while the other (partner B) does not receive explanation about how culture influences certain behavior but finds it with the help of the partner? In heterogeneous learning groups, a student with Asian roots could receive the solution and introduce it to a tandem partner of non-Asian origin. For the second text, the reverse can be done if appropriate.

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TEFL Example 8.1 “Julia’s Sniffles” and “Daniel’s Left” Julia’s Sniffles Sixteen-year-old Julia, along with some classmates, attended a youth conference in New York. She was very proud of this, because only a few from her school had qualified for it with the help of her English teacher. But it wasn’t just good English skills that were required. At least as important was a sound knowledge of politics/economics. Participation in the youth conference was Julia’s third stay in the United States. She had already participated in an exchange program before. She had also taken a short city trip to New York with her parents a few years ago. In general, Julia did not find it difficult to make contact with other people. That’s why she quickly struck up a conversation with Fahima, an American woman of about the same age with Pakistani roots. On the third day, Fahima invited her to her home – she lived with her parents in Queens – for dinner. At the table, a delicate situation arose without Julia being aware of it. She had caught a cold during the flight, and the cold weather in New York made her cold worse. Fahima’s parents greeted the young German very kindly and showed great interest in the living conditions in Julia’s home country. When they were about to start eating, Julia had to sneeze several times. Immediately Fahima’s mother asked anxiously if Julia wanted to go to the bathroom. Julia could not think why she had asked this question, but did not attach any importance to it and declined with thanks. Why did Fahima’s parents suddenly look more reserved than when they had welcomed her? Julia didn’t have time to think about it any further, because she absolutely had to blow her nose. It was just as well that she had brought a package of paper handkerchiefs with her; she stowed the dirty handkerchief in her pants pocket. Now Fahima’s mother looked across the table at Julia in rebuke. Clearly, she had broken an important rule of conduct. But what had she done wrong?

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Fortunately, Fahima came to her rescue and asked her to step outside for a moment. She motioned with Julia toward the bathroom and explained to her that in Pakistan and many other Asian countries, it is considered disgusting to secrete bodily fluids such as mucus in the presence of others, and to carry it around on one’s body at that. Julia could immediately relate to this, because the loud blowing of other passengers’ noses in the streetcar on the way to school had often disturbed her herself. Back from the bathroom, she apologized to Fahima’s parents, and they enjoyed the lovely meal that Fahima’s mother had prepared. There were several courses, and it was not noticeable that Julia went to the bathroom three more times. Daniel’s Left After graduating from high school, Daniel took a one-year sabbatical, spending a year in Thailand. The stay was arranged by a German foundation. Daniel would have preferred to go to the United States or Australia, but there were only a few places available. He was also attracted to Asian countries because of their special architecture. In addition, Daniel wanted to stand on his own two feet for once, as he would continue to live with his parents during his studies – he was living in a German university city with an outstanding offer in his field, communication and media studies. On the very second evening after his arrival in Thailand, a harmless situation developed into a critical incident. To thank his host family for their extremely friendly welcome, Daniel had bought flowers for his host mother on the second day. He had asked the florist which flowers were the right gift for this occasion, because he knew from intercultural contacts that you can make the wrong impression with the wrong flowers at the wrong time. He thought he was well prepared with his bouquet, but then it happened. His host mother’s otherwise friendly expression literally froze when Daniel handed her the flowers.

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Again, help came from the host family. It was not nineteenyear-old Jamal who saved the day, but Sanya, Jamal’s thirteenyear-old sister, who had frequently sought Daniel’s proximity and watched him unobtrusively since he moved in. She immediately said, “Mum, he is a lefty, a left-hander, you understand.” Then she explained to Daniel that in Thailand, and especially in India, you never hand anything over with your left hand; it is considered the “toilet hand.” Daniel knew then that in some countries he could not do everything with his preferred left hand. He confirmed Sanya’s statement and apologized to his host mother. Everyone was satisfied; Sanya was happy.

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8.2

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Hattie’s Model Adapted to the Context of Peer Feedback by Mark Gan

Mark Gan has applied the feedback model developed by Hattie and Timperley to peer collaboration (see Hattie, 2012, p. 133). In an experimental study, Hattie’s doctoral student reformulated the three groups of questions (on the task, the learning processes, and self-regulation) so that they can be used in the classroom with appropriate modifications. Only some of the last three ones dedicated to self-regulation refer directly to the students: – What did you do to . . . ? – What happened when you . . . ? – How can you account for . . . ? – What justification can you give for . . . ? – What further doubts do you have regarding this task? – What learning goals have you achieved? – How have your ideas changed? Before formulating appropriate feedback, the feedback givers should ask their peers these questions, at least in selection. In general, one should not assume that feedback among peers is given in the respective foreign language. Even if a student in a class with advanced learners comes up with appropriate foreign-language questions and hints, it is questionable whether they will be received by the interlocutor as they are meant.

8.3

Jigsaw (Group Puzzle)

Because this instructional strategy has a set structure, it is easier for learners to tie their peer feedback to individual points. The jigsaw strategy is structured as follows: For a given task, the learning group is divided into small groups of four students. Each small group works on the same overall topic, but the learners divide the work among the groups. They should do this as independently as possible. Now each of the four group members works on one of the four aspects. Then, across groups, the learners who have worked on an aspect exchange ideas with each other. Those

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who have worked on B get together with members from the other groups who have also worked on B, C with C, and D with D. Finally, the learners return to their home groups and report on the results. At the end, each group puts aspects A to D together to form the overall topic and presents the group results in plenary. The group puzzle has such a great effect because each learner is jointly responsible for the result of his or her group. One example of this is Sabine Doebel’s 2018 TED Talk. This focused on the brain’s executive function, which is responsible for executing actions, and works differently than expected under certain circumstances. TED Talks are (usually) designed to present recent and latest findings in a way that is accessible to a broad audience. Ideally, the presenters pick up the audience where they are and take them on a journey. They strive to give the audience important ideas for their own lives. They achieve this primarily through real-life examples and understandable explanations. Consequently, once a suitable topic has been selected, learners can gain important insights for their (later) lives – over and above the forms of presentation. The following example is intended for English classes with advanced learners. It follows a simplified variant of the jigsaw method. It would not be a TED Talk if the lecturer did not point out what we can do about the problem presented. Beside the content, other reasons for choosing this were the speaker’s easyto-understand pronunciation and the talk’s brevity (just under 9 minutes). Of course, after introducing the students to the TED Conferences, the teacher can choose another talk (preferably in conjunction with the learners). The talks are translated into numerous languages; in most cases, subtitles can be inserted in different languages. In addition, the entire talk can be printed out for better understanding. These written versions are provided with minutes for ease of use. However, students should only be made aware of these “work facilitators” if necessary (in the sense of scaffolding).

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TEFL Example 8.2 Sabine Doebel’s TED Talk How to Improve the Executive Function of Your Brain Task 1 TED Talks are held during TED conferences and later published online for free. In most cases, experts explain newer scientific findings in an understandable and interesting way so that laypersons can profit from their insight and advice. Have a listen to the Sabine Doebel’s TED Talk (published in 2018). She explains how our brain’s executive function (the function responsible for the “performance” of our intentions) works and how we can improve it (www.ted.com/talks/sabine_doebel_how_your_ brains_executive_function_works_and_how_to_improve_it [last accessed March 2022]). Before listening have a look at the website and read the short summary of the talk. How long is the Doebel’s talk? How many views have been registered until now? What other indications can you find at the site? Talk about your results in plenary. Task 2 Listen to the talk up to 02:43 (if necessary, twice). In groups of four, answer the following questions. Take notes. Discuss your answers in plenary: 1.

How did Doebel arrive to deal with the executive function of the brain?

2.

How does she define it?

3.

In which domains do we use it every day?

4.

Why is it not possible to improve the executive function through a brain training app or computer games?

5.

Do you think that Doebel’s explanations and examples attract the attention of the audience?

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Why? Why not? Every one of the following three tasks should be treated by different groups of four. In some cases, there will be two or more groups to work on the same task. Task 3 In a group of four listen to the talk from 02:44 to 04:05 (if necessary, twice) and discuss the following questions. Present your answers in plenary. Make sure that your classmates understand the intentions, the experiment, and its results. 1. What does Doebel propose in order to understand the executive function of the brain and to improve it? 2.

Describe the different phases of the experiment?

3.

What is the most important result of the experiment?

Task 4 In a group of four, listen to Doebel’s talk from 04:07 to 06:24; then answer the following questions and present your answers in plenary in a way that can be easily understood by your classmates. 1.

Why does the scientist invite other children to do the marshmallow test?

2.

What is the problematic issue of that experiment?

3.

Which varieties of the marshmallow test did Doebel apply to validate the results?

4.

Briefly describe the results.

Task 5 In a group of four, listen to the talk from 06:25 until the end. Answer the questions and present your answers in plenary. 1.

What does Doebel mean when she says: “If it was something deeper than that?”

2.

Which further research did she do?

3.

Which role does the scientist attribute to the context?

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4.

In what way does she transfer her results to the public?

5.

In your opinion, is she convincing? Why? Why not?

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Task 6 After having heard and discussed the results of all groups, listen again to the whole TED Talk as homework. Then write a summary (five to ten sentences) on a sheet of paper and give it to your teacher who will correct it and comment on it. Include your personal opinion: Are these “ideas worth spreading” (the slogan of TED)? Do you think that the talk is worth the audience’s time? Is it worth your time? Why? Why not?

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. For many researchers and practitioners alike peer feedback is very useful. Why? 2. Why, according to Nuthall, is most (uncontrolled) peer feedback false? 3. What can teachers do to make peer feedback more effective? Find examples. 4. Peer feedback can be seen as a form of learning through teaching. Why? 5. What can learners do to implement successful peer feedback using the two texts in TEFL Example 8.1 (“Julia’s Sniffles” and “Daniel’s Left”)? How would you proceed? 6. Reformulate Mark Gan’s suggestions referring to the process level in a way that addresses the respective student directly. For example: What strategies did he/she use? What strategies did you use? 7. Describe the jigsaw (group puzzle). What are the advantages in comparison to teacher-dominated questions such as: What is the first paragraph about? Or: What does X explain in the first part of the text? 8. Explain to someone who had never heard about TED Talks why these video talks are useful for everyone interested in the topic and how they are structured. Why are they a good starting point for peer feedback? 9. What does Sabine Doebel talk about? Summarize the content of her TED Talk in about five sentences (after having watched the talk twice). 10. What information can teachers draw from effective peer feedback?

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9

SELF-ASSESSMENT Taking Responsibility for One’s Actions

In the context of independent learning, self-assessment, be it formative or summative, plays an increasing role in foreignlanguage teaching and learning (Section 9.1). Whereas there is great emphasis on the self-assessment of learners, assessment procedures of teachers are still neglected by most scientists and educational experts (Section 9.2). On the contrary, processes of self-assessment of learners are widely recommended, even though teachers’ workload is quite high. Furthermore, it is dubious whether students, especially younger learners, are able to assess themselves appropriately (Section 9.3). In some cases, tools of electronic assessment can be of help, at the expense of personal contact between teacher and learners and between the students themselves (Section 9.3.1). Whether the European Language Portfolio, based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, is useful in the context of effective self-assessment depends mostly on the learning context and the personalities involved (Section 9.3.2).

9.1

Self-Assessment in Foreign-Language Teaching and Learning

Self-evaluations or self-tests play an important role in choosing a course of study or a profession. They are intended to help the person in question find the study

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direction and/or the occupation that is right for them. To do this, young people must first find out as much as possible about themselves before they can examine the offers made by universities and potential employers. What makes these self-evaluations fundamentally different from selfassessment in teaching and learning is the fact that the outcome in these self-tests is completely open, because there is no right or wrong. “It is a way to learn about yourself by gathering data that includes information about your work-related values, interests, personality type, and aptitudes” (Rosenberg McKay, 2019). In the context of foreign-language teaching and learning, many other terms such as “internal evaluation,” “self-evaluation,” and “self-monitoring” are used instead of self-assessment, with little distinction made between them. Self-Assessment in Foreign-Language Teaching and Learning Regardless of the choice of term, the assessment of one’s foreign-language competence is always based on predetermined criteria and results. These can point in two different directions: it can be self-review of learning outcomes with reference to self-set goals and the paths taken to achieve them, or the self-assessment is seen in the context of externally set learning goals. In this case, learners are required to organize their learning path in such a way that they can achieve the given goals. In the first case, selfassessment is seen as formative; in the second case, it is seen as summative. The comparison of self-set results on the one hand and externally set goals on the other hand does little to clarify the term. It is helpful to check the use of the terms against the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), since this document, or rather several documents of the Council of Europe in connection with the CEFR, often serve as a frame of

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reference for self-assessment. In the CEFR itself, the term selfassessment is used. The term self-evaluation, on the other hand, predominates in the various versions of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), which is also relevant in selfassessment. Nevertheless, I argue for the term self-assessment, which is commonly used in academia, because it underlies the English version of the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001).

9.2

Self-Assessment of Teachers

The vast majority of publications on assessment and feedback, especially those in relation to the teaching and learning of foreign languages, do not address teacher self-assessment. At times, it is recommended as a way to prompt learners to make statements regarding the teacher’s approach. These statements allow students to provide feedback to their teacher on certain aspects of the lesson. The following self-assessment suggestion relates to the initial phase of a new lesson. With regard to the task or activity in question, learning objectives, success criteria, worked examples, and criteria grids for learners are addressed. Using the following checklist, teachers can get an idea of the success of their efforts: Reflection Checklist for Strategy 1: Clarifying, Sharing, and Understanding Learning Intentions and Success Criteria I don’t I do this

This is

I could

do this sometimes embedded support in my

someone

practice

else

I know what the learning intention of the lesson is, although sometimes

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I do not tell the students at the start of the lesson. I keep the learning intention and success criteria for a lesson context free. I communicate quality by using at least two pieces of anonymous work. At the end of a lesson I sometimes ask my students what they have learned. I use rubrics to discuss quality with my students. (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, p. 205)

The following overview, also designed by Wiliam and Leahy, relates to the aspect of teaching that is the focus of the rest of the sections of this chapter, namely learner self-assessment procedures. By finding out for themselves whether they are making progress, and what progress they are making, students gradually take more and more responsibility for their own learning. Independent learning emerges as individual learners gain more and more insight into their strengths and weaknesses. With the teacher’s support, they can then work to overcome difficulties in order to achieve the goals they have set for themselves or that are set from outside. To adequately support learners in this process, the teacher must be accountable for his or her own actions.

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Reflection Checklist for Strategy 5: Activating Students as Owners of Their Own Learning I don’t

I do this

This is

do this sometimes embedded

I could support

in my

someone

practice

else

I use student selfreports but am careful to check on the accuracy of the reporting. Student selfassessment is a routine part of my work. Students have learning portfolios that focus on their progress. I give students challenging tasks that are achievable with effort, and make it clear that failure is not only acceptable but also expected (otherwise the work is too easy).

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I use a framework to help my students see connections. I use both intrinsic and extrinsic orientations to motivate my students. I use trained students to observe some of my lessons. I use trained students to videotape parts of my lessons. (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, p. 209)

9.3

Self-Assessment of Students

Student self-assessment plays a significant role in independent and lifelong learning. Two Malaysian scholars cite the following benefits of self-assessment in learning English: Potentials of Self-Assessment in English Language Learning – motivating students to learn and reflect on their own English learning – promote critical thinking and reflective practices in learning English – scaffold knowledge of English learning from different English language skills

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develop a sense of autonomy in their own learning English foster commitment in learning English among many others.

(Jamrus & Razali, 2019, p. 64) This main statement is based on the careful analysis of 23 empirical studies, usually control group experiments, which Jamrus and Razali selected from approximately 1,400 studies. The 23 studies relate to the learning of English both as a first language and as a second or foreign language. Moreover, in second or foreign-language learning, they focus primarily on college or university students and primarily on the skill of writing. Only in exceptional cases do they focus on the learning of English as a second or foreign language by children and adolescents in school-based foreign-language instruction. For all their findings, Jamrus and Razali emphasize that the introduction and frequent practice of self-assessment over an extended period of time are essential until learners are able, if at all, to benefit from self-assessment. For the teacher, this results in a relatively high workload, not to mention the loss of time in the classroom. It is a matter of selecting suitable tasks and creating grids or checklists and other aids. However, all of this is preceded by considerations of the extent to which learners are capable of self-assessment in the first place. Above all, student self-assessment can be quite successful in countries where there is the possibility of (personal) contact with native speakers of English. Secondly, independent learning – often subsumed under learner autonomy – plays a different role in the Western world than in countries where the teacher is regarded by the students as “all-knowing,” or the learners simply lack the courage to temporarily disregard the teacher’s dominance. The following eight elements are important to consider if self-assessment is to help improve learning: 1. 2.

Learners know and accept the value of self-assessment. They need clear criteria to guide their self-assessment,

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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and a specific task or activity to which they relate the assessment of their performance(s). They know elaborated examples of self-assessment. They have been introduced to self-assessment in class and the teacher supports them in its implementation. They have numerous opportunities to practice selfassessment. They need guidance on when self-assessment is appropriate; and opportunities to revise and improve the task or performance.

(adapted from Andrade, 2000) 9.3.1 On the Use of Digital Technologies In the context of student self-assessment, the independent processing and verification of learning outcomes with the help of electronic technologies is repeatedly recommended. Usually, they are used to test cognitive skills and abilities. Most tools allow learners to run through the respective programs several times to familiarize themselves with the content and, if necessary, to tackle the tasks – independent of location and time. Multiple-choice tests are used particularly frequently in learning platforms and apps. Electronic assessment and electronic grading can be diagnostic, formative, or summative. However, the aforementioned apps and tools are mostly used in online courses as well as in college or university education and not in schools. In general, however, such learning platforms and apps, as useful as they may be, cannot replace forms of individual feedback based on personal exchange (see Roth, 2021, pp. 336 ff.; see Chapter 11). Summary: The Implementation of Self-Assessment in Foreign-Language Classrooms – Before the teacher begins to explain the self-assessment criteria to students, he or she must create awareness among learners of the value of self-assessment.

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– – –

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Next, the teacher plays a role that should not be underestimated in guiding and supporting the selfassessment to ensure that learners understand the criteria and learn to properly assess themselves against the guidelines. Finally, the teacher should give students plenty of room to practice the self-assessment. This includes further opportunities to revise and improve their previously self-assessed work on the task. In this way, they can find out which areas should be revised. They will then know better how to improve the quality and accuracy of their work.

9.3.2

Self-Assessment Based on the European Language Portfolio The CEFR plays a prominent role in the teaching and learning of foreign languages in almost every country in the world; there is virtually no textbook for foreign-language teaching that is not based on the levels of the CEFR. Therefore, it can make sense to base student self-assessment on one of the versions of the European Language Portfolio (ELP). In the context of foreign-language didactics, the term language portfolio stands for a collection of mostly certified self-assessment documents, individual language biographies, and self-made foreign-language work samples. The ELP was created at the beginning of the millennium by the Council of Europe’s European Centre for Foreign Languages in Graz at about the same time as the CEFR. It is now available in more than 100 authorized versions. The important function of self-assessment (assessment for learning) was repeatedly emphasized by the British Assessment Reform Group (ARG) already at the end of the twentieth century. For assessment to lead to improvement in learning, the following factors must be considered: – the provision of effective feedback to pupils – the active involvement of pupils in their own learning

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– –

–

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adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment a recognition of the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self-esteem of pupils, both of which are crucial influences on learning the need for pupils to be able to assess themselves and understand how to improve.

(see ARG, 1999, pp. 4–5) The three components (of the different versions) of the ELP try to meet these requirements: Language Biography diary: personal history of the owner’s language learning experience and progress; it includes: → information on linguistic and cultural experiences in and outside the class; → self-assessment checklists European Language Passport → provides an overview of the language competences at a given moment, defined in terms of skills and the common reference levels; → it includes a self-evaluation grid, and → records formal qualifications and certification. Dossier A selection of materials to document and illustrate achievements, such as: → personal work of the learner (e.g. projects, written work, audio cassettes, videos, computer programs, etc.) → certificates. The learners may change the contents as their skills and knowledge develop. (De Florio-Hansen, 2018, pp. 112 f.) All in all, the demands that the use of the ELP places on teachers and learners may even be higher than for the forms of self-assessment briefly outlined. The Council of

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Europe has endeavored to address these difficulties by providing (partly comprehensive) guidance on the use of the ELP. However, even when using these papers, the requirements and the time needed are very high, especially in order to familiarize younger learners with the use of the individual parts of the ELP conducive to learning. The use of the ELP requires a detailed, successive introduction and extended practice phases with the help of the teacher until even older students are able to use the ELP or another language portfolio appropriately and, above all, profitably. Here, too, the question is open to what extent the learners are at all able to assess their performance adequately and to benefit from using the ELP. Whether and in what form a teacher, in consultation with students, uses the ELP or another similar evaluation tool depends above all on the learning context and the personality traits of those involved. Despite these concerns and the effort required for implementation, teacher and learner self-assessment is a critical factor in successful teaching and learning (see De FlorioHansen, 2018; 2019a; 2022). Black and Wiliam insist on selfassessment as a precondition for successful learning as it is essential to learning because students can only achieve a learning goal if they understand that goal and can assess what they need to do to reach it. Thus, the criteria for evaluating any learning achievements must be made transparent to students to enable them to have a clear overview both of the aims of their work and of what it means to complete it successfully. Insofar as they do so they begin to develop an overview of that work so that they can manage and control it; in other words, they develop their capacity for meta-cognitive thinking. (Black & Wiliam, 2009, p. 15) So, how to proceed in class? Before starting with a language portfolio such as the European Language Portfolio (ELP), it is appropriate that learners are already familiar with

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certain practices of this three-part tool. Of particular importance in this context is the keeping of a learning diary. It is mainly used to describe subjective feelings and to document one’s own learning processes. Learning (and teaching) foreign languages can be significantly improved by using learning diaries. More than twenty years ago I described the advantages of a learning diary as follows: –

–

–

–

– – –

– –

By keeping an account of their learning in the form of written records, foreign-language learners can (further) develop a (metacognitive) attitude toward learning. By continuously documenting their progress (and difficulties) in learning the respective foreign language, they are encouraged to reflect on appropriate learning opportunities and to try out corresponding strategies. Writing opportunities can be created in the target language that approximate authentic language use contexts to a large extent. Learners have the opportunity to speak as themselves (i.e. they can express their moods, opinions, evaluations, and personal judgments). They can deal with aspects of the target-language culture in a personal way. Independence and self-confidence are promoted. Last but not least, the individual design of the learning diary with photos, drawings, realities, and the joy of their own “product” have a motivating effect on many foreignlanguage learners. Learning diaries allow for internal differentiation in an unobtrusive way. By looking into the learning diaries and/or talking to the learners about their entries, the teacher can make learning aids more individual and effective. (adapted from De FlorioHansen, 1999, p. 16)

The last point should be handled with the necessary sensitivity, because learners might feel restricted if they fear that the teacher takes note of their entries and possibly even corrects them. On the other hand, students should keep in mind that the

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teacher can give individual advice to reduce learning problems if he or she has insight into the learning diary. Learners should be encouraged to self-assess their progress at least twice a month: what helps them learn and how they plan to continue learning in the future. To engage learners in creating a learning diary, the teacher can briefly outline the benefits just listed.

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TEFL Example: Why It Is Useful and Motivating to Write a Learning Diary TEFL Example 9.1 My Learning Diary Activity 1 You probably already have ideas about the content and format of your personal learning diary. But before you begin, it is useful to answer this question in your tandem: What could be written in such a diary? Make a list and compare it to another tandem. At the end, talk about it as a class. Activity 2 Even though the main focus of a learning diary is on writing, you can enhance it with materials in the foreign language you have developed during class that you want to keep because you think they are well done. But what other elements could you use to emphasize the personal nature of your learning journal? Take notes and discuss your ideas with your tandem partner. Activity 3 In general, you will record in your journal the progress you have made and the difficulties, if any, you have encountered with learning French. But you will also write about your opinions and impressions of the French language and cultures. In addition, personal encounters with French people are most often worth including. Perhaps it is useful to take notes before listing all important persons and aspects in your diary. As before, exchange ideas with classmates.

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From the learning diary to a language portfolio, there are only a few steps: A good way is for the teacher to explain the meaning and purpose of a language portfolio in an interactive class discussion (in the native language of the students, if necessary). If the learners are interested, they can briefly address the following two questions: What is the European Language Portfolio? What are its main goals? Since the ELP is to be kept voluntarily and does not have to be presented to the teacher for inspection if the learner does not wish to do so, it depends mainly on the skill of the teacher in which form he or she introduces the learners to the three parts, namely the language biography, the dossier, and finally the language passport. Using selected areas of communication (e.g. reading comprehension or mediation), learners practice assessing their skills and abilities before making entries. Suggestions on what can be included in the dossier also help the learners. For example: successful examples of written work, audio and video recordings, descriptions and results of project work, diplomas and certificates, statements from communication partners about the level of proficiency in the foreign language, and finally, things that one would like to keep to show to others (see De Florio-Hansen, 2019a, p. 172)

TEFL Example: Unfounded Worries This lesson example is a possible introduction to self-assessment. It does not use rubrics or similar criterion grids, because they also require a lot of initial practice. The example lends itself to a subsequent content discussion in plenary, where students can determine how far they have come with assessing their learning.

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TEFL Example 9.2 Unfounded Worries Task 1 Underline all of Patrick’s behaviors and characteristics that suggest his disorder, a mild form of Asperger’s Syndrome, a certain form of autism. The Mother Patrick’s mother is worried about her son, who is in the tenth grade. It’s not because of his academic performance. In his last report card, Patrick had good to very good grades almost everywhere. The reason for the worry is a change of teacher. Patrick’s English teacher has retired, and a much younger teacher has been teaching English and biology in Patrick’s class since the beginning of the school year. She has also taken over as class leader. While the older colleague did not pay any further attention to Patrick’s conspicuous behavior – he simply let him be when he was not being disruptive – the new teacher expects more from Patrick, especially since his performance in English is well above average. Patrick suffers from a mild form of Asperger’s syndrome, a form of autism that his father, who died at an early age, also suffered from. Now Patrick’s mother fears that the teacher might force Patrick to do something he refuses to do, although of course she has not yet any insight into what is going on in the class. From Patrick himself – and this corresponds to his “illness” – she hardly receives any information. The Teacher Before Mrs. Lindner took over the class, her colleagues, especially the former English teacher, informed her about Patrick’s conspicuous behavior: Patrick does not make any social contact with peers of the same age, avoids eye contact, speaks in a language chosen for his age, deals with columns of numbers during “study breaks,” and refuses any form of cooperation with classmates. In the first few weeks, Mrs. Lindner also notices that Patrick does not understand nonlinguistic forms of communication, such as facial https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009218948.010 Published online by Cambridge University Press

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expressions and gestures, and takes transferred statements literally. Due to her “human biology” background, the teacher knows that these are all symptoms of the developmental disorder named after Asperger. However, she does not consider the abnormalities to be so severe that they cannot be partially alleviated through social training. She would like to involve Patrick in the numerous group activities and therefore approaches Nathalie, who works very well in a group with two classmates, Thilo and Tobias. Under the external pretext that Nathalie’s group consists of only three members, she then approaches the student. Mrs. Lindner has observed that Nathalie’s social skills are well developed; it is rather the two boys whose resistance the teacher is counting on. In a one-on-one conversation during recess, the teacher discovers to her amazement that Nathalie knows quite a bit about Asperger’s syndrome through, who would have guessed it, the computer game To the Moon, in which one of the main female characters displays the symptoms of Asperger’s. She is called an Aspie, a term that people affected by Asperger’s also choose for themselves to protest their exclusion. Nathalie has also read the young adult book The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Nighttime by Mark Haddon – a gift from her uncle – in parts in German. Nathalie promises to give it a try, provided Thilo and Tobias, with whom she really enjoys working, agree. Nathalie and the Group It is not easy to convince the two boys of the “task” of integrating Patrick into their group, but eventually they agree to try. In principle, they are unprejudiced toward Patrick, but they fear above all that he will spoil the group result for them. Now, however, Mrs. Lindner has held out the prospect of a kind of “inclusion bonus.” So, the thing can start. When Patrick doesn’t respond to Nathalie’s hint to join them, they simply walk up to Patrick and group around him. Nathalie has calculated that Patrick prefers to express himself in writing rather than verbally. Therefore, she has considered that it would

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probably be best if they all formulate their thoughts in complete sentences during the first phase of the usual think-pair-share procedure and then read them aloud to each other. Patrick would also participate in this. During the pair phase, Patrick could then correct the written notes of Thilo and Tobias, whose performance in English was rather mid-range. To the astonishment of the two boys, Patrick corrects very carefully, because he really knows English very well and, like many Aspies, has an excellent memory. To avoid him unpacking and working on his slips of paper with the history numbers, Nathalie gives him the task of writing down vocabulary and sentence examples for a quiz for the group based on the textbook. He seems to like this, although he doesn’t say it or express it in any other way. In short, the group members each do better individually and as an overall group than before. Without Nathalie’s empathy and foresight, this would not have been possible. Now she just has to get Patrick to present parts of the results himself in front of the class at some point. And Patrick? Actually, he had never really refused contact. But in his few attempts to get into conversation with others, he had always been met with rejection. Now he had an idea: Maybe he could put a small box, a kind of box with a slot, in his place. Everyone could drop their questions into it about their tablet or their smartphone, and he would answer them. After all, Patrick wasn’t just a nerd, he was a real IT expert. When the opportunity arose, he would ask Nathalie what she thought of his plan. Task 2 Compare your findings with the list of a team of experts that your teacher will provide when you have completed your own review. Avoid incorporating anything from this list into your inventory in order to make yourself look better. This will not help you figure out for yourself where and how to improve your performance. Have you been able to find all the

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characteristics listed by the experts in the description of the positions of the mother, the teacher, Natalie, and Patrick himself? Read the text again carefully if necessary. Task 3 What behavior of Patrick justifies the title of the lesson example: “Unfounded Worries”? Task 4 Use the plenary discussion to identify what you could have improved about your performance. If appropriate, why are you not completely satisfied with your performance? What could you do better on a similar task in the future? Asperger’s Checklist We recently discovered this Asperger’s Checklist, which gives a good level of detail into a diagnosis of Asperger’s:

Inflexibility Attachment to routines, often cause disturbances if changed. Someone with Asperger’s is generally not very adaptable to change. Lack of Social Skills Difficulties in developing close friendships, having meaningful or deep conversations as well as tendency to isolate. Limited Emotional Intelligence and Irrational Emotions It is common for people with AS to have a very low sensitivity to the emotions of others. They have difficulty understanding both their own emotions as well as the emotions of others. That being said, it can also be common for extreme emotions to be expressed with very minor triggers.

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Difficulty Engaging in Conversation Talking about a subject obsessively as well as well as lack of eye contact during the conversation are big tell-tale signs of AS. Repetitive Rituals and Behaviors This can be observed in the engagement of repetitive rituals such as body movements, habits and behaviors. Examples of this include hand flapping, twirling or obscure methods of play. Impaired Motor Skills There is a delay or impairment of motor skills such as playing catch, riding a bike, tying shoelaces. Although not exclusive to AS this can often be an effect of the disorder. Often clumsiness or the inability to realize the boundaries of one’s bodies. (Blakey, n.d.) Although this is not an in-depth Asperger’s checklist, it does give a few major points to look for. If you are looking for a more rigid tool for diagnosis, you might want to check out the Asperger’s Test developed by Simon Baron-Cohen (n.d.).

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. What is the main difference between self-evaluation in everyday or professional life and self-assessment in schools? 2. Who determines the goals of self-assessment in second-/ foreign-language teaching and learning? 3. What should real self-assessment of teachers look like? Why is it not very frequent, even though teachers are also invited to do so? 4. According to William and Leahy’s “Checklist for Strategy 1,” teachers sometimes do not mention the learning intentions at the start of the lesson. What might be the reasons? 5. Why is it important to keep the learning intentions and the success criteria context-free? 6. In what way can the teacher discuss about learning quality with the students using rubrics? 7. Why is it essential that failure and underachievement are accepted and even expected (beside the fact that the task is otherwise too easy)? 8. According to Wiliam and Leahy, the teacher should invite trained students to observe or videotape (part of) the lessons. Do you think this strategy contributes to the selfdetermination of the students as owners of their learning? Why? Why not? 9. What does scaffolding mean? Is not every teaching measure something like a scaffold? 10. Which of the eight elements Andrade considers useful for the success of self-determination and self-assessment in your opinion (or according to your experience) is the most decisive? 11. Why are multiple-choice-tests frequently used in electronic assessment? 12. In what ways can teachers create awareness of the value of self-assessment among learners? Find examples related to the second-/foreign-language classroom. 13. Describe the main parts of the European Language Portfolio. How can they be used by students?

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14. Why do Black and Wiliam talk about meta-cognitivethinking? What does meta-cognition mean in the context of self-assessment? 15. According to your opinion and experience, are learners, especially younger ones, able to assess themselves? 16. Do you think the use of a language portfolio can promote independent learning of foreign languages? Why or in what way? Why not?

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1 0 COLLEGIAL FEEDBACK STRENGTHENS LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING If feedback among colleagues should contribute to better teaching and learning, there have to be reciprocal agreements about what aspects should be observed and evaluated and in what way (Section 10.1). Whereas well-known scientists left out collegial feedback, Andreas Helmke, a German educationalist, dedicates part of his academic career to this subject (Section 10.2). He furnishes a great variety of observation sheets and evaluation programs, also in English, that can be adapted for collegial feedback in the foreign-language classroom (Section 10.3). In order to come closer to face-to face feedback-talks among colleagues, valuable suggestions of researchers and practitioners should be taken into account (Section 10.4).

10.1 Starting Points of Effective Collegial Feedback Beside feedback among teachers and learners (see Chapter 7), peer feedback (see Chapter 8), and self-assessment (see Chapter 9), collegial feedback can also be helpful. As early as 2006, Leonard Horster and Hans-Gu¨nter Rolff highlighted the importance of collegial feedback in the school context: The longer teachers are in the profession, the more difficult it becomes to escape entrenched routines . . . Over time, the same “mistakes” can creep in that are not even noticed by

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oneself. If many teachers feel these blind spots unconsciously, but are not aware of them and thus cannot change them, feedback from third parties can help. (Horster & Rolff, 2006, pp. 202 f.; my translation) The ideal form to strive for can only be achieved gradually – here, too, practice is essential. In our case, the overarching goal of collegial classroom visits should be to advance teaching and learning in ways that improve learning outcomes for as many students as possible. Thus, it is to be put in the service of formative assessment and feedback. As we will see, this is not easy to accomplish because so-called collegial feedback is often highly formalized. Corresponding procedures based on questionnaires and especially on evaluation programs will be presented in this chapter. However, they are only conditionally suitable for our purpose (see the EMU project by A. Helmke; Section 10.2). In other words, teaching efforts are not only to be measured against an optimal strategy from the teacher’s point of view, but should be designed to achieve formative feedback for learners that moves them forward. These reciprocal classroom visits can be the starting point of more elaborate procedures. In any case, goals and practices of feedback among colleagues must be established from the outset. The basic prerequisite of the desired feedback practice is teaching the same subject. Advice from a math teacher or a teacher of French also has value, but it is not as purposeful as classroom visits among teachers of English or those of another foreign language. It is best if the teachers involved teach at about the same grade level and use the same textbook. What advantage has a high-school teacher working with advanced learners to receive the visit of a colleague who teaches English at primary level? In our case, the focus is on continuous processes of improvement with an eye toward formative assessment and feedback that targets student learning. The assumption should be that reciprocal visits occur over an extended period of time. From the outset, the two teachers – there also could be three

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colleagues if appropriate to the learning context– should agree on confidentiality. Furthermore, they fix in advance which different aspects of instruction will be observed and commented upon. In the next sections of this chapter, the most diverse areas of teaching will be examined with the help of relevant questionnaires and observation sheets. It is impossible to observe and assess all of these areas at once if the teacher wants to give the colleague feedback that will lead to better teaching in order to improve student learning. It is clear that the objectives and the content of the respective foreign language by no means always have to be the focus of observation and assessment, although they have priority. Other aspects, such as the classroom climate conducive to learning, impulses for the personality development of individual learners, or observation of the teacher’s body language, facial expressions, and gestures can also be the focus of attention. Could colleagues from other subjects not give helpful advice in such cases? Yes, but it is better if the colleague has to deal with roughly the same decisions in their teaching. And what kind of collegial feedback could a teacher of English give to a colleague who teaches math or science? Rather, it makes sense to extend collegial feedback to a larger number of colleagues who teach the same foreign language, not least to strive for a more uniform approach on key points at the same school. In any case, the implementation of effective collegial feedback with whatever aim requires time and effort. As already mentioned, until recently, collegial feedback with the aim of promoting and improving student learning has mostly been an exception, whereas peer feedback among trainees has played an important role in teacher training. In this latter case, however, a larger group of people is involved in the reciprocal classroom visits, and most importantly, certain evaluation criteria are established and known from the outset. Other official visits may occur, when a teacher is to be promoted or when fundamental changes need to be made at a school in one or more subjects. As always, the teaching and learning goals, on which the results of the feedback depend, must be sufficiently

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agreed upon with the individual colleagues; the subject council should be more or less united behind the project; at the very least, skeptics should support the project despite their reservations. In addition, the school administration has to be involved or at least informed of the project. But these are not the assessment and feedback procedures that are in the focus of the following examples. In our context, collegial feedback is intended as a means to implement formative assessment and feedback in order to improve the learning of the students.

10.2

From Wiliam and Hattie to Helmke

Neither Hattie nor Wiliam and their various co-authors address collegial feedback, even not in their recent publications on feedback (see William & Leahy, 2015; Hattie & Clarke, 2018). It is not just teacher self-assessment, which really deserves this name, that is seldom presented in practice-oriented Englishlanguage presentations. References and explanations to collegial feedback are mostly missing. Hattie and Clarke do briefly discuss parent feedback toward the end of their 2018 publication; however, the keyword collegial feedback cannot be found in the index of Hattie’s books. Consequently, there are no data on effect sizes: Hattie quantifies feedback as a whole in terms of its positive impact on learning (see Chapter 3). Wiliam and his co-author also do not mention collegial feedback. A few essays have appeared on so-called peer feedback among colleagues (e.g. by Kelly Farrell (2011) of the Center of the Study of Higher Education at the University of Melbourne) but they refer to feedback among faculty in higher education. It is possible that the authors suspect that the effect of collegial feedback is difficult to grasp, especially when it should lead to better learning outcomes for individual students. A contrary position is taken by the German educationalist Andreas Helmke, who, together with his team, has published a series of questionnaires that can be used to capture various dimensions of collegial feedback. All of the proposed measures serve to further develop teaching. Helmke has established the

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well-known EMU (Evidenzbasierte Methoden der Unterrichtsdiagnostik) project, the goal of which is to evaluate teaching with the help of various forms of written questioning available in different languages. Helmke himself introduces the project as follows: EMU is the abbreviation of Evidence-based methods of diagnosis of classroom instruction . . . Recent research has revealed considerable differences between objectively measured aspects of a lesson (such as portion of teachers’ verbal contribution, recorded by video) and corresponding teacher ratings. In order to provide external criteria that allow teachers to compare their own view of instruction with other views (students, colleagues) we have developed the EMU program. (Helmke et al., 2018) The newest Colleague Questionnaire presented in English (even though not in perfect English) by Helmke and colleagues includes these items: EMU – Colleague Questionnaire Please judge the lesson! disagree rather

rather agree

disagree agree Classroom management 1. The lesson began on time 2. The classroom rules were clear for students 3. Students could learn without disturbances 4. Students obviously knew what they should do at all times 5. The whole lesson time was used for teaching and learning activities Learning-fostering climate 6. The teacher handled students’ contribution respectfully 7. The teacher was kind to students

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8. The teacher let students finish speaking when They made their contributions 9. When the teacher asked a question, the students had enough time to reflect 10. The teacher made reflexed comments 11. The teacher praised students appropriately for their contributions Clarity and structuring 12. The teacher referred clearly to previously taught materials 13. There were useful examples 14. The main points of the lesson were summarized 15. The teacher made sure that students expressed themselves clearly 16. The students clearly knew what they were learning in this lesson Activation 17. The students participated in class discussions with their own contributions 18. Students processed tasks by themselves 19. Students worked on tasks in group 20. Students presented something to their classmates 21. Students checked their own working results

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22. Students were concentrated during the whole lesson Lesson outcome 23. The teacher achieved the learning objectives of this lesson 24. The lesson was interesting for students 25. Students felt comfortable in this lesson 26. The teacher based the lesson on the subject related scholastic standards 27. The instruction was appropriate with regard to the heterogeneous learning abilities of students

Helmke and his team record teaching from three central perspectives, namely from the perspective of the students, that of the teacher, and that of a colleague. These questionnaires are based on the following criteria (see Helmke, 2012): 1. classroom management 2. a climate conducive to learning and to motivate the learners 3. clarity and structuredness of teaching and learning 4. activation and encouragement of learners. There are five to six specific statements for each of these aspects. It is important to take into account that these tripartite questionnaires usually cover a single lesson. Otherwise, it would be difficult to discuss the results that range from “disagree” to “agree” with the students. On classroom management, Helmke and his team make the following suggestion:

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Teacher Questionnaire The students were able to work undisturbed in this lesson. If I asked a question in this in this lesson, the learners had enough time to think about it. It was clear to the learners what they were to learn in this lesson. The learners were actively involved throughout the lesson. I have achieved the learning objectives of this lesson.

Student Questionnaire

I was able to work undisturbed

in this lesson.

If the teacher asked a question

in this lesson, I had enough time

to think about it.

It is clear to me what I was to

learn in this lesson.

I was actively involved

throughout the lesson.

I have learned something

new in this lesson.

Colleagues Questionnaire

learning objectives of this lesson.

The colleague has achieved the

involved throughout the lesson.

The learners were actively

they were to learn in this lesson.

It was clear to the students what

enough time to think about it.

question, the students had

If the colleague asked a

undisturbed in this lesson.

The students were able to work

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The EMU questionnaires usually contain about twenty-five statements. Helmke and his team are continuously updating the questionnaires and developing additional measurement tools.

10.3 Observation Sheets for Colleagues As part of his many initiatives, Helmke has also participated in the EVIT (Evaluation in Teams) project before starting with EMU. EVIT is dedicated to design questionnaires that, like the following observation sheet, are intended exclusively for collegial feedback. Comparing the statements with the brief excerpt at the end of Section 10.2, one notices that the wording is much more focused on instructional design. Nevertheless, even the above tripartite comparison is useful under certain circumstances. EVIT Lesson Observation Sheet clearly

rather

rather

does

applies applies does not not apply Professional quality 1. The teaching meets professional standards (no professional deficiencies are observed). 2. There are links to content and learning experiences outside the subject. 3. The lessons contain adequate offers for self-regulated learning. Structure 4. The course of the lesson is coherent in terms of content.

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5. The students know what they have to do, which materials/tools are used. 6. The teacher expresses him/ herself concisely and precisely. Student Activation 7. Students ask questions on their own, make suggestions, express interest, help shape the lesson. 8. Teacher provides differentiated feedback. 9. Tasks are varied. 10. Media and materials appeal to multiple senses. 11. Teacher shows personal interest in lesson content. 12. Estimated amount of time students vs. teacher speak. 100–76% 75–51% 50–26% 25–0% Time Use 13. Instructional time is used effectively. 14. The teacher has an overview of student activities. 15. Instruction is free of disruptions.

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Climate 16. The tone between teacher and students is appreciative and respectful. 17. The learning atmosphere is relaxed and free of fear. 18. The teacher deals constructively with student errors. Method 19. Different social forms are used. 20. The implemented social forms are functional according to the objectives of the teaching phase. 21. The teacher gives the students the opportunity to work independently. 22. The learning opportunities take into account the different learning requirements of the students. 23. Instruction opens up scope. 24. The pace of instruction is appropriate. (adapted from Helmke 2005)

In my opinion, this lesson observation sheet should only be used in parts – at least when teachers are not acquainted with such detailed statements. The section about student activation, for example, should be completed after (re-)reading the respective paragraph of Chapter 4 (see Section 4.1).

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When teachers want to establish collegial feedback in their subject matter (i.e. teaching and learning English as a second/ foreign language), they should specify the following seven perspectives or at least those that seem the most important to them. To allow for a comparison with Helmke’s EMU observation sheet they could choose, for example, the fourth section “Activation and Student Orientation.” Aspects of collegial feedback 1.

Classroom and lesson management a. effective use of class time b. established rules and rituals

2.

Teaching climate a. atmosphere conducive to learning b. appreciative interaction

3.

Clarity and structuredness a. visible objectives b. clear formulations c. coherent and goal-oriented sequencing

4.

Activation and student orientation a. cognitive demand b. high level of individual activity c. life and experiential learning

5.

Individual support a. conceptual consideration of individual prerequisites b. needs-oriented action by the teacher

6.

Structured learning and reflection a. process-oriented work b. dealing constructively with errors c. critical reflection

7.

Variation of learning and working methods examples a. appropriate choice of methods b. conducive social forms c. supportive use of media

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The specification should correspond to the opinions and convictions of the teachers and the way they conceive foreign language teaching and learning: 4.

Activation and student orientation a. Cognitive demand – In class, a connection is made to the students’ prior knowledge. – The teacher also provides complex tasks that appropriately challenge students. – Instruction inspires students to think and work further. – Links are made in class to the content of other subjects. b. High level of individual activity – Lessons encourage active participation by students. – Students participate actively, speak up and work with concentration. – Students are able to influence the course of the lesson and to organize lesson phases independently. – The distribution of speaking time between teacher and students is appropriate to the objective of the lesson. c. Life and experiential learning – Lessons take into account the life and experiential world of learners and make connections to it. – Examples and tasks encourage students to bring in prior knowledge, interests, and out-ofschool experiences. – Students are given the opportunity to ask their own questions from their personal world of experience.

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Person-Related Feedback

From my point of view, the collegial feedback questionnaires are an important step toward person-related feedback that should not be too formalized as is often the case with evaluation sheets presented by various scholars. It should come to feedback exchanges that really merit the name “Feedback-Talk.” This presupposes that feedback givers and feedback takers know how to deal appropriately with the individual statements. Guy Kempfert and Marianne Ludwig made some thought-provoking suggestions more than a decade ago. Prerequisites for feedback that promotes learning – It is given in awareness of one’s own subjectivity. – It takes into account the current situation of the recipient. – It takes place in mutual agreement. – It refers to concrete perceptions and describes them in a low-inference way. Feedback givers: – are grateful for the trust placed in them – focus on strengths without ignoring weaknesses – refer to concrete data and support their observations with data – do not hurt the recipient – speak in first-person messages – report back feelings triggered by the receiver’s behavior – think about what they want to say and why – do not give suggestions for improvement or general advice. Feedback takers: – agree to receive feedback – initially only listen attentively and do not defend themselves, – ask questions of understanding afterwards, – express their feelings and describe their optics, – thank each other for the feedback. – Both discuss their findings in conclusion.

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–

173

Donor supports the search for measures without imposing him/herself.

(Kempfert & Ludwig, 2008, p. 57; my translation) These suggestions can be complemented by the following comparison developed by the Institute for Political Science at Munich University. Even though it refers to face-to-face feedback conversations among lecturers, it can be used – with minor modifications – for all forms of feedback presented so far: from the teacher to individual learners, from learners to the teacher, in peer feedback as well as in feedback among colleagues. Giving feedback

Accepting feedback

positive things first

asking for feedback

first person-messages

listening

refer to concrete behavior

do not argue/justify

descriptive, non-judgmental

no counterattacks

only criticize what can be changed

active listening

offer alternatives

ask for clarification

point out consequences

understand feedback as an offer

argue without contradiction timely (Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 2014; my translation)

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Why is collegial feedback helpful for practicing teachers? 2. Questionnaires and evaluation programs are only in part useful for feedback among colleagues that should lead to improve student learning. What is the main reason? 3. Which are the most important features of collegial feedback that should be agreed upon from the outset? 4. Do you agree with the statement that only teachers that teach the same second/foreign language at the same level can give a colleague the most valuable feedback? Explain why or why not. 5. On what aspects can collegial feedback focus beside the goals and the content of the respective subject matter? Make a list and compare it to that of other participants. 6. Why does the implementation of valuable peer feedback among colleagues require time and effort? 7. The chapter is not about external evaluations, but . . . 8. Neither Wiliam nor Hattie mention collegial feedback. In your opinion, why do they leave out this important feedback procedure? 9. What is EMU? Use your own words. 10. What do you think of Helmke’s suggestion to compare the judgements of students, the teacher, and a colleague? 11. Do you think the various observation sheets presented in this chapter are useful? Why? Why not? 12. How would you react if someone offered you feedback on your teaching?

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1 1 WHAT ABOUT ELECTRONIC ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK? Summative and formative electronic assessment can be used in the foreign-language classroom to provide appropriate feedback to learners. However, this presupposes that the learners (and the teacher) are sufficiently informed about the use of digital media and have already tried and used them. Therefore, at the beginning of this chapter there is a brief update about digitization (Section 11.1). Mostly, electronic assessment and feedback are used for summative determination of the achieved learning level; the higher-education sector predominates. In school-based instruction, electronic assessment and feedback occur less frequently. However, these feedback practices have increased dramatically in recent years due to the COVID 19-pandemic around the world, especially in the United States, but also in European countries (see Chapter 12). Electronic assessment can be used for more than just summative feedback (see Section 11.2).

11.1 Update: Digitization and Beyond The term digitization is often not used in its original meaning, but rather to describe the drastic changes that the use of electronic technologies has brought about in all areas of life, including schools and teaching, and will bring about in the foreseeable future. Technically networked digital

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communication has led to disruptive change (see also De Florio-Hansen, 2020, pp. 21 ff.). Disruption refers to a process in which an existing business model – which can also be a teaching model – is replaced or “smashed” by a rapidly growing innovation. Existing, traditional models are repeatedly replaced by innovations and in some cases completely displaced. Originally, the term digitization referred to the conversion of characters into a form that could be read by machines. It is therefore conversion into a code that enables communication with the help of devices and machines. In the field of electronic data processing, the term digitization stands for the conversion of analog values into digital formats that allow information processing by computers and all terminals based on computer technology. It is also possible to create primarily digital representations such as videos, photos, or audio files. Today, the conversion from analog to digital is done exclusively by binary symbols (0 and 1). In binary coding, a zero or a one is called a bit (binary digit), while a sequence of zeros and ones is called a byte. Bytes usually consist of eight bits. The difference between analog and digital signals can be illustrated to students using the example of clocks. While they used to be exclusively analog, today they are mostly based on digital technology. If you compare the dial of an analog watch with that of a digital watch, looking closely you can see that the hand of an analog watch advances continuously. On a digital version of a dial (not one showing the time purely through numbers), the transition from minute to minute is intermittent: the hand jumps from one minute to the next. What does this mean for the accuracy of digital representations? Students can learn from this example that digital representations do not provide one hundred percent accurate

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deliveries; they are always approximations. For this reason, speech recognition and translation software, for example, still faces limitations despite great advances. These limitations are offset by the great advantages of digitization: The most obvious are the archiving of text, images, video, and audio, which are particularly important in foreign-language teaching. With the decisive step from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0, information and news can be disseminated worldwide without delay. For example, one can easily contact partners in the target-language foreign country at the same time. In addition, students can easily access collections of available knowledge. As far as children and young people are concerned, these advantages for teaching and learning at school are offset by the dangers of using social media, for example. Networked computers have given rise to the Internet, which has also become increasingly important in foreign-language teaching at school. To use it meaningfully, precise knowledge of the terms is required. Many students often say: “I’ll just look it up on the Internet” or “You don’t need to remember that, it’s on the Internet.” This questionable use of language sometimes leads to the fact that the information found cannot be examined and integrated into one’s own stock of knowledge in an appropriate form. The Internet provides access to data, but is not to be equated with the information itself. Rather, the Internet refers to all connected networks that rely on the Internet Protocol (IP) for global networking. The Internet is the network of networks, as it were, and encompasses global and regional networks of every conceivable kind. It is based on a wealth of resources such as hypertext documents as well as applications from the World Wide Web (WWW), but also email programs, telephony, and data exchange. The Web forms the actual information area; it contains the relevant sites and data that can be accessed via the Internet.

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With the help of a browser, we can access a wealth of information via the Internet, most of which is stored on platforms on the Web. To do this, we need a web address (URL, Uniform Resource Locator). Common websites are formatted in the description language HTML (Hypertext Mark-up Language) and are transmitted using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http). Apart from the fact that many schools around the world are not yet equipped with information technologies in such a way that they could easily incorporate the so-called new media into their teaching, there are also teachers who take a waitand-see approach to digitization, and in some cases reject it. They only want to use electronic media if they promise “added value,” without considering that their students often do not use digital media appropriately in their private lives and are dependent on electronic technologies, especially in later (professional) life. Others, however, go so far as to break down conventional curricula into mini-modules that are offered to each individual learner in digital form according to their abilities, motivation, and previous level of knowledge. In working through these individualized programs, learners have greater leeway than in the classroom: they are free to choose the time frame; they also have the option of going through the task or activity several times in case of comprehension problems or for repetition. Sometimes the results of these learning activities are stored using technological tools. Although the teacher has the opportunity to follow the learning processes of individual students at any time and to intervene to help, if necessary, in the end algorithms decide what the student in question learns next. As a reminder, an algorithm is a unique set of instructions for solving problems; however, algorithms are not only used in the context of electronic technologies, but have existed for centuries. Thus, a cooking recipe can rightly be called an algorithm.

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In previous chapters (see Section 7.1.2 and Section 9.3.1), the importance of face-to-face contact between teacher and students, as well as among students, has been pointed out. If the students are not shown alternatives how they can learn (further), such individualization is usually not conducive to learning. Rather, it is then an updated form of programmed learning. Digitalized forms of learning, on the other hand, can be used to create free spaces to deepen the bond between those involved in the learning process. An English professor has used Pepper and Nao, two humanoid robots produced in Canada and France, in his lectures with good success, so that his model could be transferred to foreign-language teaching in schools (Knoke, 2017). The basic principle is reminiscent of the so-called flipped or inverted classroom: based on the teacher’s instructions, the students first deal with the new content independently outside of class. Class time is used for explanation and consolidation. The English professor uses Nao in his seminars to deepen the content he has presented. The robot walks up and down the lecture hall, answering questions on demand from students who have not understood something. Pepper, the other robot, temporarily “stands in” for the professor so that he can work with individual students or small groups.

TEFL Example: Functions of the Smartphone For most people, not only for children and young people, the use of a smartphone has long become a matter of course. Yet they often use only a small part of the functions that smartphones now offer. If you want to take responsibility in relation to the benefits and dangers of such devices, you should be familiar with as many functions as possible, even if you rarely or never use them. This applies in particular to the numerous apps with which one can expand one’s smartphone – sometimes for free, sometimes subject to a charge (see also De Florio-Hansen, 2022).

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In the following lesson example, the focus is first on basic insights that need to be deepened in the further course of the lesson. Cooperative learning in the sense of a variation of thinkpair-share lends itself here as well: First, the learners give an account of their level of knowledge in short individual work, in order to then exchange information with a tandem partner. If necessary, they have further short conversations with other group members before a plenary discussion takes place. Presumably, the students will not get beyond the basic possibilities of smartphone use. The teacher can name and explain other functions: – They can download data or use streaming offers through mobile Internet connections. – A smartphone serves as a digital notepad on which to record reminders. – Smartphones can extend certain existing applications (such as in the form of virtual reality games). – With suitable payment systems, the smartphone can replace cash or EC and credit cards. A prerequisite for this is NFC (near field communication) functionality in a smartphone. – The device can serve as a media center and stream both video and audio content to other devices. – The integrated digital camera has ensured that the smartphone has now displaced very inexpensive digital cameras from the market. – Numerous other use cases depend on the respective apps installed on the device. (see Callahan, n.d.) Because children and young people use their smartphones as a matter of course, it makes sense for them to be accountable for the functions they use. Some applications they use daily, others they know from occasional use. But there are a number of applications that they have not considered before. As a result, they may be missing out on something they could benefit from. Most importantly, they do not adequately account for potential dangers due to ignorance.

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TEFL Example 11.1 Do You Know the Functions of Your Smartphone? Task 1 What can your smartphone do? Which functions do you know? Work on your own. Take notes enlisting the functions and underline the one that is the most important to you. Task 2 Compare your results to those of your tandem partner. Add those possibilities of the smartphone you have not thought of before or which you did not know about. Then talk about your results in plenary. Task 3 Probably you use WhatsApp or you have heard about this tool. What are the main advantages of WhatsApp? Work in groups of four. Task 4 Who is the owner of WhatsApp? How is this messenger service financed? Present your results (as well as those of Task 3) in class. Task 5 Read the following text. Then discuss in plenary if you agree with the author’s position that all these functions contribute to the phone’s utility, but do not make it “smarter.” Why? Why not? Does adding more accomplishments to this list mean that machines are getting more intelligent in the human sense? For some insight into this question, consider your smartphone. It replaces a variety of formerly distinct tools – cameras, cell phones, music players, navigation systems, even flashlights and magnifying glasses – telescoping them

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into a single device. But do you feel that your phone gets “smarter” each time you download a new app? I suspect not. No matter how capable it becomes, it’s still the informationprocessing analogue of the Swiss Army knife – lots of useful tools cleverly integrated into one easily carried appliance. (Kaplan, 2016, p. 9)

TEFL Example: The Pros and Cons of Digital Devices In the following lesson unit, the learners deal largely selfdetermined with the advantages and disadvantages of digital devices such as their smartphone. They have the opportunity to exchange views and convictions with tandem partners and other group members. Most importantly, they practice various forms of formative peer feedback. The teacher can additionally ask them at the end of the tasks and activities why the title “What to Do to Monitor, Control and Evaluate Learning Processes” was chosen for the lesson. This will prompt them to think additionally about the feedback practices they used and share them in plenary. What does monitoring, control, and evaluation mean in this context?

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TEFL Example 11.2 What to Do to Monitor, Control, and Evaluate Learning Processes? Activity 1 With your tandem partner, read this excerpt from an article and complete the title. Compare your ideas with those of other classmates. Digital Tools in School: . . . It is an undeniable fact that digital devices have become an integral part of our lives, and children are increasingly exposed to them. If their use in the classroom has advantages, it must however be controlled by the teachers, whose role as pedagogue remains absolutely essential. Being aware of the features they offer and knowing how to limit their use are part of the essential training. (adapted from Mol, 2018) Activity 2 In addition, the article lists and explains the pros and cons of using digital media in school. Pros Useful preparation for future professional life. Individualized learning. Improved creativity and communication. Cons It’s a distraction. Information is better assimilated when it is handwritten rather than typed. Increased screen time. (adapted from Mol, 2018) Continue to work in tandems; one of you handles the pros, the other the cons. Each of you explain the three directions in some detail in your own words. Then report back to each other on your results. Pros ……………………………………………………………………… …

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Cons ……………………………………………………………………… … Activity 3 Now it is time to think about feedback for your partner. First you will find out how he or she has progressed to get the results. This is feedback at the level of self-regulation. To help you, here are some questions that refer to different levels of self-regulation. What did your partner do to describe the pros and cons? Monitoring What did you do to . . . ? What happened when you . . . ? How do you justify . . . ? How did he/she check that his/her explanations are relevant? Control Where is the connection between . . . and . . . ? What do all the pieces of information have in common? What conclusions did you draw from your descriptions? Evaluation In what ways have your ideas/conceptions changed? You should find other questions that are closer to the task and especially to your processes. If necessary, ask other groups and your teacher. Activity 4 At the end, give feedback that your partner can really benefit from. For example: You have explained very well how certain digital tools can help to improve communication, especially with our Englishspeaking partners. At first you didn’t explain well why it is better to write by hand than to type. But now it is clear.

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11.2 Until Now: Limited Use of Educational Technology in the Foreign-Language Classroom Electronic assessment is often used to find out and evaluate personal knowledge, skills and aptitudes to facilitate the choice of a profession and/or subjects of higher education. Online assessment in the form of aptitude tests is used in the following areas: It involves the recording of skills as well as knowledge tests and personality tests. More recently, this has also involved so-called online recruitment games, which are subsumed under the term “recruitainment.” As a rule, school leavers can benefit from these evaluations, partly because they often provide them with new insights about themselves. But what about the teaching and learning of second/foreign languages? The development of textbooks is particularly striking for learners (see De Florio-Hansen, 2022). Whereas just a few years ago textbooks contained only sporadic digitized supplements, there is now an abundance of such supplementary materials, including so-called digital textbooks. Student and teacher books, as well as accompanying materials that are aligned with the corresponding pages of the respective book and/or the lessons, are usually offered in the form of apps. This learning software, which follows a more or less linear concept, cannot be equated with learning platforms. A so-called Learning Management System (LMS) is a textbook-independent, complex system that provides a wide variety of learning content and organizes the learning process (see De Florio-Hansen, 2020, p. 193f.). Digital textbooks allow projection via IWB (Interactive Whiteboard) or a beamer, while students can use the corresponding materials via a laptop or tablet computer. The benefits are evident: the teacher can access all available

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materials without any special effort; students cite the elimination of lugging books as the main advantage. The use of digital textbooks has not yet been scientifically studied for any subject. Despite a generally positive attitude toward their use, teachers caution that integration into the respective lessons does not consist of replacing conventional media with digitized materials, but that a sensible combination is necessary. Students can account for developments in textbooks by comparing their textbook used in English classes (or classes in another foreign language) with the latest edition or another digital textbook for the foreign-language class in question. First of all, they can compare the lesson texts and the exercises offered, as well as the layout of the vocabulary lists. First and foremost, however, they should find out whether the additional audio and video materials merely serve the purpose of appealing presentation or actually represent a step forward. Some learners will notice that many textbooks contain more material than can be mastered in class. Publishers still focus on completeness: even newer textbooks try to cover all the requirements of the school authorities in one textbook, although the authors know very well that this leads to overload. To what extent does the learning software additionally contribute to the learning of the respective foreign language? From the beginning, most of the additional offers were nothing more than exercises and activities that could also be done with paper and pencil. Nevertheless, a clear increase in motivation can be observed. An exercise on CD or DVD or an app motivates students more than the same exercise in print form in the student book or supplement. But behaviorist-inspired drill exercises still predominate today – even in so-called digital textbooks. It would not be helpful to point out only negative aspects to students when comparing two textbooks.

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Advantages of learning software are that individual learners can determine the speed of processing as well as repetitions of individual sections. They will also welcome the opportunity to check the solutions independently. Therefore, it can be expected that learners (despite the limited tutorial functions) will generally approve of textbook-based software, especially because of the recently quite elaborate tools. Even though textbooks are still omnipresent in the foreignlanguage classroom, it is easy to imagine learners completing assignments online for which they receive feedback online immediately upon completion. To put it bluntly, such procedures, if they are to justify the cost in school-based instruction and the amount of work required of the teacher, are exceedingly limited. Typically, such tasks and activities correspond to specific formats such as multiple-choice tests or insertion exercises. Moreover, summative feedback is the same for all students. If individualization were to be achieved, the teacher would have to provide a range of different task formats depending on the learning context, skill level, and personality traits of individual learners. Moreover, such programs usually do not provide any guidance on what the student should focus on in order to improve his or her performance and to achieve the learning goals set by the teacher or by external sources. Admittedly, it is possible to design individualized tests and task formats, that meet most of the requirements indicated. However, the cost of these is considerable, so they are usually only used at universities in departments with large numbers of students, for admission, assessment of seminar papers, and parts of university exams. Online assessment and feedback enable lecturers to provide a large number of students in individual subject areas like medicine with an assessment and sometimes also a corresponding commentary on their performance.

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In the school context, they also present teachers with considerable extra work that cannot be justified unless there are special needs to be considered. Such needs may, however, be provided to some extent by remote and hybrid learning in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic (see Chapter 12). However, in all these attempts, even those that can be described as successful, the deficit remains that face-to-face contact between teacher and students and learners with each other is not brought to bear. As we have seen, even in the case of student self-assessment, continuous contact with the teacher and, if necessary, with other learners is essential (see Chapter 9).

TEFL Example: Writing a Customer Review of a Computer Game Assessment and feedback brought about by electronic technologies can first be achieved by learners making greater use of digital media in the classroom. To achieve this, Ruben Puentedura presented the SAMR model over ten years ago. This is a step-by-step model for integrating digital technologies: S stands for Substitution, A for Augmentation, M for Modification, and R for Redefinition. The terms denote the function that digital technologies have in the context of the respective task (Puentedura, 2009; see also De Florio-Hansen, 2022). The highest level of this model, namely the level of reassignment (redefinition), is reserved for tasks and activities that would not be possible without technological support. From my perspective, the SAMR model serves primarily to broaden the view of the different ways digital technologies can be used in schools and classrooms.

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As explained, the so-called reassignment is characterized by the fact that it cannot be accomplished with analog forms of processing. This is true, for example, when learners design a website for their school for a foreign partner class/school. Another example of reassignment is writing a customer review on a computer game. It is best for learners to choose a game that they themselves have learned about and played in class. Wellknown games that are also very popular abroad are LEGO or Minecraft. Since there are often no common Internet platforms where one can post such reviews in oral form with enrichments by excerpts from the game and other audio and video materials, the learners design their evaluation in text form. Of course, these (scripted) customer reviews can also be enriched with appropriate images. Through this activity, learners account for the goals, structure, and design of the game in question. Through their online research to write such a customer review and further access to other computer games for comparison, they also keep receiving formative electronic feedback that should be discussed in class.

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TEFL Example 11.3 Writing a Customer Review of a Computer Game Step 1 It is best for learners to work together in groups. In order not to make it difficult to agree on a particular game, the teacher can give some games that have already been used in class to choose from. Before the actual group work, it is also useful to discuss criteria for analyzing a game with the learners, especially its graphic design, storyline, its playability, and gameplay. Step 2 In tandems or small groups of up to four students, learners first review the game. Before writing, they consult customer reviews at online retailers for games they know, obviously not the game they want to evaluate. If the teacher wants to be more directive, he or she can provide two to three selected customer reviews of familiar games. Step 3 Guidelines for writing a customer review should be created by the students on their own, if possible. In tandems or small groups, they write lists of characteristics that make a good game. When and why is a game considered bad? They then compare their lists with those of other group members and adopt positive aspects from them. Step 4 How do you design a meaningful customer review of a game (of any product, for that matter)? When and why is a customer review insufficient? Again, learners can contrast positive and negative features, but are likely to rely more on the teacher’s help. Entering “customer review computer game” in the target language into a search engine they will find helpful links. Again, students compare their listings with those of their group members and add positive features to their lists.

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Step 5 This should be followed by a plenary discussion in which the individual points are discussed and finally summarized in a guideline for writing customer reviews. The decision as to whether and how the learners make their customer reviews known to a smaller or larger public should be discussed among themselves.

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. What does disruption mean? Why is this term used in the context of digitization? 2. What does the term digitization stand for in its original meaning? 3. What is a binary symbol, what is a bit and what a byte? Why are these terms important? 4. Explain the example of clocks in the context of digitization (in your own words). 5. List at least three advantages of digitization. 6. What is the relation between the Internet and the World Wide Web? 7. What is a URL for? 8. What is an algorithm? Why is a cooking recipe an algorithm? 9. Explain the term flipped/inverted classroom. What is inverted? 10. What functions of a smartphone do you know? Which ones do you use? 11. What are the main pros and cons of digital technologies? 12. What does recruitainment mean? 13. Why is electronic assessment of limited use in teaching and learning in schools? 14. What can students learn from writing a customer review on a computer game?

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1 2 REMOTE AND HYBRID LEARNING The New Normal?

As scientists and above all practicing teachers are looking for teaching and learning approaches to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic, the most important models are presented in Section 12.1. One of the main differences between teaching and learning in the online classroom consist in asynchronous and synchronous forms of instruction. Their advantages and disadvantages are described and explained in Section 12.2. This leads to the description of omnipresent procedures of video conferencing, an important teaching and learning tool during the pandemic (Section 12.3)

12.1 Diversity of Teaching and Learning Approaches The complete or at least partial closures of public (and also private) schools, triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic, has created significant difficulties for teachers, learners, and parents. Worldwide, 300 million children and adolescents were expected to learn at home from one day to the next. This caused psychological and emotional distress for most students; many were unable to engage productively. Beyond the aforementioned psychological effects caused by the change in “schooling,” the pandemic also led to serious economic and political changes. Many parents and educators, even the better-off ones, were overwhelmed by the new situation.

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Now the children and young people were to be educated from home. What could be more obvious than to bring the term homeschooling into the discussion, especially since homeschooling plays a significant role in the United States, but also Asian countries like India? Homeschooling, however, means something other than instruction organized by public schools for children and young people who are unable to attend schools because of the risk of contagion during a pandemic. Homeschooling refers to the learning of children and adolescents who learn at home or in places other than schools. In this case, the responsibility lies solely with the parents or other legal guardians. Why do they prefer homeschooling? Apart from external reasons such as physical disabilities or long distances to the nearest public school, many parents feel that their children’s individual strengths and weaknesses are not given enough attention in public schools, where teachers are often expected to accommodate thirty children or adolescents. One-to-one instruction favors natural learning as well as learning by doing. The interests of the child or adolescent can be taken into account much better, so that homeschooled learners can often work on the same problem or subject for several hours. Homeschooling is also propagated in many places by the Indigenous population as well as for religious reasons. At times, fear of bullying, racism, and substance abuse are also factors cited in favor of homeschooling. According to John Taylor Gatto, public schooling leads to statecontrolled consciousness and obedience, thus preventing free-thinking and dissent (cf. Gatto, 2010). John Holt, often referred to as the “father of homeschooling,” published a plea for homeschooling as early as the 1970s – Instead of education: Ways to Help People Do Things Better – which has been reprinted various times (Holt, 2004). Needless to say, homeschooling, which was and is the talk during the pandemic, has drawn opposition from teacher organizations and school districts. Criticism has been

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leveled at the lack of social contact and exposure to other cultures, worldviews, and social classes. However, scientific research shows that homeschooled students perform better on standardized tests than students who attend public schools. They have higher-developed social skills and greater self-confidence. Last but not least, they are less susceptible to peer pressure. Many homeschooled learners attend elite universities, which is attributed to more individualized attention. The good results of homeschooling are also favored by the great variety of methods, forms, and philosophical orientations, such as the Montessori method. How do parents manage homeschooling? Could they not have benefited from these forms during the pandemic? In addition to family associations, commercial providers are repeatedly mentioned as having materials available, as well as advice and support. Homeschooling has also benefited from the rapid development of electronic technologies, which teachers now (have to) make greater use of during the pandemic. Forms of teaching and learning during the pandemic cannot be equated with traditional homeschooling, even though forms of homeschooling may serve as examples for teaching and learning during the pandemic in order to prevent students from falling behind. What about distance learning? Even this comparison falls short. The widely practiced forms of teaching during the pandemic are not the same as distance learning. This refers to a form of teaching and learning used in adult education as well as mainly in higher education. In most cases, forms of distance learning require state approval. The main difference with pandemic-related teaching and learning is the that while current online teaching, if it can be called that, is caused by an emergency situation and is limited in time, participants are completely free to decide whether they take part in a distance learning

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course, and which one they choose. Distance learning does not exclude occasional face-to-face events. In most cases, distance-learning courses are supported by a tutor who certifies the (often fee-based) courses at the end. Many universities have been offering individual modules as distance learning for some time now. Whereas the teaching letters and work results used to be sent by mail, the exchange has long since taken place via the Internet. The use of educational technology and the associated e-learning in distance learning is aimed at interactive processes that enable numerous learning activities at different levels. They are based on varied methodological procedures, which are not recommended for the forms of teaching and learning caused by the pandemic – simply because of the costs and the amount of work involved. In this context, information and communication technologies emphasize the relationship aspect in addition to subjectspecific learning: there are numerous opportunities for contact between the students and the teacher, but above all between the learners themselves. Distance-learning offerings are often supplemented by face-to-face tutorials. There are also numerous MOOCs (massive open online courses) that can be accessed via the Internet or other networking technologies. These offerings have been carefully designed and were not created as a stopgap solution like the instruction provided during the pandemic. All of them use synchronous as well as asynchronous forms of teaching and learning, which were also used during the pandemic. In addition to procrastination (i.e. learners putting off doing the necessary activities and even missing deadlines), one of the main criticisms of distance learning is that the assessment of learning is not easy because cheating often occurs. It took some time for the term remote learning to become established for the teaching caused by the pandemic. It refers to a form of (school) instruction that takes place at a physical distance, but in which there is a close

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exchange between the teachers and the students. Learners are required to attend school in this form of online instruction, and the same rules apply in principle as in face-to-face instruction, where teachers and learners physically meet in a specific location, usually the classroom. In richer countries, parents, who now also had to manage the supervision of their younger children, enlisted the help of professional providers who also work in homeschooling. Many families formed cooperatives. They wanted to ensure that their children receive a qualified education. Despite many efforts on the part of teachers and school administrators, research has shown that in better-off societies children and young people were 10 percent below the level they were working at pre-pandemic, while in poorer countries they were as much as 60 percent lower, not to mention the psychological effects. By mid-2021, most schools offered forms of virtual instruction that have been little explored. Some schools have moved to offering forms of alternate instruction. For part of the learning group, it takes place from home, while the other half participates in face-to-face instruction, with regular alternation between the two groups. Initially, it does not matter how this instruction is organized in detail. In this way, teachers and school principals sought to mitigate the difficulties of remote learning. One principal reported that the difficulties caused by the pandemic could be countered quite well at his school because digital media had been used in one form or another for years. But still, what was missing was the spirit of a school: a pat on the back or a pep talk. To compensate, the school’s teachers produced a YouTube show every night to which everyone – including students, of course – could contribute. This compensated for some of the disadvantages of remote learning, but not all.

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But what is hybrid or blended learning? Like remote learning, hybrid learning is a form of learning based on electronic technologies. Well-known forms of e-learning are blended learning and flipped classroom. In blended learning, which is mainly used in higher education, students work out part of the material themselves and bring it into the respective course – as preparation and/or as a basis for discussion. Flipped classroom envisages that the students work on the content at home, so that more time is available in class for consolidation and contact with the teacher and other learners. Hybrid instruction, then, consists of a combination of online and face-to-face forms of learning. However, it is not the same as remote learning and consequently not tied to an emergency situation. Rather, many experts consider it as a form of further development of teaching in general, which they see as a positive consequence of the schooling caused by the pandemic.

12.2

Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning

So far, there are no relevant (evidence-based) scientific studies on remote learning. In an interview with Tech & Learning, Emily Oster provides some initial evidence for the United States that is likely to apply in a similar form to other countries. Students from upper-income backgrounds have 10 percent lower learning gains, while learners whose parents are middleand lower-class face up to 60 percent “learning loss” (Ofgang 2021). This is due to the fact that the key realities of face-to-face instruction do not transfer to remote learning without modification. Nonetheless, about a quarter of students report coping better with remote learning than with traditional instruction. While learning in face-to-face classes is predominantly synchronous, many teachers resort to asynchronous online learning forms in distance learning as well as in remote learning. In asynchronous learning, the teacher sends the students a task to be

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worked on or suggests a corresponding activity – usually online. In most cases, the teacher sets a deadline. Learners are required to submit their results by this deadline, but can work on the tasks or activities individually – regardless of time and space. Often, the tasks set are too extensive. The same applies to synchronous online teaching. Both forms – asynchronous and synchronous learning – have advantages and disadvantages. Advantages of Asynchronous Learning As a rule, the tasks are more sophisticated than in synchronous learning. – Both the learner and the teacher largely control the schedule. – More complex tasks and activities are available than in synchronous learning. –

Disadvantages of Asynchronous Learning – The teacher cannot check learner engagement as well as understanding in real time. – There are fewer interpersonal connections and less accountability on the part of the learners. – There is limited opportunity to provide individualized support to students with learning difficulties as they work through tasks. – Screen fatigue may occur. – Attention may wane. Advantages of Synchronous Learning – Relationships between the teacher and learners, as well as among students, are established and/or strengthened. – Checking for understanding and correcting errors and misconceptions is possible in real time. – Greater engagement can be expected. Disadvantages of Synchronous Learning – Schedules must be coordinated. – Access to technology as well as technical issues can make learning difficult.

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– –

Screen fatigue can occur. Attention may wane.

(adapted from Soloman & Verrilli, 2020, p. 25) Most remote learning proposals to date emphasize asynchronous learning followed by synchronous review in a video conference. Only slowly are changes beginning to emerge. It is important to consider – ideally with specialist colleagues or in interdisciplinary teams – whether and how both forms can be combined in a meaningful way. This could be done, for example, by adapting the flipped classroom model. One of the many ways to emphasize the relationship aspect more strongly in asynchronous learning as well is, for example, to create explanatory videos together with the learners. In this way, one can do more justice to the learning context of the respective school as well as that of a learning group than is possible with prefabricated materials from the Internet.

12.3

The Relationship Aspect: Video Conferencing

In the context of distance and remote learning, videoconferencing is, as it were, the synchronous counterpart to learning platforms and other asynchronous tools. This assumes, of course, that students turn on their cameras and keep them turned on. Online conferencing could easily be used for synchronous learning as well. Certain rituals to increase concentration, frequently addressing individual learners by name, and especially cold calling, where learners are prompted to speak even if they have not called in, would be worth considering. It is also often a matter of preventing distractions. Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that it is especially important for children and adolescents to feel “seen.” In addition, it often influences their behavior when they have the opportunity to observe others. So far, video conferencing has mostly been used to present and evaluate the results of asynchronous learning. Before videoconferencing

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can be used, the legal requirements must be clarified. This applies above all to the various forms of copyright. One can distinguish several functions of videoconferencing. One, as just mentioned, is the presentation and reflection of the asynchronously developed learning results. For students, this is not only about comparing them, but also about getting feedback from the teacher and from other learners. This points to the most important function of videoconferencing in distance learning, namely the forms of relationship and the informal exchange among the learners. Free conversation phases are just as much a part of this as class hours or the teacher’s office hours. Video conferencing can also be used to plan further asynchronous teaching phases with the participation of the learners. In cooperation with the learners, it must be determined which competencies are to be targeted on the basis of the learning situation and how they can be checked later. In order to do justice to the different learners, the teacher should also consider together with the students which forms of scaffolding can be used. It is not insignificant how the teacher designs the presentation of learning cues as well as, above all, the presentation of him/herself. – When presenting illustrations and documents, learners need to know where to focus their attention. – The computer camera is best placed at face level to avoid the impression that the teacher is constantly looking down. – Most recording programs have a small mirror in which you can see yourself while being filmed. – If you are showing classroom material, you should adjust the screen so that learners can see both you and the material. With Zoom, this setting is automatic; with other programs, it must be activated accordingly. (adapted from Richard & Costello, 2020, pp. 146–48).

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TEFL Example: What Really Matters At the end of their informative publication Teaching in the Online Classroom: Surviving and Thriving in the New Normal, Lemov and colleagues (2020, pp. 163 ff.) address their expectations for the near future. They begin by discussing a wide variety of aspects, ranging from equipment with digital technologies to how to deal with possible learning deficits of students (keyword: learning loss). The very last section, however, is reserved for the relationship aspect, to which the authors attach particular importance. Advanced learners of English (from the fifth year onward) will probably take the reading of the explanations with goodwill, because Lemov and colleagues undoubtedly recognize the situation, but are far away from know-it-allism – despite their great expertise: “One of the few things we are certain about for school in the coming years is its level of uncertainty,” they write (p. 163). They are far from easy solutions; this makes their concern for learners all the more credible.

TEFL Example: A Fantasy Journey in the English Lesson The following lesson example can make (advanced) students aware of what is easy to do in face-to-face classes. But they should also consider what can be transferred to online teaching and learning. This is not exclusively about remote learning during the pandemic, but also about distance learning and other forms of teaching and learning supported by digital tools.

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TEFL Example 12.1 Maintaining What Matters Task 1 In autumn 2020, Lemov and colleagues published a book about the remote learning caused by the pandemic all over the United States. At the end of the book, he and two co-authors try to anticipate the (possible) changes provoked by COVID-19. The last paragraph of this chapter is entitled “Maintaining what Matters.” Read the text. The biggest lesson we’ve learned from this unprecedented spring [2020] may have been one we already knew, one we learn all over again each school year. The relationships between teachers and students, the commitment of teachers to improving their craft, to reaching their students, to ensuring their students grow – these are still what matters most. The institution of schooling as we know it maybe changed forever, or only temporarily disrupted. Who’s to say what the autumn of 2021 will look like, let alone the autumn of 2025. But we know that, no matter the model, no matter the technology or the location or the new guidelines, when teachers plan carefully, build strong systems and routines, and respond to their students understanding, students will learn and develop, feel seen and valued, and continue their educations, whether they’re seated in our classrooms or on their couches. Teachers first and foremost build a culture around their students, one that shapes their understanding of content, but also their perception of the world and their place in it. That work is harder to do when we are remote some or all time, but it’s still doable, especially if one of our primary takeaways from our time in the New Normal is to realize anew, and with renewed emphasis, the critical value of the culture we build. (Lemov et al. 2020, pp. 173–174)

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Task 2 Read the text again and try to find out what is the most important statement of the authors. This act of scanning (for some special information) will lead you provably to different individual results. In groups of four try to find an agreement. A placemat activity will help you. On a large sheet of paper draw lines as shown below. Every group member writes down his or her position in one of the outside spaces without discussing. In a second step, try to find a common solution which you will enter in the center. Discuss your results with other groups and in plenary. Task 3 Do you think the placemat activity was helpful to reach an agreement? Why? Why not? Talk about it in class.

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TEFL Example 12.2 Maximilian’s Fantasy Trip Read the following description of an English lesson and try – together with your tandem partner or in groups of four students – to find out which elements of the fantasy journey could also be transmitted online and which ones are only possible in the classroom of a brick-and-mortar school. The Realm of Bright Minds Seventeen-year-old Lena is in the penultimate grade of a school that Maximilian, her little brother, has been attending for a few weeks now. Although she has a good relationship with her brother despite the age difference – he is an uncomplicated, cheerful child – she is not happy about the fact that he comes running to her at almost every break to tell her about his experiences in class and his new friends. Lena wants to use the break to maintain her own contacts, and especially not to miss a conversation with her current best friend. She has already told Maximilian a few times that he can tell her everything in detail at home, but that has only helped to a limited extent. Today, too, he comes running to her right away during the first break. His cheeks are red and he is very excited: “Well, where’s the fire, Milian? Have you done something wrong?” “No, not at all, but we had English today in first period. It was really cool, I can tell you.” “I’d like to have cool English lessons, too. Well, tell me about it, but please be brief, I want to chat with my friend for a bit.” “Well, we did a fantasy trip, and we learned grammar while we were doing it, incredibly exciting. I also made it right through the door into the ‘realm of bright minds’, but then I unfortunately didn’t get any further. But I’m sure I’ll make it next time.” After several queries, Lena can roughly imagine what happened in the English lesson: The students closed their eyes, and the teacher gradually told them – with appropriate background music – that they were traveling in a fantasy land where there

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are adventures to pass and you can eventually get into the “realm of bright minds.” It is clear to Lena that her brother feels particularly addressed by a land à la Tolkien, after all, he is struggling, partly with her help, through “Eragon,” the extensive novel by an American teenager in which the hero has breathtaking adventures together with his dragon Saphira. Apparently, during this fantasy trip, the teacher had introduced the -s for the third person singular with verbs in some form and set various tasks. Then the children were allowed to open their eyes and if they gave the correct answer, a door opened that the teacher had made out of cardboard for this lesson starter. The student with the correct answer was not yet allowed to enter, however, but could choose one from several covered slips of paper that lay beyond the door. If the task on the slip was solved correctly, he or she had gained entry into the “realm of bright minds.” “Well, that must have been exciting for you, I understand that well,” Lena said. “If you want, I’ll practice with you a bit so you can make it to the bright minds.” Maximilian looked at her in disbelief for a brief moment, as his sister usually had little desire to help him with tasks, but apparently, she had understood what it meant to him. “Oh, that’s really nice of you. Because not only do I want to go to the ‘Realm of Bright Minds,’ but later I want to go to the Club of Anglophones, or however you pronounce it.” Lena taught him the correct pronunciation and away he went to show off his new skills to his classmates.

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Explain some of the advantages and disadvantages of homeschooling. 2. What are the main differences between homeschooling and the teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic? 3. List some of the similarities between distance learning and remote learning. 4. What is the main difference between the two? 5. Why is remote learning so difficult? 6. In your opinion, are forms of hybrid/blended learning a solution to cope with the teaching and learning during the pandemic? 7. What does the term “flipped classroom” mean? 8. Mention some advantages and disadvantages of synchronous and asynchronous learning. 9. Why is the omnipresent division between asynchronous and synchronous teaching and learning during the pandemic not always useful? 10. What are the main functions of video conferencing?

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Part III Summative Assessment in Combination with Formative Feedback Chapter 13 deals with learning models and taxonomies that facilitate teaching and learning. The basis is a model in three steps that starts from basic knowledge, which is incorporated in the working memory and transformed through mentalese in cross-linked concepts. Taxonomies are destinated to further specify teaching and learning. Whereas Bloom’s taxonomy lost much of its influence when independent learning gained momentum, the SOLO-Taxonomy is a valuable instrument especially for learners involved in feedback procedures. An important step toward the implementation of a feedback culture consists in the combination of summative assessment with formative feedback (Chapter 14). The feedback should be combined in some way with the grading of written work using supplementary tools, especially the margin column, using a criteria grid or working with a cover sheet. In Chapter 15, the importance of the official grading of oral and written performance is explained in some detail. In this context the prevalence of grades for written work is underlined as most school authorities rate the results of written performance higher than grading for oral contributions in class. The following suggestions show how students can gain insights into assessment of written performance, with some detail on the grading of content and language in foreign teaching and learning. A comparison between the ratings of the ACTEL and those of the CEFR is presented at the end of Chapter 15 to show the effort for a certain equivalence.

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The last chapter (Chapter 16) highlights the value of the teacher in all initiatives and practices concerning assessment and feedback. Even though the valid character of teaching as well as the validity and authenticity of tests and presentations are underscored, teachers are invited to implement feedback step by step despite the overwhelming suggestions in the relevant literature. In the last section once again, the emphasis is on formative feedback as a complement to summative assessment and grading.

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Learning models are an important starting point for assessment and feedback. A basic model in three steps from surface knowledge to cross-linked concepts helps learners understand how they can improve and deepen their learning (Section 13.1). Taxonomies that go in more detail of the cognitive processes are a useful tool for teachers when preparing a lesson (e.g. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives; Section 13.2). But when it comes to summative and formative feedback in all its varieties the SOLOTaxonomy is a much better choice (Section 13.3).

13.1 Learning Models To deepen learning processes through assessment and feedback, the main learning models have to be taken into account. As we will see, there are models that are more suitable for assessment and feedback than others. In any case, it is up to the learners in what way they make use of the various existing taxonomies after the teacher has introduced them to the main procedures and given them various occasions to put them into practice. We do not just need learning models to plan lessons or teaching units but also to evaluate them (i.e. when summative and formative assessment come into play). Without knowing the processes occurring in class it is quite impossible to provide space for feedback so that teaching leads to more

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successful learning. “Only with reference to learning processes teaching strategies and techniques can be implemented and empirically analyzed” (see also De Florio-Hansen, 2018, pp. 147–53). An important multifaceted procedure consists of the progressive transformation of surface knowledge into crosslinked concepts. Knowledge is only the first step. Therefore, facts learned by heart for some sort of test are quite often forgotten after a short period of time. Facts have to be linked to concrete concepts of a particular subject matter. Competence means reproducible knowledge. The students have to overcome surface knowledge, which is the first step. The second step consists of finding out the importance of the learning content (i.e. the individual learner has to interpret the content and to form a concept of his or her own). Then, deeper learning processes have to be initiated. In the third step, the students have to relate the newly learned concept to concepts they already possess and to learning experiences they made in different contexts. This also means that they have to transform the existing concepts to make the network fit together. “Teachers promote this form of networking by offering the possibility to deal with the respective content in other thought-provoking contexts and at different intervals. Smallgroup work has proved particularly effective when it comes to this third step” (De Florio-Hansen, 2018, p. 148). It is not sufficient to differentiate between surface, deep, and conceptual knowledge. We must find models that explain how these deeper learning processes occur and how they can be improved. Until there is no better model, the following model may serve as a starting point: In general, thinking occurs in a prelingual form, so-called mentalese. Mentalese is the language of thought represented in the mind without words; it plays an important role when different concepts are linked together (cf. Petty, 2009).

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In order to construe meaning, information that reaches the short-term (or working) memory is transformed into mentalese (see also Marzano 1998). A construct is formed (i.e. a small network of communicating brain cells). This construct is developed into a concept when we arrive at linking it with a term of a spoken language, mostly the mother tongue. The elaborated and developing concepts are connected with each another and with the already existing knowledge of the individual learner. In order to reach this deep learning, a repeated contact with the learning content is necessary. Only after various encounters is the concept stored in long-term memory. In what way can feedback procedures among teachers and learners, peer feedback, and self-assessment contribute to promoting the described processes? Concept building can be promoted by the teacher but also by MKOs and through self-assessment, but feedback procedures are of limited use in initial states of thinking (cf. Chapter 4). Consider this example: The teacher wants to introduce in a class of beginners the word “friendship.” If the learners already know the form and meaning of “friends,” they will have no difficulty in understanding the (new) English word. The students are already in possession of the concept; they have only to link “friendship” to the word with the same meaning in their mother tongue. But the learners can profit from different sorts of feedback when the concept is enlarged (e.g. to the friendship between nations based on mutual trust and support or when it comes to an intercultural comparison of different conceptualizations).

13.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy From this model and similar representations of thought development result learning taxonomies of educational objectives. A taxonomy is a classification system that may serve to define different levels of human cognition, because different concepts

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do not develop in the same way. A well-known taxonomy still considered useful in the domain of teaching and learning is Benjamin Bloom’s model, which was first published in 1956. Originally, Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives for knowledge-based goals was divided into six different levels: 1.

Knowledge

Recall, or recognition of terms, ideas, procedure, theories, etc.

2.

Comprehension Translate, interpret, extrapolate, but not see full implications or transfer to other situations, closer to literal translation.

3.

Application

4.

Analysis

Apply abstractions, general principles, or methods to specific concrete situations. Separation of a complex idea into its constituent parts and an understanding of organization and relationship between the parts. Includes realizing the distinction between hypothesis and fact as well as between relevant and extraneous variables.

5.

Synthesis

Creative, mental construction of ideas and concepts from multiple sources to form complex ideas into a new, integrated, and meaningful pattern subject to given constraints.

6.

Evaluation

To make a judgment of ideas or methods using external evidence or self-selected criteria substantiated by observations or informed rationalizations.

(Center for Teaching and Learning, n.d.)

During the decades following publication, Bloom’s original work was criticized increasingly because the first three levels describe forms of knowledge whereas the levels 4, 5, and 6 refer to forms of knowledge acquisition. At the beginning of the millennium, Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) transformed Bloom’s taxonomy into four knowledge levels:

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1. 2. 3. 4.

factual knowledge conceptual knowledge procedural knowledge metacognitive knowledge. Nevertheless, the taxonomy lost its leading position. That does not diminish the beneficial influence of Bloom on teaching procedures. But the more pedagogy and didactics focused on learning, the more difficult it became to follow the steps of Bloom’s taxonomy. It is clear that the details cannot be observed in the language classroom, because it is obvious that the different levels differ from content to content and from learner to learner. Therefore, Bloom’s taxonomy cannot be the foundation of detailed feedback procedures.

13.3 The SOLO-Taxonomy When we take the three-step learning model into account, we need a taxonomy that starts from practice (i.e. that is based not on questionnaires and observations of students during instruction) but on results produced by the learners. A learning framework that corresponds to these requirements is the SOLO-Taxonomy published by Biggs and Collis (1982). The authors took the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome into account, looking for evidence of learning progress and quality when students are engaged in tasks that require deeper learning and critical thinking. To create a taxonomy (first intended for vocational education), they aimed to fix distinguishable levels of learning by analyzing a great amount of student work. Biggs and Collis found out that the quality of learning depends on the structure of students’ written work. The following description of the five levels of the SOLOTaxonomy is transposed to an example of teaching and learning English as a foreign language. The task of the learners consists in giving opinions and taking position on wearing school uniforms:

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prestructural: A student describes when and where he was confronted with school uniforms for the first time, i.e. during a school partnership with a small school in the English south. Another student analyzes in detail the illustrations and descriptions of school uniforms in the textbook used in class. Both students did not understand the sense of the task. 2. unistructural: Some students describe one single aspect of the instruction to wear a school uniform. They enrich their pro or con with preselected arguments. 3. multistructural: A number of students describe more than one aspect but do not relate the aspects to one another. 4. relational: The written work of learners at that level is classified by Biggs and Collis as relational, i.e. relating and comparing the aspects. The students mention single points, e.g. group pressure, the greed for profit of some designers as well as the feeling of shared identity and pride to go to a well-known school. Moreover, they weigh them up against each other. The students’ remarks and comments however remain limited to the special task. 5. extended abstractum: The learners of the highest level can somehow be considered as experts. First, they discuss the pros and cons of school uniforms as at level 4. But they exceed this discussion by reflecting, for example, what consequences the introduction of school uniforms would have in German schools, e.g. for students from migrant families, and/or they think about the effects that the prescription to wear such a uniform would have in poor African regions. (De Florio-Hansen, 2018, p. 151) Wiliam and Leahy, too, criticize previous taxonomies like that of Bloom, because they “look at educational objectives. In contrast, Biggs and Collis suggest it is more helpful to look at what students actually do, and in particular, what evidence of their thinking is present in the work they do” (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, p. 181). Wiliam and Leahy combine the SOLO-Taxonomy with self-assessment. The team of authors describes the five 1.

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structural levels with an eye toward learning in a form that teachers can use to guide their students: Prestructral: The response does not address the requirements of the task. Unistructural: The response addresses a single aspect of the task. Multistructural: The response addresses multiple aspects of the task, but these multiple aspects are treated independently. Relational: The response addresses different aspects of the task that are related to each other and therefore become an integrated whole. Extended abstract: The “integrated whole” is conceptualized as a higher level – for example, as an element of a more abstract structure, or applied to new relevant areas. Although the taxonomy is presented in linear form, because concepts generated at the extended abstract can be the building blocks for new relationships between concepts, the taxonomy can also be taught as a cyclical or spiral in nature (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, p. 181). At each of the five levels, students can or should be asked about individual aspects of their learning, such as their cooperation with peers, who are an important source of feedback. Hattie and Clarke (2018, p. 80) aptly summarize the uses of the SOLO-Taxonomy: “The SOLO-taxonomy (surface, deep, transfer) is useful for understanding student’s developing thinking, helping to move + 1 up the taxonomy and for planning, assessment and providing appropriate feedback.” Hattie and Clarke see the SOLO-Taxonomy first of all as an aid for the teacher: “SOLO is a means of classifying the learning outcomes in terms of their complexity, enabling us to assess students’ learning in its quality rather than how much has been learned” (p. 68). In the subsequent analysis of the individual “stages of learning” they bring, among other things, an example of the initial phase of the taxonomy:

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An Example of Feedback at the Surface or Task Level: “Your learning goal was to structure your recount in a way that the first thing you write is the first thing you did. Then you write about the other things you did in the same order that they happened. The success criteria we created together include that the events must be in the order they happened. Remember the example we went through? You have written the first thing first, but after that it becomes muddled. You need to go through what we have written and number the order in which things happened and re-write them in that order.” Too often students see the main game in class is to “know a lot” – to emulate Siri or Google. Indeed, many of the tasks and tests they are asked to complete reinforce this notion. Focusing on the success criteria of the learning intention help students focus on remembering and understanding processes, and therefore to deeper understanding. We argue that knowing lots can be helpful, provided the lesson moves to relating these single ideas, extending and exploring them then learning to transfer them in other contexts. Surface is a prerequisite to deeper, not an end point. (p. 77) The quotes further highlight the many uses of the SOLOTaxonomy ranging from assessment and feedback among teachers and students to peer feedback and selfassessment. As with other teaching and learning strategies, the SOLO-Taxonomy requires careful implementation and frequent (guided and independent) use to realize its potential. The introduction can be done using the example above about wearing school uniforms. After the students have understood the upward movement no idea, one idea, many ideas, linked ideas, extended ideas (p. 73)

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they can work individually or in groups to formulate the corresponding statements about wearing school uniforms and then discuss them in plenary. TEFL Example 13.1 presents a travel through time. (You can find numerous elaborated examples and YouTube videos on the Internet by typing “SOLO-Taxonomy examples” into a search engine.) The SOLO-Taxonomy cannot just be used for all exchanges of feedback described in Part II. It also facilitates the combination of different forms of summative and formative assessment and feedback. For example, the teacher can indicate on a supplement to a graded test what went well and what may have gone better on the basis of the levels of the SOLOTaxonomy. In that way, grading is complemented by formative suggestions destined for the individual learners. Students can indicate on a corresponding chart for their teacher which parts of the lesson they could benefit more from and which less based on the structure of their thought processes. So, the teacher can profit from formative impulses in order to rethink his or her teaching practice. In peer feedback, the taxonomy facilitates reciprocal understanding and allows concrete indications of what could be improved. The same applies, with appropriate modifications, to the use of Biggs and Collis’ Taxonomy in selfassessment.

TEFL Example: Is Time Travelling Possible? The SOLO-taxonomy can be applied to this example. It shows the teacher and learners that the five steps Biggs and Collis suggested need not always be worked in rigid order, but that freer combinations are possible and desirable. They show the teacher how individual learners use the structures. They also allow for the desirable intensive exchange among learners during elaboration and discussion.

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TEFL Example 13.1 A Travel Through Time Activity 1 In pairs, read the following story and mark all the words and phrases that refer to digital media. Then make a list and add other words and phrases you already know that have something to do with digitization. A Trip Back in Time One day, as Luke goes to the library, he sees a boy across the street dressed in a very old-fashioned way; his shoes remind Luke of his grandfather’s. Curious, he approaches. When he is about to make a comment, he notices that the boy seems disoriented and lost. –

Are you looking for something? asks Luc.

– –

But where are we? What do you mean? We’re in front of the library.

– But in what city? Luc doesn’t have time to answer because his smartphone rings. He pulls it out of his pocket and looks at it: nothing important. The boy seems interested. –

What’s that?

– –

You’re asking weird questions! That’s my cell phone. A cell phone? So, you can make phone calls without using a big phone? And without wires?

– That’s it! At that moment, Luke has a strange idea inspired by all those science fiction stories. Could the boy be someone who has traveled through time? – But where are you from? –

From Boston. But tell me, can you make and receive phone calls anywhere?

–

Of course. But my cell phone has many other functions. It’s a smartphone, a computer phone. Do you know what a computer is?

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–

Yes, the first ones came on the market some time ago, but they are expensive. But what other functions does your smartphone have? – I can write text messages, they are very short messages, but also emails, that’s the electronic mail. And of course, I can do all the research I want on the Internet. In short, my smartphone is a little computer. The boy doesn’t seem to understand much. So Luke asks him the decisive question: – When were you born? –

In April 1951. Next month, I will be 17 years old. By the way, my name is Charles.

– I am Luke. Activity 2 In groups of four, find the questions for the following answers. 1. ………………………………………………………………… Vis-à-vis the library. 2. ………………………………………………………………… The boy is dressed in a strange way. 3. ………………………………………………………………… Because his cell phone is ringing. 4. ………………………………………………………………… He shows a lot of interest because he has never seen a smartphone. 5. ………………………………………………………………… SMSs are quite short messages, while emails are longer. 6. ………………………………………………………………… It is a small computer. 7. ………………………………………………………………… You enter a word or an expression in a search engine. 8. ………………………………………………………………… There are too many details.

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9. ………………………………………………………………… In science fiction stories. 10. ………………………………………………………………… In the late sixties. 11. ………………………………………………………………… They introduce themselves. Activity 3 What do you think of this story? Is it a good idea to use time travel to introduce basic digital media vocabulary? Why? Why not? Activity 4 In groups of four, read the following short story and find at least two motivating and interesting activities that are quite different from the two exercises above. Gather ideas first. Take notes. The Proud Smartphone A smartphone from the south spends a few days of vacation in Paris. Of course, it would first like to climb the Eiffel Tower to enjoy the panorama that other smartphones, but also laptops and even old computers have told him about. When it arrived in Paris, it did not immediately find the right direction and asked a group of cell phones in a small square. After receiving the necessary directions, it does not thank them. On the contrary, it makes them feel his contempt. For a world capital like Paris, it finds them old-fashioned and not up to the level of digital technology. So, the cell phones agree to cut him off. They take up position at the entrance of the Eiffel Tower and tell him: “This is our revenge against your pride. You’re not getting through.” And an old cell phone adds, “Why don’t you try climbing one of the towers of Notre Dame Cathedral.” So, what can the smartphone say? It is reasonable and starts to think about the proverb: Pride and stupidity go hand in hand!

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Activity 5 Agree on the two best ideas and divide into two pairs. One pair prepares one exercise, the other pair prepares the other. After you are finished, exchange your results and review them with each other. If you disagree on improvements, ask another tandem or group. After having corrected both of your exercises write the final versions on separate sheets and hand them over to your teacher who will give you feedback.

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. What does mentalese mean? 2. Why do facts have to be connected with particular subject matter? 3. Describe the procedure that is necessary to store a new concept in long-term memory. 4. What are the main points of critique of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives? 5. What is useful about Bloom’s taxonomy? 6. What is the basis of the SOLO-Taxonomy? How did Biggs and Collis develop it? 7. What are the advantages of the SOLO-Taxonomy when it comes to assessment and feedback? 8. Explain the five levels of the SOLO-Taxonomy. 9. In your opinion, what is the best strategy or technique to present the SOLO-Taxonomy to learners in schools?

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1 4 HOW TO COMBINE SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT WITH FORMATIVE FEEDBACK As summative assessment, especially in the form of grading, is indispensable, teachers have to think about and apply the pros and cons of grading so that the students can deduce sufficient guidance for their further learning (Section 14.1). As it is not done with a short written feedback beside the grade – such as “good work” – teachers have to think about the form of feedback and above all about the place where to express their hints for the learner in question (Section 14.2). The following section presents some basic suggestions about how and where to apply written feedback in combination with grading (Section 14.2.1), such as in the margin column, with the help of a rubric, or using a cover sheet.

14.1 Pros and Cons of Grading In a blog post from the Thomas Fordham Institute entitled “Why Grades Matter,” Chester E. Finn, Jr. writes: A tenth-grader I happen to know pretty well takes her school grades seriously and derives satisfaction and pride from good ones (which, I might add, she routinely seems to get). This spring was hard for her – no fun for a teenager to be home with mom and dad all day, no contact with friends except on screens, and none of the face-to-face classroom interaction with teachers and fellow students that she adores. Her (private) school did

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a commendable job of online instruction, and she worked diligently on the assignments. But then no grades, just written comments by teachers. What a bummer, never mind that the sentences emailed to her were highly supportive. (Finn 2020) As can be seen from Finn’s quote, it is by no means the case that the majority of learners reject grades. Sometimes they are prompted by their teacher’s bias to view explicit assessment and grading negatively, or at least to keep their opinions about it to themselves. On the other hand, scientific studies substantiate the teenager’s attitude alluded to here, namely that comments on tests and other evidence of achievement – no matter how positive they may be – are not perceived as meaningful enough by many students if a grade is not mentioned. As grades are an important aspect of most education systems, it makes sense to have a quick look at the history of grading (even though grading has been mentioned in various chapters before). Before the 1940s, schools and universities did not use grades in order to qualify their students’ performance. They awarded them with rankings and medals instead. In their current form, grades were introduced around the 1940s. Initially, the most important goal was communication between institutions; for example, university admissions could be granted more easily with the help of a grading system than by written comments on the individual student’s performance. Before the familiar letter system from A to F was introduced, some institutions resorted to a 100-point scale. The following grading scale is still in use worldwide: A = 90–100 % B = 80–89 % C = 70–79 % D = 60–69 % F = 0–59 % It shows that the requirements were and are comparatively high. Some schools add a plus or minus for clarity (e.g. 97% = A +, 73% C).

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14.1.1 Pros of Grading Not only can the various institutions benefit from a grading system, it can also be helpful for the learners themselves. – They can see where they stand with their performance, not only in their own class or school, but usually worldwide. – Grades help students see what goals they need to set for themselves to achieve good grades. – Grades are not only easy to understand for educational institutions and their learners, they also provide parents with relevant information. – Because they can be easily compared with other students in the class, they show teachers who needs special support. 14.1.2 Cons of Grading – In grading, the teacher’s more or less reflected subjective judgment always comes into play. This is less true for mathematics and science than for language teaching, including foreign languages. Although the grading system is standardized, the practices in assigning grades are not. This means that what one teacher grades as an A, another will only grade as a B. – The grading system does not capture the actual learning performance. It does not provide any indication of how the individual student achieved the particular grade. – For teachers, the system is very time-consuming: They must devise a grading rubric and scale for the appropriate performance that captures understanding and performance of the task(s) in question using five letters (or today, often six grades from 1 to 6). – Closely related to this is teaching to the test or, better, learning to the test. Learners are no longer concerned with the content, but with the question “Will this be on our next test?” – Students’ self-esteem can suffer because many evaluate grades as a lack of intelligence. Therefore, the teacher must always ensure that learning and a growth mindset are the focus of instruction, not grading. Useful feedback from the teacher and peers, as well as

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self-assessment, can also help ensure that students do not disregard grades at all, but do not overvalue them either. It is not at all the case, as Hattie and Clarke suggest, classifying grade assignment as post-lesson feedback and contrasting it with in-lesson feedback (Hattie & Clarke, 2018, pp. 123 ff.). “The most powerful feedback . . . is the ‘in the moment’ feedback, verbal or written, which teachers engage in throughout a lesson” (Hattie & Clarke, 2018, p. 136). Shouldn’t tests, classwork, and exams be discussed and commented on in class? Why can’t the assignment of grades be combined with formative feedback? Those who favor positions like Hattie and Wiliam should have the courage to advocate for the abolition of grades. Assessment for learning and its associated formative feedback can also have their impact when combined with summative assessment. This is especially true when the awarding of grades is linked to cues for learners’ further work. To do this, of course, the students must know the criteria that led to a particular grade. Only then can they learn from their “mistakes” and improve their performance – within the framework of the lesson with appropriate support from the teacher and, above all, in exchange with peers.

14.2

How to Combine Summative and Formative Procedures

For some time now, teachers have combined grades with oral and/or written comments. It goes without saying that a short written comment that the teacher adds under the grade of the respective learner is either not received appropriately or even triggers negative reactions – not to mention the immense amount of work for the teacher. So, what needs to be done to provide summative assessment (i.e. grades) with hints and comments that can be considered formative because they give the individual learners sufficient guidance for their further learning efforts? The basic question is: How can the “what next?”

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advocated by most researchers and practitioners come to fruition in the context of summative feedback? Susan M. Brookhart spends an entire chapter on effective feedback in written form (Brookhart, 2017, pp. 36ff.). First, she points out in detail that word choice and learner participation are particularly important in this context. She suggests phrases such as What were you thinking about when you chose this topic? What was your intention? Students should also not be relegated to a passive role when providing feedback related to grades. Rather, it should express that teachers value students as learners. Learners have to be encouraged to believe in their selfefficacy. Feedback should help them decide for themselves what to do next. If the teacher gives a learner feedback that something is wrong, he or she should make suggestions about how the individual students can improve it. 14.2.1

Applying Written Feedback to Performance Assessments Like other experts, Brookhart assumes that tests and other work done for purely practice purposes will remain ungraded. But for projects that are graded, some students like to know the reason for their grade, in which case feedback helps explain how the grade was arrived at. Pre-made tables with space for comments or cover sheets are useful when dealing with projects, term papers, and other extensive written work. Brookhart underlines that feedback is especially useful when revising and resubmitting written work is possible or when similar work is forthcoming. Of particular importance in this context is the author’s advice that learners should have opportunities to act on feedback. This is true even if they cannot resubmit the work to their teacher for correction (i.e. in class tests and exams). In the following, I will discuss three ways in which formative feedback can be designed and introduced in the context of assigning grades: 1. Writing the formative feedback into the work itself, at the point at issue.

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Creating criteria grids with learners that can be used repeatedly for written work. Creating a cover sheet– again with the participation of the learners – on which the teacher only needs to mark their comments.

FORMATIVE FEEDBACK IN THE MARGIN

This variant is suitable for shorter performance reports. In any case, the teacher should also underline positive aspects before offering some form of criticism on individual passages of the submitted work that, in his or her opinion, needs improvement. Possible formulations: – You have structured your story quite well, taking your daily routine as a starting point, but you have done so in a quite monotonous way. Aren’t there parts in your routine that you enjoy more than others? Could you please give examples? – The content of your work makes sense. But could you please explain why you have chosen this topic? – You explain very well for what reasons the protagonist has chosen a certain behavior, but you don’t mention the reaction of the other characters involved. Your work will be more complete and more attractive if you focus on the consequences of the protagonist’s behavior, too.

WORKING WITH A CRITERIA GRID

This point is twofold: first, students can also use a rubric to guide them for written performance assessments, as it will be attached to the class assignment or exam. On the other hand, the teacher can circle the passages for each learner that he or she would have to pay more attention to. This not only saves work, but more importantly, helps learners because they are already familiar with the individual items on the rubric. For this purpose, criteria grids used in other contexts should not simply be adopted. Rather, it is a matter of working with students to

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create a grid that is appropriate for the learning context at hand. WORKING WITH A COVER SHEET

A cover sheet placed on the class paper or an exam also provides an opportunity for learners to incorporate familiar aspects into their approach and presentation. In this case, too, learners should be involved in the design of the cover sheet. Just like a criteria grid, it makes the teacher’s job easier because they can write their comments in the space provided in the margin (whereas when using a criteria grid, he or she is limited to highlighting the existing text). The following formulations have been developed in close accordance with the CEFR. They are destined for learners’ text production based on level B1/B1+. In order to show another widespread system of grading, marks from 1 to 6 are applied in the following example.

Name:

Teacher

Class:

comment

Content mark 1 Task completely fulfilled and all essential aspects covered convincingly and, if necessary, implemented imaginatively Communication situation (reference to addressee, type of text) implemented convincingly Clearly structured and coherent, consistent presentation If applicable, convincing communication of one’s own position or well-founded knowledge of the required subject area

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mark 2 Task largely fulfilled and in most central aspects appropriately and, if necessary, implemented imaginatively Communication situation (reference to addressees, type of text) largely implemented convincingly Mostly clearly structured, consistent, and convincing presentation If applicable, generally convincing communication of one’s own position and/or solid knowledge of the required subject area without major gaps or deficiencies mark 3 Task generally fulfilled; individual aspects missing Communication situation (reference to addressee, text type) generally implemented Overall, appropriately structured and coherent, but presentation not always logical If necessary, still convincing communication of own position or limited, but still sufficient knowledge in the required subject area with several gaps or deficiencies mark 4 Task fulfilled only to a limited extent; some aspects are missing Communication situation (reference to addressee, type of text) not observed in several places Still partially structured, presentation in places inconsequential or unclear Possibly only rudimentarily convincing communication of one’s own position and/or limited expertise in the required subject area with many gaps or deficiencies

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Summative Assessment and Formative Feedback mark 5 Task hardly fulfilled and only rudimentarily implemented Communication situation (reference to addressee, type of text) hardly taken into account Insufficiently structured, presentation often inconsequential and unclear Possibly unconvincing or hardly recognizable presentation of one’s own opinion or very little expertise in the required subject area with numerous gaps or deficiencies mark 6 Task not fulfilled; topic missed Communication situation or reference to the addressee as well as the requirements of the text type not observed Incomprehensible presentation; lack of expertise Language mark 1 Almost error-free text with only isolated, slight violations of the language correctness Broad repertoire of linguistic means (grammar, vocabulary, syntax, idiom, text structuring means) Varied, in expression very accurate composition mark 2 Mostly error-free text with slight violations of linguistic correctness Solid repertoire of linguistic means (grammar, vocabulary, syntax, idiomatic expressions, text structuring means) Mostly varied, expressive and appropriate composition

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mark 3 Several, mostly slight violations of linguistic correctness; however, comprehensibility is hardly affected Adequate repertoire of linguistic means (grammar, vocabulary, syntax, idioms, text-structuring devices) Overall appealing linguistic design mark 4 Many, even serious, violations of linguistic correctness; comprehensibility is in some places clearly impaired. Clearly limited repertoire of linguistic means (grammar, vocabulary, syntax, idioms, text-structuring devices) Limited linguistic formulation mark 5 Very many, often serious violations of linguistic correctness; comprehensibility is impaired overall. Severely limited repertoire of linguistic means (grammar, vocabulary, syntax, idioms, text-structuring devices) Clearly limited linguistic expressiveness mark 6 Extremely serious deficiencies in all linguistic areas; comprehensibility is no longer given Insufficient repertoire of linguistic means (grammar, vocabulary, syntax, idiomatic expressions, textstructuring devices) Incomprehensible text

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TEFL Example: A Learning Activity Without Grading To discourage students from fixating their performance too much on grades, it is often recommended to offer them activities that are not readily associated with grades. This can be, above all, project-oriented learning. Interdisciplinary lessons should be motivational and/or prepare learners for extracurricular realities. Better than in lessons limited to one subject, students learn in such projects to combine factual competence with methodological abilities and social competence. It does not make sense to start with a time-consuming project, but to work on project-oriented activities in consultation with the learners. Of course, such projects depend on the willingness of colleagues and their learning groups. Video games lend themselves to this type of project because the narrative elements come into play even more than in films and videos. While the latter hardly allow the viewer any opportunities to participate, video games invite the students to bring individual episodes into a narrative context at their own discretion and feeling. In any case, project-oriented tasks and activities of this kind should also serve to engage more intensively with English (or another foreign language).

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TEFL Example 14.1 Why Not Create a Video Game in Cooperation with Other Subjects Like Math or Art? Activity 1 You are probably aware of the video game Minecraft. In any case, inform yourself about it in English or in your first language (for example, the first section on Wikipedia), if possible, with your tandem partner. Why are you interested in this game? Why are you not enthusiastic about it? Make a list of positive and/or negative elements. Discuss your results in plenary. Activity 2 Imagine a video game with the help of your classmates in the computer class or in math. Take notes about how to proceed. Activity 3 Create a traditional game that refers to knowledge of American or other English cultures. Make it in art class. Take notes about how to proceed. Activity 4 Play your games and present them to other classes in your school. Activity 5 In groups of four, on a separate sheet of paper, summarize your experiences, especially the steps you took to create your game. Have your teacher correct your summaries. Then, copy them and add photos, drawings, and other media. Find a suitable place to share them with everyone in your school who is interested. Take notes about how to proceed.

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Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Which aspects of the pros of grading is the most important in your opinion? Which one of the cons? 2. What should the focus of instruction be in order to not overestimate grading? 3. Why is the position of Hattie and Clarke worth discussing? 4. How can grades or marks contribute to improving learning? 5. What can teachers do to encourage their students to believe in their self-efficacy? 6. Describe the three ways to combine written (formative) feedback with grading in your own words. 7. Which one of the three procedures is the most effective in your opinion? Why? 8. Do you think that the application of one of the three procedures depends on the age of the learners? Why? To what extent? 9. Try to condense the various characteristics of content and language marks. Which ones are the most helpful for students? 10. Why are learning activities without grading important?

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1 5 STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK IN FOREIGN-LANGUAGE TEACHING If learners are required to better their consecutive learning, engagement, and motivation, they must be informed about the procedures that lead to certain grades of their individual oral and written performance. First of all, they have to understand that grading does not only depend on their respective teacher, but that he or she has to follow the often-detailed requirements of the school authorities. Furthermore, they have to be informed about the reasons why the grading of written performance is considered more important by the authorities (Section 15.1). To gain first insights into grading procedures of content and language, the students can analyze worked examples of presentations and tests on the basis of the requirements of their respective school authority (Section 15.2). After an introduction, they can proceed to evaluate further details regarding the grading of final papers at the end of compulsory school (Section 15.3). A proven medium for deepening learners’ knowledge and experience with grading are repeated “practice tests” (Section 15.4). In Englishspeaking countries, the grading of foreign-language teaching and learning does not get the right level of attention. As an exception, a comparison between the ratings of the ACTFL and the levels of the CEFR is presented in Section. 15.5.

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15.1 The Grading of Oral and Written Performance Even though the importance given by the authorities to oral and written performance differs from state to state and from language community to language community, the grading of oral performance essentially refers to participation in class, completion of homework, and various forms of presentation such as papers and PowerPoint presentations. How the teachers grade the participation in class and/or the completion of homework in a specific case often remains their secret. Only in exceptional cases do teachers ostentatiously pull out their grade book to signal to a student that they are highly dissatisfied with a performance in the areas mentioned. In the case of papers and PowerPoint presentations, on the other hand, students are usually told how the teacher grades the content and presentation. Sometimes the grade is announced only after the presentation has been discussed in plenary. This approach involves fellow learners to some degree in the grading process. As a rule, however, written performance records in the form of class work, examinations, and final papers have greater weight with regard to grading procedures.

15.2 Giving Learners First Insights into the Assessment of Written Performance Most teachers give their learners hints before class tests and exams about what the written work will refer to (e.g. summarizing a text or writing a letter to a fictitious person). Usually, they also indicate which linguistic aspects the students should pay special attention to (e.g. words or expressions for structuring a text or linguistic conventions for writing a letter in the target-language country). When class tests and exams are returned, teachers lean closely on aspects of content and language to make it easier for learners to correct their written work.

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What rarely comes up are the criteria for grading set by the legislature. Often, there is a lack of generalization that would allow students to take into account the results achieved and, in particular, possible shortcomings in their further learning efforts. What is presented here in a condensed form should be discussed with the learners step by step on the basis of selected tests, class work, and exams. In addition, explications must be appropriate to the learning context and the age of the learners so that they can benefit from it for their continuing learning. Few learners are probably aware that it is not the teacher who determines on his or her own how to proceed with grading. Assessment and grading of class tests, exams, and final papers are regulated by the school authorities of the individual states and summarized in report marks. They are often given in numbers (e.g. one to six), but in many cases also in letters (e.g. A to F). The requirements differ according to the type of school. In the case of final grades at the end of compulsory schooling, they are often based on the CEFR level grades from A2 through B1 to B2 for the teaching and learning of foreign languages (see Section 15.5). A general subdivision agreed upon by many states concerns the distinction between content and language. Content accounts for 40 percent of the grade, while linguistic aspects account for 60 percent. In addition, most foreign-language teachers distinguish between style – usually in terms of alternation of vocabulary and structures – and correctness when it comes to language. They each account for 30 percent of the grade. Using selected passages from written performance records as worked examples, learners can first make the rough division of assessment into language and content before moving on to separate linguistic correctness and style. Of course, the more clues the teacher includes in the (oral and especially written) comments on individual areas, the more successful this will be. It is easy to see why grades without appropriate explanations or adequate feedback do not lead to

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the desired improvement in learning outcomes (and further development of the individual learner’s personality). Thus, the salient feature of summative assessment in schools and classrooms is its legal character. Since the states are largely autonomous in setting details, they enact appropriate laws and publish a plethora of guidelines. On the one hand, teachers have considerable discretion when it comes to assessing and grading oral performance. On the other hand, when it comes to written performance assessment, they must strictly follow the guidelines and laws of the respective authorities. This can be justified by the fact that written performance in many cases is the basis not only for promotion to the next grade, but also for admission to universities and certain professions. Teachers should help their learners understand this difference. It may be that advanced learners can figure out on their own why grading written performance is a priority for legislators: Possible formulations: – Why do you think that the school authorities differentiate between the importance of grades for oral and for written performance? – Why do they consider grades on written performance as more important?

15.3 Further Details on Evaluating and Grading Final Papers The requirements for final papers at the end of compulsory schooling are quite often specifically fixed by the state authorities. It is useful for all students to learn about the details, especially since the legal requirements are similar. Quite often the same four areas are included in the grade for English as a foreign language; however, the requirements differ depending on the type of school (adapted from a proposal of a German Federal State).

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A. B. C.

D.

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Listening Comprehension – 25 Reading Comprehension – 25 Use of Language – 25 1. mediation (in both directions) 2. words and structures Text Production – 25

Here are some further concretizations for English as a foreign language for two different learning levels: Examination section D: Text production (elective task): Students can choose between three writing tasks; at least one of the three writing tasks is picture-guided. Students are expected to be able to write short simple texts on familiar topics using questions. Examination section D: Text production (elective task): Students will be able to choose from three guided writing assignments; at least one of the three writing assignments will be image-driven. Students are expected to be able to write coherent texts on familiar topics or on a picture stimulus using guiding points. It is a good idea to practice text production with learners prior to each final project. In doing so, they can benefit from comparing the two passages. How do the requirements differ? What does “using leading questions to write short texts on familiar topics” mean compared to “using leading points to write coherent texts on familiar topics or on a picture stimulus?” As it is already demanding for teachers to apply the rules of achievement evaluation valid in their state, it is much more difficult for students who want to prepare for written examinations. Beside the overall challenges of content and language they have to be test wise or rather acquire “exam

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wisdom” in order to concentrate on the important features of the future examinations. (De Florio-Hansen, 2018, p. 303)

15.4 Practice Tests as a Starting Point In class, ungraded tests can be used repeatedly – preferably in consultation with the learners – to test knowledge and skills as well as competencies. These tests are considered to be very effective for learning. Hattie and Zierer (2020) speak of “practice tests” and indicate an effect size of d = 0.54. In addition to the importance for further learning, ungraded tests can also be used to provide learners with initial insights into the assessment of test instruments. How should foreign-language performance be classified? Why is a certain procedure appropriate? What could have been done better? Above all, how do such considerations flow into grades? It therefore makes sense to use criteria grids for ungraded tests as well and/or to create them together with the learners. In Section 13.3, the SOLO-Taxonomy was introduced. It is also a valid control instrument for tests, regardless of whether they are ungraded or graded. Depending on the learning context and the students’ level of knowledge, teachers can pick out individual aspects and discuss them with the learners. The following grading can be applied to the SOLO-Taxonomy: Grading of content aspects using the example of “school uniforms.” – extended abstract: very good – relational: good – multistructural: satisfactory – unistructural: sufficient – prestructural: poor Even younger students should not find it difficult to understand this proposal for grading and, if necessary, to apply it to their own representations as well as those of their peers. Although this is a reasonable procedure, it should be pointed out to the learners

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that the levels of content presentation are by no means always clearly distinguishable from one another and that it is necessary to ensure appropriate grading of the content for such cases as well. Above all, the teacher must make it very clear to the students that the proposed grading is based exclusively on content. This must be supplemented by the evaluation of linguistic performance, which, in foreign-language teaching, due to official agreements, accounts for a higher proportion of the evaluation and grading than the content. It is therefore always a matter of integrating the grading of language and content.

15.5

A Comparison Between ACTFL and CEFR Ratings

What about the countries where English is the mother tongue? In general, they do not provide information about grading and the requirements in foreign-language teaching and learning. An exception is ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages). In a paper, ACTFL (n.d.) presents the coexistence of the two frameworks as follows: There are two major frameworks for learning, teaching, and assessing foreign language skills: the U.S. defined scales of proficiency, i.e., the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines/ILR Skill Level Descriptions, and the Common European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR). Both frameworks form the basis of major testing and certification systems. . . . Despite the fact that both systems have co-existed for close to 15 years, there were few empirical studies to establish correspondences between them. The fact that there were no official correspondences led to an array of proposed alignments between the two systems. (ACTFL, n.d., p. 1) A cooperation including several conferences of persons responsible of both frameworks led to a comparison of requirements (e.g. CEFR B2 corresponds to the ACTFL rating Advanced Mid, whereas CEFR A 2 leads to Intermediate Mid).

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TEFL Example: A Concept Map of Friendship and Love (Graded Work) The elaboration of a concept map (as opposed to a mind map) can show in this context what students need to pay attention to: It is not only about the task itself, but also the fact that they should present their work to the teacher. The teacher will grade the individual elaborations and provide meaningful feedback to the individual learners. Such graded practice tests can show students what they need to pay attention to. They will probably make a special effort; however, they will not include formulations that they have doubts about. As a result, the learning effect may be impaired. It is up to the teacher’s skill to keep possible learning losses as low as possible by giving appropriate encouraging hints. Ultimately, it is a matter of encouraging the learners to dare to do something. This can be achieved by ensuring that the grades do not end up in the teacher’s grade book and/or by giving students the opportunity to submit a revised version, which is not usually possible with class tests and exams. If it has not already been done, this opportunity can be used to discuss with the learners the way in which the teacher deals with mistakes and errors. Not all incorrect formulations are the same: The term mistake is used when learners express something incorrectly or make a “grammatical error” when they should know better. Or it is an error (i.e. incorrect) because the corresponding linguistic phenomenon has not yet been dealt with in class.

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TEFL Example 15.1 A Concept Map of Friendship and Love Before starting, note the difference between a mind map and a concept map. A mind map organizes associations around a single concept (e.g. friendship or love). The most important ideas are directly connected to the central concept, whereas less relevant associations are to be found further away in the outer regions. A concept map is a learning activity used, for example, at the end of a lesson to visually summarize its main results. Quite often, concept maps focus on more than one term and try to find connections between various ideas related to the main concepts, in our case friendship and love. Thus, a concept map is to be considered as formative evaluation. It shows how well an individual learner is able to create a meaningful network of the most important ideas. Task 1 Create a concept map of friendship and love. Work on your own. What are some important terms? What are the most meaningful concepts? What are the main connections between friendship and love? Task 2 When you have gathered the main concepts and terms, make a draft of your concept map. Show it to other group members. Can they make sense of it? Taking their suggestions into account, revise your map. Task 3 Create a final version of your concept map on a sheet of paper. Mind maps as well as concept maps are more appealing when enriched with icons, smileys, or other pictures. These visual elements should not be mere decoration, but function to underscore your ideas, so make an effort. Submit your final version to your teacher. He or she will grade it and give you ample feedback.

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State Requirements for Assessment and Feedback

Review, Reflect, Practice 1. Do you think that oral and written performance should be graded in the same way? Is the accentuation of written performance justified? Why? Why not? 2. In what way can teachers provide their learners insights in the grading of written tests? 3. Explain the different evaluation of content and language. 4. Do you think that it is justifies to score listening comprehension and text production both with 25 percent? Why? Why not? 5. In what way can the SOLO-Taxonomy be helpful when it comes to grading? 6. Explain the difference between a mind map and a concept map in your own words.

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1 6 WHAT TEACHERS CAN AND SHOULD DO ABOUT ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK The implementation of a feedback culture in second-/ foreign-language classrooms depends on the teacher, who should not be overwhelmed with requirements that he or she can in no way correspond to (Section 16.1). The four essential characteristics that teachers should bear in mind are validity, reliability, authenticity, and practicality, but no classroom situation corresponds to real-life situations (Section 16.2). The way to a new approach to learner performance is not the abolition of grades, but their completion with formative feedback procedures (Section 16.3).

16.1

Teachers as the Starting Point of Assessment and Feedback

It is obvious that all summative procedures in the foreignlanguage classroom start out from the teacher. Furthermore, formative assessment and feedback are in general initiated by the person teaching as well. Even though the learners should be involved as much as possible in the feedback practices in order to attain better learning results, it is, in any case, the teacher who starts with giving them feedback – often in order to elicit feedback statements from them. It is the teacher who introduces them to peer feedback and self-assessment and helps them deepen these procedures through appropriate initiatives.

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The various feedback interventions based on the initiatives of teachers quite often induce scientists and practitioners to propose a myriad of procedures that even teachers working together with a wider range of colleagues cannot put into practice. Anthony Green, for example, dedicates a chapter of over thirty pages to “Assessing Receptive Skills,” which starts with “Defining Reading and Listening Abilities,” going into lots of detail, coming to “Choosing and Adapting Texts or Recordings for Use as Input” (Green, 2021, pp. 101 ff.). Only after an introduction of more than fifteen pages, the author presents “Guidelines for Preparing Tasks” (pp. 116–19) and proposes procedures for “Score Reporting and Feedback” (pp. 123 ff.). What teacher can dedicate the necessary time to deepen Green’s (valuable) proposals (in this chapter limited to receptive skills). Green is not the only one to overwhelm teachers in this way. In order to be more realistic, try to find a starting point and enlarge your initiatives considering the obtained results.

16.2 Four Essential Requirements Even though teachers are not required to make a design statement, they should be able to justify the content of their teaching in general, but above all the different forms of oral and written tasks and tests. From a general perspective, teachers should try to adhere to the main requirements for testing and grading: These are validity, reliability, authenticity, and practicality of tasks and activities. It is above all validity (together with authenticity) that counts. A test is considered valid, when it really measures what it should measure.

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First of all, the assessment material must allow for responses that can show the knowledge, skills or abilities of the respective learner. For this reason, testing grammar and vocabulary that is not embedded in tasks or activities is insufficient. Second, the assessment material should reflect real-world language use. Teachers should have these requirements in mind, but they can only correspond to them up to a certain point: No classroom discourse or teaching and learning activity can match real-world communication. No test can show exactly how the individual student would behave in real-life conversations. This does not mean that you do not have to care about validity and authenticity in this sense. The same applies to reliability: No test will have exactly the same results when written in another learning group even if the teacher is the same.

16.3

A New Approach to Student Performance

A new learning culture needs a different approach to student performance. That is the requirement of many critics of the current grading system. Most of them consider grades as useless or even detrimental. If one examines the advantages and possibilities as well as the disadvantages and difficulties that the authors associate with certain assessment and feedback procedures, contradictions arise. – Are class tests and learning checks (sample tests) really only knowledge-based? Even in the lower grades of secondary school, at least in foreign-language teaching, affective and social aspects already come into play. – Portfolio work is criticized because it requires changes in teaching: Is that not the case with every change that aims at greater learner involvement? It is a truism that the successful use of such procedures depends on expert introduction by the teacher and repeated practice in class. – Creating criteria and competency grids is time-consuming? Probably so, but if one rejects their preparation (including

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the required teacher training), one should not advocate the abolition of grades. A final suggestion: Why, as argued in this book – especially in Part III – can grades not be prepared for and/or supplemented by formative feedback?

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GLOSSARY

Action orientation refers to the demand that teaching does not have to be limited to linguistic procedures, but should also include various forms of action. Since this is only possible to a limited extent in foreignlanguage teaching, action orientation in the foreign-language classroom is often interpreted as the learners’ willingness to use the foreign language in situation- and partner-appropriate ways in real-life contexts. Assessment describes various forms of performance evaluation. It can be used for grading purposes, but it can also show individual learners how to continue to work and what improvements are needed to achieve their learning goals. There are two main forms of assessment. Assessment for learning aims to show students ways to continue learning, usually without grading. Assessment of learning determines – usually through a graded test or exam – whether students have met learning objectives. These may be externally set (e.g. in school-wide comparative tests), set by the teacher, or set by the learners themselves. (Sometimes the term assessment as learning is used. This is when the tasks and tests themselves also serve to advance students in their learning.)

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Authenticity refers to the idea that utterances in class should correspond as closely as possible to communication in real life. Backward design is used to determine from the outset what goals learners should achieve and, from the desired outcomes, how learners can reach these goals. Behavior contracts are a type of contract between the teacher and an individual learner that specifies what will happen if the learner does not stop misbehaving, usually disrupting the class. Classroom contracts are codes of conduct negotiated between the teacher and the learners. Each student prepares and signs the contract based on the discussion(s) in class. This includes what happens if individual students do not abide by the mutually negotiated contract. Cognitive Load Theory is a theory that assumes that the capacity of the working memory is limited. Consequently, the teacher must ensure that a certain level of stimulus, especially when different media are involved, is not exceeded in a task or activity. Cold calling is a technique used to ensure that it is not the same learners who always participate in the lesson (with oral utterances), with the teacher expecting all learners to think about the task after he or she has set a (question) stimulus. The learner is not required to report in class (by putting his or her hand up) unless he or she has a question. The teacher, on his or her own initiative, prompts learners to participate (e.g. to respond to a question he or she has posed) without reporting.

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Collegial feedback is a form of feedback that plays a minor role among the various feedback procedures. It is not a question of an occasional observation about what another student has done in class, but about regular mutual classroom visits based on agreed goals. Communicative competence represents a development in foreign-language teaching in the second half of the 20th century, when its objectives were extended from reading comprehension and translation to communicative competence. This involved (and still involves) an interplay between linguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, and strategic competence. The goal of contemporary teaching and learning of foreign languages has been enlarged to Intercultural Discourse Competence. Cooperative learning (as opposed to competitive learning) is when each member of a group is required to contribute to the common achievement of the set goals and not to engage in unproductive competition. Corrective feedback in foreign-language teaching constitutes correcting language errors and has long been the only form of feedback (other than grading). Since it still plays an underestimated role in foreignlanguage teaching, it should be kept in mind that corrections can be given in different ways, and that naming the “right” form is usually not enough. Criteria grids are systematic lists of content-related and linguistic criteria that can be used as a guide by foreign-language teachers, but more and more also by learners. Therefore, it makes sense to involve the learners in determining the criteria for success in mastering a task. Diagnostic assessments serve to determine what the learners already know about a certain topic, what linguistic potential they have with regard to a task, and which approach is therefore appropriate.

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Educational assessments refer to assessments of learning performance specifically in schools and universities. This distinction is worth making since assessments are by no means limited to school and teaching, but also play an important role in professional life and other areas. Electronic assessments are assessments successfully managed with the help of electronic technologies. However, these procedures are less appropriate for school-based instruction. On the one hand, they restrict social and emotional interaction, and on the other hand, the corresponding procedures are very cost-intensive. The European Language Portfolio (ELP) of the European Union now exists in a variety of forms and languages. It usually consists of three parts, the Language Passport, the Language Biography, and a Dossier. After appropriate training of students (and teachers), it is used to document and develop knowledge in various languages. Evaluation is the older term for assessment. Since evaluation covers a very broad spectrum, the term “assessment” has come to be used in the field of (foreign-language) learning. Feedback is a general term for both formative and summative feedback. Originally, a clear distinction was made between summative feedback (used to determine a learner’s performance in the form of a grade) and formative feedback. Formative feedback is intended to provide learners with guidance on how to continue working to achieve learning objectives. Nowadays, a connection between the two forms of feedback is becoming more and more common. Formative feedback. See Feedback.

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Grading is the term used in the United States for assessment as a whole. In the United Kingdom, the term “marking” is used in the same sense. Heterogeneity refers to the different prerequisites that students bring to the foreign-language classroom, especially those who use two or even more languages in their private life. It is slowly leading to a rethinking of what constitutes uniformity in grading, but also in teaching itself. Independent learning is when learners are led by the teacher to set their own goals and, above all, to achieve them using strategies and techniques that are personally appropriate to them. Independent learning does not mean a teacher-independent approach, but rather a learning program designed by the teacher with the individual learner in mind. Interactive Classroom Instruction is a meaningful term for Direct Instruction. Interaction between learners gradually plays a greater role in the classroom experience. Intercultural Discourse Competence does not only refer to linguistic or language-related aspects, but also attaches great importance to different cultures and their manifestations in communication. Jigsaw (group puzzle) is an approach in which all groups work on the same task, but within every group each learner is responsible for a different aspect. The learners from the different groups who have worked on the same aspect meet across groups to exchange ideas. They then return to their home groups and report back to the other group

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members what they have learned about the aspect they have been working on. At the end, there is an exchange in the class. Learning through teaching is a newer approach to language learning in which individual students temporarily take on the role of teacher. It is rightly assumed that the person who teaches others must have a particularly good command of the subject matter, thus improving his or her own learning through teaching. To what extent students learn more when they are temporarily taught by a fellow student is an open question. What is certain is that learners are likely to communicate in ways more conducive to other students’ understanding than teacher-language. Lingua franca is not to be equated with International English. Rather, it is a variety of English used by two or more speakers whose native language is not English. English as a lingua franca is in constant development, but follows set rules. Methods (versus strategies and techniques) are higher-level teaching approaches (e.g. the (former) grammartranslation method, which has been superseded by the communicative method). Strategies are approaches to teaching that can be applied to different goals and content, while teaching techniques are limited to a more restricted aspect of instruction. Mindsets (fixed versus growth mindset) go back to Carol S. Dweck. A fixed mindset refers to ways of thinking that usually exclude further development, while a growth mindset is a way of thinking that focuses on learning growth. The latter is based on the conviction of learners that they will be able to master even difficult tasks if they make an appropriate effort. Motivation was once thought to be largely unchangeable, but research has shown that it can be built upon, and that teachers play an important role in increasing the motivation of their learners. Motivation is

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essentially based on two different forms: the willingness to commit oneself to a certain task or activity and volition, the will to actually implement the goals. Motivation also depends crucially on whether the learners consider the goals to be worth striving for and whether they believe to be able to actually achieve them. Only when both aspects are positively assessed does motivation come into play in a positive way. Peer feedback plays a major role in learning. It has a positive effect when it relates to learning processes and self-regulation. Scientific studies attribute this to the fact that communication among peers is more effective than teacher-language, especially since students often have the same problems with a particular learning subject. Practicality is an important test characteristic. A test, no matter how well designed, will be ineffective or its results will be questionable if learners have difficulty in completing it because its form is difficult to access. Reciprocal teaching/learning is a methodological approach that is particularly suitable for foreign-language teaching. Often the teacher takes on the individual roles at the beginning, so that the students can become sufficiently familiar with this methodical procedure. The procedure consists of four steps: predict, clarify, question, and summarize. Reliability refers to the degree to which a test or another assessment procedure produces the same results when used repeatedly under similar conditions. Since learners and teachers are quite different, reliability is a goal to strive for, but it can usually only be achieved approximately. Rubrics are used by teachers to assess and evaluate student work. Experts recommend the use of these grids also as feedback aids for

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students. The learners can see what is important and what they have to do step by step to come closer to a good or even a very good solution. To make rubrics work in this sense, teachers have to adapt existing rubrics to their teaching and learning context or better, create them on their own, even though this is time-consuming. Scaffolding is not to be equated with every explanation or piece of assistance in the classroom. Rather, it involves providing assistance to students that is gradually phased out as individual learners reach or move significantly closer to the goal at hand. Self-assessment is the checking of learning progress and the achievement of goals by the individual learner him/herself. It does not matter whether the goals are set by school authorities, by the teacher, or by the learner him/herself. For students to benefit from this assessment process, as with many forms of independent learning, introduction by the teacher is required, followed by sufficient hands-on practice. Spaced practice refers to appropriately spacing repetitive practice of learning subjects or content. This practice should not be massed (massed practice) in immediate succession. It has proven to be effective to gradually increase the time intervals between the repetitions, because this leads to better retention. Success criteria are given to students to measure their progress and recognize their achievement of goals. This way, students can adequately regulate their learning. The best time to establish success criteria is early in the student’s engagement with a new subject. Summative feedback. See Feedback.

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Think–Pair–Share is a teaching/learning approach that can be used comprehensively, but also in short phases of instruction. Learners briefly think about the question or work request presented by the teacher in individual work, and then share the issue in question with a learning partner. Validity refers to the degree to which a test actually checks what it is supposed to check. Many tests and exams in class are not valid because they – still too often – focus on grammar and vocabulary knowledge and leave out other important goals or do not give them the importance they deserve. Wait time refers to an important request to teachers, namely to give learners sufficient time to think about the answer after a question has been asked. Too often, teachers are still too quick to pick on those who show up first. If all learners had time to think about the question or task, class participation would change for the better. Worked examples provided by the teacher help familiarize students with new content or a previously unfamiliar procedure. Scientific studies have debunked the fear that learners would not think for themselves by presenting worked examples and imitate them. On the contrary, this procedure facilitates the learners’ work because it allows them to assess what is really important. This effect is magnified if the teacher discusses the worked example with the students in class. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is an important concept that dates back to Vygotsky, who defined the ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

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