Frogs and Reptiles of the Murray–Darling Basin: A Guide to Their Identification, Ecology and Conservation 1486311326, 9781486311323

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Frogs
Foam-nesting ground frogs (Family Limnodynastidae)
Ground frogs (Family Myobatrachidae)
Tree frogs (Family Pelodryadidae)
True toads (Family Bufonidae)
Freshwater turtles
Side-necked Freshwater Turtles (Family Chelidae)
Lizards
Southern padless geckos (Family Carphodactylidae)
Diplodactylid geckos (Family Diplodactylidae)
Cosmopolitan geckos (Family Gekkonidae)
Flap-footed lizards (Family Pygopodidae)
Skinks (Family Scincidae)
Dragons (Family Agamidae)
Monitor lizards/goannas (Family Varanidae)
Snakes
Blind snakes (Family Typhlopidae)
Pythons (Family Pythonidae)
Colubrid snakes (Family Colubridae)
Venomous land snakes (Family Elapidae)
Species checklist
Glossary
References
Index of common names
Index of scientific names

Citation preview

This book is the first comprehensive guide to the 310 species of frogs and reptiles living in the Murray–Darling Basin. An overview of each of the 22 catchment areas introduces the unique and varied climates, topography, vegetation and fauna. Comprehensive species accounts include diagnostic features, conservation ratings, photographs and distribution maps for all frogs, freshwater turtles, lizards and snakes recorded in this important region.

About the author Mike Swan was previously a senior herpetofauna keeper with Melbourne Zoo and Healesville Sanctuary and was part of captive breeding programs for the Fijian Iguana, Broad-headed Snake, Corroboree Frog, Stuttering Frog, Philippine Crocodile and many other species. He is now the coordinator of the Lilydale High School reptile collection, the largest school collection of reptiles and frogs in Australia. He is also a keen photographer and has written numerous articles, papers and books about reptiles and frogs.

Frogs and Reptiles of the Murray-Darling Basin Michael Swan

The Murray–Darling Basin spans more than 1 million square kilometres across the lower third of Queensland, most of New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, northern Victoria and the south-eastern corner of South Australia. Wildlife habitats range from the floodplains of the Basin to alpine areas, making the region of special ecological and environmental interest.

Frogs and Reptiles of the

Murray-Darling Basin A Guide to Their Identification, Ecology and Conservation

MICHAEL SWAN Frogs and Reptiles Cover Final.indd 1

1/10/19 10:00 am

Frogs and Reptiles of the

Murray-Darling Basin A Guide to Their Identification, Ecology and Conservation

MICHAEL SWAN

© Mike Swan 2020 All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO Publishing for all permission requests. The author asserts their moral rights, including the right to be identified as the author. A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia. ISBN: 9781486311323 (pbk) ISBN: 9781486311330 (epdf) ISBN: 9781486311347 (epub) Published by: CSIRO Publishing Locked Bag 10 Clayton South VIC 3169 Australia Telephone: +61 3 9545 8400 Email: [email protected] Website: www.publish.csiro.au Front cover: (left, top to bottom) Crucifix Frog (Notaden bennettii) (photo: S. Mahony), Broad-shelled Turtle (Chelodina expansa) (photo: J. Farquhar), Lace Monitor (Varanus varius) (photo: M. G. Swan); (right) Inland Carpet Python (Morelia spilota metcalfei) (photo: J. Farquhar) Back cover: (top to bottom) Emerald-spotted Tree Frog (Litoria peroni) (photo: J. Farquhar), Smooth Knob‑tailed Gecko (Nephrurus levis) (photo: J. Farquhar), Snake-necked Turtle (Chelodina longicollis) (photo: G. Schmida) Set in 9.5/12 Minion Edited by Peter Storer Cover design by James Kelly Typeset by Envisage Information Technology Printed in China by Toppan Leefung Printing Limited CSIRO Publishing publishes and distributes scientific, technical and health science books, magazines and journals from Australia to a worldwide audience and conducts these activities autonomously from the research activities of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of, and should not be attributed to, the publisher or CSIRO. The copyright owner shall not be liable for technical or other errors or omissions contained herein. The reader/user accepts all risks and responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using this information. The paper this book is printed on is in accordance with the standards of the Forest Stewardship Council® and other controlled material. The FSC® promotes environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the world’s forests.

Oct19_01

Contents Preface Acknowledgements Introduction Frogs

1 37 42

Ground frogs (Family Myobatrachidae)

57

Tree frogs (Family Pelodryadidae)

74

Freshwater turtles Side-necked Freshwater Turtles (Family Chelidae)

Lizards

102 105 109 115

Southern padless geckos (Family Carphodactylidae)

120

Diplodactylid geckos (Family Diplodactylidae)

125

Cosmopolitan geckos (Family Gekkonidae)

142

Flap-footed lizards (Family Pygopodidae)

148

Skinks (Family Scincidae)

159

Dragons (Family Agamidae)

235

Monitor lizards/goannas (Family Varanidae)

252

Snakes



vii

Foam-nesting ground frogs (Family Limnodynastidae)

True toads (Family Bufonidae)

v

257

Blind snakes (Family Typhlopidae)

263

Pythons (Family Pythonidae)

270

Colubrid snakes (Family Colubridae)

275

Venomous land snakes (Family Elapidae)

278

Species checklist

311

Glossary

331

References

333



Index of common names

335



Index of scientific names

339 iii

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Preface

This book is the first comprehensive guide to the frogs and reptiles of the Murray–Darling Basin: a massive depression with an area of 1 059 000 km2 that spans most of New South Wales, northern Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, the lower third of Queensland and the south-eastern corner of South Australia. It examines the 66 species of frogs and 244 reptiles that are found through the 22 smaller catchments that make up the greater Murray–Darling Basin. Each catchment is unique and varies in climate, topography, vegetation and fauna. The guide has been produced to allow readers to identify the frogs, freshwater turtles, lizards and snakes of the region, using descriptive species accounts, photographs and distribution maps. The species accounts provide descriptions of morphological features of each animal and includes notes on their habitat, behaviour, conservation status and distribution. The common and scientific names used in the book follow: • Clulow S, Swan MG (2018), A Complete Guide to Frogs of Australia. Australian Geographic Holdings, Sydney • Wilson SK, Swan G (2017) A Complete Guide to Reptiles of Australia. 5th edn. Reed New Holland, Sydney.

The Murray–Darling Basin is at the forefront of many Australians’ minds as an area of much environmental concern involving government organisations, farmers, politicians, Indigenous Australians, tourist guides and recreational users. The management of water in the system remains the greatest area of debate focusing on availability and quality. The natural flow cycles of the system have been altered over time to improve agriculture but it has come at a cost to the environment. Frogs in particular are affected by increased salinity, pollutants and the reduction or alteration of wetlands. Reptiles are at risk from changes to habitat by overgrazing, clearing and controlled burning. Also invasive species preying on their eggs and juveniles, resulting in low recruitment. General information and promotional material on the herpetofauna of this very important region of Australia is limited and suggests the high number of species it contains is greatly under appreciated. Hopefully this publication will lead to a much better understanding of the diversity of the frogs and reptiles in the Murray– Darling Basin and to more concerted efforts for their long-term conservation.

v

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Acknowledgements

If you decide to write a book you, are accepting a project that will take over your life until it is completed. No book is ever produced without assistance from colleagues, friends and family. For their initial support of the project I would like to thank Nick Clemann (Arthur Rylah Institute), Jules Farquhar, Eloise Moir-Ford (CSIRO Publishing) and Steve K. Wilson (Queensland Museum). For assistance with taxonomy, distribution records and obtaining images: Andrew Amey (Queensland Museum), Scott Eipper (Nature 4 You), Harry Hines, (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service) Rod Hobson, Stephen Mahony (Australian Museum), Brendan James Murray, Glenn Shea (University of Sydney), Gerry Swan, Ron Waters and Steve K. Wilson, (Queensland Museum). For information relating to conservation programs and field studies: Nick Clemann (Arthur Rylah Institute), Dave Hunter (Office of Environment and Heritage), Ricky Spencer (Western Sydney University), Graham Stockfeld (Turtles Australia Inc.) and James Van Dyke (Charles Sturt University). I am particularly indebted to Stephen Mahony for volunteering to critique the

species accounts and his recommendations greatly improved that section. Timothy Swan assisted with proofreading and made suggestions for initial drafts. Jules Farquhar is the featured photographer and provided the majority of images. His work is outstanding and it has enriched the book. I thank him for his enthusiasm and effort in making available so many wonderful photographs. I would also like to thank the other photographers who generously provided their images: Marion Anstis, Robert Ashdown, Brian Bush, Matt Clancy, Nick Clemann, Scott Eipper, Damian Goodall, Ken Griffiths, Harry Hines, Dave Hunter, Stephen Mahony, Brad Maryan, Michael McFadden, Daniel O’Brien, Greg Parker, Peter Robertson, Claudia Santori, Gunther Schmida, Graham Stockfeld, Geoff Swan, Philip Topham, Paula Watson, Steve K. Wilson and Stephen Zozaya. Rachael Hammond produced the illustrations and Marcus Whitby assisted with the distribution maps. The ongoing support from my wife Stephanie and sons Daniel and Timothy is immeasurable and has enabled me to follow my herpetological interests.

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Introduction An overview of the Murray–Darling Basin Over 300 million years ago during the Carboniferous period, Australia collided with what are now parts of South America and New Zealand. The entire region was uplifted and created the Eastern Highlands or Great Dividing Range. It is Australia’s most significant mountain range and the third longest land-based range in the world. It extends more than 3500  km from the north-eastern tip of Queensland, down the entire length of the eastern coastline through New South Wales, into Victoria and eventually ends on the central plain at the Grampians in Western Victoria. The width of the range varies from ~160  km to over 300 km. The highest areas of the Australian continent are in the Great Dividing Range and it was a formidable barrier to westward migration for European settlers until 1813. There is a wide variety of vegetation throughout its length, from rainforest and

Wide-mouthed Frog (Cyclorana novaehollandiae). Photo: M. G. Swan

wet sclerophyll forest to woodlands and alpine grasslands that provide important habitat for a great diversity of wildlife. Rivers that originate in the Great Dividing Range run east into the Pacific Ocean or west into the Murray–Darling Basin (MDB): an area of 1  059  000  km2 or 14% of Australia’s total land area. The MDB is a massive depression that spans most of New South Wales, Northern Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, the lower third of Queensland and the south-eastern corner of South Australia. The area was first explored by European pioneers Hamilton H. Hume and William H. Hovell in 1824. Five years later, Charles Sturt navigated down the Murrumbidgee River to encounter the Murray River and named it after Sir George Murray when his team reached the connection with the Darling River. An extract of an account of the journey from Sturt’s diary, published in London in 1833, was typical for the time.

Eastern Bearded Dragon (Pogona barbata). Photo: S. K. Wilson

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Unbanded Shovel-nosed Snake (Brachyurophis incinctus). Photo: S. K. Wilson

Peron’s Tree Frog (Litoria peronii). Photo: M. G. Swan

‘The plains were open to the horizon. Views as boundless as the ocean. No timber but here and there a stunted gum or a gloomy cypress. Neither bird nor beast inhabited these lonely regions over which the silence of the grave seemed to reign.’ But there were Indigenous Australians living along the river, as they had been for 40  000 years, and in the World Heritage Willandra Lakes and Mungo National Park north-east of Wentworth and north of Mildura and Balranald. The Mungo region was recognised in 1981 as an important geological area and for its history of Indigenous occupation. The rich resources of the rivers and the adjacent lands maintained a denser population and more settled lifestyle than could be supported in more arid areas. 2

After this early exploration period the development of the agricultural districts of inland New South Wales began and today the MDB is an area of great productivity for agriculture, logging and mining. It is Australia’s most important agricultural region, containing over 40% of Australian farms that produce wool, cotton, wheat, sheep, cattle, dairy produce, rice, oil-seed, wine, fruit and vegetables for both domestic and international markets. Over two million people live in the Murray–Darling Basin, from the national capital Canberra to many of Australia’s major inland towns including Toowoomba, Tamworth, Dubbo, Orange, Wagga Wagga, Albury-Wodonga, Shepparton and Bendigo. The climate is subtropical in the north, semi-arid in the west and mostly temperate in the south. Water is the most valuable resource in the Murray–Darling river system, with the majority of it flowing in from along the southern and eastern rim. About 85% of the vast catchment has almost no regular run-off into rivers. The MDB is the largest and most complex river system in Australia and contains Australia’s three longest rivers: the Murray (2508   km), Murrumbidgee (1690  km) and the Darling/Barwon river system (2740  km). All the rivers have very low gradients over most of their length, causing them to flow slowly. Water quality is paramount and threats to water quality include high salinity because large quantities of salt occur naturally. Floodplains are an important feature of the Basin because floodplain

INTRODUCTION

Tambo Augathella Charleville Roma

Chinchilla

Qld

Tara Bollon

Cunnamulla

Brisbane

St George Goondiwindi

Stanthorpe

Hungerford

SA

Moree Wanaaring

Bourke Narrabri Coonamble Coonabarabran

Wilcannia Broken Hill

l i n g River

NSW Ivanhoe

Dubbo

ar

Forbes

Adelaide

Meningie

M

Swan Hill Kerang

ur ra y

Echuca Horsham

Vic

Leeton Narrandera

Sydney

Griffith Mur ru

River b i d ge e

m

Murray Bridge

Hay

Balranald

er Riv

Goolwa

Mannum

Bathurst

Cowra

Mildura

Tamworth

Wellington

n River hla Lac

D

Renmark

Armidale

Gunnedah

Wagga Wagga Deniliquin

Yass

Canberra

Albury

Wodonga Shepparton Cooma Seymour

Omeo

Melbourne

Murray–Darling Basin showing major rivers and towns

vegetation uses groundwater in the soil profile and prevents water and salts rising to the surface or being transported to the river. Increased salinity into the Basin’s water resources is often increased by activities such as irrigation development and land clearing. Major threats to the flora and fauna of the MDB include the quantity of water removed from the river systems, habitat loss and alteration, exotic invasive species and diseases.

The Murray–Darling Basin catchments The large depression of the MDB receives all the water from inland-flowing streams, creeks and rivers. Water from the northern catchment flows into the Darling River and water from the southern catchment flows into the Murray River. There are 22 major catchments (or sub-basins) within the Murray–Darling Basin. Although most of the major rivers flow into either the Darling or the Murray, some, such as the 3

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Paroo, Lachlan and Wimmera, terminate in wetlands or marshes. The water from these rivers only reaches the Darling or the Murray in years of extremely heavy rainfall. The topography and vegetation can vary between the different catchments, with floodplain forests, woodlands and

wetlands requiring different amounts of water throughout the year. Water management in rivers with monitored flows have affected the type, diversity and nature of plant communities along the rivers and floodplains. This has resulted in a decline of species such as River Red Gums, Black Box and Lignum shrublands.

Murray–Darling Basin showing the different catchments. Source: Murray–Darling Basin Authority (https://www.mdba.gov.au/discover-basin/catchments). CC-BY4.0

4

INTRODUCTION

Paroo Catchment

The Paroo River catchment is in the northwest corner of the MDB and spreads roughly equally across Queensland and northern New South Wales. Annual rainfall is low, with averages of 200–400 mm across the catchment. Most of the rain falls in the northern area and occurs in summer and autumn and has a very high evaporation rate. The Paroo River is 600  km long and contributes only 2% of the total water to the system. The headwaters are at an elevation of 330  m in the Warrego Range, west of Charleville. From there it flows across semi-arid plains with little surface water being mostly a series of waterholes, lakes and wetlands, some which are permanently wet. The Paroo River tributaries include the Beechal, Yowan and Qulberry, and part of the Cuttaburra Creek, and it is the last freeflowing river in the Murray–Darling Basin. The river terminates on the floodplains south of the town of Wanaaring in the top north-west corner of New South Wales. In very wet years the waters of the Paroo will flow to reach the Darling River, between the towns of Louth and Wilcannia. The landscape consists of undulating red soil plains with mulga scrub and shrubland. Eucalypt and gidgee occur along the waterways with the dominant eucalypt species being River Red Gum, Coolabah and Poplar Box. In the lower reaches of the catchment many types of wetland vegetation are found, including Black Box, River Cooba and a variety of grasses. Significant wetlands occur throughout the catchment including Currawinya Lakes, Nocoleche Nature Reserve and Peery Lake. River flow is

Paroo River, New South Wales. Photo: R. Ashdown

important to these habitats and critical to retaining a good diversity of wildlife. There are 17 frog species and 76 reptile species recorded from the Paroo River Catchment. The conditions of the catchment are semi-arid with low rainfall, so about half the frog species are burrowing frogs. Other types of frogs are dependent on creek lines, semi-permanent waterholes, lakes and wetlands for survival. Three species of freshwater turtles occur around waterways and there is good representation from each lizard family. Blind snakes, venomous land snakes and pythons are also present. Some arid-adapted species that occur only in the Paroo Catchment are the Eastern Deserts Fat-tailed Gecko (Diplodactylus ameyi), Variable Fat-tailed Gecko (Diplodactylus conspicillatus),

Wide-mouthed Frog (Cyclorana novaehollandiae). Photo: M. G. Swan 5

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Warrego River near Cunnamulla, Queensland. Eastern Deserts Fat-tailed Gecko (Diplodactylus ameyi). Photo: S. Mahony

Smooth-snouted Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis intima). Photo: S. K. Wilson

S a lt bush Sl e nde r Blue -tong ue (Cyclodomorphus venustus), Noonbah Robust Slider (Lerista emmotti) and Smooth-snouted Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis intima).

Warrego Catchment

The Warrego catchment is located in the north-west of the Murray–Darling Basin, with most of its area in Queensland and the remainder in New South Wales. Annual rainfall is low, ranging from 500 mm in the north-east to 250  mm on the plains of the lower catchment. Most of the rain falls in the north, mainly in summer and autumn and evaporation in the region is high. The Warrego River is 1380  km long and its headwaters are around 600  m in the Carnarvon Range near Tambo in 6

Photo: J. Carnemolla

South-East Queensland. It flows south across semi-arid plains, being joined by 37 intermittent tributaries. In years of heavy rainfall it joins up with the Darling River downstream from Bourke. Sometimes water from Cuttaburra Creek enters the lower reaches of the Paroo River. The towns of Augathella, Charleville, Wyandra and Cunnamulla are located on the banks of the Warrego River. The predominant land use is low-intensity grazing of sheep and cattle as the river’s flow is much too inconsistent to establish irrigated crops. Generally, groundwater resources within the region are of poor quality and are not suitable for large-scale irrigation. Vegetation varies from clay soil grasslands to saltbush with predominantly mulga shrubland and areas of brigalow in the north. Waterways support cypress pine woodlands and gidgee along floodplains. In the lower reaches of the catchment, River Red Gum, Coolibah, cane grass, Lignum and River Cooba grow along channels and in wetlands. The Warrego River waterholes are a string of large permanent and semipermanent waterholes which are usually flooded seasonally. There are ~300  000 ha of wetlands in the Warrego Catchment

INTRODUCTION

consisting of saline lakes, Lignum swamps, flood channels, freshwater lakes, claypans and water holes. Twelve wetlands are considered of national significance including the Yantabulla Swamp and the Warrego River waterholes. Large populations of waterbirds inhabit the waterholes during periods of high flows and they are also important Indigenous cultural sites. There are 19 frog species and 71 reptile species recorded from the Warrego River Catchment. Much of the area consists of semi-arid plains with low annual rainfall. The clay soil grasslands and mulga shrubland provide important habitat for frogs and reptiles. Burrowing frogs are well represented along with other frog species and three freshwater turtle species that are

Short-footed Frog (Cyclorana brevipes). Photo: S. Zozaya

Smooth Knob-tailed Gecko (Nephrurus levis). Photo: J. Farquhar

Stimson’s Python (Antaresia stimsoni orientalis). Photo: J. Farquhar

mostly dependent upon semi-permanent and permanent waterways. Each of the five lizard families occur here and also blind snakes, pythons and venomous land snakes. Most species are wide-ranging throughout the catchment.

Condamine-Balonne Catchment

The Condamine–Balonne rivers catchment is one of the largest catchments in the MDB and home to almost 10% of the human population of the Basin. Most of the catchment is located in Queensland, with less than 20% extending into northern New South Wales. The Condamine River, with a length of 1195  km, rises in the Great Dividing Range at 1400 m then flows northwest to Dalby and Chinchilla. From there it continues south-west to the plains where it

Lake Broadwater, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan 7

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Flooded black soil plains, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

joins Dogwood Creek and becomes the Balonne River near Surat. The Maranoa River rises in the Carnarvon National Park and flows south-east through the town of Mitchell before joining the Balonne River at Lake Kajarabie (Beardmore Dam) just upstream of St George. Beyond this point the Balonne River becomes a network of channels, waterholes and floodplains that form the Narran, Bokhara, Ballandool and Culgoa rivers. In times of very high flow, the Bokhara and Culgoa rivers flow into the Barwon–Darling River downstream of Brewarrina. The major towns in the catchment are Warwick, Toowoomba, Dalby, Roma and St George. This region has enormous agricultural diversity, with a wide range of winter and summer crops produced on the Darling Downs, as well as very large cotton production areas in the west. The landscape of the Condamine–Balonne catchment is diverse, with tablelands of the dividing range in the east, gorges in the north-west and semi-arid plains in the south-west. In the eastern part of the catchment the annual average rainfall is 600–800 mm and the floodplains of the south-west receive an average 300–500  mm. Rainfall throughout the catchment is heaviest over summer and 8

the climate is subtropical. Evaporation rates in the south-west of the catchment are very high. Wetlands of national importance include the Great Artesian Basin Springs, Lake Broadwater, The Gums Lagoon, the Culgoa River Floodplain and Dalrymple and Blackfellow creeks. The Condamine–Balonne Catchment has a diverse herpetofauna, with 43 frog species and 147 reptile species. The catchment’s extensive floodplains have important vegetation communities, including brigalow–gidgee woodland and shrubland, which provide habitat for a large range of frogs and reptiles. The western slopes of the Great Dividing Range are part of the MDB and have areas of montane subtropical rainforest, which are occupied by some rainforest

Striped Burrowing Frog (Cyclorana alboguttata). Photo: M. G. Swan

Yakka Skink (Egernia rugosa). Photo: J. Farquhar

INTRODUCTION

Pale-headed Snake (Hoplocephalus bitorquatus). Photo: J. Farquhar

herpetofauna. In the floodplains and woodlands habitat, species such as the Striped Burrowing Frog (Cyclorana alboguttata), Yakka Skink (Egernia rugosa) and Pale-headed Snake (Hoplocephalus bitorquatus) may be observed.

Moonie Catchment

The Moonie River Catchment is the smallest of the northern catchments, with most of the area in Queensland. The Moonie River flows from an altitude of 350 m at its source on the Southern Downs across south-west Queensland, through a slightly undulating landscape into northern New South Wales. It is joined by 13 minor tributaries before merging with the Barwon River downstream of Mungindi. It is a simple channel system of unconnected waterholes throughout most of the year.

Brigalow woodlands, Lake Broadwater, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

However, there are more than 100 wetlands with significant habitat along the Moonie River floodplain. The region is semi-arid with a warm to hot climate and an average annual rainfall of 500–600   mm. Rainfall can vary significantly from year to year, resulting in irregular and infrequent river flows. The catchment has been heavily cleared and impacted by agricultural development with eroded riverbanks and riparian zones. Vegetation includes remnant areas of brigalow scrub, mixed eucalypt woodland areas and open grasslands. It is sparsely populated, with less than 0.1% of the people in the Basin living in the region. Towns include Moonie and Thallon, where a weir was built over the river in 1959 to supply town water. Small to medium weirs are dispersed along the river for irrigation purposes, predominantly for cotton. Beef cattle are the major source of income and employment in the region though a small area of the catchment is irrigated, mainly for cotton or pasture. Cereal crops and plantation forestry also contribute to the regional economy. The Moonie River Catchment may be small, but it still has 22 frog species and 68 reptile species. It is part of the Southern

Brigalow Scaly-foot (Paradelma orientalis). Photo: G. Schmida

9

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Golden-tailed Gecko (Strophurus taenicauda). Photo: J. Farquhar

Dunmall’s Snake (Furina dunmalli). Photo: G. Schmida

Brigalow Belt: a region where ~60% of the original vegetation has been cleared over the last 200 years. This has resulted in plant and animal communities, including several species of endemic reptiles, becoming threatened. The catchment contains important habitat for species such as the Brigalow Scaly-foot (Paradelma orientalis), Golden-tailed Gecko (Strophurus taenicauda) and Dunmall’s Snake (Furina dunmalli).

Border Rivers Catchment

The Border Rivers Catchment is diverse and consists of a group of rivers in the north-eastern region of the New South Wales and Queensland border. The rivers of the catchment rise on the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range at heights of 1500  m and run westwards, gradually 10

Severn River, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

merging with one another to become the Barwon River on the floodplains upstream of Mungindi. Major tributaries are the Macintyre River, Dumaresq River, Severn River (NSW), Severn River (Qld), Macintyre Brook and Weir River. A 450 km section of the Dumaresq, Macintyre and the Barwon rivers form the border between Queensland and New South Wales. The eastern part of the catchment, where most of the rivers rise, has an annual average rainfall of 800–1100  mm, compared with the semi-arid floodplains to the west that receive an average of around 500  mm. Rainfall throughout the catchment is heaviest in summer and the climate is described as subtropical to temperate at higher altitudes. The catchment is home to ~2.5% of the human population of the Basin and major towns include Goondiwindi, Stanthorpe, Tenterfield, Glen Innes and Inverell. Agriculture is well established throughout the catchment and is a diverse primary industry. The larger towns and agriculture are the main users of water and there are many small weirs and regulators throughout the catchment that supply water for domestic and stock use. Dams were built in the 1960s and 1970s for flood mitigation and irrigation water supply to

INTRODUCTION

the plains. Since that time, river flows in the catchment have been highly regulated. Native vegetation communities in the Border Rivers Catchment are largely determined by a combination of rainfall and temperature. Woodlands and forests are the most common, but heaths, shrublands, swamps, grasslands and rainforests are all represented. Rivers and wetlands of the region provide important habitat for frogs and include the nationally significant Morella Watercourse, Boobera Lagoon and Pungbougal Lagoon located on the Macintyre River floodplain, and are considered among the most important sites for Indigenous people in eastern Australia. The Border Rivers Catchment has 36 species of frogs and 101 species of reptiles with several areas of herpetological interest, such as the massive granite outcrops at Girraween. This habitat contains many species of frogs and reptiles including the New England Tree Frog (Litoria subglandulosa), Bell’s Turtle (Wollumbinia bellii), Granite Belt Leaftailed Gecko (Saltuarius wyberba), Granite Belt Thick-tailed Gecko (Uvidicolus sphyrurus) and Stephen’s Banded Snake (Hoplocephalus stephensi).

New England Tree Frog (Litoria subglandulosa). Photo: S. Mahony

Bell’s Turtle (Wollumbinia bellii). Photo: S. Eipper

Granite Belt Thick-tailed Gecko (Uvidicolus sphyrurus). Photo: J. Farquhar

Gwydir Catchment

The Gwydir River rises at ~1200  m west of Armidale on the New England Tablelands in the Great Dividing Range of New South Wales. It flows north-west for 480  km, passing through steep valleys and then down the north-western slopes onto almost completely flat alluvial floodplains. The Gwydir region floodplains include large expanses of wetland vegetation supported

Woodlands near Copeton Dam, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony 11

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by natural channels, semi-permanent wetlands and swamps that have a high conservation value. Widespread inundation of the catchment’s wetlands depends primarily on floodwaters originating in the upper catchment. Downstream of Moree, the Gwydir River diverges at the Gwydir Wetlands into the Gingham Watercourse and the lower Gwydir (or Big Leather) Watercourse. The Gwydir Wetlands State Conservation Area is a significant, semi-permanent, wetlands of over 100  000  ha in north-eastern New South Wales. It provides important habitat for threatened animal and plant species. The lower half of the catchment has numerous anabranches and effluents, the most significant being the Mehi River and Moomin Creek to the south, and the Carole–Gil Gil Creek system to the north. The latter creek system joins with the southern effluents of the Border Rivers. Several of the branching streams from the Gwydir enter the Barwon River between Collymongle and north of Collarenebri. The Gwydir Catchment is home to ~1.3% of the human population of the Basin and major towns include Moree, Uralla, Guyra, Bingarra and Wrialda. Water use is largely from irrigated agriculture, urban water supply, stock and mining. The Gwydir River is regulated by several weirs: most notable is the Copeton Dam. Regulation and irrigation supply have resulted in more frequent low flows to the river system and more water flowing through regulated waterways to the Barwon River. The Gwydir Catchment has a variety of habitats from high altitude forests in the east to open forest and woodlands on the slopes, to scrublands and grasslands on 12

the floodplains. Much of the natural environment is fragmented due to agricultural development. The eastern half of the catchment has an annual average rainfall of 700–900  mm while on the floodplains of the western portion it ranges from 450 to 550 mm. Rainfall throughout the catchment is heaviest over summer and the climate is described as subhumid and subtropical. There are 35 species of frogs and 81 species of reptiles recorded from Gwydir Catchment. Some typical species in this region include the Broad-palmed Frog (Litoria latopalmata), Salmon-striped Frog (Limnodynastes salmini), Ocellated Velvet Gecko (Oedura monilis), Southern Spotted Velvet Gecko (Oedura tryoni), Leaden Delma (Delma plebeia), Black-necked

Salmon-striped Frog (Limnodynastes salmini). Photo: M. G. Swan

Southern Spotted Velvet Gecko (Oedura tryoni). Photo: S. K. Wilson

INTRODUCTION

Common Death Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus). Photo: S. K. Wilson

Delma (Delma tincta), Burns’ Dragon (Amphibolurus burnsi), Five-clawed Worm Skink (Anomalopus mackayi), Common Death Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) and the Pale-headed Snake (Hoplocephalus bitorquatus).

Namoi Catchment

The headwaters of the Namoi River and several of its main tributaries are located at ~1500  m above sea level in the Great Dividing Range of north-eastern NSW. In these higher areas there are steep, forested ranges and elevated tablelands where annual rainfall averages 800–1000 mm. The catchment is diverse in climate and landscape, ranging from cool with high rainfall areas in the east to semi-arid, low rainfall areas on extensive riverine plains in the west.

Namoi River, New South Wales. Photo: E. Haylan

The Namoi River is 700  km long being joined by the MacDonald River north-east of Manilla. Many of the Namoi’s tributaries meet the river in the foothills of the ranges, including the Peel River, which flows through the city of Tamworth. Beyond the town of Gunnedah, the Namoi River is the main waterway flowing west. The catchment is bounded by the Nandewar Ranges and Mount Kaputar in the north and the Liverpool and Warrumbungle Ranges in the south. Major towns include Tamworth, Gunnedah and Narrabri. Downstream of Narrabri, the catchment is flat floodplain country and supports a wide range of aquatic habitats including large areas of billabong wetlands. These wetlands require periodic flooding to maintain good condition. The annual rainfall in this area is on average only ~400 mm. The Namoi River continues flowing west across the floodplains, which undergo partial flooding. At the western end of the valley, near the town of Walgett, several small anabranches break away from the river and carry water through to the Barwon River during periods of high flows. The Namoi catchment is an important water supply for downstream environments in the Barwon and Darling rivers. The Namoi Catchment has 36 frog species and 78 reptile species. Important areas of herpetological interest include Mount Kaputar and the Pilliga Scrub (the largest dry sclerophyll forest west of the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales). The Pilliga Scrub contains a variety of herpetofauna and has been the subject of numerous surveys, which have recorded 14 frog species and 13

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Broad-palmed Frog (Litoria latopalmata). Photo: S. Mahony

Sand Goanna (Varanus gouldii). Photo: J. Farquhar

Yellow-faced Whip Snake (Demansia psammophis). Photo: J. Farquhar

25 reptile species. Typical species for this region include the Broad-palmed Frog (Litoria latopalmata), Lesueur’s Gecko (Amalosia lesueurii), Sand Goanna (Varanus gouldii) and Yellow-faced Whip Snake (Demansia psammophis).

at the confluence of the Macintyre and Weir rivers to where the Barwon meets the Culgoa River. From there the river channel becomes the Darling River and the Bar won–Darling system extends downstream to the Menindee Lakes. The Barwon–Darling region has a semi-arid climate and rainfall is low throughout the year, peaking during summer, with an annual average of 330 mm. The catchment of the Barwon–Darling covers ~13% of the MDB but only generates ~2.8% of the flow in the Basin. The Barwon–Darling is only regulated by some low-level weirs near townships, but many of the tributaries of the system are highly regulated. The Barwon–Darling corridor connects all the rivers, lakes and wetlands in the northern Basin to the southern Basin through the lower Darling River. The river system provides moist habitat during dry periods and corridors for wildlife in this semi-arid region. Many billabongs and lagoons occur along this corridor, as well as lakes and wetlands on the floodplains. Almost 30% of the catchment area remains as native vegetation. Riverine woodland dominated by River Red Gum is the most common vegetation community along the banks and associated wetlands of the Barwon–Darling river system. Upstream of

Barwon-Darling Catchment

The Barwon–Darling river system in midwestern New South Wales includes the Barwon River from upstream of Mungindi 14

Menindee Lakes, New South Wales. Photo: M. Higgins

INTRODUCTION

Brewarrina are large areas of open semiarid eucalypt woodlands. The Darling River flows south-west within a deeply incised channel towards Wilcannia. Here Belah woodlands occur on the floodplain, featuring Rosewood, Sugarwood and Wilga. Below Wilcannia the Darling River reaches the Menindee Lakes at the artificial storage of Lake Wetherell. Beyond this point the catchment becomes the Lower Darling. There a several small towns in the region: Collarenebri, Walgett, Brewarrina, Bourke, Cobar and Wilcannia. The major land use is dryland grazing of cattle for beef and sheep for wool. A small area of land is irrigated and mainly supports cotton production and also mining activities in Cobar and Lightning Ridge. Barwon-Darling Catchment has 19 species of frogs and 69 reptile species. There are five large, dangerously venomous, snakes in this region including an old record for the Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) from Tindaree, New South Wales. Other species from this catchment include the Eastern Water-holding Frog (Cyclorana platycephala), Central-netted Dragon (Ctenophorus nuchalis) and Darkspined Blind Snake (Anilios bicolor).

Eastern Water-holding Frog (Cyclorana platycephala). Photo: S. Mahony

Central-netted Dragon (Ctenophorus nuchalis). Photo: S. Mahony

Dark-spined Blind Snake (Anilios bicolor). Photo: J. Farquhar

Macquarie-Castlereagh Catchment

The Macquarie-Castlereagh Catchment in central New South Wales covers ~7% of the Basin and has three major rivers: the Castlereagh, Macquarie and Bogan. The Castlereagh River rises in the volcanic

Warrumbungle Ranges, New South Wales. Photo: C. Meder

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Macquarie Marshes, New South Wales. Photo: P. Topham

remnants that shape the Warrumbungle Ranges, west of Coonabarabran in northern New South Wales and meets the Macquarie River a little upstream of where the Macquarie meets the Barwon River. The Macquarie River rises in the Great Dividing Range near Bathurst and flows north-west through foothills and slopes past Wellington and towards Dubbo. The Bogan River rises in the Harvey Ranges near Parkes in centralwest New South Wales and flows northwest past Nyngan to meet the Barwon River upstream of Bourke. The catchments of the Castlereagh and Macquarie rivers support a diverse range of ecosystems, from forest, woodlands and wetlands to grasslands, in temperate and semi-arid environments. Important wetland environments in the catchment include the Macquarie Marshes, which are home to many threatened species. As the waterways approach the Barwon River, the interconnected streams, as well as lagoons and channels, support extensive flood-dependent woodlands and grasslands. The Castlereagh and Macquarie catchments are typical of most Basin catchments, rising in or near the Great Dividing Range where most of the streamflow originates at high 16

altitude up to 1300 m and annual average rainfall is above 600 mm. Agriculture in the catchment is diverse, from horticulture in the east, dryland grazing and cropping on the slopes, to irrigated cropping and extensive grazing in the west. Major towns include Coonabarabran, Coonamble, Bathurst, Orange and Dubbo. The Macquarie-Castlereagh Catchment has 26 frog species and 84 reptile species. A significant habitat for frogs and reptiles in this catchment is the Macquarie Marshes, with one survey of the area recording 12 frog, three freshwater turtle, 27 lizards and 13 snake species. The very attractive Crucifix Frog (Notaden bennettii) occurs in this area and also a large population of the Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus). The Macquarie

Crucifix Frog (Notaden bennettii). Photo: S. Mahony

Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus). Photo: J. Farquhar

INTRODUCTION

Marshes semi-permanent wetland vegetation has decreased significantly in size since the 1990s.

Lower Darling Catchment

The lower Darling River flows 530 km from the Menindee Lakes to its junction with the Murray River at Wentworth. The catchment is located on the semi-arid plains of southwestern New South Wales and nearly all the water flowing through the lower Darling comes from the rivers of southern Queensland and northern New South Wales. Most of the landscape is relatively flat and receives an average annual rainfall of less than 300  mm. Due to low rainfall and high summer temperatures the area has very high evaporation rates. Menindee Lakes at the head of the Lower Darling Catchment is a natural system of seven large lakes that were modified for water storage in the 1960s. The flow rate in the Darling River has been reduced so dramatically that it no longer flows and is now a dry riverbed. This is a direct result of water being taken from the upper catchments of the Barwon–Darling river system. The Menindee Lakes provide important habitat for wildlife including frogs and reptiles.

Inlet to Nearie Lake, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

Below the Menindee Lakes, the river has two large and distinct channels: its main channel, the lower Darling River, and its ancestral channel, the Great Darling Anabranch. This anabranch and its associated lakes are the largest and most numerous ephemeral lakes in the Murray– Darling Basin. The lower Darling River and the Murray River flow through the traditional land of different Aboriginal nations and the catchment contains many significant spiritual and cultural sites, including Lake Mungo in the Willandra Lakes Region. Kinchega National Park near Menindee includes 62  km of Darling River frontage and is one of only two large conservation areas along the river. It protects substantial areas of River Red Gums, acacia and bluebush communities. Vegetation in the lower Darling consists largely of River Red Gum woodland in the riparian zone and immediate floodplain with extensive areas of Black Box woodland and Lignum. Chenopod shrublands, which include saltbush and bluebush, dominate the lakebeds and alluvial floodplains of the Great Darling Anabranch. The region is sparsely populated with a few small towns, such as Menindee, Pooncarie and Wentworth. The Lower Darling Catchment has 10 species of frogs and 85 species of reptiles. A study of nine Belah woodland sites using pit-falling and hand-collecting methods in this catchment revealed a richness of herpetofauna species. These included Sudell’s Frog (Neobtrachus sudellae), Broad-banded Sand-swimmer (Eremiascincus richardsonii) and Bynoe’s Gecko (Heteronotia binoei). 17

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Sudell’s Frog (Neobtrachus sudellae). Photo: M. Swan

Broad-banded Sand-swimmer (Eremiascincus richardsonii). Photo: J. Farquhar

Bynoe’s Gecko (Heteronotia binoei). Photo: J. Farquhar

Lachlan Catchment

The headwaters of the Lachlan River are at elevations of 1400  m on the Breadalbane Plain between Yass and Goulburn in the Great Dividing Range in central New South Wales. The river flows north and then west through a varied landscape, with vegetation ranging from temperate forests, woodlands and grasslands in the east to semi-arid woodlands, mallee and scrublands in the 18

Flooded roadside ditch, near Euabalong, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

west. It is the fourth longest river in Australia, being 1339  km. It terminates at the Great Cumbung Swamp but during times of high flow, water will continue southwards through the swamp to reach the Murrumbidgee River. The eastern end of the catchment with temperate forests has an annual average rainfall of 800–1000 mm. The western end of the catchment is located on warm–hot semi-arid plains and receives an annual average rainfall of 300 mm. The wetlands and the river floodplains of this catchment are extensive and unique, providing a wide range of aquatic habitats such as pools, backwaters and billabongs. The lower Lachlan floodplain has nine nationally important wetlands, including Lake Brewster, the Booligal Wetlands and the Great Cumbung Swamp. This swamp features one of the largest stands of River Red Gums in New South Wales. Water extraction rates in the catchment are high, and combined with naturally high evaporation rates, flows into the wetlands have been very low over recent decades. The catchment is home to ~4% of the human population of the Murray–Darling Basin, and major towns include Boorowa, Cowra, Canowindra, Forbes and Hillston. Livestock grazing is the main industry along with irrigated crops.

INTRODUCTION

The Lachlan Catchment has 27 species of frogs and 67 species of reptiles. Lake Cowal is a prominent feature of this catchment and is the largest inland lake in New South Wales. The lake is ephemeral, being fed by the small Bland Creek and by the occasional flooding of the Lachlan River. The lake and surrounding areas provide important habitat for species such as the Giant Banjo Frog (Limnodynastes

Giant Banjo Frog (Limnodynastes interioris). Photo: M. G. Swan

Barking Frog (Limnodynastes fletcheri). Photo: M. G. Swan

Spotted Black Snake (Pseudechis guttatus). Photo: S. Mahony

interioris), Barking Frog (Limnodynastes fletcheri) and the Spotted Black Snake (Pseudechis guttatus), which reaches the southern limit of its distribution in this area.

Murrumbidgee Catchment

The Murrumbidgee Catchment is located in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. Australia’s third longest river, the Murrumbidgee, begins its journey in the Australian Alps before flowing 1690  km to join the Murray River near Boundary Bend in northern western Victoria. The Murrumbidgee River’s largest tributary, the Tumut River, is part of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme. Almost one third of the Basin’s human population live in the Murrumbidgee Catchment and it is the largest area of fruit and vegetable production in Australia. Major towns include Cooma, Canberra, Yass, Tumut, Gundagai, Cootamundra, Wagga Wagga, Narrandera, Leeton, Griffith, Hay and Queanbeyan. Annual average rainfall in the catchment ranges from over 1600  mm in the cool temperate alpine regions at an elevation up to 1400 m, to around 350 mm on the semi-arid plains of western New South Wales. The Murrumbidgee River is

Murrumbidgee River near Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. Photo: M. Leslie 19

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an important water source for many wetlands, including Fivebough and Tuckerbill swamps near Leeton and 16 wetlands listed as nationally significant. The Lowbidgee floodplain is the largest wetlands remaining in the Murrumbidgee Valley. Located between Maude and Balranald, the floodplain covers an area of over 2000  km2. It contains the second largest River Red Gum forest in Australia (along the river downstream of Redbank Weir) and significant Black Box, Lignum and reed-bed communities. These wetlands support a variety of wildlife. The MidMurrumbidgee wetland is a network of riverine lagoons and billabong formations that occur along the river between Narrandera and Carrathool. These wetlands rarely dry out completely and provide drought refuge for a wide range of species including many listed as Endangered or otherwise threatened. The Murrumbidgee Catchment has 28 species of frogs and 72 species of reptiles found through a variety of habitats from high mountain ranges with montane forest to woodlands, wetlands and semi-arid floodplains. The colourful Northern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne pengilleyi) occurs only in this catchment, being restricted to the Brindabella and Fiery Ranges of the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales. The Yellow-spotted Frog (Litoria castanea) has a confused taxonomic history and was re-discovered in a stream near the ACT in 2010. Another interesting species from this catchment is the Wagga Wagga Blind Snake (Anilios batillus) known from only one specimen, presumed to have been collected at Wagga Wagga in the late 1800s. 20

Yellow-spotted Frog (Litoria castanea). Photo: D. Hunter

Wagga Blind Snake (Anilios batillus). Photo: S. K. Wilson

Lower Murray Catchment

The Lower Murray Catchment is extensive and extends from near Wemen in northern Victoria to south-west of Broken Hill, New South Wales and south to Goolwa South Australia. The Murray River flows through a large semi-arid region that makes up ~9% of the area of the Basin. Much of it is dry mallee country, though the area contains many

Mallee habitat, Hattah, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

INTRODUCTION

Heathland, Big Desert, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

significant wetlands, including the Riverland wetland, the Chowilla Floodplain, Lake Alexandrina, Lake Albert and the Coorong at the Murray mouth. Most of the area experiences hot summers and low annual rainfall. Much of the Lower Murray Catchment is sparsely populated, with pastoral grazing holdings to the north and large dryland cropping enterprises to the south. Towns include Mildura, Renmark, Morgan and Murray Bridge. The Riverland area from Renmark to Morgan, is highly developed with a diverse horticultural industry, as well as dryland agriculture. The Murray River makes a westerly course through the Mallee until Morgan where it turns south and flows for ~200 km through a limestone gorge to Mannum. Beyond this limestone gorge, the river enters the last stage of its journey towards the sea. Finally, it flows into Lake Alexandrina and out to the Southern Ocean through the Murray Mouth estuary. There are many areas along the river’s path with extensive floodplains. Groundwater is found in extensive alluvial systems throughout the lower Murray catchment and is highly connected with surface water. Water quality varies between aquifers, and many aquifers, particularly near the Murray River, are highly saline.

The Mallee region of north-western Victoria comprises almost one-fifth of the state, with important mallee habitat extending into nearby South Australia. It includes the Sunset Country, HattahKulkyne and Big Desert. These significant areas of mallee and heathland vegetation support only a few frog species such as the Painted Frog (Neobatrachus pictus), but are densely populated with reptiles. The Lower Murray Catchment has 11 species of frogs and 93 species of reptiles. Many lizards occur in this region including the Western Blue-tongued Lizard (Tiliqua occipitalis), Shingleback (Tiliqua rugosa aspera), Bull Skink (Liopholis multiscutata), Mallee Tree Dragon (Amphibolurus norrisi), Painted Dragon (Ctenophorus pictus), Sand Goanna (Varanus gouldii) and Eared Wormlizard (Aprasia aurita). Snake species include

Painted Frog (Neobatrachus pictus). Photo: D. Goodall

Western Blue-tongued Lizard (Tiliqua occipitalis). Photo: D. Goodall 21

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Masters’ Snake (Drysdalia mastersi). Photo: J. Farquhar

Masters’ Snake (Drysdalia mastersi) and Common Bandy Bandy (Vermicella annulata).

Mid-Murray Catchment

The Mid-Murray Catchment includes areas on both sides of the Murray River, from Hume Dam in the east, upstream from Albury, to the confluence of the Murray and Darling rivers at Wentworth, in western New South Wales. This catchment covers only ~3% of the Basin area, but many of the major rivers such as the Kiewa, Ovens, Goulburn, Campaspe, Loddon and Murrumbidgee enter the Murray River in this region and account for over 50% of the inflow of the Basin. The Murray River is quite wide in this catchment and flows steadily through

Murray River, near Wemen, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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predominantly riverine plain, though there are also extensive floodplains and wetlands. These include nationally and internationally significant sites such as the Barmah– Millewa Forest and the Gunbower– Koondrook–Perricoota Forest. This is a highly developed catchment with many large urban centres established on the banks of the Murray River. Major towns include Albury–Wodonga, Yarrawonga, Echuca–Moama and Deniliquin. There are significant dryland and irrigated agricultural industries located within the region. Tourism associated with the river environment and water activities are also economically important to the region. Average annual rainfall ranges from 700  mm in the east to ~500  mm in the western end of the catchment. Summers are hot and dry and rainfall is received mostly in winter and spring. Expansive River Red Gum forests are a feature of this region and periodic flooding supports large stands of these trees. Within the forests are complex networks of wetlands, some of which support locally and nationally significant wetland plants, such as Moira Grass, Tall Spike Rush and Common Nardoo. The Murray River and its surrounding wetlands provides important habitat for many frogs, turtles, snakes and lizards. The Mid-Murray Catchment has 18 species of frogs and 40 species of reptiles. A poorly known frog species, Sloane’s Froglet (Crinia sloanei) occurs in this catchment and may have contracted from much of its former range in recent years. Three species of freshwater turtles, Macquarie Turtle (Emydura macquarii),

INTRODUCTION

Snake-necked Turtle (Chelodina longicollis) and Broad-shelled Turtle (Chelodina expansa) reach their eastern limit on the Murray River. Other notable species for this catchment are the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar) and Dwyer’s Snake (Parasuta dwyeri).

Sloane’s Froglet (Crinia sloanei). Photo: J. Farquhar

Broad-shelled Turtle (Chelodina expansa).

Upper Murray Catchment

The Murray River begins its journey high in the Australian Alps, ~40  km south of Mount Kosciuszko at over 1000 m. Snow is present on these alpine meadows for several months each year and the average annual rainfall at the head of the catchment is ~1500  mm. The river originates from springs that form a small stream that flows westwards and then northwards through the Alpine and Kosciuszko national parks. This stream becomes larger as it is joined by many mountain creeks and rivers, the most significant being the Swampy Plain River. Much of the volume of this river is increased by the Geehi River, which carries water through the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme, including water diverted from the Snowy River.

Photo: J. Farquhar

Burrowye area, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Dwyer’s Snake (Parasuta dwyeri). Photo: J. Farquhar

Corryong Forest, Victoria. Photo: D. Goodall 23

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Other creeks and rivers that rise and merge in the mountains meet the Murray River as it flows through the foothills. The Koetong, Cudgewa, Corryong and Thowgla creeks are major Victorian tributaries of the upper River Murray and the Swampy Plain, Tooma rivers and the Tumbarumba Creek are the main tributaries in New South Wales. After the river descends the steep western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, it flows westwards across the riverine plains. Major towns of the catchment are Corryong, Khancoban and Tumbarumba. The western boundary of the Upper Murray Catchment is the Hume Dam, with the Murray forming the north arm of the reservoir. The Mitta Mitta River flows into the southern arm of the Hume Dam. Rainfall occurs across the catchment throughout the year but the highest falls are in winter and spring, with the annual average being ~700 mm. Surface water and groundwater systems in the catchment range from being highly connected, mainly in the mountains, to disconnected in other areas. Most upland streams receive flow from fractured granite and sedimentary rock aquifers and alluvial groundwater is associated with the floodplains of some streams and rivers. Much of the Upper Murray Catchment is undeveloped, with large areas of natural mountain environment and has 21 species of frogs and 42 species of reptiles. The iconic Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree), with striking black and bright-yellow stripes, only occurs in sphagnum bogs above 1200  m, within Mount Kosciuszko National Park. The Snowy Mountains Banjo Frog (Limnodynastes dumerilii fryi) is also 24

restricted to this catchment. Other frog species that occur here are the Alpine Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina) and Booroolong Frog (Litoria booroolongensis), both of which are Endangered. Reptile species include the Copper-tailed Skink (Ctenotus taeniolatus), Mountain Dragon (Rankinia diemensis), Alpine Copperhead (Austrelaps ramsayi) and Eastern Smalleyed Snake (Cryptophis nigrescens).

Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree). Photo: M. G. Swan

Booroolong Frog (Litoria booroolongensis). Photo: M. G. Swan

Copper-tailed Skink (Ctenotus taeniolatus). Photo: J. Farquhar

INTRODUCTION

Wimmera Catchment

The Wimmera Catchment is located in the south-west corner of the MDB and represents 3% of the whole Basin, providing 1.7% of its inflow. The main river is the Wimmera, which begins in the Pyrenees Ranges and flows across the northern foothills of the Grampians in western Victoria. The river ends at Lake Hindmarsh in the north of the catchment but in times of peak flow its waters reach Lake Albacutya. East of the Wimmera are two smaller, northwardflowing rivers, the Avon and the Richardson, which rise in the Pyrenees Ranges. The Avon flows into the Richardson, which ends at Lake Buloke. Neither river connects to the Wimmera. This catchment is home to ~2% of the human population of the Basin and the larger towns include Stawell, Horsham, Dimboola, Warracknabeal, Ouyen and St Arnaud. The main industry is dryland agriculture and the demand for water exceeds supply, with water being transferred from other regions for stock and domestic use. Average annual rainfall varies across the catchment from 1000  mm in the south to 300  mm in the north, with winter typically being the wettest season.

Waterhole, Little Desert, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

The Wimmera River is the largest landlocked river in Victoria with its headwaters near Mount Cole, south of the Pyrenees Ranges, in central Victoria and flows for over 150 km to Lake Hindmarsh, Victoria’s largest freshwater lake. In times of peak flow, the lake will overflow and the Wimmera’s waters will reach Lake Albacutya and a series of smaller lakes in the Victorian Mallee. The catchment contains a range of environmental features and significant wetland ecosystems including Pink Lake, Natimuk Lake, Oliver’s Lake and White Lake. Areas of herpetological interest include the Grampians National Park, known for its sandstone mountains, Mount Arapiles, a rock formation that rises ~140 m above the Wimmera plains and the 132 647  ha Little Desert National Park, which is situated near Dimboola that extends from the Wimmera River in the east to the South Australian border in the west. The Wimmera Catchment has 13 frog species and 57 reptile species. Some of the frog species are capable of surviving in drier habitats by burrowing. These include Sudell’s Frog (Neobtrachus sudellae), Painted Frog (Neobtrachus pictus), South-eastern Banjo Frog (Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii) and Variegated Banjo Frog (Limnodynastes dumerilii variegatus). There are also important wetland areas in this catchment with good populations of the Endangered Southern Bell Frog (Litoria raniformis). Notable reptile species include the Tessellated Gecko (Diplodactylus tessellatus), Lined Worm-lizard (Aprasia striolata), Heath Monitor (Varanus 25

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Southern Bell Frog (Litoria raniformis). Photo: M. G. Swan

Gunbower area, Victoria. Photo: G. Stockfeld

Heath Monitor (Varanus rosenbergi).

Mount Hope, Victoria. Photo: G. Parker

Photo: J. Farquhar

Bardick (Echiopsis curta). Photo: J. Farquhar

rosenbergi), Prong-snouted Blind Snake (Anilios bituberculatus) and Bardick (Echiopsis curta).

Loddon-Avoca Catchment

Like many rivers of the southern Murray– Darling Basin, the Loddon and Avoca rivers rise at elevations up to 600 m within the Great Dividing Range of south-central Victoria. From these hilly woodlands the rivers descend northwards through 26

undulating foothills and onto the warmer plains of northern Victoria. The Loddon River is the second longest river in Victoria. It has many tributaries and is important for wetland systems on the lower Loddon River floodplain, such as Boort District Wetlands and the Kerang Lakes. Beyond the wetlands, the Loddon joins the Little Murray River (an offshoot of the main Murray River) north of Kerang and eventually the Murray River at Swan Hill. Within this catchment the Bendigo and Bet Bet creeks also flow from the ranges to wetlands on the northern floodplains. The Avoca River runs west of the Loddon River, rising south of the Pyrenees Ranges then flowing 270   km north to terminate at Lake Bael Bael, between Kerang and Swan Hill. In times of high flow, the waters from the river will reach the Kerang Wetlands and the Murray River.

INTRODUCTION

The Avoca River splits into several channels, its pattern of flow being the most variable of all Victorian rivers in the Basin. In the eastern parts of the region there is an average annual rainfall of up to 1200  mm, but on the wide riverine plains in the north, which are much warmer and drier than the southern regions, the annual rainfall is ~350  mm. Main towns include Bendigo, Maryborough, Castlemaine, Kerang, Avoca, St Arnaud, Charlton and Sea Lake. Broadacre cropping is the major agricultural activity in dryland parts, producing cereals, pulses and oilseeds. Wheat is the most prevalent crop, followed by barley. This catchment experiences hot summers and cool winters. The Boort District Wetlands at the northern end of the Loddon provide a range of important habitats in a heavily modified catchment, including the deep water marsh, Woolshed Swamp. The wetlands and billabongs of the Gunbower Forest are recognised as extremely important habitat and nesting sites for freshwater turtles. The Loddon-Avoca Catchment has 14 species of frogs and 55 species of reptiles. Commonly encountered frogs include Peron’s Tree Frog (Litoria peronii) and Fletcher’s Frog (Limnodynastes fletcheri). Reptile species include Macquarie Turtle (Emydura macquarii), Snake-necked Turtle (Chelodina longicollis), Broad-shelled Longnecked Turtle (Chelodina expansa), Eastern Hooded Scaly-foot (Pygopus schraderi), Eastern Bearded Dragon (Pogona barbata), Lace Monitor (Varanus varius), Inland Carpet Python (Morelia spilota metcalfei), Mainland Tiger Snake (Notechis scutatus) and Curl Snake (Suta suta).

Macquarie Turtle (Emydura macquarii). Photo: M. G. Swan

Eastern Hooded Scaly-foot (Pygopus schraderi). Photo: S. Mahony

Inland Carpet Python (Morelia spilota metcalfei). Photo: G. Schmida

Campaspe Catchment

The Campaspe River rises in wooded, hilly terrain at elevations up to 600  m south of Woodend in the Central Highlands of Victoria. It descends through undulating foothills that form part of the Great Dividing Range and flows onto the wide, flat riverine plains of northern Victoria before it joins the Murray River at Echuca. 27

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Campaspe River, Rochester, Victoria. Photo: A. Hobbs

The cooler headwaters of the region have an average annual rainfall of up to 1000  mm, while the riverine plains are much warmer and drier than the southern regions, with annual rainfall being around 400 mm. The waters of the Campaspe River are highly regulated and natural flows have been disrupted. Environmental flows are important to maintain several threatened vegetation communities, aquatic life and habitat for many terrestrial species. The Campaspe has many tributaries, the main one being the Coliban River, which joins the Campaspe at Lake Eppalock, the major water storage in the catchment. The Campaspe Catchment is home to ~2% of the human population of the Basin. The largest source of income is primarily derived from dryland agriculture across much of the catchment, but on the lower plains of the Campaspe River dairying is the main industry. Water from the catchment supplies main towns such as Kyneton, Rochester and Echuca. Parts of the region are heavily forested, with some areas supporting commercial forestry and agriculture. Groundwater in the catchment exists in alluvial aquifers in the northern catchment, and fractured rock aquifers in 28

the central and southern catchment. Shallow aquifers in the region can be quite saline but deep aquifers contain good quality water. This is one of the smaller catchments and experiences hot summers and cooler winters. The Campaspe Catchment has 14 frog species and 51 reptile species. Common frogs in this catchment include the Brown Tree Frog (Litoria ewingii), Striped Marsh Frog (Limnodynastes peronii) and Spotted Marsh Frog (Limnodynastes tasmaniensis). Reptile species include Common Thick-tailed Gecko (Underwoodisaurus milii), Olive legless Lizard (Delma inornata), Cun n i ng ham’s Sk in k ( Eg e r nia cunninghami) and Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis).

Spotted Marsh Frog (Limnodynastes tasmaniensis). Photo: M. G. Swan

Common Thick-tailed Gecko (Underwoodisaurus milii). Photo: J. Farquhar

INTRODUCTION

Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis). Photo: S. K. Wilson

Goulburn-Broken Catchment

The Goulburn–Broken Catchment has many creeks and rivers that flow into the two main rivers in the mountains and highlands of Northern Victoria. The Goulburn and Broken rivers are fed by high annual rainfall and melting snow, contributing 11% of the Basin’s water. The Goulburn River rises south of Lake Eildon

Goulburn River, Trawool, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Yea Wetlands, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

more than 1800  m above sea level in the Great Dividing Range and flows through montane forests in deep valleys at an elevation of ~300  m. The Broken River rises in forested country in the Wellington– Tolmie highlands south of Benalla, with an elevation up to 1000  m. The headwaters of the Goulburn and Broken rivers are the southern-most of all rivers of the Basin. They are clear, cold and fast-flowing with gravel and rubble beds. The Goulburn River is one of the largest tributaries of the Murray River and since the 1880s its waters have been diverted for irrigation and urban use. It is one of the most regulated rivers of the Murray– Darling Basin. The Broken River emerges onto the riverine plain at Benalla and then splits. The river continues westwards and the Broken Creek flows northwards and then westwards past Nathalia, joining the Murray River upstream of Barmah. The Broken River meets the Goulburn River at Shepparton and the Goulburn continues north-west for about another 100  km to where it joins the Murray River, upstream of Echuca. The rivers are fed by high annual rainfall, on average up to 1600  mm in the mountains, reducing significantly to 400–500  mm on the northern plains. This catchment experiences hot summers and very cold winters. The catchment is home to ~7% of the human population of the Basin and the income of the region is derived from wholesale and retail trade, food processing, agriculture and community services. Dairy and fruit production are the key industries that use irrigation water in the region. The major towns are Shepparton, Kyabram, Benalla, Seymour and Mansfield. 29

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The Goulburn-Broken Catchment has 19 species of frogs and 51 species of reptiles. Some common frogs of this catchment include the Stony Creek Frog (Litoria lesueuri), Victorian Tree Frog (Litoria paraewingi) and Eastern Sign-bearing Froglet (Crinia parinsignifera). Reptile species include Eastern Stone Gecko (Diplodactylus vittatus), Marbled Gecko (Christinus marmoratus), McCoy’s Skink (Anepischetosia maccoyi), Southern Rainbow Skink (Carlia tetradactyla), Black Rock Skink (Egernia saxatilis intermedia), Jacky Lizard (Amphibolurus muricatus), Lowlands Copperhead (Austrelaps superbus) and Little Whip Snake (Parasuta flagellum).

Stony Creek Frog (Litoria lesueuri). Photo: M. G. Swan

Little Whip Snake (Parasuta flagellum). Photo: J. Farquhar

Ovens Catchment

The Ovens River rises at an elevation up to 1800  m in the Victorian Alps near Mount Feathertop and Mount Hotham, from significant freshwater grasslands and marshes in the Alpine and Mount Buffalo national parks. It then flows northwestwards towards Bright, fed by numerous creeks and is joined by the north-flowing Buffalo River at Myrtleford. The King River, the second largest river in the catchment, joins the Ovens River on the floodplain at Wangaratta. After Wangaratta, the river flows northwards across the plain and is joined by the Reedy and Fifteen Mile creeks. The Ovens River then flows through wetlands and River Red Gum forests into the Murray River east of Lake Mulwala.

Jacky Lizard (Amphibolurus muricatus).

Mount Buffalo National Park, Victoria.

Photo: M. G. Swan

Photo: G. Brave

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INTRODUCTION

Annual average rainfall in the catchment ranges from more than 1400  mm in the mountains of the Great Dividing Range in the south to 500–600  mm on the plains in the north near the Murray River. About 65% of the annual rainfall is during the cold winter where snow covers the high ground. Summer rainfall is less frequent. The Ovens River Catchment is home to ~2.3% of the human population of the Basin. Beef and sheep grazing are the major sources of income, though there is also viticulture, horticulture and orchards. Tourism is important to the region, with a focus on food and wine, fishing and snow sports. Major towns include Bright, Beechworth, Myrtleford and Wangaratta. The region contains numerous important river sites, including several nationally significant wetlands, such as the lower reaches of the Ovens River, extending from the confluence of the Ovens and King rivers to Lake Mulwala. This catchment supports a wide range of habitats, from the alpine grassland and heath in the Australian Alps to the Victorian riverine plains. The wetlands are close to the Murray River and this corridor features an extensive network of billabongs, anabranches and islands. It provides important habitat for various species of frogs and reptiles. The Ovens Catchment has 15 species of frogs and 47 species of reptiles. Frog species include the Whistling Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii verreauxii), Common Signbearing Froglet (Crinia signifera) and Bibron’s Toadlet (Pseudophryne bibronii). Reptile species include the Snake-necked Turtle (Chelodina longicollis), Pink-tailed Worm-lizard (Aprasia parapulchella),

Red-throated Skink (Acritoscincus platynotum), Ragged Snake-eyed Skink (Cryptoblepharus pannosus), Lace Monitor (Varanus varius), Blackish Blind Snake (Anilios nigrescens), Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus) and Bandy Bandy (Vermicella annulata).

Bibron’s Toadlet (Pseudophryne bibronii). Photo: S. Mahony

Pink-tailed Worm-lizard (Aprasia parapulchella). Photo: S. Mahony

Bandy Bandy (Vermicella annulata). Photo: M. McFadden

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Kiewa Catchment

Kiewa Catchment is the smallest in the Murray–Darling Basin, though it makes a significant contribution to flows in the Murray River. The landscape of the catchment ranges from the high plains of the Great Dividing Range, at around 1600  m, to the northern floodplains near Albury–Wodonga with an elevation of around 160 m. The east and west branches of the Kiewa River rise in the alpine environment of the Great Dividing Range, south-east of Mount Bogong. The western branch rises near Mount Hotham, then flows northwards, mostly unregulated, through a steep forested valley. The east branch begins as a series of small streams near Falls Creek and flows northwards, delivering water to a series of pondages, tunnels and aqueducts for the largest hydro-electric scheme in Victoria. The east branch of the Kiewa River is joined by the Bogong and Mountain creeks before merging with the west branch of the Kiewa north of Mount Beauty. The Kiewa River then flows northwards through a widening valley with significant remnant vegetation and some of the most productive farming land in north-east

Falls Creek area, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan 32

Victoria. The lower reaches of the river divert into floodplain wetlands before merging with the Murray River between Albury–Wodonga and Lake Hume. Most of the catchment receives more than 700  mm average annual rainfall, with the Bogong High Plains experiencing almost 2500 mm, including snow in winter. The upper reaches of the Kiewa River feature alpine wetlands of national significance. Remnant patches of significant riparian vegetation occur along most of the Kiewa River and is in good to excellent condition in the higher reaches, but steadily declines downstream. There are no major urban centres in the Kiewa Valley. Small towns include Tangambalanga, Kiewa, Yackandandah, Mount Beauty and Falls Creek. About 50% of the water extracted from the Kiewa River is for urban use and industry. The other half is for irrigated agriculture, predominantly dairying. Tourism is important to the region, with a focus on fishing and snow sports. The Kiewa Catchment has 16 species of frogs and 42 species of reptiles. These include the Southern Green Stream Frog (Litoria nudidigitus), Victorian Tree Frog (Litoria paraewingi), Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri), Alpine Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina), Victorian Smooth Frog (Geocrinia victoriana), Dendy’s Toadlet (Pseudophryne dendyi), Olive Delma (Delma inornata), Alpine She-oak Skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus), Alpine Water Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi), Guthega Skink (Liopholis guthega), Highlands Copperhead (Austrelaps ramsayi) and White-lipped Snake (Drysdalia coronoides).

INTRODUCTION

Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri). Photo: S. Mahony

Alpine She-oak Skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus). Photo: M. G. Swan 33

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White-lipped Snake (Drysdalia coronoides).

Mount Bogong area, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Photo: J. Farquhar

Mitta Mitta Catchment

The Mitta Mitta River rises on the high plains beneath Mount Bogong, and the upper reaches and tributaries of the Mitta Mitta River flow through heavily forested areas. The main channel of the Mitta Mitta forms at the confluence of Cobungra River and the Big River and then flows northwards through forest to the Dartmouth Dam. This dam is the largest storage in the MDB and has the capacity to hold up to 40% of the water for the Murray River system. After Dartmouth Dam, the Mitta Mitta flows north-westwards through a wide valley to the south arm of the Hume Dam. The Mitta Mitta Catchment comprises less than 1% of the area of the MDB but it provides almost 10% of inflow to the Murray River system. The Mitta Mitta River is a declared heritage river area in its mountain reaches, from Glen Valley to Lake Dartmouth. The dam has strongly affected the hydrology of the lower river but good floodplain, billabong and wetland habitats exist downstream of Tallandoon on the lower reaches of the river. There are farming communities in the Mitta Mitta Catchment, though ~70% of 34

Mountain stream, Bogong High Plains, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

the region is steep, forested mountains. The dairy industry is a major source of income and employment in the region and, to a lesser extent, timber and beef production. Tourism is also important with a focus on fishing, camping and fourwheel driving. Small towns in this catchment include Dartmouth, Eskdale and Mitta Mitta. Most of the catchment has an average rainfall over 700 mm but increases with elevation to 2400  mm at Mount Bogong. Elevation across the catchment ranges from 150  m at Hume Dam to 2200  m at the alpine peaks in the south. Significant remnant vegetation can be found along most of the river system, providing important riverine habitat, which includes healthy stands of River Red Gum. Good riparian vegetation in the upper reaches of the Mitta Mitta provides

INTRODUCTION

habitats for wildlife, but with restricted diversity due to water regulation. The Mitta Mitta Catchment has 18 species of frogs and 40 species of reptiles. These include the Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea), Brown Tree Frog (Litoria ewingii), Stony Creek Frog (Litoria lesueuri), Southern Green Stream Frog (Litoria nudidigitus), Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri), Alpine Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina), Victorian Smooth Frog (Geocrinia victoriana), Dendy’s Toadlet (Pseudophryne dendyi), Smooth Toadlet (Uperoleia laevigata), Eastern Striped Ctenotus (Ctenotus robustus), Southern Water Skink (Eulamprus tympanum), Mountain Skink (Liopholis montana), White’s Skink (Liopholis whitii), Alpine Bog

Eastern Small-eyed Snake (Cryptophis nigrescens). Photo: M. G. Swan

Skink (Pseudemoia cryodroma), Blotched Blue-tongue Lizard (Tiliqua nigrolutea) Mountain Heath Dragon (Rankinia diemensis), Heath Monitor (Varanus rosenbergi), Eastern Small-eyed Snake (Cryptophis nigrescens) and Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus)

Frogs and reptiles of the Murray–Darling Basin

Alpine Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina). Photo: M. G. Swan

Blotched Blue-tongue Lizard (Tiliqua nigrolutea). Photo: J. Farquhar

Australia has a rich and varied herpetofauna, with 246 species of frogs and 1011 species of reptiles so far described. The continent is a large, green-edged desert, with the greatest number of frog species found along the moist east coast, though high numbers of reptiles occur throughout the arid zones. There are 66 species of frogs and 244 reptiles recorded from within the boundaries of the Murray–Darling Basin. This includes representatives from four families of frogs and 12 families of reptiles. Many of these frogs and reptiles are arid or semi-arid adapted and true inhabitants of typical inland environments containing sand dunes, floodplains, ephemeral claypans, shrublands, woodlands and heathlands. Areas of 35

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spinifex grasslands provide a great number of reptile species with refuge from the heat and some security from predators. Certain species of lizards occur only in association with this vegetation type. The species that are found in these environments experience high summer temperatures, cooler winters and low annual rainfall. They have developed strategies for dealing with these extremes, most notably the ability to burrow. Some of these species are observed above ground only at night during the summer months, often after rainstorms. On the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range near the headwaters of many inland flowing rivers, species of frogs and reptiles can be found that are associated more with the moist coast and ranges, though their distribution extends slightly into the Murray–Darling Basin. The northeastern region experiences high summer rainfall and mild winters and some of the species that occur there include rainforest inhabitants.

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In the temperate southern Murray– Darling Basin, frogs and reptiles are distributed through a variety of habitats including volcanic plains, rocky outcrops, wetlands, woodlands, forests and alpine grasslands. Some unique species occur in high elevation areas and experience a long period of inactivity during wet, cold winters.

Conservation status Some populations of frogs and reptiles have undergone serious declines throughout Australia and all species are protected. There are many species not listed as being threatened but may face a serious decline in the near future. Species listed at federal and/ or state levels as being of conservation concern (Critically Endangered, Endangered, Threatened, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, etc.) are indicated in each species account. There are global, national and state systems that recognise the conservation status of a species and status categorisation for a single species may differ between systems.

Frogs

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Two-thirds of the Australian continent is dry to arid, so it is not surprising that native frog species represent only 3.58% of the world’s frog fauna. Australia has five families of frogs and one species of introduced toad. Frogs mostly occur in wetland systems, and water for creeks, rivers and wetlands is crucial in maintaining viable frog populations. Larger rural towns, widespread agriculture and mining in the MDB all place demands on available water in a landscape significantly altered by river regulation with managed flows. Traditional threatening processes such as habitat modification and pollution of waterways have contributed to the decline of frogs but climate change, disease and feral species also place pressure on frog populations. Thirty per cent of Australia’s frogs are officially listed as Threatened and that

proportion continues to climb with each new assessment of frog conservation status. Drivers of profound declines in frog populations were not well understood for  many decades, until the identification of  a frog fungal disease in the 1990s. The  disease chytridiomycosis is caused by  the amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). Frogs have permeable skin and are particularly nostril

iris

pupil

tympanum

tibial gland

glandular stripe

Giant Banjo Frog

(Limnodynastes Examples ofinterioris) frog feet Examples of frog feet

Examples of frog feet

extensive webbing extensive webbing

distinctive toedistinctive disc toe disc

moderate webbing

inner metatarsal tubercle large and shovel shaped

Terrestrial Frog (Limnodynastes) species 38

Tree Frog (Litoria) species

Tree Frog (Litoria) species

FROGS

Examples of frog pupil shapes

Horizontal - Wide-mouthed Frog (Cyclorana novaehollandiae)

Examples of frog pupil shapes

Pupil with cross shape - Emerald Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria peronii)

Examples of frog pupil shapes

Vertical - Painted Frog (Neobatrachus pictus)

vulnerable to pollutants and pathogens. Chytrid fungus infects the keratinised epidermal layers of the skin and, for many species, causes the terminal disease chytridiomycosis. It can also infect the keratinised mouthparts of tadpoles, but

does not cause disease until after metamorphosis, when infection spreads to the developing skin. The fungus is a microscopic waterborne pathogen that has severely affected susceptible frogs, even in relatively pristine habitats. This invasive disease likely originated in Africa or Asia and has since been recorded in various habitats across Australia, particularly in areas of high elevation with cooler temperatures. Despite the best efforts to manage it, this single pathogen has caused the massive decline and extinction of hundreds of species around the globe. Chytrid fungus is a significant threat to frog species in the cooler, moist uplands of the MDB but it apparently does not pose as great a risk, in the drier, warmer, inland areas. Several Threatened frog species that occur in the MDB have suffered serious declines due to chytridiomycosis but declines also occur due to, or are made worse by, other threatening processes. Feral ungulates, including horses, pigs and deer have become well established. Crucial frog habitat is damaged by these large animals, churning up bogs and ponds creating deep gutters, which allows water to flow rather than drain slowly through soaks. Nutrients in manure also enter the system causing further pollution. One subspecies affected by the action of these animals is the Alpine Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina), which breeds during spring in seasonal and perennial ponds in subalpine regions of south-eastern Australia. Efforts are being made to fence off some remaining habitat for this frog to try and prevent this type of damage occurring. Habitat modification and extreme 39

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drought conditions have impacted species such as the Booroolong Frog (Litoria booroolongensis), which has declined from more than half of its historic known range. However, this species persists along many streams, including those flowing through agricultural landscapes. Widespread loss and degradation of habitats is common in the tablelands, slopes and lowland regions and has contributed to the decline of the Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea), Southern Bell Frog (Litoria raniformis) and Yellow-spotted Frog (Litoria castanea). However, the Southern Bell Frog has no doubt benefited from the development of rice farms in the southwestern Murray–Darling Basin, due to the large amounts of water required to cultivate that crop. The Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri) inhabits naturally vegetated, swift-flowing upland streams in mountainous country of the Great Dividing Range, between the Central Highlands of Victoria and Mount Kosciusko, in southern NSW. Historically it occurred along 23 streams, but extensive surveys have shown that this species has undergone major declines due to chytridiomycosis and predation from introduced trout. Sloane’s Froglet (Crinia sloanei) was listed as Vulnerable in NSW after a noticeable decrease in the rate of observations over the past few decades. The Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) historically occurred across a 500  km2 area of the Snowy Mountains

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Region of Kosciusko National Park and was recorded in extremely high abundance during the 1960s and 1970s. It has undergone a rapid and ongoing decline that commenced sometime during the early to mid1980s. The estimated number of frogs remaining in the wild in 2017 was fewer than 50, with the majority of these individuals recorded at reintroduction sites. Three geographically and genetically distinct populations of the Northern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne pengillyei) have been identified, each of which is considered a high priority for management. This species underwent a rapid decline associated with the emergence of chytrid fungus. Feral horses continue to degrade the habitat of this species. Government organisations, conservation groups, zoos and wildlife parks have recognised a need for collaboration and a diversity of approaches both in the wild and in captivity. Zoos Victoria, Taronga Zoo and the Amphibian Research Centre, in conjunction with the Arthur Rylah Institute and Office of Environment and Heritage, have all contributed to monitoring wild populations and developing captive breeding programs, with a view to reintroduction, for threatened frog species. Captive management and development of breeding programs is an important part of frog conservation, along with reducing threatening processes in the wild and the preservation of existing habitat. Four of the six families of Australian

FROGS

frogs occur in the Murray–Darling Basin: • Limnodynastidae (foam-nesting ground frogs) 15 species • Myobatrachidae (ground frogs) 19 species • Pelodryadidae (Australasian tree frogs) 31 species • Bufonidae (Cane Toad) one species. Sloane’s Froglet (Crinia sloanei). Photo: J. Farquhar

Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri).

Alpine Tree Frog (Litoria verreauxii alpina).

Photo: S. Mahony

Photo: M. G. Swan

Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea).

Northern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne pengillyei). Photo: M. G. Swan

Photo: M. G. Swan

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Foam-nesting ground frogs (Family Limnodynastidae) A family consisting of small to large ground-dwelling frogs that occur in a variety of habitats throughout Australia. They lack discs on their fingers or toes and some species are adapted to burrowing and have noticeably large shovel shaped metatarsal tubercles. Most species have prominent eyes and may have a horizontal or vertical pupil. With the exception of the genus, Neobatrachus, they all produce eggs in a floating, foamy eggs mass and are often laid in temporarily inundated depressions or ponds. They perform inguinal amplexus and females often have flanged fingers to help create the frothy nest.

Lymnodynastidae spawn. Photo: M. G. Swan

Tusked Frog (Genus Adelotus) The sole member of this genus, Adelotus brevis, is a medium-sized frog with a broad head. Males have a large pair of ‘tusks’ at the front of the lower jaw, which are only visible if the jaw is opened. The purpose of these tusks is not well understood but the males which are larger than the females 42

may use them in encounters over territory and sexual selection. The Tusked Frog occurs in the northeastern area of the MDB, being more associated with the coast and ranges. Tusked Frog Adelotus brevis

TL: Males 34–44 mm; females 29–38 mm Description: Medium-sized flattened body with broad head and rounded snout. Dorsal surface usually rough with many warts and ridges and grey or brown to almost black with irregular pattern and distinctive butterfly-shaped patch between eyes. Tympanum hidden and eyes with horizontal pupil and goldenbrown iris. Sometimes narrow pale midvertebral stripe present. Fold of brown skin from eye to base of front limb. Throat dark grey or black, with white flecks. Ventral surface smooth, with vivid black or dark grey and white marbling that extends over abdomen and underside of

FROGS

Adelotus brevis (male), Gloucester, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Identification: Adelotus brevis is the only frog in its range with a combination of boldly marbled belly with bright red colouration on the underside of the groin and thigh. Males can be further distinguished by their very broad head and presence of two tusks on the lower jaw inside the mouth. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld); Endangered population in Nandewar and New England Tableland Bioregion (NSW); Near Threatened (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi.

Banjo frogs and marsh frogs (Genus Limnodynastes)

Adelotus brevis (showing tusks). Photo: D. O’Brien

legs. Groin, thighs and lower legs with bright red or orange patches. Fingers and toes with trace of webbing, with females having broad flanges on first and second fingers. Habitat: Found around permanent water in wet and dry sclerophyll forest, and also farmland in the north-east of the MDB. Notes: Males call during spring and summer from inside crayfish burrows or nests hidden beneath vegetation and leaf litter at the edges of ponds and stream pools. The call is a slowly repeated, moderately pitched ‘g-lunk’. Females deposit unpigmented eggs in foam clumps and tadpoles are a deep dark brown. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to February.

Limnodynastes is a genus containing 15 species that occur in different regions of Australia. It is well represented in the MDB, with four species of stout marsh frogs and five species of the well-known, globular shaped, banjo frogs. These frogs occupy a wide variety of habitats with marsh frogs generally found in association with still, permanent water and banjo frogs adapted for burrowing into the soil. Banjo frogs are readily identified by a prominent, large tibial gland. Members of the genus Limnodynastes may be confused with trilling frogs, genus Neobatrachus, but those species have a vertical pupil, or with Platyplectrum ornatum but that species usually has a distinctive hourglass shape on the dorsum.

Banjo frogs (Genus Limnodynastes) South-eastern Banjo Frog Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii TL: Males 52–70 mm; females 52–73 mm Description: Large globular shaped body 43

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Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii, Moama, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

with short head and broadly rounded snout. Broad, dark stripe runs from snout, through eye and tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered below by thick orangebrown or golden glandular ridge. Dorsum granular, grey or brown with darker irregular markings and may be smooth or with low rounded warts. Usually yellow or orange mottling on flanks. Prominent, large tibial gland. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and pale usually marbled with brown or yellow. Fingers unwebbed, toes with varying degrees of webbing. Large shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercle. 44

Habitat: Widespread in the east and southern areas of the MDB. Occurs through a range of habitats including dry woodlands, granite outcrops, farmland, heaths and mallee. Notes: A species capable of burrowing during drier conditions and often sighted after rain periods or around waterways. Males call from within vegetation usually floating in ponds during spring and autumn. Up to 4000 eggs may be produced in a foamy raft among vegetation. The call is a hollow, resonating ‘bonk’ and tadpoles are deep dark brown with small gold markings. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to April. Identification: Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii is similar to the other species of banjo frogs and can be distinguished by less toe fringing, a tibial gland the same colour as the body, lack of red on the groin or thighs and a ventral surface marbled in brown or yellow. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Snowy Mountains Banjo Frog Limnodynastes dumerilii fryi TL: Males 52–75 mm; females 52–83 mm Description: Large globular shaped body with short head and broadly rounded snout. Broad dark stripe runs from snout, through eye and tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered below by thick orangebrown or golden glandular ridge from eye

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dumerilii dumerilii but with a lower frequency. Eggs are laid in floating foamy clumps among vegetation. Tadpoles are deep dark brown with small gold markings. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in November. Identification: Limnodynastes dumerilii fryi differs from other species of banjo frogs by its larger body size and being restricted to the Snowy Mountains. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Upper Murray. Variegated Banjo Frog Limnodynastes dumerilii variegatus

Limnodynastes dumerilii fryi, Kosciuszko National Park, New South Wales. Photo: D. Hunter

to arm. Dorsum granular with numerous scattered low warts. Grey, olive-brown to dark brown, generally with yellow or orange mottling on flanks. Prominent, large tibial gland. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and usually marbled with cream or yellow. Fingers unwebbed, toes up to one-quarter webbed. Large shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercle. Habitat: Found in stream pools, ponds and farm dams in the Snowy Mountains in the Upper Murray catchment. Notes: This large burrowing frog calls during spring and early summer from within vegetation beside ponds and stream pools. The call is similar to Limnodynastes

TL: Males 52–64 mm; females 52–65 mm Description: Large globular shaped body with short head and broadly rounded snout. Broad dark stripe from snout, through eye and tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered below by thick pale beige glandular ridge from eye to arm. Dorsum strongly granular with numerous scattered raised warts. Brown or light brown to pale orange with larger, darker irregular blotches throughout, with remnant of vertebral stripe. Prominent 45

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Giant Banjo Frog Limnodynastes interioris

Limnodynastes dumerilii variegatus, Little Desert, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

large tibial gland. Tympanum indistinct. Eye with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and mottled with dark grey to purplish black and yellow or creamy white. Fingers unwebbed, toes with rudimentary webbing. Large shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercle. Habitat: Inhabits permanent ponds within mallee woodlands, stream pools and farm dams through wet and dry sclerophyll forest in the south-western MDB. Notes: A burrowing frog that calls from within vegetation beside ponds or floating from August to February. The call is a single, hollow ‘bonk’. Eggs are deposited in floating foamy clumps among vegetation. Tadpoles are deep dark brown with small gold markings. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to April. Identification: Limnodynastes dumerilii variegatus only occurs in the Lower Murray and Wimmera catchments and differs from Limnodynastes dumerilli dumerilii by the strongly variegated dorsum, dark ventral mottling and rudimentary toe webbing. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Wimmera. 46

Limnodynastes interioris, Narrandera, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: Males 54–90 mm; females 51–88 mm Description: Very large globular shaped body with short head and broadly rounded snout. Broad dark stripe runs from tip of the snout through eye and tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered below by thick orange glandular ridge from below front of eye to arm. Dorsum granular with numerous scattered low warts. Pale beige to brown or pale orange with large black spots or blotches, more prominent posteriorly and along sides. Prominent large, orange tibial gland. Tympanum indistinct. Eye with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and yellow. Fingers

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unwebbed, toes about half webbed. Large shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercle. Habitat: Associated with dry, sandy regions in semi-arid woodlands and grasslands in the interior of the MDB. Notes: A very large burrowing frog observed in temporary pools after rain. Males call from within overhanging vegetation or burrows beside ponds, flooded ditches and channels during spring. The call is a deep, hollow ‘bonk’. Eggs are laid in floating foamy clumps among vegetation or in burrows. Tadpoles are grey-brown to olive with small gold markings and metamorphosed frogs probably appear over summer. Identification: Limnodynastes interioris can be identified by its large, distinctly orange tibial gland and half webbed toes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Northern Banjo Frog Limnodynastes terrareginae

TL: Males 50–76 mm; females 57–79 mm Description: Large globular shaped body with short head and broadly rounded snout.

Limnodynastes terraereginae, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

Broad dark stripe runs from snout through eye and tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered below by thick, pale orange glandular ridge from eye to arm. Dorsum finely granular, grey or brown without much pattern and may be smooth or with low rounded warts. Sometimes with thin vertebral stripe. Bright rust-orange or yellow-orange stripe on each flank. Prominent, large tibial gland. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and white or yellow. Groin, inner surfaces of thigh and armpit bright red. Fingers unwebbed, toes with rudimentary webbing. Large shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercle. Habitat: Found in temporarily flooded grasslands, roadside ditches, wetlands, swamps and also in developed areas. Only occurs in the north central to eastern MDB. Notes: A burrowing frog generally observed after rainfall. Males call during spring and summer from within vegetation or in holes beside ponds and stream pools. The call is a short, explosive ‘bonk’. Eggs are laid in floating foamy clumps among vegetation. Tadpoles are a deep dark brown to black with small gold markings. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in February and April. 47

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Identification: This species occurs mostly in the north-east and is the only banjo frog in the MDB with bright red in the groin and thighs. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh.

Marsh frogs (Genus Limnodynastes) Barking Frog Limnodynastes fletcheri

TL: Males 37–46 mm; females 38–55 mm Description: Medium-sized with stout body and head with slightly rounded snout. Dorsum granular, beige to darker brown with numerous scattered low warts. Large irregular shaped dark brown or olive blotches, often with butterfly-shaped patch between eyes. Sometimes with rose pink above eyes and broad dark stripe from snout, through eye and over tympanum to base of forelimb. Dark patch below eye and thin, pale glandular ridge from below eye to arm. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden brown iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Fingers unwebbed and toes with basal webbing. 48

Limnodynastes fletcheri, Moama, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

Noticeably long first finger. Adult males develop noticeably thicker more muscular arms, especially in breeding season. Habitat: Widespread in the MDB through flooded grasslands, wetlands, swamps and farm dams. Notes: A terrestrial frog that calls from within vegetation beside ponds or floating during spring, summer and autumn. The call is a bark-like ‘whuk’ repeated at irregular intervals. Eggs are laid in floating foamy clumps among vegetation. Tadpoles are deep dark brown with scattered darker spots. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in March, April, May and November. Identification: Limnodynastes fletcheri sometimes has rose pink colouring above the eyes and an irregular pattern on the dorsum without a vertebral stripe. Though slightly larger in size it is similar to Limnodynastes tasmaniensis from which it may be distinguished with absolute certainty only by the different call, measuring the fingers, genetic analysis, or if encountering an adult male Limnodynastes fletcheri with strongly developed muscular arms. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon Darling,

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Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken. Spotted Marsh Frog Limnodynastes tasmaniensis Limnodynastes tasmaniensis (Northern call race), Moama, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 31–42 mm; females 32–47 mm Description: Medium-sized with stout body and head with slightly rounded snout. Dorsum smooth and variable from light brown to olive green with numerous scattered low warts. Often pale vertebral stripe present. Thin dark stripe runs from snout through eye, broadening over tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered by narrow, cream glandular ridge from eye to arm. Dark patch below eye and thin, pale glandular ridge from below eye to arm. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden brown iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Fingers unwebbed and toes with basal webbing. Adult males are similarly proportioned to females without large muscular arms. Habitat: Widespread in the MDB through wetlands, flooded grasslands, woodlands, swamps and farmlands.

Limnodynastes tasmaniensis (Southern call race), Yarra Glen, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Notes: A very commonly observed terrestrial frog. Males call while afloat within vegetation or in shallow ponds from spring to autumn. The call is a short, harsh ‘ack-ack-ack’ in the northern part of its range and a short, sharp ‘click’ in the southern areas. Eggs are laid in floating foamy clumps among vegetation. Tadpoles are deep dark brown to lighter goldenbrown and metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from September to May. Identification: Limnodynastes tasmaniensis rarely has rose pink colouring above the eyes and has a more regular pattern, sometimes with a vertebral stripe on the dorsum. It is most similar to Limnodynastes fletcheri from which it may be distinguished with absolute certainty only by the different call, measuring the fingers or genetic analysis. 49

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Striped Marsh Frog Limnodynastes peronii

Limnodynastes peronii, Stony Rises, Victoria . Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 48–69 mm; females 46–73 mm Description: Body stout, medium-sized to large with long, slightly pointed narrowly rounded snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with longitudinal ridges and light brown or 50

grey brown above with numerous dark brown irregular stripes and spots. Almost always pale vertebral stripe present. Thin dark stripe runs from snout to eye broadening over tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered below by thick, pale glandular ridge from eye to arm. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Fingers unwebbed and toes mostly without webbing. Adult males develop broader head and thicker more muscular arms, especially in the breeding season. Habitat: Widespread in the east and south of the MDB, sheltering beneath ground debris. Found in a variety of habitats through wetlands, woodlands to farmlands and also in suburban garden ponds. Notes: A common terrestrial frog that calls from within vegetation beside ponds or in shallow water mostly from spring to autumn. The call is a short, sharp ‘tok’, like a bouncing tennis ball. Eggs are laid in floating foamy clumps among vegetation. Tadpoles are a deep dark brown to black with fine gold markings. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from October to March. Identification: Limnodynastes peronii is most likely to be confused with Limnodynastes salmini, though L. peronii has darker brown and black stripes rarely with a pair of salmon stripes higher on the dorsum running parallel to the midline. Limnodynastes salmini has a distinct anterior pair of salmon or pinkish stripes running at an angle across the flanks.

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Salmon-striped Frog Limnodynastes salmini TL: Males 61–76 mm; females 61–76 mm Description: Body stout, medium-sized to large with broad head and broadly rounded snout. Dorsum mostly smooth and brown or grey brown with numerous darker irregular stripes and scattered dark spots. Prominent salmon, pink or

Limnodynastes salmini, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

orange-yellow stripe on either side from mid-way up above shoulder almost to groin, sometimes with faint, pale vertebral stripe. Thin dark stripe runs from snout through eye, broadening over tympanum to base of forelimb, bordered below by salmon or yellowish glandular ridge from eye to arm. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and white and may have light brown stippling. Fingers unwebbed and toes mostly with rudimentary webbing. Males develop slightly thicker more muscular arms than females. Habitat: Found in flooded grasslands and roadside ditches, wetlands, swamps and farm dams in the central and north-eastern areas of the MDB. Notes: A large terrestrial frog observed mainly in temporarily flooded areas. Males call from within vegetation, beside ponds or in shallow ponds from spring to autumn. The call is a musical ‘wok’. Eggs are laid in floating foamy clumps among vegetation. Tadpoles are a deep dark brown to almost black with fine gold markings. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in March. Identification: Limnodynastes salmini has a distinct pair of salmon or pinkish stripes that run at an angle down the flank and the most similar species L. peronii has dark stripes, very rarely a pair of salmon stripes higher on the dorsum parallel to the midline. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan. 51

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Trilling frogs (Genus Neobatrachus) This genus contains a group of mediumsized burrowing frogs that are distributed almost entirely across the southern half of the Australian mainland. In the MDB there are two similar species that are easily recognised by their large and bulbous eyes containing a vertical pupil. They are the only members of the family Limnodynastidae that do not produce foamy spawns. Eggs are laid singly or in broad floating masses that sink to the bottom. These are rotund frogs with short, stocky limbs, well adapted to burrowing underground for long periods. They are usually observed above ground only after rain periods breeding in temporary pools of water. Painted Frog Neobatrachus pictus

TL: Males 56–63 mm; females 48–56 mm Description: Body medium-sized and globular with short, broad head with broadly rounded snout. Dorsum with numerous small warts and pale grey, yellow 52

Neobatrachus pictus, Hattah, Victoria. Photo: D. Goodall

or brown with irregular darker brown or olive-green patches. Usually, thin cream or pale yellow vertebral stripe present. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with vertical pupil and silver-grey iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Fingers unwebbed and toes strongly webbed. Large, black, shovelshaped inner metatarsal tubercle. Upper surface of foot pigmented. Habitat: Mostly found in mallee woodlands, grasslands and arid areas of the southwestern MDB. Notes: A burrowing frog that can be heard calling after heavy rainfall from late summer to spring afloat in dams and temporary ponds. The call is a long, rapid low-pitched trill. Eggs are laid in a floating clump, which later sinks. Tadpoles are grey, golden or darker golden brown with scattered dark patches. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from September to November. Identification: Neobatrachus pictus is very similar to Neobatrachus sudellae from which it can be distinguished by lack of very loose skin from the side of the body near the groin to the knee. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Wimmera.

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Sudell’s Frog Neobatrachus sudellae

Neobatrachus sudellae, Little River, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 38–50 mm; females 46–55 mm Description: Body medium-sized and globular with short, broad head with broadly rounded snout. Dorsum with numerous small warts and quite variable in colour from grey-brown, yellow-brown to reddish brown with darker brown or olive patches and marbling. Usually, thin cream vertebral stripe present. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with vertical pupil and silver-grey iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Skin between side of body around groin to knee noticeably loose. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with vertical pupil and

silver-grey iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Fingers unwebbed and toes fully webbed. Large, black, compressed shovelshaped inner metatarsal tubercle. Upper surface of the foot is white. Habitat: Widespread in the MDB through rocky plains, woodlands and arid grasslands. Notes: A burrowing frog usually observed after rainfall. Males call while floating in temporary waterfilled depressions, ponds and dams during spring and summer. The call is a musical trill. Eggs are laid in a floating clump, which later sink, or in strings attached to vegetation just beneath the surface. Tadpoles are dark to lighter grey-brown, grey or silvery cream. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from September to December. Identification: Neobatrachus sudellae can be distinguished from N. pictus by the skin between the side of the body around the groin to the knee being noticeably loose. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken.

Burrowing frogs (Genus Notaden) The genus Notaden is made up of four medium-sized, extremely rotund burrowing frogs that mostly inhabit the drier inland areas of Australia. A single species occurs in the MDB. They have a short, broad head with a bluntly rounded snout and large eyes. The dorsal surface is 53

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extremely warty and if disturbed they exude a thick, white toxin that becomes highly adhesive as it dries. Their egg masses are less foamy than those of other limnodynastid frogs. Notaden bennettii could be confused with members of the genus Neobatrachus but those species have a vertical pupil. Crucifix Frog Notaden bennettii TL: Males 42–63 mm; females 46–68 mm Description: Body medium-sized and globular with short head and bluntly rounded snout. Dorsum yellow, olive or green with numerous round, black warts and spots with smaller red dots that form distinct cruciform pattern. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Throat brown with dark spots

in calling males. Ventral surface smooth and white. Fingers unwebbed and toes about one-quarter webbed. Pale coloured, shovel-shaped inner metatarsal tubercle. Habitat: Associated with drier, open woodlands, grasslands and claypans on sandy soils in the central and northern MDB. Notes: This colourful burrowing frog is usually observed above ground after very heavy rainfall. Males call from late winter to autumn around temporary pools. The call is an owl-like ‘whoop…whoop…whoop’. Eggs are laid in a clump that floats on the surface. Tadpoles are dark copper-brown, gaining the distinctive cruciform before metamorphosis. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to March. Identification: Notaden bennettii is a distinctive frog with a black and red spotted cruciform pattern. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee.

Mountain frogs (Genus Philoria)

Notaden bennettii, Narrandera, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 54

A group of medium-sized, robust frogs that only occur in forested mountainous areas of south-eastern Australia. Six species are recognised but only one is recorded from within the MDB. The head is short and broad with a rounded or slightly pointed snout and the pupil is horizontal. The fingers and toes are entirely free of webbing but the females possess a very large flange on the inner two fingers used for creating a frothy egg mass. Hidden nests are created in moist soaks and bogs along small streams in which the females lay a small number of large,

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unpigmented eggs. Partial development occurs within the egg, and partially as tadpoles, in the small, moist nest. Mountain Frog Philoria kundagungan TL: Males 22–28 mm; females 24–30 mm Description: Body medium-sized and stout. Dorsum smooth and bright red, yellow, orange, purple-red, reddish brown to black. Usually, black V-shaped marking above each groin. Inconspicuous parotoid glands. Head broad with rounded snout. Tympanum indistinct and eyes with brown iris. Ventral surface smooth, uniform bright yellow with red patches on throat. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Females with broad flanges on first and second finger.

Habitat: Found in montane subtropical rainforest in a small range in the Mistake Mountains of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Males call from August to midFebruary from nest sites under rocks or leaf litter in soaked holes and the call is a slow, guttural low-pitched ‘ork’. Eggs are deposited in a small foamy mass. Tadpoles are cream but become lightly pigmented, and metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in January. Identification: Philoria kundagungan is the only species of Philoria in the MDB and this colourful frog with a bright red, orange or purple-red dorsum and yellow patches is unlikely to be confused with any other frog. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Burrowing frogs (Genus Platyplectrum)

Philoria kundagungan, Main Range National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. Zozaya

Platyplectrum comprises two rotund and squat, medium-sized frogs that occur throughout most of Australia, with one species occurring close to the MDB in south-western Queensland and the other widespread in the MDB. They are adept burrowers and can be found in many different habitats in sandy soils. Sometimes a distinctive hourglassshaped pattern is present on the back of the dorsum from behind the eyes and they display a great number of colour forms even within single populations. The squat, rotund body shape and size can loosely resemble some other burrowing frogs such as Neobatrachus species (but those have vertical pupils) and the globular banjo frogs Limnodynastes species (which have prominent tibial glands). 55

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Ornate Burrowing Frog Platyplectrum ornatum TL: Males 31–41 mm; females 35–45 mm Description: Body medium-sized and globular with broad head and short snout, often with darker vertical bars. Dorsum

Platyplectrum ornatum (striped form), Dalby, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

Platyplectrum ornatum (mottled form), Chandler, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson 56

granular or smooth with numerous warts and ridges and highly variable in colour and pattern. Various forms include, pale sandy yellow, light to dark brown, olive green or red-brown with irregular variegated patterns or darker blotches and patches to uniform rust-red, with or without broad pale stripe from snout to vent. Most specimens with pale hourglass-shaped patch down back, starting behind the eyes. Hindlimbs barred with broad or narrow dark bands. Tympanum indistinct. Eyes with horizontal pupil and golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Fingers unwebbed and toes one-quarter webbed. Breeding females with one or more inner fingers flanged. Habitat: Found in the north-eastern and north central areas of the MDB throughout a variety of habitats from forest to arid, sandy scrublands. Notes: A burrowing frog commonly observed moving around at night. Males call from spring to autumn while floating in water. The call is a reverberating ‘unk’ repeated frequently. Eggs are deposited in floating clumps that form small domes. Tadpoles are brown or dusky grey with fine gold pigment. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded every month from December to early May. Identification: Platyplectrum ornatum is most easily identified by the squat, rotund body shape and size. It is similar to Neobatrachus species, but those have vertical pupils, and the globular banjo frogs Limnodynastes species, which have prominent tibial glands. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan.

Ground frogs (Family Myobatrachidae) These frogs were once part of the global family of southern frogs but now the Australian, non-foam nesting, ground frog species belong to the family Myobatrachidae. This is a small to medium-sized group of diverse, terrestrial frogs with small or no discs on fingers and toes. They range from burrowing species to entirely aquatic frogs. Most have no webbing between the toes and amplexus is inguinal. Different reproductive strategies are employed by a variety of species and, although most lay eggs directly in water, some have a terrestrial direct development, which is completed within the egg. They have a horizontal pupil and usually an indistinct tympanum.

Desert Froglet Crinia deserticola

Froglets (Genus Crinia) The genus Crinia contains a group of small, stout terrestrial frogs distributed widely on the Australian mainland and in Tasmania, but absent from arid central regions. Four species occur in the MDB. They are mostly drab with long, unwebbed fingers and toes. All species have a horizontal pupil and a granular ventral surface. They occur in conjunction with still or slow moving water and can be very difficult to identify. Their advertisement calls are sometimes the only definite way to differentiate between species. Crinia species are similar to Geocrinia species but can be distinguished by the  granular ventral surface (in Geocrinia  species the ventral surface is smooth).

Crinia deserticola, Townsville, Queensland. Photo: S. Zozaya

TL: Males 16–23 mm; females 17–20 mm Description: Body small and slender with short head and wide, slightly rounded snout. Dorsum with small ridges and variable from pale grey to brown or olivegreen with darker spots and blotches. Pale bar between eyes and banding on hindlimbs. Tympanum hidden. Ventral surface granular and mostly white with grey throat in calling males. Fingers and toes long and unwebbed. Palms tubercular. 57

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Habitat: Found in flooded grasslands and ephemeral ponds in the northern MDB. Notes: A small terrestrial frog that calls from the edge of water bodies during the summer months. The call is a high-pitched, musical chirp. Eggs are laid in water and attached to vegetation or the substrate. Tadpoles are small and dark brown with gold flecks. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in January and March. Identification: Crinia deserticola overlaps in distribution with C. parinsignifera and C. signifera. Crinia deserticola has tubercular palms and mostly white ventral surface. Crinia parinsignifera has smooth palms and narrowly fringed toes. Crinia signifera has tubercular palms and a coarsely mottled ventral surface of white and black on grey. Each species has a unique call. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh. Eastern Sign-bearing Froglet Crinia parinsignifera

TL: Males 18–22 mm; females 21–23 mm Description: Body small and slender with short head and wide, slightly rounded 58

Crinia parinsignifera, Knowsley State Forest, Victoria. Photo: P. Watson

snout. Dorsum with small ridges and very variable from pale grey to beige and dark brown with darker markings. Some specimens with broad mid-dorsal stripe bordered on each side with lighter stripe. Hindlimbs with banding. Tympanum hidden. Ventral surface granular and mostly grey with darker throat in calling males. Fingers and toes unwebbed, toes very long and narrowly fringed. Palms smooth. Habitat: Widespread in the MDB, occurring in ponds, flooded grasslands, swamps and inundated areas within woodland. Notes: A small terrestrial frog that calls throughout most of the year from within vegetation. The call is a long, high-pitched, squelching beep. Eggs are attached to vegetation or substrate in shallow water. Tadpoles are small and dark grey to black with some gold reticulations. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in September and October. Identification: Crinia parinsignifera is distinguished from other MDB species of Crinia by having smooth palms (lacking tubercles). Each species has a unique call. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir,

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Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken. Common Sign-bearing Froglet Crinia signifera Crinia signifera (striped form), Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 18–25 mm; females 19–29 mm Description: Body small and slender with short head and wide, slightly rounded snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with longitudinal folds and ridges. Colouration highly variable from pale grey, pale cream to beige, mustard yellow, olive green and dark brown with darker blotches or lateral stripes. Some specimens with faint vertebral line. Hindlimbs with banding and usually triangular markings on upper lip. Tympanum hidden. Ventral surface strongly granular and grey or brown with coarsely mottled white and black patches. Fingers and toes unwebbed, toes fringed. Palms tubercular. Habitat: Very wide-ranging in the eastern and southern MDB through wetlands, flooded grasslands, swamps, slow moving creeks and farmland.

Crinia signifera (blotched form), Stony Rises, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Notes: An extremely common small frog that calls throughout the year from within vegetation beside ponds and flooded depressions. The call is a rapid and intense, ‘crick-crick’. Eggs attach to submerged grass stems or substrate in shallow water. Tadpoles are small and golden, grey or brown usually with darker mottling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded throughout the year. Identification: Crinia signifera has tubercular palms and a coarsely mottled ventral surface of white and black on grey. Crinia parinsignifera has smooth palms and narrowly fringed toes. Crinia sloanei has tubercular palms and a lightly flecked ventral surface with dark brown. Each species has a unique call. 59

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Sloane’s Froglet Crinia sloanei TL: Males 15–16 mm; females 17–18 mm Description: Body small and slender with short head and wide, slightly rounded snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with scattered tubercles and skin folds. Colouration usually consistent grey-brown to dull yellow with darker irregular blotches and often a few scattered red flecks. Some specimens with

faint vertebral line. Hindlimbs with banding. Tympanum hidden. Ventral surface granular and cream lightly flecked with dark brown. Fingers and toes unwebbed, toes laterally fringed. Palms tubercular. Habitat: Found in flooded grasslands, swamps, wetlands and inundated depressions in the interior of the MDB. Notes: A small terrestrial frog that breeds during winter and spring in flooded grasslands and wetlands. The call is a short, nasally ‘click’. Eggs are generally attached to submerged grass stems or substrate in shallow water. Tadpoles are small and golden brown to greyish gold with some golden clusters. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from September to October. Identification: Crinia sloanei has tubercular palms and a lightly flecked ventral surface with dark brown. Crinia signifera has tubercular palms and a coarsely mottled ventral surface of white and black on grey. Crinia parinsignifera has smooth palms and narrowly fringed toes. Each species has a unique call. Conservation status: Endangered (nationally). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, MidMurray (contracted from much of its former range).

Smooth frogs (Genus Geocrinia)

Crinia sloanei, Boorhaman, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Geocrinia is a genus of small terrestrial frogs that shelter beneath vegetation and rocks around wetlands usually within forested areas. They occur in the cooler south-eastern and south-western parts of Australia, including Tasmania. Two species occur in the southern areas of the MDB.

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Eggs are laid on land, where rainfall either triggers the hatching process and washes the tadpoles into a water body to develop or in some species the tadpole develops entirely on land where the eggs are laid. All species have a horizontal pupil and a smooth ventral surface. Geocrinia is distinguished from the very similar genus, Crinia by the smooth ventral surface (in Crinia species the ventral surface is granular). Southern Smooth Frog Geocrinia laevis TL: Males 23–27 mm; females 22–35 mm Description: Body small and stout with short wide head and rounded snout. Dorsum grey to reddish brown or yellowish

brown with darker bar between eyes and dark markings on upper lips. Skin smooth or with numerous small tubercles. Iris golden above and silver-grey below. Tympanum indistinct. Usually a darker line from the nostril through the eye, broadening to tympanum. Ventral surface smooth and white with some darker patches becoming marbled on groin and legs. Pink flush usually present in groin and armpit. Males with yellow throat. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: Found in farmland, wetter forest, woodland and basalt plains in the southwestern area of the MDB. Notes: A small cryptic frog that calls during autumn. The call is a series of low-pitched rasps. Eggs are laid singly beneath vegetation and leaf litter in soaked depressions after heavy rainfall. Tadpoles emerge from eggs following rainfall and undergo an aquatic development. Identification: Geocrinia laevis and G. victoriana overlap only in the Wimmera catchment and can be difficult to distinguish. Geocrinia laevis tends to have stronger colouring and markings than G. victoriana. Each species has a unique call. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Wimmera. Eastern Smooth Frog Geocrinia victoriana

Geocrinia laevis, Mount Gambier, South Australia. Photo: S. Mahony

TL: Males 24–28 mm; females 21–33 mm Description: Body small and stout with short wide head and rounded snout. Dorsum grey to reddish brown or yellowish brown with darker bar between eyes and dark markings on upper lips. Skin smooth or with numerous small tubercles. Tympanum indistinct. Usually, darker line 61

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Geocrinia victoriana, King Lake, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Habitat: Found beneath vegetation in muddy depressions within a variety of habitats from alpine bogs, wet forest to dry woodlands in the southern area of the MDB. Notes: A small cryptic frog that calls during autumn. The call is a single harsh ‘squelch’, followed by a rapidly repeated, highpitched ‘pip-pip-pip’. Eggs are laid singly beneath vegetation and leaf litter in soaked depressions after heavy rainfall. Tadpoles emerge from eggs following rainfall and undergo an aquatic development. Identification: Geocrinia victoriana and G. laevis overlap only in the Wimmera catchment and can be difficult to distinguish. Geocrinia victoriana tends to have weaker colouring and markings than G. laevis. Each species has a unique call. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Wimmera, LoddonAvoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta.

Barred frogs (Genus Mixophyes)

Geocrinia victoriana with eggs, Yarra Valley, Victoria. Photo: M. Clancy

from nostril through eye, broadening to tympanum. Ventral surface smooth and white with some darker patches and flecks, becoming marbled on groin and legs. Pink flush usually present in groin and armpit. Males with yellow throat. Fingers and toes unwebbed. 62

This genus comprises seven species of stream breeding frogs from the rainforests and wet forests of eastern Australia. Three occur in the MDB. All species are very large, robust frogs with long and powerful hindlimbs with some degree of barring. They possess a vertical pupil and a distinct tympanum. A dark lateral stripe extends from the snout through the eye and over the top of the tympanum, which is disrupted by the nostril. The large body size, specific habitat, vertical pupil and degree of toe webbing make this group easily recognised.

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Great Barred Frog Mixophyes fasciolatus TL: Males 60–65 mm; females 72–101 mm Description: Body large and robust. Dorsum smooth and pinkish brown to light brown or dark grey with irregular vertebral patch. Small, dark scattered blotches along sides, usually much bolder than vertebral band. Triangular shaped marking on side of snout disrupted by nostril before continuing as narrow stripe through eye and over tympanum. Upper lip, behind the level of nostril, pale cream or pinky white. Hindlimbs with dark bars that are narrower than the paler interspaces. Head broad with rounded snout. Iris dark brown. Tympanum distinct. Ventral surface smooth and white, with back of thighs light

or reddish brown. Finger webbing absent, third and fifth toe ~three-quarters webbed. Habitat: Associated mostly with riparian rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest but also disturbed areas in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Males call from among leaf litter and vegetation during spring and autumn. The call is two to four nasally ‘whark’ notes, often followed by two or three soft grunts. Eggs are kicked up onto the bank and overhanging rocks by the female during amplexus. Tadpoles are very large and dark golden brown to grey brown or black. Identification: Mixophyes fasciolatus can be distinguished from M. fleayi and M. iteratus by the iris being dark reddish brown above the pupil and having a pinkwhite upper lip. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Fleay’s Barred Frog Mixophyes fleayi TL: Males 63–70 mm; females 79–89 mm Description: Body large and robust. Dorsum smooth and reddish brown to pale brown with darker, narrow irregular vertebral band. Sides with few small,

Mixophyes fasciolatus, Mount Glorious, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan 63

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Mixophyes fleayi, Main Range National Park, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

distinct scattered blotches. Triangular shaped marking on side of snout disrupted by nostril before continuing as narrow stripe through eye and over tympanum. Hindlimbs with dark bars that are narrower than the paler interspaces. Head broad with rounded snout. Iris dark brown below pupil and silvery white to pale blue above. Tympanum distinct. Ventral surface smooth and cream or yellowish with back of thighs light or reddish brown. Finger webbing absent and toes about half webbed. Habitat: Occurs along flowing streams within rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Males call from bedside creeks during winter and autumn. The call is a stuttering ‘w-a-a-a-rk, w-a-a-a-rk’. Eggs are deposited in riffle zones among gravel or leaf litter in shallow sections of streams. Tadpoles are large and almost black with scattered gold or rusty brown pigment. Identification: Mixophyes fleayi can be distinguished from M. fasciolatus and M. iteratus by the upper iris being silver-white to pale blue, lack of cream or pinky white on upper lip and toes not fully webbed. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW, Qld, nationally). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. 64

Giant Barred Frog Mixophyes iteratus TL: Males 68–78 mm; females 91–115 mm Description: Body large and robust, considered to be Australia’s largest terrestrial frog. Dorsum smooth and light brown, reddish brown, dark olive or dark brown above with narrow dark vertebral band. Usually some scattered irregular blotches. Triangular shaped marking on side of snout disrupted by nostril before continuing as narrow stripe through eye and over tympanum. Often darker mottling around lip. Hindlimbs with dark bars almost as wide as the paler interspaces. Head broad with prominent projecting snout. Iris brown below pupil and gold above. Tympanum distinct. Ventral surface smooth and white to

Mixophyes iteratus, Watagan Mountains, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

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yellow, with back of thighs black with pale yellow spots. Finger webbing absent and toes fully webbed. Habitat: Occurs among leaf litter in riparian rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest and now only known historically from the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Breeding occurs in rock pools with the call described as a deep guttural ‘wharrk’like grunt, usually as a single note. Eggs are flicked or scattered along overhanging rocks and creek banks. Tadpoles are large and dull gold with a distinct dark band across the base of the body. Identification: Mixophyes iteratus is distinguished from M. fasciolatus and M. fleayi by the combination of the very large size, scattered irregular blotching across the dorsum, iris being brown below pupil and gold above, and fully webbed toes. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW, nationally). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers.

Also referred to as ‘brood frogs’ because their eggs are laid on land in damp nests, which are constructed and watched over by the males. The tadpoles hatch after rain and complete their development in water. Found mostly in association with small soaks and drainage lines within forested areas. Pseudophryne species superficially resemble Uperoleia species, which are distinguished by their strongly developed parotoid glands. Bibron’s Toadlet Pseudophryne bibronii TL: Males 22–30 mm; females 25–32 mm Description: Body small and squat with short, wide head and slightly pointed snout.

Toadlets (Genus Pseudophryne) Pseudophryne is a genus of 14 small terrestrial frogs referred to as ‘toadlets’ because of their superficial resemblance to European toads. Most species occur in the east and south-west of Australia, with seven species in the MDB. All species are small bodied with short limbs and walk more than hop. The head is short with a pointed or rounded snout and have only moderately developed parotoid glands. The eyes have a horizontal pupil and they lack a tympanum and middle ear structure.

Pseudophryne bibronii, Bendigo, Victoria. Photo: S. Mahony

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Dorsum granular and mostly grey to brown with numerous light or dark brown or orange scattered warts. Lighter, narrow bar between eyes to nostrils and faint cream or orange coccygeal stripe. Iris reddish gold. Ventral surface smooth or slightly granular, broadly marbled with black and white over the abdomen, legs and throat. Groin, base of arms and thighs with pale yellow or pale orange patch. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: Shelters beneath ground debris in forest, heath and farmland throughout the southern and eastern MDB. Notes: A cryptic species that calls opportunistically throughout the year after rain. Eggs are laid on land in a damp nest. The call is a short ‘squelch’. Tadpoles are small and dark to lighter grey with fine copper speckling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from late winter to summer. Identification: Pseudophryne bibronii is wide ranging and overlaps with other Pseudophryne species in the MDB. Pseudophryne coriacea has a red coloured dorsum bordered on each side by a distinct dark line and occurs in the north-east. Pseudophryne corroboree has bright yellow and black dorsal stripes and is restricted to Mount Kosciuszko National Park in NSW. Pseudophryne dendyi is more darkly coloured with bright yellow markings and occurs only in the south-east. Pseudophryne major has a reddish coloured dorsum with a yellow patch on the upper arm and occurs in the north-east. Pseudophryne pengilleyi has yellow and black dorsal stripes and is restricted to the Brindabella and Fiery Ranges of the ACT and NSW. Pseudophryne semimarmorata has only half the ventral surface marbled with vivid orange-yellow 66

on the throat, lower belly and legs and occurs in the southern MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Red-backed Toadlet Pseudophryne coriacea TL: Males 19–24 mm; females 23–27 mm Description: Body small and squat with short, wide head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum mostly smooth and rusty brown to

Pseudophryne coriacea, Morisset, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

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bright orange-red demarcated sharply by broad dark stripe along side of body and head. Iris reddish gold. Ventral surface smooth or slightly granular, broadly marbled with black and white over abdomen, legs and throat. Groin, base of arm usually with white patch. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: Shelters beneath ground debris within forests and cleared land, usually along small temporary watercourse and creeks in the north-east of the MDB. Notes: A cryptic species that calls throughout the year following rain. Eggs are laid on land in moist mud and gravel among leaf litter. The call is a slightly long ‘squelch’. Tadpoles are small and dark to lighter grey with fine gold speckling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in summer and autumn. Identification: Pseudophryne coriacea occurs only in the north-east and is distinguished from other Pseudophryne species by the reddish dorsum. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. Southern Corroboree Frog Pseudophryne corroboree

Pseudophryne corroboree, Kosciuszko National Park, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 22–29 mm; females 26–31 mm Description: Body small and squat with short, wide head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum smooth with some low tubercles and undulations. Entire dorsum, head and limbs patterned with striking black and bright-yellow stripes. Iris black. Ventral surface smooth, marbled with vivid black and white or black and yellow over abdomen, legs and throat. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: This unique, strikingly beautiful species is rarely observed and occurs only in sphagnum bogs above 1200   m within Mount Kosciuszko National Park, NSW. Notes: Males call from early December to late February, with eggs laid on land in a cavity within the root systems of sphagnum bogs that later become flooded. The call is a nasally ‘wrank’. Tadpoles are small and dark brown to black. Metamorphosis occurs in late spring and summer. Identification: Pseudophryne corroboree is easily identified by the striking yellow and black stripes and its restricted distribution. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (NSW, nationally). MDB catchments: Upper Murray. 67

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Dendy’s Toadlet Pseudophryne dendyi TL: Males 24–30 mm; females 25–32 mm Description: Body small and squat with short, wide head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum with numerous raised tubercles, mostly grey to black with bright patches of yellow on upper surfaces of arms and cloaca. Usually, yellow bar between eyes and yellow patch over coccygeal region. Iris reddish gold. Ventral surface smooth, broadly marbled with black and white over abdomen, legs and throat. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: Found among vegetation near small creeks, bogs and soaked depressions in forested areas of the south-eastern MDB. Notes: A cryptic species that calls from spring to autumn in association with rain.

Eggs are laid on land in a damp nest. The call is a short, clicky ‘squelch’. Tadpoles are small and dark to lighter grey with fine gold speckling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded during spring and summer. Identification: Pseudophryne dendyi overlaps in range with P. bibronii and P. semimarmorata in the south-east. It is distinguished from P. bibronii by its dark grey to black dorsum with bright yellow markings on the face, head and cloaca region. Pseudophryne semimarmorata has orange-yellow on the throat, lower belly and under surfaces of the legs and only a half marbled ventral surface. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Mid-Murray, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Large Toadlet Pseudophryne major TL: Males 24–29 mm; females 27–36 mm Description: Body small and squat with short, wide head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum with numerous low warts and ridges and grey-brown to rusty brown with irregular darker flecks and patches. Iris reddish gold. Ventral surface smooth, marbled with black or dark grey and white over abdomen, legs and throat. Base of

Pseudophryne dendyi, Wheeler’s Creek, Victoria. Photo: D. Goodall

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Pseudophryne major, Tarong, Queensland. Photo: D. O’Brien

arms with orange-yellow patch. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: Occurs in wetlands around creeks in heath and farmland on the north-eastern edge of the MDB. Notes: A cryptic species that calls during autumn, winter and spring following rainfall. Eggs are laid on land in a damp nest. The call is a short, ratcheting ‘squelch’. Tadpoles are small and dark brown to lighter golden brown with fine gold speckling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in late winter and spring. Identification: Pseudophryne major may overlap with P. bibronii and P. coriacea in the north-east. Pseudophryne major differs from P. bibronii by absence of yellow patches in the thighs and from P. coriacea by having yellow at the base of the arms and a pale coccygeal stripe. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Northern Corroboree Frog Pseudophryne pengilleyi TL: Males and females 23–27 mm

Pseudophryne pengilleyi, Brindabella Range, Australian Capital Territory. Photo: M. G. Swan

Description: Body small and squat with short, wide head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum smooth with some low tubercles and undulations. Entire dorsum head and limbs patterned with striking black and lime-yellow stripes. Iris black. Ventral surface smooth, marbled with black and white or black and yellow over abdomen, legs and throat. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: Restricted to sphagnum bogs in montane and subalpine heath of the Brindabella and Fiery Ranges of NSW and the ACT. Notes: A beautifully coloured cryptic species that calls in summer. Eggs are laid on land in a damp nest. The call is a nasal ‘squelch’. Tadpoles are small and dark 69

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brown. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from late spring to early summer. Identification: Pseudophryne pengilleyi is easily identified by the dull lime-yellow and black stripes and restricted distribution. Conservation Status: Critically Endangered (NSW, nationally); Endangered (ACT). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee. Southern Toadlet Pseudophryne semimarmorata TL: Males 25–28 mm; females 25–35 mm Description: Body small and squat with short, wide head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum extremely warty with numerous tubercles and ridges and dark grey, dark

brown or olive green. Iris reddish gold. Ventral surface smooth, with black and white marbling one chest and upper belly only, with vivid orange-yellow on throat, lower belly and legs. Fingers and toes unwebbed. Habitat: Found beneath rotting logs and vegetation in wetter forests of the southern MDB. Notes: A cryptic species that calls from within shallow burrows beneath grass tussocks during late summer and autumn. Eggs are laid on land in a damp nest. The call is a short ‘squelch’. Tadpoles are small and dark grey-brown with fine gold speckling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from late spring to summer. Identific ation: Pseudophr yne semimarmorata may overlap with P. bibronii and P. dendyi in the south-east. It is distinguished from these two species by the distinctive orange-yellow on the throat, lower belly and legs. Also the ventral surface is only half marbled. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Wimmera, LoddonAvoca, Goulburn-Broken.

Toadlets (Genus Uperoleia)

Pseudophryne semimarmorata, Mornington Peninsula, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar 70

A large genus of small, squat frogs referred to as ‘toadlets’ because of their superficial resemblance to European toads. Widespread throughout Australia, with three species in the MDB. The limbs are short and without finger and toe discs. Eyes are prominent with a horizontal pupil and the tympanum is not visible. They have well-developed parotoid glands. Uperoleia species superficially resemble Pseudophryne species, which have poorly developed parotoid glands.

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Dusky Toadlet Uperoleia fusca TL: Males 20–28 mm; females 23–29 mm. Description: Body short and squat with short head and broadly rounded snout. Dorsum smooth to slightly rugose and dark grey to dark brown with some black and cream mottling. Some individuals with pale mid-vertebral stripe. Parotoid glands moderately developed. Snout moderately short and broadly rounded. Ventral surface smooth and completely pigmented with white stipples on dark grey to black background. Groin, palms of hands and surfaces of feet similarly coloured. Yellow or reddish orange patches in groin and femoral region behind thighs. Toes unwebbed. Habitat: Found in forest, shrubland, heathland and farmland in the northeastern MDB.

Notes: Breeding occurs around ponds and farm dams. The call is a rasping note of ~20 pulses. Eggs are laid sparsely, attached to submerged leaves, twigs and grasses. Tadpoles are brown with gold patches on the dorsal surface and silvergold marbling down the flanks and ventral surface. The tail often has dark brown or black flecking or blotches along the outer margins and tip. Identification: Uperoleia fusca is distinguished from U. laevigata and U. rugosa by its smooth or only slightly warty dorsal surface and completely pigmented ventral surface. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Smooth Toadlet Uperoleia laevigata TL: Males 20–28 mm; females 22–32 mm. Description: Body small and squat with short head and moderately long rounded snout. Dorsum smooth to slightly rugose and grey to chocolate brown with some darker patches. Well-developed parotoid glands and prominent eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface smooth to moderately granular and may be slightly pigmented

Uperoleia fusca, Watagan Mountains, New South Wales . Photo: S. Mahony 71

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Wrinkled Toadlet Uperoleia rugosa

Uperoleia laevigata, Girraween National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. Zozaya

with white or dark brown. Groin and back of thighs reddish orange. Toes unwebbed but moderately fringed and fingers usually well fringed. Moderately sized metatarsal tubercle. Habitat: Associated with drier forest, woodland and farmland of the eastern MDB. Notes: A small terrestrial frog that breeds in flooded grassland and ditches throughout the year. The call is a long, pulsed ‘squelch’. Eggs are attached singly to submerged vegetation. Tadpoles are mottled gold and black or brown with distinct dark patches along the tail fin. Identification: Uperoleia laevigata usually has less mottling in the central portion of the ventral surface than U. rugosa and a distinctly more nasal call. It can also be identified on skeletal characters. Uperoleia laevigata can be distinguished from U. fusca by its partially pigmented ventral surface allowing the muscle to be visible through the ventral thigh. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mitta Mitta. 72

TL: Males 18–32 mm; females 18–30 mm. Description: Body small and squat with short head and truncated snout. Dorsum usually very rugose and light or dark brown to grey-brown with some skin glands often tinged with beige or pale orange. Welldeveloped parotoid glands and prominent eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface smooth to moderately granular with incomplete pigmentation. Groin and thighs bright red. Toes usually with basal webbing but not fringed and fingers poorly fringed. Prominent metatarsal tubercle. Habitat: Favours temporarily flooded grasslands to forested areas of the central and northern MDB.

Uperoleia rugosa, Injune, Queensland . Photo: S. Zozaya

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Notes: A small terrestrial frog that breeds in temporary water bodies, semi-permanent ponds, roadside ditches and flooded grasslands. The call is a short, pulsated ‘click’. Eggs are laid singly and submerged, attached to sticks and leaves. Tadpoles are dark brown to almost black, with black blotches running down much of the tail fin. Identification: Uperoleia rugosa generally has more light marbling in the centre of the ventral surface than U. laevigata and a distinctly more clicking call. It can also be

identified on skeletal characters. Uperoleia rugosa can be distinguished from U. fusca by its partially pigmented ventral surface allowing the muscle to be visible through the ventral thigh. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-C astlereagh, L achlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray.

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Tree frogs (Family Pelodryadidae) Until recently, Australian and New Guinea tree frogs were considered a subfamily within the global family Hylidae but are now placed in their own regional family, Pelodryadidae. This family contains about one third of Australia’s frog fauna, having two genera Cyclorana and Litoria, with a third Nyctimystes occurring in New Guinea. Members of this family are loosely referred to as ‘tree frogs’, due to the fact many species have expanded finger and toe discs to assist in climbing. Many of the Litoria species climb trees and rocks but those in the genus Cyclorana lack any expanded finger and toe discs and are terrestrial, burrowing frogs.

webbed. All but one species have a noticeable inner shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercle and an oval shaped distinct tympanum. Striped Burrowing Frog Cyclorana alboguttata TL: Males 54–67 mm; females 61–83 mm Description: Body large and slender with broad head and elongated snout. Upper lip mottled. Dorsum granular with scattered warts in longitudinal rows and brown, olive or green with darker flecks and blotches. Usually, pale yellow or green vertebral stripe present. Tympanum distinct. Dark

Burrowing frogs (Genus Cyclorana) A group of medium-sized to large burrowing frogs distributed mainly through central and northern Australia. There are six species that occur in the central and northern MDB. They are usually observed only after rainstorms, gathering near temporary pools and inundated areas to breed. Tadpoles usually develop quickly in these conditions before the pools dry out. Cyclorana species do not have obvious discs or pads on the tips of their digits and the first finger is opposed to the remaining fingers. All have a prominent supratympanic skin fold, mostly large eyes and a horizontal pupil. The fingers are unwebbed and the toes are at least partially 74

Cyclorana alboguttata, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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stripe from the tip of snout through nostril and eye, broadening over tympanum to base of arm. Eyes prominent with golden iris. Ventral surface finely granular and dull white. Groin and hind side of thighs dark with numerous white spots. Toes about half webbed. Habitat: Usually associated with clay soil in grasslands, open forest and cleared land in the northern and central MDB. Notes: A large burrowing frog often seen in great numbers after rainstorms. Males call from late spring to early summer beside inundated depressions and claypans. The call is a repeated quacking sound. Eggs are laid in clumps near the edge of the water body. Tadpoles are honey brown to whitish gold sometimes with a pale cream stripe on either side of the vertebral region. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from January to March. Identification: Cyclorana alboguttata is large and slender with spotted thighs and toes about half-webbed. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan. Short-footed Frog Cyclorana brevipes TL: Males 36–45 mm; females 36–50 mm Description: Body medium-sized and stout with short rounded head. Dorsum mostly smooth with some low scattered warts and very variable, being yellow, tan or grey with defined pale silver or dark brown variegated pattern, divided by narrow pale vertebral stripe. Usually, pale collar behind back of head and dark brown stripe from tip of

Cyclorana brevipes, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

Cyclorana brevipes, in amplexus, Tara, Queensland. Photo: H. Hines, QPWS

snout and broadens over tympanum to shoulder. Tympanum distinct. Eyes large with upper half of iris bronze-gold and lower half grey. Ventral surface finely granular and white. Groin and backs of thighs dark brown, often with lighter flecks. Toes less than one-quarter webbed. 75

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Habitat: Associated mostly with drier woodlands and clay soils of the midnorthern MDB. Notes: A burrowing frog that calls over summer from around inundated ditches, ponds, claypans and temporarily flooded grasslands following heavy rain. The call is a slowly repeated, drawn out wail or growl. Tadpoles are translucent dull gold with slightly darker mottling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in March and April. Identification: Cyclorana brevipes is medium sized with toes that are less than one-quarter webbed and the dorsal pattern is quite distinct. Back of thighs dark brown with pale flecks. Usually a pale collar behind the back of the head. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh. Knife-footed Frog Cyclorana cultripes TL: Males 38–41 mm; females 38–43 mm Description: Body medium-sized and stout with short, rounded head. Upper lip faintly mottled with brown and white.

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Cyclorana cultripes, Macquarie Marshes, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Dorsum smooth or slightly warty and light grey-brown to pale yellow with irregular, darker patches divided by narrow vertebral stripe. Usually, pale collar behind back of head and dark stripe from tip of snout through eye, broadening out over tympanum. Tympanum distinct. Eyes large with golden iris. Ventral surface white and mostly smooth. Groin and back of thighs light grey-brown mottled with white. Toes are about half webbed. Habitat: Mostly associated with clay soil in grasslands, woodlands and cleared areas of the mid-northern MDB. Notes: A burrowing frog seen in large numbers following heavy rainfall. Males call from beside inundated depressions, ponds and claypans from September to April. The call is a short, high-pitched moan, repeated steadily. Tadpoles are plump and dull greyish to light sandy-gold or silver-white. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from January to March. Identification: Cyclorana cultripes is medium-sized with toes about half webbed and a pale or indistinct dorsal pattern. Back of thighs brown with white spots. It can be extremely similar to C. verrucosa but generally has a more muted colour pattern and also has a unique call. Usually a pale

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collar behind the back of the head. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. Wide-mouthed Frog Cyclorana novaehollandiae TL: Males 61–81 mm; females 71–105 mm Description: Body large and muscular. Head triangular and flat with noticeably wide mouth. Dorsum smooth with scattered small tubercles and brown, green, yellowish or grey with darker mottling. Distinct pair of longitudinal dorsolateral skin folds extend down back, sometimes divided by faint, pale vertebral stripe. Dark stripe from tip of snout, broadening out

over tympanum to shoulder and dark bar below eye. Tympanum distinct. Eyes large with golden iris. Ventral surface smooth and white. Backs of thighs usually immaculate grey or bluish. Toes up to onethird webbed. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats including woodlands, grasslands and floodplains of the mid-northern MDB. Notes: This large burrowing frog breeds from September to February in temporarily inundated areas after heavy rainfall. The call is a rapidly repeated ‘unk’ with a slight upward inflection. Tadpoles are large and rotund with a slightly protruding snout and vary from dark or lighter golden-brown to dull whitish gold. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from January to March. Identification: Cyclorana novaehollandiae is large and muscular with grey or blue thighs, toes onethird webbed. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. Eastern Water-holding Frog Cyclorana platycephala

Cyclorana novaehollandiae, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 42–64 mm; females 50–72 mm Description: Body large and slightly rotund. Head short, flattened and wide with rounded snout. Upper lip with dark flecks. Dorsum grey with green patches and often with lateral pink tinges to yellowbrown with slight reddish tinges and highly variable pattern of irregular blotches or plain, sometimes divided by pale vertebral stripe. Skin smooth with some low warts. Tympanum distinct. Eyes small and located high on head with golden iris. Ventral surface smooth. Toes fully webbed. 77

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Cyclorana species in the MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee. Rough Frog Cyclorana verrucosa TL: Males 35–45 mm; females 37–50 mm Description: Body medium-sized and stout with broad head and rounded snout. Dorsum generally olive-brown and green with darker blotches divided by narrow pale vertebral stripe.. Skin varies from having some scattered warts to many

Cyclorana platycephala, Warren, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Habitat: Wide ranging through mallee scrublands, black soil grassy plains, woodlands and large claypans in the central MDB. Notes: The well-known water holding frog can spend several years underground in a cocoon to survive dry conditions. Breeding occurs opportunistically after very heavy rains from spring to autumn. Eggs are laid in clumps in flooded claypans, ditches and temporary ponds. The call is a drawn out ‘maw-w-w-w’. Tadpoles are large and rotund and vary from dull grey-brown to dense silver-gold. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from October to January. Identification: Cyclorana platycephala has a slightly rotund shape and the complete toe webbing distinguishes it from all other 78

Cyclorana verrucosa, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

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warts that form longitudinal rows and there are discontinuous skin folds forming a dorsolateral line. Usually, pale collar behind back of head. Darker stripe from tip of snout broadens over tympanum and merges with pattern on sides. Tympanum distinct with pale rim. Eyes large with golden or orange-gold iris above and dull gold to grey below. Ventral surface cream and mostly smooth. Groin and back side of thighs light grey-brown mottled with white. Toes up to onethird webbed. Habitat: Found in woodlands and grasslands on black soil plains of the north central MDB. Notes: A medium-sized burrowing frog that calls from early spring to autumn in temporarily flooded, grasslands, woodlands and cleared land following heavy rainfall. The call is a slightly upwardly inflected moan. Tadpoles are moderately large and translucent dull gold to whitish gold. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in March, April and May. Identification: Cyclorana verrucosa is medium-sized with toes up to onethird webbed. Back of thighs light grey-brown and white mottling. Generally, a more vivid contrasting pattern than C. cultripes and a unique call. Usually a pale collar behind the back of the head. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh.

Tree Frogs (Genus Litoria) The genus Litoria was erected in 1838 and is the largest Australian frog genus.

It has served as a convenient assemblage of Australian tree frogs regardless of their relatedness. The morphology of these frogs is highly variable between species and today we have a situation where the tiny Eastern Dwarf Frog (Litoria fallax) and the large common Green Tree Frog (Litoria caerulea) are members of the same genus. Frogs of the genus Litoria have finger and toe discs for climbing and this distinguishes them from the other Australian pelodryadid genus Cyclorana, which lacks finger and toe discs. Webbing between the fingers and toes can be present or absent and the pupil is horizontal in all species. Eggs are laid in water in all but one species, and tadpoles are fully aquatic. Taxonomic revisions continue to try and seek clarification of the relatedness of species in this genus and some published work has not been fully accepted. However, there is little doubt that the genus will be split into multiple genera in the near future. The various ‘species groups’ occupy a variety of different habitats from fastflowing forest streams and wetlands to arid creek lines. These groupings are represented in the MDB by bell frogs, rocky river frogs, large green tree frogs, bleating tree frogs, laughing tree frogs, whistling tree frogs, dwarf green tree frogs, red-eyed green tree frogs, rocket frogs, leaf green tree frogs and riverine tree frogs. They are grouped together for convenience and don’t necessarily reflect phylogenetic relationships to one another. There are 25 species in the MDB. 79

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Bell frogs (Genus Litoria) Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea

Litoria aurea, Mallacoota, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 57–69 mm; females 65–108 mm Description: Body large and stout with broad, long head with rounded snout. Dorsum smooth or slightly granular and vivid green with bronze golden blotches or mottling to almost uniform green with few markings. Thin dark stripe from nostril to eye continuing over tympanum, broadening slightly along sides, usually bordered above by bronze dorsolateral skin fold. Cream stripe from corner of jaw to base of arm. Multiple round, cream dots or flecks along flanks. Tympanum large and distinct with fine, supratympanic ridge. Ventral surface 80

granular and white. Groin and back of thighs bright turquoise blue. Discs slightly wider than digits. Fingers unwebbed, toes ~3/4 webbed. Habitat: Found in ponds and dams generally with clean water and reedy vegetation in south-eastern areas of the MDB. Former distribution now greatly reduced. Notes: A large, colourful bell frog that may be observed among reeds during the day but is also nocturnal. Breeding occurs in spring and summer with eggs being laid in floating clusters that sink and become entangled in vegetation. The call is a long, low growl. Tadpoles are dark to translucent with fine gold speckling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from November to April and tadpoles are known to overwinter. Identification: Litoria aurea is similar to the other bell frogs but with a smooth or slightly granular dorsum and groin and back of thighs turquoise. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW); Vulnerable (nationally). MDB catchments: Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Mitta Mitta. Yellow Spotted Frog Litoria castanea TL: Males 58–73 mm; females 64–92 mm Description: Body large and stout with broad head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum smooth with numerous low scattered tubercles and green with brown or bronze golden mottling divided by pale vertebral stripe. Thin dark stripe from nostril to eye continuing over tympanum, broadening slightly along sides usually

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spring and summer. The call is similar to Litoria raniformis being a deep growling ‘cra-a-a-a-wk’. Eggs are not recorded but probably similar to Litoria raniformis. Tadpoles are dark with some darker bands near the snout. No description of metamorphs available. Identification: Litoria castanea is similar to the other bell frogs but has distinct yellow spots in the groin and back of the thighs. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (NSW); Endangered (nationally). MDB catchments: Gwydir, Namoi, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray. Southern Bell Frog Litoria raniformis

Litoria castanea, Yass region, New South Wales. Photo: M. McFadden

bordered above by bronze dorsolateral skin fold. Cream stripe from corner of jaw to base of arm. Multiple round, cream dots or flecks along flanks. Tympanum large and distinct with fine, supratympanic ridge. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin and back of thighs bright turquoise blue with distinct yellow blotches. Discs barely wider than digits. Fingers unwebbed, toes fully webbed. Habitat: Favours still water in swamps, ponds and dams, usually with some reedy vegetation. Formerly with a larger distribution but now known only from one site in the ACT. Notes: An attractive bell frog, possibly not a valid species and similar in most respects to Litoria raniformis. Breeding occurs in

TL: Males 55–65 mm; females 60–104 mm Description: Body large and stout with long, broad head and rounded snout. Dorsum smooth with numerous warts and ridges and green with dark brown-bronze or goldenbrown blotching, usually divided by pale green vertebral stripe. Thin dark stripe from nostril to eye, continuing over tympanum, broadening slightly along sides, usually bordered above by bronze dorsolateral skin fold. Cream stripe from corner of jaw to base

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MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta.

Stony creek frogs (Genus Litoria) Litoria raniformis, Balranald, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

of arm. Multiple round, cream dots or flecks along flanks. Tympanum large and distinct with fine, supratympanic ridge. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin and back of thighs bright turquoise blue with distinct yellow blotches. Discs slightly wider than digits. Fingers unwebbed, toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Associated mostly with ponds, dams and slow flowing creeks usually containing reedy vegetation in the southern MDB. Notes: A colourful bell frog that may consist of a northern and southern species. Males call while floating in water during spring and summer. Eggs are laid in clusters in water that may sink or attach to vegetation. The call is a deep growling ‘craa-a-a-wk’. Tadpoles are dark with some areas becoming translucent yellow. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in summer and autumn. Identification: Litoria raniformis is similar to the other bell frogs but has numerous warts and ridges across the dorsal surface, extensive toe webbing and a pale vertebral stripe. Groin and back of thighs turquoise. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW); Threatened (Vic); Vulnerable (SA, nationally). 82

Booroolong Frog Litoria booroolongensis TL: Males 36–42 mm; females 48–54 mm Description: Body small to medium-sized and slender with broad head and rounded snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with some scattered low tubercles and grey to reddish brown with darker mottling. Head stripe usually obscure, but sometimes just a thin,

Litoria booroolongensis, Burrowye, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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dark line from snout through eye and over tympanum to base of forearm. Tympanum distinct with slight supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white. Hind side of thighs dark brown with small pale spots. Digits with well-developed discs. Fingers unwebbed and toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Prefers rocky flowing streams. Previously distributed along the Great Dividing Range of NSW and Vic. Thought to be restricted to a small number of streams in the south-eastern MDB, it has been recently rediscovered in the northern part of its range. Notes: A rocky river frog found among rocks in flowing streams and may be observed during the day. Breeding occurs in spring and summer and eggs are deposited in clumps in shallow pools that adhere to rocks along flowing streams. The call is a soft purring sound. Tadpoles are a dull rusty brown with darker areas across the body. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to February. Males turn slightly yellow when breeding but not as distinctly golden as other rocky river frogs. Identification: Litoria booroolongensis is distinguished from the other rocky river frogs by the obscure lateral thin stripe on the head and body, which is quite distinct in L. lesueuri and L. wilcoxii. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW, nationally). MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Mitta Mitta. Lesueur’s Stony Creek Frog Litoria lesueuri TL: Males 27–40 mm; females 49–61 mm

Litoria lesueuri (male), Ram Rod Creek, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Litoria lesueuri (female), Eildon, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with some scattered low tubercles and grey to reddish brown with darker mottling. Obvious dark head stripe from snout through eye and over tympanum to base of 83

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forearm. Tympanum distinct with slight supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin contains black patches and hind side of thighs dark with light blue spots and markings. Digits with well-developed discs. Fingers unwebbed and toes ~3/4 webbed. Habitat: Found among rocks in rocky streams mostly in forested areas of the south-eastern MDB. Notes: A rocky river frog that breeds in spring and summer. Males often turn a bright mustard yellow during breeding. Eggs are deposited in a clump in shallow rock pools and adhere to the substrate. The call is a soft purring trill that lasts for several seconds. Tadpoles are dark with a gold dorsal band. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in summer and autumn. Identification: Litoria lesueuri probably doesn’t overlap with the very similar species L. wilcoxii in the MDB. Litoria wilcoxii usually has white or yellow markings on the back of the thighs and occurs in the north-east. Litoria lesueuri usually has blue markings on the back of the thighs and occurs in the south-east. Both are distinguished from L. booroolongensis by dorsal pattern and the presence of a distinct dark lateral stripe. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Wilcox’s Stony Creek Frog Litoria wilcoxii TL: Males 35–48 mm; females 39–69 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad head and slightly 84

Litoria wilcoxii (male), Tamworth, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Litoria wilcoxii (female), Copeland, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

pointed snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with some scattered low tubercles and grey to reddish brown with darker mottling. Obvious dark head stripe from snout through eye and over tympanum to base of forearm. Tympanum distinct with slight supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden

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upper half of iris and dark brown lower half. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin yellow, usually with black patches, and hind sides of thighs black with white or yellow markings. Digits with welldeveloped discs. Fingers unwebbed and toes ~3/4 webbed. Habitat: Found among rocks in rocky streams mostly in forested areas of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A rocky river frog that breeds in spring and summer. Males often turn a bright mustard yellow during breeding. Eggs are deposited in a clump in shallow rock pools and adhere to the substrate. The call is similar to Litoria lesueurii, being a soft purring trill that lasts for several seconds. Tadpoles are dark with a gold dorsal band. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in spring and summer. Identification: Litoria wilcoxii probably doesn’t overlap with the very similar species L. lesueurii in the MDB. Litoria wilcoxii usually has white or yellow markings on the back of the thighs and occurs in the north-east. Litoria lesueuri usually has blue markings on the back of the thighs and occurs in the south-east. Both are distinguished from L. booroolongensis by dorsal pattern and the presence of a distinct dark lateral stripe. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi.

Large green tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Green Tree Frog Litoria caerulea TL: Males 66–77 mm; females 60–110 mm

Litoria caerulea, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

Description: Body large and plump with broad head and broadly rounded snout. Dorsum smooth and uniform light green to dark olive green, sometimes with scattered white spots. Prominent parotoid glands. Tympanum distinct with obvious, thick supratympanic ridge. Eyes large with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white. Digits with very large discs. Fingers 1/3 webbed and toes 3/4 webbed. Habitat: Widespread through a variety of wetlands and semi-arid habitats, mostly from the central to northern MDB. An arboreal species but also found on the ground congregating in large numbers waiting for rainfall. Encountered regularly in outback toilets and water tanks. 85

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Notes: A large and very familiar green tree frog that breeds from late November to March and eggs are deposited in water in large floating clumps. The call is a deep, repetitive, very loud, barking sound ‘crawk, crawk, crawk …’ Tadpoles are dusky brown with gold flecking. Metamorphosed frogs have been observed in spring, summer and autumn. Identification: The only large green tree frog occurring in the MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan.

Red-eyed green tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Red-eyed Green Tree Frog Litoria chloris

Litoria chloris, Mount Glorious, Queensland.

TL: Males 54–62 mm; females 58–68 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender. Dorsum smooth and light green to olive green. Yellow on flanks, upper arms, hands and feet. Head broad with short bluntly rounded snout. Eyes with distinctive orangered iris. Tympanum distinct with thin supratympanic fold. Ventral surface granular and yellow. Back of thighs purple. Fingers and toes long, with very large discs. Fingers 3/4 webbed and toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Occurs mainly in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest but also in developed areas in the north-east of the MDB. Notes: Breeding occurs following heavy rainfall during spring and summer when large numbers of frogs come down out of

trees and congregate around permanent and semi-permanent water bodies. Eggs are laid in small clusters in water and are often attached to vegetation. The call is a series of seven to eight ‘waaark’ notes followed by several soft trills. Tadpoles are light greybrown to dark brown with minute gold flecks. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in late summer and autumn. Identification: Litoria chloris has purple on the back of the thighs and is most similar to L. gracilenta, which is smaller and has a light yellow-green canthal stripe and reddish brown on the back of the thighs. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh.

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Photo: M. G. Swan

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Dainty Tree Frog Litoria gracilenta

areas in the north-east of the MDB. Often observed inactive on broad leaves, in a water-conserving position with the limbs drawn tight against the body and eyes closed. Notes: Breeding occurs following summer rain storms and eggs are laid in small clusters in water, often attached to vegetation. The call is a long, dawn out ‘waaaaaa’. Tadpoles are dark brown to black with some lighter areas. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in summer and autumn. Identification: Litoria gracilenta has reddish brown on the back of the thighs, a light yellow-green canthal stripe and is most similar to L. chloris, which is larger and has purple on the back of the thighs. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers.

Bleating tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Litoria gracilenta, Gatton, Queensland. Photo: H. Hines QPWS

TL: Males 31–42 mm; females 32–45 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender. Dorsum finely granular and light green to olive green. Yellow on flanks, upper arms, hands and feet. Head short with a bluntly rounded snout. Eyes with gold-red iris. Usually, indistinct yellowgreen line along the canthus rostralis from nostril over eye and along supra-tympanic ridge. Ventral surface granular. Back of thighs, reddish brown. Fingers and toes long, with very large discs. Fingers 3/4 webbed and toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Occurs mainly in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest but also in developed

Bleating Tree Frog Litoria dentata TL: Males 32–40 mm; females 39–44 mm Description: Body medium-sized, slender and slightly flattened. Head as broad as body and short with rounded snout.

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head that is about as wide as the body and more extensive webbing in the hands and feet. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan.

Litoria dentata, Rocksburg, Queensland. Photo: H. Hines QPWS

Dorsum smooth, sometimes with small scattered tubercles and light brown to pale cream. Usually, distinct broad, dark, irregular band down middle of back that broadens posteriorly. Tympanum distinct. Dark stripe from snout through nostril and eye, broadening through tympanum and continues along flanks. Eyes with reddish brown iris. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin, thighs and armpits lemon yellow. Digits with welldeveloped discs. Fingers ~1/3 webbed and toes ~3/4 webbed. Habitat: Occurs in wetlands, particularly around ponds and lagoons in Melaleuca swamps and wet sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Breeding from October to February. Eggs are deposited in water where they separate and sink to the substrate. The call is a very loud high-pitched penetrating bleat. Tadpoles are dark grey-brown to golden-brown tinged with clear yellow and gold pigment. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to late February. Identification: Litoria dentata may overlap with L. rubella from which it differs by possessing a conspicuous broad dark band down the middle of the back, a 88

Desert Tree Frog Litoria rubella TL: Males 28–37 mm; females 34–43 mm Description: Body medium-sized, slender with short head, narrower than body, with rounded snout. Noticeably short, robust limbs. Dorsum finely granular and usually uniform grey, grey-brown to reddish brown, sometimes with darker markings. Dark stripe from snout through nostril and

Litoria rubella, Litchfield National Park, Northern Territory. Photo: J. Farquhar

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eye, broadening through tympanum and along flanks. Upper lip with a pale line. Eyes with bronze-golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin pale or lemon yellow. Digits with large discs. Fingers with basal webbing and toes ~1/2 webbed. Habitat: Occurs through most habitats from wetter forests in the north-east to arid scrublands of the central and northern MDB. Notes: A highly variable bleating tree frog that breeds during spring and summer. Eggs are laid in water in floating clumps and become entwined in vegetation. The call is a long, loud, penetrating bleating sound that rises towards the end. Tadpoles are dark grey-brown with some darker mottling and copper tints. Metamorphosed frogs appear towards the end of summer. Identification: Litoria rubella is widespread and has a narrow head with short robust limbs and a uniform coloured dorsum. The other bleating frog species, L. dentata, occurs mostly in the north-east and has a head about as wide as the body with a distinct broad, dark band down the middle of the dorsum. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan.

Laughing tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Emerald-spotted Tree Frog Litoria peronii TL: Males 44–53 mm; females 46–70 mm Description: Body medium to large and slender with broad head and broadly

Litoria peronii, Copeland, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

rounded snout. Dorsum with low scattered tubercles and grey or brown with darker brown mottling and small emerald-green flecks. Tympanum distinct with noticeable supratympanic ridge. Eyes with two, very slight thin, ‘cross-hair’ lines through pupil. Iris silver-grey with fine black reticulations. Ventral surface granular and white or cream. Groin and back of thighs bright yellow or orange with black marbling. Digits with large, broad discs. Fingers ~1/2 webbed and toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Wide ranging in the MDB through wetlands in forest and woodlands but also around farm dams in developed areas. Notes: This commonly observed laughing tree frog is probably a composite species. 89

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Breeding occurs from early spring to early summer after rainfall and eggs are deposited among vegetation in permanent still water. The call is a long, loud maniacal cackle. Tadpoles are translucent gold with three dark longitudinal stripes. Metamorphosed frogs have been observed from December to April. Identification: Litoria peronii is very similar to the other laughing tree frog in the MDB, Litoria tyleri, but that species is smaller and has a golden iris with only slight dark crosshairs in the pupil and a distinctly shorter call. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, LoddonAvoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Southern Laughing Frog Litoria tyleri TL: Males 43–48 mm; females 46–50 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad head and broadly rounded snout. Dorsum with low scattered tubercles and grey to brown with some darker mottling and numerous small green flecks. Tympanum distinct with noticeable supratympanic ridge. Eyes with two, very slight thin, ‘cross-hair’ lines through pupil. Iris golden with fine black reticulations. Ventral surface granular and white or cream. Groin and back of thighs bright yellow or orange with black mottling. Digits with large, broad discs. Fingers ~1/2 webbed and toes almost fully webbed. 90

Litoria tyleri, Morisset, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Habitat: Found in association with permanent ponds, swamps and dams in forest, woodlands and farmland in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A laughing tree frog that breeds after rainfall during spring and summer. The call is a series of about five laughing notes. Eggs are deposited among vegetation or scattered over the substrate in permanent still water. Tadpoles are pale golden with three distinctive longitudinal stripes. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in March and early April. Identification: Litoria tyleri is very similar to the other laughing tree frog in the MDB, L. peronii but that species is larger and has a silvery grey iris with defined thin dark ‘crosshairs’ in the pupil and a distinctly longer call.

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi.

Whistling tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Ewing’s Tree Frog Litoria ewingii

Litoria ewingii (green colour phase), Clunes, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Litoria ewingii (brown colour phase), Clunes, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: Males 22–40 mm; females 32–46 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with short head and rounded snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with few low scattered tubercles and grey-brown to green with undivided dark mid-dorsal patch from between eyes to vent. Thin dark stripe from snout through nostril and eye, broadening through tympanum and down onto sides. White stripe from below eye to base of forearm. Tympanum distinct with noticeable supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white, pale cream or yellow. Back of thighs plain orange or yellow. Digits with discs slightly wider than the digit. Fingers usually unwebbed and toes about half-webbed. Habitat: Occurs through wetlands, forest, woodland, heathland, farmland and human dwellings in southern areas of the MDB. Notes: A medium-sized whistling tree frog that breeds throughout most of the year. The call is a high-pitched, harsh whistling ‘wreet-wreet-wreet’. Eggs are deposited in clusters in pools and become attached to submerged vegetation. Tadpoles are black to clear honey-yellow with fine copper flecks. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in spring, summer and autumn. Identification: Litoria ewingii usually has an undivided mid-dorsal patch, digits with

Litoria ewingii (tadpole), Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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discs only marginally wider than the digit and slightly rounded snout with a curved canthus rostralis. It is not readily identifiable from L. paraewingi in the field within the narrow zone they overlap. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Victorian Tree Frog Litoria paraewingi TL: Males 22–28 mm; females 34–36 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad, short head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum mostly smooth with few low scattered tubercles and pale brown to beige within undivided middorsal patch from between eyes to vent.

Thin dark stripe from snout through nostril and eye, broadening through tympanum and down onto sides. White stripe from below eye to base of forearm. Tympanum distinct with noticeable supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white, pale cream or yellow. Back of thighs plain orange or yellow. Digits with discs slightly wider than the digit. Fingers usually unwebbed and toes about half-webbed. Habitat: Restricted to forested creeks, swamps, ponds, dams and farmland of the central to north-eastern Victorian plains. Notes: A whistling tree frog that breeds through autumn, winter and spring with eggs deposited in small clusters in ponds that become attached to submerged vegetation. The call consists of three to nine high-pitched whistling notes ‘wreepwreep-wreep…’ Tadpoles are dark to honey-yellow with some darker areas. Metamorphosis probably occurs in spring, summer and autumn. Identification: Litoria paraewingi usually has an undivided mid-dorsal patch, digits with discs only marginally wider than the digit and pointier snout with a straight canthus rostralis. It is not readily identifiable from L. ewingii in the field within the narrow zone they overlap. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, MidMurray, Upper Murray, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa. Whirring Tree Frog Litoria revelata

Litoria paraewingi, Big River, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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TL: Males 26–28 mm; females 30–36 mm Description: Body small and slender. Dorsum beige to light brown or reddish

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Habitat: Occurs in association with swamps, ponds and lagoons within forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Breeding has been recorded in spring and autumn and eggs are deposited in small clusters in ponds where they attach to submerged vegetation. The call is a series of up to 20 or so high-pitched, rapid whirring notes. Tadpoles are translucent black or bluish black with fine copper flecks. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded in autumn and spring. Identification: Litoria revelata overlaps in range with L. verreauxii verreauxii, from which it may be distinguished by the finger and toes discs being conspicuously broader than the digits. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir. Litoria revelata, Coopernook, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

brown, mostly smooth with some low scattered tubercles. Also some small dark spots and flecks. During breeding season males can be bright yellow or yellow-brown. Faint, broad mid-dorsal band from between eyes to vent and thin dark stripe from snout through nostril and eye, broadening through tympanum. Head broad with short rounded snout. Tympanum distinct with obvious supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden iris. White glandular stripe from below eye to base of the forelimb. Ventral surface finely granular and cream. Groin orange or yellow, with one or more darker blotches and back of thighs orange. Digits with well-developed discs. Fingers with basal webbing and toes ~3/4 webbed.

Alpine Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii alpina TL: Males 31–33 mm; females 31–34 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with short head and rounded snout. Dorsum granular and coarse, either brown or green with divided brown mid-dorsal patch from between eyes to vent. Some

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usually found at much higher altitudes than other whistling tree frogs. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW); Vulnerable (nationally). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Whistling Tree Frog Litoria verreauxii verreauxii Litoria verreauxii alpina, Mount Bullfight, Victoria . Photo: M. G. Swan

brown or black patches over sides. Thin dark stripe (usually with pale upper border) from snout through nostril and eye, broadening through tympanum to base of the forelimb. White stripe from below eye to base of forelimb. Tympanum indistinct with noticeable supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and cream. Groin with black spots or patches. Digits with small discs about as wide as digits. Fingers unwebbed and toes 1/2 to 3/4 webbed. Habitat: Occurs in alpine bogs and creeks and partly cleared land. Restricted to high altitudes in the south-east of the MDB. Formerly good populations but now apparently continuing to decline. Notes: A brightly coloured whistling tree frog that breeds after rain in spring and summer. Eggs are deposited in clusters in ponds and become attached to submerged vegetation. The call is similar to Litoria verreauxii verreauxii : a high pitched, rapidly pulsing ‘reet-reet-reet’. Tadpoles are dark olive-brown to almost black with very fine gold flecks. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from summer to early autumn. Identification: Litoria verreauxii alpina is 94

TL: Males 27–36 mm; females 32–36 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with short head and rounded snout. Dorsum smooth to slightly granular and beige to light brown or reddish brown with divided brown mid-dorsal patch from between eyes to vent. Some brown or black

Litoria verreauxii verreauxii, Main Range National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. Zozaya

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patches over sides. Thin dark stripe (usually with pale upper border from snout through nostril and eye, broadening through tympanum to base of forelimb. White stripe from below eye to base of forelimb. Tympanum indistinct with noticeable supratympanic ridge. Eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin usually yellow with some large black spots or blotches. Backs of thighs yellow to orange. Digits with small discs about as wide as digits. Fingers unwebbed and toes ~1/2 webbed. Habitat: Associated mostly with wetlands, ponds and lagoons in forest and cleared land in the southern and eastern MDB. Notes: A commonly observed whistling tree frog that breeds after rain from late winter to summer. Eggs are deposited in small clusters in ponds and become attached to submerged vegetation. The call is a high-pitched, rapidly pulsing whistle, ‘reet-reet-reet …’ ending with a slight upward inflection. Tadpoles are clear yellow to dark brown sometimes with darker mottling. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded mainly from spring to autumn. Identification: Litoria verreauxii verreauxii has a broad mid-dorsal patch divided by a pale vertebral stripe and distinctive black spots or blotches in the groin. Discs about as wide as digits. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta.

Dwarf green tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Eastern Dwarf Frog Litoria fallax TL: Males 22–26 mm; females 25–32 mm Description: Body small and slender with short, broad head and pointed snout. Dorsum smooth and light golden brown to vivid green or mixture of both colours. Thin dark line from snout through nostril and eye, which sometimes continues over tympanum and down flanks. White stripe from upper lip over corner of jaw to base of forelimb. Tympanum distinct. Eyes with golden iris. Ventral surface granular and white. Inner surfaces of legs and groin orange. All digits contain distinct discs. Fingers with basal webbing and toes 3/4 webbed. Habitat: Associated more with the coast and ranges but found around permanent ponds, swamps, lagoons and dams within forest and developed land in the north-east of the MDB. Notes: This brightly coloured, small sedge frog is often quite active during the day. It calls while perched in vegetation

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Rocket frogs (Genus Litoria) Broad-palmed Frog Litoria latopalmata

Litoria fallax (brown colour phase), Oyster Cove, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

TL: Males 29–39 mm; females 36–42 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long head and pointed snout. Dorsum smooth with some low scattered warts and light grey to beige or brown, usually with darker mottling. Light triangular patch between eyes. Lower lip with darker bars. Dark stripe from nostril almost to eye, broken by pale crescent and continues through tympanum to base of forelimb. Tympanum distinct. Upper half of iris golden and lower half dark brown. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin and back of thighs yellow with dark

Litoria fallax (green colour phase), Oyster Cove, New South Wales. Photo: M. G. Swan

close to water throughout the year. Eggs are usually attached to submerged vegetation. The call is a chirping sound, drawn out upward inflecting ‘wre-e-e-k’ followed by two shorter ‘pip, pip’ notes. Tadpoles are a golden colour with darker areas and often have tiger-patterned dark blotches on the tail fins. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from January to April. Identification: Litoria fallax is the only small sedge frog in the MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. 96

Litoria latopalmata, Morisset, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

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mottling. Digits with only slightly expanded discs. Fingers unwebbed and toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Occurs around waterholes through woodlands, grasslands and farmland from the central to northern MDB. Notes: A very agile rocket frog that breeds during spring and summer following rainfall. Eggs are laid in water in floating clumps and may attach to vegetation. The call is a series of rapid ‘quacks.’ Tadpoles are sandy gold with a darker area over the base of the body. Metamorphs have been recorded from late summer to autumn. Identification: Litoria latopalmata has a smooth dorsum with a clearly defined dark stripe on the side of the head and is the only rocket frog in the MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-C astlereagh, L achlan, Murrumbidgee.

Leaf green tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Southern Leaf Green Tree Frog Litoria nudidigitus TL: Males 25–30 mm; females 28–32 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad head and bluntly rounded snout. Dorsum smooth to finely granular and uniform green. Conspicuous gold line, bordered below by thin black line, from snout passing over eye and tympanum and breaking up along lightly spotted flanks. Tympanum indistinct. Ventral surface granular and white. Groin,

Litoria nudidigitus, Thurra River, Victoria. Photo: M. Clancy

back of thighs and armpits dark red. Digits with broad, distinct discs. Fingers unwebbed or with trace of webbing and toes ~3/4 webbed. Habitat: Found among vegetation alongside flowing streams in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the south-eastern MDB. Notes: A medium-sized leaf green tree frog that breeds during spring and summer. Eggs are deposited in stream pools attached to vegetation. The call is an extended ‘wreeek’. Tadpoles are dark brown to goldenbrown with fine gold flecking. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from January to March. Identification: Litoria nudidigitus is the only leaf green tree frog in the southeastern MDB but could be confused with 97

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the riverine tree frog, L. spenceri. However, that species has a distinct supratympanic skin fold and fully webbed toes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. Pearson’s Tree Frog Litoria pearsoniana TL: Males 24–29 mm; females 30–37 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum smooth and uniform light or dark green to brown with some darker small spots. In winter or at higher altitude can be extremely mottled. Thin gold line, bordered below by dark line from snout over eye and tympanum to along flanks. Usually, thin white line on the

upper lip. Tympanum distinct and brown with only slight supratympanic ridge. Ventral surface granular and white, with groin, back of thighs and armpit yellowish brown or red. Digits with broad, distinct discs. Fingers with just a trace of webbing and toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Found among vegetation alongside flowing rocky streams in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A medium-sized leaf green tree frog that breeds from October to February. Eggs are deposited in rocky stream pools and attached to the substrate or vegetation. The call is a chuckling ‘wreek-kuk-kuk.’ Tadpoles are dark brown with fine gold flecking throughout. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to March. Identification: Litoria pearsoniana is the only medium-sized leaf green tree frog in the north-eastern MDB but could be confused with the riverine tree frog L. subglandulosa. However, that species has a green skin coloured tympanum bordered above by a thick supratympanic glandular ridge and toes ~2/3 webbed. Litoria piperata has a mottled dorsum and is difficult to distinguish from the mottled form of L. pearsoniana. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Peppered Tree Frog Litoria piperata

Litoria pearsoniana, Mount Glorious, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan 98

TL: Males 20–27 mm; females 24–31 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender. Dorsum finely granular and olive or grey-green with darker mottling, spotting or flecking over body and limbs, creating peppered appearance. Usually,

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populations of mottled L. pearsoniana. Conservation status: Possibly Extinct and, despite numerous surveys, has not been recorded in its natural habitat since ~1974. MDB catchments: Namoi.

Riverine tree frogs (Genus Litoria) Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri TL: Males 24–41 mm; females 37–52 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad, short head and slightly rounded snout. Dorsum granular with low scattered tubercles and gold-brown, grey or green usually with darker mottling. Dark stripe, bordered above by lighter stripe, Litoria piperata, Gibraltar Range, New South Wales. Photo: M. Anstis

dark canthal stripe extends from snout to eye and over tympanum to shoulder. Upper lip light green. Head broad with short, truncated snout. Tympanum partly obscured by skin fold. Ventral surface finely granular and white. Digits with broad discs. Fingers with basal webbing and toes almost fully webbed. Habitat: Found within vegetation among large rocks and boulders near fast-flowing streams. Known only from a few localities in the New England Tablelands, NSW. Notes: No information is available on the breeding behaviour or tadpoles of this species. The call is a series of ‘chuck-chuckchuck’ notes. Identification: Litoria piperata has a mottled dorsum pattern and dark canthal stripe without a gold line. This species is very difficult to distinguish from nearby

Litoria spenceri, Eildon area, Victoria. Photo: S. Mahony

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from nostril through eye and over tympanum to base of arm. Well-developed supratympanic skin fold. Ventral surface granular and white or yellow. Groin and back of thighs yellow or orange. Digits with distinct finger and toe discs. Fingers with basal webbing and toes fully webbed. Habitat: Found among rocks in and alongside flowing streams within forests of the south-eastern MDB. Notes: A riverine tree frog that breeds from late spring to early summer, with eggs being laid in a single clump in water where they attach to submerged rocks. The call is six or seven notes emitted over a period of a few seconds. Tadpoles are dark brown with scattered gold flecks. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from January to April. Identification: Litoria spenceri is a riverine species that could be confused with the leaf green tree frog, L. nudidigitus. However, that species lacks a distinct supratympanic skin fold and toes only ~3/4 webbed. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (NSW, Vic); Endangered (nationally). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta. New England Tree Frog Litoria subglandulosa TL: Males 35–40 mm; females 46–50 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with broad, short head and slightly rounded snout. Dorsum smooth and bright green to golden-brown or bronze-brown. Some specimens with darker mottling and green blotches on back, flanks and limbs. Dark stripe, bordered above with lighter 100

Litoria subglandulosa, Gibraltar Range, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

stripe from nostril through eye, over tympanum and along flanks. Tympanum indistinct and same green colour as side of head. Thick glandular supratympanic ridge. Ventral surface slightly granular and white. Groin, armpit and back of thighs translucent yellow or orange. Digits with distinct finger and toe discs. Fingers unwebbed and toes ~2/3 webbed. Habitat: Restricted to permanent streams and rivers in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest on the very north-eastern edge of the MDB. Notes: A riverine tree frog that breeds from spring to early summer, with eggs being laid in a single clump in stream pools where they attach to submerged rocks. The call is

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made up of a long five to seven repeated creaking notes. Tadpoles are dark brown with scattered gold flecks. They have a sucker disc to cling to substrate. Metamorphosed frogs have been recorded from December to early February. Identification: Litoria subglandulosa could be confused with the leaf green tree frog L.

pearsoniana but that species has a brown tympanum and a thin supratympanic ridge with toes almost fully webbed. The similar species L. piperata has a mottled dorsum and dark canthal stripe without a gold line. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Border Rivers.

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True toads (Family Bufonidae) Bufonidae is a large family containing the world’s ‘true toads’, typically characterised by large, robust, warty bodies with short muscular limbs. They occur throughout the world on most continents and the Cane Toad Rhinella marina is now the world’s most widely distributed ‘frog’.

Cane Toad (Genus Rhinella) The genus Rhinella contains more than 70 species in Central and South America. A single Australian species Rhinella marina was deliberately released in Queensland in 1935 to control cane beetles. This disastrous attempt at biological control has resulted in the infringement on the habitat of native wildlife. The Cane Toad produces a variety of toxins that are capable of rapidly killing many native predators if they consume the toad. It continues to spread and the actual impact on the Australian environment and possible reduction in native species caused by this invasive pest is not well understood.

gold iris and horizontal pupil. Ventral surface granular and white to yellowish, speckled with dark brown. Fingers and toes without discs. Fingers unwebbed and toes fully webbed. Habitat: Occurs in many habitats mostly across northern Australia. In the MDB it is restricted to the north-east. Notes: A large toad that may breed throughout the year in northern Australia producing large quantities of eggs in

Cane Toad Rhinella marina TL: Males 75–110 mm; females 90–250 mm Description: Body extremely large with broad head and short, bluntly rounded snout. Dorsum course and extremely warty and grey-brown, brown or yellow-brown with faint darker mottling. Large prominent, parotoid glands and large distinct tympanum. Eyes large with bright 102

Rhinella marina, Julatten, Queensland. Photo: M. G. Swan

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long, gelatinous strings. The call is a loud, rolling trill or purr. Tadpoles are small and black, usually in large aggregations. Identification: Rhinella marina is a very large, robust toad and easily identified by

the very warty skin, prominent large parotoid glands and fully webbed feet. Conservation status: An introduced, invasive species in Australia. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi.

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Freshwater turtles

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Turtles and tortoises are differentiated by lifestyle and body structure. Tortoises are land-dwelling creatures with club feet and do not occur in Australia. Sea turtles are ocean-going with flippers, while freshwater turtles (sometimes referred to as terrapins) inhabit fresh water and have clawedwebbed feet. Most tortoises and turtles are declining around the world. Australia has a variety of freshwater turtles. Four species of freshwater turtles occur in the Murray–Darling Basin. Bell’s Turtle (Wollumbinia bellii) is listed as Vulnerable and the other three, Macquarie Turtle (Emydura macquarii), Snake-necked Turtle (Chelodina longicollis) and Broad-shelled

Di erences in long-necked turtle species Broad-shelled Long-necked Turtle (Chelodina expansa) Ventral aspect

narrow plastron

Di erence in the Short-necked Turtle species Head shapes and patterns

plain plastral shields

Macquarie Turtle (Emydura macquarii)

Di erences in long-necked turtle species Snake-necked Turtle (Chelodina longicollis) Ventral aspect broad plastron

barbels tympanum

Bell’s Turtle (Wollumbinia bellii) horny shield

barbels

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pointed tubercles

dark edged plastral shields tympanum

F R E S H WAT E R T U R T L E S

Turtle (Chelodina expansa) are Threatened in the southern Murray–Darling Basin. Researchers from New South Wales Office of Environment and Heritage sampled turtle populations in the Murray River and its floodplain from 1976 to 1982 following a wet period and in 2009–11 at the end of the most severe drought on record. The aim was to asses how three species of freshwater turtle in the MDB had responded to long-term decline in river flow and floodplain inundation due to climatic drying and water diversions. Catch per unit effort in baited hoop nets declined by 91% for the Snake-necked Turtle and 69% for the Macquarie Turtle, but did not change significantly for the Broad-shelled Turtle. In addition, total catches from a range of sampling methods revealed a significantly reduced proportion of juvenile Snake-necked and Macquarie Turtles in 2009–11, suggesting a fall in recruitment. Following on from this initial work, researchers from Arthur Rylah Institute recognised a high mortality rate among freshwater turtles in the mid-Murray River region. They reinvigorated research in this area and forged productive conservation management relationships with the Yorta Yorta people. Researchers helped the Yorta Yorta people to manage the health of freshwater turtle populations and learn a knowledge system that will assist in the plight of their totem, the Broad-shelled Turtle. The project also explored how science can learn more from Traditional Owner knowledge and how working collectively can bring these two knowledge systems together to care for wildlife.

This research revealed populations of all three species of turtles are dominated by adults and highlighted a concern that juveniles are not surviving. Fox predation of nests was recognised as a major issue. The community group Turtles Australia Inc., in conjunction with Western Sydney University, have been studying these three species of turtles for over 10 years. The study sites in the Loddon-Avoca Catchment includes Gunbower Island, Lake Chalm and Kerang Lakes in northern Victoria. They also partner with local catchment authorities, Indigenous Australians and other volunteers to protect turtle nests from predation. Foxes are by far the most serious threat to nests, digging up eggs and devouring them. Nest predation rates are>90% every year and declines in numbers are significant. Aside from some general fox control methods, little action is being taken to reduce predation on turtle nests. Natural predators such as birds and monitor lizards also eat eggs but not nearly as many as foxes. Nests are protected by placing 500 mm square plastic netting over the site and then held in place with tent pegs. The gaps in the netting are large enough to allow the hatchlings through as they emerge. Nests are examined after hatching and this economical method of nest protection has a high rate of success. Information, including nest sites, hatching rates, individual turtles both alive and dead are recorded on ‘Turtle SAT’: an application run by the Western Sydney University. Turtle SAT now has over 7000 records. Turtles Australia Inc. continues to protect 107

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turtle nests, map nesting sites, raise awareness of turtle populations in regional areas, provide turtle nest protection kits to landholders and also present public talks and displays. Declining water availability may also be a widespread threat to freshwater turtles given predicted global impacts of climate change and water withdrawals on river flows. Freshwater turtles appear to be heading for extinction in the southern Murray–Darling Basin, with some local extinctions already occurring in South Australia.

Freshwater turtle habitat (Gunbower Island, Victoria). Photo: G. Stockfeld

Macquarie Turtle (Emydura macquarii) laying eggs. Photo: C. Santori

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Turtle nest destroyed by fox. Photo: G. Stockfeld

Turtle nest flagged. Photo: G. Stockfeld

Side-necked Freshwater Turtles (Family Chelidae) With only one exception, Australian freshwater turtles all belong to the family Chelidae. They are characterised by having clawed, webbed feet, eyes located high on the head and the nostrils close to the top of the mouth. The upper and lower parts of the shell are joined by a bridge: a rigid lateral extension joining the centre of the plastron to the carapace above. Horny epidermal shields cover the bony plates and are joined at the seams. The head is withdrawn side ways into the shell for protection.

Long-necked Turtles (Genus Chelodina) A genus containing seven species of the most distinctive Australian freshwater turtles easily recognised by their long necks and are also referred to as ‘snake-necked’ turtles. They occur throughout Australia, with two species in the MDB. The long neck is generally the length of the shell or longer and these turtles have powerful legs with four claws on each strongly webbed foot. If the turtle falls on its back it can quickly right itself with the use of the long neck. Some species can release a pungent odour when handled. All are oviparous and carnivorous, feeding on a variety of fish and aquatic invertebrates. Broad-shelled Turtle Chelodina expansa CL: 480 mm Description: Carapace broadly oval, flattened, expanded posteriorly and light

Chelodina expansa, Goulburn Weir, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

olive-green, brown to blackish brown often with darker reticulations. Plastron narrow and whitish. Head strongly depressed. noticeably long thick neck with wrinkled skin without tubercles. When retracted not fully protected by carapace. Limbs and neck grey above becoming light cream below. Legs powerful with strongly webbed, clawed feet. Habitat: Occurs in lagoons, lakes, rivers and swamps throughout the MDB. In Victoria it extends south into the Goulburn River and in South Australia is associated with larger wetlands close to the Murray River. 109

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Notes: A large, highly aquatic freshwater turtle with a preference for slow-flowing water bodies. Recorded lying concealed in debris and among roots at the bottom of waterways. Nesting occurs mostly through autumn and winter with 5–30 hard-shelled eggs deposited in a hole dug by the female. Identification: Chelodina expansa attains a much larger size than C. longicollis and has a longer, strongly depressed head and a narrower plain whitish plastron. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic); Vulnerable (SA). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken. Snake-necked Turtle Chelodina longicollis CL: 254 mm Description: Carapace broadly oval, expanded posteriorly and dark brown to black. Edges may be upturned in mature specimens. Plastron broad and white or yellow with conspicuous dark pigmentation on seams between the shields. Juveniles often with black and vivid red to orange markings. Head slightly depressed. Neck with wrinkled skin and small, rounded to pointed tubercles and, when retracted, protected by carapace. Limbs and neck grey above becoming light cream below. Legs powerful with strongly webbed, clawed feet. Habitat: Occurs in association with slowmoving waterways throughout many 110

Chelodina longicollis, Gunbower, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Chelodina longicollis juvenile swimming. Photo: G. Schmida

different environments of the MDB. The far western distribution is in conjunction with the river systems. Notes: A very familiar species of freshwater turtle often seen sunning on logs and rocks protruding from the water. Also regularly observed wandering overland. Nesting occurs throughout summer with 8–24

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hard-shelled eggs deposited in a hole dug by the female. Identification: Chelodina longicollis is smaller in size than C. expansa and has a shorter moderately depressed head and a broad plastron with conspicuous dark pigmentation on the seams between the shields. Conservation status: Data deficient (Vic). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens.

Short-necked Turtles (Genus Emydura) A genus with 15 proposed species of shortnecked turtles found in northern and eastern Australia. A single species occurs in the MDB. They have a broad carapace with a neck much shorter than the shell and five claws on the front and four on back of their strongly webbed feet. Most species usually have a pale streak on the side of the face. They are oviparous and omnivorous, feeding on a variety of fish, invertebrates and aquatic plants. Macquarie Turtle Emydura macquarii macquarii CL: 184–340 mm Description: Carapace broad, expanded posteriorly and light to dark brown. Plastron broad and white. Juveniles with high ridged, circular shaped carapace, serrated at sides and rear. Short neck with

Emydura macquarii, Goulburn Weir, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

prominent yellow stripe from back of jaw to below eye and part way down neck. Head protected by carapace when retracted. Limbs and neck grey above becoming light cream below. Legs powerful with strongly webbed, clawed feet. Habitat: Occurs in the river systems and associated wetlands throughout the MDB. Notes: A short-necked freshwater turtle often observed floating on the surface of the water during warm weather. Nesting occurs in conjunction with the first summer rainstorms from November to mid-December and an average of 20 hardshelled eggs are deposited in a hole dug by the female. During incubation, embryos may regulate development to hatch synchronously and emerge from the nest 111

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together. The females probably use olfactory signals to guide nest site selection, preferring open nesting habitats and generally nest on higher ground, presumably to avoid flooding. Nest sites are usually riverbanks and sandhills. Identification: Emydura macquarii macquarii can be distinguished from the only other short-necked species of freshwater turtle in the MDB, Wollumbinia bellii, by the lack of pointed tubercles on the neck, lack of a thin horny shield on top on the head and non-serrated rear edges of the carapace in mature specimens. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic, SA). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken.

Bell’s Turtle Wollumbinia bellii

Helmeted turtles (Genus Wollumbinia)

Wollumbinia bellii, Bald Rock Creek, Queensland. Photo: S. Eipper

This genus contains four moderate to large species of short-necked turtles found in eastern and northern Australia. A single species occurs in the MDB. They have a broad carapace usually with rear serrated edges and a neck much shorter than the shell. The head has a thin horny shield on top and there are prominent pointed tubercles on the neck. They have five claws on the front and four on back of their strongly webbed feet. All species are oviparous and omnivorous, feeding on a variety of fish, invertebrates and aquatic plants.

CL: 290 mm Description: Carapace broad, almost rounded and light to dark brown with dark grey mottling. Plastron moderately broad and dark. Head with thin horny shield on top. Short neck with pointed tubercles and prominent yellow stripe from back of jaw through tympanum and along neck to base of forelimb. When retracted, head mostly protected by carapace. Limbs and neck grey with some lighter areas underneath. Legs powerful with strongly webbed, clawed feet. Habitat: Associated with the Namoi, Severn, Gwydir and Deepwater river

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systems of the Northern Tablelands region of NSW. Also a population at Bald Rock Creek, Qld in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: This freshwater turtle nests from October to mid-January and females lay 8–23 hard-shelled eggs in loamy soil on the river banks. They are both carnivorous and herbivorous but feed chiefly on vegetable matter. Identification: Wollumbinia bellii can be distinguished from the only other

short-necked species of freshwater turtle in the MDB, Emydura macquarii macquarii, by the pointed tubercles on the neck, a thin horny shield on top on the head and serrated rear edges on the carapace. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld, NSW, nationally); Endangered (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir.

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Lizards

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Australia has a diverse lizard fauna and the northern regions, along with the central and western deserts, have the highest species diversity and richest lizard habitats of anywhere in the world. Each family of Australian lizards is represented in the Murray–Darling Basin. They vary in size and appearance from the tiny Common Dwarf Skink (Menetia greyii) to the large and powerful, Lace Monitor (Varanus varius). Some lizard species in the MDB are threatened for various reasons. The direct disturbance or

reduction in habitat through livestock grazing and agriculture is the main threatening process in some areas. Feral animals, particularly foxes and cats, are well known for preying on lizards and the effects of fire frequency, intensity and extent are an important factor in reptile conservation. In the Victorian mallee of the southern Murray–Darling Basin, ‘management’ or ‘fuel reduction’ fires appear to have resulted in declines of the Mallee Tree Dragon (Amphibolurus norrisi). Based on pitfall

Head scalation in skink (Egernia striolata)

supraoculars

supracilliaries

frontal

frontoparietal

interparietal

nuchal

prefrontal frontonasal

parietal nasal rostral

tympanum

loreal

mental lower labials

ear lobule preocular upper labials

Body stripes in lizards paravertebral stripe

latero-dorsal stripe Body stripes in lizards vertebral stripe

latero-dorsal stripe

paravertebral stripe

vertebral stripe

dorso-lateral stripe dorso-lateral stripe

mid-lateral stripe mid-lateral stripe

Royal Skink (Ctenotus regius) Royal Skink (Ctenotus regius)

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LIZARDS

Examples of the lower eyelid condition in skinks

Moveable and scaly Genus: (Liopholis)

Examples of gecko feet

Thick-tailed Gecko (Underwoodisaurus milii) Southern Spiny-tailed Gecko (Strophurus intermedius) Family Diplodactylidae Carphodactylidae Family

Examples of gecko feet Examples of the lower eyelid condition in skinks

Fused to form a fixed spectacle Genus: (Morethia)

Southern Spiny-tailed Gecko (Strophurus intermedius) Family Diplodactylidae

Moveable and enclosing a transparent palpebral disc Genus: (Carlia) Variable Dtella (Gehyra versicolor) Family Gekkonidae

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Example of vestigial hindlimbs in legless lizards

pre-anal pores

hind flap-foot hind flap-foot

ventral scale

Cloacal region of Common Scaly-foot (Pygopus lepidopodus)

trapping data, there are reports of a serious decline in this species from former habitat, with a concomitant increase in the Nobbi Dragon (Diporiphora nobbi), particularly in the southern Big Desert. It is unknown what impact this type of controlled burning has on the habitat of species with very disjunct distributions such as the Heath Monitor (Varanus rosenbergi). The clearing of woodlands for firewood, particularly River Red Gums, will have serious implications for the Lace Monitor (Varanus varius) that has a large home range and is dependent on old growth hollows for shelter and termite mounds for egg incubation. Some lizard species that occur in native grasslands have declined as their native grassland habitat is systematically destroyed. Natural temperate grasslands are considered to be one of the most threatened Australian ecosystems. The Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla) from southern Victoria has not been sighted since 1969. Presently, the earless dragon that occurs near Canberra is assigned to this species, but will shortly be divided up into several other species. 118

Unless a near-miraculous rediscovery is made during current surveys for this lizard, the southern Victorian species may soon be declared extinct, which would be the first extinction of a reptile on the Australian mainland since white settlement. With the ongoing reduction of temperate grasslands in southern Victoria, similar habitat in the southern MDB will become even more important to species such as the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar). In the northern Murray–Darling Basin, the Condamine Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis condaminensis) is now restricted to reduced grassland roadside verges and farmed areas. The Roma Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis wilsoni) is classed as Vulnerable as it is known only from a small area of grassland, just west of Roma. Continued clearing of native vegetation in the Southern Brigalow Belt remains the greatest threat to reptiles in that region. Through the alpine regions of the Murray–Darling Basin, feral animals, particularly horses and deer, pose a threat to a variety of reptiles, due to destruction and degradation of habitat. Endangered skink species such as the Alpine She-oak Skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus), Guthega Skink (Liopholis guthega) and Alpine Bog Skink (Pseudemoia cryodroma) are directly affected. The Guthega Skink appears far more vulnerable to threatening processes because it is more specialised and not as wide-ranging as the Alpine She-oak Skink. The Arthur Rylah Institute and Zoos Victoria have collaborated on a wild monitoring and captive breeding program to learn more about the behaviour, diet and reproduction of these two species.

LIZARDS

The MDB still has some good areas of intact River Red Gum, Belah woodlands and mallee woodlands with spinifex that support numerous lizard species. These important habitats require careful, ongoing management, effective control of threatening processes and grazing, hydrological and fire regimes that are much better informed by the knowledge generated by conservation science. The following lizard species are found in the region: • Carphodactylidae (southern padless geckos): 5 species • Diplo dac t y lidae (diplo d ac ty lid geckos): 23 species • Gekkonidae (cosmopolitan geckos): 7 species • Pygopodidae (flap-footed Lizards): 15 species • Scincidae (skinks): 104 species • Agamidae (dragons): 21 species • Varanidae (monitors/goannas): 5 species

Alpine She-oak Skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus). Photo: N. Clemann

Guthega Skink (Liopholis guthega). Photo: M. G. Swan

Grassland Earless Dragon (Tympanocryptis pinguicolla). Photo: S. Mahony

Nobbi Dragon (Diporiphora nobbi). Photo: M. G. Swan

Lace Monitor (Varanus varius). Photo: M. G. Swan 119

Southern padless geckos (Family Carphodactylidae) This group is the only endemic family of geckos in Australia. They are widespread with ~30 species. All are large geckos with a flattened or rounded head and have long slender limbs and padless, clawed digits. Most species have spectacular tails ranging from leaf shaped and carrot shaped to a tail with a bulbous knob. The eyes are cleaned using the long fleshy tongue. All species are oviparous, producing two soft-shelled eggs. Prey items include a range of invertebrates.

Knob-tailed Geckos (Genus Nephrurus) A distinctive genus of nine species containing ‘smooth’ and ‘rough’ knobtailed geckos. They are distributed throughout Australia and have large heads, plump bodies, big eyes, slender limbs and a short, fat tail, terminating in a small knob. Only one species of smooth knob-tailed gecko occurs in the MDB. Smooth Knob-tailed Gecko Nephrurus levis levis

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Nephrurus levis levis, Roxby Downs, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 102 mm Description: Body large and plump with broad head, rounded snout and fat heartshaped tail with small, spherical knob. Dorsum light red-brown to dark purplish brown with three pale bands behind head. Limbs and body with pale to darker scattered tubercles that may form bands on tail. Ventral area white and mostly smooth. Habitat: Occurs in arid, sandy areas with spinifex or shrubs in the north-western MDB. Notes: A large terrestrial gecko that digs a burrow or uses other burrows. May put on a threat display if threatened by raising the body and lunging forwards while producing a loud, wheezing bark. Identification: Nephrurus levis levis overlaps slightly in the central western MDB with the superficially similar Underwoodisaurus milii, but can be distinguished from this species by the unique spherical knob at the end of the tail. Conservation status: Not listed.

LIZARDS

MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

Leaf-tailed Geckos (Genus Saltuarius) The Australian leaf-tailed geckos are divided into three genera and all occur in eastern Australia. They have strongly depressed bodies, triangular-shaped heads and long spindly limbs. The genus Saltuarius contains seven large, spectacular species that occur in rainforest and forested rock outcrops from northern NSW to the Wet Tropics of north-eastern Queensland. Two species occurs in the north-eastern MDB. Southern Leaf-tailed Gecko Saltuarius swaini

SVL: 134 mm Description: Body strongly depressed with flattened head, pointed snout and distinct broad, leaf-shaped tail. Dorsum light grey to olive-green usually with brown midvertebral blotches and three to five paler bands. Narrow V-shaped mark between eyes. Original tail with narrow pale irregular bands. Limbs long and spindly. Scattered white tubercles on body and limbs. Ventral area white with brown flecks. Habitat: Restricted to rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the north-east of the MDB. Notes: Arboreal, usually encountered foraging at night on both large tree trunks and smaller saplings. Identification: Saltuarius swaini can be distinguished from S. wyberba by the narrow V-shaped mark between the eyes and presence of large spikes on the terminal tip of its original tail. It also occurs predominately in rainforest while S. wyberba occurs in drier forest on granite boulders. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. Granite Belt Leaf-tailed Gecko Saltuarius wyberba

Saltuarius swaini, Lamington National Park, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar 121

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V-shaped mark between the eyes and lack of large spikes on the terminal tip of its original tail. It also has a preference for drier habitats on granite boulders. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers.

Thick-tailed Geckos (Genus Underwoodisaurus) This genus has two plump, soft bodied species with large heads, big eyes, slender limbs and thick, carrot-shaped tails. One is restricted to north-western Australia while the other is widespread in southern Australia including most of the MDB.

Saltuarius wyberba, Girraween National Park, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 108 mm Description: Body strongly depressed with flattened head, pointed snout and distinct broad, leaf-shaped tail. Dorsum olive-green, brownish tan to grey with darker grey brown blotches and four pale midvertebral blotches. Wide V-shaped mark between the eyes. Sometimes with russet vertebral stripe. Original tail with two narrow pale irregular bands. Limbs long and spindly. Scattered white tubercles on body and limbs. Ventral area white with brown flecks. Habitat: Restricted to granite and basalt outcrops within sclerophyll forest in the north-east of the MDB. Notes: Usually only encountered foraging at night on large boulders and in caves and rock crevices. Identification: Saltuarius wyberba can be distinguished from S. swaini by the wide 122

Common Thick-tailed Gecko Underwoodisaurus milii

Underwoodisaurus milii, Bendigo, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

SVL: 100 mm Description: Body large and plump with broad head, slightly pointed snout and fat carrot-shaped tail. Dorsum pink to dark purplish black with scattered white tubercles. Tail spinose with five to six white bands. Two or three pale discontinuous lines around nape and shoulders. Ventral area white and mostly smooth. Habitat: Wide ranging, from arid shrublands to granite woodlands. Notes: A gregarious species that shelters beneath ground debris and rock slabs. Identification: Underwoodisaurus milii overlaps slightly in the central western MDB with the superficially similar Nephrurus levis levis but can be distinguished from this species by the tail tapering gradually to a tip with no terminal knob. It occurs in the north-eastern MDB with Uvidicolus sphyrurus and can be distinguished from this species by its different colouration and the tail tapering gradually to a tip. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe.

Granite Belt Thick-tailed Gecko Uvidicolus sphyrurus SVL: 70 mm Description: Body large and plump with broad head and slightly pointed snout. Dorsum light brown to fawn with darker patterning and scattered white tubercles. Some obscure, darker reticulations on head. Tail plump, depressed and tapering sharply to tip with about four white crossbands. Ventral area white. Habitat: Found in exfoliating rocky outcrops within eucalypt woodland in the cool highland granite belt of the northeastern MDB.

Granite Belt Thick-tailed Gecko (Genus Uvidicolus) A monotypic genus restricted to the granite belt of New England NSW and adjacent border areas of southern Qld.

Uvidicolus sphyrurus, Girraween National Park, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Notes: A terrestrial species, sheltering under rocks and in burrows. Identification: Uvidicolus sphyrurus occurs in the same area as Underwoodisaurus milii in the north-eastern MDB, but can be distinguished from this species by its

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different colouration and the tail tapering sharply to a tip. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW, Commonwealth); Lower risk–Near Threatened (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Border Rivers.

Diplodactylid geckos (Family Diplodactylidae)

The Diplodactylid geckos are found only in Australia and the western Pacific region including New Zealand and New Caledonia. They have soft, velvety skin and most have padded digits, usually with enlarged scales beneath them. There is a clear spectacle that covers the eye and they lack eyelids. The eyes are cleaned using the long fleshy tongue. Some species are livebearers but all Australian species are oviparous, producing two soft-shelled eggs. Prey items are mostly a range of arthropods but some species are termite specialists.

small pale spots and blotches. Ventral area whitish. Two or more post-anal tubercles on each side. Digits with a distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Occurs mostly in association with sandstone and granite rock outcrops within dry woodlands in the western slopes of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Shelters in caves, crevices and under exfoliating slabs in rock outcrops. Forages at night on open rock faces. Identification: Amalosia lesueurii has little basal webbing between 3rd and 4th toe

Slender velvet geckos (Genus Amalosia) This genus comprises four small, slender species that occur in eastern and northern Australia, with two species found in the MDB (the presence of A. jacovae in the MDB requires clarification). They are broadly similar to Nebulifera robusta but this has a more widely depressed tail. Oedura species are also similar, but larger with different patterning and have dorsal scales about the same size as ventrals. Lesueur’s Velvet Gecko Amalosia lesueurii SVL: 80 mm Description: Body small, flattened dorsally with velvet skin and long slender, cylindrical tail. Dorsum pale grey to brown with lighter coloured, dark edged crossbands forming zig-zag vertebral stripe along body and tail. Body and limbs with

Amalosia lesueurii, Heathcote, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony 125

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and is very similar to A. rhombifer but for the most part these species do not occur together. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh. Zig-zag Velvet Gecko Amalosia rhombifer SVL: 70 mm Description: Body small, flattened dorsally with velvet skin and long slender, cylindrical tail. Dorsum pale grey to dark brown with lighter coloured, dark edged crossbands forming unbroken zig-zag vertebral stripe along body and tail. Body and limbs with small pale spots and blotches. Ventral area whitish. Two or more

post-anal tubercles on each side. Digits with a distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Associated with dry woodlands in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Arboreal, usually found sheltering beneath the loose bark of trees. Known only from a few specimens in NSW but also occurs on the northern edge of the MDB in southern Queensland. Identification: Amalosia rhombifer has no basal webbing between 3rd and 4th toe and is very similar to A. lesueurii but for the most part these species do not occur together. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers.

Terrestrial geckos (Genus Diplodactylus) A group of small to moderate sized, robust terrestrial species with clusters of spines on each side of the cloaca and all digits with small, retractile claws. This is the largest Australian gecko genus, containing 27 species. Five species occur in the MDB and they can be identified mostly by their tail shapes and body patterns.

Fat-tailed geckos (Genus Diplodactylus)

Amalosia rhombifer, Rosedale, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

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A group of eight small species that occur in a variety of habitats throughout mostly drier areas of Australia. They are recognised by having a small head, blunt snout and a spade-like tail. Two species occur in the MDB.

LIZARDS

Eastern Deserts Fat-tailed Gecko Diplodactylus ameyi SVL: 60 mm Description: Body small with small head, blunt snout and short, depressed, spadelike tail. Dorsum pale fawn to dark brown red with darker mottling, numerous small pale spots and five or six irregular pale blotches. Ventral area whitish and generally with cluster of more than five spines on each side of cloaca. Limbs short and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Found in arid scrublands on sand, stone and clay substrates on the northwestern edge of the MDB. Notes: A terrestrial, sedentary species, sheltering beneath ground debris and in spider holes where it uses its tail to block

Diplodactylus ameyi, Wilcannia, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

the entrance. Considered to be a termite specialist. Identification: Diplodactylus ameyi is very similar to D. conspicillatus with both having short, spade-like tails. Diplodactylus ameyi can be distinguished by all upper labial scales being small and granular. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW as D. platyurus). MDB catchments: Paroo. Variable Fat-tailed Gecko Diplodactylus conspicillatus SVL: 62 mm Description: Body small with small head, blunt snout and short, depressed, spade-like tail. Dorsum pale fawn to dark brown red

Diplodactylus conspicillatus, Emily Gap, Northern Territory. Photo: S. K. Wilson

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with darker mottling and numerous small pale spots. Broad pale stripe from eye to mouth. Ventral area whitish and generally with cluster of more than five spines on each side of the cloaca. Limbs short and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Found in open arid scrublands with clay and compacted sand substrates. Recorded from the mid-northern MDB. Notes: A terrestrial, sedentary species that shelters beneath ground debris and in spider holes where it uses its tail to block the entrance. Considered to be a termite specialist. Identification: Diplodactylus conspicillatus is very similar to D. ameyi with both having short, spade-like tails. Diplodactylus conspicillatus can be distinguished by the first upper labial scale being greatly enlarged. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo.

Stone geckos (Genus Diplodactylus) A group of five small geckos with a small head, blunt snout, short thick tail and an obvious pale vertebral stripe. They occur in a variety of habitats, generally sheltering beneath ground debris. Two species occur in the MDB. Ranges Stone Gecko Diplodactylus furcosus SVL: 51 mm Description: Body small and robust with small head, blunt snout and short thick tail. Dorsum reddish brown to grey with series of black-edged paler irregular shaped blotches forming vertebral stripe beginning as fork behind the eyes. Pale lateral spots sometimes dark edged. Ventral area whitish below and 128

Diplodactylus furcosus, Burra, South Australia. Photo: S. Mahony

generally with cluster of more than five spines on each side of cloaca. Limbs short and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Usually associated with rocky, arid areas in the south-western MDB. Notes: A terrestrial, sedentary species that shelters beneath rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Diplodactylus furcosus can be difficult to distinguish from D. vittatus but usually has pale lateral spots that are dark edged. These two very similar species only overlap in the south-western corner of the MDB. Lucasium damaeum is also similar but usually has two to five spines on each side of the cloaca. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

LIZARDS

Eastern Stone Gecko Diplodactylus vittatus SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and robust with small head, blunt snout and short thick tail. Dorsum brown, grey or blackish with series of black-edged paler cream, grey or brown irregular shaped blotches that form vertebral stripe generally beginning as pale cap behind eyes, but sometimes weakly forking (but not as contrastingly as in Diplodactylus furcosus). Pale lateral spots usually not dark edged. Ventral area white with brown flecks. Generally, cluster of more than five spines on each side of cloaca. Limbs short and digits with a distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Associated with rocky areas within woodlands but also open arid areas throughout most of the MDB.

Notes: A terrestrial, sedentary species that shelters beneath rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Diplodactylus vittatus can be difficult to distinguish from D. furcosus but the pale lateral spots are not usually dark edged. These two very similar species only overlap in the south-western corner of the MDB. Lucasium damaeum is also similar but usually has two to five spines on each side of the cloaca. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta.

Tessellated Gecko (Genus Diplodactylus) A distinctly patterned gecko with a short, thick tail that occurs throughout most of the MDB. Tessellated Gecko Diplodactylus tessellatus

Diplodactylus vittatus, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 129

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Terrestrial geckos (Genus Lucasium)

Diplodactylus tessellatus, Roxby Downs, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and robust with small head, blunt snout and short thick tail. Dorsum red-brown to grey with darker mottling usually with series of paired, pale spots along mid-dorsal surface and tail. Ventral area whitish with darker scattered markings and generally with cluster of more than five spines on each side of cloaca. Limbs short and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Associated with cracking alluvial soils throughout most of the MDB. Notes: Terrestrial, sheltering in soil cracks, fallen timber, insect and spider holes. Identification: Diplodactylus tessellatus has quite distinct colouration but may be confused with Lucasium species, although these usually have two to five spines on each side of the cloaca. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe.

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A group of small, slender terrestrial species with long slender tails and narrow digits with small, retractile claws. They have clusters of two to five spines on each side of the cloaca. Four species occur in the MDB and they can be identified mostly by their different body patterns. They could be confused with Rhynchoedura species but those have a small beak-like snout. Gibber Gecko Lucasium byrnei SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and slender with small head, blunt snout and slender long

Lucasium byrnei, Coober Pedy, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

tail. Dorsum pale fawn to dark reddish brown with darker flecks and spots and head pale with darker patches. Rough larger scales scattered over dorsum. About nine dark brown W-shaped blotches from neck along dorsum to tip of tail. Ventral area white and generally with cluster of two to five spines on each side of the cloaca. Relatively long limbs and digits with a distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Wide ranging through mallee woodland, shrubland and saltbush on stony and sandy soils in the central to northwestern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial, sheltering under ground litter and rocks, and in cracks and holes. Identification: Lucasium byrnei has quite a distinct colour pattern from the other species of Lucasium in the MDB and also has rough scales scattered across dorsum. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee. Beaded Gecko Lucasium damaeum SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and slender with small head, blunt snout and slender long tail. Dorsum reddish brown with pale vertebral stripe beginning as interrupted fork at neck and may become series of blotches along body and tail. Sides and limbs with numerous pale spots. Ventral area white and generally with cluster of two to five spines on each side of cloaca. Relatively long limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Scales under digits are spinose. Habitat: Found mainly in mallee woodlands and spinifex sandhills.

Lucasium damaeum, Pernatty Lagoon, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

Notes: A terrestrial species that shelters in lizard and insect burrows, but also digs its own. Identification: Lucasium damaeum is very similar to L. stenodactylus which has a sometimes uninterrupted pale fork at the neck and unbroken pale vertebral stripe. The only accurate way to distinguish these species is the spinose subdigital lamellae in L. damaeum compared with granular in L. stenodactylus. Unlike other species of Lucasium in the MDB, L. damaeum also has a rostral scale in contact with the nostril. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

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Box-patterned Gecko Lucasium steindachneri SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and slender with small head, blunt snout and slender long tail. Dorsum pale to dark brown with two distinct pale stripes from each eye to base of the tail enclosing rhomboidal patches of darker body colour and continuing along tail as pale blotches. Snout pale and sides and limbs with scattered pale flecks. Ventral area white. Generally, cluster of two to five spines on each side of cloaca. Relatively long limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Scales under digits are slightly enlarged with large terminal plates. Habitat: Wide ranging in arid and semiarid areas of mallee woodlands to dry

Lucasium steindachneri, Dingo, Queensland. Photo: M. McFadden

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sclerophyll forest on stony and heavy soils in the central and northern MDB. Notes: A terrestrial species, sheltering beneath ground litter and in holes and abandoned invertebrate burrows. Identification: Lucasium steindachneri has quite a distinct colour pattern from the other species of Lucasium and Rhynchoedura species in the MDB. Conservation status: Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Gwydir, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling. Sand-plain Gecko Lucasium stenodactylus

Lucasium stenodactylus, Ethabuka Station, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

LIZARDS

SVL: 57 mm Description: Body small and slender with small head, blunt snout and slender long tail. Dorsum reddish brown to lighter brown or pinkish with pale vertebral stripe beginning as uninterrupted fork at neck. This is continuous along body and may become series of blotches along tail. Sides and limbs with numerous small, pale blotches. Ventral area white and generally with cluster of two to five spines on each side of the cloaca. Relatively long limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Scales under digits small and granular. Habitat: Occurs in arid, sandy shrubland of the northern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial, sheltering in holes and emerging at night to forage in open sandy or grassy areas. Identification: Lucasium stenodactylus is very similar to L. damaeum, which usually has an interrupted pale fork at the neck sometimes a broken pale vertebral stripe and a rostral scale usually not contacting the nostril. The only accurate way to distinguish these species is the spinose subdigital lamellae in L. damaeum compared with granular in L. stenodactylus. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

a distinct pad, each with a small retractile claw. The single species occurs in drier habitats of the north-eastern MDB. Robust Velvet Gecko Nebulifera robusta SVL: 80 mm Description: Body medium-sized and flattened dorsally with long, wide flattened tail. Head with bluntly rounded snout and large eyes. Dorsum blackish brown to greyblue with darker stripe from eye to tail and series of pale mid-dorsal blotches. Dorsal scales smaller than ventrals. Sides and limbs with numerous small pale spots. Ventral area white with two to five cloacal spines. Relatively long limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed.

Velvet Gecko (Genus Nebulifera) A monotypic genus restricted to eastern Australia. Body medium-sized and flattened dorsally with a long, wide flattened tail. The dorsal scales are noticeably smaller than the ventral scales. Digits are moderately long, depressed, with

Nebulifera robusta, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Habitat: Associated with dry sclerophyll forest, woodlands and rock outcrops of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Arboreal, sheltering under bark and in hollows and rock crevices. Also known to inhabit human dwellings. Identification: Nebulifera robusta is distinguished from Oedura species by having dorsal scales smaller than ventrals and from Amalosia by the dorsal blotches without a defined dark edge and a relatively wider shorter tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan.

Velvet geckos (Genus Oedura) Fourteen species occur throughout Australia with three species recorded from the MDB. These are soft-bodied, moderately-large geckos, flattened dorsally with a moderately long, cylindrical tail. Digits are moderately long, depressed, with distinct pad, each with a small retractile claw. Oedura species have two or more post-anal tubercles. Nebulifera robusta and Amalosia species are distinguished from Oedura species by having dorsal scales noticeably smaller than ventrals. Inland Marbled Velvet Gecko Oedura cincta SVL: 108 mm Description: Body moderately large and flattened dorsally with moderately long, cylindrical tail. Head with bluntly rounded snout and large eyes. Dorsum brown to dark purplish brown with five to six broad, 134

Oedura cincta, Gluepot Reserve, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

pale grey transverse bands and five to eight on tail. Some blotches between bands and dark stripe from nostril to side of neck. Dorsal scales about same size as ventrals. Sides and limbs with numerous small pale spots and blotches. Ventral area white and usually two cloacal spines. Relatively long limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Associated with dry woodlands and rock outcrops throughout the central and northern MDB. Notes: Mostly arboreal, sheltering under bark but sometimes found under rocks. Identification: Oedura cincta is distinguished from O. monilis and O. tryoni by the different colour pattern of each species.

LIZARDS

Conservation status: Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, BarwonDarling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Ocellated Velvet Gecko Oedura monilis SVL: 85 mm Description: Body moderately large and flattened dorsally with moderately long, slightly depressed tail. Head with bluntly rounded snout and large eyes. Dorsum yellowish brown to purplish brown with dark brown mottling. Series of pale, darkedged blotches along dorsum and part of tail. Dark stripe from nostril to side of neck. Dorsal scales about same size as ventrals. Sides and limbs with numerous

small yellow spots and blotches. Ventral area white with single cloacal spine on each side. Relatively long limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Associated with dry woodlands, particularly cypress pine, and rock outcrops in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Mostly arboreal, sheltering under bark but also occurs under rocks. Identification: Oedura monilis is distinguished from O. cincta and O. tryoni by the different colour pattern of each species. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, MacquarieCastlereagh. Southern Spotted Velvet Gecko Oedura tryoni

Oedura monilis, Gladstone, Queensland.

Oedura tryoni, Ballandean, Queensland.

Photo: S. Mahony

Photo: S. K. Wilson

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SVL: 87 mm Description: Body moderately large and flattened dorsally with moderately long, slightly depressed tail. Head with bluntly rounded snout and large eyes. Dorsum reddish brown to yellowish brown with numerous scattered small, dark-edged cream or yellow spots. Dark stripe from nostril to side of neck. Dorsal scales about same size as ventrals. Sides and limbs with numerous small pale spots and blotches. Ventral area white with single cloacal spine on each side. Relatively long limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Found among granite and sandstone rock outcrops within dry sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Mostly terrestrial and gregarious, sheltering beneath rock exfoliations and sometimes also under the bark of dead, standing trees. Identification: Oedura tryoni is distinguished from O. monilis and O. cincta by the different colour pattern of each species. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi.

Border Beaked Gecko Rhynchoedura angusta SVL: 51 mm Description: Body small and slender with small head, short, pointed beak-like snout and slender long tail. Dorsum reddish brown to red with numerous cream, white or yellow blotches tending to form transverse bars. Sides and limbs with smaller dark-edged pale spots. Ventral area white and generally single spine on each side of the cloaca. Short limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Scales under digits small and granular. Habitat: Found along alluvial floodplains in conjunction with spinifex from the south-western to north-western MDB.

Beaked geckos (Genus Rhynchoedura) A genus containing six small-bodied, aridadapted, slender geckos distributed throughout Australia. Three species occur in the MDB. They have a small head and short, pointed beak-like snout and a long slender tail. All digits are clawed and pre-anal pores and cloaca spines are present. Distinguished from Diplodactlyus and Lucasium species by the short, pointed beak-like snout. 136

Rhynchoedura angusta, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

Notes: Terrestrial, sheltering underground in crevices and abandoned invertebrate burrows. Identification: Rhynchoedura angusta can be distinguished from R. mentalis by having a single cloacal spine, but not from R. ormsbyi without genetic analysis. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Brigalow Beaked Gecko Rhynchoedura mentalis SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and slender with small head, short, pointed beak-like snout and slender long tail. Dorsum, sides and limbs reddish brown to red with numerous small cream, white or yellow spots. One set

of spots arranged in dorso-lateral series. Ventral area white and generally two to three spines on each side of the cloaca. Short limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Single enlarged mental scale. Habitat: Associated with Mulga on clay soils. Within the MDB known only from Mariala NP in southern Qld. Notes: Terrestrial, sheltering under ground litter and in abandoned invertebrate burrows. Identification: Rhynchoedura mentalis can be distinguished from R. angusta and R. ormsbyi by having two to three cloacal spines and a single enlarged mental scale. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego. Eastern Beaked Gecko Rhynchoedura ormsbyi

Rhynchoedura mentalis, Cooladdi, Queensland.

Rhynchoedura ormsbyi, Roma, Queensland.

Photo: S. K. Wilson

Photo: S. Mahony

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SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and slender with small head, short, pointed beak-like snout and slender long tail. Dorsum and tail reddish brown to red with numerous medium-sized, well-defined cream, white or yellow spots. Sides and limbs with smaller dark-edged pale spots. Ventral area white and generally with single spine on each side of cloaca. Short limbs and digits with distinct pad and clawed. Habitat: Wide ranging through arid and semi-arid woodland and spinifex areas over most of the MDB. Notes: Terrestrial, sheltering under ground litter and in abandoned invertebrate burrows. Identification: Rhynchoedura ormsbyi can be distinguished from R. mentalis by having a single cloacal spine, but not from R. angusta without genetic analysis. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

Spiny-tailed geckos (Genus Strophurus) A group of nine slender species with spines along the tail. They are usually encountered in low bushes but also active on the ground. Three species occur in the MDB. Northern Spiny-tailed Gecko Strophurus ciliaris SVL: 89 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with slender, long, cylindrical tail. Dorsum grey with irregular darker vertebral markings dotted with white and scattered black tubercles. Two lines of black spines along tail. Head with broadly rounded snout and long with soft spines over each eye. Iris brilliantly coloured and complex. Mouth lining yellow to orange.

Spiny-tailed, golden-tailed and jewelled geckos (Genus Strophurus) A group of small to medium-sized terrestrial and arboreal geckos found throughout most parts of Australia. Five species occur in the MDB. Some have distinct striped and spotted patterns while others have rows of tubercles or spines on the tail. Members of this genus have glands in the tail from which they can exude or squirt a viscous fluid when alarmed. They have long limbs and digits with a distinct pad and retractile claw. 138

Strophurus ciliaris, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

Sides and limbs grey, dotted with white. Ventral area greyish with brown flecks. Habitat: Mainly associated with Mulga woodlands and shrublands, but also in spinifex in the arid north-western MDB. Notes: Mostly an arboreal species, but also active at night on the ground. Identification: Strophurus ciliaris is most similar to S. intermedius and S. williamsi from which it may be distinguished by the bright yellow or orange mouth lining. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Lower Darling. Southern Spiny-tailed Gecko Strophurus intermedius SVL: 64 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender, long, cylindrical tail. Dorsum grey with irregular darker vertebral markings

and scattered black flecks and variegations. Two continuous parallel lines of soft orangebrown tubercles along dorsum. Two rows of soft, orange spines along dorsolateral edge of tail. Head with broadly rounded snout. Iris brilliantly coloured and complex. Mouth lining blue. Sides and limbs with scattered black flecks and variegations. Ventral area greyish with darker flecks. Habitat: Found in Mallee with spinifex, Callitris woodland and dry sclerophyll forest in arid and semi-arid areas of the central MDB. Notes: Partly arboreal and shelters in spinifex, chenopods and under the bark of dead standing trees. Moves around at night on the ground during warm weather. Identification: Strophurus intermedius is most similar to S. williamsi, which has four rows of elongate, soft spines along the dorsolateral edge of the tail. Both these species have a blue mouth lining. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray. Eastern Spiny-tailed Gecko Strophurus williamsi

Strophurus intermedius, Hattah, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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Golden-tailed Gecko (Genus Strophurus) A group containing three beautifully patterned geckos with a brightly coloured blaze on the tail. Generally observed at night in shrubs. One species occurs in the north-eastern MDB. Strophurus williamsi, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

Golden-tailed Gecko Strophurus taenicauda taenicauda

SVL: 60 mm Description: Body small and slender with thin, long, cylindrical tail. Dorsum grey with scattered black spots and four rows of elongate, soft orange tubercles. Four rows of soft, orange spines along dorsolateral edge of tail. Head with broadly rounded snout. Iris brilliantly coloured and complex. Mouth lining blue. Sides and limbs with scattered black spots. Ventral area greyish with darker flecks. Habitat: Associated with dry forest, particularly cypress pine, in arid and semiarid regions from the south-western to northern MDB. Notes: Mostly arboreal, sheltering under loose bark and in hollows of dead standing and fallen trees. Moves around at night on the ground during warm weather. Identification: Strophurus williamsi is most similar to S. intermedius, which has two rows of elongate, soft spines along the dorsolateral edge of the tail. Both these species have a blue mouth lining. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

Strophurus taenicauda taenicauda, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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SVL: 64 mm Description: Body small and slender with thin, long, cylindrical tail. Dorsum pale grey to cream with finely reticulated pattern enclosing irregular black large spots and blotches. Tail with distinctive bright orange or orange-brown mid-dorsal stripe. Head

LIZARDS

with broadly rounded snout. Iris bright red and complex. Sides and limbs grey with reticulated pattern enclosing irregular black large spots and blotches. Ventral area whitish with brown flecks. Habitat: Associated with dry sclerophyll forests and Callitris woodlands within the Brigalow Belt in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Arboreal, often observed moving around in low shrubs at night. Identification: Strophurus taenicauda taenicauda has a distinctive pattern and lacks spines or enlarged tubercles. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Qld). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Jewelled Gecko (Genus Strophurus) A small distinctly spotted gecko with a short, fat tail. Occurs in association with spinifex grasslands in the south-western MDB. Jewelled Gecko Strophurus elderi

Strophurus elderi, Gluepot Reserve, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 48 mm Description: Body small with short, fat tail. Dorsum dark grey-brown to black with distinct pattern of scattered black-edged white spots. Head with broadly rounded snout. Iris bright and mouth lining pink. Sides and limbs mostly plain grey-brown or black. Ventral area greyish with darker flecks. One to three post-anal tubercles. No spines or enlarged tubercles. Habitat: Associated only with red soil and live spinifex tussocks in the arid southwestern MDB. Notes: Restricted to exclusively inhabiting spinifex tussocks. Identification: The distinctive pattern of this beautiful gecko is unlike any other closely related species. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

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Cosmopolitan geckos (Family Gekkonidae)

This large family of geckos is the most widespread in the world, ranging through tropical areas but also extending into cooler regions. Australian species are small to medium-sized with soft, velvety skin and capable of using their long fleshy tongue to clean the clear spectacle of their lidless eyes. The soft tail has fracture points and breaks easily. They are able to vocalise usually in the form of a squeak or chirrup. Gekkonids produce hard-shelled eggs that are impervious to moisture and generally two at a time. They are primarily nocturnal and feed on a variety of invertebrates but are also recorded lapping sap.

tail. Head with broadly rounded snout. Sides and limbs with scattered black markings. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Occurs through dry sclerophyll forests and woodlands in the southern and central MDB. Notes: Mostly an arboreal species, usually found under loose bark but also in exfoliating rock, crevices and beneath slabs. Identification: Christinus marmoratus is similar to Gehyra species in which the inner digit is not clawed and Hemidactylus frenatus, which has spinose tubercles on the tail.

Marbled geckos (Genus Christinus) Small slender geckos, slightly depressed with a slender, long, slightly depressed tail. Long limbs with flattened digits forming broad pads with a claw. Two species occurring in southern Australia and one on Lord Howe Island. One species is commonly encountered in the MDB. Marbled Gecko Christinus marmoratus SVL: 70 mm Description: Body small and slender, slightly depressed with slender, long, slightly depressed tail. Dorsum grey to light brown with black irregular markings loosely forming bars. Sometimes with brightly coloured red or orange spots along 142

Christinus marmoratus, Ballarat, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower, Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens.

Dtellas (Genus Gehyra) Twenty-six species in this genus are distributed throughout drier areas of Australia, with four occurring in the MDB. These are small to medium-sized geckos with a slightly depressed body and a slender, long, slightly depressed tail. The digits have flattened, expanded pads without a claw on the inner digit of each foot. Arboreal and terrestrial. Gehyra species are similar to Christinus marmoratus in which the digits are all clawed and Hemidactylus frenatus, which has spinose tubercles on the tail. Chain-backed Dtella Gehyra catenata SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and stout, slightly depressed with slender, long, slightly depressed tail. Dorsum dark grey to light grey with black irregular markings and a series of dark edged rhomboidal blotches. Head with broadly rounded snout and dark stripe from nostril through eye extending down body. Sides and limbs with scattered black markings. Ventral area whitish. Long limbs with flattened digits forming broad pads. Claws also present except on inner digit of each foot. Scales under digits undivided. Habitat: Occurs through dry forests and woodlands in the semi-arid northern edge of the MDB.

Gehyra catenata, Dingo, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Notes: Arboreal, usually found sheltering under bark. Identification: Gehyra catenata is distinguished from G. dubia by the different colour pattern. Gehyra lazelli and G. versicolor both have divided scales under the digits. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie. Dubious Dtella Gehyra dubia SVL: 65 mm Description: Body small and stout, slightly depressed with slender, long, slightly depressed tail. Dorsum light grey to brown with dark-edged, pale grey to white spots. Head with broadly rounded snout and 143

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Habitat: Occurs through dry sclerophyll forests, woodlands and rock outcrops in the central northern MDB. Notes: Arboreal and terrestrial, usually found under loose bark but also in exfoliating rock outcrops. Identification: Gehyra dubia can distinguished from G. catenata by the different pattern. Gehyra lazelli and G. versicolor both have divided scales under the digits. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh. Southern Rock Dtella Gehyra lazelli

Gehyra dubia, Almaden, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

dark stripe from nostril through eye extending down body. Sides and limbs with scattered pale spots. Ventral area whitish. Long limbs with flattened digits forming broad pads. Claws also present except on inner digit of each foot. Scales under digits undivided. 144

Gehyra lazelli, Mutawintji National Park, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

SVL: 59 mm Description: Body small and stout, slightly depressed with slender, long, slightly depressed tail. Dorsum light grey to brown with numerous pale spots. Head with broadly rounded snout and without dark temporal lines. Sides and limbs with scattered pale spots. Ventral area whitish. Long limbs with flattened digits forming broad pads. Claws also present except on the inner digit of each foot. Scales under digits divided. Habitat: Found among rocky hills and outcrops from the south-western to northwestern MDB. Notes: A saxocline species that shelters in exfoliating rock outcrops but also found under the loose bark of trees. Identification: Gehyra lazelli can distinguished from G. versicolor by the different colour pattern. Gehyra dubia and G. catenata both have undivided scales under the digits. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Lower Murray. Variable Dtella Gehyra versicolor

Gehyra versicolor, Pernatty Lagoon, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 54 mm Description: Body small and stout, slightly depressed with slender, long, slightly depressed tail. Dorsum light grey to brown with dark edged, pale grey to white blotches. Head with broadly rounded snout and several temporal streaks extending down body. Sides and limbs with scattered pale spots. Ventral area whitish. Long limbs with flattened digits forming broad pads. Claws also present except on inner digit of each foot. Scales under digits divided. Habitat: Associated with arid and semiarid woodlands and rocky outcrops throughout most of the MDB except the very southern areas. Notes: Arboreal, found under the loose bark of trees, but also saxocline sheltering in crevices and exfoliating rock. Identification: Gehyra versicolor can be distinguished from G. lazelli by the different colour pattern. Gehyra catenata and G. dubia both have undivided scales under the digits. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray. 145

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House geckos (Genus Hemidactylus) This genus contains small to medium-sized species generally known as ‘house geckos’ that occur throughout tropical and temperate regions of the world. One species has been introduced into Australia from Asia and is now recorded in the MDB. It has a small and slender body that is slightly depressed. The tail is long, slender and depressed with soft, spinose tubercles. Asian House Gecko Hemidactylus frenatus

SVL: 60 mm Description: Body small and slender, slightly depressed with long, slender, depressed tail with soft, spinose tubercles. Dorsum white to dark grey, usually with scattered darker flecks. Head with slightly pointed snout and sides and limbs with scattered darker flecks. Ventral area whitish. Long limbs with flattened digits forming broad pads with claw present on each digit. Scales under digits divided. Habitat: Essentially restricted to human dwellings in various towns in the northern MDB. Notes: Most often observed running up walls and on windows at night. Its call is a loud, distinctive ‘chuck-chuck-chuck’. Identification: Hemidactylus frenatus is similar to Christinus marmoratus and Gehyra species but is easily distinguished from those species by the spinose tubercles on the tail. Conservation status: Invasive exotic species probably introduced accidentally into Australia. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie.

Terrestrial geckos (Genus Heteronotia)

Hemidactylus frenatus, Kurwongbah, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

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A group of small-bodied and slender geckos with long, slender tails. The body and tail are covered in numerous tubercles. Digits lack enlarged toe pads and are all clawed. Five species occur throughout Australia with only one recorded from the MDB.

LIZARDS

Bynoe’s Gecko Heteronotia binoei SVL: 54 mm Description: Body small and slender with long, slender tail. Dorsum variable from pale greyish to reddish brown with

Heteronotia binoei, Mutawintji National Park, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

numerous dark and pale spots. Many scattered, enlarged tubercles forming bands with prickly appearance. Head with slightly pointed snout. Sides and limbs with scattered dark and pale spots. Ventral area whitish. Short limbs with thin digits without enlarged toe pads. Each digit with claw projecting from between three scales. Scales under digits not expanded. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats throughout most of the MDB. Notes: Terrestrial, sheltering in rock outcrops and under ground litter and human rubbish. An endemic Australian species with some populations known to be parthenogenic. Identification: Heteronotia binoei can be identified by its short limbs with thin digits without enlarged toe pads and each digit with a claw projecting from between three scales. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Lower Murray.

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Flap-footed lizards (Family Pygopodidae) This group of snake-like lizards is the only lizard family endemic to the Australasian region. There are 45 species distributed throughout Australia and two species occur in New Guinea. Pygopodid lizards are closely related to the Diplodactylid geckos and usually produce two soft-shelled eggs. They have a broad fleshy tongue, a fragile tail and vestigial hindlimbs in the form of small scaly flaps. The majority are insectivorous but some eat other lizards and spiders.

Worm lizards (Genus Aprasia) A genus of 14 burrowing lizards that can be found beneath ground debris mostly in southern Australia. Four species occur in the MDB. These small worm-like lizards have a long, slender body, a blunt tail that is shorter than the body and minute hindlimb-flaps. Often found in association with ant nests and their diet probably consists of ants’ eggs, larvae and pupae. Similar to Delma species but those have a tail longer than the body. Eared Worm-lizard Aprasia aurita SVL: 110 mm Description: Body long and slender with blunt tail shorter than body. Minute hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum brown with dark spot on each scale, forming longitudinal dark lines and pink flush on the tail. Snout moderately protrusive and ear-opening present, but almost completely covered by notched 148

Aprasia aurita, Millicent, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

scale. Mid-body scale rows: 14. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Found within mallee woodlands and spinifex in north-western Victoria. Notes: A burrowing species associated with leaf litter on loose sand and soil. Identification: Aprasia aurita is distinguished from other Aprasia species by having an ear-opening present, but almost completely covered by a notched scale. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (IUCN Red List); Vulnerable (Vic); Endangered (SA). MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Wimmera.

LIZARDS

Red-tailed Worm-lizard Aprasia inaurita

Identification: Aprasia inaurita is distinguished from A. aurita by lack of an ear-opening and from A. parapulchella and A. striolata by its bright red tail. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera. Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Aprasia parapulchella SVL: 140 mm Description: Body long and slender with blunt tail shorter than body. Minute hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum brown to pale grey with dark spot on each scale, forming longitudinal dark lines and pink to reddish brown tail. Snout slightly protrusive and

Aprasia inaurita, Hattah, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 136 mm Description: Body long and slender with blunt tail shorter than body. Minute hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum uniform pale olive brown to grey with reddish brown neck and bright reddish tail. Snout weakly protrusive and ear-opening absent. Mid-body scale rows: 14. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Found within mallee woodlands and spinifex in the south-western corner of the MDB. Notes: A burrowing species usually found sheltering under stumps and ground debris on loose sandy soil. Known to inhabit ant nests. The brightly coloured tail may be raised when threatened.

Aprasia parapulchella, Bendigo, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

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ear-opening absent. Mid-body scale rows: 14. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Associated with rocky grasslands and woodlands in the south-eastern MDB. Notes: A burrowing species that shelters beneath small rocks. Identification: Aprasia parapulchella is distinguished from A. aurita by lack of an ear-opening and from A. inaurita and A. striolata by its pink coloured tail and separate distribution. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic); Vulnerable (ACT, Commonwealth). MDB catchments: Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens. Lined Worm-lizard Aprasia striolata SVL: 130 mm Description: Body long and slender with blunt tail shorter than body. Minute hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum pale olive brown to grey with prominent black dorso-lateral stripes along body and tail. Snout slightly protrusive and ear-opening absent. Mid-body scale rows: 12. Ventral area whitish.

Aprasia striolata, Grampians, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Habitat: Associated with sandy soils and rock outcrops in the south-western MDB. Notes: A burrowing species that shelters beneath ground debris. Identification: Aprasia striolata is distinguished from A. aurita by lack of an ear-opening and from A. inaurita and A. parapulchella by its prominently striped body. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Vic). MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Wimmera.

Legless lizards (Genus Delma) This group contains 22 species distributed throughout Australia. Seven species occur in the MDB. The body is long and slender with a tail much longer than the body. They have smooth shiny scales, ear openings and well-developed hindlimb flaps. They are found mostly in drier regions and are both nocturnal and diurnal. The various species can be identified by different patterns and colouration. Marble-faced Delma Delma australis SVL: 93 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Well-developed

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does not overlap in distribution with any of those species. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera. Spinifex Delma Delma butleri SVL: 96 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Well-developed hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum olive brown to grey brown with dark edged scales forming an overall reticulated pattern. Throat usually white with pale vertical bars on side of head and neck. Snout moderately rounded and

Delma australis, Big Desert, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum pale olive brown to grey with striking dark variegations on the side of head, neck and forebody. Throat and ventral surface with black variegations. Snout short, rounded and conspicuous earopenings. Mid-body scale rows: usually 18. Ventral area greyish with pink flush without noticeably enlarged ventral scales. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats in arid areas though often associated with mallee woodlands with spinifex in the central-western MDB. Notes: Inhabits spinifex but also shelters beneath leaf litter. Identification: Delma australis is similar to D. plebeia, D. tincta and D. torquata, which all have dark markings on the head, but it

Delma butleri, Hattah, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

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conspicuous ear-openings. Mid-body scale rows: usually 16. Ventral area yellowish with wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Found in semi-arid areas in association with mallee and spinifex in the western MDB. Notes: Shelters within spinifex clumps. Identification: Delma butleri is very similar to D. inornata and is distinguished by usually having a white throat, yellowish ventrals and patterning on the side of the head and neck. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera. Striped Delma Delma impar SVL: 100 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Welldeveloped hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum grey brown to grey with broad olive-brown vertebral stripe and other darker stripes made up of dark-edged scales. Snout moderately rounded and conspicuous earopenings. Mid-body scale rows: 14–16. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired.

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Delma impar, Dingee, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Habitat: Occurs on grass plains and woodlands of the south-eastern MDB. Notes: Shelters in grass tussocks and beneath loose rocks. Believed to retreat into cracking soil during the summer months. Identification: Delma impar is distinguished from other Delma species in the MDB by its distinctive striped pattern. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic, SA); Vulnerable (NSW, ACT, Commonwealth, IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, MidMurray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens. Olive Delma Delma inornata SVL: 133 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Well-developed hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum olive brown to grey brown with dark edged scales forming overall reticulated pattern. Throat usually yellow and lacks any markings one side of head and neck (but specimens from Mount Kaputar, NSW have been recorded with dark patch on the nape). Snout moderately rounded and conspicuous ear-openings.

LIZARDS

Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa. Leaden Delma Delma plebeia SVL: 122 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Well-developed hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum uniform olive brown to grey brown sometimes with reddish brown flanks and head with darker patch. Snout moderately rounded and conspicuous earopenings. Mid-body scale rows: usually 16. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Found in dry sclerophyll forest, particularly with grass tussocks, in the north-eastern MDB. Delma inornata, Dingee, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Mid-body scale rows: usually 16. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Occurs through a wide range of habitats including dry sclerophyll forest and grassy woodlands of the eastern, central and southern MDB. Notes: Diurnal and shelters in vegetation and beneath ground debris. Identification: Delma inornata is very similar to D. butleri and is distinguished by usually having a yellow throat, whitish ventrals and no markings on the side of the head. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, BarwonDarling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera,

Delma plebeia, Lake Glenbawn, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony 153

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Notes: Shelters beneath ground debris and in leaf litter. Identification: Delma plebeia is similar to D. australis, D. tincta and D. torquata, which all have dark markings on the head. Delma plebeia can be distinguished by the darker head patch with dark specks or blotches down the side of the throat. Delma tincta and Delma torquata have three to four bars behind the head and D. australis has numerous pale bars on the side of neck. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. Black-necked Delma Delma tincta SVL: 92 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Well-developed hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum grey to yellowish or reddish brown with three to four darker bands on head and nape with cream or yellow in between. Juveniles with more prominent head and nape markings. Snout moderately rounded and conspicuous earopenings. Mid-body scale rows: usually 14. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired.

Delma tincta, Tennant Creek, Northern Territory. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats from wetter forests to arid regions of the northern MDB. Notes: Recorded sheltering in termite mounds, beneath ground debris and burrowing into the surface layers of soil. Identification: Delma tincta is similar to D. australis, D. plebeia and D. torquata, which all have dark markings on the head. Delma tincta can be distinguished by the three to four dark bands on the head and nape with cream or yellow interspaces and lack of course dark reticulations on chin and throat. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. Collard Delma Delma torquata SVL: 63 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Welldeveloped hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum uniform reddish brown merging to bluish grey on the tail. Glossy black head broken up by three to four narrow light interspaces. Chin and throat with course dark

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Snake-lizards (Genus Lialis) Lialis burtonis is the only Australian member of this genus and the most widespread reptile, occurring over most of the mainland. It is a distinctive species with a long, pointed, wedge-shaped snout, vertically elliptical pupils and very small hindlimb flaps. The diet consists mostly of lizards: in particular skinks and geckos but also dragons other pygopodids and small snakes. The jaw structure is uniquely hinged to facilitate grasping these specialised prey items. Burton’s Snake-lizard Lialis burtonis SVL: 290 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Poorly Delma torquata, Brisbane, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

reticulations. Snout moderately rounded and conspicuous ear-openings. Mid-body scale rows: 16. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Occurs in rocky areas within dry open forests of the northern MDB. Notes: Shelters beneath ground debris and leaf litter and but also recorded burrowing. Identification: Delma torquata is similar to D. tincta, D. australis and D. plebeia, which all have dark markings on the head. It can be distinguished by the course dark reticulations on the chin and throat and three to four narrow light interspaces on the black head. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld, Commonwealth). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Lialis burtonis, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

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developed hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum colour highly variable, ranging from pale grey, cream and russet to almost black with various combinations of stripes and spots. Head with elongated and wedge-shaped snout and conspicuous ear-openings. Eye with vertical pupil. Mid-body scale rows: usually 18. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Widespread through most habitats in the MDB, except for the southern edge. Notes: Nocturnal and diurnal generally sheltering in low vegetation. Identification: Lialis burtonis is easily identified by its unique elongated, wedgeshaped snout and vertical pupil. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera.

Brigalow Scaly-foot (Genus Paradelma) The only member of this genus and restricted to central-eastern Queensland. The body is long and slender with a tail much longer than the body and with moderately developed hindlimb-flaps. It has conspicuous ear openings and the head scales are large and symmetrical. Brigalow Scaly-foot Paradelma orientalis SVL: 197 mm Description: Body long and slender with tail much longer than body. Moderately 156

Paradelma orientalis, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

developed hindlimb-flaps. Body and ventral scales smooth. Dorsum glossy dark brown or grey with an opaque sheen and individual scales often with darker centre. Head with rounded snout and cream to pale brown, darker towards snout. Black bar on nape. Conspicuous ear-openings. Mid-body scale rows: usually 18. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Associated with Dry woodlands, particularly Brigalow in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Nocturnal and mostly terrestrial, sheltering in grass tussocks and beneath ground debris within woodlands. Observed climbing up the rough bark of Acacia trees and recorded raising its head and flicking tongue when alarmed.

LIZARDS

Identification: Paradelma orientalis may overlap in distribution with other legless lizards Delma tincta, D. plebeia, D. torquata and Pygopus shraderi. Delma tincta has three to four dark bands on head and nape and 14 mid-body scale rows. Delma plebeia has a dark head patch and D. torquata has course dark reticulations on the chin and throat with three to four narrow light interspaces on the head. Pygopus shraderi has keeled scales and 21 or more mid-body scale rows. Conservation status: Vulnerable (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers.

Scaly-foots (Genus Pygopus) There are five large species in Australia, with two occurring in the MDB. These are robust legless lizards with large hindlimb flaps and conspicuous ear openings. The tail is much longer than the body and the head scales are enlarged and symmetrical. They are generally active on the surface, being found in grass tussocks and under ground debris. They may be confused with Delma species but those have smooth scales and 14–16 mid-body scale rows. Common Scaly-foot Pygopus lepidopodus SVL: 274 mm Description: Body long, robust and with tail much longer than body. Moderately developed hindlimb-flaps. Scales strongly keeled. Dorsum colour variable, ranging from dark brown with grey head to grey and strongly patterned with dark blotches in longitudinal rows. Head with rounded snout and conspicuous ear-openings.

Pygopus lepidopodus, Nullarbor, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

Mid-body scale rows: 21 or more. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Occurs through dry woodlands of the eastern edge and mallee woodlands of the south-western MDB. Notes: Diurnal and nocturnal, sheltering beneath low vegetation and ground litter. Identification: Pygopus lepidopodus is most similar to P. shraderi but they essentially have separate distributions. Pygopus lepidopodus has strongly keeled scales and lacks a dark bar on the nape. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, BarwonDarling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe. 157

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Eastern Hooded Scaly-foot Pygopus schraderi SVL: 198 mm Description: Body long, robust with tail much longer than body. Moderately developed hindlimb-flaps. Scales moderately keeled. Dorsum brown to reddish brown with dark-edged scales forming reticulated pattern and dark bar on nape. Head with rounded snout and conspicuous ear-openings. Mid-body scale rows: 21 or more. Ventral area whitish and wide ventral scales paired. Habitat: Generally associated with stony or heavy soils but also in mallee woodlands in arid and semi-arid areas throughout most of the MDB. Notes: Crepuscular and nocturnal, sheltering in cracks in the soil, low vegetation and beneath ground debris. Identification: Pygopus shraderi is most similar to P. lepidopodus but they essentially have separate distributions. Pygopus shraderi has moderately keeled scales and a dark bar on the nape. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (Vic).

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MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Loddon-Avoca.

Pygopus schraderi, Roma, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

Skinks (Family Scincidae)

The skinks are widespread in the world and the largest family of Australian lizards, with 437 species currently described. They occur through a great diversity of habitats from cool alpine grasslands to hot arid regions and vary considerably in size and form. All are mostly terrestrial and diurnal. The majority of species have four limbs with five fingers and toes and a fragile tail that is easily broken. Many burrowing species are elongated with greatly reduced limbs and digits. Some species have eye lids, others a clear fixed spectacle or a movable lid enclosing a transparent disc. Skinks are mostly smoothscaled though some are spinose and others have large rugose scalation. They may be carnivorous or omnivorous. Some species are oviparous and others are livebearers. Skinks are well  represented in the MDB with 104 species recorded.

by having frontoparietals fused into a single shield. See also Carinascincus and Lampropholis species. Eastern Three-lined Skink Acritoscincus duperreyi SVL: 80 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum silver-grey to brown with thin dark vertebral stripe. Broad black lateral stripe on each side bordered above and below with thin white stripe. Ventral area light grey to white with orange to red

Lined skinks and red-throated Skink (Genus Acritoscincus) This genus consists of three, small slender skinks found in south-western and southeastern Australia. Two species occur in the MDB. They have four short, well-developed limbs, each with five digits. They have a movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc and frontoparietal scales fused into a single shield. They are oviparous, often laying eggs communally. Acritoscincus species can be distinguished from Pseudemoia and Saproscincus species

Acritoscincus duperreyi, Millicent, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar 159

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flush on throat in breeding males. Four short, well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 26–30. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and frontoparietal scales fused into single shield. Habitat: Generally associated with grass tussocks and ground litter within woodlands and cooler forests of the southern MDB. Notes: Diurnal, basking in low tussocks and sheltering beneath rocks, logs and leaf litter. Identification: Acritoscincus duperreyi has a thin dark vertebral stripe, distinguishing it from the similar A. platynotum, which generally has a plain dorsum. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Red-throated Skink Acritoscincus platynotum SVL: 80 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum silver-grey to brown and plain with broad, black lateral stripe on each side. Dark outer edge of each scale, forming slight reticulated pattern. Ventral area light grey to white with orange to red flush on throat being most intense on breeding males. Four short, well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 25–30. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and frontoparietal scales fused into single shield. Habitat: Generally associated with grass tussocks and ground litter within

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Acritoscincus platynotum, Sydney, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

woodlands and cooler forests along the eastern edge of the MDB. Notes: Diurnal, basking in low tussocks and sheltering beneath rocks, logs and leaf litter. Identification: Acritoscincus platynotum generally has a plain dorsum, which distinguishes it from the similar A. duperreyi, which has a thin dark vertebral stripe. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

LIZARDS

McCoy’s Skink (Genus Anepischetosia) The only member of this genus is restricted to south-eastern Australia and occurs in the MDB. It has a small elongated body, slender tail and small head with a pointed snout. It has four short, well-developed limbs, each with five digits. The movable lower eyelid encloses a small transparent disc. It is oviparous. Could be confused with Hemiergis talbingoensis, which has three fingers and toes. McCoy’s Skink Anepischetosia maccoyi SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Head small with pointed snout. Dorsum rich brown to reddish brown with numerous scattered light and dark flecks and narrow dark dorsolateral line. Cream to orange-yellow on ventral surface and flecked black beneath the tail. Minute ear openings. Four short, welldeveloped limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 20–22. Movable lower eyelid enclosing small transparent disc. Habitat: Found in wet sclerophyll forest, woodlands and rainforest of the southeastern MDB. Notes: A fossorial and litter-dwelling species most often found sheltering beneath logs in moist forest. Identification: Anepischetosia maccoyi can be distinguished from similar species by having four short, well-developed limbs, each with five digits, and a movable lower eyelid enclosing a small transparent disc.

Anepischetosia maccoyi, Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Anepischetosia maccoyi, ventral aspect. Photo: M. G. Swan

Conservation status: Endangered (SA). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

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Worm skinks (Genus Anomalopus) This genus contain seven small, elongated species with smooth glossy scales confined to eastern Australia. Three species occur in the MDB. These are fossorial skinks, generally found sheltering beneath ground debris. The limbs are greatly reduced and there is a movable lower scaly eyelid. The three MDB species are oviparous. Anomalopus species may be confused with Coeraoscincus reticulatus, which has three digits on each limb. Two-clawed Worm Skink Anomalopus leuckartii

SVL: 137 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail and smooth glossy scales. Head small with slightly rounded snout and ears hidden. Dorsum rich brown to grey-brown and purplish brown with paler edged scales forming faint longitudinal lines. Sometimes with grey or yellow bar on nape of juveniles. Ventral area white, sometimes tinged in yellow. Two short forelimbs with two fingers and hindlimbs without toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–22. Movable lower scaly eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in dry sclerophyll forest, woodlands and partially cleared grazing land in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A fossorial species most often found sheltering beneath logs and rocks. Identification: Anomalopus leuckartii can be identified by having two short forelimbs with two fingers and hindlimbs without toes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh. Five-clawed Worm Skink Anomalopus mackayi

Anomalopus leuckartii, Lake Glenbawn, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

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Anomalopus mackayi, Bowenville, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

SVL: 123 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail and smooth glossy scales. Head small with slightly pointed snout and ears hidden. Dorsum grey-brown with paler edged scales forming faint longitudinal lines. Ventral area yellowgreen sometimes with rows of dark spots. Two short forelimbs with three fingers and hindlimbs with two toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–22. Movable lower scaly eyelid. Habitat: Found in grassy woodlands with moist black soil in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A fossorial species most often found sheltering beneath logs and ground debris. Identification: Anomalopus mackayi can be identified by having two short forelimbs with three fingers and hindlimbs with two toes. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW, Qld); Vulnerable (Commonwealth, IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir.

hidden. Dorsum grey to yellowish brown with paler edged scales forming faint longitudinal lines. Discernible pale bar across base of head. Ventral area white. Two short forelimbs with three fingers and hindlimbs reduced to stump. Mid-body scale rows: 20–22. Movable lower scaly eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A fossorial species most often found sheltering beneath logs and ground debris. Identification: Anomalopus verreauxii can be identified by having two short forelimbs with three fingers and hindlimbs reduced to a stump. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Namoi.

Three-clawed Worm Skink Anomalopus verreauxii SVL: 185 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail and smooth glossy scales. Head small with slightly pointed snout and ears

Anomalopus verreauxii, Pittsworth, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

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Snake-eyed Skinks (Genus Austroablepharus) Five species in this genus are distributed widely throughout Australia. A single species occurs in the MDB. The body is small and slender with a slender tail and smooth, glossy scales. It has four slender, moderately well-developed limbs, each with five digits. The eyes are large with the lower eyelid fused to form a fixed spectacle. It is oviparous. It can be distinguished from Menetia species by having five fingers on the forelimbs and from Morethia species by its distinct pattern. Kinghorn’s Snake-eyed Skink Austroablepharus kinghorni

SVL: 45 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Scales smooth and glossy. Dorsum pale-grey to brownish white with dark outer edge of each scale, forming longitudinal stripes. Red to orange flush on face, and tail dull to bright red. Ventral area white. Ear openings present. Four slender, moderately well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 22. Eyes large with lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Found through cracking clay pans and black soil plains with tussocks in the north-western MDB. Notes: An extremely cryptozoic species that shelters in cracks in the soil and beneath ground debris. Identification: Austroablepharus kinghorni is distinctly coloured, distinguishing it from Morethia species. It can be distinguished from Menetia and Lerista species by having five fingers on the forelimbs. Conservation status: Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, C ondamine-Balonne, MacquarieCastlereagh.

Terrestrial skinks (Genus Bellatorias)

Austroablepharus kinghorni, Durham Downs Station, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson 164

This genus comprises three large robust skinks, with one species in the Northern Territory and two in eastern Australia. Two species are recorded from just within the MDB, but they are more closely associated with rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and woodlands of the coast and ranges. They have four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. The 4th toe is much longer than the 3rd. The lower scaly eyelid is movable.

LIZARDS

They are terrestrial and diurnal omnivores that are gregarious, often observed in family groups. Each species is livebearing, producing 1–8 young over summer. They may be confused with Tiliqua and Egernia species, but both Bellatorias species are easily identified by their eyelids having distinctive cream margins. Major Skink Bellatorias frerei SVL: 180 mm Description: Body large and robust with thick tapering tail. Dorsum brown with dark streak on each scale, forming longitudinal lines. Darker brown to blackish flanks with scattered pale spots. Head large with moderately rounded snout and ear openings

with anterior lobules. Large eyes and eyelids with distinctive cream margins. Ventral area white to yellow. Four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 32–36. Movable lower scaly eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in rainforest and open woodlands of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnally active species generally observed basking close to cover and makes a hasty retreat when disturbed. Identification: Bellatorias frerei can be distinguished from B. major by the brown coloured dorsum with a darker streak on the scales and darker flanks. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Land Mullet Bellatorias major SVL: 300 mm Description: Body large and robust with thick tapering tail and glossy black dorsum. Head large with a moderately rounded snout and ear openings with anterior lobules. Large eyes and eyelids with distinctive cream margins. Ventral area white to lemon yellow or orange. Four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 26–30. Movable lower scaly eyelid.

Bellatorias frerei, Cooloola National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson 165

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Bellatorias major, Cooranbong, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Habitat: Occurs mostly in subtropical rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A sun-loving species generally observed basking close to cover. Retreats quickly if disturbed. Identification: Bellatorias major can be distinguished from B. frerei by the uniform glossy black dorsum and a conspicuous pale rim to eye. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Terrestrial skinks (Genus Calyptotis) This genus comprises five species of small, secretive skinks occurring in eastern Australia, with one species in the MDB. They have relatively short limbs with five fingers and toes and a movable lower scaly eyelid. All species are oviparous. They may be confused with Hemiergis species, which have a movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc, and Saiphos equalis, which has only three digits on each limb. Garden Calyptotis Calyptotis scutirostrum SVL: 55 mm 166

Calyptotis scutirostrum, Kurwongbah, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail and smooth glossy scales. Head small with slightly rounded snout and ears hidden. Dorsum light to dark brown with two dark, mid-dorsal stripes and dark vertebral stripe. Ventral area cream to yellow, and red or pink beneath the tail. Relatively short limbs with five fingers and toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–24. Movable lower scaly eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in eucalypt woodlands, wet sclerophyll forest, rainforest edges and suburban gardens in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A fossorial species occurring in moist soil beneath leaf litter and ground debris. Identification: Calyptotis scutirostrum is quite distinct in appearance and lacks ear openings (being reduced to scaly depressions).

LIZARDS

Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Snow skinks (Genus Carinascincus) This genus contains eight species of small, slender skinks that occur in southern mainland Australia and Tasmania. One species occurs in the MDB. They have four well-developed limbs, each with five digits and a movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc. The nasal scales are narrowly separated. The parietal shields are in contact behind the interparietal. All species are livebearing. Similar species include Acritoscincus, which has nasal scales moderately widely separated, Lampropholis, which has nasal scales widely separated, and Pseudemoia species, with parietal shields not in contact behind the interparietal. Coventry’s Skink Carinascincus coventryi SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum metallic brown with scattered pale and dark flecks. Very narrow pale bronze dorso-lateral line and dark grey flanks. Head small with narrowly rounded snout and ear openings. Body scalation is faintly keeled. Ventral area grey with darker markings. Four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 25–27. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and paired frontoparietal scales. Habitat: Associated with decaying logs in wet and dry sclerophyll forest of the southeastern MDB.

Carinascincus coventryi, Kinglake, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Notes: Diurnal and terrestrial, being observed around decaying fallen trees and stumps. Identification: Carinascincus coventryi could be confused with L. delicata from which it is distinguished by having paired frontoparietal scales. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Rainbow skinks (Genus Carlia) This group of skinks contains 24 small species that are found throughout northern 167

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and eastern Australia. Six species occur in the MDB. They have a small body with a slender tail and the males usually develop spectacular colouration during the breeding season. All species are oviparous, laying clutches of two eggs. Carlia species have four fingers and five toes as do the similar Menetia greyii and Lygisaurus foliorum, but both those species have a lower eyelid fused to form a fixed spectacle. Striped Rainbow Skink Carlia munda SVL: 44 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum pale grey to dark grey

with olive brown scattered lighter and darker flecks. Narrow white stripe from upper lip to top of ear and continuing along mid-lateral area past front limb. Usually a dark blackish upper lateral zone with red in breeding males. Head small with narrowly rounded snout and ear openings horizontally elliptical. Ventral area whitish with darker markings on throat in breeding males. Dorsal scales weakly keeled. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–34. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and fused frontoparietal scales. Habitat: Occurs in dry to arid woodlands and dry sclerophyll forest of the northeastern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and diurnal, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Carlia munda has dorsal scales weakly keeled. Ear opening horizontally elliptical. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. Open Litter Rainbow Skink Carlia pectoralis

Carlia munda, Rosedale, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

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SVL: 47 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum brown with paravertebral rows of black and white spots and bronzecoloured head. Pale mid-lateral stripes with orange lateral stripes in breeding males and orange flush on chest. Head small with narrowly rounded snout and ear openings usually round. Ventral area whitish with darker bluish markings on throat in breeding males. Dorsal scales with three keels. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and

LIZARDS

Carlia pectoralis, Gladstone, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

five toes. Mid-body scale rows 28–32. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and fused frontoparietal scales. Habitat: Associated with dry open woodlands and eucalypt forest usually with grass tussocks in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and diurnal, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Carlia pectoralis has dorsal scales with three keels. Ear opening round. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. Orange-flanked Rainbow Skink Carlia rubigo SVL: 44 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum brown with bronzy

Carlia rubigo (male), Roma, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

brown to grey head. Paravertebral rows of black and white spots posteriorly. Female with white mid-lateral stripe from nostril to mid-flanks. Breeding males with orange to copper flush on flanks. Head small with narrowly rounded snout and ear openings vertically elliptical. Ventral area whitish with darker bluish markings on throat in breeding males. Dorsal scales with three keels. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 30–32. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and fused frontoparietal scales. Habitat: Associated with dry open forests, grasslands and rocky environments in the north-eastern MDB. 169

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Notes: Terrestrial and diurnal, sheltering beneath logs, rocks, leaf litter and other ground debris. Identification: Carlia rubigo has dorsal scales with three keels. Ear opening vertically elliptical. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Border Rivers. Schmeltz’s Rainbow Skink Carlia schmeltzii SVL: 69 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown to greybrown with scattered darker and lighter flecks. Head bronzy-brown. Pale dorsolateral line and grey flanks. Breeding males with bright reddish orange flush on flanks.

Head small with narrowly rounded snout and ear openings vertically elliptical. Ventral area whitish with darker bluish markings on throat in breeding males. Dorsal scales with two-three keels. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 32–38. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and fused frontoparietal scales. Habitat: Associated with dry woodlands and rocky environments in the northeastern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and diurnal, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Carlia schmeltzii has dorsal scales with two to three keels. Ear opening vertically elliptical. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. Southern Rainbow Skink Carlia tetradactyla SVL: 64 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum brown to blackish brown with scattered white spots and flecks with pale dorso-lateral stripe. Red to orange upper and lower lateral lines and blue throat in breeding males. Head small

Carlia schmeltzii, Almaden, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Carlia tetradactyla, Oakey, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

with narrowly rounded snout and ear openings circular. Ventral area whitish with darker markings on throat in breeding males. Dorsal scales essentially smooth. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 30–34. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and fused frontoparietal scales. Habitat: Associated with dry open woodlands usually with grass tussocks along the eastern edge of the MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and diurnal, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Carlia tetradactyla has dorsal scales almost smooth. Ear opening circular. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Lively Rainbow Skink Carlia vivax SVL: 47 mm Description: Body small and slender with slender tail. Dorsum brown with a series of pale brown spots and a bronze coloured head. Narrow pale dorso-lateral stripe and

Carlia vivax, Hunter Valley, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

pale mid-lateral stripe running from below eye to base of tail. Breeding males with a prominent reddish orange lateral flush. Head small with narrowly rounded snout and ear openings vertically elliptical. Ventral area whitish with darker markings on throat in breeding males. Dorsal scales with two strong keels. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–34. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc and fused frontoparietal scales. Habitat: Generally associated with dry woodlands on stony or sandy soils in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and diurnal, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and other ground debris. 171

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Identification: Carlia vivax has dorsal scales with two strong keels. Ear opening vertically elliptical. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir.

Snake-tooth Skinks (Genus Coeranoscincus) This genus contains two species of elongated burrowing skinks from eastern Australia. The single MDB species has a pointed snout with long sharp recurved teeth, short limbs with three digits on each and a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. It is associated more with the coast and ranges. Coeranoscincus reticulatus is recorded laying eggs. Anomalopus species are similar but have different numbers of digits. Saiphos equalis has a similar number of digits and a narrowly rounded snout (not wedge-shaped). Three-toed Snake-tooth Skink Coeranoscincus reticulatus SVL: 195 mm Description: Body large and elongated with thick tapering tail. Dorsum fawn to dark brown with individual scales streaked in darker brown. Usually, darker scattered spots on the dorsum. Series of irregular darker transverse bars across anterior part of body. Flanks with irregular longitudinal streaks. Ventral area pale brown. Juveniles prominently banded and with distinct, broad, dark brown head patch. Snout pointed and distinctly wedge shaped. Ear hidden and only indicated by small 172

Coeranoscincus reticulatus, Lamington Plateau, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

depression. Limbs short with three digits on each. Mid-body scale rows: 24–28. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Associated with subtropical rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A burrowing species found sheltering in rotting logs, moist soil and under leaf litter. Identification: Coeraoscincus reticulatus can be identified by its distinctly wedgeshaped snout and having three digits on each limb. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW, Commonwealth); Lower Risk–Near Threatened (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

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Bar-sided skinks (Genus Concinnia) A group of seven medium-sized slender skinks found in eastern Australia. Two species occur in the MDB. They have small heads with pointed snouts, conspicuous ear openings and smooth glossy scales. The third pair of chin shields are separated by three longitudinal rows of scales. They have four well-developed limbs, each with five digits and a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. All species are livebearing. Similar species Eulamprus and Karma have a third pair of chin shields separated by five longitudinal rows of scales. Martin’s Skink Concinnia martini

Concinnia martini, Gladstone, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

SVL: 70 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with slender tail. Dorsum greybrown to brown with variegated dark brown flecks and blotches. Ragged-edged, dark brown or black upper lateral region from snout to base of tail. Lower flanks pale brown to cream with scattered darker flecks. Head small with pointed snout and conspicuous ear openings. Ventral area white, cream or yellow with darker markings on throat. Four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 28–32. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Associated with clearings in rainforest, vine thickets and moist sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal and crepuscular skink observed around decaying fallen trees and stumps. Also occurs on rocky outcrops. Identification: Concinnia martini can be distinguished from C. tenuis by having a lower secondary temporal scale overlapping the upper. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Ranges. Bar-sided Skink Concinnia tenuis SVL: 85 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with slender tail. Dorsum greybrown to pale fawn with variegated dark brown flecks and blotches. Ragged-edged, dark brown or black upper lateral region from snout to base of tail. Lower flanks pale brown to cream with scattered darker flecks. Head small with pointed snout and conspicuous ear openings. Ventral area whitish. Four well-developed limbs each 173

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Fence Skinks (Genus Cryptoblepharus) This genus of 23 small, slender, dorsally depressed skinks is widespread in Australia. Four species occur in the MDB. They have small heads with narrow, pointed snouts. The frontal is about equal in size to the prefrontals. They have four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. The lower eyelid is fused to form a fixed spectacle. They are oviparous. Similar species of the genus Morethia have a frontal much larger than each prefrontal. Inland Snake-eyed Skink Cryptoblepharus australis SVL: 46 mm Description: Body small, slender and dorsally depressed with slender tail. Concinnia tenuis, Eungella, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 26–34. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in rainforest clearings, wet and dry sclerophyll forest and rock outcrops in the eastern MDB. Notes: Diurnal and terrestrial, being observed around decaying fallen trees and stumps, rocky habitats and home gardens. Identification: Concinnia tenuis can be distinguished from C. martini by having a narrow dark line on the nape and upper secondary temporal scale overlapping lower. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh. 174

Cryptoblepharus australis, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

Dorsum grey or grey-brown with dark vertebral line and longitudinally aligned pattern. Numerous scattered pale spots with dark and light flecks. Silver-grey to cream dorso-lateral stripe from above eye to tail. Head small with narrow pointed snout. Ventral area whitish grey to cream. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–28. Lamellae under 4th toe smooth. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Generally associated with dry woodlands and open forest in the central and northern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that is mainly arboreal being found on the trunks of trees, logs, rock outcrops and in human dwellings. Identification: Cryptoblepharus australis is similar to other species in the genus. Longitudinally aligned pattern. Lamellae under 4th toe smooth. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, BarwonDarling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Lower Murray. Metallic Snake-eyed Skink Cryptoblepharus metallicus SVL: 47 mm Description: Body small, slender and dorsally depressed with slender tail. Dorsum grey, silver-grey or grey-brown with dark mid-dorsal zone and longitudinally aligned pattern. Numerous scattered pale spots with dark and light flecks. Very pale dorso-lateral stripe from above eye to tail. Head small with narrow pointed snout. Ventral area whitish. Four

Cryptoblepharus metallicus, Collinsville, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–26. Lamellae under 4th toe smooth. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Generally associated with dry woodlands and open forest in the northeastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that is mainly arboreal, being found on the trunks of trees, logs, rock outcrops and in human dwellings. Identification: Cryptoblepharus metallicus is similar to other species in the genus. Longitudinally aligned pattern. Lamellae under 4th toe smooth. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. 175

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Ragged Snake-eyed Skink Cryptoblepharus pannosus SVL: 41 mm Description: Body small and slender, dorsally depressed with slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown with ragged-edged pale dorso-lateral stripe from above eye to tail and longitudinally aligned pattern. Numerous scattered pale spots with dark and light flecks. Head small with narrow pointed snout. Ventral area whitish. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–26. Lamellae under 4th toe strongly keeled. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Generally associated with dry woodlands and open forest throughout most of the MDB.

Cryptoblepharus pannosus, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. Photo: S. Mahony 176

Notes: An active diurnal species that is mainly arboreal, being found on the trunks of trees, logs, rock outcrops and in human dwellings. Identification: Cryptoblepharus pannosus is similar to other species in the genus. Longitudinally-aligned pattern. Lamellae under 4th toe strongly keeled. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens. Elegant Snake-eyed Skink Cryptoblepharus pulcher pulcher

Cryptoblepharus pulcher pulcher, Coolah Tops National Park, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

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SVL: 41 mm Description: Body small, slender and dorsally depressed with slender tail. Dorsum grey or grey-brown to black. Dark dorsal stripes with pale dorso-lateral stripes from above eye to tail. Numerous scattered pale spots. Head small with narrow pointed snout. Ventral area whitish grey to cream. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–26. Lamellae under 4th toe smooth. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Generally associated with dry woodlands and open forest in the northeastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that is mainly arboreal, being found on the trunks of trees, logs, rock outcrops and in human dwellings. Identification: Cryptoblepharus pulcher pulcher is similar to other species in the genus. Striped pattern. Lamellae under 4th toe smooth. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi.

lower eyelid. All are oviparous. Liopholis species are similar but have eyelids with distinctive cream margins. Brown-blazed Wedge-snouted Ctenotus Ctenotus allotropis SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum reddish brown without any indication of vertebral stripe. Narrow white dorso-lateral stripe from above eye to base of tail and narrow white stripe from below eye through ear and along flank. Series of dorso-lateral and lateral pale spots and flecks. Head small with wedge-shaped snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows:

Striped skinks (Genus Ctenotus) This is a very large genus of 104 diurnally active, swift, striped skinks found throughout Australia. Fifteen species are recorded from the MDB. They are found mostly in more arid areas though some species also occur in temperate woodlands and coastal environments. Species range in size from small to moderately large with four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. The number of ear lobules varies between species. They have a movable, scaly

Ctenotus allotropis, Bollon, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

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24–32. Ear lobules: 3–6. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Found in mallee, semi-arid woodlands and grasslands particularly with Callitris in the central and northern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species usually found among leaf litter and other surface debris. Identification: Ctenotus allotropis is most similar to C. schomburgkii and C. strauchii strauchii. No indication of a vertebral stripe. Nasal scales usually in contact. Prefrontals widely separated. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan. Southern Spinifex Ctenotus Ctenotus atlas

Ctenotus atlas, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

Mid-body scale rows: 28–34. Ear lobules: 2–7. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with arid to semi-arid mallee and spinifex in south-western MDB. Notes: Diurnally active and inhabits clumps of spinifex grass. Identification: Ctenotus atlas only occurs in the south-western MDB and is recognised by its simple pattern of 8-10 pale stripes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Short-clawed Ctenotus Ctenotus brachyonyx

SVL: 69 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum dark brown or black with black vertebral stripe and 8–10 white or pale brown longitudinal stripes. Head small with slightly pointed snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. 178

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Brown-backed Yellow-lined Ctenotus Ctenotus eurydice

Ctenotus brachyonyx, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 83 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to olive-grey with broad black vertebral stripe ending abruptly at base of tail. Indistinct pale dorso-lateral stripe, bordered above by narrow black stripe and pale lateral stripe. Head with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 30–32. Ear lobules: 2–5. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in semi-arid sandy areas with mallee and spinifex in the south-west and north of the MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species generally observed foraging between clumps of spinifex. Identification: Ctenotus brachyonyx is similar to C. robustus but can be distinguished by a broad black vertebral stripe ending abruptly at the base of the tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

Ctenotus eurydice, Girraween National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

SVL: 75 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown with black vertebral stripe and eight prominent pale stripes. Broad black mid-lateral stripe with white upper-lateral spots and white mid-lateral stripe extending from behind nostril over ear-opening continuing onto tail. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four welldeveloped limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–28. Ear lobules: 3–4. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in rocky areas within woodlands, dry sclerophyll forest and rain forest edges in the north-eastern MDB. 179

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Notes: A diurnal species that shelters beneath rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus eurydice is most similar to C. taeniolatus. Nasal separated or narrowly in contact. Prefrontals separated. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir. Ingram’s Ctenotus Ctenotus ingrami

with white mid-lateral stripe extending from upper lip through ear opening continuing onto tail. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four welldeveloped limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–28. Ear lobules: 3–4. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in black soil plains and stony soils in open woodlands including Brigalow, Acacia and eucalypt in the north central MDB. Notes: A diurnal species that shelters in low vegetation and beneath ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus ingrami is distinctly patterned enough not to be confused with other Ctenotus species in the same area. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh. Common Desert Ctenotus Ctenotus leonhardii

Ctenotus ingrami, Bendindee State Forest, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

SVL: 84 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown with black vertebral stripe edged with pale paravertebral stripes. Dark lateral stripe

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SVL: 78 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pale

LIZARDS

Saltbush Ctenotus Ctenotus olympicus

Ctenotus leonhardii, Bourke, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

brown to rich brown with narrow dark brown vertebral stripe from nape to base of tail. Narrow pale dorsolateral stripe with darker upper edge extending from behind eye to base of tail. Pale mid-lateral stripe not extending forward beyond forelimb. Upper lateral area dark with rows of pale spots. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–33. Ear lobules 3–6. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with arid stony and sandy areas with spinifex, mulga or eucalypt woodlands of the north-western MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that shelters in burrows beneath rocks and ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus leonhardii is most similar to Ctenotus regius and can be distinguished by the pale mid-lateral stripe not extending forward beyond forelimb. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling.

Ctenotus olympicus, Pimba, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 69 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pale brown to rich reddish brown with reduced, ragged pattern. Usually with pale edged narrow dark brown vertebral stripe from nape almost to base of tail. Narrow pale stripe from above eye extending back as a dorso-lateral line and tending break up along flanks. Upper lateral area dark with irregular rows of white spots. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 28–32. Ear lobules: 4–6. Movable, scaly lower eyelid.

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Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats including stony soils and chenopod shrublands in the western edge of the MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that shelters beneath rocks and ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus olympicus is most similar to C. orientalis and can be distinguished by the reduced ragged pattern of stripes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Eastern Spotted Ctenotus Ctenotus orientalis

dark brown with distinct pattern of stripes. Pale-edged, narrow dark brown vertebral stripe from nape to base of tail. Narrow pale stripe from above eye extending back as dorso-lateral line just beyond hindlimb. Upper lateral area dark with irregular rows of white spots. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 30–36. Ear lobules: 4–6. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Generally associated with dry woodlands and shrublands in more arid areas of the southern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that shelters in rock outcrops and beneath ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus orientalis is most similar to C. olympicus from which it can be distinguished by the distinct pattern of stripes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens. Leopard Ctenotus Ctenotus pantherinus acripes

Ctenotus orientalis, Nullarbor, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 82 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown to 182

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Ctenotus pantherinus acripes, Cloncurry, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

SVL: 94 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown to coppery grey with overall pattern of rows of pale, dark-edged spots. One or two pale spots below eye. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area olive-grey. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 31–38. Ear lobules 3–7. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Generally associated with spinifex and low vegetation on sandy and stony soils in arid areas of the northern MDB. Notes: A fast-moving diurnal lizard generally observed darting between spinifex clumps. Identification: Ctenotus pantherinus acripes can be identified by its large size and distinctive pattern with rows of darkedged spots. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne. Royal Ctenotus Ctenotus regius SVL: 73 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pale brown to rich brown with narrow dark brown

Ctenotus regius, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

vertebral stripe from nape to base of tail. Narrow pale dorsolateral stripe with darker upper edge extending from behind eye to base of the tail. Pale mid-lateral stripe extending forward well beyond forelimb. Upper lateral area dark with rows of pale spots. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–28. Ear lobules: 3–6. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Generally associated with sandy soils and spinifex in arid areas from the south-western to northern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that shelters in spinifex and burrows beneath ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus regius is most similar to C. leonhardii and can be 183

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identified by the prominent, unbroken mid-lateral stripe extending forwards well beyond the forelimb. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Eastern Striped Ctenotus Ctenotus robustus

bordered above by narrow black stripe and series of pale lateral blotches. Head with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–32. Ear lobules: 2–5. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats but mostly associated with dry woodlands and open forest with rock outcrops throughout the MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging throughout the day or sheltering beneath rock slabs and other ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus robustus is similar to C. brachyonyx and is distinguished by a broad black vertebral stripe continuing beyond the base of the tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Barred Wedge-snouted Ctenotus Ctenotus schomburgkii

Ctenotus robustus, Mary Seymour Conservation Park, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 123 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to olive-brown with broad black vertebral stripe continuing beyond base of tail. Prominent pale dorso-lateral stripe, 184

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Eastern Barred Wedge-snouted Ctenotus Ctenotus strauchii strauchii

Ctenotus schomburgkii, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 52 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum reddish brown with narrow black vertebral stripe. Narrow white dorso-lateral stripe from above eye to base of tail and narrow white stripe from below eye through ear and along flank. Series of dorso-lateral and lateral pale spots and flecks. Head small with wedge-shaped snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–30. Ear lobules: 1–5. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with arid areas of sand and spinifex to rocky ridges in the northwestern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species generally observed foraging among ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus schomburgkii is most similar to C. allotropis and C. strauchii strauchii. Narrow black vertebral stripe. Nasal scales usually separated. Prefrontals narrowly separated. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

Ctenotus strauchii strauchii, Congie Station, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum reddish brown usually without narrow black vertebral stripe. Narrow white dorso-lateral stripe from above eye to base of tail and narrow white stripe from below eye through ear and along flank. Series of dorso-lateral and lateral pale spots and flecks. Head small with wedge-shaped snout. Ventral area white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–32. Ear lobules: 2–3. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. 185

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Habitat: Generally associated with mallee and grasslands on sparse stony soil in the north-western MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species found among fallen timber and other ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus strauchii strauchii is most similar to C. schomburgkii and C. allotropis. Usually without a vertebral stripe. Nasal scales usually in contact. Prefrontals usually separated. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Eyrean Ctenotus Ctenotus taeniatus

SVL: 56 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pale brown to bronze with narrow black, disrupted vertebral stripe. Scattered darker flecks usually aligned longitudinally. Upper lateral area with series of dark blotches and narrow white mid-lateral stripe from ear opening to base of tail. Head small with wedge-shaped snout. Ventral area white. Four welldeveloped limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–28. Ear lobules: 2–5. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with sand ridges and mallee vegetation of north-western Victoria in the southern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species usually observed foraging between spinifex clumps. Identification: Ctenotus taeniatus occurs in a small part of the Victorian Mallee and north-western NSW. Its wedge-shaped snout and distinct pattern distinguish it from other Ctenotus species in those areas. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW – as C. brooksi). MDB catchments: Paroo, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Copper-tailed Skink Ctenotus taeniolatus

Ctenotus taeniatus, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

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SVL: 80 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail often flushed in red or orange. Dorsum rich brown with black vertebral stripe and series of pale stripes and broad black mid-lateral stripe without upper-lateral spots. White mid-lateral stripe extending from behind nostril over earopening continuing onto tail. Head small with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area

LIZARDS

Macquarie-C astlereagh, L achlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Slender Blue-tongued and Pink-tongued Skinks (Genus Cyclodomorphus)

Ctenotus taeniolatus, Nattai National Park, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–34. Ear lobules: 2–5. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with rocky areas within woodlands and dry sclerophyll forest along the eastern edge of the MDB. Notes: A diurnal species that shelters in burrows beneath rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Ctenotus taeniolatus is most similar to C. eurydice. Nasal separated or narrowly in contact. Prefrontals usually separated. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi,

This genus comprises nine widespread, medium-sized to large slender skinks with short limbs, each with five digits. Five species occur in the MDB. Ear openings are present, usually with small anterior lobules. They have a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. There is no row of subocular scales. They occupy habitats ranging from semi-arid shrublands to rainforest and alpine grasslands. All species are livebearing. Some species are considered to mimic snakes by opening the mouth and flicking the fleshy tongue. They are similar to Tiliqua species, but these posses a row of subocular scales. Pink-tongued Skink Cyclodomorphus gerrardii

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Cyclodomorphus gerrardii, Gladstone, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

SVL: 200 mm Description: Body large and slender with long slender prehensile tail. Dorsum silvery grey to rich brown with series of distinct, wide dark brown or black bands along body and tail. Conspicuous ear openings with one or two indistinct small anterior lobules. Tongue pink in adults and blue in juveniles. Head large and distinct from neck. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes, all with sharp claws. Mid-body scale rows: 30–34. Ventral area whitish. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs through a variety of habitats with a preference for wetter forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Crepuscular and nocturnal, climbing among low vegetation. Generally active at night after rain foraging for its main prey items, slugs and snails. Identification: Cyclodomorphus gerrardii is easily recognised by its large size, distinct colouration and prehensile tail. Its range does not overlap with other Cyclodomorphus species in the MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Spinifex Slender Blue-tongue Cyclodomorphus melanops elongatus 188

Cyclodomorphus melanops elongatus, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 132 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olivebrown to dark brown, often flushed with red or yellow over belly and base of tail. Nearly patternless or with numerous dark spots or flecks over dorsum and flanks. Juveniles with cream fleck on most scales. Moderate, distinct ear openings with two or three anterior lobules. Eye with red iris. Head with narrowly pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–30. Ventral area pale cream or yellow. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in mallee woodlands with spinifex in arid areas of the south-western MDB. Also an isolated population in open woodland/grassland near Amby in the northern MDB.

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Notes: Crepuscular, sheltering within spinifex clumps. Identification: Cyclodomorphus melanops elongatus is recognisable by its colouration. Its range does not overlap with other Cyclodomorphus species in the MDB. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Mainland She-oak Skink Cyclodomorphus michaeli SVL: 174 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long tail. Dorsum olivegreen to reddish brown with weakly defined or absent pattern. Dark edges to

scales form vague, narrow stripes on dorsum and vague bands along tail. Head with narrowly pointed snout and sometimes dark bar under eye. Small ear openings without anterior lobules. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–24. Ventral area orange or yellow, often with darker markings. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Generally associated with tussock grasses in open areas of forest and woodland in the New England Tablelands, NSW. Notes: Shelters beneath vegetation and ground debris in forest and woodland. Recorded basking within tussocks. Identification: Cyclodomorphus michaeli is distinctly patterned and does not occur within the same range of other Cyclodomorphus species in the MDB. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Vic). MDB catchments: Gwydir. Alpine She-oak Skink Cyclodomorphus praealtus SVL: 119 mm

Cyclodomorphus michaeli, Cooranbong, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Cyclodomorphus praealtus, Bogong High Plains, Victoria. Photo: N. Clemann

Description: Body medium-sized and slender with short tail. Dorsum olive-brown to olive-green with numerous dark-edged scales forming series of narrow black lines. Small ear openings, usually without anterior lobules. Eye with red iris. Head with narrowly pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–26. Ventral area grey or yellow, often with darker markings and flushed with red. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in subalpine woodlands and alpine areas with a groundcover of thick tussock grasses. Restricted to the Australian Alps above 1500 m in the southeastern MDB. Notes: Shelters beneath vegetation and ground debris and recorded basking within tussocks. Identification: Cyclodomorphus praealtus is recognisable by its distinct colouration. Its range does not overlap with other Cyclodomorphus species in the MDB. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW, Commonwealth); Critically Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Upper Murray, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Saltbush Slender Blue-tongue Cyclodomorphus venustus SVL: 101 mm 190

Cyclodomorphus venustus, Port Augusta, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

Description: Body medium-sized and slender with short tail. Dorsum reddish brown overall with dark grey to black neck markings. Juveniles with more pronounced pattern of scales on body and tail with white flecks. Small distinct ear openings with one or two anterior lobules. Eye with red iris. Head with narrowly pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–28. Ventral area cream, sometimes with a yellow flush. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Found in association with cracking clay soils and a grassy understorey in the north-western MDB. Notes: Considered to be crepuscular, sheltering beneath ground debris. Identification: Cyclodomorphus venustus is recognisable by its distinct colouration. Its

LIZARDS

range does not overlap with other Cyclodomorphus species in the MDB. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Paroo.

Spiny skinks, Yakka Skink, crevice skinks (Genus Egernia) This group comprises 17 medium-sized to very large skinks that are found throughout various habitats across Australia. Seven species occur in the MDB. This genus contains species that are quite different in appearance with scalation, ranging from smooth to striated and spinose. They are placed in species groups based on appearance and habits for ease of identification, but this does not necessarily reflect any relatedness. All are robust species with four well-developed limbs, each with five digits, and a movable, scaly lower eyelid. They are largely gregarious and all species are livebearing. Egernia rugosa is similar to Bellatorias and Tiliqua species, but those large skinks each have unique colours and patterns.

Spiny skinks (Genus Egernia) There are seven species of spiny skinks found throughout Australia, which generally occur in association with rock outcrops or in tree hollows. They have spines that protrude from the dorsal scalation and are capable of pushing their body hard up against the surrounding surface, making it very difficult for a predator to dislodge them. Cunningham’s Skink Egernia cunninghami SVL: 200 mm

Egernia cunninghami, Mount Beckworth, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Description: Body large and robust with long slender tail, rounded in cross section. Each dorsal scale with one large spine, being longest on the tail. A species complex with different geographic variations: dorsum ranging from dark brown to black with varying patterns of narrow bands, speckles, spots and blotches. Head with broadly rounded snout, often paler than body and reddish in some populations. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 36–44. Ventral area white with some darker variegations on throat. Moderate ear lobules: 3–5. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Mostly associated with rock outcrops in dry woodlands in the southeastern and eastern MDB. 191

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Notes: A gregarious diurnal species that shelters in rock crevices but also in hollow timber. Identification: Egernia cunninghami is similar to E. stokesii zellingi but has a long tapering tail, rounded in cross section and these two species do not occur together. Conservation status: Endangered (SA). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Gidgee Skink Egernia stokesii zellingi SVL: 180 mm

Description: Body large and robust with short flat tail. Each dorsal scale with two large spines becoming large single spines on tail. Dorsum brown to reddish brown with paler brown blotches forming obscure transverse bars. Head with broadly rounded snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 32–38. Ventral area cream to yellowish. Moderate to rugose ear lobules: 1–4. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with rocky outcrops and mulga woodlands in the western MDB. Notes: A gregarious diurnal species that basks close to a safe retreat. Identification: Egernia stokesii zellingi is similar to E. cunninghami but has a short flat tail and these two species do not occur together. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Darling.

Yakka Skink (Genus Egernia) A distinctively patterned, large, robust skink with glossy scales that inhabits dry open woodlands and rocky areas of Eastern Queensland. Yakka Skink Egernia rugosa

Egernia stokesii zellingi, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar 192

SVL: 240 mm Description: Body very large and robust with long thick tail. Dorsum brown with distinct dark brown to black mid-dorsal stripe from nape to base of tail. Pale fawn dorsolateral stripe and brown flanks. Labials pale cream and ear lobules flat. Head with a broadly rounded snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and

LIZARDS

MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers.

Crevice skinks (Genus Egernia) A group of eight dorsally depressed species, generally referred to as crevice skinks. They occur in conjunction with rock outcrops and tree hollows throughout most of Australia. Eastern Crevice Skink Egernia mcpheei SVL: 143 mm Description: Body medium-sized and dorsally depressed with long slender tail. Dorsum brown with darker markings on

Egernia rugosa, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–30. Throat creamy-yellow with darker flecks. Chest and abdomen yellow-orange. A movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs through open dry sclerophyll forest, woodland and rocky areas in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Diurnal and crepuscular, inhabiting burrows, hollow timber and rock crevices. A gregarious species that uses a communal latrine site. Very wary basking, close to a safe retreat. Identification: Egernia rugosa is easily recognised by its large size and distinct dark mid-dorsal stripe. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld, Commonwealth).

Egernia mcpheei, Lamington National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

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scales forming irregular longitudinal stripes. Two to five sharp keels on each dorsal scale. Upper lateral area black with scattered dark brown scales. Head with narrowly rounded snout. Upper lips white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 28. Throat white with darker variegations and ventral area mostly orange. Ear lobules: 3–4. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Mostly associated with rock outcrops in dry woodlands and wetter forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal species usually occurring in colonies, basking and foraging close to cover. Occupies rock crevices but also inhabits fallen timber. Identification: Egernia mcpheei is similar to E. saxatilis intermedia, E. saxatilis saxatilis and E. striolata. Its distribution appears to only overlap with Egernia striolata, which has distinct pale dorsolateral zones and is silvery grey to brown with two to five blunt keels on each dorsal scale. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. Black Rock Skink Egernia saxatilis intermedia

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Egernia saxatilis intermedia, Grampians, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 135 mm Description: Body medium-sized and dorsally depressed with long slender tail. Dorsum dark brown to black with darker markings on scales forming irregular longitudinal stripes. Two to five sharp keels on each dorsal scale. Upper lateral area black with scattered dark brown scales. Head with narrowly rounded snout. Upper lips white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 27–40. Throat white with darker variegations and ventral area mostly orange. Ear lobules: 3–4. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Mostly associated with rock outcrops in dry woodlands and wetter forest in the south-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal species usually occurring in colonies, basking and foraging close to cover. Occupies rock crevices but also inhabits fallen timber. Identification: Identification: Egernia saxatilis intermedia is similar to E. mcpheei, E. saxatilis saxatilis and E. striolata. Its distribution appears to overlap only with Egernia striolata, which has distinct pale dorsolateral zones and is silvery grey to

LIZARDS

brown with two to five blunt keels on each dorsal scale. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Warrumbungle Mountains Black Rock Skink Egernia saxatilis saxatilis SVL: 135 mm Description: Body medium-sized and dorsally depressed with long slender tail. Dorsum brown with darker markings on scales forming irregular longitudinal stripes. Two to five sharp keels on each dorsal scale. Upper lateral area black with scattered dark brown scales. Head with narrowly rounded snout. Upper lips white. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 27–40. Throat white with darker variegations and ventral area mostly orange. Ear lobules: 3–4. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Restricted to rock outcrops and dry woodland of the Warrumbungle Mountains in the interior of NSW. Notes: A diurnal species usually occurring in colonies, basking and foraging close to cover. Occupies rock crevices but also inhabits fallen timber. Identification: Egernia saxatilis saxatilis is similar to E. saxatilis intermedia, E. mcpheei and E. striolata. Its distribution is restricted to the Warrumbungle Mountains in NSW and only overlaps with E. striolata, which has distinct pale dorsolateral zones and is silvery grey to brown with two to five blunt keels on each dorsal scale.

Egernia saxatilis saxatilis, Warrumbungle Mountains, New South Wales. Photo: G. Swan

Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Namoi. Tree Skink Egernia striolata SVL: 119 mm Description: Body medium-sized and dorsally depressed with long slender tail. Dorsum silvery grey to brown with paler dorso-lateral region from top of head to base of tail. Two to five blunt keels on each dorsal scale. Upper lateral area black and fading towards tail. Head with narrowly rounded snout. Upper lips white. Four welldeveloped limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 27–34. Ventral area whitish to grey with scattered flecks on 195

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brown with two to five blunt keels on each dorsal scale. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, LoddonAvoca, Campaspe.

Sand-swimmers (Genus Eremiascincus)

Egernia striolata, Barrier Range, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

throat. Ear lobules: 3–4. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Mostly associated with fallen timber and rock outcrops in dry woodlands throughout most of the MDB, except the extreme south. Notes: A diurnal species usually occurring in colonies, basking and foraging close to cover. Inhabits fallen timber, beneath bark and in rock crevices. Identification: Egernia striolata is similar to Egernia mcpheei, Egernia saxatilis intermedia and Egernia saxatilis saxatilis. It is found throughout most of the MDB except the extreme south and distinguished by having distinct pale dorsolateral zones and silvery grey to 196

A group consisting of 10 small to mediumsized, slender skinks found in both desert regions and tropical forests. Three species occur in the MDB, each with a different banded pattern. They have a head with a pointed snout and four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. The ventral area is white or cream. They have a movable, scaly lower eyelid. Sand-swimmers are nocturnal and crepuscular. Most species are considered to be oviparous. They may be confused with Ctenotus species, which are striped skinks. Eastern Narrow-banded Sand-swimmer Eremiascincus fasciolatus

LIZARDS

Eremiascincus fasciolatus, Roma, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

SVL: 123 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pale brown to reddish brown, with 10–16 irregular narrow darker crossbands on body and 25–35 very narrow darker bands on tail. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 28–36. Ventral area white or cream. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in semi-arid and arid woodlands on harder soils in the northeastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal, fossorial species usually found in burrows under surface debris. If disturbed, it will quickly burrow into the soil. Identification: Eremiascincus fasciolatus occurs in the north-eastern MDB and has 10–16 irregular narrow crossbands on the body and 25–35 very narrow bands on the tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. Ghost Skink Eremiascincus phantasmus SVL: 92 mm

Eremiascincus phantasmus, Ballera, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pinkish brown to pale brown with weakly banded pattern on body and 29–39 very narrow darker bands on tail. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 28–33. Ventral area white or cream. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated mainly with sandy dunes and softer soils in the arid western MDB. Notes: A nocturnal, fossorial species usually found sheltering in burrows under ground debris during the day. If disturbed, it will quickly burrow into the soil. Identification: Eremiascincus phantasmus occurs in the south-western to north-western MDB and is weakly banded on the body with 29–39 very narrow bands on the tail. 197

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Broad-banded Sand-swimmer Eremiascincus richardsonii SVL: 113 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pale brown to red-brown with 8–14 broad dark crossbands on body and 19–32 bands on tail. Head with pointed snout. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 30–36. Ventral area white or cream. Movable, scaly lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with stony soils in arid and semi-arid areas from the south-western to northern MDB.

Notes: A nocturnal, fossorial species that shelters in thick leaf litter, burrows and in cracks in the soil. Identification: Eremiascincus richardsonii occurs in the south-western to northern MDB and has 8–14 broad dark crossbands on the body with 19–32 bands on the tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

Water skinks (Genus Eulamprus) This genus contains five species of mediumsized skinks confined largely to the coast and ranges of eastern Australia. Four species occur in the MDB. They are mostly bronze-coloured with glossy scales and have a slender body with a long slender tail. The ear openings are conspicuous. They have four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes and a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. The third pair of chin shields is separated by five longitudinal rows of scales. All species are livebearing, producing one to eight young over summer. They are similar to Concinnia species, which have a third pair of chin shields separated by three longitudinal rows of scales, and Karma murrayi, which is restricted to the north-eastern MDB. Yellow-bellied Water Skink Eulamprus heatwolei

Eremiascincus richardsonii, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 198

SVL: 100 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum dark to light bronze with scattered black spots

LIZARDS

opening, a plain yellow belly and the pale lower labial stripe that does not extend upwards along the anterior margin of the ear opening. Conservation status: Vulnerable (SA). MDB catchments: Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Alpine Water Skink Eulamprus kosciuskoi SVL: 85 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olivebrown with black spots forming narrow black vertebral stripes. Yellow dorsolateral stripes and dark upper lateral zone with pale spots. Head with moderately pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 31–37 Eulamprus heatwolei, East Gippsland, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

and flecks. Pale golden dorso-lateral stripe from above eye extending down body. Blackish upper lateral zone with pale spots. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 36–44. Head with moderately pointed snout. Black anterior margin to ear. Ventral area with plain yellow belly and white throat with black patches. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs around waterways within forest and grasslands in the eastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed basking and foraging throughout the day close to creeks, swamps and lagoons. Identification: Eulamprus heatwolei can be identified by a black anterior margin to ear

Eulamprus kosciuskoi, Nowendoc, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony 199

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(Snowy Mountains), 32–38 (New England area). Ventral area yellow-green and white throat with some grey spots. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs around bogs and marshes in alpine grasslands and heathlands in the Victorian Alps, Snowy Mountains, Barrington Tops and Northern Tablelands of NSW. Notes: An active diurnal species observed basking and foraging throughout the day close to water. Identification: Eulamprus kosciuskoi can be identified by the black spots forming narrow black vertebral stripes on the dorsum. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Eastern Water Skink Eulamprus quoyii SVL: 115 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum dark to light bronze with scattered black spots and flecks. Well-developed pale golden dorsolateral stripe from above eye extending down body. Blackish upper lateral zone with pale spots. Head with moderately pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 36–44. Ventral area cream with scattered darker spots and white throat with black patches. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs around waterways in the eastern and central MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed basking and foraging throughout the day close to water bodies. 200

Eulamprus quoyii, Sydney, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Identification: Eulamprus quoyii can be identified by the well-developed pale golden dorso-lateral stripe from above the eye extending down the body and a cream to pale yellow belly with scattered darker spots. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, BarwonDarling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Lower Murray. Southern Water Skink Eulamprus tympanum tympanum SVL: 97 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum

LIZARDS

dark to light bronze with scattered black spots and flecks. Blackish upper lateral zone with pale spots. Head with moderately pointed snout. Pale anterior margin to ear opening. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 34–44. Ventral area with plain cream or white belly and often chin shields broadly margined with black. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs around waterways within forest and grasslands in the eastern MDB. Found at higher altitudes than Eulamprus heatwolei and E. quoyii. Notes: An active diurnal species observed basking and foraging throughout the day close to creeks, swamps and lagoons. Identification: Eulamprus tympanum tympanum can be identified by a pale

anterior margin to the ear opening. There is also a pale lower labial stripe extending upwards along the anterior margin of the ear opening. It has a plain cream or white belly. Conservation status: Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Beech Skink (Genus Harrisoniascincus) A single species of small, secretive skink restricted to highland rainforest and Antarctic beech forests of south-east Queensland. It is associated more with this habitat than it is with the MDB. The frontoparietal scales are paired, nasal scales widely separated and ear openings present. It is oviparous. It is similar to Lampropholis species, which have frontoparietal scales fused to form a single shield, and Saproscincus species, which have a pale spot on the rear base of the hindlimb. Beech Skink Harrisoniascincus zia

Eulamprus tympanum tympanum, Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum brown with scattered dark and pale flecks. Narrow pale brown dorso-lateral stripe from head to base of tail and blackish upper lateral zone. Head with narrowly pointed snout. Four short, well-developed limbs with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 22–26. Ventral area white, with chest to vent bright yellow. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. 201

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varying numbers of digits. The ear opening is usually absent and they have a movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc. Similar species include Anepischetosia, which has a restricted distribution and five digits on each limb, Lerista, with different patterning and number of digits, and Saiphos, which has a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. Southern Earless Skink Hemiergis decresiensis continentis SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and elongated with long slender tail. Dorsum rich brown with broad dark dorso-lateral stripes and narrower paravertebral lines. Lateral area grey-brown with scattered spots and flecks.

Harrisoniascincus zia, Lamington National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Habitat: Occurs in moist rainforest areas of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A secretive species observed basking among leaf litter in forest clearings. Identification: Harrisoniascincus zia can be identified by paired frontoparietal scales, nasal scales widely separated and its very restricted distribution. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Earless skinks (Genus Hemiergis) These seven species of elongated skinks are restricted to southern Australia. Four species occur in the MDB. They have smooth glossy scales and short limbs with 202

Hemiergis decresiensis continentis, Adelaide Hills, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

Head with pointed snout. Four limbs with three fingers and three toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–26. Ventral area orange to yellow. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in wet and dry sclerophyll forest and woodland in south-eastern South Australia. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, usually found beneath rocks and other surface debris. Identification: Hemiergis decresiensis continentis occurs only in the southwestern MDB. Limbs with three fingers and three toes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca. Rusty Earless Skink Hemiergis millewae

SVL: 58 mm Description: Body small and elongated with long slender tail. Dorsum dark olivebrown with burnt orange dorso-lateral stripe. Tail with black spots. Lateral area pale. Head with pointed snout. Four limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22. Ventral area pale yellow to white. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Associated with spinifex in semiarid mallee woodlands in the southwestern MDB. Notes: Shelters beneath spinifex clumps. Identification: Hemiergis millewae occurs in the south-western MDB. Limbs with five fingers and five toes. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Lower Murray. Peron’s Earless Skink Hemiergis peronii peronii SVL: 79 mm Description: Body small and elongated with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to olive-brown with series of black spots in longitudinal rows. Darker dorso-lateral line often bordered above with rusty tinge. Lateral area grey-brown with

Hemiergis millewae, Milliwa, Victoria. Photo: P. Robertson

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Hemiergis peronii peronii, Millicent, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

scattered spots and flecks. Head with pointed snout. Four limbs with four fingers and four toes. Mid-body scale rows: 18–22. Ventral surface bright yellow. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Found in semi-arid heaths and shrublands of the south-western MDB. Notes: Terrestrial, usually found beneath rocks and other surface debris. Identification: Hemiergis peronii peronii occurs in the south-western MDB. Limbs with four fingers and four toes. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Vic). MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Wimmera. Eastern Earless Skink Hemiergis talbingoensis talbingoensis SVL: 60 mm Description: Body small and elongated with long slender tail. Dorsum brown with series of narrow dark brown or black stripes or series of spots. Head with pointed snout. Four limbs with three fingers and three toes. Mid-body scale rows: 18–22. Ventral area orange to yellow. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc.

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Hemiergis talbingoensis talbingoensis, Coolah Tops National Park, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

Habitat: Occurs in wet and dry sclerophyll forest and woodland in the south-eastern MDB. The subspecies Hemiergis talbingoensis davisi occurs in the midnorth-eastern area and has 20 (rarely 22 or 18) mid-body scale rows. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, usually found beneath rotting logs, rocks and among leaf litter. Identification: Hemiergis talbingoensis talbingoensis occurs in the south-eastern MDB. Limbs with three fingers and three toes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

LIZARDS

Forest skinks (Genus Karma) This genus contains two medium-sized forest skinks restricted to central eastern Australia. One species is recorded from the MDB and associated more with the coast and ranges. It is slender with a long slender tail, glossy smooth scalation and four welldeveloped limbs, each with five digits. The frontoparietal scale is divided and the lower eyelid is movable, without a transparent disc. The third pair of chin shields is separated by five longitudinal rows of scales. It is livebearing. Similar species are Concinnia, which has a third pair of chin shields separated by three longitudinal rows of scales, and Eulamprus, which has different patterning. Murray’s Skink Karma murrayi SVL: 108 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum chocolate brown with scattered pale centres and dark edges on scales. Lateral surface dark purple-grey with numerous blue and white spots. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. Mid-body scale rows: 30–34. Ventral area pale yellow with darker grey near throat. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnally active skink usually observed around rotting logs and also shelters in burrows beneath rocks. Identification: Karma murrayi is restricted to the north-eastern MDB but overlaps in distribution with the similar species

Karma murrayi, Lamington National Park, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

Eulamprus quoyii, which has a broad to narrow yellow dorso-lateral stripe from above the eye to the mid-body. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir.

Garden skinks, grass skinks, sunskinks (Genus Lampropholis) This genus contains 11 small, slender species restricted to moist habitats in eastern Australia. Five species are recorded in the MDB. They have four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. The frontoparietals are fused to form a single shield. The nasals are widely separated. They 205

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have a movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc. They are oviparous, with communal nesting commonly recorded, and the diet consists of small invertebrates. Similar species are Acritoscincus, which has nasals moderately widely separated, Carinascincus, with parietal shields in contact behind the interparietal, Pseudemoia, which has paired frontoparietals, and Saproscincus, which has a pale spot on the rear base of the hindlimb. Friendly Sunskink Lampropholis amicula SVL: 35 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown to coppery brown with scattered dark dashes. Upper flanks black and lower flanks light grey

Lampropholis amicula, Chaelundi State Forest, New South Wales. Photo: G. Swan 206

with fine, pale dorso-lateral line. Head with narrowly pointed snout. Supraciliary scales, usually five. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 19–23. Ventral area white or pale grey with scattered darker flecks. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Found in dry sclerophyll forest and open woodland of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Diurnal, though secretive, basking and sheltering among leaf litter. Identification: Lampropholis amicula occurs only in the north-eastern MDB and usually has five supraciliary scales. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. Montane Sunskink Lampropholis caligula SVL: 54 mm Description: Body small and elongated with long slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown to coppery brown, sometimes with darker flecks. Upper flanks black and lower flanks light grey with darker spots. Usually pale cream dorso-lateral stripe from nape to base of tail. Head with narrowly pointed snout. Supraciliary scales: usually 5. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 19–23. Ventral area dull creamy grey. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in upland wet sclerophyll forests and woodlands in a small area of the central-eastern MDB. Notes: Diurnal and terrestrial, usually observed in leaf litter and grass tussocks. Identification: Lampropholis caligula is restricted to outliers of the Liverpool Range

LIZARDS

Lampropholis caligula, Coolah Tops National Park, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

Lampropholis colossus, Bunya Mountains, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

in NSW and has three supraocular scales and usually five supraciliary scales. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Namoi.

Habitat: Occurs only in Bunya Pine and rainforest association in the Bunya Mountains, north-eastern MDB. Notes: Recorded basking among leaf litter in sunny patches in rainforest. Identification: Lampropholis colossus is only known from the Bunya Mountains of south-eastern Queensland and usually has seven supraciliary scales. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Qld). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Bunya Mountains Sunskink Lampropholis colossus SVL: 56 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum rich brown to reddish brown with pale golden-brown dorso-lateral stripes on each side bordered above by dark brown or blackish stripe. Upper flanks black to dark brown. Head with narrowly pointed snout. Supraciliary scales: usually 7. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 23–27. Ventral surface cream to bright yellow with darker flecks. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc.

Garden Skink Lampropholis delicata SVL: 51 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown to rich bronze with scattered irregular dark brown flecks and darker upper lateral zone from side of neck to base of tail. Head with 207

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MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Grass Skink Lampropholis guichenoti SVL: 48 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown to olive-brown, usually with dark vertebral stripe from neck to base of tail and numerous scattered whitish or pale brown scales. Lateral zone dark brown to black with pale dorso-lateral line and pale mid-lateral stripe. Head copper with narrowly pointed snout.

Lampropholis delicata, Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

narrowly rounded snout. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–22. Ventral area cream. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Found in forests, woodlands, heaths and developed areas of the southwestern and eastern MDB. Notes: Diurnal and terrestrial, sheltering beneath logs and other ground debris. Identification: Lampropholis delicata occurs in the south-western and eastern MDB and has four supraocular scales, usually seven supraciliary scales and a plain dorsum with no dark vertebral stripe. Conservation status: Not listed. 208

Lampropholis guichenoti, Kinglake, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–30. Ventral area whitish or silver-grey. Movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in forests, woodlands and developed areas of the southern and eastern MDB. Notes: Diurnal and terrestrial, usually seen basking near logs, rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Lampropholis guichenoti occurs in the southern and eastern MDB and usually has six supraciliary scales and a dark vertebral stripe. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Lachlan-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum reddish brown to pale olive-grey, usually with dark spots on each scale. Dark streak from nostril to eye continuing as dark spots along upper lateral region. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and four toes. Mid-body scale rows: 18. Ventral area white or cream with some dark edged scales and yellow beneath tail. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Associated with sandy soils and spinifex of the semi-arid western MDB. Notes: Nocturnal and fossorial, sheltering in leaf litter beneath shrubs. Identification: Lerista aericeps has four well-developed limbs, each with four digits and the lower eyelid is fused.

Sliders (Genus Lerista) This very large genus contains 93 species of small to medium-sized, terrestrial burrowing skinks. Eight species are recorded within the MDB. Sliders occur mostly in arid areas and the number of limbs and digits varies between species. Some have a movable eyelid, enclosing a transparent disc, and in others it is fused to form a fixed spectacle. All species have smooth scalation and minute ear openings. They are oviparous. Sliders are similar to Hemiergis species, most of which lack ear openings. Yellow-tailed Slider Lerista aericeps SVL: 52 mm

Lerista aericeps, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 209

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Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Lower Darling. Bougainville’s Slider Lerista bougainvillii SVL: 70 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum silvery grey to pale brown with dark-edged scales forming longitudinal lines of dots. Conspicuous dark stripe from nostril through eye and continuing along upper lateral zone to base of tail. Often flushed with yellow or red on tail. Head with pointed snout. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–24. Ventral area white or cream. Movable lower eyelid.

Habitat: Found in dry forests, woodlands and rocky areas of the southern and eastern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Lerista bougainvillii has four well-developed limbs, each with five digits, and the lower eyelid is movable. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-C astlereagh, L achlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Lachlan-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Southern Four-toed Slider Lerista dorsalis

Lerista bougainvillii, Stony Rises, Victoria.

Lerista dorsalis, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia.

Photo: M. G. Swan

Photo: S. Mahony

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SVL: 71 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum pale olive-grey with two to four narrow black stripes. Obscure pale dorso-lateral stripe from eye to base of tail. Dark streak from nostril through eye and ear continuing as broad dark stripe along upper lateral region to base of tail. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with four fingers and four toes. Mid-body scale rows: 16–22. Ventral area whitish. Movable lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with chenopod shrublands and semi-arid woodlands of the south-western MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and in leaf litter. Identification: Lerista dorsalis has four well-developed limbs, each with four digits, and the lower eyelid is movable. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Murray. Noonbah Robust Slider Lerista emmotti SVL: 103 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum pale fawn to brown with dark spots on each scale, forming rows. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with two fingers and two toes. Mid-body scale rows: 18–20. Ventral area whitish with some dark spotting beneath tail. Movable lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in arid areas in the northwestern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, sheltering under leaf litter at the base of shrubs and trees.

Lerista emmotti, Noonbah Station, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

Identification: Lerista emmotti has four short limbs, each with two digits, and the lower eyelid is movable. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo. Eastern Mulch-slider Lerista fragilis

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Lerista fragilis, Denham Park Station, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

SVL: 60 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown to olive with dark spots on each scale, forming four narrow longitudinal lines. Narrow black dorso-lateral stripe and tail flushed with red, particularly in juveniles. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with three fingers and three toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20. Ventral surface white or cream dotted with black. Movable lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands in semi-arid areas of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and in leaf litter. Identification: Lerista fragilis has four well-developed limbs, each with three digits, and the lower eyelid is movable. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. Eastern Two-toed Slider Lerista labialis SVL: 60 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum reddish brown to pale brown, usually with dark spots on each 212

Lerista labialis, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

scale, forming narrow longitudinal lines. Conspicuous dark upper lateral stripe with white lower flanks. Head with flat protrusive snout. No trace of forelimb, hindlimb with two toes. Mid-body scale rows: 18–20. Ventral area whitish. Movable lower eyelid. Habitat: Associated with red sandy soils in arid areas of the western MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, sheltering in sand beneath leaf litter and ground debris. Identification: Lerista labialis has no trace of a forelimb, and the hindlimb has two digits The lower eyelid is movable. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Lower Darling.

LIZARDS

Eastern Robust Slider Lerista punctatovittata

Identification: Lerista punctatovittata has one digit on a very short forelimb and two digits on the hindlimb. The lower eyelid is movable. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Lower Murray. Dwarf Three-toed Slider Lerista timida SVL: 49 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown to bronze with dark spots on each scale, forming narrow longitudinal lines.

Lerista punctatovittata, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 100 mm Description: Body small and elongated with slender tail. Dorsum fawn to brown with dark spots on each scale, forming narrow longitudinal lines on body and tail. Head with pointed snout. Very short forelimb with one digit and hindlimb with two digits. Mid-body scale rows: 18. Ventral area whitish or pale yellow with some brown spots beneath tail. Movable lower eyelid. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from semi-arid sandy areas to dry sclerophyll forest throughout most of the MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, sheltering beneath leaf litter and other ground debris.

Lerista timida, Port Augusta, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Usually, dark streak from nostril to eye continuing as broader stripe to base of tail. Head with pointed snout. Four well‑developed limbs with three fingers and three toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20. Ventral area whitish. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Occurs in a wide variety of habitats from river floodplains and arid woodlands to dry sclerophyll forest throughout most of the MDB. Notes: Terrestrial and fossorial, sheltering beneath logs, rocks and other ground debris. Identification: Lerista timida has four well-developed limbs each with three digits. The lower eyelid is fused. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan,Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray.

Terrestrial skinks (Genus Liopholis) This genus comprises 11 species of small to medium-sized skinks that are distributed throughout Australia. Six species occur in the MDB. They are robust with mostly smooth scalation and four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. They have a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. The eyelids have distinctive cream margins. All species are gregarious and livebearing. They are similar to Ctenotus species, which occur mainly in arid and semi-arid habitats, while most of the six Liopholis species inhabit the eastern uplands of the MDB. 214

Guthega Skink Liopholis guthega

Liopholis guthega, Falls Creek, Victoria. Photo: S. K. Wilson

SVL: 111 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with tapering, cylindrical tail. Dorsum dark grey to blackish brown with broad pale vertebral and dorsolateral stripes with longitudinal rows of pale spots. Lacks dark vertical bar above forelimb. Head with relatively blunt snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 35–40. Ventral area grey. Ear lobules: 4–5. A movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Associated with rock outcrops in alpine heaths, woodlands and grasslands

LIZARDS

above 1600  m at Mount Kosciuszko NP, NSW and Bogong High Plains Victoria. Notes: A gregarious diurnal species observed foraging and retreating to burrow systems beneath rocks. Identification: Liopholis guthega has a restricted distribution but may overlap with L. whitii, which has a dark vertical bar above the forelimb, and L. montana which has a tan dorsal surface and no prominent stripes. Conservation status: Endangered (Commonwealth); Critically Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Upper Murray, Kiewa. Desert Skink Liopholis inornata

SVL: 84 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with tapering, cylindrical tail. Dorsum reddish brown to fawn with darkedged dorsal scales forming longitudinal lines. Lateral areas with darker spots and lips barred. Head with noticeably blunt snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 34–44. Ventral area white. Ear lobules: 3–6. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in semi-arid areas of sandy and loamy soils usually with spinifex or shrubs in the western MDB. Notes: A crepuscular to nocturnal species that constructs a burrow system usually at the base of a spinifex clump or shrub. Escape exits are often hidden just below the surface. Identification: Liopholis inornata overlaps in distribution with L. multiscutata from which it may be distinguished by its reddish brown colouration. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Eastern Ranges Rock Skink Liopholis modesta

Liopholis inornata, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 215

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Liopholis modesta, Muswellbrook, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 112 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with tapering, cylindrical tail. Dorsum light brown to grey with darkedged dorsal scales, forming longitudinal lines. Some white spots on side of neck near forelimb. Head with relatively blunt snout and pale rim around eyes. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 33–40. Ventral area grey to white. Pale ear lobules: 2–5. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Associated with rocky slopes within woodlands and dry sclerophyll forest of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal, gregarious species that shelters in burrows beneath rocks and logs. Identification: Liopholis modesta overlaps in distribution with L. whitii from which it may be distinguished by absence of a dark vertical bar above the forelimb. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh. Mountain Skink Liopholis montana SVL: 111 mm 216

Description: Body medium-sized and robust with tapering, cylindrical tail. Dorsum brown to tan with greyish brown vertebral zone scattered with dark brown irregular flecks. Upper lateral area black with rows of pale spots. Lacks dark vertical bar above forelimb. Head with relatively blunt snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 30–40. Ventral area grey. Ear lobules: 3–5. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Associated with rock outcrops in alpine woodlands and heathlands grasslands in the south-eastern MDB. Notes: A gregarious diurnal species that shelters beneath exfoliating rock slabs in crevices and burrow systems beneath rocks.

Liopholis montana, King Spur, Victoria. Photo: N. Clemann

LIZARDS

Identification: Liopholis montana may overlap in distribution with L. guthega, which is dark grey to blackish brown with broad pale vertebral and dorsolateral stripes, and L. whitii, which has a dark vertical bar above the forelimb. Conservation status: Data Deficient (Vic). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Bull Skink Liopholis multiscutata SVL: 96 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with tapering, cylindrical tail. Dorsum grey to greyish brown with black dorsal stripes enclosing series of pale spots and pale mid-dorsal stripe. Flanks with obscure pale and dark scales. Head with

noticeably blunt snout. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 37–46. Ventral area pale grey to cream. A movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Restricted to sandy soils in heathlands of the Big Desert in Victoria and adjoining areas of South Australia. Notes: This species inhabits a multientranced burrow system usually at the base of a shrub. Identification: Liopholis multiscutata overlaps in distribution with Liopholis inornata in the Big Desert in Victoria, but can be distinguished by its greyish brown colouring with black dorsal stripes. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Lower Murray. White’s Skink Liopholis whitii

Liopholis multiscutata, Coffin Bay, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 113 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with tapering, cylindrical tail. Dorsum colour variable from grey brown and striped with broad rusty vertebral stripe to plain backed. Lateral areas with darkedged pale spots. Dark vertical bar above forelimb enclosing one to three pale spots. Upper lip with a pale streak. Head with relatively blunt snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 30–44. Ventral area grey-white. Ear lobules: 2–5. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Mostly associated with dry woodlands and open forest with rock outcrops throughout the southern and eastern MDB. Also a small population recorded at Mutawintji NP in western NSW. 217

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Swamp skinks (Genus Lissolepis) This genus comprises two species of medium-sized, robust skinks, one occurring in south-western Australia and one in south-eastern Australia. One species occurs in the MDB. It has four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. The ear openings have anterior lobules and it has a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. It is livebearing. Similar species include Liopholis, which have eyelids with distinctive cream margins, and Eulamprus, which have ear openings without anterior lobules. Swamp Skink Lissolepis coventryi

Liopholis whitii, Grampians, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging throughout the day or sheltering in burrows beneath rock slabs and other ground debris. Identification: Liopholis whitii may overlap in distribution with L. guthega, L. modesta and L. montana, but is distinguished from these species by the dark vertical bar above the forelimb enclosing one to three pale spots. Conservation status: Endangered (western NSW population). MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. 218

Lissolepis coventryi, Western Port Bay, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

SVL: 100 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with tapering, cylindrical tail. Dorsum olive-brown with dark-edged scales, forming distinct dorso-lateral stripe on each side from nape to base of tail. Also a broad black lateral stripe from ear widening along flanks and enclosing some paler scales. Head with moderately rounded snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–24. Ventral area whitish. Ear lobules: 2. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Associated mostly with cool temperate swamps in the southern MDB. Notes: Shelters in burrows along swamp margins. Diurnal and nocturnal. Identification: Lissolepis coventryi may be confused with L. whitii but this species has a dark vertical bar above the forelimb enclosing one to three pale spots. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic). MDB catchments: Wimmera, LoddonAvoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens.

Tree Base Litter-skink Lygisaurus foliorum SVL: 39 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum pale to dark olivebrown with finely flecked black individual scales. Lips pale brown with darker flecks and sides with pale spots. Throat, hindlimbs and tail pinkish orange. Head with moderately pointed snout. Four well‑developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 21–25. Ventral area whitish. Conspicuous horizontal ear opening with a few minute, flat lobules. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Occurs in wet and dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands of the north-eastern MDB.

Litter-skinks (Genus Lygisaurus) This genus comprises 11 small species of skinks that mostly inhabit leaf litter and are restricted to eastern Australia. One species occurs in the MDB. It has four well-developed limbs with four fingers and five toes. There is a conspicuous ear opening with lobules and the lower eyelid is fused to form a fixed spectacle. It could be confused with Carlia species, which have a movable lower eyelid with a transparent disc, and Menetia and Pygmaescincus species, which all have minute ear openings without lobules.

Lygisaurus foliorum, Gladstone, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

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Notes: Inhabits deep leaf litter at the base of trees and logs. Identification: Lygisaurus foliorum has a lower eyelid fused to form a fixed spectacle and a conspicuous horizontal ear opening with enlarged lobules. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh.

Dwarf skinks (Genus Menetia) This group comprises five very small skink species distributed throughout Australia. One species occurs in the MDB. It has four short limbs with four fingers and five toes. There is a distinct ear opening without lobules. The lower eyelid is fused to form a fixed spectacle. It is oviparous. It could be confused with Carlia species, which have a movable lower eyelid with a transparent disc, and Lygisaurus, which has a conspicuous ear opening with lobules, and Pygmaescincus species, which has a small but distinct ear opening. Common Dwarf Skink Menetia greyii SVL: 38 mm Description: Body small and elongated with short limbs and long slender tail. Dorsum brown to grey–brown with some darker flecks, forming longitudinal lines. Black dorso-lateral stripe bordered below by midlateral white stripe from nostril to tail. Head with short, pointed snout. Four short limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–24. Ventral area yellow. Distinct ear opening without lobules. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. 220

Menetia greyii, Currawinya National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Habitat: Occurs in arid and semi-arid woodlands and grassland throughout most of the MDB. Notes: A terrestrial, diurnal species, though cryptozoic, sheltering among leaf litter and surface debris. Identification: Menetia greyii can be identified from other four-fingered skinks by having a lower eyelid fused to form a fixed spectacle and a small, but distinct, ear opening without lobules. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe.

LIZARDS

Snake-eyed skinks (Genus Morethia) This genus comprises eight species of small, slender skinks that occur throughout Australia, mostly in arid areas. Four species occur in the MDB. They are diurnal and active with four well-developed limbs, each with five digits. The lower eyelid is fused to form a fixed spectacle. All species are oviparous. They could be confused with Cryptoblepharus species, but they have a dorsally depressed body. Saltbush Morethia Morethia adelaidensis SVL: 53 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown to

grey with black markings forming broken lines. Usually, pale dorso-lateral stripe from eye to base of tail, bordered below by darker brown upper-lateral stripe enclosing pale scattered flecks. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–34. Ventral area white and flushed with orangepink in breeding males. Ear opening with distinct anterior lobules. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Usually associated with chenopod shrublands and woodlands of the western MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging throughout the day among ground cover. Identification: Morethia adelaidensis occurs in the western MDB and usually has broad dark brown upper lateral stripes enclosing pale scattered flecks and usually five supraciliaries, with the last three largest. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Paroo, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera. Boulenger’s Morethia Morethia boulengeri

Morethia adelaidensis, Balranald, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to grey with scattered darker and lighter flecks. Some darker mid-dorsal markings and two-toned, with dark upper lateral area bordered below by white mid-lateral stripe. Head with pointed snout. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–32. Ventral area white and flushed with orangepink in breeding males. Ear opening with 221

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Shrubland Pale-flecked Morethia Morethia obscura SVL: 56 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown to olive-grey with or without obscure dorsal pattern. Sometimes with small, indistinct, pale-centred ocelli and pale mid-lateral stripe. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Ventral area white and flushed with orange-pink in breeding males. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Mostly associated with mallee/ spinifex, dry woodlands and heaths in the south-western MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging and basking throughout the day. Morethia boulengeri, Nearie Lake, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

distinct anterior lobules. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Occurs mostly in association with dry woodlands throughout the MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed basking and foraging throughout the day. Identification: Morethia boulengeri occurs throughout the MDB and has broad black upper lateral stripes and usually six supraciliaris, with the 1st and 3rd the largest. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens. 222

Morethia obscura, Little Desert National Park, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

LIZARDS

Identification: Morethia obscura occurs in the south-western MDB and sometimes has pale mid-lateral stripes and usually six supraciliaries, with the 4th the largest. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Wimmera. Eastern Fire-tailed Skink Morethia taeniopleura SVL: 42 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to greybrown and two-toned with black upper lateral area bordered below by white midlateral stripe. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers

and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–34. Ventral area white and flushed with orange-pink in breeding males. Reddish flush on hips, hindlimbs and base of tail. Ear openings without obvious anterior lobules. Lower eyelid fused to form fixed spectacle. Habitat: Mostly associated with dry woodlands and rock outcrops in the northeastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging throughout the day, often in dense leaf litter. Identification: Morethia taeniopleura occurs in the north-eastern MDB and has broad black upper lateral and broad white lower lateral stripes with an intense reddish flush on the tail. Also usually five supraciliaries, the 5th being minute. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Tussock skinks and bog skinks (Genus Pseudemoia)

Morethia taeniopleura, Wivenhoe Dam area, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

This genus consists of six small species of smooth-scaled, slender skinks occurring mostly in cooler woodlands and grasslands of south-eastern Australia. Five species occur in the MDB. They have four well-developed limbs with five digits on each. The ear opening lacks lobules. The frontoparietal scales are paired. They have a movable lower eyelid enclosing a large transparent disc. All species are livebearing. Similar species include Acritoscincus and Lampropholis, both with frontoparietals fused into a single shield, and Carinascincus, with parietal shields in contact behind the interparietal. 223

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Alpine Bog Skink Pseudemoia cryodroma

alpine grasslands above the winter snowline. Notes: A diurnal species that is active during cool sunny periods. Identification: Pseudemoia cryodroma is restricted to the higher altitude areas of Victoria. Its pattern is distinctive, usually having just a narrow black vertebral stripe and no other dark dorsal stripes on the dorsum. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Upper Murray, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Southern Grass Skink Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii SVL: 58–64 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown to

Pseudemoia cryodroma, Falls Creek, Victoria. Photo: S. K. Wilson

SVL: 55–60 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum metallic brown with green iridescence and narrow black vertebral stripe with narrow pale dorsolateral stripe on each side. Upper lateral zone dark and mid-lateral stripe salmon or white. Head with pointed snout. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–32. Ventral area silvery white. Supraciliaries: 3–6. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs around boggy creeks and rock outcrops in heaths, woodlands and 224

Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii, Mount Donnabuang, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

LIZARDS

Goulburn-Broken, Mitta-Mitta.

Ovens,

Kiewa,

Tussock Skink Pseudemoia pagenstecheri

Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii (spotted form), Mount Eccles, south-west Victoria. Photo: N. Clemann

grey-brown, usually with narrow dark brown vertebral stripe from nape to base of tail and narrow pale dorso-lateral stripe on each side. Some with pale or dark speckling. Upper lateral zone dark and a mid-lateral salmon or white stripe. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 28–34. Ventral area silvery grey or white. Supraciliaries: 5. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats but mostly associated with forests, woodlands and grasslands of the southern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed basking throughout the day or sheltering beneath rock slabs and other ground debris. Identification: Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii is generally identified by having a pale dorso-lateral stripe centred on 4th scale row from midline, usually with disrupted stripes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe,

SVL: 59–62 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown to grey-brown, always with narrow black vertebral stripe from nape to base of tail and narrow pale dorso-lateral stripe on each side. Upper lateral zone dark and mid-lateral salmon or white stripe. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 26–34. Ventral area silvery grey to pale yellow. Supraciliaries: usually 5. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc.

Pseudemoia pagenstecheri, Coolah Tops National Park, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 225

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Habitat: Mostly associated with tussock grasslands in the south-eastern MDB but also occurs in the eastern highlands of NSW. Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging and basking throughout the day or sheltering beneath rock slabs and other ground debris. Identification: Pseudemoia pagenstecheri is generally identified by having a pale dorsolateral stripe centred on 4th scale row from midline, usually with continuous stripes. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic, Tas); Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Namoi, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Glossy Grass Skink Pseudemoia rawlinsoni SVL: 62 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive-brown to grey-brown with narrow black vertebral stripe from nape to base of tail and narrow pale dorso-lateral stripe on each side. Upper lateral zone dark and mid-lateral stripe pale. Head with pointed snout. Four

Pseudemoia rawlinsoni, Kosciuszko National Park, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 23–30. Ventral area silvery grey or whitish. Supraciliaries: usually 6. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Mostly associated with marshlands around the edge of swamps and boggy creeks in the south-eastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed basking throughout the day or sheltering in vegetation. Identification: Pseudemoia rawlinsoni can be identified by the cream dorso-lateral stripe centred on 3rd scale row from the midline and usually having six supraciliaries. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic, SA); Rare (Tas). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray. Spencer’s Skink Pseudemoia spenceri SVL: 65 mm Description: Body small and dorsally depressed with long slender tail. Dorsum dark brown to black usually with pale olive-brown vertebral stripe from nape to base of tail. Conspicuous pale silver or golden dorso-lateral stripe on each side

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Pygmy skinks (Genus Pygmaescincus)

Pseudemoia spenceri, Mount Baw Baw, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

and irregular scattered pale spots. Upper lateral zone dark, enclosing small, scattered pale spots. Head with pointed snout. Four well-developed long limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 37–48. Ventral area whitish. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in wet sclerophyll forest to subalpine woodlands in the south-eastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species usually observed basking on trees and rock faces. Identification: Pseudemoia spenceri can be identified by having distinct supranasal scales and a dark dorsum with pale silver or golden dorso-lateral stripes and scattered pale spots.

This genus comprises three very small species of skinks occurring in eastern Queensland. One species is found in the MDB. It has four short limbs with four fingers and five toes. It has a minute ear opening without lobules. The frontoparietal scales are fused to form one shield. The lower eyelid is partially fused to form a fixed spectacle. It is oviparous. Similar species include Lygisaurus, which has a conspicuous ear opening with lobules, and Menetia, with the ear opening small but distinct). Low’s Dwarf Skink Pygmaeascincus timlowi SVL: 29 mm Description: Body small and elongated with well-developed limbs and long slender tail. Body pale brown to dark brown with darker flecks on individual scales and fine pale spotting on flanks and limbs. Tail often rich reddish brown. Head with short, pointed snout. Lips pale brown and flecked with dark brown. Four short limbs with four fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 18–20. Ventral area whitish, sometimes with brown flecks. Minute ear opening without lobules. Lower eyelid partially fused to form fixed spectacle. 227

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the MDB. The head has a narrowly rounded snout. It has four short limbs, each with three digits. There is no ear opening. It has a movable lower eyelid without a transparent disc. It is livebearing. Similar species include Calyptotis, which has five digits on each limb, and Hemiergis, which has a movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc. Three-toed Skink Saiphos equalis SVL: 75 mm Description: Body small and elongated with long slender tail. Dorsum glossy brown to copper with numerous minute dark brown dots tending to form indistinct longitudinal lines. Side of head and flanks darker than

Pygmaeascincus timlowi, Barakula State Forest, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Habitat: Associated with dry sclerophyll forest and woodland in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A swift diurnal species that inhabits leaf litter at the base of trees and shrubs. Identification: Pygmaeascincus timlowi may be confused with Menetia greyii, but that species has a higher number of mid-body scales and interparietal scale is distinct from the frontoparietals. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Three-toed Skink (Genus Saiphos) This genus has a single species of elongated skink found in eastern Australia and also in 228

Saiphos equalis, Lower Beechmont, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

LIZARDS

dorsum and usually with some paler flecks. Head with narrowly rounded snout. Four short limbs, each with three digits. Mid-body scale rows: 18–20. Ventral area pale yellow to orange. Ear opening absent. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in wet and dry sclerophyll forest, heathlands and rainforest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A burrowing lizard that shelters beneath logs and rocks. Gregarious and often found in large numbers. Identification: Saiphos equalis is similar to Hemiergis talbingoensis davisi, but that species has a movable lower eyelid enclosing a transparent disc and a thin dorsolateral stripe with a pale lateral zone. It also has two thin dark paravertebral stripes. Saiphos equalis has a thick dark dorsolateral stripe merging with a dark lateral zone. It rarely has any continuous dorsal stripes. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi.

Weasel Skink Saproscincus mustelinus

Shadeskinks (Genus Saproscincus)

SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum grey to orangebrown with scattered pale and dark flecks and obscure pale dorso-lateral stripe from nape to base of tail. Often, series of dark brown streaks on lower flanks. Head with pointed snout. Distinctive pale mark behind eye. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–26. Ventral area white to lemon yellow. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in wet and dry sclerophyll forest of the southern and eastern MDB.

This genus comprises 12 small slender skinks found in moist, shaded habitats of eastern Australia. Three species occur in the MDB. They have paired frontoparietals and a pale spot on rear base of hindlimb. The lower eyelid is movable, enclosing a transparent disc. They are diurnal and crepuscular, and oviparous. Similar species include Lampropholis, which has frontoparietals fused to form a single shield.

Saproscincus mustelinus, Lilydale, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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Notes: A sedentary species usually found among leaf litter, beneath damp logs and other ground debris. Identification: Saproscincus mustelinus can be identified by the distinctive pale mark behind the eye. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Upper Murray, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Rose’s Shadeskink Saproscincus rosei SVL: 64 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to reddish brown with some scattered pale markings and dark brown streak from nostril

continuing behind eye and over ear as broad dark upper lateral zone. Numerous pale blotches. Head with pointed snout. Lower lip finely spotted with brown. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–26. Ventral area white or yellow with some darker flecks. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Usually associated with rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest of the northeastern MDB. Notes: A sedentary species that basks and forages among ground debris. Identification: Saproscincus rosei has 17–24 subdigital lamellae under the 4th toe. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Gully Skink Saproscincus spectabilis SVL: 59 mm Description: Body small and slender with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to reddish brown with scattered pale and dark flecks forming variegated pattern. Dark brown streak from nostril continuing behind eye and over ear as broad dark upper lateral zone. Numerous pale blotches. Head with

Saproscincus rosei, Barrington Tops, New South Wales. Photo: M. McFadden 230

LIZARDS

Similar species include Cyclodomorphus, which lacks the row of subocular scales between eye and upper labial scales), and Egernia rugosa and Bellatorias species in the north-eastern MDB, but these large skinks each have unique colours and patterns. Blotched Blue-tongue Tiliqua nigrolutea Saproscincus spectabilis, Sydney, New South Wales. Photo: G. Swan

pointed snout. Lower lip finely spotted with brown. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 22–24. Ventral area white to bright yellow. Movable lower eyelid enclosing transparent disc. Habitat: Usually associated with rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest of the northeastern MDB. Notes: A sedentary species found among moist ground litter. Identification: Saproscincus spectabilis has 22–28 subdigital lamellae under the 4th toe. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

SVL: 300 mm Description: Body large and elongated with smooth scales and short, tapering tail. Dorsum dark brown to black with series of whitish, yellow, pale cream to salmon-pink blotches, which may be irregular or aligned longitudinally and form bands on tail. Sometimes, dark temporal streak from above eye to above ear. Head pale and finely

Blue-tongued Skinks and Shingleback (Genus Tiliqua) This genus comprises six medium-sized to very large skinks distributed throughout Australia. Four species occur in the MDB. They have four short limbs each with five short digits. There is a row of subocular scales between the eye and upper labial scales. The lower eyelid is movable and lacks a transparent disc. They have a large, flat blue tongue. All species are livebearing and omnivorous. If threatened, they will open the mouth widely and extend the tongue.

Tiliqua nigrolutea, Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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variegated with dark and light markings. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 28–32. Ventral area cream, pink or yellow with darker mottling. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in wet sclerophyll forest, woodlands and grasslands in the southern MDB. Notes: A diurnal species observed basking throughout the day or sheltering beneath rock slabs, logs and other ground debris. Identification: Tiliqua nigrolutea can be distinguished from the other large bluetongued lizards by its southern distribution and blotched pattern. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Western Blue-tongue Tiliqua occipitalis SVL: 320 mm Description: Body large and elongated with smooth scales and short, tapering tail. Dorsum yellowish brown with series of four to six broad, dark bands on body and three to

Tiliqua occipitalis, Great Victoria Desert, Western Australia. Photo: D. Goodall

four forming complete rings on tail. Head pale brown and broad, dark temporal stripe from eye to above ear. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 38–42. Ventral area whitish and throat with some speckling. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in semi-arid heathlands and mallee woodlands with spinifex in the south-western MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species usually observed foraging and basking throughout the day. Identification: Tiliqua occipitalis can be distinguished from the other large bluetongued lizards by its south-western distribution and a pattern of four to six broad bands on the body and three to four on the tail. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Vic); Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera. Shingleback Tiliqua rugosa aspera SVL: 310 mm Description: Body large and elongated with large, rugose scales and short, blunt tail. Dorsum black to reddish brown, often with

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe. Common Blue-tongue Tiliqua scincoides scincoides SVL: 320 mm Description: Body large and elongated with smooth scales and short, tapering tail. Dorsum silvery grey to yellow-brown with series of dark brown to black crossbands along body and tail. Ear opening conspicuous

Tiliqua rugosa aspera, Stawell, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

white or yellow blotches. Head triangular and broad. Ear opening conspicuous without anterior lobules. Four well‑developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 20–30. Ventral area whitish with some darker streaks. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats, mainly in semi-arid woodlands throughout most of the MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging throughout the day or sheltering beneath vegetation and ground debris. Pairs are considered to mate for life. Identification: Tiliqua rugosa aspera can be distinguished from the other large bluetongued lizards by its large triangular head, short blunt tail and large, rugose scales.

Tiliqua scincoides scincoides, Mary Seymour Conservation Park, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

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with two or three large anterior lobules. Broad, dark temporal stripe from eye to above ear. Four well-developed limbs with five fingers and five toes. Mid-body scale rows: 24–40. Ventral area whitish, yellowish or pinkish. Movable lower eyelid without transparent disc. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from forests and woodlands to rocky grasslands throughout the MDB. Also frequents farmland and town gardens. Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging and basking throughout the day or sheltering beneath ground debris.

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Identification: Tiliqua scincoides scincoides can be distinguished from the other large blue-tongued lizards by its greatly enlarged temporal scales and a pattern of six to nine pale bands on the body and seven to 10 on the tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, L achlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa.

Dragons (Family Agamidae)

Dragon lizards occur from the western Pacific, through Australia, Asia to Africa and Europe. There are 89 species recorded from Australia, with 21 species in the MDB. Most occur in arid and semi-arid open habitat. The majority of species are terrestrial, though some are arboreal and even semi-aquatic. They are broadly similar with four limbs each with five clawed digits and rough scalation often with tubercles and spines. They have a movable, scaly eyelid. Smaller species feed on invertebrates while larger species tend to be omnivorous. All Australian species are oviparous, producing from two to 30 soft-shelled eggs that are deposited in a burrow dug by the female. They are diurnal, sun loving lizards and can be found throughout the MDB.

Burns’ Dragon Amphibolurus burnsi

Tree dragons (Genus Amphibolurus) This genus comprises four medium-sized species found in southern, northern and eastern Australia. Three species occur in the MDB. They have well-developed long limbs and their thighs are covered with large scattered spinose scales. The tympanum is exposed. They have pre-anal and femoral pores. Similar species include Diporiphora, which have a pink mouth lining/thighs not covered with large scattered spinose scales, and Pogona, which have a row of spines across base of head, and Rankinia which have a row of enlarged spinose scales along each side of the tail base.

Amphibolurus burnsi, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

SVL: 135 mm Description: Body medium-sized with long slender tail and a well-developed spinose nuchal and vertebral crest. Dorsum grey or fawn to almost black with two prominent pale dorso-lateral stripes from shoulder to base of tail. Head with a pointed snout and broad pale labial stripe along lower jaw from chin to side of neck. Ventral area 235

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whitish. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 8–18 widely separated. Habitat: Associated with dry woodlands and open forest and along inland watercourses of the northern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal, semi-arboreal species observed foraging and basking throughout the day. Identification: Amphibolurus burnsi occurs only in the northern MDB and can be identified by having a pink or fleshcoloured mouth-lining and thighs covered with large scattered spinose scales. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir. Jacky Lizard Amphibolurus muricatus SVL: 120 mm Description: Body medium-sized with long slender tail and well-developed spinose nuchal and vertebral crest. Dorsum pale grey to dark brown with series of pale dorsal blotches along vertebral line and bordered by pale dorso-lateral stripe from nape to base of tail. Head with pointed snout. Ventral area whitish to pale yellowish brown. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 10–20 widely separated. Habitat: Associated with dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands of the southern and eastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal, semi-arboreal species usually observed foraging on the ground or basking on low branches. Identification: Amphibolurus muricatus can be identified by having a yellowcoloured mouth-lining, thighs covered with large scattered spinose scales and no dark stripe between nostril and eye. 236

Amphibolurus muricatus, Central coast, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, BarwonDarling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Mallee Tree Dragon Amphibolurus norrisi SVL: 115 mm Description: Body medium-sized with long slender tail and well-developed spinose nuchal and vertebral crest. Dorsum pale grey to grey-brown with series of pale lozenge-shaped blotches along vertebral line and bordered by pale dorso-lateral

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Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Wimmera.

Frilled Lizard (Genus Chlamydosaurus) The ionic Frilled Lizard is the only member of this genus and very distinctive, with a loose scaly frill that it erects when threatened. It is a large dragon with big hindlimbs and a long tail. Associated more with tropical woodlands of northern and eastern Australia, the Frilled Lizard is also recorded from the north-eastern edge of the MDB. Frilled Lizard Chlamydosaurus kingii

Amphibolurus norrisi, Big Desert, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

stripe from nape to base of tail. Darker flanks. Head with pointed snout. Ventral area whitish to pale brown. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 8–20. Habitat: Found in Mallee woodlands with heath and spinifex in north-western Victoria and adjacent south-eastern South Australia. Notes: An active diurnal, semi-arboreal species usually observed basking on low branches and foliage. Identification: Amphibolurus norrisi is restricted to the south-western MDB and can be identified by having a yellowcoloured mouth-lining, thighs covered with large scattered spinose scales and a dark stripe between nostril and eye.

SVL: 258 mm Description: Body large and robust with long slender tail. Dorsum grey-brown with obscure darker mottling on dorsum and flanks. Head with pointed snout, conspicuous ear openings and prominent large frill. Ventral area whitish to pale yellow and males with black belly. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 6–20, widely spaced. Habitat: Occurs in dry woodlands and open forest in the north-eastern MDB.

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short limbs. Many species are very swift and some retreat to a burrow, often at the base of a small bush. Mallee Military Dragon Ctenophorus fordi SVL: 58 mm Description: Body small and stout with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to reddish brown with prominent pale dorso-lateral and lateral stripes and black blotches below and above stripes. Throat of male marked with black bars or spots. Head with blunt snout. Tympanum conspicuous. Ventral area whitish. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 22–43. Habitat: Mostly associated with sandy areas of mallee woodlands and spinifex in the south-western MDB.

Chlamydosaurus kingii, Kippa-Ring, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Notes: A diurnal arboreal species that perches on vertical tree trunks. Not usually observed during dry conditions. Identification: Chlamydosaurus kingii is a unique large lizard and easily identified by the loose scaly frill. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Terrestrial dragons (Genus Ctenophorus) This genus contains 32 small to mediumsized species that occur in arid and semiarid areas throughout Australia. Just three species are found in the MDB. They are round-headed with a row of enlarged scales curving under each eye. Most are very colourful lizards with four 238

Ctenophorus fordi, Hattah, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

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Notes: An active diurnal species usually observed darting between clumps of spinifex and ground debris. Identification: Ctenophorus fordi overlaps in range with C. nuchalis and C. pictus. It is distinguished by its smaller adult size and distinctive colour pattern. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Central-netted Dragon Ctenophorus nuchalis SVL: 115 mm Description: Body medium-sized and stout with long slender tail. Dorsum brown to bright orange-brown or reddish brown with dark brown reticulations.

Usually, narrow pale vertebral stripe and scattered pale spots from head to base of tail. Head with blunt snout and small spiny nuchal crest. Tympanum large and conspicuous. Ventral area whitish with grey reticulations on throat. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 12–35. Habitat: Occurs mainly in open country of red sandy or loamy soils in the arid northwestern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species usually observed perching on logs, rocks and roadside verges. Retreats to a nearby burrow if disturbed or when daytime temperatures become excessive. Identification: Ctenophorus nuchalis overlaps in range with C. fordi and C. pictus. It is distinguished by its larger adult size and distinctive colour pattern. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling. Painted Dragon Ctenophorus pictus

Ctenophorus nuchalis, Bourke, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

SVL: 65 mm Description: Body small and stout with long slender tail. Dorsum of male blue-grey to reddish brown, usually with dark vertebral stripe and series of dark blotches. Pairs of paravertebral black spots with narrow cream or yellow dark-edged bars or rows of pale spots between. Females and juveniles mostly brown with pale markings. Head with blunt snout. Tympanum large and conspicuous. Ventral area whitish, flushed with blue in breeding males. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 32–45. Habitat: Mostly associated with sandy soil in arid shrublands with low vegetation in the western MDB. 239

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habitats. Two species occur in the MDB. Each has long limbs, a rounded head and an exposed tympanum. They possess pre-anal (and rarely femoral) pores. The thighs lack large scattered spinose scales. Amphibolurus is a similar species, but has a yellow mouth-lining and thighs covered with large scattered spinose scales. Tommy Roundhead Diporiphora australis SVL: 50 mm Description: Body small with long slender tail and enlarged dorso-lateral scale row. Dorsum grey to yellowish brown or reddish brown with pale grey vertebral stripe and cream to yellow dorso-lateral

Ctenophorus pictus, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

Notes: An active diurnal species usually observed perching on small sandhills or low vegetation where it retreats rapidly into a burrow if disturbed. Identification: Ctenophorus pictus overlaps in range with C. fordi and C. nuchalis. It is distinguished by its different adult size and distinctive colour pattern. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera.

Roundhead dragons and nobbi dragons (Genus Diporiphora) This genus has 21 small species distributed throughout Australia in a variety of 240

Diporiphora australis, Coen, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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stripes. Series of dark bars between nape and base of tail. Head with pointed snout and mouth with pink lining. Ventral area whitish, flecked with brown. Males with two to four pre-anal pores and sometimes two femoral pores. Habitat: Associated more with the coast and hinterland of Queensland but occurs in dry woodlands in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species usually observed perched on low shrubs and branches of fallen trees. Identification: This species overlaps in distribution with Diporiphora nobbi only in the north-eastern MDB. Diporiphora australis has folds across the throat, along the shoulder and behind the ear and two to four pre-anal pores, whereas D. nobbi has an arc of spines behind the ear and 3–12 pre-anal pores. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers. Common Nobbi Dragon Diporiphora nobbi SVL: 84 mm Description: Body medium-sized with long slender tail. Dorsum grey to brown with pair of pale cream to yellow dorsolateral stripes. Series of paired dark blotches between nape and base of tail. Head with pointed snout, five regular dorsal crests and arc of spines behind ear. Mouth with pink lining. Ventral area whitish to pale grey. Males with 3–12 pre-anal pores. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from mallee woodlands with spinifex in the south-west to other dry woodlands throughout most of the MDB.

Diporiphora nobbi, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

Notes: An active diurnal species observed foraging throughout the day or basking in low trees. Identification: This species overlaps in distribution with Diporiphora australis only in the north-eastern MDB. Diporiphora nobbi has an arc of spines behind the ear and 3–12 pre-anal pores, whereas D. australis has folds across the throat, along the shoulder and behind the ear and two to four pre-anal pores. Diporiphora nobbi adults almost always have a pink flush to the tail base. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray. 241

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Water dragons (Genus Intellagama) These familiar large dragon lizards occur in association with waterways along the coast and hinterland of eastern Australia. There are two subspecies and both occur within the MDB. Both are gregarious and often observed in large colonies. They have a laterally compressed body and tail with prominent spinose nuchal and vertebral crests and well-developed powerful limbs. The tympanum is exposed. Gippsland Water Dragon Intellagama lesueurii howittii SVL: 245 mm Description: Body large and robust with long laterally compressed tail. Dorsum dark

olive green with orange, yellow or blue throat and pale variegations becoming noticeable paler bands along tail. Head with moderately pointed snout, conspicuous ear openings and prominent nuchal crest. Ventral area grey-brown. Femoral pores: 12–22 on each side. Habitat: Occurs in association with waterways in the Canberra region and west to Tooma in the Upper Murray Catchment of the south-eastern MDB. Notes: This is an active semi-aquatic, arboreal, diurnal species observed basking during the day close to water and will rapidly flee if disturbed. Identification: Intellagama lesueurii howittii is readily identified by its small distribution in the MDB, large size and distinctive colouring. It usually lacks a dark stripe behind the eye. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee. Eastern Water Dragon Intellagama lesueurii lesueurii

Intellagama lesueurii howittii, Genoa Falls, Victoria. Photo: D. Goodall 242

SVL: 245 mm Description: Body large and robust with long laterally compressed tail. Dorsum grey or grey-brown with pale variegations becoming noticeable paler bands along tail. Head with moderately pointed snout, conspicuous ear openings and prominent nuchal crest. Usually, dark stripe behind eye. Ventral area yellow brown and mature males with bright red flush. Femoral pores: 12–22 on each side. Habitat: Occurs in association with waterways in the mid- to north-eastern region of the MDB. Notes: An active, semi-aquatic or arboreal, diurnal species observed basking during the

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eastern Australia. One species occurs in the MDB, but is associated more with the coast and ranges. This is a moderately large arboreal lizard with a laterally compressed body and four long limbs. It has a heavy angular head with spinose nuchal crest and exposed tympanum. It is similar to Intellagama, which has a moderately pointed snout and a dark stripe behind the eye. Southern Angle-headed Dragon Lophosaurus spinipes

Intellagama lesueurii lesueurii, Brisbane, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

day close to water and will rapidly flee if disturbed. Identification: Intellagama lesueurii lesueurii is readily identified by its mid- to north-eastern distribution in the MDB, large size and distinctive colouring. It usually has a dark stripe behind the eye. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan.

SVL: 110 mm Description: Body moderately large and laterally compressed with long slender tail and well-developed nuchal and vertebral crests. Dorsum usually with scattered dark brown irregular flecks, spots and variegations. Head with pointed snout and angular canthus rostralis. Enlarged spinose scales on upper surface of limbs. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Occurs in subtropical rainforest and along edges of wet sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal species usually observed perching on vertical narrow-trunked trees in dappled sunlight.

Rainforest dragons (Genus Lophosaurus) This genus contains only two species that are restricted to subtropical and tropical rainforest and adjacent moist forest of 243

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Dorsal view of bearded dragon heads

spines at rear of head form a backwards curving arch

Eastern Bearded Dragon (Pogona barbata)

Dorsal view of bearded dragon heads

spines at rear of head in a line

Lophosaurus spinipes, Mount Glorious, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Identification: Lophosaurus spinipes has a very restricted distribution in the MDB and is easily recognised by its distinct features and pattern. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Bearded dragons (Genus Pogona) This is a group of six medium-sized to very large species distributed mostly in arid and semi-arid areas of Australia. Two species occur in the MDB. They have a very spinose body, slightly dorsally depressed with long limbs. There are rows of spines across the base of the head and along the side of the body. The tympanum is exposed and prominent, and 244

Central Bearded Dragon (Pogona vitticeps)

they have a well-developed beard. If threatened, they will flatten the body, open the mouth to display the interior and extend the beard. Similar species include Amphibolurus, which does not have a row of spines across the base of the head. Eastern Bearded Dragon Pogona barbata SVL: 250 mm Description: Body large and spinose with long slender tail. Dorsum pale grey to fawn or brown with two rows of pale blotches from nape to base of tail. Head broad with

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MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi Macquarie-C astlereagh, L achlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken. Central Bearded Dragon Pogona vitticeps SVL: 250 mm Description: Body large and spinose with long slender tail. Dorsum pale grey to reddish orange with two rows of pale blotches from nape to base of tail. Head broad with moderately pointed snout, sometimes with bright orange flush around eye. Interior of mouth pink. Throat with well-developed roundish beard. Ventral area

Pogona barbata, Terrick Terrick National Park, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

moderately pointed snout. Interior of mouth usually bright yellow. Throat with well-developed squarish beard. Ventral area whitish and sometimes throat brown to black in mature males. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 10–30. Habitat: Mostly associated with woodlands and dry sclerophyll forest from the southern to north-eastern MDB. Notes: An active, terrestrial or arboreal, diurnal species usually observed foraging throughout the day or perched on fence posts, tree stumps and low vegetation. Identification: Pogona barbata can be distinguished from P. vitticeps by the backward curving arch of spines across the base of the head. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic).

Pogona vitticeps, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 245

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whitish, and sometimes throat brown to black in adult males. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 10–30. Habitat: Mostly associated with arid and semi-arid woodlands but also dry sclerophyll forest from the south-western to north-western MDB. Notes: An active, terrestrial or arboreal, diurnal species observed foraging and perched on roadside verges, fence posts, tree stumps and in low vegetation. Identification: Pogona vitticeps can be distinguished from Pogona barbata by the straight line of spines across the base of the head. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

Mountain Heath Dragon (Genus Rankinia) The single species in this genus is restricted mostly to the cooler mountainous forests of south-eastern Australia and Tasmania. It has a small and spinose body with a row of enlarged spinose scales along each side of tail base. The tympanum is exposed. It has Four short limbs and femoral and pre-anal pores. Similar species include Amphibolurus, which have no row of enlarged spinose scales along each side of the tail base, and Tympanocryptis, with the tympanum concealed by scaly skin. Mountain Heath Dragon Rankinia diemensis SVL: 82 mm Description: Body small and spinose with relatively short tail and row of enlarged spinose scales along each side of tail base. 246

Rankinia diemensis, Grampians, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

Dorsum grey to reddish brown with two rows of dark-edged pale blotches from nape to base of tail. Head rounded with blunt snout and tympanum exposed. Obscure pale bar between eyes. Ventral area white or cream and flecked in black. Pre-anal and femoral pores: 12–24. Habitat: Occurs in woodland, open forest and heathland in the southern and southeastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal species usually observed basking throughout the day on fallen braches, rocks and logs. Identification: Rankinia diemensis can be identified by having an exposed tympanum, and a row of enlarged spinose scales along each side of tail base.

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Conser vation status: Grampians population in western Victoria is Critically Endangered. MDB catchments: Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Earless dragons (Genus Tympanocryptis) This genus contains 15 species of small dragon lizards occurring mostly in arid and semi-arid open habitats throughout Australia. Six species are found in the MDB. They are characterised by the tympanic region being covered in scaly skin. The body is small and spinose with a rounded head, blunt snout and short limbs. Similar species include Rankinia diemensis in which the tympanum is exposed. Condamine Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis condaminensis SVL: 63 mm Description: Body small and spinose with relatively short slender tail. Dorsum brown to grey with narrow pale vertebral stripe and broader dorsolateral and narrow midlateral stripes overlying series of broad dark bands. Pale bar across head between eyes and three prominent pale spots on snout. Head rounded with blunt snout and tympanum covered in scaly skin. Mature males develop bright orange throats during spring. Ventral area and lower lateral area with pale and dark banding. Pre-anal pores: 2. Habitat: Restricted to reduced grassland roadside verges and farmed areas of eastern Darling Downs, Queensland from

Tympanocryptis condaminensis, Bongeen, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

just west of Toowoomba to Dalby, north to Pirrinuan/Jambour area and south to Clifton. Notes: A terrestrial diurnal species and has been observed in exposed areas and perched upon rocks or masses of soil. Id e nt i f i c at i on : Ty mp an o c r y pt i s condaminensis is the only species of earless dragon occurring in its restricted distribution. Conservation status: Endangered (Qld, Commonwealth). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. Smooth-snouted Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis intima SVL: 61 mm Description: Body small and spinose with relatively short slender tail. Dorsum 247

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has four pores, a pre-anal and femoral pore on each side (males). Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo. Lined Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis lineata SVL: 58 mm Description: Body small and spinose with relatively short slender tail. Dorsum pale grey to brown or reddish brown with narrow pale vertebral stripe and dorsolateral stripes through five dark bands between nape and base of tail. Pale bar between eyes. Head rounded with blunt snout and tympanum covered in scaly skin. Neck as broad as base of head. Ventral area whitish, sometimes with darker flecks. Single pre-anal pore on each side (males). Tympanocryptis intima, Birdsville, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

yellow-brown to reddish brown, usually with obscure darker blotches either side of vertebral line. Greyish bar across nape. Head rounded with blunt snout and tympanum covered in scaly skin. Neck narrower than head. Ventral area whitish. Single pre-anal pore on each side (males). Habitat: Associated more with arid stony regions and spinifex flats of the Lake Eyre Basin, this species has been recorded in the Paroo catchment of the north-western MDB. Notes: A terrestrial diurnal species that inhabits gibber plains where its colouring and body shape blend into the environment. Identification: Tympanocryptis intima usually has a single pre-anal pore on each side (males) and overlaps in distribution with Tympanocryptis tetraporophora, which 248

Tympanocryptis lineata, north-west Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats but mostly associated with shrublands and mallee woodlands of the south-western MDB. Notes: A diurnal species observed basking on ground debris and retreats into earth cracks and low vegetation. Identification: Tympanocryptis lineata usually has a single pre-anal pore on each side (males) and appears to overlap in distribution only with T. tetraporophora, which has four pores, a pre-anal and femoral pore on each side (males). Conservation status: Critically Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Grassland Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis pinguicolla

SVL: 55 mm Description: Body small and spinose with relatively short slender tail. Dorsum pale grey to brown with narrow pale vertebral stripe and dorso-lateral stripes through five dark bands between nape and base of tail. Pale bar between eyes. Head rounded with blunt snout and tympanum covered in scaly skin. Neck as broad as base of head. Ventral area whitish, sometimes flecked in grey, brown or black. Single pre-anal pore on each side and occasionally with one femoral pore on each side (males). Habitat: Associated with temperate native grasslands in ACT, Monaro Plains and Bathurst, NSW. Notes: A diurnal species observed basking throughout the day or sheltering in soil cracks and invertebrate holes. Identification: Tympanocryptis pinguicolla is the only species of earless dragon in the south-eastern MDB. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW, ACT, Commonwealth); Critically Endangered (Vic); Vulnerable (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Macquarie-Castlereagh, Murrumbidgee. Eyrean Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis tetraporophora

Tympanocryptis pinguicolla, Canberra region, Australian Capital Territory. Photo: S. Mahony

SVL: 74 mm Description: Body small and spinose with relatively short slender tail. Dorsum pale grey to reddish brown, sometimes with narrow pale vertebral stripe and dorso-lateral stripes through five dark bands between nape and base of tail. Head rounded with blunt snout and tympanum covered in scaly skin. Neck much narrower than head. Ventral area 249

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Roma Earless Dragon Tympanocryptis wilsoni SVL: 53 mm Description: Body small and spinose with relatively short slender tail. Dorsum yellowish brown with three pale stripes through series of broad dark dorsal bands. Pale dorso-lateral stripes and three prominent pale spots on snout. Head rounded with blunt snout and tympanum covered in scaly skin. Ventral area with

Tympanocryptis tetraporophora, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

whitish and four pores: a pre-anal and femoral pore on each side (males). Habitat: Occurs mostly in stony habitats and hummock grasslands across the arid river floodplains of central to northwestern MDB Notes: A diurnal species observed basking throughout the day on rocks or bushes often in very high temperatures. Id enti f i c ati on : Ty mp ano c r y pti s tetraporophora has four pores, which differentiates it from T. lineata and T. intima, which usually have just a single pre-anal pore on each side and no femoral pores (males). Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. 250

Tympanocryptis wilsoni, Roma, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

LIZARDS

heavy brownish black speckling. Two pre-anal pores and two femoral pores. Habitat: Known only from small areas of grassland from just west of Roma to about Amby Qld. Notes: A diurnal terrestrial species observed in grassland habitat.

Identification: Tympanocryptis wilsoni is the only species of earless dragon occurring in its restricted distribution. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

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Monitor lizards/goannas (Family Varanidae) Monitors occur from the western Pacific, through Australia, Asia and Africa. This family contains the largest lizards in the world. There are 30 species recorded from Australia and are known as goannas (a corruption of the word ‘iguana’). They range in size from small arboreal species to large and powerful terrestrial species and all Australian members of the family Varanidae belong to the genus Varanus.

Monitor lizards/goannas (Genus Varanus) Active, diurnal lizards found throughout Australia, with five species recorded from the MDB. The species are broadly similar and easily recognised by their long flat head, long neck and a conspicuous tympanum. They have four strong limbs, each with five sharp, clawed digits. The tongue is long and deeply forked and continually flicked in and out while foraging. They have a long slender tail, which the larger species use as a defensive weapon. All species are oviparous, producing clutches of up to 35 soft-shelled eggs. They are carnivorous, consuming anything that can be overpowered and their diet also includes carrion. Sand Goanna Varanus gouldii gouldii TL: 1.6 m Description: Body very large and robust with long, laterally compressed tail. 252

Varanus gouldii gouldii, Gluepot Reserve, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

Dorsum yellow-brown to red-brown with dark speckling and scattered light and dark spots loosely forming transverse bands. Some distinct larger pale blotches. Head with pointed snout and prominent pale edged, black stripe from eye across the tympanum onto neck. Ventral area whitish with scattered dark flecks and spots. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of open habitats but mostly in semi-arid, sandy areas throughout most of the MDB. Notes: Terrestrial, often observed foraging throughout the day. Generally, retreats into a burrow if disturbed. Identification: Varanus gouldii gouldii is similar to V. panoptes panoptes but is less

LIZARDS

robust and lighter, with the last third of the tail patternless. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens. Yellow-spotted Monitor Varanus panoptes panoptes TL: 1.4 m Description: Body very large and robust with long, laterally compressed tail. Dorsum dark brown to reddish brown with alternating transverse rows of pale and darker spots. Some dark-edged pale spots

extend onto base of the tail. Head with pointed snout and prominent pale edged black stripe from eye across tympanum onto neck. Ventral area whitish with small dark spots in transverse rows. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from grasslands and woodlands to floodplains in the northern MDB. Notes: A large terrestrial species observed foraging throughout the day. Often stands up supported by the back legs and tail to look over surrounding vegetation. Identification: Varanus panoptes panoptes is similar to V. gouldii gouldii but is more robust and heavier with the distal portion of the tail being pale with narrow dark bands. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NT). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. Heath Monitor Varanus rosenbergi

Varanus panoptes panoptes, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

TL: 1.3 m Description: Body very large and robust with long, laterally compressed tail. Dorsum light grey to dark grey and black with narrow darker crossbands and lighter bands with rows of pale dots. Head with pointed snout and prominent pale-edged black stripe from eye across tympanum onto neck. Ventral area whitish with scattered dark flecks and spots. Habitat: Occurs on sandy soil in heathlands and also sclerophyll forests in a disjunct distribution from south-western to the south-eastern MDB. Notes: An active terrestrial species often observed on roadside verges. Uses termite mounds for the incubation of its eggs. Identification: Varanus rosenbergi has a limited distribution and is similar to 253

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Varanus rosenbergi, Big Desert, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

V.  varius but can be distinguished by the tail having narrow dark and light bands all the way to the tip. It also has more numerous narrow pale bars on the lips compared with a few thick bars. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW, SA); Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Macquarie-Castlereagh, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mitta-Mitta. Freckled Monitor/Black-headed Monitor Varanus tristis orientalis TL: 76 cm Description: Body large and robust with long slender tail. Two basic colour forms: dorsum pale grey to brown or black with a black head, neck and tail with rows of pale 254

Varanus tristis orientalis (freckled form), Kalbar, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

Varanus tristis orientalis (black-headed form), Windorah, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

ocelli aligned transversely between forelimbs and hindlimbs; or light grey to dark grey and black with pale ocelli aligned transversely over body and limbs with prominent pale edged black stripe from eye across the tympanum onto neck. Head with pointed snout. Ventral area whitish.

LIZARDS

Habitat: Occurs in dry forests, woodlands and rock outcrops throughout the northern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal species that is mostly arboreal, inhabiting tree hollows but also rock crevices and sometimes found under bark and in the mud nests of swallows. Identification: Varanus tristis occurs only in the northern MDB and can be identified by the tail being round in cross section. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. Lace Monitor Varanus varius TL: 2.1 m Description: Body very large and heavy with long, laterally compressed tail. Dorsum dark blue-grey to black with numerous scattered white, cream or yellow spots and blotches forming ‘lace-like’ transverse bands. Some individuals with just broad, light and dark banding. Tail with broad alternating black and white or yellow bands. Head with pointed snout and prominent black and white or yellow bands under the chin. Ventral area whitish with scattered dark flecks and spots. Habitat: Widespread in dry woodlands and forested areas and along tree-lined waterways throughout the MDB. Notes: A powerful arboreal species that lays clutches of eggs in arboreal or terrestrial termite mounds, which act as natural incubators. The mother returns to expose the eggs just before hatching and possibly lay the next season’s clutch. Sometimes observed near roads feeding on carrion and, if disturbed, will usually ascend the nearest tree.

Varanus varius, Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Varanus varius, Healesville, Victoria. Photo: M. G. Swan

Identification: Varanus varius is similar to V. rosenbergi but can be distinguished by the prominent thick black and white or yellow bands under the chin and the broad alternating black and white or yellow bands on the tail. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic); Rare (SA). 255

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MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee,

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Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

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Australia has a reputation for having many species of dangerous snakes. Although it is true that many Australian species have potent venom, there are also many other types of snakes ranging from small, harmless, burrowing blind snakes that feed on ants to large pythons that overpower their prey items through constriction. Snakes are an important part of ecosystems and it can be difficult to accurately assess the threatening processes, but certainly land clearing for grazing and agriculture is a serious concern. Drying out of wetlands that do not receive periodic flooding will seriously impact frogs, a main food item for many snakes. The implementation of correct fire regimes appears to be another important factor. Feral animals also play a major role in the declines of snakes through direct predation, competition for prey items and habitat disturbance.

The Murray–Darling Carpet Python (Morelia spilota metcalfei) is Endangered in the southern part of its range as its habitat has been reduced and divided through land clearing, logging and firewood collection. In particular, the loss of River Red Gums along the Murray River is continuing to cause the reduction of preferred habitat. Foxes, cats and dogs are also implicated in the decline of this iconic species. Natural fire regime is the pattern, frequency and intensity of fires that prevail in an area over long periods of time and is considered an integral part of fire ecology and renewal for certain types of ecosystems. However, too frequent and extensive burns, supposedly to reduce fuel, may have a devastating impact on certain species of reptiles. Masters’ Snake (Drysdalia mastersii), which occurs in the mallee region of the southern Murray–Darling

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Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis)

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Basin, appears to have declined precipitously in areas that have undergone ‘management’ burning. Conversely, pitfalltrapping has produced specimens in areas of old growth spinifex with leaf litter and ground cover that have not been subjected to controlled burning. The Mud Adder or De Vis’ Banded Snake (Denisonia devisi) is well known in the northern MDB but its presence in the south-western area of the Basin was confirmed only in recent times. This species is known only from a small area and is possibly an isolated population. It is Critically Endangered in Victoria. In 1857, museum collector and herpetologist, Gerard Krefft recorded a specimen of the Common Death Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) at Lake Boga in northern Victoria. This is the only specimen of a Common Death Adder known from Victoria and represents the most southerly record for the Murray–Darling Basin. A variety of snakes occur in the MDB and a deep-seated fear of snakes was no doubt ingrained in the early settlers of this region. An image taken in 1906 shows a snake hunt on the Murray River resulting in the deaths of many snakes, in just one day.

A snake hunt on the Murray with many snakes killed in just one day. Photo: National Library of Australia

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Some notable records of dangerous snakes are specimens of the Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) collected at ‘Mondellium’, a camp site near the junction of the Murray and Darling rivers during a museum collecting trip in 1857. Apart from a possible record at Tindaree in NSW, this dangerously venomous snake (considered to be the most venomous land snake in the world) otherwise appears to be restricted to the Lake Eyre Basin. The Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis) is a highly defensive species and responsible for more bites in Australia than other venomous snake species. It is widespread and has no doubt prospered from wheat farming in the Mallee areas of the southern Murray–Darling-Basin, due to generalised habitat preferences and a diet that includes introduced rodents. There are 13 dangerously venomous snakes in the MDB capable of inflicting a lethal bite: • Common Death Adder Acanthophis antarcticus • Highlands Copperhead Austrelaps ramsayi • Lowlands Copperhead Austrelaps superbus • Eastern Small-eyed Snake Cryptophis nigrescens • Mainland Tiger Snake Notechis scutatus scutatus • Inland Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus • Mulga Snake Pseudechis australis • Spotted Black Snake Pseudechis guttatus • Red-bellied Black Snake Pseudechis porphyriacus • Strap-snouted Brown Snake Pseudonaja aspidorhynca

SNAKES

• Western Brown Snake Pseudonaja mengdeni • Eastern Brown Snake Pseudonaja textilis • Rough-scaled Snake Tropidechis carinatus The incidence of snakebite in Australia is low, with most people being bitten by snakes only when they interfere with them. The death rate from snakebite in Australia averages only one to two persons per year. In the event of a dangerous snakebite, first aid should be immediately (see Box) applied and the patient hospitalised as soon as possible. Snakebite antivenom is available for all Australian dangerous species.

• Colubridae (colubrid snakes) 3 species • Elapidae (venomous land snakes) 41 species

Prong-snouted blind snake (Anilios bituberculatus). Photo: J. Farquhar

Pressure and immobilisation first aid method for snakebite

• Apply a broad pressure bandage from below the bite site, upwards on the affected limb. Leave the tips of the fingers or toes unbandaged to allow the patient’s circulation to be checked. Do not remove clothing: bandage over the clothes. • Bandage firmly (as for a sprain), which is tight enough to compress the lymphatic vessels but not enough to prevent circulation. • If possible, bind a splint to the bitten limb to prevent further movement. Seek medical assistance immediately. The following families of snakes occur in the MDB region: • Typhlopidae (blind snakes) 11 species • Pythonidae (pythons) 5 species

Mud Adder or De Vis’ Banded Snake (Denisonia devisi). Photo: J. Farquhar

Mainland Tiger Snake (Notechis scutatus scutatus) basking. Photo: M. G. Swan

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Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus). Photo: J. Farquhar

Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis), defensive posture. Photo: G. Parker 262

Blind snakes (Family Typhlopidae)

This is a group of poorly understood, harmless burrowing snakes that are distributed in the warmer parts of the world. They occur throughout Australia except in the lower south-eastern mainland and Tasmania. All endemic Australian species belong to the genus Anilios. A single introduced species, the Flowerpot Snake Indotyphlops braminus, is becoming more established in coastal areas.

Australasian blind snakes (Genus Anilios) This genus contains 45 Australian species of worm-like snakes with eyes reduced to dark spots on the top of a blunt head. Eleven species are recorded from the MDB. The snout may be smoothly rounded or sharply beaked and the small mouth is set back from the snout. They have glossy scales and a short tail, which, in all but one species, terminates in a spine. If handled, an offensive substance can be released from their cloacal glands. They are oviparous. These are Australia’s only insectivorous snakes, feeding on termites and the eggs, larvae and pupae of ants. Small-headed Blind Snake Anilios affinis TL: 220 mm Description: Body slender with short blunt tail. Dorsum dark brown to pinkish brown merging on to the lower flanks. Head pale with a bluntly rounded snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 18. Ventral area pale

Anilios affinis, Aramac, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

yellow, pale yellowish cream to pinkish white. Habitat: Inhabits dry open woodlands in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios affinis is similar to A. grypus, but that species has a beak-like snout and a black head and tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. 263

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Wagga Wagga Blind Snake Anilios batillus TL: 320 mm Description: Body slender with short blunt tail. Life colours unknown and dorsum only considered to be dark brown with faint narrow longitudinal dark stripes. Head with distinctly pointed snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 24. Ventral area white or creamy yellow.

Habitat: Known only from a single specimen collected in 1894, apparently from Wagga Wagga NSW. Notes: No recorded information but presumably similar to other species of blind snakes. Identification: Anilios batillus is the only species of blind snake potentially found in the Wagga Wagga area with 24 mid-body scale rows. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee. Dark-spined Blind Snake Anilios bicolor TL: 418 mm Description: Body moderately robust with short blunt tail and very large dark coloured tail spine. Dorsum dark brown to purplish

Anilios batillus, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Anilios batillus (head close up). Photo: S. K. Wilson 264

Anilios bicolor, Lascelles, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

SNAKES

brown, merging prominently on the lower flanks. Head with weakly to moderately trilobed snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 22. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Mostly associated with malleespinifex woodlands and semi-arid shrublands of the south-western MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios bicolor has 22 mid-body scale rows and is identified by the very large dark coloured tail spine. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray. Prong-snouted Blind Snake Anilios bituberculatus

TL: 450 mm Description: Body moderately slender with short blunt tail. Dorsum pink, reddish brown or black, fading to blend with ventral colouration. Head with a strongly trilobed snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 20. Ventral area creamish white to pinkish white. Habitat: Widespread, being mostly associated with open woodlands in semiarid areas throughout most of the MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios bituberculatus has 20 mid-body scale rows and is identified by the snout being strongly trilobed from above. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken. Northern Blind Snake Anilios diversus

Anilios bituberculatus, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 265

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Anilios diversus, Roebuck Plains, Western Australia. Photo: B. Maryan

TL: 352 mm Description: Body moderately slender with short blunt tail. Dorsum pinkish brown to purplish brown or blackish brown, merging onto the lower flanks. Head with entirely rounded snout and rostral scale elliptical from above. Mid-body scale rows: 20. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Found in dry woodlands in the northern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios diversus has 20 mid-body scale rows and is identified by a rounded snout and usually an elliptical rostral scale from above. Conservation status: Not listed. M DB c at c h m e n t s : Wa r r e g o, Condamine-Balonne. Desert Blind Snake Anilios endoterus TL: 376 mm Description: Body moderately slender with short blunt tail. Dorsum grey brown to reddish brown with paler snout and 266

Anilios endoterus, Ilkurlka, Western Australia. Photo: B. Bush

merging prominently with lighter ventral area. Head with a weakly trilobed snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 22. Ventral area whitish. Habitat: Associated with red sandy soils and spinifex in semi-arid shrublands of the western MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios endoterus has 22 mid-body scale rows and distinguished from A. bicolor by absence of a large, dark tail spine. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Paroo, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

SNAKES

Northern Beaked Blind Snake Anilios grypus TL: 415 mm Description: Body extremely slender with short blunt tail. Dorsum light pinkish brown to dark reddish brown with cream snout and merging prominently with lighter ventral area. Tail and head black. Head with elongated beak-like snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 18. Ventral area cream. Habitat: Considered to occupy a broad range of dry open habitats in the northern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night.

Identification: Anilios grypus has 18 mid-body scale rows and easily identified by having a black head and tail. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne. Robust Blind Snake Anilios ligatus TL: 500 mm Description: Body extremely robust with short blunt tail. Dorsum purplish brown to grey-brown, sometimes with a cream snout and distinct from lighter ventral area. Head with a rounded snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 24. Ventral area white. Habitat: Known to occur in savanna woodland in the north-eastern MDB.

Anilios grypus, Indee, Western Australia.

Anilios ligatus, Toowoomba, Queensland.

Photo: B. Bush

Photo: S. Mahony

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Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios ligatus is extremely robust and the only blind snake with 24 mid-body scale rows in the north-eastern MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. Blackish Blind Snake Anilios nigrescens TL: 750 mm Description: Body moderately robust with short blunt tail. Dorsum purplish brown to almost black and weakly delineated from lighter ventral area. Head with rounded

snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 22. Ventral area cream or pinkish, often with dark patch either side of vent. Habitat: Occurs through a variety of habitats from wet and dry sclerophyll forest to open woodlands in the eastern MDB. Shelters under logs, rocks and other ground debris. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios nigrescens is the only blind snake in the eastern MDB with 22 mid-body scale rows. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Woodland Blind Snake Anilios proximus

Anilios nigrescens, Lamington National Park, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar 268

TL: 750 mm Description: Body large and robust with short blunt tail. Dorsum pinkish brown to grey-brown, merging with lighter ventral area. Head with bluntly trilobed snout from above. Mid-body scale rows: 20. Ventral area creamy white, sometimes with small dark patch on either side of vent. Habitat: Occurs through dry sclerophyll forest to open woodland in the southern and eastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios proximus can be identified by having a bluntly trilobed snout from above and 20 mid-body scale rows.

SNAKES

Anilios proximus, Tamworth, New South Wales.

Anilios wiedii, Hunter Valley, New South Wales.

Photo: S. Mahony

Photo: S. Mahony

Conservation status: Near Threatened (Vic). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-C astlereagh, L achlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens.

scale rows: 20. Ventral surface creamy white. Habitat: Found in open woodland areas in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal burrowing snake. Members of this genus are usually only observed moving around above the surface at night. Identification: Anilios wiedii has 20 mid-body scale rows and is identified by a rounded snout and usually having an almost circular rostral scale from above. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan.

Brown-snouted Blind Snake Anilios wiedii TL: 300 mm Description: Body small and slender with short blunt tail. Dorsum pinkish brown to reddish brown merging with lighter ventral area. Head with rounded snout and rostral scale almost circular from above. Mid-body

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Pythons (Family Pythonidae)

Pythons are the largest living snakes and are distributed mostly through tropical areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, New Guinea and Australia. They are well known for their ability to swallow large prey, which they overpower by means of constriction. All pythons are non-venomous with solid curved teeth. Most have heat sensitive pits along the lips to assist in the detection of warm-blooded animals. They have a pair of cloacal spurs on either side of the vent, which is larger in males than females. Pythons are mostly nocturnal but also encountered basking during the day. They are oviparous, producing soft-shelled eggs and the female usually coils around the clutch to assist with incubation by generating heat internally through muscular ‘shivering’.

Spotted Python Antaresia maculosa TL: 1.05 m Description: Body robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum pale brown to chocolate brown or purplish brown with pattern of ragged-edged darker brown blotches, paler on lower flanks. Head light brown and elongated with square-shaped snout. Dark streak through each eye and pale lips. Ventral area whitish. Scales

Terrestrial pythons (Genus Antaresia) This genus contains four species of Australia’s smallest pythons that are widespread from arid and semi-arid areas to tropical woodlands and rainforest margins. Two are recorded from within the MDB. They feed on a variety of reptiles, frogs, mammals and birds. Heat sensory pits are located on some lower scales but not in the rostral. The head is covered with large symmetrical shields and there are three or more loreal scales.

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Antaresia maculosa, Iron Range, Queensland. Photo: D. Goodall

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smooth and in 35–45 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 245–290. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 30–45, most divided. Habitat: Occurs in dry sclerophyll forest, woodland and rock outcrops in the northeastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal species usually observed foraging or sheltering beneath rock slabs. Oviparous, producing up to 12 eggs per clutch. Identification: Antaresia maculosa is similar to A. stimsoni orientalis but the distribution of these two species does not overlap in the MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi. Stimson’s Python Antaresia stimsoni orientalis TL: 89 cm Description: Body robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum pale brown to yellowish brown and cream with pattern of smooth-edged red-brown blotches, paler on lower flanks. Head pale brown and elongated with square-shaped snout. Dark streak through each eye and pale lips. Ventral area white or cream. Scales smooth and in 35–50 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 243–284. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 30–45, most divided. Habitat: Occurs in woodlands and rock outcrops in the north-western MDB. Notes: A nocturnal species usually observed foraging or sheltering beneath rock slabs and in hollow timber. Oviparous, producing 7–13 eggs per clutch. Identification: Antaresia stimsoni orientalis is similar to A. maculosa but the distribution of these two species does not overlap in the MDB.

Antaresia stimsoni orientalis, Wilora, Northern Territory. Photo: J. Farquhar

Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Lower Darling.

Terrestrial pythons (Genus Aspidites) This endemic Australian genus contains two large species, with one occurring mostly through northern Australia and the other across the interior and in southwestern Western Australia. A single species occurs in the MDB. These species have enlarged symmetrical shields on top of the head and are the only two pythons that lack heatsensory pits. The diet consists mostly of reptiles, including venomous snakes. 271

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Woma Aspidites ramsayi TL: 2.3 m Description: Body robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum pale brown to reddish brown with numerous darker irregular crossbands. Head pale orange, narrow and not notably distinct from neck, with narrowly rounded snout. May have patches of black on snout and above eyes. Ventral area cream to yellow with scattered pink or brown blotches. Scales smooth and in 50–65 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 280–315. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 45–55, most, single. Habitat: Mostly associated with arid areas of red sand and spinifex to woodlands and shrublands of the northern MDB.

Notes: A terrestrial, nocturnal species that mainly shelters in animal burrows and soil cracks. Oviparous, producing up to 17 eggs per clutch. Identification: Aspidites ramsayi is a large distinctive species. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Qld, NT); Vulnerable (NSW); Rare (SA); Endangered (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Barwon-Darling.

Carpet pythons (Genus Morelia) A group containing four moderate to very large species with some poorly defined subspecies. They are widespread throughout Australia and distinguished mostly by distribution and pattern. Two carpet python species are recorded from the MDB. The head is covered by small irregular, fragmented scales. Heat sensory pits are present on rostral and some labial scales. The diet consists mostly of birds and mammals. Coastal Carpet Python Morelia spilota mcdowelli

Aspidites ramsayi, Charleville, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

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Identification: Morelia spilota mcdowelli is restricted to the north-eastern MDB and easily identified by its large size and distinct pattern. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers. Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota metcalfei TL: 2 m Description: Body very large and robust with prehensile tail. Dorsum pale to dark grey with reddish brown flush and numerous dark-edged lighter blotches. Longitudinal stripe formed along side by connected blotches. Head elongated, broad at base and distinct from neck, with a Morelia spilota mcdowelli, Duaringa, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 2.5 m Description: Body very large and robust with prehensile tail. Dorsum pale brown to dark brown or olive with numerous darkedged lighter blotches and bands. Head elongated, broad at base and distinct from neck, with square snout. Ventral area cream to yellow, sometimes with darker blotches. Scales smooth and in 40–65 rows at midbody. Ventrals: 240–310. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 60–95, divided. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats but mostly associated with timbered bushland in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal and nocturnal species usually observed basking on the ground or in small trees. A familiar species that readily enters human dwellings. Oviparous, producing ~25 eggs per clutch.

Morelia spilota metcalfei, Ned’s Corner, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

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square snout. Ventral area cream to grey, with darker posterior flecks. Scales smooth and in 40–65 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 240–310. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 60–95, divided. Habitat: Mostly associated with tree-lined watercourses throughout most of the MDB. Notes: A diurnal and nocturnal species usually observed basking on the ground or in small trees. Also recorded inhabiting animal burrows. Oviparous, producing ~20 eggs per clutch.

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Identification: Morelia spilota metcalfei is a widespread python in the MDB and easily identified by its large size and distinct pattern. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic); Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens.

Colubrid snakes (Family Colubridae)

This group is the largest family of snakes in the world but poorly represented in Australia with only six species. It contains non-venomous and venomous snakes though no Australian species are considered dangerous to humans. They have very different lifestyles, ranging from arboreal to aquatic and feed on small vertebrates. The external features include one or two loreal scales, symmetrically arranged head shields, large expanded ventrals scales and fewer than 30 mid-body scale rows. All Australian species are oviparous.

square snout. Ventral area cream to salmon coloured. Scales smooth and in 19–23 rows at mid-body. Ventrals 225–265. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 85–130, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in rainforest, dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal and arboreal species usually observed moving around in low trees. Very defensive when disturbed throwing the forepart of the body into a series of S-shaped loops and striking at every opportunity. Not considered as

Nocturnal tree snakes (Genus Boiga, Subfamily Colubrinae) This genus contains several species that are widespread in Asia where they are commonly known as ‘cat’ snakes. This is due to their large eyes with a vertically elliptical pupil. They are rear-fanged species and weakly venomous. The single Australian species is confined to northern and eastern Australia and also occurs in the MDB. Brown Tree Snake Boiga irregularis TL: 2 m Description: Body long and laterally compressed with long prehensile tail. Dorsum brown to reddish brown with numerous narrow darker crossbands. Head broad and distinct from slender neck, with

Boiga irregularis, Blackdown Tableland, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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dangerous. Oviparous, producing 3–11 elongate eggs. Identification: Boiga irregularis has distinctive features and easily identified. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers.

Tree snakes (Genus Dendrelaphis, Subfamily Colubrinae) These are slender, diurnally active, arboreal and terrestrial snakes, with numerous species in New Guinea and Asia. They have large eyes with round pupils and ventral scales with a keel and notch on each side. They are non-venomous and harmless. Two species occur in Australia, with a single species in the MDB. Common Tree Snake Dendrelaphis punctulatus

Dendrelaphis punctulatus, Sydney, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 1.2 m Description: Body long and slender with long prehensile tail. Dorsum olive green to bluish grey and, when agitated, the snake distends itself to display blue skin between the scales. Head distinct from the slender neck, with a moderately pointed snout. Ventral area bright yellow. Scales smooth and in 13–15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 180–230. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 100–150, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in rainforest, dry sclerophyll forest, woodlands and rock outcrops in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A very swift, active species. Diurnal and arboreal, but frequently forages on the

ground, feeding primarily on frogs and small lizards. Releases an offensive odour if handled. Oviparous, producing up to 16 elongate eggs. Identification: Dendrelaphis punctulatus has distinctive colouration and relatively easily identified. May be confused with the Yellow-faced Whip Snake Demansia psammophis, but that terrestrial species has a dark tear-shaped streak from eye to angle of mouth. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh.

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Keelbacks (Genus Tropidonophis, Subfamily Natricinae) A group of semi-aquatic snakes that occur from south-east Asia to New Guinea and Australia. They have moderately large eyes, rounded pupils and strongly keeled scales. Similar species include Tropidechis carinatus, which has single anal and subcaudal scales and no loreal scale. A single species found in eastern and northern Australia and occurs in the MDB. Keelback/Freshwater Snake Tropidonophis mairii TL: 930 mm Description: Body stout with tapering tail that readily breaks if handled roughly. Dorsum olive, grey, brown, reddish to black with numerous irregular dark crossbands and scattered pale and dark flecks. Head slightly distinct from neck, with moderately

Tropidonophis mairii, Fogg Dam, Northern Territory. Photo: J. Farquhar

rounded snout and pale lips. Ventral area cream, olive, brown or salmon. Loreal scale present. Scales strongly keeled and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals 130–165. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 50–85, all divided. Habitat: Found in association with permanent creeks, swamps and lagoons in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A semi-aquatic diurnal and nocturnal snake. Feeds on frogs, tadpoles, fish and lizards. Also capable of consuming the poisonous, introduced Cane Toad. Emits an unpleasant odour from anal glands if handled. Non-venomous. Oviparous, producing up to 18 elongate eggs. Identification: Tropidonophis mairii has distinctive colouration but may be confused with the dangerously venomous Roughscaled Snake Tropidechis carinatus. It can be distinguished from this species by anal and subcaudal scales being divided, the presence of a loreal scale and 15 mid-body scale rows. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

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Venomous land snakes (Family Elapidae)

This is a widespread family distributed through Africa, Asia, Australia and the Americas, containing the most venomous species of snakes in the world. Terrestrial elapid snakes reach their greatest diversity in Australia, with 106 described species. They have a fixed immovable, relatively short fang at the front of the upper jaw. It is connected at the base to a venom gland via a duct. The venom of Australian elapid snakes is largely neurotoxic but in some species it is more haemotoxic. Features of elapids include enlarged symmetrical scales on top of the head, large ventral scales and lack of a loreal scale. Some are oviparous and others livebearing: the latter trait being almost exclusive to Australasian species. Of the 40 elapid snakes that occur in the MDB, 13 are dangerously venomous but all species should be treated with caution.

Common Death Adder Acanthophis antarcticus TL: 700 mm Description: Body short and robust with slender tail terminating in soft spine. Dorsum grey to reddish brown with irregular lighter bands along body. Head triangular shaped with pointed snout and pale bars on lips. Ventral area creamy grey with darker markings. Scales smooth to weakly keeled and in 21 rows at mid-body.

Death adders (Genus Acanthophis) This genus contains seven snakes with a very distinctive appearance, with different species occurring in many parts of Australia. They are short and robust with a broad triangular shaped head and a thin tail terminating in a soft spine. They have small eyes with a pale iris and a vertically elliptical pupil. A single species occurs in the MDB.

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Acanthophis antarcticus, Newcastle, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

SNAKES

Ventrals: 110–135. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 35–60, mostly single. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from shrublands and heaths to woodlands and rainforest. Recorded from scattered localities across the central to northeastern MDB, with Lake Boga in Victoria being the southernmost extent of the distribution. Notes: Diurnal and nocturnal. A wellcamouflaged ambush predator that lies in wait usually among leaf litter, twitching the tail spine as a lure. Prey items include lizards and small mammals. Livebearing producing litters of up to 33 young. A sedentary snake but capable of delivering swift strikes. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Acanthophis antarcticus is a distinctive species but could be confused with the Bardick Echiopsis curta and DeVis’ Banded snake Denisonia devisi, but it has 21 mid-body scale rows and a short thin tail with a soft slender spine. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld); Data Deficient (Vic). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Loddon-Avoca.

Similar species include Brachyurophis, which has a wedge-shaped rostral scale. Warrego Burrowing Snake Antaioserpens warro TL: 438 mm Description: Body small and robust with short tail. Dorsum pale reddish brown to olive with irregular dark-edged scales creating speckled pattern. Sometimes dark mid-line stripe. Head with weakly shovelshaped snout and blackish hood with separated black collar. Ventral area creamish white. Rostral scale almost as long as broad and not wedge-shaped. Scales smooth and glossy and in 15 rows at midbody. Ventrals: 135–165. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 15–25, all divided.

Burrowing snakes (Genus Antaioserpens) This genus contains two species of infrequently encountered burrowing snakes that occur only in Queensland. Both are moderately robust with weakly shovelshaped snouts. They are oviparous and considered to feed mainly on skinks. One species occurs in the MDB.

Antaioserpens warro, Chesterton Range National Park, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

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Habitat: Recorded from Poplar Box/ Callitris Pine Woodlands along the western edge of the Southern Brigalow Belt in the northern MDB. Notes: A poorly known nocturnal, burrowing snake encountered foraging on the surface at night. Venomous, but considered as harmless to humans. Identification: Antaioserpens warro is similar to the Australian Coral Snake Brachyurophis australis, Narrow-banded Shovel-nosed Snake Brachyurophis fasciolatus fasciatus and Unbanded Shovelnosed Snake Brachyurophis incinctus, but these species have a wedge-shaped rostral scale and distinct patterns and colouration. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Copperheads (Genus Austrelaps) Three species in this genus occur in different areas of south-eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Two species are found in the MDB. They are medium-sized to very large snakes with moderately large eyes, a pale iris and round pupil. Prey items include frogs, lizards and small mammals. Both species are livebearing. Because of their variable colouration, copperheads are often confused with the Red-bellied Black Snake Pseudechis porphyriacus and the Eastern Brown Snake Pseudonaja textilis, but neither of these two species has whiteedged barred lips. Highlands Copperhead Austrelaps ramsayi TL: 1.1 m Description: Body moderately large and robust with short tail. Dorsum pale grey to 280

Austrelaps ramsayi, Kosciuszko National Park, New South Wales. Photo: S. K. Wilson

reddish brown and black with enlarged lighter cream, yellow or red lateral scales. Head with moderately pointed snout and prominently white-edged, barred lips. Ventral area cream to grey. Scales smooth, weakly glossed and in 15 (rarely 17) rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 150–170. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 35–55, all single. Habitat: Occurs in dry and wet sclerophyll forest, woodlands and heathlands in cooler upland areas of the eastern MDB. Notes: A mostly diurnal species observed foraging throughout the day or sheltering beneath rocks, logs and other ground debris. Active at low temperatures. Livebearing with litters of up to 20 recorded. An inoffensive species not inclined to bite. Dangerously venomous.

SNAKES

Identification: Austrelaps ramsayi may overlap in distribution with A. superbus but is distinguished from that species by its smaller adult size and usually having prominently barred lips. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Lowlands Copperhead Austrelaps superbus TL: 1.5 m Description: Body very large and robust with short tail. Dorsum light grey to reddish brown and black with enlarged lighter cream, yellow, pink or orange lateral scales.

Head with moderately pointed snout and white-edged, weakly barred lips. Sometimes with dark or light band across nape. Ventral area cream to grey. Scales smooth, weakly glossed and in 15 (rarely 17) rows at midbody. Ventrals: 140–165. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 35–55, all single. Habitat: The favoured habitat is tussock edged swamps in dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands in low-lying areas of the southern MDB. Notes: A mostly diurnal species usually observed basking during the day or sheltering beneath rocks, logs and other ground debris. Active at low temperatures. Livebearing with litters of ~15 young recorded. A relatively shy snake that quickly seeks shelter if disturbed. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Austrelaps superbus may overlap in distribution with A. ramsayi but is distinguished from that species by its more robust, larger adult size and weakly barred lips. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Wimmera, LoddonAvoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens.

Shovel-nosed snakes (Genus Brachyurophis)

Austrelaps superbus, Ballarat, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

This genus contains eight species of burrowing snakes that are distributed widely in Australia, with two occurring in the MDB. They are nocturnal and usually encountered on the surface only at night. The head has a projecting shovel-shaped snout and wedgeshaped rostral scale. They are oviparous. The diet consists of lizards and their eggs. Similar species include Antaioserpens, which has a non-wedge-shaped rostral. 281

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Australian Coral Snake Brachyurophis australis TL: 340 mm Description: Body small and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum pink, pale reddish brown or red with narrow, raggededged bands formed by pale scales with dark edges. Broad black band on head and nape. Head with projecting shovel-shaped snout and wedge-shaped rostral scale. Ventral area whitish. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 140–170. Anal scale usually divided. Subcaudals: 15–30, divided. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from rock outcrops in dry sclerophyll forest to mallee woodlands throughout most of the MDB. Shelters beneath rocks, logs and other ground debris.

Brachyurophis australis, Gluepot Reserve, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar 282

Notes: A nocturnal, burrowing snake usually encountered on the surface only at night. Oviparous, producing four to six eggs. Venomous, though not inclined to bite and considered as harmless to humans. Identification: Brachyurophis australis may overlap in distribution with B. fasciolatus fasciatus and B. incinctus but each species can be distinguished by a different pattern and colouration. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray. Narrow-banded Shovel-nosed Snake Brachyurophis fasciolatus fasciatus

Brachyurophis fasciolatus fasciatus, Ilkurlka, Western Australia. Photo: B. Bush

SNAKES

TL: 390 mm Description: Body small and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum pale reddish brown or cream with narrow, ragged-edged bands formed by pale scales with black or dark brown edges. Broad black band on head and nape. Head with projecting shovel-shaped snout and wedge-shaped rostral scale. Ventral area creamy white. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 140–175. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 15–30, divided. Habitat: Associated with sandy soil and arid shrublands of the north-western MDB. Notes: A nocturnal, burrowing snake usually encountered on the surface only at night. Venomous, though not inclined to bite and considered as harmless to humans. Identification: Brachyurophis fasciolatus fasciatus may overlap in distribution with B. australis and B. incinctus but each species can be distinguished by a different pattern and colouration. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Paroo. Unbanded Shovel-nosed Snake Brachyurophis incinctus

Brachyurophis incinctus, Mount Isa, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

TL: 360 mm Description: Body small and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum uniform pale brown to dark pink, sometimes with dark-edged individual scales forming obscure reticulated pattern. Broad black band on head and nape. Head with projecting shovel-shaped snout and wedgeshaped rostral scale. Ventral area creamish white. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 140–165. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 18–30, divided. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats including stony hills and rock outcrops with woodlands to shrublands and spinifex grasslands of the northern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal, burrowing snake usually encountered on the surface only at night. Venomous, though not inclined to bite and considered as harmless to humans. Identification: Brachyurophis incinctus may overlap in distribution with B. australis and B. fasciolatus fasciatus but each species can be distinguished by a different pattern and colouration. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego.

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Crowned snakes (Genus Cacophis) This genus contains four species of small to medium-sized secretive snakes that are restricted to moist habitats in eastern Australia. Three occur in the MDB. They are recognisable by a pale band or collar on the nape, small eyes and vertical pupil. All species are oviparous. Their diet is exclusively skinks. White-crowned Snake Cacophis harriettae TL: 500 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum

grey to dark brown or almost black with broad white or cream band across nape and continuing with darker areas along side of head and snout. Head not distinct from neck, with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area uniform grey. Scales smooth and glossy, in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 170–200. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 25–45, all divided. Habitat: Often found under logs and deep leaf litter in wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Secretive and nocturnal. Oviparous, with clutches of 2–10 eggs recorded. Head and forebody raised in a defence posture if provoked. Venomous, though not considered as dangerous to humans. Identification: Cacophis harriettae is similar to C. krefftii and C. squamulosus, but is distinguished by the broad white or cream band across the nape, at least five scales wide. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne. Southern Dwarf Crowned Snake Cacophis krefftii

Cacophis harriettae, Gladstone, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

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Golden-crowned Snake Cacophis squamulosus

Cacophis krefftii, Newcastle, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

TL: 345 mm Description: Body small and robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum dark blue-grey, dark brown to almost black with narrow pale yellow band across nape and continuing with darker areas along side of head and snout. Head not distinct from neck, with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area pale yellow with narrow dark bands. Scales smooth and glossy, in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 140–160. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 25–40, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in moist areas under logs and other ground debris in wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Secretive and nocturnal. Oviparous, with clutches of two to five eggs recorded. Head and forebody raised in a defence posture if provoked. Venomous, though not considered as dangerous to humans. Identification: Cacophis krefftii is similar to C. harriettae and C. squamulosus and is distinguished by the narrow pale yellow band across the nape, at most three scales wide. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

TL: 750 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum dark grey to dark brown or almost black. Pale brown to yellow streak along each side of neck without meeting to form band and continuing with darker areas along side of head and snout. Head not distinct from neck, with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area pink to orange with midline of darker spots or blotches. Scales smooth and glossy, in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 165–185. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals 30–50, all divided.

Cacophis squamulosus, Copeland, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Habitat: Occurs in moist areas under logs and other ground debris in wet sclerophyll forest, rainforest and dry sclerophyll forest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Secretive and nocturnal. Oviparous, with clutches of 2–15 eggs recorded. Head and forebody raised in a defence posture if provoked. Venomous, though not considered as dangerous to humans. Identification: Cacophis squamulosus is similar to C. harriettae and C. krefftii and can be distinguished by the pale brown to yellow streak along each side of the neck without meeting to form a band. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir.

Carpentaria Snake, Small-eyed Snake (Genus Cryptophis) This genus contains five species of small to medium-sized snakes occurring in northern and eastern Australia. Two are recorded from the MDB. They have small eyes, glossy scales and generally a uniform dorsal colouration. They are secretive and terrestrial. Prey items include lizards and frogs. They are livebearers. The Eastern Small-eyed Snake Cryptophis nigrescens is often confused with the Red-belled Black Snake Pseudechis porphyriacus, but that species obtains a much larger adult size and has 17–19 mid-body scale rows. Carpentaria Snake Cryptophis boschmai TL: 560 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum 286

Cryptophis boschmai, Townsville, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

very dark brown to orange-brown with lighter lateral scales. Sides of head yellowish. Head relatively depressed with squarish snout. Ventral area creamish white. Scales smooth and glossy, in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 145–190. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 20–35, all single. Habitat: Shelters beneath ground debris, mainly in dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A secretive nocturnal snake. Livebearing producing about eight young in a litter. Venomous. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Cryptophis boschmai is similar to C. nigrescens but can be distinguished by being brown in colour and the nasal scale is separated from the preocular scale.

SNAKES

Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie. Eastern Small-eyed Snake Cryptophis nigrescens TL: 500 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with short tapering tail. Dorsum uniform black or dark grey. Head relatively depressed with squarish snout. Ventral area cream to bright pink, usually with black flecks. Scales smooth and glossy, in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 165–210. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 30–45, all single. Habitat: Shelters beneath ground debris in rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest, dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands in the eastern MDB.

Identification: Cryptophis nigrescens is similar to C. boschmai but can be distinguished by being uniform black or dark grey in colour and the nasal scale is in contact with the preocular scale. Notes: A secretive nocturnal snake. Livebearing producing two to eight young in a litter. Dangerously venomous. One recorded fatality. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, LoddonAvoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Whipsnakes (Genus Demansia) This group of 14 long slender species are found mostly in drier open habitats across Australia. Two occur in the MDB. They are active, swift, diurnal snakes with relatively large eyes and round pupils. All species are oviparous and have a diet consisting mostly of lizards. Whipsnakes could be confused with either the Common Tree Snake Dendrelaphis punctulatus or smaller brown snakes, genus Pseudonaja, but those species do not have a distinctive, dark commashaped mark from eye to corner of the mouth. Yellow-faced Whipsnake Demansia psammophis psammophis

Cryptophis nigrescens, Cooranbong, New South Wales. Photo: S. Mahony

TL: 1 m Description: Body slender with long slender tail. Dorsum olive brown to grey, often with a reddish brown vertebral region on neck and anterior part of body. Head long with moderately pointed snout and distinctive, dark comma-shaped mark from eye to corner of mouth. Creamy yellow 287

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distinguished by absence of a pale-edged dark band across the nape. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Vic). MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieC a s t l e re a g h , L ow e r Darling, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray. Blacksoil Whipsnake Demansia rimicola TL: 975 mm Description: Body slender with long slender tail. Dorsum grey to olive or yellow brown with individual scale colours forming dark and light lateral stripes. Head

Demansia psammophis psammophis, Sydney, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

margin around eye and pale-edged dark band across snout. Ventral area grey-green to yellowish. Scales smooth and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 165–230. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 60–105, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats throughout much of the MDB. Mostly associated with dry woodlands and open forest but also occurs in mallee woodlands with spinifex. Notes: An active, diurnal, fast-moving species generally observed foraging throughout the day. Oviparous, with clutches of five to six recorded. Venomous and capable of causing painful local symptoms, but not considered as dangerous. Identification: Demansia psammophis psammophis is similar to D. rimicola but is 288

Demansia rimicola, Julia Creek, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

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long with moderately pointed snout and pale-edged dark band across nape. Distinctive, dark comma-shaped mark from eye to corner of mouth. Creamy yellow margin around eye and pale-edged dark band across snout. Ventral area yellowish to bright orange-red with paired spots under the throat. Scales smooth and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 175–205. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 65–100, all divided. Habitat: Inhabits cracking clay soils in drier open grasslands and shrublands in the extreme northern edge of the MDB. Notes: An active, diurnal, fast-moving species generally observed briefly before retreating into vegetation or cracks in the ground. Venomous and probably capable of causing painful local symptoms, but not considered as dangerous. Identification: Demansia rimicola is similar to D. psammophis psammophis but can be distinguished by a pale-edged dark band across the head. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW); Rare (SA). MDB c at c h m e n t s : Wa r r e g o, Condamine-Balonne.

DeVis’ Banded Snake; ‘Mud Adder’ Denisonia devisi TL: 568 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with short tail. Dorsum light brown to yellowish brown or olive with numerous irregular darker bands breaking up into blotches. Head dark brown with paler brown flecks. Broad, flat and distinct from neck with moderately rounded snout. Lips with conspicuous cream and dark brown bars. Ventral area white or cream. Scales smooth and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 120–150. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 20–40, all single. Habitat: Prefers moist areas, sheltering beneath ground debris and in soil cracks in grassy floodplains, woodlands and

Terrestrial snakes (Genus Denisonia) A genus of two medium-sized, robust snakes restricted to low-lying habitats in eastern Australia that become seasonally inundated with floodwaters. Both species have relatively flat heads, moderately large eyes and elliptical pupils. They are livebearers. The diet consists almost entirely of frogs. There is one species in the MDB.

Denisonia devisi, Ned’s Corner, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

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shrublands of the northern and northeastern MDB. Also recorded from riverine habitat in the south-western MDB. Notes: A cryptozoic, nocturnal snake usually observed foraging on warm nights. Live bearing producing about five young in a litter. Bites readily if provoked. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Denisonia devisi is a reasonably distinctive snake but has been confused with the Common Death Adder Acanthophis antarcticus. It can be distinguished from that species by having 17 mid-body scale rows, and absence of a large triangular-shaped head or tail with a terminal soft spine. C onser vation status: Critically Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lower Murray.

White-lipped Snake, Masters’ Snake (Genus Drysdalia) This genus contains three small species restricted to southern Australia. Two occur in the MDB. They are diurnal snakes with large eyes and round pupils. Prey items are mostly skinks but also frogs. Both species are livebearers. White-lipped Snake Drysdalia coronoides TL: 450 mm Description: Body small and slightly robust with short tail. Dorsum colour variable, ranging from olive green to reddish brown or almost black. Head not 290

Drysdalia coronoides, Ballarat, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

distinct from neck, with moderately pointed snout. Upper lips with conspicuous white stripe. Ventral area cream to salmon pink. Scales smooth with matt texture and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 120–160. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 35–70, all single. Habitat: Mostly associated with dry woodlands and tussock grasses in open forest throughout the southern and eastern MDB, including higher alpine areas. Notes: A diurnal species usually observed basking among grass tussocks along tracks. Livebearing with 2–10 young recorded in a litter. Venomous, though not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Drysdalia coronoides is similar to D. mastersii but lacks a band

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across the nape and does not overlap in distribution. It could be confused with the Marsh Snake Hemiaspis signata in the north-eastern MDB, but that species has 17 mid-body scale rows, and also has a pale stripe behind the eye in addition to that on the upper lip. Conservation status: Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Masters’ Snake Drysdalia mastersii

TL: 330 mm Description: Body small and slightly robust with short tail. Dorsum yellowish brown to grey with yellow to whitish band across nape. Head darker than body, not distinct from neck, with moderately pointed snout. Upper lips with conspicuous white stripe. Ventral area orange with dark spots and flecks. Scales smooth with matt texture and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 140–160. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 40–55, all single. Habitat: Inhabits mallee woodlands with heath and spinifex in the Big Desert area of the south-western MDB. Notes: A diurnal species usually observed basking among vegetation or found sheltering beneath ground debris. Livebearing with two to three young recorded in a litter. Venomous, though not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Drysdalia mastersii is similar to D. coronoides but has a yellow to whitish band across the nape and does not overlap in distribution. Conservation status: Endangered (Vic). MDB catchments: Lower Murray.

Bardick (Genus Echiopsis) This is a monotypic genus with disjunct populations across southern Australia. It is terrestrial with moderately large eyes and a round pupil. Recorded prey items include lizards, frogs, birds and mammals. The Bardick is a livebearer. Bardick Echiopsis curta Drysdalia mastersii, Pinnaroo District, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 710 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with short tail. Dorsum dark grey, 291

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species has 15 mid-body scale rows, or a small Eastern Brown snake Pseudonaja textilis, which has a much narrower head. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW); Vulnerable (Vic); Rare (SA); Near Threatened (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera.

Yellow-naped Snake, Red-naped Snake, Dunmall’s Snake (Genus Furina)

Echiopsis curta, Pinnaroo District, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

olive-brown or reddish brown with paler lateral scales. Head slightly darker than body and distinct from neck, with moderately rounded snout. Lips flecked with white. Ventral area pale grey-brown to yellowish under tail. Scales smooth and in 17–21 (usually 19) rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 120–145. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 25–45, all single. Habitat: Associated with semi-arid mallee woodlands in the south-western MDB. Notes: A diurnal species that may be observed basking among spinifex and other low vegetation but also nocturnal. Livebearing with 8–10 young recorded in a litter. Bites readily if provoked. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Echiopsis curta may be confused with Drysdalia mastersii, but that 292

This genus contains five species of small to medium-sized snakes that are widespread through mostly drier areas of Australia, with three occurring in the MDB. They are slender with glossy smooth scales, a weakly depressed head and small black eyes. Prey items consist almost entirely of skinks. All species are oviparous. Yellow-naped Snake Furina barnardi TL: 500 mm Description: Body medium-sized and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum dark grey-brown to black with pale-edged scales forming reticulated appearance. Head slightly distinct from neck, with squarish snout and broad pale brown to yellow collar on nape. Ventral area white or cream. Scales smooth, glossy and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 170–200. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 25–45, all divided. Habitat: Inhabits rock outcrops and shelters beneath fallen timber and other ground debris in woodlands of the northern MDB.

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orange-red blotch on nape. Ventral area white or cream. Scales smooth, glossy and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 160–210. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 35–70, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats but mostly associated with dry woodlands and grasslands from the south-western to the northern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal species that shelters beneath ground debris during the day. Oviparous, with clutches of one to five eggs recorded. Venomous, but not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Furina diadema is similar to F. barnardi and F. dunmalli but can be distinguished by a nape with a bright orange-red blotch.

Furina barnardi, Eversfield, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

Notes: Nocturnal and terrestrial. Bites readily if disturbed. Venomous, but not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Furina barnardi is similar to F. diadema and F. dunmalli but can be distinguished by a nape with a pale brown to yellow band. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie. Red-naped Snake Furina diadema TL: 400 mm Description: Body small and slender with short tail. Dorsum reddish brown with dark-edged scales forming reticulated appearance. Head slightly distinct from neck, with squarish snout and bright

Furina diadema, Muswellbrook, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 293

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Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray. Dunmall’s Snake Furina dunmalli TL: 700 mm Description: Body medium-sized and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum uniform dark grey or pale brown to blackish brown. Head slightly distinct from neck, with squarish snout and few pale blotches on upper lip. Ventral area white. Scales smooth, glossy and in 21 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 175–190. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 35–50, all divided.

Habitat: Associated mostly with woodlands of the Brigalow Belt in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A poorly known nocturnal and terrestrial species that is observed infrequently. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Furina dunmalli is similar to F. barnardi and F. diadema but can be distinguished by a plain nape and having 21 mid-body scale rows. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Qld; Commonwealth; IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers.

Grey Snake, Swamp Snake (Genus Hemiaspis) This genus comprises two medium-sized species generally occurring in moist habitats of eastern Australia. Both occur in the MDB, with one distributed further inland and the other associated more with the coast and ranges. They are moderately slender with large eyes and round pupils. Prey items include frogs and skinks. Both species are livebearers. Grey Snake Hemiaspis damelii

Furina dunmalli, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: G. Schmida

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Marsh Snake Hemiaspis signata

Hemiaspis damelii, Chinchilla, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

TL: 600 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with slender tail. Dorsum olive grey to dark grey with lateral scales tipped anteriorly with black. Head not distinct from neck, with slightly rounded snout and black band on base of head and nape. Ventral area yellowish cream or white. Scales smooth and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 140–170. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 35–50, all single. Habitat: Shelters beneath ground debris and in soil cracks in dry sclerophyll forests and woodlands of the north-eastern MDB. Also an isolated population along the Lachlan River in the south-western MDB. Notes: Crepuscular and nocturnal, feeding exclusively on frogs. Livebearing with 6–12 young recorded. Venomous, but not considered as dangerous. Identification: Hemiaspis damelii has a black band on the base of the head and usually a yellowish cream or white ventral area. It is similar to Hemiaspis signata, which has two narrow pale stripes on each side of the face and usually a dark grey to black ventral surface. Conservation status: Endangered (Qld). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan.

TL: 700 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with slender tail. Dorsum brown to dark olive grey and head sometimes darker. Head not distinct from neck, with slightly rounded snout and two narrow pale stripes on each side of face. Ventral area usually grey to black. Scales smooth and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 150–170. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 40–60, all single. Habitat: Usually encountered around watercourses in wetter forest of the northeastern MDB. Notes: Diurnal, crepuscular and nocturnal feeding on skinks and frogs. Livebearing with 4–20 young recorded. Venomous, but not considered as dangerous.

Hemiaspis signata, Copeland, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Identification: Hemiaspis signata has two narrow pale stripes on each side of the face and usually a dark grey to black ventral surface. It is similar to Hemiaspis damelii, which has a black band on the base of the head and usually a yellowish cream or white ventral surface. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers.

Hoplocephalus bitorquatus, Dalby, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

Broad-headed snakes (Genus Hoplocephalus) This genus consists of three species of medium-sized snakes restricted to woodlands, forests and rock outcrops in eastern Australia. Two occur in the MDB. The distribution of one species includes inland areas, while the other is associated more with the coast and ranges. All species are agile climbers with a noticeably broad, flattened head distinct from the body and keeled ventral scales. They have moderately large eyes with round pupils. Prey items include lizards, frogs, mammals and birds. Both species are livebearers. Pale-headed Snake Hoplocephalus bitorquatus

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TL: 800 mm Description: Body medium-sized and moderately robust with slender tail. Dorsum light brown to grey or black with head lighter coloured. Head noticeably distinct from neck, with moderately rounded snout and white to pale grey band across base of head. Lips usually barred in dark grey and cream. Ventral area creamy grey, usually with some darker flecks. Scales smooth and in 19–21 rows at midbody. Ventrals: 190–225. Anal scale single. Subcaudals 40–65, all single. Habitat: Shelters beneath bark and in tree hollows within dry woodlands usually along floodplains in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal species generally observed foraging for frogs. Livebearing producing 2–11 young. Very defensive when disturbed. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Hoplocephalus bitorquatus is similar to H. stephensii but can be distinguished by the white to pale grey band across the base of the head. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh.

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Stephens’ Banded Snake Hoplocephalus stephensii TL: 1.2 m Description: Body medium-sized and moderately robust with slender tail. Dorsum light brown, yellowish or dark grey with series of broad black crossbands and head more lightly coloured. Some individuals uniform dark colour with no banding. Head noticeably distinct from neck, with moderately rounded snout and brown or cream patch on either side of nape. Lips usually with white bars or blotches. Ventral area creamy grey usually with some darker flecks. Scales smooth and in 21 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 220–250. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 50–70, all single.

Habitat: Mostly associated with wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A nocturnal species generally only encountered foraging at night. Livebearing producing an average litter of six young. Very defensive when disturbed. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Usually easily identified by the pale diffuse cream to brown bands along the length of body. Reduced pattern individuals of Hoplocephalus stephensii may be similar to Hoplocephalus bitorquatus but can be distinguished by the brown or cream patch on either side of the nape. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW); Near Threatened (IUCN Red List). MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers.

Tiger snakes (Genus Notechis) A group containing numerous, poorly defined subspecies that are restricted to mainland southern Australia, Tasmania and various islands. A single species occurs in the MDB, most often found in association with water. It is a large snake with a broad, relatively flat head and moderately large eyes. Prey items include frogs, lizards, small mammals and birds. It is livebearing. Mainland Tiger Snake Notechis scutatus scutatus

Hoplocephalus stephensii, Myall Lakes, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 1.5 m Description: Body large and robust with short, slender tail. Dorsum colour highly variable but usually pale grey or brown to olive-green with series of narrow 297

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Identification: Notechis scutatus scutatus is a large, distinctive species with a variable pattern. Could be confused with the Rough-scaled Snake Tropidechis carinatus, though this species has keeled scales and is restricted to the north-eastern MDB. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Taipans (Genus Oxyuranus)

Notechis scutatus scutatus, Clunes, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

crossbands formed by pale-edged scales. Some individuals uniform in colour with no banding. Head broad and slightly distinct from neck, with blunt snout. Scales smooth and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 140–190. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 35–65, all single. Ventral area cream, yellow, grey or olive-green. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from rainforest in the north-east to dry sclerophyll forest, marshland and river floodplains in the southern MDB. Notes: A large active snake generally encountered around waterways. Diurnal and crepuscular though also nocturnal in warm weather. Livebearing, producing an average litter of 23 young. Dangerously venomous. 298

Australia has three species of Taipans distributed in separate regions. Old records exist for the Inland Taipan in the MDB. This is a large and dangerous snake with a long narrow head, large eyes and round pupils. It is oviparous. Prey items are mostly rats, with the Inland Taipan’s main food source being the Long-haired Rat Rattus villosissimus. Similar species include the brown snakes, genus Pseudonaja, though these have mostly 17–21 mid-body scale rows. Inland Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus

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confused with the Strap-snouted Brown Snake Pseudonaja aspidorhyncha or the Western Brown Snake Pseudonaja mengdeni, but those species have 17–19 mid-body scale rows and a divided anal scale. Conservation status: Presumed Extinct (NSW); Regionally Extinct (Vic). MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Murray. Oxyuranus microlepidotus, Coober Pedy, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 2 m Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum light brown to rich brown with dark-edged scales that form irregular crossbands. Undergoes seasonal colour change from pale in summer to dark in winter. Head long and narrow and slightly distinct from neck, with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area cream to bright yellow. Scales smooth and in 23 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 220–250. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 55–70, all divided. Habitat: Associated with black soil plains and floodplains. In the MDB, this species is only known from very old records at Tindaree and at the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in north-western Victoria. There have been no further verifiable records for over a century. Notes: An active diurnal, terrestrial species that shelters in deep cracks in the soil and burrow systems. Oviparous, producing an average clutch of 16 eggs. Raises its forebody in an S-shaped position if disturbed. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Oxyuranus microlepidotus is a large distinctive species. Most likely to be

Hooded Snakes (Genus Parasuta) This genus contains six species of small cryptozoic snakes that occur mostly in arid and semi-arid areas of southern Australia. Four very similar species are recorded from the MDB. They are recognisable by a small, slightly depressed head with a conspicuous dark blotch and moderate to small eyes. They are livebearers. Prey items are mostly small skinks. Parasuta species could be confused with small brown snakes, genus Pseudonaja, but those species have a divided anal scale and divided subcaudal scales. Dwyer’s Snake Parasuta dwyeri

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Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn, Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Little Whip Snake Parasuta flagellum

Parasuta dwyeri, Bendigo, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 600 mm Description: Body small and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum yellow brown to reddish brown with dark-edged scales that form dark vertebral zone. Head slightly depressed, not distinct from neck, with slightly rounded snout. Black head blotch unbroken from snout to nape and noticeable pale pre-ocular blotch. Ventral area white. Scales smooth, glossy and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 135–170. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 20–40, all single. Habitat: Associated with rock outcrops in dry woodlands in the eastern MDB. Notes: A secretive nocturnal species that shelters beneath rock slabs and other ground debris. Livebearing, producing an average of three young. Venomous, but not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Parasuta dwyeri can be identified by a black head blotch unbroken from snout to nape and a noticeable pale pre-ocular blotch. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Warrego, CondamineBalonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee,

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TL: 450 mm Description: Body small and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum light tan to brown or orange with dark-edged scales that form reticulated pattern. Head slightly depressed, not distinct from neck, with slightly rounded snout. Black head blotch broken by pale bar across snout. Ventral area cream to brown. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 125–150. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 20–40, all single.

Parasuta flagellum, Skipton, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

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Habitat: Occurs in granite outcrops in dry woodlands and basalt grassland plains in the southern MDB. Notes: A secretive nocturnal species that shelters beneath rock slabs and other ground debris. Livebearing. Venomous, but not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Parasuta flagellum can be identified by a black head blotch broken by a pale bar across the snout and having 17 mid-body scale rows. Conservation status: Vulnerable (NSW). MDB catchments: Murrumbidgee, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta. Mitchell’s Short-tailed Snake Parasuta nigriceps

TL: 590 mm Description: Body small and robust with short tail. Dorsum reddish brown to purplish brown with conspicuous dark vertebral stripe or zone. Head slightly depressed, not distinct from neck, with slightly rounded snout. Black head blotch unbroken from snout to nape continuous with prominent dark vertebral stripe or zone. Lips pale orange to white. Ventral area white. Scales smooth, glossy and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 145–175. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 18–35, all single. Habitat: Associated mostly with mallee woodlands in the south-western MDB. Notes: A cryptic nocturnal species that shelters beneath logs and other ground debris. Livebearing with an average litter of four. Venomous, but not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Parasuta nigriceps can be identified by a black head blotch unbroken from snout to nape and continuous with a prominent dark vertebral stripe or zone. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Barwon-Darling, Lower Darling, Lower Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca. Mallee Black-headed Snake Parasuta spectabilis spectabilis

Parasuta nigriceps, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar 301

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‘Black’ Snakes (Genus Pseudechis)

Parasuta spectabilis spectabilis, Coober Pedy, South Australia. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 400 mm Description: Body small and moderately robust with short tail. Dorsum grey brown to reddish brown with dark-edged scales that form reticulated pattern. Head slightly depressed, not distinct from neck, with slightly rounded snout. Black head blotch broken by pale bar across snout. Ventral area white. Scales smooth, glossy and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 135–170. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 20–40, all single. Habitat: Occurs in mallee woodlands and heathlands of the Big Desert and adjacent areas of SA in the south-western MDB. Also recorded around Broken Hill in NSW. Notes: A cryptic nocturnal species that shelters beneath ground debris. Livebearing with an average litter of three recorded. Venomous, but not regarded as dangerous. Identification: Parasuta spectabilis can be identified by having a black head blotch broken by a pale bar across the snout and 15 mid-body scale rows. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic). MDB catchments: Lower Murray, Lower Darling.

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This genus contains eight medium-sized to large, robust snakes found throughout Australia. Three species occur in the MDB. They have a relatively broad, depressed head and moderately small eyes with round pupils. Most species are oviparous and one is livebearing. Prey items include fish, frogs, reptiles and mammals. Mulga Snake Pseudechis australis TL: 2 m Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum rich copper to reddish brown with lighter ventral colouration

Pseudechis australis, Yuleba, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

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extending onto lower flanks. Head relatively broad and depressed, slightly distinct from neck, with moderately rounded snout. Ventral area cream to white with scattered orange blotches and some salmon markings. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 185–225. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 50–80, all single (in MDB specimens examined for this feature). Habitat: Occurs in semi-arid scrublands, grasslands and open forest throughout the central and northern MDB. Notes: An active diurnal and nocturnal species usually observed foraging. Oviparous, producing an average clutch of nine eggs. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Pseudechis australis is a large distinctively coloured species recognisable by a rich copper to reddish brown dorsum and cream to white ventral surface with scattered orange blotches. May be confused with brown snakes, genus Pseudonaja, but those species are more slender and have all subcaudal scales divided. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Lower Murray. Spotted Black Snake Pseudechis guttatus TL: 1.5 m Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum glossy black to grey, often with scattered pale grey or cream spots. Head relatively broad and depressed, slightly distinct from neck, with moderately rounded snout. Ventral area grey or

Pseudechis guttatus, Glenmorgan, Queensland. Photo: S. Mahony

blue-grey. Scales smooth, glossy and in 19 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 175–205. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 45–65, anterior single, posterior divided. Habitat: Mostly associated with river floodplains, dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands of the north-eastern MDB. Notes: A diurnal and nocturnal species usually observed basking or foraging. Shelters beneath logs and other ground debris. Oviparous, producing between five and 17 eggs. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Pseudechis guttatus is a large distinctively coloured species recognisable by a glossy black to grey dorsum and grey or blue-grey ventral surface. Conservation status: Not listed.

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MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan. Red-bellied Black Snake Pseudechis porphyriacus TL: 2 m Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum glossy black with red ventral colouration extending up on to the lower flanks. Head relatively broad and depressed, slightly distinct from neck, with moderately rounded snout. Ventral area red to cream. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 170–215. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 40–65, anterior single, posterior divided.

Habitat: Mostly found in association with wetlands in the southern and eastern MDB. Notes: A familiar diurnal species generally observed basking or foraging. Shelters beneath logs and other ground debris. Livebearing, with 15–18 young born in enclosed membranous sacs from which they quickly emerge. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Pseudechis porphyriacus is a large distinctively coloured species recognisable by a glossy black dorsum and red to cream ventral surface. Smaller specimens could be confused with the Small-eyed Snake Cryptophis nigrescens, but that species has only 15 mid-body scale rows and the red ventral pigment in Pseudechis porphyriacus continues up the lower lateral zone. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

Brown snakes (Genus Pseudonaja)

Pseudechis porphyriacus, Sydney, New South Wales. Photo: K. Griffiths

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This genus contains nine species of medium-sized to large snakes that are widespread throughout Australia. Four species occur in the MDB. They are fast moving and diurnal to nocturnal with moderately large eyes and round pupils. All species are nervous and defensive if disturbed. Prey items include lizards, other snakes and mammals. They are oviparous. Pseudonaja species may be confused with

SNAKES

the Mulga Snake Pseudechis australis, which has a broad, depressed head, or the Inland Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus, which has 21–23 mid-body scale rows. Strap-snouted Brown Snake Pseudonaja aspidorhyncha TL: 1.3 m Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum colour very variable from brown to grey-brown or reddish brown and generally with some pattern of black scales on neck and series of narrow irregular bands. Head long and narrow, slightly distinct from neck, with straightedged snout. Large strap-like rostral scale. Ventral area cream, yellow, orange or grey with dark grey or dark orange blotches. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at

mid-body. Ventrals: 200–230. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 45–70, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in mallee woodlands to savanna woodlands and grasslands throughout semi-arid areas of the MDB. Notes: A large swift species generally observed basking or foraging and usually retreats into holes in the ground. Oviparous. Defensive if disturbed rearing its forebody in an S-shape. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Pseudonaja aspidorhyncha is similar to other brown snake species but can be distinguished by the large, prominent strap-like rostral scale and a pale grey mouth lining. Conservation status: Near Threatened (Vic). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, BarwonDarling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray. Western Brown Snake Pseudonaja mengdeni

Pseudonaja aspidorhyncha, Mitchell, Queensland. Photo: S. K. Wilson

TL: 1.2 m Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum colour very variable from brown to reddish brown or orange with or without black head and nape. Sometimes plain or with series of narrow irregular bands. Head long and narrow, slightly distinct from neck, with rounded snout. Ventral area cream, yellow, orange or grey with dark grey or dark orange blotches. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 180–230. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 45–70, all divided. 305

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Ringed Brown Snake Pseudonaja modesta TL: 600 mm Description: Body medium-sized and slender with slender tail. Dorsum pale grey, tan or rich reddish brown with black patch on top of head, broad black band on nape and 4–12 narrow dark bands between nape and tail tip. Bands sometimes indistinct or absent on older specimens. Head long and narrow, slightly distinct from neck, with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area cream flecked with orange. Scales smooth and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 145–175. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 35–55, all divided. Habitat: Widespread through semi-arid shrublands and grasslands of the northwestern MDB.

Pseudonaja mengdeni, Shay Gap, Western Australia. Photo: B. Bush

Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from semi-arid woodlands and grasslands to stony plains and spinifex areas of the central-western MDB. Also a record from the central MDB. Notes: A large swift species, generally diurnal but also crepuscular and nocturnal. Oviparous. Defensive if disturbed rearing its forebody in an S-shape. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Pseudonaja mengdeni is similar to other brown snake species but can be distinguished by the rostral scale not being strap-like and a blackish mouth-lining. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling. 306

Pseudonaja modesta, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

SNAKES

Notes: Diurnal and nocturnal. Shelters beneath ground debris and in animal burrows. Oviparous, with an average of six eggs per clutch recorded. Defensive if disturbed rearing its forebody in an S-shape. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Pseudonaja modesta is similar to other brown snake species but can be distinguished by its smaller size, the rostral scale not being strap-like and 4–12 widely spaced narrow dark bands. It also has a lower ventral scale count of 145–175. Conservation status: Endangered (NSW). MDB catchments: Paroo, Lower Darling. Eastern Brown Snake Pseudonaja textilis

Pseudonaja textilis, Big Desert, Victoria. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 2.2 m Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum colour very variable from uniform brown to grey-brown, reddish brown and almost black. Some specimens with banding. Juveniles often banded with broad black band across head and nape. Pattern generally disappears with maturity. Head long and narrow, slightly distinct from neck, with narrowly rounded snout. Ventral area cream with numerous dark orange blotches. Scales smooth, glossy and in 17 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 185–235. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 45–75, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in a wide variety of habitats but mostly associated with dry woodlands, grasslands, rocky plains and open forest throughout the MDB. Notes: A large, fast moving dangerous snake responsible for the most number of venomous snake bites in Australia. Oviparous, with an average of 16 eggs in a clutch recorded. Defensive if disturbed rearing its forebody in an S-shape and advancing with mouth open. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Pseudonaja textilis is similar to other brown snake species but can be distinguished by the rostral scale not being strap-like and a pink mouth lining. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Upper Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, GoulburnBroken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

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F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Terrestrial snakes (Genus Suta) This genus contains four species distributed throughout Australia, with one widespread in the MDB. It is a medium-sized snake with a broad moderately flat head and small eyes. Livebearing. Prey items are mostly lizards. This species could be confused with juvenile brown snakes, genus Pseudonaja, but those species have the anal and subcaudal scales divided. Curl Snake Suta suta TL: 600 mm Description: Body medium-sized and robust with short tail. Dorsum pale brown, olive-brown to rich reddish brown with reticulated pattern, paler on the lower flanks. Head moderately depressed, distinct

from neck, with slightly rounded snout and a dark hood. Dark-edged pale stripe on side of head from snout through eye to temple. Eyes with conspicuous small pupil with orange iris. Ventral area white. Scales smooth, glossy and in 19 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 150–170. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 25–35, all single. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of semi-arid grasslands, woodlands, open saltbush plains and heavy cracking clay soils, throughout most of the MDB. Notes: A nocturnal, terrestrial species generally observed moving around at night. Shelters beneath ground debris and in deep soil cracks. Livebearing, with litters of two to seven young recorded. Adopts a defensive posture if disturbed, curling the body into a tight coil and thrashing around. Potentially dangerous. Identification: Suta suta can be identified by having a dark hood and a dark-edged pale stripe on the side of the head. Also the anal scale and subcaudal scales are undivided. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, MacquarieCastlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, MidMurray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca.

Rough-scaled Snake (Genus Tropidechis)

Suta suta, Nearie Lake, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

308

This is a monotypic genus restricted to eastern Australia. The sole member occurs in the north-eastern MDB but is associated more with the wetter forest of the coast and ranges. It is a large snake with keeled scales

SNAKES

and moderately large eyes with a round pupil. Prey items include frogs, lizards, birds and small mammals. It is livebearing. It is most likely to be confused with the harmless Keelback, Tropidonophis mairii, but that species has the anal and subcaudal scales divided and a loreal scale present. It could also be confused with the Tiger Snake Notechis scutatus, but that species has smooth scalation and fewer mid-body scales rows. Rough-scaled Snake Tropidechis carinatus TL: 900 mm Description: Body large and robust with slender tail. Dorsum yellowish brown to dark brown and olive, usually with irregular

narrow dark crossbands. Some individuals plain coloured. Head long, slightly distinct from neck, with moderately rounded snout. Ventral area cream, yellow or olive-green, often with numerous darker blotches. Scales keeled and in 23 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 160–185. Anal scale single. Subcaudals: 50–60, all single. Habitat: Generally encountered around streams and swamps in wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest in the north-eastern MDB. Notes: Nocturnal and diurnal. Mostly terrestrial, but readily climbs into low foliage to bask. Livebearing with litters of five to eight young recorded. A nervous and very dangerous snake, quickly becoming aggressive if disturbed. Dangerously venomous. Identification: Tropidechis carinatus can be identified by having 23 mid-body scale rows and single anal and subcaudal scales. Conservation status: Not listed. MDB catchments: Condamine-Balonne.

Bandy bandys (Genus Vermicella) This genus contains five species of black and white ringed burrowing snakes distributed throughout Australia. One species is widespread in the MDB. It has a short head with a rounded snout and small dark eyes. Prey items are exclusively blind snakes, genus Anilios. It is oviparous. Common Bandy Bandy Vermicella annulata Tropidechis carinatus, Lamington National Park, Queensland. Photo: J. Farquhar

TL: 760 mm Description: Body large and robust with short tail with blunt tip. Dorsum with 309

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Vermicella annulata, Nanya Station, New South Wales. Photo: J. Farquhar

distinct alternating black and white rings along entire body and tail. Head short, not distinct from neck, with rounded snout. Ventral area with black and white rings

310

extending onto it. Scales smooth, glossy and in 15 rows at mid-body. Ventrals: 180–260. Anal scale divided. Subcaudals: 10–35, all divided. Habitat: Occurs in a variety of habitats from wet and dry sclerophyll forest to mallee woodlands and arid sandy regions, throughout most of the MDB. Notes: A burrowing species observed active on the surface only at night, often after rain storms. Shelters beneath logs and rocks. Oviparous. Raises parts of its body in loops off the ground if disturbed. Venomous, but regarded as harmless. Identification: Vermicella annulata is readily identified by its distinct colouration and body shape. Conservation status: Vulnerable (Vic); Rare (SA). MDB catchments: Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir, Namoi, Barwon-Darling, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Lower Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Lower Murray, Mid-Murray, Wimmera, Loddon-Avoca, Campaspe, Goulburn-Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta-Mitta.

311

Common name

Paroo P

Moonie

Notaden bennettii

Neobatrachus sudellae

Sudell’s Frog

Crucifix Frog

P P

Neobatrachus pictus

Painted Frog

P

P

P

P

Limnodynastes terraereginae

Northern Banjo Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Limnodynastes tasmaniensis

Spotted Marsh Frog

P

P

P

Limnodynastes salmini

P

P

P

Salmon-striped Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Limnodynastes peronii

P

P

Striped Marsh Frog

P P

P

Limnodynastes interioris

P

Giant Banjo Frog

P

P

P

P

Limnodynastes fletcheri

P

Barking Frog

P

P

P

Limnodynastes dumerilii variegatus

P

Variegated Banjo Frog

P

Namoi P

Barwon-Darling

Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii P

Gwydir P

Macquarie-Castlereagh

Limnodynastes dumerilii fryi

P

Border Rivers P

Lower Darling

South-eastern Banjo Frog P

P

Warrego P

Condamine-Balonne

Adelotus brevis

Scientific name

Lower Murray

Snowy Mountains Banjo Frog

Tusked Frog

Family Limnodynastidae

Lachlan

Catchments

Murrumbidgee

Species checklist

Mid-Murray P

P

P

P

P

P

Upper Murray P

P

P

P

Wimmera P

P

P

P

P

P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

P

P

P

Campaspe P

P

P

P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

P

P

P

Ovens P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

Crinia parinsignifera

Eastern Sign-bearing Froglet

P

P

P

P

Pseudophryne dendyi

P

Dendy’s Toadlet

P

P

Pseudophryne corroboree

P

P

Southern Corroboree Frog

P

P

P

P

Pseudophryne coriacea

P

Red-backed Toadlet

P

P

P

Pseudophryne bibronii

Bibron’s Toadlet

P

P

P

P

Mixophyes iteratus

P

P

Giant Barred Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mixophyes fleayi

P

P

P

Fleay’s Barred Frog

P

P

P P

P

P

P

P

P

Mixophyes fasciolatus

P

P

Geocrinia victoriana

P

P

P

P

Great Barred Frog

P

P

P

P

Macquarie-Castlereagh

Eastern Smooth Frog

P

P

Barwon-Darling P

Lower Darling

P

P

P

Namoi P

Lower Murray

Geocrinia laevis

P

P

P

Gwydir P

Mid-Murray

Southern Smooth Frog

P

P

Border Rivers P

Upper Murray

Crinia sloanei

P

Moonie P

Wimmera

Sloane’s froglet

Common Sign-bearing Froglet Crinia signifera

Crinia deserticola

Desert Froglet

Family Myobatrachidae

P

P

P

Platyplectrum ornatum

Ornate Burrowing Frog

Paroo

P

Scientific name

Warrego

Philoria kundagungan

Common name

Condamine-Balonne

Mountain Frog

Lachlan

Catchments

Murrumbidgee

312 Loddon-Avoca P

P

P

P

Campaspe P

P

P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

P

P

P

Ovens P

P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

313

P

P

P P

Litoria dentata

Litoria ewingii

Litoria fallax

Litoria gracilenta

Bleating Tree Frog

Ewing’s Tree Frog

Eastern Dwarf Frog

Dainty Tree Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

Litoria chloris

Red-eyed Green Tree Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Litoria castanea

P

Yellow-spotted Bell Frog

P

P

P

P

Litoria caerulea

P

P

P

Green Tree Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Litoria booroolongensis

P

P

P

P

P

P

Booroolong Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Cyclorana platycephala

Eastern Water-holding Frog

P

P

P

P

P

Cyclorana verrucosa

P

Cyclorana novaehollandiae

Wide-mouthed Frog

P

P

P

P

P

Litoria aurea

P

Cyclorana cultripes

Knife-footed Frog

P

P

P

P

Rough Frog

P

Cyclorana brevipes

Short-footed Frog

P

P

P

P

P

Green and Golden Bell Frog

P

Cyclorana alboguttata

Striped Burrowing Frog

Pelodryadidae

P

Uperoleia rugosa

Wrinkled Toadlet P

P

Uperoleia laevigata

Smooth Toadlet P

P

Pseudophryne semimarmorata

Uperoleia fusca

Dusky Toadlet

Pseudophryne pengilleyi

Northern Corroboree Frog

P

Southern Toadlet

Pseudophryne major

Large Toadlet

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Paroo

Warrego

Condamine-Balonne Moonie

Border Rivers

P P

P

P

P

P

Litoria verreauxii verreauxii

Whistling Tree Frog

P

P

Litoria verreauxii alpina

Alpine Tree Frog

P

P

P

P

P

Litoria tyleri

P

Southern Laughing Frog

P

P

P

Litoria subglandulosa

P

New England Tree Frog

P P

Litoria spenceri

P P

Spotted Tree Frog

P

P P

P

Litoria revelata

P

Litoria rubella

P

Whirring Tree Frog

P

Desert Tree Frog P

P

Litoria raniformis

P

P

Southern Bell Frog

P

P

Litoria piperata

P

Peppered Tree Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

Litoria peronii P

P

Emerald-spotted Tree Frog P

P

P P

P

Litoria pearsoniana P

P

Pearson’s Tree Frog P

P

Gwydir

P

P

P

Namoi

Litoria paraewingi

P

Barwon-Darling

Victorian Tree Frog

P

P

Macquarie-Castlereagh

P

P

P

Lower Darling

Southern Leaf Green Tree Frog Litoria nudidigitus

Litoria lesueuri

Lesueur’s Stony Creek Frog

Scientific name

Litoria latopalmata

Common name

Broad-palmed Frog

Lachlan

Catchments

Murrumbidgee

314 Lower Murray P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

P

P

Upper Murray P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Wimmera P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

P

Campaspe P

P

P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Ovens P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

315

P

Emydura macquarii

Wollumbinia bellii

Macquarie Turtle

Bell’s Turtle

Uvidicolus sphyrurus

Granite Belt Thick-tailed Gecko

P

P

P

P P

P

P

Diplodactylus tessellatus

Tessellated Gecko

P

Diplodactylus furcosus

Ranges Stone Gecko P

P

Diplodactylus conspicillatus

Variable Fat-tailed Gecko

P

P

Diplodactylus ameyi

P

P

P

P

P

Eastern Deserts Fat-tailed Gecko

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Amalosia rhombifer

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Amalosia lesueurii

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Zig-zag Velvet Gecko P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lesueur’s Velvet Gecko

Family Diplodactylidae

P P

P

Underwoodisaurus milii

Common Thick-tailed Gecko P

Saltuarius wyberba

Granite Belt Leaf-tailed Gecko P

P

Saltuarius swaini

Southern Leaf-tailed Gecko

P

P

P

P

Nephrurus levis P

P

P

P

P

P

Smooth Knob-tailed Gecko P

P

Chelodina longicollis

Snake-necked Turtle

Family Carphodactylidae

P

Chelodina expansa

Rhinella marina

Litoria wilcoxii

Broad-shelled Turtle

Family Chelidae

Cane Toad

Family Bufonidae

Wilcox’s Stony Creek Frog

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P P

P

P P

P

Lucasium stenodactylus

Nebulifera robusta

Oedura cincta

Oedura monilis

Oedura tryoni

Rhynchoedura angusta

Rhynchoedura mentalis

Sand-plain Gecko

Robust Velvet Gecko

Inland Marbled Velvet Gecko

Ocellated Velvet Gecko

Southern Spotted Velvet Gecko

Border Beaked Gecko

Brigalow Beaked Gecko

P

P

P

P

P

P

Strophurus intermedius

Southern Spiny-tailed Gecko

P P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Strophurus elderi P

P

P

P

P

Jewelled Gecko

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Namoi

Rhynchoedura ormsbyi

P

P

P

Gwydir P

Barwon-Darling

Strophurus ciliaris

P

P

P

P

P

P

Border Rivers P

Macquarie-Castlereagh

Eastern Beaked Gecko

P

P

Moonie P

Lower Darling

Northern Spiny-tailed Gecko

P

P

P

Lucasium steindachneri

Box-patterned Gecko P

P

Lucasium damaeum

Beaded Gecko P

P

P

Lucasium byrnei

P

Gibber Gecko

Paroo P

Scientific name

Warrego

Diplodactylus vittatus

Common name

Condamine-Balonne

Eastern Stone Gecko

P

P

P

P

Lachlan

Catchments

P

P

P

Murrumbidgee

316 Lower Murray P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

Upper Murray P

Wimmera P

Loddon-Avoca P

Campaspe P

Goulburn-Broken P

Ovens P

Kiewa P

P

Mitta Mitta

317

P

Gehyra lazelli

Gehyra versicolor

Hemidactylus frenatus

Heteronotia binoei

Southern Rock Dtella

Variable Dtella

Asian House Gecko

Bynoe’s Gecko

P

Delma torquata

Collard Delma

P

P

Delma tincta

P

P

P

Black-necked Delma

P

P

Delma plebeia

Leaden Delma

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Delma inornata

Olive Delma

P

P

Delma impar

Striped Delma

P

P

P

Delma butleri

Spinifex Delma

P

P

P

P

P

Delma australis

P

P

Marble-faced Delma

P

P

P

P

P

P

Aprasia striolata

P

P

P

P

Lined Worm-lizard

P

P

P

P

Aprasia parapulchella

P

P

P

P

Pink-tailed Worm Lizard P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Aprasia inaurita

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Aprasia aurita

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Red-tailed Worm-lizard

P

P

P

P

P

P

Eared Worm-lizard

Family Pygopodidae

P

P

Gehyra dubia

Dubious Dtella

P

P

P

Gehyra catenata

Chain-backed Dtella P

P

Christinus marmoratus

Marbled Gecko P

P

P

Strophurus williamsi

Eastern Spiny-tailed Gecko

Family Gekkonidae

P

Strophurus taenicauda taenicauda

Golden-tailed Gecko

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P P P P P

Anomalopus leuckartii

Anomalopus mackayi

Anomalopus verreauxii

Austroablepharus kinghorni

Bellatorias frerei

Bellatorias major

Calyptotis scutirostrum

Two-clawed Worm Skink

Five-clawed Worm Skink

Three-clawed Worm Skink

Kinghorn’s Snake-eyed Skink

Major Skink

Land Mullet

Garden Calyptotis

P

P

P P

P

P

P

P

Anepischetosia maccoyi

P

P

McCoy’s Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Acritoscincus platynotum P

P

P

P

Red-throated Skink P

P

P

P

Gwydir P

Namoi

P

P

P

P

Border Rivers P

Barwon-Darling

Acritoscincus duperreyi

P

Moonie P

Macquarie-Castlereagh

Eastern Three-lined Skink

Family Scincidae

P

P

Pygopus schraderi

Eastern Hooded Scaly-foot P

P

Pygopus lepidopodus

Common Scaly-foot

P P

P

Paradelma orientalis

P

Paroo

Brigalow Scaly-foot

Scientific name

Warrego

Lialis burtonis

Common name

Condamine-Balonne

Burton’s Snake-lizard

Lower Darling P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lachlan

Catchments

P

P

P

P

P

P

Murrumbidgee

318 Lower Murray P

P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

Upper Murray P

P

P

Wimmera P

P

P

P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

P

P

Campaspe P

P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

Ovens P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

319

P

Ctenotus atlas

Ctenotus brachyonyx

Ctenotus eurydice

Ctenotus ingrami

Ctenotus leonhardii

Southern Spinifex Ctenotus

Short-clawed Ctenotus

Brown-backed Yellow-lined Ctenotus

Ingram’s Ctenotus

Common Desert Ctenotus

Ctenotus olympicus

P

Ctenotus allotropis

Brown-blazed Wedge-snouted Ctenotus

Saltbush Ctenotus

P

Cryptoblepharus pulcher

Elegant Snake-eyed Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

Cryptoblepharus pannosus

Ragged Snake-eyed Skink P

P

Cryptoblepharus metallicus

Metallic Snake-eyed Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

Cryptoblepharus australis

Inland Snake-eyed Skink P

P P

P

Concinnia tenuis

Carlia vivax

Lively Rainbow Skink

Bar-sided Skink

Carlia tetradactyla

Southern Rainbow Skink

P

P

Carlia schmeltzii

Schmeltz’s Rainbow Skink

Coeranoscincus reticulatus

P

Carlia rubigo

Orange-flanked Rainbow Skink

Concinnia martini

P

Carlia pectoralis

Open-litter Rainbow Skink

Three-toed Snake-tooth Skink

P

Carlia munda

Striped Rainbow Skink

Martin’s Skink

P

Carinascincus coventryi

Coventry’s Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P P

Ctenotus regius

Ctenotus robustus

Ctenotus schomburgkii

Ctenotus strauchii

Royal Ctenotus

Eastern Striped Ctenotus

Barred Wedge-snouted Ctenotus

Eastern Barred Wedge-snouted Ctenotus

Cyclodomorphus melanops elongatus

Cyclodomorphus michaeli

Cyclodomorphus praealtus

Cyclodomorphus venustus

Egernia cunninghami

Spinifex Slender Blue-tongue

Mainland She-oak Skink

Alpine She-oak Skink

Saltbush Slender Blue-tongue

Cunningham’s Skink

P

P

Cyclodomorphus gerrardii

Pink-tongued Skink

P

P

Ctenotus taeniatus

P

P

P

Ctenotus taeniolatus

P

P

P

P

P

Eyrean Ctenotus P

Warrego P

Condamine-Balonne

Copper-tailed Skink

P

P

P

Ctenotus pantherinus acripes

Leopard Ctenotus

Scientific name

Ctenotus orientalis

Common name

Paroo

Eastern Spotted Ctenotus

Moonie P

P

Border Rivers P

P

P

P

P

Gwydir P

P

P

P

P

Namoi P

P

P

P

Barwon-Darling P

P

P

P

Macquarie-Castlereagh P

P

P

P

P

Lower Darling P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lachlan

Catchments

P

P

P

P

Murrumbidgee

320 Lower Murray P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

Upper Murray P

P

P

P

Wimmera P

P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

P

Campaspe P

P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

P

Ovens P

P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

321

Egernia stokesii zellingi

Egernia striolata

Warrumbungle Mountains Black Rock Skink

Gidgee Skink

Tree Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P P

Karma murrayi

Lampropholis amicula

Lampropholis caligula

Eastern Earless Skink

Murray’s Skink

Friendly Sunskink

Montane Sunskink

P

P

Hemiergis talbingoensis talbingoensis

P

P

P

P

P

P

Hemiergis peronii peronii

Peron’s Earless Skink

P

P

Hemiergis millewae

Rusty Earless Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

Hemiergis decresiensis continentis

P

Southern Earless Skink

P

P

Harrisoniascincus zia

P

Beech Skink

P

Eulamprus tympanum tympanum

P

Southern Water Skink

P

P

P

Eulamprus quoyii

Eastern Water Skink

P

P

P

P

P

Eulamprus heatwolei

P

P

Eulamprus kosciuskoi

P

P

P

Yellow-bellied Water Skink

P

P

P

Alpine Water Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

Eremiascincus richardsonii

P

P

P

Broad-banded Sand-swimmer

P

P

P

P P

P

P

Eremiascincus phantasmus P

P

P

Ghost Skink

Eastern Narrow-banded-SandEremiascincus fasciolatus swimmer

Egernia saxatilis saxatilis

Black Rock Skink

P

Egernia rugosa

Egernia saxatilis intermedia

Yakka Skink

P

Egernia mcpheei

Eastern Crevice Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Liopholis guthega

Liopholis inornata

Liopholis modesta

Liopholis montana

Guthega Skink

Desert Skink

Eastern Ranges Rock Skink

Mountain Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lerista labialis

Eastern Two-toed Slider

P

Lerista fragilis

Eastern Mulch Slider

Lerista punctatovittata

Lerista emmotti

Noonbah Robust Slider

Lerista timida

Lerista dorsalis

Southern Four-toed Slider

Eastern Robust Slider

Lerista bougainvillii

Bougainville’s Slider

Dwarf Three-toed Slider

P

Lerista aericeps

Yellow-tailed Slider

P

P

P

P

P

Lampropholis guichenoti

Grass Skink

P

P

Lampropholis delicata

Garden Skink

Paroo

P

Scientific name

Warrego

Lampropholis colossus

Common name

Condamine-Balonne

Bunya Mountains Sunskink

Moonie P

P

P

P

Border Rivers P

P

P

P

P

P

Gwydir P

P

P

P

P

P

Namoi P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Barwon-Darling P

P

Macquarie-Castlereagh P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lower Darling P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lachlan

Catchments

P

P

P

P

P

Murrumbidgee

322 Lower Murray P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

Upper Murray P

P

P

P

P

Wimmera P

P

P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

Campaspe P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

P

Ovens P

P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

323

P P

P

P P

P P

Pseudemoia pagenstecheri

Pseudemoia rawlinsoni

Pseudemoia spenceri

Pygmaeascincus timlowi

Saiphos equalis

Saproscincus mustelinus

Saproscincus rosei

Saproscincus spectabilis

Tiliqua nigrolutea

Tiliqua occipitalis

Tussock Skink

Glossy Grass Skink

Spencer’s Skink

Low’s Dwarf Skink

Three-toed Skink

Weasel Skink

Rose’s Shadeskink

Gully Skink

Blotched Blue-tongue

Western Blue-tongue

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii

P

P

P

Southern Grass Skink

P

P

P P

Pseudemoia cryodroma

P

Alpine Bog Skink

P

Morethia taeniopleura

P P

Eastern Fire-tailed Skink

P

P

Morethia obscura

P P

Shrubland Pale-flecked Morethia

P

P

P

P

Morethia boulengeri

P

Boulenger’s Morethia

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Morethia adelaidensis

P

P

Saltbush Morethia

P

P

P

P

P

Lygisaurus foliorum P

P

Menetia greyii

Lissolepis coventryi

Swamp Skink

P

Tree Base Litter Skink

Liopholis whitii

White’s Skink

P

Common Dwarf Skink

Liopholis multiscutata

Bull Skink

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Warrego

Condamine-Balonne Moonie

P

Diporiphora nobbi

Intellagama lesueurii howittii

Intellagama lesueurii lesueurii

Lophosaurus spinipes

Common Nobbi Dragon

Gippsland Water Dragon

Eastern Water Dragon

Southern Angle-headed Dragon

P

P

P

P

P

Diporiphora australis

Tommy Roundhead

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Ctenophorus pictus

Painted Dragon

P

P

Ctenophorus nuchalis

Central-netted Dragon

P

P

P

Ctenophorus fordi

P

Mallee Military Dragon

P

P

Chlamydosaurus kingii

P

P

Frilled Lizard

P

P

P

Amphibolurus norrisi

P

P

P

Mallee Tree Dragon

P

P

P

Border Rivers

Amphibolurus muricatus

P

P

P

Gwydir

Jacky Lizard

P

P

P

Namoi

Amphibolurus burnsi P

P

P

Barwon-Darling

Burns’ Dragon P

P

Tiliqua scincoides scincoides

Eastern Blue-tongue

Family Agamidae

P

Scientific name

Tiliqua rugosa aspera

Common name

Paroo

Shingleback

Macquarie-Castlereagh P

P

P

P

Lower Darling P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lachlan

Catchments

P

P

P

P

P

Murrumbidgee

324 Lower Murray P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

P

Upper Murray P

Wimmera P

P

P

P

P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

P

Campaspe P

P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

Ovens P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

325

Tympanocryptis lineata

Tympanocryptis pinguicolla

Tympanocryptis tetraporophora

Tympanocryptis wilsoni

Lined Earless Dragon

Grassland Earless Dragon

Eyrean Earless Dragon

Roma Earless Dragon

Varanus rosenbergi

Varanus tristis orientalis

Varanus varius

Heath Monitor

Black-headed Monitor

Lace Monitor

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Anilios diversus

P

Northern Blind Snake

P

P

P

P

P

Anilios bituberculatus

P

P

P

Prong-snouted Blind Snake

P

P

P

P P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Anilios bicolor P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Dark -spined Blind Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Anilios batillus

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Anilios affinis P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Wagga Wagga Blind Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Small-headed Blind Snake

Family Typhlopidae

P

Varanus panoptes

Yellow-spotted Monitor

P

P

Varanus gouldii gouldii

P

Sand Goanna

Family Varanidae

Tympanocryptis intima

Smooth-snouted Earless Dragon

P

Tympanocryptis condaminensis

Condamine Earless Dragon P

Rankinia diemensis

Mountain Heath Dragon P

P

P

Pogona vitticeps

Central Bearded Dragon P

P

Pogona barbata

Eastern Bearded Dragon

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Anilios wiedii

Brown-snouted Blind Snake

Morelia spilota metcalfei

Inland Carpet Python

P P

Boiga irregularis

Dendrelaphis punctulatus

Common Tree Snake

P

Brown Tree Snake

Family Colubridae

P

Morelia spilota mcdowelli

Eastern Carpet Python P

P

Aspidites ramsayi

Woma P

P

Antaresia stimsoni orientalis

Stimson’s Python P

P

Antaresia maculosa

Spotted Python P

P

Anilios proximus

Woodland Blind Snake

P

P

Anilios nigrescens

Blackish Blind Snake

Family Pythonidae

P

Anilios ligatus

P

Robust Blind Snake

P

P

Anilios grypus

Northern Beaked Blind Snake

Paroo P

Scientific name

Warrego

Anilios endoterus

Common name

Condamine-Balonne

Desert Blind Snake

Moonie P

P

P

P

P

Border Rivers P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Gwydir P

P

P

P

P

Namoi P

P

P

P

P

Barwon-Darling P

Macquarie-Castlereagh P

P

P

P

Lower Darling P

P

P

P

P

P

Lachlan

Catchments

P

P

P

Murrumbidgee

326 Lower Murray P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

P

Upper Murray P

Wimmera P

P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

Campaspe P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

P

Ovens P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

Mitta Mitta

327

P

Echiopsis curta

Furina barnardi

Bardick

Yellow-naped Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P P

P

P

P

Drysdalia mastersii

P

P

P

Masters’ Snake

P

P

Drysdalia coronoides

P

P

P

White-lipped Snake

P

P

Denisonia devisi

DeVis’ Banded Snake

P

P

P

P

Demansia rimicola

P

P

Blacksoil Whipsnake

P

P

P

Demansia psammophis psammophis

Yellow-faced Whip Snake

P

P

Cryptophis nigrescens

Eastern Small-eyed Snake P

P

Cryptophis boschmai

P

P

Carpentaria Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Cacophis squamulosus

P

P

P

Golden-crowned Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Cacophis krefftii P

P

P

Southern Dwarf Crowned Snake P

P

P

Cacophis harriettae P

P

P

White-crowned Snake

P

Brachyurophis fasciolatus fasciatus

Narrow-banded Shovel-nosed Snake P

Brachyurophis australis

Australian Coral Snake

Unbanded Shovel-nosed Snake Brachyurophis incinctus

P

Austrelaps superbus

Lowlands Copperhead P

P

Austrelaps ramsayi

Highlands Copperhead

P

P P

Acanthophis antarcticus

Antaioserpens warro

P

Common Death Adder

Tropidonophis mairii

Warrego Burrowing Snake

Family Elapidae

Keelback

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P P

Hoplocephalus stephensii

Notechis scutatus scutatus

Oxyuranus microlepidotus

Stephen’s Banded Snake

Mainland Tiger Snake

Inland Taipan

P

Pseudechis porphyriacus

P

P

P

P

Red-bellied Black Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Pseudechis guttatus

P

Spotted Black Snake

P

P

P

Pseudechis australis

Mulga Snake P

P

P

Parasuta spectabilis spectabilis

P

P

P

Mallee Black-headed Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Parasuta nigriceps

P

P

P

P

P

Mitchell’s Short-tailed Snake

P

P

P

P

P

Namoi

Parasuta dwyeri P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Gwydir P

Barwon-Darling

Parasuta flagellum

P

P

P

P

Border Rivers P

Macquarie-Castlereagh

Dwyer’s Snake P

Moonie P

Lower Darling

Little Whip Snake

P

P

Hoplocephalus bitorquatus

Pale-headed Snake

P

P

Hemiaspis signata

Marsh Snake P

P

Hemiaspis damelii

Grey Snake

P P

P

Furina dunmalli

P

Paroo

Dunmall’s Snake

Scientific name

Warrego

Furina diadema

Common name

Condamine-Balonne

Red-naped Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Lachlan

Catchments

P

P

P

P

P

Murrumbidgee

328 Lower Murray P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mid-Murray P

P

P

Upper Murray P

P

P

P

Wimmera P

P

P

P

Loddon-Avoca P

P

P

P

P

Campaspe P

P

P

P

Goulburn-Broken P

P

P

P

Ovens P

P

P

P

Kiewa P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Mitta Mitta

329

P

Vermicella annulata

Common Bandy Bandy P

P

Tropidechis carinatus

Rough-scaled Snake P

P

P

Suta suta

Curl Snake P

P P

Pseudonaja modesta P

P

Pseudonaja textilis P

P

Ringed Brown Snake

Pseudonaja mengdeni

Western Brown Snake

P

Eastern Brown Snake

Pseudonaja aspidorhynca

Strap-snouted Brown Snake

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

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Glossary

Amplexus: the act of mating in frogs.

Elliptic: usually relates to vertical pupils.

Anal scale: the scale just in front of and covering the cloaca which may be single or divided.

Femoral pore: one or more pores beneath the thigh.

Anterior: towards the head.

Frontal scale: large scale on top of the head.

Arboreal: dwelling in trees.

Frontoparietals: the scales on the top of the head between the frontal and parietal scales.

Autotomy: spontaneous or reflex separation of the tail.

Fossorial: living within the soil.

Belah woodlands: a woodland dominated by Casuarina pauper.

Granular: pertaining to the skin, consisting of small granules.

Brigalow woodlands: a woodland dominated by Acacia harpophylla.

Gregarious: living in communities.

Callitris woodlands: a woodland dominated by Callitris glaucophylla.

Heliothermic: active through warmth directly from the sun.

Canthus rostralis: ridge between the anterior corner of the eye and the snout. Carapace: the upper shell of a turtle. Caudal: relating to the tail. CL: carapace length. Cloaca: the common chamber into which the reproductive, urinary and intestinal ducts open. Coccygeal: pertaining to the coccyx or tail bone. Crepuscular: active mostly in the twilight hours, evening and early morning. Crest: a longitudinal row of elevated spiny scales along the neck, back or tail. Cryptic: inconspicuous or secretive. Cryptozoic: pertaining to animals that live in dark or hidden places. Digit: a finger or toe. Diurnal: active during the day. Dorsal: of the back (the dorsum). Dorsally depressed: flattened from the top. Dorso-lateral: situated midway between the dorsal and lateral surfaces. Ectothermic: regulation of body temperature, mostly through an external source.

Gular: pertaining to a fold or scales of the throat.

Inguinal region: region slightly anterior to the groin. Interparietal scale: a scale situated between the parietal scales on top of the head. Iris: the coloured circular area of the eye, surrounding the pupil. Keeled scales: scales with a raised ridge. Labial scales: scales on the lips. Lamellae: scales along the underside of the digits. Lateral: relating to the sides. Laterally compressed: flattened from side to side. Longitudinal: running along the length of the body. Loreal scale: scale between nasal and preocular scales. Mallee: plant community dominated by mallee eucalypts. Mental shield: the single mid-line scale on the front edge of the lower jaw in lizards and snakes. Metatarsal tubercle: one or more tubercles at the base of the underside of the hind foot of frogs.

331

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Mid-body scale rows: the number of scales (usually counted obliquely) around the middle of the body.

Sexual dimorphism: noticeable differences in shape, size and/or colour between males and females.

Mulga: plant community dominated by acacias.

Sclerophyll forest: a forest comprised mostly of eucalypt trees.

Nasal scale: the scale on the snout that borders or encloses the nostril. Nocturnal: active at night. Nuchal: relating to the back of the neck. Nuptial pads: roughened pads on the inner surface of the first finger of the male frog, used for clasping the female.

Spectacle: the clear scale covering the eye of snakes and lizards without a movable eyelid. Spinifex: spiny-leafed grass of the genera Triodia and Plectrachne. Spinose: having spines. Subcaudal scales: scales under the tail.

Ocelli: ring-shaped spots.

Subdigital: beneath the digit.

Oviparous: egg laying. Para-vertebral: lying to one side of the vertebral or mid-dorsal line.

Supraciliary scale: one of the small scales above the upper eyelid situated between the supraocular scales and the eye.

Parotoid gland: skin gland over the neck and shoulder, behind the eye.

Supratympanic: above the tympanum. SVL: Snout to vent length.

Parthenogenic: reproduction fertilisation by a male.

Taxonomy: a system of classification.

without

Phylogenetic: relating to the evolutionary patterns of diversification of a group of organisms. Plastron: the lower part of a turtle. Posterior: towards the rear. Prehensile: a tail that is capable of gripping. Prefrontal scale: one of a pair of large scales, in front of the frontal scale. Preocular scale: one or more scales along the front edge of the eye. Reticulated: a network pattern. Retractile: able to be drawn in. Rostral scale: anterior-most scale on the snout. Rugose: a wrinkled or uneven surface. Saxocline: rock dwelling.

332

Temporal scale: one or more scales on the side of the head. Terrestrial: living on the ground. Tibial gland: an obvious gland on the upper tibia section of the hindlimbs of frogs. TL: total length. Transverse: across the body. Tubercle: a rounded or pointed projection. Tympanum: eardrum. Vent: external opening of the cloaca. Ventral: of the lower surface or underside. Vertebral: the spine or vertebral column. Vestigial: remnant of an organ which was at one time more fully developed. Viscous: sticky.

References

Anstis M (2013) Tadpoles and Frogs of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney. Bennett R (1997) Reptiles and Frogs of the Australian Capital Territory. National Parks Association of the ACT, Canberra. Cann J (1986) Snake Alive! Snake Experts and Antidote Sellers of Australia. Kangaroo Press, Sydney. Cann J, Sadlier R (2017) Freshwater Turtles of Australia. Eco Publishing, Rodeo, New Mexico. USA. Clemann N, Stranks T, Carland R, Melville J, Op den Brouw B, Robertson P (2018) The death adder Acanthophis antarcticus (Shaw & Nodder, 1802) in Victoria: historical records and contemporary uncertainty. Memoirs of the Museum of Victoria 77, 29–40. doi:10.24199/j.mmv.2018.77.03

Hero J-M, Littlejohn M, Marantelli G (1991) Frogwatch Field Guide to Victorian Frogs. Department of Conser vation and Environment, Melbourne. Hunter D, Waudby HP (2017) Frogs of Southwest NSW. 2nd edn. Office of Environment and Heritage, Sydney. Kinghorn JR (1956) The Snakes of Australia. 2nd edn. Angus and Robertson, Sydney. Meagher D (2013) An etymology of the scientific names of Australian amphibians. Herpetofauna 43, 18–60. Murray–Darling Basin Authority (2019) Website. Murray–Darling Basin Authority, Canberra, Swan M (2000) Notes on the Southern Lined or Grasslands Earless Dragon, Tympanocryptis lineata pinguicolla, in captivity. Herpetofauna 30(2), 22–23.

Clulow S, Swan M (2018) A Complete Guide to Frogs of Australia. Australian Geographic, Sydney.

Swan M (Ed.) (2007) Keeping and Breeding Australian Pythons. Herp Books, Melbourne.

Coventry AJ, Robertson P (1991) The Snakes of Victoria. Department of Conservation and Environment, Melbourne.

Swan M, Goodall D (2010) An Introduction to Keeping and Breeding Australian Reptiles. Herp Books, Melbourne.

Damian M, Lindenmayer D (2010) Reptiles of the NSW Murray Catchment. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Swan M, Watharow S (2005) Snakes, Lizards and Frogs of the Victorian Mallee. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Goode J (1967) Freshwater Tortoises of Australia and New Guinea. Lansdowne Press. Melbourne.

Swan G, Sadlier S, Shea G (2017) A Field Guide to Reptiles of New South Wales. 3rd edn. Reed New Holland, Sydney.

Green D, Gibbons D (2010) Frogs and Reptiles of the Bendigo District: A Guide to Their Identification. Bendigo Field Naturalists Club, Bendigo.

Vanderduys E (2012) A Field Guide to the Frogs of Queensland. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Heatwole H, Rowley JL (2018) Status of Conservation and Decline of Amphibians: Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islands. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Whitby M (1997) Habitat relationships of the herpetofauna in Belah Casuarina pauper (F. muell. × L. Johnson) woodlands in southwestern New South Wales. BSc (Hons) thesis, University of Ballarat, Ballarat.

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Wilson SK (2003) Reptiles of the Southern Brigalow Belt. Threatened Species Network/ WWF, Sydney.

Wilson SK (2016) The Reptiles of the Scenic Rim. Scenic Rim Regional Council, Beaudesert, Qld.

Wilson SK (2012) Australian Lizards: A Natural History. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Wilson S, Swan G (2017) A Complete Guide to Reptiles of Australia. 5th edn. Reed New Holland, Sydney.

Wilson SK (2015) A Field Guide to Reptiles of Queensland. 2nd edn. Reed New Holland, Sydney.

334

Index of common names

Alpine Bog Skink  224 Alpine She-oak Skink  189–90 Alpine Tree Frog  93–4 Alpine Water Skink  199–200 Asian House Gecko  146 Australian Coral Snake  282 Bardick 291–2 Barking Frog  48–9 Barred Wedge-snouted Ctenotus  184–5 Bar-sided Skink  173–4 Beaded Gecko  131 Beech Skink  201–2 Bell’s Turtle  112–13 Bibron’s Toadlet  65–6 Black Rock Skink  194–5 Blackish Blind Snake  268 Black-necked Delma  154 Blacksoil Whipsnake  288–9 Bleating Tree Frog  87–8 Blotched Blue-tongue  231–2 Booroolong Frog  82 Border Beaked Gecko  136–7 Bougainville’s Slider  210 Boulenger’s Morethia  221–2 Box-patterned Gecko  132 Brigalow Beaked Gecko  137 Brigalow Scaly-foot  156–7 Broad-banded Sand-swimmer  198 Broad-palmed Frog  96–7 Broad-shelled Turtle  109–10 Brown Tree Snake  275–6 Brown-backed Yellow-lined Ctenotus  179–80 Brown-blazed Wedge-snouted Ctenotus  177–8 Brown-snouted Blind Snake  269 Bull Skink  217 Bunya Mountains Sunskink  207 Burns’ Dragon  235–6 Burton’s Snake-lizard  155–6 Bynoe’s Gecko  147

Cane Toad  102–3 Carpentaria Snake  286–7 Central Bearded Dragon  245–6 Central-netted Dragon  239 Chain-backed Dtella  143 Coastal Carpet Python  272–3 Collard Delma  154–5 Common Bandy Bandy  309–10 Common Blue-tongue  233–4 Common Death Adder  278–9 Common Desert Ctenotus  180–1 Common Dwarf Skink  220 Common Nobbi Dragon  241 Common Scaly-foot  157 Common Sign-bearing Froglet  59–60 Common Thick-tailed Gecko  122–3 Common Tree Snake  276 Condamine Earless Dragon  247 Copper-tailed Skink  186–7 Coventry’s Skink  167 Crucifix Frog  54 Cunningham’s Skink  191–2 Curl Snake  308 Dainty Tree Frog  87 Dark-spined Blind Snake  264–5 Dendy’s Toadlet  68 Desert Blind Snake  266 Desert Froglet  57–8 Desert Skink  215 Desert Tree Frog  88–9 DeVis’ Banded Snake; ‘Mud Adder’  289–90 Dubious Dtella  143–4 Dunmall’s Snake  294 Dusky Toadlet  71 Dwarf Three-toed Slider  213–14 Dwyer’s Snake  299–300 Eared Worm-lizard  148 Eastern Barred Wedge-snouted Ctenotus  185–6 335

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Eastern Beaked Gecko  137–8 Eastern Bearded Dragon  244–5 Eastern Brown Snake  307 Eastern Crevice Skink  193–4 Eastern Deserts Fat-tailed Gecko  127 Eastern Dwarf Frog  95–6 Eastern Earless Skink  204 Eastern Fire-tailed Skink  223 Eastern Hooded Scaly-foot  158 Eastern Mulch-slider  211–12 Eastern Narrow-banded Sand-swimmer  196–7 Eastern Ranges Rock Skink  215–16 Eastern Robust Slider  213 Eastern Sign-bearing Froglet  58–9 Eastern Small-eyed Snake  287 Eastern Smooth Frog  61–2 Eastern Spiny-tailed Gecko  139–40 Eastern Spotted Ctenotus  182 Eastern Stone Gecko  129 Eastern Striped Ctenotus  184 Eastern Three-lined Skink  159–60 Eastern Two-toed Slider  212 Eastern Water Dragon  242–3 Eastern Water Skink  200 Eastern Water-holding Frog  77–8 Elegant Snake-eyed Skink  176–7 Emerald-spotted Tree Frog  89–90 Ewing’s Tree Frog  91–2 Eyrean Ctenotus  186 Eyrean Earless Dragon  249–50 Five-clawed Worm Skink  162–3 Fleay’s Barred Frog  63–4 Freckled Monitor/Black-headed Monitor   254–5 Friendly Sunskink  206 Frilled Lizard  237–8 Garden Calyptotis  166–7 Garden Skink  207–8 Ghost Skink  197–8 Giant Banjo Frog  46–7 Giant Barred Frog  64–5 Gibber Gecko  130–1 Gidgee Skink  192 Gippsland Water Dragon  242 Glossy Grass Skink  226 336

Golden-crowned Snake  285–6 Golden-tailed Gecko  140–1 Granite Belt Leaf-tailed Gecko  121–2 Granite Belt Thick-tailed Gecko  123–4 Grass Skink  208–9 Grassland Earless Dragon  249 Great Barred Frog  63 Green and Golden Bell Frog  80 Green Tree Frog  85–6 Grey Snake  294–5 Gully Skink  230–1 Guthega Skink  214–15 Heath Monitor  253–4 Highlands Copperhead  280–1 Ingram’s Ctenotus  180 Inland Carpet Python  273–4 Inland Marbled Velvet Gecko  134–5 Inland Snake-eyed Skink  174–5 Inland Taipan  298–9 Jacky Lizard  236 Jewelled Gecko  141 Keelback/Freshwater Snake  277 Kinghorn’s Snake-eyed Skink  164 Knife-footed Frog  76–7 Lace Monitor  255–6 Land Mullet  165–6 Large Toadlet  68–9 Leaden Delma  153–4 Leopard Ctenotus  182–3 Lesueur’s Stony Creek Frog  83–4 Lesueur’s Velvet Gecko  125–6 Lined Earless Dragon  248–9 Lined Worm-lizard  150 Little Whip Snake  300–1 Lively Rainbow Skink  171–2 Low’s Dwarf Skink  227–8 Lowlands Copperhead  281 Macquarie Turtle  111–12 Mainland She-oak Skink  189 Mainland Tiger Snake  297–8

I N D E X O F CO M M O N N A M E S

Major Skink  165 Mallee Black-headed Snake  301–2 Mallee Military Dragon  238–9 Mallee Tree Dragon  236–7 Marbled Gecko  142–3 Marble-faced Delma  150–1 Marsh Snake  295–6 Martin’s Skink  173 Masters’ Snake  291 McCoy’s Skink  161 Metallic Snake-eyed Skink  175 Mitchell’s Short-tailed Snake  301 Montane Sunskink  206–7 Mountain Frog  55 Mountain Heath Dragon  246–7 Mountain Skink  216–17 Mulga Snake  302–3 Murray’s Skink  205 Narrow-banded Shovel-nosed Snake  282–3 New England Tree Frog  100–1 Noonbah Robust Slider  211 Northern Banjo Frog  47–8 Northern Beaked Blind Snake  267 Northern Blind Snake  265–6 Northern Corroboree Frog  69–70 Northern Spiny-tailed Gecko  138–9 Ocellated Velvet Gecko  135 Olive Delma  152–3 Open Litter Rainbow Skink  168–9 Orange-flanked Rainbow Skink  169–70 Ornate Burrowing Frog  56 Painted Dragon  239–40 Painted Frog  52 Pale-headed Snake  296 Pearson’s Tree Frog  98 Peppered Tree Frog  98–9 Peron’s Earless Skink  203–4 Pink-tailed Worm-lizard  149–50 Pink-tongued Skink  187–8 Prong-snouted Blind Snake  265 Ragged Snake-eyed Skink  176 Ranges Stone Gecko  128

Red-backed Toadlet  66–7 Red-bellied Black Snake  304 Red-eyed Green Tree Frog  86 Red-naped Snake  293–4 Red-tailed Worm-lizard  149 Red-throated Skink  160 Ringed Brown Snake  306–7 Robust Blind Snake  267–8 Robust Velvet Gecko  133–4 Roma Earless Dragon  250–1 Rose’s Shadeskink  230 Rough Frog  78–9 Rough-scaled Snake  309 Royal Ctenotus  183–4 Rusty Earless Skink  203 Salmon-striped Frog  51 Saltbush Ctenotus  181–2 Saltbush Morethia  221 Saltbush Slender Blue-tongue  190–1 Sand Goanna  252–3 Sand-plain Gecko  132–3 Schmeltz’s Rainbow Skink  170 Shingleback 232–3 Short-clawed Ctenotus  178–9 Short-footed Frog  75–6 Shrubland Pale-flecked Morethia  222–3 Sloane’s Froglet  60 Small-headed Blind Snake  263 Smooth Knob-tailed Gecko  120–1 Smooth Toadlet  71–2 Smooth-snouted Earless Dragon  247–8 Snake-necked Turtle  110–11 Snowy Mountains Banjo Frog  44–5 South-eastern Banjo Frog  43–4 Southern Angle-headed Dragon  243–4 Southern Bell Frog  81–2 Southern Corroboree Frog  67 Southern Dwarf Crowned Snake  284–5 Southern Earless Skink  202–3 Southern Four-toed Slider  210–11 Southern Grass Skink  224–5 Southern Laughing Frog  90–1 Southern Leaf Green Tree Frog  97–8 Southern Leaf-tailed Gecko  121 Southern Rainbow Skink  170–1 337

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Southern Rock Dtella  144–5 Southern Smooth Frog  61 Southern Spinifex Ctenotus  178 Southern Spiny-tailed Gecko  139 Southern Spotted Velvet Gecko  135–6 Southern Toadlet  70 Southern Water Skink  200–1 Spencer’s Skink  226–7 Spinifex Delma  151–2 Spinifex Slender Blue-tongue  188–9 Spotted Black Snake  303–4 Spotted Marsh Frog  49–50 Spotted Python  270–1 Spotted Tree Frog  99–100 Stephens’ Banded Snake  297 Stimson’s Python  271 Strap-snouted Brown Snake  305 Striped Burrowing Frog  74–5 Striped Delma  152 Striped Marsh Frog  50–1 Striped Rainbow Skink  168–9 Sudell’s Frog  53 Swamp Skink  218–19 Tessellated Gecko  129–30 Three-clawed Worm Skink  163 Three-toed Skink  228–9 Three-toed Snake-tooth Skink  172 Tommy Roundhead  240–1 Tree Base Litter-skink  219–20 Tree Skink  195–6 Tusked Frog  42–3 Tussock Skink  225–6 Two-clawed Worm Skink  162

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Unbanded Shovel-nosed Snake  283 Variable Dtella  145 Variable Fat-tailed Gecko  127–8 Variegated Banjo Frog   45–6 Victorian Tree Frog  92 Wagga Wagga Blind Snake  264 Warrego Burrowing Snake  279–80 Warrumbungle Mountains Black Rock Skink 195 Weasel Skink  229–30 Western Blue-tongue  232 Western Brown Snake  305–6 Whirring Tree Frog  92–3 Whistling Tree Frog   94–5 White’s Skink  217–18 White-crowned Snake  284 White-lipped Snake  290–1 Wide-mouthed Frog  77 Wilcox’s Stony Creek Frog  84–5 Woma 272 Woodland Blind Snake  268–9 Wrinkled Toadlet  72–3 Yakka Skink  192–3 Yellow Spotted Frog  80–1 Yellow-bellied Water Skink  198–9 Yellow-naped Snake  292–3 Yellow-spotted Monitor  253 Yellow-tailed Slider  209–10 Zig-zag Velvet Gecko  126

Index of scientific names

Acanthophis antarcticus  278–9 Acritoscincus duperreyi  159–60 Acritoscincus platynotum  160 Adelotus brevis  42–3 Amalosia lesueurii  125–6 Amalosia rhombifer  126 Amphibolurus burnsi  235–6 Amphibolurus muricatus  236 Amphibolurus norrisi  236–7 Anepischetosia maccoyi  161 Anilios affinis  263 Anilios batillus  264 Anilios bicolor  264–5 Anilios bituberculatus  265 Anilios diversus  265–6 Anilios endoterus  266 Anilios grypus  267 Anilios ligatus  267–8 Anilios nigrescens  268 Anilios proximus  268–9 Anilios wiedii  269 Anomalopus leuckartii  162 Anomalopus mackayi  162–3 Anomalopus verreauxii  163 Antaioserpens warro  279–80 Antaresia maculosa  270–1 Antaresia stimsoni orientalis  271 Aprasia aurita  148 Aprasia inaurita  149 Aprasia parapulchella  149–50 Aprasia striolata  150 Aspidites ramsayi  272 Austrelaps ramsayi  280–1 Austrelaps superbus  281 Austroablepharus kinghorni  164 Bellatorias frerei  165 Bellatorias major  165–6 Boiga irregularis  275–6 Brachyurophis australis  282

Brachyurophis fasciolatus fasciatus  282–3 Brachyurophis incinctus  283 Cacophis harriettae  284 Cacophis krefftii  284–5 Cacophis squamulosus  285–6 Calyptotis scutirostrum  166–7 Carinascincus coventryi  167 Carlia munda  168–9 Carlia pectoralis  168–9 Carlia rubigo  169–70 Carlia schmeltzii  170 Carlia tetradactyla  170–1 Carlia vivax  171–2 Chelodina expansa  109–10 Chelodina longicollis  110–11 Chlamydosaurus kingii  237–8 Christinus marmoratus  142–3 Coeranoscincus reticulatus  172 Concinnia martini  173 Concinnia tenuis  173–4 Crinia deserticola   57–8 Crinia parinsignifera  58–9 Crinia signifera  59–60 Crinia sloanei  60 Cryptoblepharus australis  174–5 Cryptoblepharus metallicus  175 Cryptoblepharus pannosus  176 Cryptoblepharus pulcher pulcher  176–7 Cryptophis boschmai  286–7 Cryptophis nigrescens  287 Ctenophorus fordi  238–9 Ctenophorus nuchalis   239 Ctenophorus pictus  239–40 Ctenotus allotropis  177–8 Ctenotus atlas  178 Ctenotus brachyonyx  178–9 Ctenotus eurydice  179–80 Ctenotus ingrami  180 Ctenotus leonhardii  180–1 339

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Ctenotus olympicus  181–2 Ctenotus orientalis  182 Ctenotus pantherinus acripes  182–3 Ctenotus regius  183–4 Ctenotus robustus  184 Ctenotus schomburgkii  184–5 Ctenotus strauchii strauchii  185–6 Ctenotus taeniatus  186 Ctenotus taeniolatus  186–7 Cyclodomorphus gerrardii  187–8 Cyclodomorphus melanops elongatus  188–9 Cyclodomorphus michaeli  189 Cyclodomorphus praealtus  189–90 Cyclodomorphus venustus  190–1 Cyclorana alboguttata  74–5 Cyclorana brevipes  75–6 Cyclorana cultripes  76–7 Cyclorana novaehollandiae  77 Cyclorana platycephala  77–8 Cyclorana verrucosa  78–9 Delma australis  150–1 Delma butleri  151–2 Delma impar  152 Delma inornata  152–3 Delma plebeia  153–4 Delma tincta  154 Delma torquata  154–5 Demansia rimicola  288–9 Dendrelaphis punctulatus  276 Denisonia devisi  289–90 Diplodactylus ameyi  127 Diplodactylus conspicillatus  127–8 Diplodactylus furcosus  128 Diplodactylus tessellatus  129–30 Diplodactylus vittatus  129 Diporiphora australis  240–1 Diporiphora nobbi  241 Drysdalia coronoides  290–1 Drysdalia mastersii  291 Echiopsis curta  291–2 Egernia cunninghami  191–2 Egernia mcpheei  193–4 Egernia rugosa  192–3 Egernia saxatilis intermedia  194–5 340

Egernia saxatilis saxatilis  195 Egernia stokesii zellingi   192 Egernia striolata  195–6 Emydura macquarii macquarii   111–12 Eremiascincus fasciolatus  196–7 Eremiascincus phantasmus  197–8 Eremiascincus richardsonii  198 Eulamprus heatwolei  198–9 Eulamprus kosciuskoi  199–200 Eulamprus quoyii  200 Eulamprus tympanum tympanum  200–1 Furina barnardi  292–3 Furina diadema  293–4 Furina dunmalli  294 Gehyra catenata  143 Gehyra dubia  143–4 Gehyra lazelli  144–5 Gehyra versicolor  145 Geocrinia laevis  61 Geocrinia victoriana  61–2 Harrisoniascincus zia  201–2 Hemiaspis damelii  294–5 Hemiaspis signata  295–6 Hemidactylus frenatus  146 Hemiergis decresiensis continentis  202–3 Hemiergis millewae  203 Hemiergis peronii peronii  203–4 Hemiergis talbingoensis talbingoensis  204 Heteronotia binoei  147 Hoplocephalus bitorquatus  296 Hoplocephalus stephensii  297 Intellagama lesueurii howittii  242 Intellagama lesueurii lesueurii  242–3 Karma murrayi  205 Lampropholis amicula  206 Lampropholis caligula  206–7 Lampropholis colossus   207 Lampropholis delicata  207–8 Lampropholis guichenoti  208–9 Lerista aericeps  209–10

INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Lerista bougainvillii  210 Lerista dorsalis  210–11 Lerista emmotti  211 Lerista fragilis  211–12 Lerista labialis  212 Lerista punctatovittata  213 Lerista timida  213–14 Lialis burtonis  155–6 Limnodynastes dumerilii dumerilii  43–4 Limnodynastes dumerilii fryi  44–5 Limnodynastes dumerilii variegatus  45–6 Limnodynastes fletcheri  48–9 Limnodynastes interioris  46–7 Limnodynastes peronii  50–1 Limnodynastes salmini  51 Limnodynastes tasmaniensis  49–50 Limnodynastes terrareginae  47–8 Liopholis guthega  214–15 Liopholis inornata  215 Liopholis modesta  215–16 Liopholis montana  216–17 Liopholis multiscutata  217 Liopholis whitii  217–18 Lissolepis coventryi  218–19 Litoria aurea  80 Litoria booroolongensis  82 Litoria caerulea  85–6 Litoria castanea  80–1 Litoria chloris  86 Litoria dentata  87–8 Litoria ewingii  91–2 Litoria fallax  95–6 Litoria gracilenta  87 Litoria latopalmata  96–7 Litoria lesueuri   83–4 Litoria nudidigitus  97–8 Litoria paraewingi  92 Litoria pearsoniana  98 Litoria peronii  89–90 Litoria piperata  98–9 Litoria raniformis  81–2 Litoria revelata  92–3 Litoria rubella  88–9 Litoria spenceri   99–100 Litoria subglandulosa   100–1 Litoria tyleri  90–1

Litoria verreauxii alpina  93–4 Litoria verreauxii verreauxii  94–5 Litoria wilcoxii  84–5 Lophosaurus spinipes  243–4 Lucasium byrnei  130–1 Lucasium damaeum  131 Lucasium steindachneri  132 Lucasium stenodactylus  132–3 Lygisaurus foliorum  219–20 Menetia greyii  220 Mixophyes fasciolatus  63 Mixophyes fleayi  63–4 Mixophyes iteratus  64–5 Morelia spilota mcdowelli  272–3 Morelia spilota metcalfei  273–4 Morethia adelaidensis  221 Morethia boulengeri  221–2 Morethia obscura  222–3 Morethia taeniopleura  223 Nebulifera robusta  133–4 Neobatrachus pictus  52 Neobatrachus sudellae  53 Nephrurus levis levis  120–1 Notaden bennettii  54 Notechis scutatus scutatus  297–8 Oedura cincta  134–5 Oedura monilis  135 Oedura tryoni  135–6 Oxyuranus microlepidotus  298–9 Paradelma orientalis  156–7 Parasuta dwyeri   299–300 Parasuta flagellum  300–1 Parasuta nigriceps  301 Parasuta spectabilis spectabilis  301–2 Philoria kundagungan  55 Platyplectrum ornatum  56 Pogona barbata  244–5 Pogona vitticeps  245–6 Pseudechis australis  302–3 Pseudechis guttatus  303–4 Pseudechis porphyriacus  304 Pseudemoia cryodroma  224 341

F R O G S A N D R E P T I L E S O F T H E M U R R AY – D A R L I N G B A S I N

Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii  224–5 Pseudemoia pagenstecheri  225–6 Pseudemoia rawlinsoni  226 Pseudemoia spenceri  226–7 Pseudonaja aspidorhyncha  305 Pseudonaja mengdeni  305–6 Pseudonaja modesta  306–7 Pseudonaja textilis  307 Pseudophryne bibronii  65–6 Pseudophryne coriacea  66–7 Pseudophryne corroboree  67 Pseudophryne dendyi   68 Pseudophryne major  68–9 Pseudophryne pengilleyi  69–70 Pseudophryne semimarmorata  70 Pygmaeascincus timlowi  227–8 Pygopus lepidopodus  157 Pygopus schraderi  158

Strophurus intermedius  139 Strophurus taenicauda taenicauda  140–1 Strophurus williamsi  139–40 Suta suta  308

Rankinia diemensis  246–7 Rhinella marina  102–3 Rhynchoedura angusta  136–7 Rhynchoedura mentalis  137 Rhynchoedura ormsbyi  137–8

Underwoodisaurus milii  122–3 Uperoleia fusca  71 Uperoleia laevigata  71–2 Uperoleia rugosa  72–3 Uvidicolus sphyrurus  123–4

Saiphos equalis  228–9 Saltuarius swaini  121 Saltuarius wyberba  121–2 Saproscincus mustelinus  229–30 Saproscincus rosei  230 Saproscincus spectabilis  230–1 Strophurus ciliaris  138–9 Strophurus elderi  141

Varanus gouldii gouldii  252–3 Varanus panoptes panoptes  253 Varanus rosenbergi  253–4 Varanus tristis orientalis  254–5 Varanus varius  255–6 Vermicella annulata  309–10

342

Tiliqua nigrolutea  231–2 Tiliqua occipitalis  232 Tiliqua rugosa aspera  232–3 Tiliqua scincoides scincoides  233–4 Tropidechis carinatus  309 Tropidonophis mairii  277 Tympanocryptis condaminensis  247 Tympanocryptis intima  247–8 Tympanocryptis lineata  248–9 Tympanocryptis pinguicolla  249 Tympanocryptis tetraporophora  249–50 Tympanocryptis wilsoni  250–1

Wollumbinia bellii  112–13