Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century Architecture. Volume I. the Elements of Building 9780231882460

Table of contents :
Editors Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1. THE ELEMENTS OF BUILDING: INTRODUCTION
2. THE USE ELEMENTS OF BUILDING: ROOMS FOR PUBLIC USE
3. THE USE ELEMENTS OF BUILDING: ROOMS FOR PRIVATE USE
4. THE USE ELEMENTS OF BUILDING: SERVICE AREAS
5. THE USE ELEMENTS OF BUILDING: HORIZONTAL CIRCULATIONS
6. THE USE ELEMENTS OF BUILDING: VERTICAL CIRCULATIONS
7. MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
8. THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE: BEARING WALLS
9. THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE: NON-BEARING WALLS
10. THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE: DOORS AND DOORWAYS
11. THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE: WINDOWS
12. THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE: COLUMNS AND PIERS
13. THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE: BEAMS, GIRDERS, CEILINGS, AND FLOORS
14. ARCHES AND VAULTS I: ARCHES
15. ARCHES AND VAULTS II: VAULTS
16. ROOFS, GUTTERS, AND FLASHINGS
17. THE SITE IN RELATION TO BUILDING
18. GARDENS AND BUILDINGS
19. ELEMENTS OF THE MODERN INTERIOR
20. ORNAMENT

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FORMS and FUNCTIONS of TWENTIETH-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE IN FOUR VOLUMES VOLUME I

The Elements of Building

FORMS and FUNCTIONS of TWENTIETH-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE Edited by TALBOT HAMLIN, F.A.I.A. With an Introduction by Leopold Arnaud\ FA.IA.

VOLUME I

The Elements of Building BY THE EDITOR WITH A CHAPTER ON MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT BY ALFRED L. JAROS, J R . , AND JOHN RANNELLS

Prepared under the auspices of the School of Architecture of Columbia University •

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New York COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1952

COPYRIGHT

1 9 5 2 BY C O L U M B I A UNIVERSITY PRESS, N E W YORK

PUBLISHED IN GREAT BRITAIN, CANADA, AND INDIA BY GEOFFREY CUMBERLF.GE, OXFORD UNIVERSITY

PRESS

LONDON, TORONTO, AND BOMBAY M A N U F A C T U R E D IN T H E UNITED STATES O F

AMERICA

Editors Preface

T

HE PRODUCTION of this work has required the co-operation of a host of people and a large number of organizations. In accordance with general publishing practice and because of space limitations many of these must remain anonymous. But the editor cannot refrain from expressing here his thanks to them all, whether named or not; each one has had a part in the enterprise. The gratitude of the editor goes out to the contributors for their understanding of the aims of this project and for their valuable chapters, to the many architects who have helped in the collection of the illustrations, to the architectural photographers who have authorized the use of their prints and have given helpful suggestions, and to the architectural periodicals—particularly the Architectural Forum, the Architectural Record, and Progressive Architecture—for permission to reproduce numerous plans, sections, and details throughout the four volumes.

Especially the editor is grateful to Leopold Arnaud, Dean of the School of Architecture of Columbia University, for his unflagging support, both in the sponsoring and in the organization and production of this work and for the Introduction which he has supplied; to the members of the Advisory Board, who have been extremely helpful with constructive criticisms and advice; and to the Trustees of Columbia University, who by their generous grant have made the enterprise possible. T o this list he would add the faithful members of his own office staff; the administrative office of the School of Architecture; the staffs of the Avery and Ware Libraries, who through their skillful reference work found the answers to various difficult questions; to the Photographic Services of the Columbia University Library; to the New York Public Library, the New-York Historical Society, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Museum of Modern Art, New York, for many types of assistance; and especially to the extremely skilled editorial and production departments of the Columbia University Press, who have done so much to make this work what it is in appearance and in content.

vi

E D I T O R ' S PREFACE

Scores of plans, sections, and details, in addition to the photographs, were required for the illustrations. Many of them have been taken from published sources, which are credited briefly in the captions and in full in the illustration lists. Those which bear no credit or are labeled "redrawn from" were made expressly for Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century Architecture. Of these by far the greater number are the work of Joan Burns, and their brilliant clarity is due to the style she set; a few were drawn by Elena Davila Hagman, Milton Duke, and Robert E. Schwartz. T o each of these the editor expresses his appreciation. The editor also wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the many authors and publishers who have allowed the reproduction of copyrighted material and whose names are listed either in the Acknowledgments that preface each volume or, in the case of illustrations, briefly in the captions and in full in the illustration lists. Finally, the editor wishes to express his gratitude especially to Jessica Hamlin for a preliminary as well as a final editing of the text of all four volumes. TALBOT HAMLIN

School of Architecture Columbia University

Acknowledgments

F

OR AID in the preparation of this volume the editor wishes to make grateful acknowledgment to:

Professors William H. Hayes and Kenneth A. Smith, both of the School of Architecture of Columbia University, for a critical reading of several of the chapters and for great help in assembling and furnishing material for certain of the illustrations; Theodor Rohdenburg, of the School of Architecture of Columbia University, for assistance in finding illustration material; John Mead Howells and the Metropolitan Museum of Art for permission to reproduce several of his photographs now in the Museum; Professor Walter Gropius, of Harvard University, for permission to quote passages from an article in the American Architect; Various museums, professional and business organizations, and historical societies for assistance in obtaining many illustrations, notably the American Institute of Steel Construction, the Cranbrook Academy of Art at Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, the Essex Institute in Salem, Massachusetts, the New-York Historical Society, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and and the Trustees of the Boston Public Library; The American Swedish News Exchange, the British Information Services, and the Netherlands Information Bureau for constant help and for numerous illustrations; The New York City Parks Department, the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority in New York, the New York City Housing Authority, and the Graphics Material Section of the Tennessee Valley Authority for many illustrations; A large number of publishers for permission to reproduce illustrations from their books and periodicals, the detailed credits for which will be found in the List of Illustrations; and

vili

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many architects, architectural photographers, and commercial firms who have furnished illustrations; complete credits for these are given in the List of Illustrations. THE EDITOR

Intrcxiuction ARCHITECTURE is the art and the science of building. The four volt - \ umes of Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century Architecture _/. treat this art and science in many of its aspects, both aesthetic and physical. Without consideration of structural principles, materials, and social and economic requirements a building cannot take form, since its form is inherent in these elements, but unless aesthetic quality also is inherent in its form the building cannot be considered as a work of architecture. From the very beginnings of architecture many skills, systems, and theories have been evolved for the construction of the buildings that have housed nations and generations of men in all their essential activities, and writing on architecture is almost as old as writing itself. Books on the theory of architecture, on the art of building, and on the aesthetic appearance of buildings exist in fair number. Yet, however thorough and valuable they may be, eventually they become obsolete and must be replaced from time to time by new works which embody the ever evolving science, methods, and building types of their own times. The oldest book we have that sets forth the principles upon which buildings should be designed and aims to guide the architect both in his knowledge of construction and in the aesthetic effect of his design is the work of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, written in the first century B.C. But in earlier times Greek and Egyptian architects had written about their profession, and Vitruvius himself derived many of his theories from his predecessors. Though the work of Vitruvius was supposedly lost during the Middle Ages, there is reason to believe that many of his theories were not forgotten and that perhaps some copies of his work De Architectural Libri Decern were still known and referred to. Only a few medieval writings on architecture as such, however, seem to exist, although St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas did set forth their ideas on the appearance that buildings should have and even some recommendations as to architectural design. The theories and methods of the medieval

X

INTRODUCTION

architect appear to have been guarded as guild secrets. Gaspard Monge, it is true, at the end of the eighteenth century was able to compile a co-ordinated system of projection methods (which he called descriptive geometry) from the guild books; yet little of what we today would call theory is to be found in them. Not until the fifteenth century was there a great awakening of interest in the theoretical study of architecture. With the excitement of the discovery of classical culture and the impassioned veneration of it that followed came a great admiration for Roman building. The good luck of Poggio Bracciolini in finding a manuscript of Vitruvius in the library of the St. Gall Monastery in 1414 was a timely event. Some years later he gave it to his friend Leone Battista Alberti, a man of letters and an accomplished classicist. Alberti thereupon wrote his own book De Re Aedificatoria, published in Florence in 1485. An edition of Vitruvius followed in i486, to be translated, illustrated, expounded, published, and republished periodically for the next four hundred years. Literary comment and analysis continued during the Renaissance; the authors are too numerous to list completely. Let us name only Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola—whose book on the orders, published in 1564, was to become the bible of the architects for several centuries—and Andrea Palladio, whose books, published at the end of the sixteenth century in Vicenza, were so popular in eighteenth-century England. One of the most important works which attempted to treat the subject of architectural design and structure on a theoretical plane such as obtains today was the work of François Blondel: Cours d'architecture, published in 1675, which enunciated the official doctrine of the Académie royale d'Architecture. English architects also wrote on the subject. Among others, James Gibbs published his Book of Architecture in 1728 and William Chambers his Treatise on Civil Architecture in 1759. The list is a long one, but only a few are truly significant. In 1809 J . N. L. Durand published his Précis des leçons d'architecture, a general theory of the art and practice of architecture as of his time. "Le Grand Durand," as it was called in common parlance, was the great reference book on the subject of architecture until Julien Guadet delivered the famous lectures which he began in 1886 at the École des Beaux Arts in Paris; these lectures were edited and published in 1902 in four well-illustrated volumes. This monumental undertaking of Guadet constitutes the last important effort to assemble current knowledge on architecture and to put it into concrete form

INTRODUCTION

xi

for easy reference. Guadet's Éléments et théorie de Farchitecture was a great work and in fact still contains a wealth of information valuable today, for the basis of architectural composition is unchanging and holds good in the present as it did in the past. The last half century has brought many changes, however, and Guadet's book, destined for European architects of fifty or sixty years ago, is woefully inadequate for twentieth-century designers who must cope with new methods and new problems and must create types of buildings that did not then exist. It is time, then, to collate the available knowledge about architecture and its problems as they now appear. The systems and aesthetics current today were just beginning to take form at the end of the nineteenth century and, except in the work of a few individuals, were so embryonic as to be scarcely recognizable. They have reached a stage of development which indicates with some accuracy in what direction they are likely to continue for another half century or so. Although new and unforeseen programs and needs will unquestionably appear, it is legitimate to suppose that the basic requirements of structures in the proximate future will not be too different from those of our present problems, so that the theories applicable now will for the next few generations still apply. The need for a new work to succeed Gaudet's Éléments et théorie de Farchitecture is therefore obvious. We hope that the present work, Forms and Functions of Tiventieth-Century Architecture, will fill that need. The historical background of twentieth-century architecture finds little place in these four volumes, but that does not imply a denial of the value of our cultural heritage. Though many practitioners have contributed to this work the results of much recent thinking in various fields, the fundamental editorial principles have been based on the assumption that the present is a new growth but one that is vital because it springs from the deep roots of the past. Such a recognition of continuity does not imply repetition or imitation. Implicit in the very fact that architecture is an art is the assumption that its contemporary expression must be creative and consequently new. It is the product of the creative impulse of artists whose vision is evoked today by the requirements of a problem. These requirements the architect uses as the very terms of his expression; they hamper him no more than words hamper a poet. The heritage of the past cannot be ignored, but it must be expressed in contemporary terminology. Many of the mistakes in our time are due to the fact that judgments are formed on the basis of economics alone, whereas cultural heritage is a more vital if less tangible factor; for a culture may be affected even

xii

INTRODUCTION

more by philosophy, aesthetics, and modes and manners than by purely economic considerations. The paradox of the coexistence of change and survival which is evident in all phases of the human story has whetted the curiosity of philosophers and historians, who have taken great pains to explain it. Bergson uses the simile of the spiral, Toynbee uses the wheel; both similes imply that, although there is a complete revolution, the revolution is never on the same track and therefore there is never an exact repetition. This paradox of change and repetition is clearly illustrated in the cycles of any architectural style. The early stage is one of experiment, sometimes awkward, sometimes timid, sometimes surprised, so that the novelty of form is screened behind the more familiar trimmings of the recent past. In the middle stage there is a close bond between the structural method, the materials used, and the aesthetic forms, all three of which the designer welds into a work of architecture; there is assurance, but there is still discovery. Finally the inspiring but chastening effects of discovery diminish, while assurance augments; the resultant expression is one of exuberance, ingenuity, and virtuosity. It is the middle period which is the apogee; its expression is the one most admired today. Though we cannot see our own efforts with sufficient perspective, we have reached a tentative conclusion that in the middle of the twentieth century we are approaching such a period. It is in the light of that conviction that this work is offered to those who will create a living architecture. This work is the fruit of much thought, indeed of the realization that the need for a book of this kind has been keenly felt for some time. Several years ago Professor Talbot Hamlin, then Avery Librarian at Columbia University, discussed the possibility of compiling a "theory book" which would incorporate the contemporary knowledge of structural methods, the newly evolved problems, and the new solutions to old problems which had developed during the last twenty or thirty years. The Columbia University Press thought well of the project and agreed to support and publish it. With this endorsement the Trustees of Columbia University looked favorably upon a petition of the School of Architecture for funds to proceed with the undertaking, and a substantial grant was made by that body to the School for preparation of a new book on the theory of architecture. Professor Hamlin was then transferred from the position of Avery Librarian,

INTRODUCTION

xin

which he had held with distinction for twelve years, to the Faculty of Architecture, where he continued to lecture on the theory of architecture and also served as Editor in Chief of the projected publication. A distinguished Board of Advisers was named: Dr. Turpin Bannister, then Dean of the College of Fine Arts of the University of Alabama, now head of the Department of Architecture at the' University of Illinois; Jean Labatut, Professor of Architecture at Princeton University; John C. B. Moore, of the firm of Moore & Hutchins, architects of New York City; and the late Morris Sanders, New York architect and industrial designer. Professor Hamlin was also a member of this Board, and the Dean of the Faculty of Architecture at Columbia served as Chairman. A notable group of experts were chosen and accepted invitations to contribute chapters in special fields. Thus was born the four-volume Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century Architecture. The material fell naturally into three categories: Elements of Architecture; Principles of Architecture; and Building Types. As a whole the work is intended to be a comprehensive study of the methods and aesthetics of our period, but there has been no attempt to make it "a museum of modern architecture," as some readers might expect. The numerous illustrations in the text have been carefully chosen to show some specific principle or characteristic. T o have treated the problems more exhaustively would have expanded the work to unwieldy proportions. Professor Hamlin as an outstanding authority on the history and theory of architecture is admirably qualified as editor of this work. He himself is the author of certain portions of its content, and he has collated and edited chapters by the eminent specialists who have contributed their knowledge and experience to these volumes. It is our sincere hope that this compilation of twentieth-century architectural forms and functions will be a help and a guide to both student and practitioner. LEOPOLD ARNAUD

School of Architecture Columbia University October 15, 1951

Contents INTRODUCTION, BY LEOPOLD ARNAUD INTRODUCTION

IX

1.

T H E E L E M E N T S O F BUILDING:

3

2.

T H E USE E L E M E N T S O F BUILDING: ROOMS FOR P U B L I C USE

21

3.

T H E USE E L E M E N T S OF BUILDING: ROOMS FOR PRIVATE USE

51

4.

T H E USE E L E M E N T S OF BUILDING: SERVICE AREAS

81

5.

T H E USE E L E M E N T S OF BUILDING: HORIZONTAL CIRCULATIONS

104

6.

T H E USE E L E M E N T S OF BUILDING: VERTICAL CIRCULATIONS

13 2

7.

M E C H A N I C A L E Q U I P M E N T , BY ALFRED L . JAROS, J R . , AND J O H N RANNELLS

IÇ2

8.

T H E E L E M E N T S OF STRUCTURE: BEARING W A L L S

258

9.

T H E E L E M E N T S O F STRUCTURE: NON-BEARING W A L L S

277

10.

T H E E L E M E N T S O F STRUCTURE: DOORS AND DOORWAYS

304

11.

T H E E L E M E N T S OF STRUCTURE: W I N D O W S

360

12.

T H E E L E M E N T S OF STRUCTURE: C O L U M N S AND PIERS

4O7

13.

T H E E L E M E N T S O F STRUCTURE: BEAMS, GIRDERS, CEILINGS, AND FLOORS

449

14.

ARCHES AND VAULTS I : ARCHES

484

15.

ARCHES AND VAULTS II: VAULTS

517

16.

ROOFS, GUTTERS, AND FLASHINGS

564

17.

T H E SITE IN RELATION TO BUILDING

608

18.

GARDENS AND BUILDINGS

642

19.

E L E M E N T S OF T H E M O D E R N INTERIOR

678

20.

ORNAMENT

72O

Illustrations

1. Basilica of Constantine, Rome. Plan 2. Basilica of Constantine, Rome. Transverse and Longitudinal Sections 3. Basilica of Constantine, Rome. Restored Cutaway View. From Christian Huelsen, The Forum and the Palatine, translated by Helen Tanzer (New York: Bruderhausen, 1928) 4. Basilica of Constantine, Rome. Interior as Restored by G. Gatteschi. From Giuseppe Gatteschi, Restauri della Roma Imperiale con gli Stati Attuali . . . (Rome: Comitato di Azione Pattriotica, 1924) 5. Cathedral, Le Mans, France. Plan of Eastern Arm 6. Cathedral, Le Mans, France. Half Section through the Eastern Arm 7. Cathedral, Le Mans, France. View in Ambulatory. Courtesy Ware Library 8. Cathedral, Chartres, France. Choir Screen. Courtesy Ware Library 9. Cathedral, Chartres, France. Ambulatory as Seen from Transept. Courtesy Ware Library 10. State Capitol, Lincoln, Nebraska. Plan of Main Floor. B. G. Goodhue, architect. From American Architect 11. State Capitol, Lincoln, Nebraska. Section. B. G. Goodhue, architect. From American Architect 12. State Capitol, Lincoln, Nebraska. Exterior. B. G. Goodhue, architect. Photograph Gottscho-Schleisner 13. State Capitol, Lincoln, Nebraska. Entrance Corridor. B. G. Goodhue, architect. Photograph Gottscho-Schleisner 14. State Capitol, Lincoln, Nebraska. Rotunda. B. G. Goodhue, architect. . Photograph J. B. Franco 15. Beach House, Richmond Shores, California. Plan and Interior and Exterior Views. W. W. Wurster, architect 16. Ziegfeld Theatre, New York. Ground-Floor Plan. Joseph Urban, architect. From Joseph Urban, Theatres (New York: Theatre Arts, 1929) 17. Plan for a Well-arranged Restaurant and Bar. Redrawn from Architectural Record 18. Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois. Plan. Frank Lloyd Wright, architect

9 9 10 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 17 18 24 25 26

xviii 19. 20.

21. 22.

2 3. 24. 25.

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

34.

35. 36. 37.

38.

ILLUSTRATIONS Dauphin County Courthouse, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Plan of Courtroom Floor. Lawrie & Green, architects Jackson County Courthouse, Kansas City, Missouri. Plan of Courtroom Floor. Keene & Simpson, Wight & Wight, and Frederick C. Gunn, architects; E. F. Neild, consulting architect Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio. Basement Plan. Hubbell & Benes, architects Theater of the Students' Union, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Balcony Foyer. Michael Hare and Harvey Corbett, architects; Lee Simonson, theatrical consultant. Photograph Hedrich-Blessing Opéra, Paris, France. Foyer. Charles Gamier, architect. Courtesy Ware Library Concert Hall, Gôteborg, Sweden. Plans and Section. Nils Einar Eriksson, architect Theatre Guild Theatre, New York. Balcony Plan. C. Howard Crane, Kenneth Franzheim, and Charles H. Bettis, architects; Lee Simonson, theatrical consultant Coatroom Arranged for Continuous Use Coatroom Arranged for Intensive Use Kunstlertheater, Munich, Germany. Plan. Max Littmann, architect Ancient Roman Public Copifort Station in a Public Bath, Ostia, Italy. Photograph Leopold Arnaud Community Playhouse, Pasadena, California. Part Plan. Elmer Gray and Dwight Gibbs, associated architects Earl Carroll Theater, New York. Balcony Plan. George Keister, architect; Joseph Babolnay, designer Lidingo Golf Club, near Stockholm, Sweden. Birch Sjungren, architect. Courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University Auditorium, Central High School, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Interior. Burnham Hoyt, architect. Photograph Hedrich-Blessing, courtesy Burnham Hoyt Members' Lounge, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Philip Goodwin and Edward Stone, architects. Photograph Robert M. Damora, courtesy Museum of Modern Art, New York Top of the Mark, Mark Hopkins Hotel, San Francisco, California. Plan. Timothy Pflueger, architect Top of the Mark, Mark Hopkins Hotel, San Francisco, California. Daytime View. Timothy Pflueger, architect. Courtesy Mark Hopkins Hotel Top of the Mark, Mark Hopkins Hotel, San Francisco, California. View at Night. Timothy Pflueger, architect. Courtesy Mark Hopkins Hotel Public Hall, Post Office, Naples, Italy. Vaccaro & Franzi, architects. Photograph Leopold Arnaud

27

27 28

28 29 30

31 32 32 33 34 35 35 38

39

40 41 41

41 44

39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44.

45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59.

ILLUSTRATIONS

xix

A Large Interior with a Low Ceiling The Same Interior with the Ceiling Height Increased 50 Per Cent The Same Interior with a High Ceiling The Same Interior with an Open Trussed Ceiling The Same Interior with a Vaulted Ceiling Two Rectangular Office Layouts: Office for an advertising agency; Morris Ketchum, Jr., and Francis Gina, architects. Office in the design laboratory of Libby-Owens-Ford Glass Company; H. Creston Doner, designer. From Architectural Forum A Standard Office Layout Compared with a Layout of the Same Area Especially Designed for Maximum Usefulness and Flexibility. MullerBarringer, designers. From Architectural Record Offices and Showrooms for the Schumacher Company, New York. Plan. Muller-Barringer, designers Chief Executive's Office, Schumacher Company, New York. MullerBarringer, designers. Courtesy Muller-Barringer An Executive Office, New York. Plan and View. Morris Lapidus, architect. Photograph Gottscho-Schleisner House in Lincoln, Massachusetts. Living Room. G. Holmes Perkins, architect. Photograph Cushing-Gellatly, from James Ford and Katherine M. Ford, Design of Modern Interiors (New York: Architectural Book Pub. Co. [ C 1 9 4 2 ] ) Janney House, Hudson Valley, New York. Living Room. Edward D. Stone & Associates, architects. Photograph Lionel Freedman—Pictorial Services Activities within a Living Room. Plan The L-shaped Living-Dining Room: A common type; also an example from Glendale, Missouri, Charles W. Lorentz, architect Fairchild House, New York. View in Living Room. William Hamby and George Nelson, architects. Photograph Robert M. Damora Fairchild House, New York. The Bedroom-Study. William Hamby and George Nelson, architects. Photograph Robert M. Damora Apartment of Morris Sanders, New York. Plans. Morris Sanders, architect Apartment of Morris Sanders, New York. View in the Living Room. Morris Sanders, architect Row House Designed for the Ladies' Home Journal. First-Floor Plan. Vernon DeMars, architect. Redrawn from Ladies' Home Journal Row House Designed for the Ladies' Home Journal. Second-Floor Plan. Vernon DeMars, architect. Redrawn from Ladies' Home Journal "Tomorrow's Small House," Designed for the Ladies' Home Journal. Plan. Plan-Tech Associates, architects. Redrawn from Ladies' Home Journal

45 45 46 47 48

52 53 54 55 56

57

58 59 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

ILLUSTRATIONS

XX 60. 61. 62. 63.

64.

65. 66. 67. 68. 69.

70. 71. 72. 73. 74.

75.

76. 77.

78.

G o o d y e a r House, L o n g Island, N e w York. Dining Room. Edward Stone, architect. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services Mandel House, Mount Kisco, N e w York. Main-Floor Plan. Edward Stone, architect; Donald Deskev, decorator Diagrams of the Functions o f a Bedroom and of a Nursery Janney House, Hudson Valley, N e w York. Bedroom. Edward D. Stone & Associates, architects. Photograph Lionel Freedman—Pictorial Services Janney House, Hudson Valley, N e w York. Dressing Room. Edward D . Stone & Associates, architects. Photograph Lionel Freedman—Pictorial Services Apartment of Morris Sanders, N e w York. Master Bedroom. Morris Sanders, architect. Photograph Richard Garrison Dechert House, Pennsylvania. F l o o r Plans. Kenneth Day, architect House near Montauk Point, L o n g Island, N e w York. Plan of Bedroom W i n g . Antonin Raymond, architect House in Midland, Michigan. Second-Floor Plan. Alden B. Dow, architect House at Miquon, Pennsylvania. Bed-Dressing Room. Kenneth Day. architect. Photograph R o b e r t A4. Damora, from James Ford and

66 67 68

69

70 71 72 73 73

Katherine M. Ford, Design of Modern Interiors

74

Fairchild House, N e w York. Plans o f Bedroom Areas. William Hamby and G e o r g e Nelson, architects T y p i c a l Bathroom Arrangements Bathroom Arrangements: M o r e Complicated and Divided T y p e s Design for a Living R o o m - K i t c h e n . Almon Fordyce, architect. From

74 75 76

Architectural Forum

Nurses' H o m e , M o u n t Sinai Hospital, N e w York. Main-Floor and T y p i c a l - F l o o r Plans. K o h n & Butler, architects; Dr. S. S. Goldwater, consultant. F r o m Charles Butler and Addison Erdman, Hospital Planning ( N e w Y o r k : Dodge, 1946) Queens General Hospital, N e w York. Perspective of Nurses' Residence and School. William Gehron, architect; A. Gordon Lorimer and Isadore Rosenfield, associated architects for the Bureau of Architecture and the Department of Hospitals. Courtesy William Gehron N e w Y o r k Hospital and Cornell Medical Center, N e w York. Plans of Staff Living Quarters. Coolidge, Shepley, Bulfinch & Abbott, architects Attendants' Home, Letchworth Village, Thiells, N e w York. FirstFloor Plan. State of N e w Y o r k Department of Architecture and Charles Butler, architects. From Charles Butler and Addison Erdman, Hospital

78

82

83 84

Planning

84

House in Midland, Michigan. Plan of Service W i n g . Alden B. D o w , architect

86

ILLUSTRATIONS 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99.

Bradley House, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Purcell & Elmslie, architects Statler Hotel, Washington. Service Parts of Typical Wing. Holabird & Root, architects Typical Episcopal Church Chancel, Chapel, and Sacristies. Ralph Adams Cram, architect. From Ralph Adams Cram, Church Building, 3rd ed. (Boston: Marshall Jones, 1924) Theater of the Students' Union, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Plans. Michael Hare and Harvey Corbett, architects; Lee Simonson, theatrical consultant Cleveland Playhouse, Cleveland, Ohio. Plan. Philip L. Small and Charles B. Rowley, architects Community Theater, Malmo, Sweden. Plan. Lallerstedt, Lewerentz & Hellden, architects Administration Building, Pioneer Homes Housing, Syracuse, New York. Plans. King, Vedder, King, and L. C. Dillenback, architects Flow Diagrams of Fuel Used to Produce Heat or Power Basic Flow Diagram of Material in a Factory Basic Flow Diagram for Food Preparation and Consumption Basic Flow Diagram of Waste Disposal in Connection with Food Incinerator Room, Elm Haven Housing, New Haven, Connecticut. Orr & Foote, architects; Albert Mayer, consultant Incinerator Shed, Elm Haven Housing, New Haven, Connecticut. Orr & Foote, architects; Albert Mayer, consultant. Photograph Talbot Hamlin Dining-Hall Kitchen, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey. Plan. Day Brothers & Klauder, architects Characteristic Hotel Kitchen Layouts. Redrawn from Architectural Record Wallace House, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Kitchen Plan and Details. Carl Koch, architect. From Pencil Points Wallace House, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Kitchen. Carl Koch, architect. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services Pullman House, Lake Forest, Illinois. Kitchen. George Fred Keck, architect. Photograph Hedrich-Blessing Malcolm Willey House, Minneapolis, Minnesota. View from the Living Room toward the Kitchen. Frank Lloyd Wright, architect. Photograph Hedrich-Blessing Ribershus Apartments, Malmo, Sweden. Typical Kitchen. E. S. Persson, architect. Courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University "Kitchen of Tomorrow." H. Creston Doner, designer for LibbvOvvens-Ford Glass Co. Copyright, 1943, by Libbv-Owens-Ford Glass Co.

xxi 86 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 94 95 95 96 96 97 97 98 99 100 100 ioi 102

ILLUSTRATIONS

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100. Typical Cafeteria Plan. Redrawn from Architectural Record 102 101. Pennsylvania Station, New York. Part Plan. McKim, Mead & White, architects. Redrawn from A Monograph of the Work of McKim, Mead & White, 1879-1915 (New York: Architectural Book Pub. Co. IC1915-1919])

102.

103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. hi. 112. 113. 114. 115.

116. 117. 118. 119.

Pennsylvania Station, New York. View in Arcade. McKim, Mead & White, architects. From A Monograph of the Work of McKim, Mead & White, 1879-1915 School at Celle, Germany. First-Floor Plan. O. Haesler, architect Music Box Theater, New York. First-Floor Plan. C. Howard Crane, architect Diagram Showing the Widening of Circulation at a Major Entrance Dorothie High School, Berlin-Cöpenick, Germany. First- and SecondFloor Plans. Max Taut, architect Various Plan Expressions of Directional Change Pennsylvania Station, New York. Lobby between the Dining Room and the Lunchroom. McKim, Mead & White, architects. From Architecture and Building Emelka Palace Theater, Hamburg, Germany. Plan. Karl Schneider, architect The Expression of Level Change in Circulations High School, Idaho Springs, Colorado. First-Floor Plan. Frewen & Morris, architects Acalanes Union High School, California. Block Plan. Franklin & Kump, architects Union Station, Cincinnati, Ohio. Main-Floor Plan. Fellheimer & Wagner, architects. From Architectural Forum Centrosoyos Building, Moscow. Main Hall. Le Corbusier, architect. Redrawn from Cahiers d'art Janney House, Hudson Valley, New York. Entrance Hall. Edward D. Stone & Associates, architects. Photograph Lionel Freedman—Pictorial Services Appleton-Parker House, Boston, Massachusetts. Hall and Vestibule. Photograph Cousins, courtesy Essex Institute Studies for the Vestibule of "Mrs. Holsman's Dwelling, New Jersey." Calvin Pollard, architect. From Pollard Collection, Avery Library 445 Park Avenue, New York. Entrance Lobby. Kahn & Jacobs, architects. Photograph P. A. Dearborn, courtesy Kahn & Jacobs Eastern Air Lines Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. Entrance Lobby. Reinhard & Hofmeister and Harrison & Fouilhoux, associated architects. Photograph Edward Ratcliffe, courtesy Rockefeller Center, Inc.

105

106 108 108 109 110 111

112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122

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ILLUSTRATIONS

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20. High School, Idaho Springs, Colorado. Entrance Lobby. Frewen & Morris, architects. Courtesy Earl Morris 21. High School, Idaho Springs, Colorado. Typical Corridor. Frewen & Morris, architects. Courtesy Earl Morris 22. Longfellow Building, Washington. Typical Corridor. William Lescaze, architect. Photograph Ezra Stoller, courtesy William Lescaze 23. Exeter Union High School, California. Covered Way. Franklin & Kump, architects. Courtesy Ernest J. Kump 24. Palais de Justice, Paris. A Main Corridor. From Architects' and Btiilders' Journal 25. Palais de Justice, Paris. Main-Floor Plan 26. Ancient Egyptian House Model in the Louvre, Paris. Redrawn from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Fart dans rantiquité (Paris: Hachette, 1882) 27. Stairs of the Shrine, Ur, Chaldea. Restored View. From H. R. Hall and C. L. Woolley, Ur Excavations, Vol. I, Al-lUbaid (New York: Oxford University Press, 1927), courtesy the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania 28. Transparent Isometric Diagram of Vertical Circulations in a Multistoried Building 29. City Hall, Fresno, California. Sections of Entrance Hall. Franklin & Kump and associates, architects 30. City Hall, Fresno, California. Cross Section of Ramp Showing Construction. Franklin & Kump and associates, architects 31. City Hall, Fresno, California. Hall and Ramp. Franklin & Kump and associates, architects. Photograph Roger Sturtevant 32. Piazza del Popolo, Rome. Ramps Leading to the Pincian Gardens. Plan. G. Valadier, architect 33. Piazza del Popolo, Rome. View toward the Pincian Gardens. G. Valadier, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 34. Piazza del Popolo, Rome. View Looking Down. G. Valadier, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 35. Competitive Design for the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. General Plan. Palmer & Hornbostel, architects 36. Villa d'Esté, Tivoli, Italy. Hemicycle. Pirro Ligorio, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 37. Campidoglio, Rome. Plan and View. Michelangelo, architect. From P. Letarouilly, Les Édifices de Rome moderne (Paris: Didot, 1840) 38. Campidoglio, Rome. General View from Below. Michelangelo, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 39. School for Crippled Children, Denver, Colorado. Plans and Part Section. Burnham Hovt, architect

xxiv

ILLUSTRATIONS

140. A City School Plan Based on Continuous Ramp Circulation. Plan and Section. From Wallace K. Harrison and C E. Dobbin, School Buildings of Today and Tomorrow (New York: Architectural Book Pub. Co. [C1931]) 142 141. Fairchild House, New York. Two Plans and Part Section. William Hamby and George Nelson, architects 143 144 142. Stair Widths as Affected by Detail 143. Typical Steel Ladders. From Charles G. Ramsey and Harold R. Sleeper, Architectural Graphic Standards . . . 3rd ed. (New York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall [1944]) '44 144. Giants' Staircase, Doge's Palace, Venice, Italy. Redrawn from J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie de Varchitecture (Paris: Aulanier, n.d.) 145 145. Staircase in the Court of the White Horse, Fontainebleau, France. Plan and View. Redrawn from J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 146 146. Cranbrook Academy of Art, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. Stairs of Museum Loggia. Eliel and Eero Saarinen, architects. Photograph HedrichBlessing, courtesy Cranbrook Academy of Art 147 147. Farnese Palace and Villa, Caprarola, Italy. Plan and Elevation. G. B. Vignola, architect 148 148. Three Types of Terrace Stairs 149 149. More Complex Arrangements of Terrace Stairs 149 150. Villa Lante, Bagnaia, Italy. Pirro Ligorio, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 150 151. Laurentian Library, Florence, Italy. Entrance. Michelangelo and Giorgio Vasari, architects. Courtesy Ware Library 152 152. Airlines Terminal Building, New York. Plans. Joseph R. Peterkin, architect 153 153. Scala Regia, Vatican, Rome. Plan and Section. Lorenzo Bernini, architect. From J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 154 154. Town Hall, Hilversum, the Netherlands. Part Plan. W. M. Dudok, architect 155 155. Town Hall, Hilversum, the Netherlands. Entrance Hall and Stairs. W . M. Dudok, architect. From Wendingen 156 156. So-called House of Pilate, Seville, Spain. Main Stairs. Courtesy Ware Library 158 157. Benjamin Hall House, Medford, Massachusetts. Plan and Sections of Stairway. Redrawn from Historical American Buildings Survey 159 158. Salisbury House, Worcester, Massachusetts. Hall Stair Looking Up. Elias Carter, architect. Courtesy Worcester Art Museum 160 159. Coleman-Hollister House (1796), Greenfield, Massachusetts. Plan and Hall Section. Asher Benjamin, architect. Redrawn from Historical American Buildings Survey

ILLUSTRATIONS 60. Coleman-Hollister House, Greenfield, Massachusetts. Asher Benjamin, architect. Photograph Arthur Haskell for Historic American Building Survey 61. Characteristic Elizabethan Plans for Newel Stairs. From J . Alfred Gotch, Early Renaissance Architecture in England (London: Batsford, i901) 62. Cathedral, Rouen, France. Stairs in North Transept. Courtesy Averv Library 63. Boardman House, Saugus, Massachusetts. Plan of Entrance and Section of Stairs. Redrawn from Donald Millar, Measured Drawings of Some Colonial and Georgian Houses, 3 vols. (New York: Architectural Book Pub. Co., 1916-^1930]) 64. Stair with Balanced Treads. Plan. Redrawn from J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 65. Typical Gothic Helical Stone Stair 66. Fourteenth-Century French Gothic Helical Stone Stair. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné de- /'architecture française du X/1 au XVI' siècle (Paris: Bance and Morel, 1854-68) 67. St. Maclou, Rouen, France. Organ Gallery Stairs. Courtesy Avery Library 68. Stairs Leading to the Top of the City Wall, Carcassonne, France. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 69. Aiguës Mortes, France. Stairs of the City Wall. Courtesy Ware Library 70. Court in a Small Ancient Roman Apartment House, Ostia, Italy. Redrawn from Ernest Nash, Roman Towns (New York: Augustin, 1944) 71. École militaire, Paris. Main Stairs. J. A. Gabriel, architect 72. City Hall, New York. Stairs in Rotunda. John McComb and J. J. Mangin, architects. From William Rotch Ware, The Georgian Period . . . (Boston: American Architect and Building News, 1899-1902) 73. Open-and Closed-String Wooden Stairs 74. Parallel Runs in Wooden Stair Construction. Plan and Section 75. Various Types of Concrete Stair Construction. Example from National Red Cross Headquarters, San Francisco, California; Gardner Dailey, architect; from Architectural Forum 76. Stadium Giovanni Berta, Florence, Italy. Exit Stairs. P. L. Nervi, architect. From Encyclopédie d'architecture . . . constructions modernes (Paris: Alorancé, n.d.) 77. Diagram Showing Stair-Rail and Landing-Rail Heights in Continuous, Gooseneck, and Newel Types 78. Typical Steel Stair Construction. Plan, Section, and Details 79. Life Science Building, Denison University, Granville, Ohio. Stairs. William Gehron, architect. Photograph Sigurd Fischer

XXV

161 161 162

163 164 165 165 166 167 167 168 168 169 170 170 171 172 173 173 174

xxvi 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199.

ILLUSTRATIONS Williams House, Newton, New Jersey. Stairs. Antonin Raymond, architect. Photograph C. V. D. Hubbard Two Types of Fire-Tower Exit Balcony. Plans High School, Parkersburg, West Virginia. Main-Floor Plan. F. Packard and R. Snyder, architects Ribershus Apartments, Malmö, Sweden. Nine-Story Building Showing Continuous Stair Window. E. S. Persson, architect. Courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University Typical Escalator Layouts. From Time-Saver Standards, a Manual of Essential Architectural Data (New York: Dodge [C1946]) International Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. First- and Second-Floor Plans. Reinhard & Hofmeister; Corbett, Harrison & MacMurray; and Hood & Fouilhoux, associated architects International Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. Lobby. Reinhard & Hofmeister; Corbett, Harrison & MacMurray; and Hood & Fouilhoux, associated architects. Photograph F. S. Lincoln Perisphere and Trylon, New York World's Fair of 1939. Part Section. Harrison & Fouilhoux, architects Diagram Plan of a Tall School Building Using Escalators. From Wallace K. Harrison and C. E. Dobbin, School Buildings of Today and Tomorrow Fliegender Stuhl: German Hand-operated Elevator, 1714. From Leonhard Christoph Sturm, Prodromus Architecturae Goldmannianae (Augsburg: Wolff, 1714), courtesy Avery Library Typical Elevator Cab and Shaft Clearances Typical Elevator Lobby Plans. Redrawn from material furnished by William H. Hayes Empire State Building, New York. Ground-Floor Plan. Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, architects American Stove Company Building, St. Louis, Missouri. First-Floor Elevator Lobby. Harris Armstrong, architect; Isamo Noguchi, sculptor and designer of the ceiling. Photograph Hedrich-Blessing Esso Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. Ground-Floor Elevator Lobby. Carson & Lundin, architects. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services North American Life and Casualty Company Building, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Upper-Floor Lobby. Lang 8c Raugland, architects and engineers. Photograph Photography, Inc. Chrysler Building, New York. Ground-Floor Plan. William Van Alen, architect Typical Hot-Air Heating Systems Typical Gravity Steam Heating System Two-Pipe Up-Feed Vacuum Steam Heating System

175 176 176 177 178 179 180 181 181 182 183 185 186 187 188 189 190 197 198 200

ILLUSTRATIONS 200. 201. 202. 203. 204.

205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221.

xxvii

Two-Pipe Up-Feed Vapor Steam Hearing System 200 Typical Gravity Hot-Water Heating Systems 202 Hot-Water Heating System with Forced Circulation 203 Radiant Heating from Metal Ceiling Panels Warmed by a Forced HotAir System (the Lustron System). Courtesy Karstan Builders and Lustron Corporation 205 Radiant-Heating Floor Coils, General Electric Test Hangar, Schenectady, New York. Office of Marcus T . Reynolds, architects and engineers; Roberts & Shaefer Company, engineers; Joseph L. Ottenheimer, mechanical engineer. Courtesy A. M. Byers Company 206 Radiant-Heating Ceiling Coils, Srimm House, Williamsville, New York. Sebastian J. Tauriello, architect; Raymond V. Hall, associated architect. Courtesy A. M. Byers Company 207 Diagram of the Principle of the Heat-Pump System. Courtesy William H. Hayes 212 Diagram of the Steps Necessary in a Typical Air-conditioning System When a Building Is Being Heated. Courtesy William H. Hayes 214 Diagram of the Steps Necessary in a Typical Air-conditioning System When a Building Is Being Cooled. Courtesy William H. Hayes 214 T w o Types of Thermostat Control as Applied to a Steam or HotWater Heating System 223 Zoned Water-Supply System for High Buildings. Courtesy William H. Hayes 226 Diagram of a Pressure-Tank Water-Supply System 228 Typical Plumbing Traps 231 Diagram Section of an Individually Vented Sanitary Plumbing System for an Office Building. From Louis J. Day, Standard Plumbing Details (New York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall, 1938) 232 Diagram Section of a Loop-vented Sanitary Plumbing System for an Office Building. From Louis J. Day, Standard Plumbing Details 233 Diagram of a Simple Standpipe Fire-Prevention System. Courtesy William H. Hayes 237 Diagram of a Zoned Standpipe Fire-Prevention System. Courtesy William H. Hayes 238 Diagram of a Typical Electric Installation Showing Main Feeder Elements, Main Distribution Panel, and Sub-Panels 241 Diagram of Two-Wire and Three-Wire Circuits for Either Direct or Alternating Current 242 Diagram of Three-Wire and Four-Wire Circuits for Two- and ThreePhase Alternating Current 243 A Typical Junction or Pull Box 246 View of a Typical Underfloor Electric Conduit System. Courtesy Nepcoduct. Walker Brother«; 247

xxviii 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228.

229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234.

235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241.

242.

ILLUSTRATIONS Electric Conduits in a Metal Baseboard: the Conduo Base. Courtesy Dahlstrom Metallic Door Company Q-Floor Wiring. Courtesy General Electric Company Diagrams of Top- and Bottom-Driven Elevators Typical Top and Bottom Clearances Necessary in Elevator Shafts for High Buildings Elevator Door Types Typical Elevator Machinery Rooms. Courtesy Otis Elevator Company Carroll College Library, Waukesha, Wisconsin. Exterior and Interior Details. Van der Gracht & Kilham, architects. Photographs HedrichBlessing Section Diagram through a Bearing Wall Masonry Bearing-Wall Sections according to the New York Building Code of 1947 St. Paul's Methodist Episcopal Church, Baltimore, Maryland. McKim, Mead & White, architects. Courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University Characteristic Bearing-Wall Foundations Water Table and Foundation Top for a Wood-framed Structure Avery Coonley House ( 1 9 0 8 ) , Riverside, Illinois. Frank Lloyd Wright, architect. Courtesy iMuseum of Modern Art, New York Temple, Edfu, Egypt., Plan The Red House, Assur, Assyria. Plan. From F. Wachtsmuth, Der Raum (Marburg: Marburg Seminar, 1929) Ancient Greek House, Priene, Asia Minor. Plan. Redrawn from Theodor Wiegand and Hans Schräder, Priene . . . (Berlin: Reimer, 1904) Farnesina Villa, Rome. Plan. Baldasarre Peruzzi, architect Westover, Virginia. Plan Church Square, Innsbruck, Austria. Photograph Talbot Hamlin Twentieth-Century Bearing-Wall Plans in Europe: Siemensstadt Housing, Berlin; Walter Gropius, architect. Administration Building, Mannesmannröhren Factory, Düsseldorf, Germany; Peter Behrens, architect South Jamaica Houses, New York Housing Authority, Queens, New York. Typical Plan. Daniel P. Higgins, Carl Vollmer, Frederick Frost, associated architects. From New York City Housing Authority, 10th Annual Report, 1944 (New York: New York City Housing Authority [C1945])

Various Types of Bearing-Wall Construction in Wood-framed Structures 244. Three Methods of Joist Support on a Masonry Bearing Wall 245. Derby House, Salem, Massachusetts. Photograph Wayne Andrews 246. Double House, Nantucket, Massachusetts. Photograph Talbot Hamlin

247 248 251 251 254 255

259 261 262

263 263 263 264 265 266 267 267 267 268

269

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7°

243.

271 271 272 273

ILLUSTRATIONS 247. Elm Haven Housing, New Haven, Connecticut. Orr & Foote, architects; Albert Mayer, consultant. Photograph Talbot Hamlin 248. A Classic Revival Business Block, Nantucket, Massachusetts; photograph Talbot Hamlin. Business Building, Painesville, Ohio, Original Perspective; Jonathan Goldsmith, architect; courtesy I. T . Frary 249. Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin. Detail. Frank Lloyd Wright, architect. Photograph Aaron Chelouche 250. The Elements of Steel-framed Construction. Drawn by G. J. Wise; from Talbot Hamlin, Architecture through the Ages (New York: Putnam's [ C 1 9 4 0 , 1 9 4 4 ] ) 251. Various Types of Light-Weight Spandrel Wall Construction. Redrawn from material furnished by Robert L. Davison 252. Building for Science and Pharmacy, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa. Isometric Detail of Exterior Wall. Saarinen, Swanson & Saarinen, architects; Brooks-Borg, associated architects. From Architectural Record 253. Stone Set to Express Bearing and Non-Bearing Qualities 254. Postal Savings Bank, Vienna. Exterior Detail. Otto Wagner, architect. From Otto Wagner, Einige Skizzen, Projekte, und ausgeführte Bauwerke (Vienna: Schroll, 1 8 9 2 - 1 9 2 2 ) 255. Building Constructed for the New York City Housing Authority (now part of the United Nations group), New York. Exterior. Fellheimer & Wagner, architects. Photograph Irving Underhill, courtesy Fellheimer & Wagner 256. Administration Building, Johnson Wax Company, Racine, Wisconsin. Exterior. Frank Lloyd Wright, architect. Photograph Aaron Chelouche 257. Volharding Co-operative Store, The Hague, the Netherlands. Jan Buys, architect. Courtesy Netherlands Information Bureau 258. Longfellow Building, Washington. Exterior. William Lescaze, architect. Courtesy William Lescaze 259. Howard House, England. Frederick Gibberd, architect. Courtesy British Information Service 260. House on Frognal Way, Hampstead, London. Street Front. Connell, Ward & Lucas, architects. Courtesy Basil Ward 261. An Outdoor School, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Exterior. J. Duiker, architect. Courtesy Netherlands Information Bureau 262. Mid-Nineteenth-Century House in Nantucket, Massachusetts. Photograph Talbot Hamlin 263. Daily Express Building, London. Detail of Glass Veneer. Ellis & Clarke, architects. From Raymond McGrath and A. C. Frost, Glass in Architecture and Decoration (London: Architectural Press, 1937)

xxix 273 274 275

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279

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283 284 286 287 288 288 289 289 290

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ILLUSTRATIONS

264. Amsterdam Houses, New York. Unit Plan. Grosvenor Atterbury, Harvey Wiley Corbett, and Arthur G Holden, architects. From New York City Housing Authority, 10th Annual Report, 1944 292 265. Typical Non-Bearing Partition Sections 293 2 66. Non-Bearing Partitions Designed for Sound Insulation 293 267. One Method of Insulating a Room against Outside Sound. Courtesy Johns-Manville Corp. 294 268. Katsura Palace, Kyoto, Japan. Interior of the Shokin-Tei. Courtesy R. Tsunoda 295 269. Studio Apartment House, Paris. Typical Plan. Ginsberg & Heep, architects. Redrawn from Architecte 296 270. Studio Apartment House, Paris. Typical Interior Views. Ginsberg & Heep, architects. From Architecte 296 271. Esso Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. Entrance Lobby. Carson 8c Lundin, architects. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services; courtesy Carson & Lundin 297 271. Banco Boavista, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Interior. Oscar Niemeyer, architect. Courtesy Progressive Architecture and Oscar Niemeyer 298 273. Closets Used in Lieu of a Partition to Separate Two Bedrooms 299 274. Storage Wall as Installed in an Exhibition Room, New York. Henry Wright and George Nelson, architects; New Design, Inc., decorator. Photograph Scott Hyde, courtesy New Design, Inc. 299 275. Wallace House, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Plan. Carl Koch, architect 300 276. Wallace House, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Details of Vertically Sliding Partition and Horizontally Sliding Screen. Carl Koch, architect. From New Pencil Points (Progressive Architecture) 301 277. Isometric Diagram of the Modernfold Door. Redrawn from material furnished by Modernfold Door Co. 302 278. Green's "Ready Built" House, Rockford, Illinois. Interior. Photograph Hedrich-BIessing, courtesy Modernfold Door Co. 302 279. Pardee House, Midland, Michigan. Bedroom. Alden B. Dow, architect. Photograph Elmer Astleford, courtesy Alden B. Dow 302 280. Eskimo Snow House. From Smithsonian Institution, Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885 (also listed as House Misc. Doc. No. 571, 50th Congress, ist Session) 306 281. Domed Hut before Thatching, Jukum Area, Benue River, Africa. From Leo Frobenius, Das unbekannte Afrika (Munich: Beck, 1923) 306 282. Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece. Courtesy Ware Library 307 283. So-called Tomb of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece. Entrance during Excavation. Courtesy Ware Library 308 284. Diagram View of Finished Sill, Jambs, and Lintel in a Wall of Rough Stone 309

ILLUSTRATIONS 285. Three Common Types of Linteled Doorway. From Robert Atkinson and Hope Bagenal, Theory and Elements of Architecture (New York: McBride [1926]) 286. Two Doorways from the Ancient Cemetery at Cefalu, Sicily 287. Diagram Showing How the Use of Planks around an Opening in a Mud-Brick Wall Led to the Classic Banded Architrave and Anta 288. Diagram Perspective of Planks Used to Enframe an Opening in a MudBrick Wall. Redrawn from Robert Atkinson and Hope Bagenal, Theory and Elements of Architecture 289. Erechtheum, Athens. Doorway of North Porch. From Hector d'Espouy, Fragments (farchitecture antique, 2 vols. (Paris: Massin, [1896]1905) 290. Church of Fontegiusta, Siena, Italy. Doorway. Courtesy Ware Library 291. Bienvenue House, New Orleans, Louisiana. Doorway. Photograph Rudolf Hertzberg 292. Typical Classic Doorway Proportions. Redrawn from Robert Atkinson and Hope Bagenal, Theory and Elements of Architecture 293. Diagram Showing Height Limitations of an Arched Opening and an Arched Doorway with Transom 294. Romanesque Church, Villers St. Paul, France. Entrance Doorway. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-Ie-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 295. Beaulieu Abbey, France. Main Entrance. Courtesy Ware Library 296. Arrière Voussure. Redrawn from J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 297. Cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Entrance Doorway. Courtesy Ware Library 298. Tomb at Shirvan, Azerbaijan. Front Elevation. From S. A. Dadashev and M. A. Useinov, Pamiatniki Azerbaidzhanskoi Arkhitektury v Baku [Moscow:] Izdatelstvo Vsesoiuznoi Akademii Arkhitektury [1938]) 299. Medresseh in the Mehmediyeh Mosque, Istanbul. From Cornelius Gurlitt. Die Baukunst Konstantinopels, 2 vols. (Berlin: Wasmuth, 1912) 300. Pantheon, Rome. Doorway. From Hector d'Espouy, Fragments d'architecture antique 301. Coleman-Hollister House, Greenfield, Massachusetts. Entrance Door and Porch. Asher Benjamin, architect. Redrawn from Historic American Buildings Survey 302. Ribershus Apartments, Malrno, Sweden. Typical Entrance Doorway and Porch. E. S. Persson, architect. Courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University 305. Doorway with Sidelights and Fanlight of Glass Tile 304. Section Showing Door Frame in Masonry Wall 305. Protective Metal Doors 306. Cast Bronze Protective Doors, Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts. McKim. Mead & White, architects; Daniel Chester French, sculptor.

xxxi

309 310 311 311 311 312 312 313 314 314 315 316 317 318 319 321 322 325 324 325 326

xxxii

307. 308. 309. 310. 311. 312. 313. 314. 315. 316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323.

324.

325. 326. 327. 328. 329. 3 30. 331.

332. 333.

ILLUSTRATIONS Photograph Creative Photographers, Inc., courtesy the Trustees of the Boston Public Library 327 Typical Door Sills 328 Desirable Sizes for Exterior Door Platforms 329 Typical Metal Saddle and Weatherstrip 330 Section Showing Wood Door Frame in Frame Wall 331 Oak Hill, Peabody, Massachusetts. Dining-Room Door. Samuel McIntire, architect. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 332 Mappa House, Trenton, New York. Parlor Door. From William Rotch Ware, The Georgian Period . . . 333 Trim and Plinth Block 334 Three Types of Interior Door Frame and Trim 334 Elevation of Typical Wood Paneled Door, Showing Direction of Grain 336 Sections of T w o Types of Common Solid Wood Paneled Door 337 Section of Typical Veneered Paneled Door 337 Santa Sabina, Rome. Entrance Doors. Courtesy Ware Library 338 Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy. Chief Doorway. L. B. Alberti, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 339 Typical Planked Doors 339 Notre Dame, Paris. Main Entrance Doors. Courtesy Avery Library 340 Medieval Planked Doors. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 341 Bronze Door of the Pantheon, Rome. Elevation and Details. Redrawn from Thomas Leverton Donaldson, A Collection of the Most Approved Examples of Doorways from Ancient Buildings in Greece and Italy . . . (London: Bossange, Barthès and Lowell, 1833) 342 Bronze Door of the So-called Temple of Romulus, Rome. Elevation and Details. Redrawn from Thomas Leverton Donaldson, A Collection of the Most Approved Examples of Doorways . . . 343 Santa Sophia, Istanbul. Detail of Bronze Doors. Courtesy Ware Library 344 Cathedral, Troia, Italy. Detail of Bronze Door. Courtesy Ware Library 344 Cathedral, Pisa, Italy. Detail of Bronze Doors. Courtesy Ware Library 345 Elevation and Section of Typical Hollow Metal Door 345 Typical Sliding Fire Door 347 High School, Idaho Springs, Colorado. Main Entrance. Frewen & Morris, architects. Courtesy Earl Morris 348 40 Central Park South, New York. Looking out from Entrance Lobby. Mayer & Whittlesey, architects. Photograph Richard Garrison, courtesy Mayer & Whittlesey 349 Bands of Doors, with and without Mullions, in a Single Doorway 350 Metal Sliding Doors. Typical Section 350

ILLUSTRATIONS

XXXlll

334. Typical Arrangements of Garage Doors 335. Typical Hangar Door Installations. From Time-Saver Standards 336. Hangar Doors: Municipal Airport, Chicago, Illinois; Aymar Embury II, architect, and Ammann & Whitney, engineers; photograph Fred G. Korth. La Guardia Field, New York; Delano & Aldrich, architects, and A. D. Crosett, engineer. Courtesy American Airlines 337. Typical Arrangements for Revolving Doors 338. Esso Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. South Entrance. Carson & Lundin, architects. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services; courtesy Carson & Lundin 339. Esso Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. Entrance Doors from within. Carson & Lundin, architects. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services; courtesy Carson & Lundin 340. A "Black House," Bragair, Lewis, the Hebrides. Exterior. From Aage Roussell, Norse Building Customs in the Scottish Isles (Copenhagen: Levin, 1934) 341. A "Stuga" Farmhouse from Sàtersdal, Norway, now in the Norwegian Folk Museum, Bygdô. Drawing from Erik Lundberg, Herremannens Bostad (Stockholm: Petterson, 1935); photograph courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University 342. Hypostyle Hall, Great Temple, Karnak, Egypt. Interior. Courtesy Ware Library 343. Hypostyle Hall, Great Temple, Karnak, Egypt. Detail of Window. Redrawn from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Fart . . . 344. Via Biberatica, Rome. Photograph Ernest Nash 345. Casa dei Dipinti, Ostia, Italy, as Restored by I. Gismondi. Elevation. Redrawn from Monumenti Antichi 346. Greek Terra-cotta Window Grille from Priene, Asia Minor. Redrawn from Theodor Wiegand and Hans Schrader, Priene . . . 347. Early Christian Window Grilles. From Robert Atkinson and Hope Bagenal, Theory and Elements of Architecture 348. Cathedral, Torcello, Italy. South Flank Showing Pivoted Marble Window Shutters. Courtesy Avery Library 349. Windows in North Gallery, Santa Sophia, Istanbul. From a measured drawing by J. B. Fulton, from Robert Atkinson and Hope Bagenal, Theory and Elements of Architecture 350. Nave Windows, Cathedral, Chartres, France. Frame. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 351. Cathedral, Chartres, France. Interior of Crossing. Courtesy Ware Library 352. Notre Dame, Paris. Window of Side Chapel. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . .

352 353

354 355 356 357 361

362 363 363 364 365 365 366 366 367 368 368 369

xxxiv

ILLUSTRATIONS

353. Notre Dame, Paris. Choir Chapel Window. Courtesy Ware Library 354. Cathedral, Carcassonne, France. General View. Courtesy Ware Library 355. Typical Ancient Ionian Window, as Restored by Viollet-le-Duc. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Entretiens sur farchitecture (Paris: Morel, 1863-72); English ed., translated by H. Van Brunt, Discourses on Architecture (Boston: Osgood, 1875-81) 356. Mullioned Window from the Palace, Cnossos, Crete, as Restored by Sir Arthur Evans 357. Barred Window from a Farmhouse in East Anglia, England. Redrawn from a photograph by Henry Felton, in Hugh Braun, The Story of the English House (New York: Scribner's; London: Batsford [1940]) 358. Romanesque Window from the Château, Carcassonne, France. Plan, Elevations, and Section. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 359. Romanesque Window Shutters from the Château, Carcassonne, France. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 360. Château d'Harcourt, Lillebonne, France. Romanesque Window. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 361. An Iron-grilled and Wooden-shuttered Window from St. Cross Hospital, Winchester, England, and a Wooden Sliding Shutter from Great Dixter, Northiam, Sussex, England. From Nathaniel Lloyd, A History of the English House . . . (London: Architectural Press; New York: Helburn, 1931) 362. "The Annunciation," by Roger Van der Weyden, in the Louvre. From Adolf Feulner, Kunstgeschichte des Mobels (Berlin: Propylaen-verlag [C1927]) 363. Hampton Court Palace, England. Window Details. Redrawn from Thomas Garner and Arthur Stratton, The Domestic Architecture of England during the Tudor Period (London: Batsford, 1911) 364. Oakwell Hall, near Bradford, England. Elevation and Window Detail. Redrawn from Louis Ambler, The Old Halls & Manor Houses of Yorkshire . . . (London: Batsford; New York: Scribner's [1913I) 365. Grouped Windows in Yorkshire. Redrawn from Louis Ambler, The Old Halls & Manor Houses of Yorkshire . . . 366. South Wraxhall Manor House, England. Windows in Hall. Courtesy Ware Library 367. Ockwells Manor, England. Windows in Hall. From Henry Avery Tipping, E?iglish Homes. . . . (London: Country Life; New York: Scribner's, 1921-37) 368. House of the Musicians, Rheims, France. Details of a ThirteenthCenturv Window. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 369. Château, Pierrefonds, France. Exterior and Interior Elevations of

370 370

371 371 372 373 373 373

374 374 375 375 376 376 377 378

ILLUSTRATIONS

370. 371. 372. 373. 374. 375. 376. 377. 378.

379. 380. 381. 382. 383. 384. 385. 386. 387. 388. 589. Î90. 391. 392. 393.

XXXV

Dwelling Windows, Fifteenth Century. Redrawn from E. E. Violletle-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 378 Hôtel de Mailly, Paris. View in Court. Courtesy Ware Library 379 Old House, Tewkesbury, England. Courtesy Ware Library 380 Stothard House, Glendale, California. Julius R. Davidson, architect. Garden Front. Photograph Talbot Hamlin 382 Wood Casement Windows 382 Typical Steel Casement Sash Sections 384 Bamsdall House, Los Angeles, California. Frank Lloyd Wright, architect. Photograph Talbot Hamlin 385 Typical Double-hung Window Details. Metal window details based on those of the Campbell Metal Window Co. and of the Crittall Double Hung Window Co. 386 Double-hung Windows as Placed in a Brick Wall 389 A Seventeenth-Century Double-hung Window from Hampton Court Palace, England; Sir Christopher Wren, architect; from Nathaniel Lloyd, A History of the English House. . . . A Triple-sashed Window from Monticello, near Charlottesville, Virginia; Thomas Jefferson, architect; photograph Leopold Arnaud 389 Brick House, Nantucket, Massachusetts. Photograph Talbot Hamlin 390 Windows as Elements in Composition 392 Horizontally Sliding Metal Windows 393 Horizontally Sliding Wood Sash for a Summer Cottage 394 Hillside House, Berkeley, California. Exterior and Interior of Living Room. J . E. Dinwiddie, architect; A. H. Hill and P. El Joseph, associated architects. Photographs Roger Sturtevant 395 Projected Sash. Outside and Inside Elevations and Details 396 Common Types of Pivoted Projecting Metal Sash 397 Combinations of Fixed Glass Panes and Ventilating Openings 399 Top of the Mark, San Francisco, California. Interior. Timothy Pflueger, architect. Courtesy Mark Hopkins Hotel, San Francisco 402 Goodyear House, Long Island, New York. Exterior of Living Room. Edward D. Stone, architect. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services 40 5 Aitschuler Private Library, Connecticut. Exterior. Edward D. Stone, architect. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services 404 Aitschuler Private Library, Connecticut. Interior. Edward D. Stone, architect. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services 405 Characteristic Egyptian Pier-and-Lintel Construction in Stone. Redrawn from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Fart . . . 408 Square Piers and Circular Columns 409 Proto-Doric Columns in a Tomb, Beni Hassan, Egvpt. Courtesy Ware Library 409

xxxvi 394.

395.

?96. 397. 398. 399. 400.

401. 402. 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410.

411. 412. 413. 414. 415.

ILLUSTRATIONS Reeded Columns from the Tomb of King Zoser, Third Dynasty, Saqqara, Egypt. Imhotep, architect. From Lauer, Fouilles à Saqqarah . . . (Cairo: Service des Antiquités, Institut français d'Archéologie orientale, 1936) Restored Columns of the Stair Hall, Palace at Cnossos, Crete. Redrawn from Sir Arthur Evans, The Palace of Minos, 4 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1921-35) Restoration of a Mycenaean Palace. From Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Part . . . Restored Façade of the So-called Tomb of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece. From Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Part . . . Farm Storage Building, in the Norwegian Folk Museum, Bygdô, Norway. Courtesy Ware Library Diagram of the Column Base Hittite Carved Base from the Ruins at Sakje Geuzi. Redrawn from Otto Benndorf and Georg Niemann, Reisen in Lykien und Karien (Vienna: Gerold's, 1884) Column Bases from Ancient Greece. Redrawn from Allan Marquand, Greek Architecture (New York: Macmillan, 1909) Romanesque Bases from St. Remi, Rheims, and from Poissy, France. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . Basic Types of Column Capital Typical Greek Doric Capitals Temple of Hera, Olympia, Greece. Column. Photograph Leopold Arnaud Temple of Neptune and "Basilica," Paestum, Italy. Courtesy Ware Library Customs House, New Bedford, Massachusetts. Portico. Robert Mills, architect. Photograph Talbot Hamlin English Gothic Molded Capitals. From Francis Bond, Gothic Architecture in England (London: Batsford, 1905) Cathedral, Salisbury, England. Lady Chapel A Summer House or a Shrine on a Relief from the Assyrian Palace at Kouyunjik. From Sir Austen H. Lavard, Nineveh and Its Remains . . . (New York: Putnam, 1849) Early and Developed Ionic Capitals. From Talbot Hamlin, Architecture through the Ages Old Louisville Bank, Louisville, Kentucky. Gideon Shryock, architect. Photograph Caufield and Shock Typical Achaemenian Persian Capital and Base Palacio Polentinos, Avila, Spain. Patio. Courtesy Ware Library Egyptian Campaniform Capital from Medinet Abu, Egypt. Redrawn from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Fart . . .

410

411 411 412 412 413

414 414 415 416 416 417 417 418 419 419

420 421 421 421 422 423

ILLUSTRATIONS 416. 417. 418.

XXXVll

Egyptian Column and Capital from Saqqara, Fifth Dynasty. Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 423 Three Greek Corinthian Capitals. From Talbot Hamlin, Architecture through the Ages 423 T w o Roman Corinthian Capitals. From Pierre Gusman, UArt décoratif de Rome, 3 vols. (Paris: Librairie centrale d'Art et d'Architecture [1908-1914])

419. 420. 421. 422. 423. 424.

425. 426. 427. 428. 429. 430. 431. 432. 433. 434.

435.

436. 437.

438. 439.

Roman Pilaster Capitals. From Pierre Gusman, L'Art décoratif de Rome T w o Italian Renaissance Pilaster Capitals. Courtesy Ware Library T w o Romanesque "Corinthian" Capitals. Courtesy Ware Library T w o French Gothic "Corinthian" Capitals. Courtesy Ware Library Italian and English Gothic Capitals. Courtesy Ware Library Typical Chinese Column. Redrawn from Liang Su Cheng, The Rules of Architecture of the Ching Dynasty (Peiping: Society of Research in Chinese Architecture, 1924) Characteristic Roman Cross-shaped Piers French Romanesque and Early Gothic Church Piers. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . Gothic Church Piers. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . St. Gervais, Paris. Nave Cathedral, Lincoln, England. Nave Piers Gothic Bridge, Orthez, France. Courtesy Ware Library The Steel Column with and without Fireproofing. Typical Plans Characteristic Steel Column and Girder Connections Concrete and Steel Column Connections at a Cantilever Stahl Kirche, Dortmund, Germany. View in Side Aisle. Otto Bartning, architect. From Copper and Brass Research Assoc., Die Stahl Kirche . . . ([New York?] 1930) Main Corridor, RCA Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. Plan Reinhard & Hofmeister; Corbett, Harrison & MacMurray; and Hood & Fouilhoux, associated architects School for Crippled Children, Denver, Colorado. First-Floor Plan Burnham Hoyt, architect Istituto Vital-Brazil, near Rio de Janeiro. Entrance Porch. Alvaro VitalBrazil, architect. Courtesy Progressive Architecture and Alvaro VitalBrazil Museum of Public Works, Paris. Exterior Detail. Auguste Perret, architect. From Construction moderne Concrete Columns. Redrawn from Julius Vischer and Ludwig Hilberseimer, Beton als Gestalter (Stuttgart: Hoffman [ C 1 9 2 8 ] )

424

42 5 425 427 427 428

429 430 431 432 433 433 434 435 436 437

438

439 440

441 442 443

XXXV111

ILLUSTRATIONS

440. Carbarn, Dortmund, Germany. Dortmunder Vulkan A. G., designers. Redrawn from Werner Lindner, Bauten der Technik . . . (Berlin: Wasmuth [C1927]) 441. International Building, Rockefeller Center, New York. Entrante Lobby. Reinhard & Hofmeister; Corbett, Harrison & MacMurrav; and Hood & Fouilhoux, associated architects. Photograph F. S. Lincoln 442. House on Frognal Way, Hampstead, London. Garden Front. Connell, Ward & Lucas, architects. Courtesy Basil Ward 443. Roofs or Floors with and without Beams 444. Diagram of Beamed Floor 445. Diagram of a Floor with Beams and Girders and with Beams, Girders, and Trusses 446. Wall Treatments for Concentrated Loads 447. Château Josselyn, France. Salon. Courtesy Ware Library 448. Palazzo Davanzati, Florence, Italy. Bedroom. Courtesy Ware Library 449. French Gothic Floor Construction. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-leDuc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 450. Late Gothic Girder-and-Beam Ceiling from the Hôtel de Ville, Beaugency, France. Redrawn from J. Gaudet, Éléments et théorie . . . 451. Ceiling from a House in Rouen, France. One example from and the other redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 452. Typical Medieval Beam and Girder Details. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 453. Wooden Joist Floor with Regularly Spaced Cross-bridging Members. From J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 454. Ancient Roman Coffered Marble Ceiling in the Lateran Museum. Rome. Courtesy Ware Library 455. Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. Nave Ceiling. From J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 456. Laurentian Library, Florence, Italy. Interior. Michelangelo, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 457. Ceiling of Library, École des Beaux Arts, Paris. Plan and Section. From J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 458. Palazzo Spada, Rome. A Hall. Courtesy Ware Library 459. Accadèmia, Venice, Italy. Ceiling. Courtesy Ware Library 460. Doge's Palace, Venice, Italy. Senate Hall. Courtesy Ware Library 461. Typical Nineteenth-Century French Insulated Floor. From J. Guadet, Éléments et théorie . . . 462. One Method of Sound Insulation for a Concrete Floor 463. Central Railroad Station, Le Havre, France. Main Concourse. Henri Paeon, architect. From Architecture d'aujourd'hui 464. Perfumer's Shop, New York. Ceiling. Milton Horn, sculptor. Photograph Pinchos Horn

444 445 446 450 450 451 452 453 454 455 455 456 457 457 457 458 458 459 459 460 461 461 462 463 464

ILLUSTRATIONS

XXXIX

465. Concrete Pan and Mushroom-Column Construction. Plan and Section. Redrawn from Whitney dark Huntington, Building Construction, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall [1944]) 465 466. Characteristic Concrete Ceilings. Redrawn from Whitney Clark Huntington, Building Construction, and from Julius Vischer and Ludwig Hilberseimer, Betón als Gestalter 466 467. Storeroom, Phoenix Sugar Refinery, Copenhagen. Christiani & Nielsen, engineers. Redrawn from Julius Vischer and Ludwig Hilberseimer, Beton als Gestalter 466 468. Diagram Showing Various Types of Ceiling Illumination 467 469. Cranbrook Academy of Art, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. Museum Interior. Eliel and Eero Saarinen, architects. Photograph HedrichBlessing, courtesy Cranbrook Academy of Art 468 470. The Custom Shop, 50th Street and Lexington Avenue, New York. Interior. Paul Bry, designer. Photograph Ben Schnall, courtesy Paul Bry and The Custom Shop, Inc. 469 471. Various Types of Floor Section 470 472. Typical Traditional Japanese House. Isometric View of Interior. From Tatsuro Yoshida, Dos Japamsche Wobnhaus (Berlin: Wasmuth [C1935D 47' 473. St. Paul's Outside the Walls, Rome. View in Side Aisle. Courtesy Ware Library 472 474. San Clemente, Rome. Nave Pavement. Courtesy Ware Library 47 3 475. Two Portions of the Mosaic Pavement of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, Rome. Courtesy Ware Library 474 476. Baptistry, Florence, Italy. Pavement Detail. Courtesy Ware Library 474 477. Cathedral, Siena, Italy. Interior. Courtesy Ware Library 475 478. Cathedral, Siena, Italy. Detail of the Pavement. Domenico Beccafumi, designer. Courtesy Ware Library 476 479. Typical Medieval Floor Tiles. From Émile Amé, Les Carrelages émaillés du moyen-âge et de la renaissance . . . (Paris: Morel, 1859) 477 480. Roman Mosaic Floors of the First Century. From Marion E. Blake, "The Pavements of the Roman Buildings of the Republic and the Early Empire," in American Academy in Rome, Memoirs, Vol. 8 (1930) 478 481. Roman Mosaic Floors of the Second Century. From Marion E. Blake, "Roman Mosaics of the Second Century in Rome," in American Academy in Rome, Memoirs, Vol. 13 (1936) 478 482. House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii, Italy. View from Vestibule. Courtesy Avery Library 479 483. Asphalt- and Cork-Tile Floors: Office of David E. Kennedy, Inc.; Frederick A. Pauley, architect. Silverside Elementary School, Wilmington, Delaware; Robinson, Stanhope & Manning, architects. Courtesy David F.. Kennedy, Inc. 480

xl 484.

485. 486. 487. 488. 489. 490. 491. 492.

ILLUSTRATIONS Asphalt-Tile Floors: Whelan Drug Store, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Robert A. Fash, architect for the Whelan Company. Gloucester Restaurant, New York; Francis Keally, architect. Courtesy David E. Kennedy, Inc. Capitol, Lincoln, Nebraska. Marble and Mosaic Floor in the Rotunda. B. G. Goodhue, architect; Hildreth Méière, designer of the floor. Photograph Samuel Gottscho Diagram View of a Stone Arch, Showing Thrust Possible Fracture Lines in Arched Construction Primitive Arches from Greece. Redrawn from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Part . . . Shrine with Primitive Arch, Delos, Greece. Courtesy Ware Library Ponte dei Capucini, Ascoli Piceno, Italy. Courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University Elements of an Arch Typical Arch Forms

481 481 485 485 486 487 488 488 489

493.

Canal Bridge, Naziang, China

490

494. 495. 496. 497. 498. 499.

St. Remi, Rheims, France. Choir. Courtesy Ware Library St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, England. Courtesy Ware Library Hotel d'Alluye, Blois, France. Court. Courtesy Ware Library Cathedral, Cordova, Spain. Interior. Courtesy Ware Library City Gate, Granada, Spain. Courtesy Ware Library Iron Ties and Braces Built into the Pediment Wall of the Panthéon, Paris. From Jean Rondelet, Mémoire historique sur le dôme du Panthéon français (Paris: chez l'auteur, 1797) Abattoirs de la Villette, Paris. Exterior. L. A. Janvier, architect. Courtesy Ware Library Sassanian Palace, Takt-i-Chosru, Ctesiphon, Iraq. Façade. From Friedrich Sarre and Ernst Herzfeld, Archäologische Reise im Euphrateund Tigris-gebiet (Berlin: Reimer, 1911-1920) Pont du Gard, near Nîmes, France. Courtesy Ware Library Triumphal Arches Flat Arches with Joggled Joints Supported on Corbels, used in Gothic Fireplaces. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . Casino, Villa Farnese, Caprarola, Italy. Elevation. G. B. Vignola, architect. From J. C. Shepherd and G. A. Jellicoe, Italian Gardens of the Renaissance (London: Benn; New York: Scribner's, 1925) Malatesta Temple, Rimini, Italy. Corner and Flank. L. B. Alberti, architect. Courtesy Ware Library Colosseum, Rome. Developed Part Elevation and Section Palace Gate, Khorsabad, Assyria. Elevation

490 491 492 492 493

500. 501. 502. 503. 504. 505. 506. 507. 508.

494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503

ILLUSTRATIONS 509. 510.

j11. 512. 513. 514. 515. 516. 517. 518.

519.

520.

521. 522. 523. 524. 525.

526. 527.

Arches with and without Extrados. Redrawn in part from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Entretiens sur F architecture Cathedral, York, England. Detail of Nave Piers. From Joseph Halfpenny, Gothic Ornaments in the Cathedral Church of York ([York, England:] Todd, 1795-[1900]) St. Mary's, Beverley, England. Chancel Pier Arch. From Francis Bond, Gothic Architecture in England Doorway, École des Beaux Arts, Paris. Félix Duban, architect. Courtesy Ware Library Typical French Romanesque Stepped Arch Sections. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . English Gothic Pier Arch Moldings. From Francis Bond, Gothic Architecture in England Characteristic Late Gothic French Arch Molding. Redrawn from EL E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictioîinaire raisonné . . . Doge's Palace, Venice, Italy. Detail of the Arcade. Courtesy Ware Library The Old Octroi Générale, Paris. Interior. Redrawn from A. Pugin and C. Heath, Paris and Its Environs (London: Jennings and Chaplin, 1831) Fairchild Aircraft Hangar, Hagerstown, Maryland. Construction Photograph. Albert Kahn Associated Architects and Engineers. Courtesy Albert Kahn Fairchild Airplane Hangar, Hagerstown, Maryland. Construction Photograph. Albert Kahn Associated Architects and Engineers. Couitesy Albert Kahn Chapel in the Woods, Texas State College for Women, Denton, Texas. Interior. Ford & Swank, architects. Photograph Photo Associates, courtesy O'Neill Ford Episcopal Cathedral, Havana, Cuba. Interior and Plan. Coffin & Coffin, architects Steel Arches Used for a Large Demountable Building. From an advertisement of the American Metal Curbing Co., Boston, Massachusetts Field House, Boys' Town, Nebraska. Construction Photograph. Leo A. Daly, architect. Courtesy American Institute of Steel Construction Diagram of a Barrel Vault Storage Rooms from the Ramesseum, Thebes, Egypt. Fron E. Baldwin Smith, Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression (New York and London: Appleton-Century, 1938) Drain Construction in the Palace at Khorsabad, Assyria. Redrawn from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de l'art . . . So-called Temple of Diana, a Nymphaeum, Nîmes, France. Redrawn from Russell Sturgis, European Architecture . . . (New York and London: Macmillan, 1896)

xli 503

504 505 506 507 508 508 509 510

511

511

512 513 514 515 y 18

519 519

520

xlii

ILLUSTRATIONS

528. So-called Temple of Diana, a Nymphaeum, Nîmes, France. Detail of Vault. Redrawn from Russell Sturgis, European Architecture . . . 520 529. Praetorium, Musmieh, Syria. Redrawn from Count [Charles Jean] Melchior de Vogiié, Syrie centrale. Architecture civile et religieuse, 2 vols. (Paris: Noblet & Baudret, 1865-77) 521 530. Typical Roman Brick-and-Concrete Vault Construction 521 531. St. Sernin, Toulouse, France. Nave. Courtesy Ware Library 522 532. Palazzo Doria, Genoa, Italy. Salon. Courtesy Ware Library 523 533. Diagrams of a Groined Vault and of Various Roman Uses of Barrel and Groined Vaults 524 534. Tepidarium or Great Hall, Baths of Caracalla, Rome. Restored Cutaway View. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Entretiens sur Varchitecture 525 535. Diagrams of the Relative Heights of Groin, Cross, and Wall Arches in a Rectangular Bay 526 536. Cathedral, Bourges, France. Crypt under the Ambulatory. Courtesy Ware Library 527 537. Cathedral, Amiens, France. Interior. Courtesy Ware Library 528 538. Diagram Showing Gothic Ribbed Vault Types. Redrawn from Francis Bond, Introduction to English Church Architecture (London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, 1913) 529 539. Characteristic English Gothic Vault Plans with Tiercerons and Liernes: Choir, Ely Cathedral; redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné. . . . Nave, Winchester Cathedral; redrawn from Francis Bond, Gothic Architecture in England 529 540. Cathedral, Ely, England. Piers of Choir Vault. Redrawn from E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . . 530 541. Cathedral, Lincoln, England. Angel Choir. Courtesy Ware Library 531 542. Nave Vcult, Cathedral, Winchester, England. View Looking Up. Redrawn from Francis Bond, Introduction to English Church Architecture 532 532 543. King's College Chapel, Cambridge, England. Interior 544. Sassanian Palace, Sarvistan, Tigro-Euphrates Valley. Plan and Restored Interior. Redrawn from F. M. Simpson, A History of Architectural Development (London: Longmans, Green, 1905-n) 533 545. The Sorbonne, Paris. Lobby Leading to the Public Lecture Hall. M. Nénot, architect. Courtesy Ware Library 534 546. Ancient Assyrian Domed Huts or Granaries. Relief from Kouyunjik. From Sir Austen H. Layard, A Second Series of the Monuments of Nineveh (London: Alurrav, 1853) 535 547. So-called Tomb of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece. Plan and Section 535 548. Trulli, Alberabello, Italy. Photographs Leopold Arnaud 536 549. Interior of a Trullo, Alberabello, Italy. Photograph Leopold Arnaud 537

ILLUSTRATIONS 550. 551. 552. 553. 554. 555. 556. 557. 558. 559. 560.

561. 562. 563. 564. 565. 566. 567. 568. 569.

Pantheon, Rome. Side Elevation. Drawing by Ledere, from Hector d'Espouy, Fragments d'architecture antique Diagram Showing a Dome on Pendentives St. Mark's, Venice, Italy. Narthex Interior. Courtesy Ware Library Panthéon, Paris. Interior. J. J. Soufflot, architect. Courtesy Ware Library Squinches Octagonal Dome over an Octagonal Church Crossing Typical Stalactite Forms. From Talbot Hamlin, Architecture through the Ages, as redrawn in part from M. S. Briggs, Muhammadan Architecture in Egypt and Syria (London: Clarendon Press, 1924) Alhambra, Granada, Spain. Ceiling in the Hall of the Abencerraies. Courtesy Ware Library Dome of the Cathedral, Florence, Italy. Construction System. Redrawn from F. M. Simpson, A History of Architectural Development St. Peter's, Rome, Exterior. Courtesy Avery Library St. Paul's, London. Cutaway Section Showing Construction. Drawn by R. B. Brook-Greaves and W. Godfrey Allen under the direction of M. E. Macartney; from the Wren Society, 20 vols. (Oxford: printed for the Wren Society by the University Press, 1924-43) The Invalides, Paris. Exterior of the Chapel Dome. J. H. Mansart, architect. Courtesy Ware Library Domes of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, and the Panthéon, Paris. Sections. From F. M. Simpson, A History of Architectural Development Girard College, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Plan and Section. Thomas U. Walter, architect. From Talbot Hamlin, Greek Revival Architecture in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1944) Early Types of Guastavino Vaulting. From R. Guastavino, Essay on the Theory and History of Cohesive Construction . . . (Boston: Ticknor, 1893) St. Paul's Chapel, Columbia University, New York. Interior. Howells & Stokes, architects. Photograph Bèzso Kallos, courtesy Columbiana Collection, Columbia University Typical Lamella Roofs. Courtesy Roof Structures, Inc. St. Antoninus Church, Basel, Switzerland. Interior. Karl Moser, architect. From G. A. Platz, Die Baukunst der neuesten Zeit (Berlin: Propylàen-verlag, 1927) Warehouses at the Harbor, Casablanca, Morocco. A. and G. Perret, architects. From Paul Jamot, A.-G. Perret et F architecture du béton armé (Paris: Vanoest, 1927) Dirigible Hangars, Orly, France. Construction Photograph. E. Freyssinet, designer. From J. Badovici, Grandes Constructions. Béton armé— acier—verre (Paris: Morancé [1931I)

xliii 538 538 539 540 541 542 543 543 544 545

546 547 548 549 550 551 55? 554 555 556

xliv 570. 571.

572. 573. 574. 575. 576.

577. 578. ^79. 580. 581. 582. >83. 584. 585. 586 587. 588.

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256

MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

Passengers are not permitted on elevators which are reserved for freight only. These elevators are usually of the low-speed type and large in size; in many warehouse installations they are big enough for a large truck. The doors are frequently of the vertical sliding type—a pattern that makes a suitable "trucking saddle." Sidewalk elevators are arranged with all the operating mechanisms below the platform. MINOR

ELEVATORS

Push-button elevators too small for an operator or a passenger may be used as trunk lifts, dumb-waiters, and the like. Such minor elevators may even be rope-operated, as is the case in many a city flat. They may be designed to serve any number of floors, although the typical installation is between two floors, as from kitchen to serving pantry or from stock room to salesrooms. A special version of the dumb-waiter is the book lift, which in libraries may be a continuous belt conveyor. ARCHITECTURAL

REQUIREMENTS

In addition to shaft and lobby space on the main and typical floor plans, the architect must keep in mind the extra space required for the elevator machines and he must allow for access to them and provide means for handling heavy parts in case of replacement. The horizontal and vertical clearances required at the machine level are frequently a determining factor in the exterior form of the building, and the study of the elevator plan is not complete until the necessary dimensions have been applied to the building envelope; indeed, the original conception of the envelope as expressed in the preliminary sketches may have to be changed considerably. Where the building envelope is regulated by zoning ordinances the space requirements of the machine rooms may make necessary the replanning or even the loss of a rentable floor. Frequently the entire elevator specifications are included with the electric work. Nevertheless, the general planning of elevators is entirely the province of the architect. SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING FOR CHAPTER 7 Adlam, T . N . , Radiant Heating ( N e w Y o r k : Industrial Press, 1947). American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, Annual Guide York: the Society, 1 9 2 9 - ) .

(New

MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

*57

Babbitt, H. E., Plumbing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1928). Close, Paul D., Building Insulation . . . 3rd ed. (Chicago: American Technical Society, 1946). Day, Louis J., Standard Plumbing Details (New York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall, 1938). Gay, C M., and C D. Fawcett, Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall, 1945). Giesecke, F. E., Hot Water Heating and Radiant Heating and Radiant Cooling (Austin, Tex.: Technical Book Co., 1946). Illuminating Engineering Society, I.ES. Lighting Handbook (New York: the Society, 1947). Jennings, B. H., and S. R. Lewis, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration (Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Co., 1944). Lennox Furnace Company, Warm Air Heating and Winter Ah Conditioning (Syracuse, N.Y.: the Company, 1948). Plum, Svend, Plumbing Practice and Design, 2 vols. (New York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall, 1943). Raber, B. F., and F. W. Hutchinson, Panel Heating and Cooling Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1947). Shoemaker, R. W., Radiant Heating (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948). Sporn, P., E. R. Ambrose, and T. Baumeister, Heat Pumps (New York: Wiley, '947>United States Bureau of Standards, Methods of Estimating Loads in Plumbing Systems, BMS Report 65 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1940). Plumbing Manual, BMS Report 66 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1940).

8 The Elements of Structure: Bearing Walls

T

HUS FAR the use elements in a structure—rooms, halls, corridors, and so on—have been discussed. Yet it should be obvious that such elements could not exist without the structural elements to form the shelter which encloses them. These sheltering elements therefore play a large part in the design of any building, and before they can be used intelligently something must be known of their inherent qualities. Of all structural elements the class which includes walls, together with the roofs supported by them, is of the greatest practical importance. Both walls and roofs have played vast roles in the development of architecture. Since walls or other supports are necessary to carry the roof, they will be considered first. Walls fall naturally into two classes: those which bear the weight of the roof or the walls and floors above them, and those which carry no weight except their own and act only as sheltering elements. The first are generally called bearing walls; the second are termed non-bearing walls, or screens or partitions. Bearing walls have always been the most common type of exterior wall. Most small structures are still built with their walls carrying the major weights of roofs or upper floors; moreover, wherever traditional ways of building persist, there bearing walls will be found to control the design. Even in the socalled frame house, where the walls are made of vertical posts or studs covered with an exterior surfacing of some kind, these walls are nevertheless so designed that they act largely as a unit and furnish support as well as shelter; therefore, despite their framed character, they are true bearing walls. It was one of the practices of the International Style architects of the 1920's and 1930's to avoid the use of bearing walls wherever possible and to substitute some kind of post-supported framed construction because of the freedom in planning which isolated supports permitted. Experience shows, however, that bearing-wall construction continues to be the cheapest and often the simplest

BEARING WALLS

FIGURE

228.

AND INTERIOR

CARROLL

COLLEGE

LIBRARY,

WAUKESHA,

*59

WISCONSIN.

EXTERIOR

DETAILS

Van der Gracht & Kilham, architects Excellently detailed stone bearing walls characterize this building; in the interior a smoother finish is used for the stone. Photographs Hedrich-Blessing

2" • " '

) f

1

'

FIGURE 337. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR REVOLVING DOORS

In B, c, and E, revolving doors are combined with swinging doors as exits; D is for a comer doorway.

V

X,' 1

J VI

'

355

A

/

0

A

Neither A nor D can be

h

used as a required exit, F indicates two ways in which revolving doors can be folded and locked in position, c and H are larger details of a revolving door and its enclosure.

are sometimes used; here the frame is usually of steel made like an ordinary collapsible sliding steel gate. By this means, as with the gate, a very wide opening can be closed by a door which, when open, occupies a minimum of space. Revolving Doors. The revolving door is common in modern commercial buildings (Figs. 337-339). Wherever a door is likely to be used continuously, without marked peaks of intensive usage, this type is an obvious choice. Although each section can accommodate only one person at a time, the continuous revolution allows many people to enter during a given period and an equal number to depart simultaneously. Furthermore, despite this continuous use, at no time is there a clear opening for air passage between outside and inside; the revolving door is therefore the most weatherproof of all. The width of the cylindrical enclosure varies. Its diameter should never be less than 4 feet, or the quadrants will be too small for convenient use; but it should never be over 5 feet, or the door will be too heavy for ease of operation and two or more persons may be tempted to crowd into a single quadrant. Between these limits, 4 feet 6 inches is considered a generally satisfactory diameter. Despite their usefulness for buildings where entrance or exit is likely to be more or less continuous, revolving doors have definite limitations and at least one grave danger. Where great crowds are likely to enter or leave a building at a certain time, as in the case of theaters or churches, the revolving door is decidedly out of place; here the only logical solution is a wide band of swinging doors and a heating system designed to take care of the temperature loss when they must remain open on cold days. The danger lies in the fact that, if two people try to rush out of the building at the same time in two adjacent quadrants, the door may be held in a fixed position and both entrance and

356

DOORS A N D D O O R W A Y S

FIGURE 3 3 8 . ESSO BUILDING, ROCKEFELLER CENTER, N E W

YORK. SOUTH

ENTRANCE Carson & Lundin, architects Three revolving doors flanked by two swinging exit doors are set in a screen of mat-finished brass. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services; courtesy Carson & Lundin

egress may be prevented. Thus revolving doors must be studiously avoided in all emergency exits or in any place of assembly where there is a possibility of panic. It was the use of revolving doors in the chief entrance and exit to the Cocoanut Grove night club in Boston which was largely responsible for the terrific record of panic deaths consequent upon the fire there. Screen Doors. An additional factor which may affect the design of door

DOORS AND DOORWAYS

FIGURE

339.

DOORS FROM

ESSO BUILDING,

ROCKEFELLER

CENTER,

NEW

357

YORK.

ENTRANCE

WITHIN

Carson & Lundin, architects T h e same materials that distinguish the exterior carry through into the interior and thus serve to mark the transition from outdoors to indoors. Photograph Ezra Stoller—Pictorial Services; courtesy Carson & Lundin

frames and doors is the occasional necessity of furnishing screen doors. These are standard in most domestic architecture wherever mosquitoes and flies are common and where doorways may be left open for ventilation over extended periods of time. T h e proper screening of houses is a matter affecting not only comfort but also health, since flies and mosquitoes spread disease. Screen doors

358

DOORS A N D D O O R W A Y S

are usually light in weight and made of wood or metal, with rails and stiles as small as is compatible with the necessary rigidity. They are usually hung to swing into a rebate on the face of the door frame opposite that on which the regular door is hung: if the latter opens in, the screen door will be on the outer face and will open out; if it opens out, the screen door will be on the inside and will open in. Even when screen doors are not planned as part of the original equipment it is advisable—in order to permit their later installation—to furnish a rebate on both faces of all exterior door frames. It will thus be seen that doors and doorways furnish numerous interesting problems for the architect. All sorts of practical questions concerning them depend for satisfactory answers on the most carefully detailed treatment not only of the door itself but also of all the hardware and appurtenances in connection with it. Yet here, as in all other problems, the architect must never allow the infinite detail of these comparatively minor matters to stand in the way of creative and expressive design. The doorway as the entrance will always command the attention of everyone who uses the building. In its design and treatment it will do much to express the quality of the structure. The great architects of the past have almost invariably realized the dominant position which doorways assume and consequently have given them the most careful and sensitive treatment to make them as expressive as they are useful. How better can the quality of buildings be expressed than by their entrances? The public nature of governmental buildings, the thronging of crowds to places of public assembly, the happy homecoming of the individual—each of these can find expression in appropriate entrance design to produce the feeling of grandeur, of communal activity, or of intimate and quietly gracious invitation. These are all qualities which the architect can evoke through the sensitive, imaginative, and functional design of doors and doorways.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING FOR CHAPTER

IO

Atkinson, Robert, and Hope Bagenal, Theory and Elements of Architecture (New York: McBride [1926]). Donaldson, Thomas Leverton, A Collection of the Most Approved Examples of Doorways from Ancient Buildings in Greece and Italy . . . (London: Bossange, Barthes & Lowell, 1833). Ramsey, Charles George, and Harold Reeve Sleeper. Architectural Graphic Standards . . . 3rd ed. ( N e w York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall [1944]).

DOORS AND DOORWAYS

359

Schneck, Adolf G., Türen aus Holz und Metall . . (Stuttgart: Hoffmann [CI933D"Selected Details" in Pencil Points, New Pencil Points, and Progressive Architecture. Times-Saver Standards, a Manual of Essential Architectural Data (New York: Dodge [C1946]). Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel, Dictionnaire raisonné de Farchitecture française du XI' au XVI' siècle, 10 vols. (Paris: Bance and Morel, 1854-68), especially the articles "Porche" and "Porte."

II

The Elements of Structure: Windows

C

H A N G E S and developments in constructional methods, the adoption of new building materials, and a closer analysis of human needs have combined to break down many earlier architectural categories. This applies to structural elements, to decorative elements, and to architectural forms, and nowhere is it more evident than in a consideration of doors and windows. Here, as in many types of classification, it is easy enough to differentiate between some doors and some windows, yet there are other cases in which the same element may serve as both. How, for instance, shall we rank the socalled French window or French door? How shall we classify the opening which serves primarily as a window and yet opens to the floor? What shall we say of the sliding panes of plate glass which allow the opening of large areas or the whole side of a room? THE DEVELOPMENT

OF

WINDOWS

Historically the development of the door and that of the window were quite different; the two features were created for different purposes, and it is only in the most highly evolved civilizations that their functions tend to coalesce. The door was an opening for the passage of people or animals; the window was a hole for ventilation and the admission of light. Naturally the window developed later than the door, and there are still houses in Europe which are windowless and in which the light enters only through open doors or the hole in the roof that is arranged as a vent for smoke. Some of the cottages and early dwellings still in use in the Scottish Isles have solid walls—except for the door—and in the roofs of thatch or turf only a hole for smoke instead of a chimney; in the Islands such houses are significantly termed "black houses." It is an extraordinary accident of history that within five hundred miles of the greatest city in the world such houses have remained in use until practically the present time (Fig. 340).

WINDOWS

FIGURE

340. A "BLACK

H O U S E , " BRAG AIR, L E W I S , T H E HEBRIDES.

361

EXTERIOR

A windowless, chimneyless house still inhabited in the twentieth century. From Roussell, Norte Building Customs in the Scottish Isles

The term "window" comes from the Anglo-Saxon for "weather door" or the old Norse for "wind eye," and at least in northern Europe early "windows" served as chimneys as well as for ventilation and light. This is true, for instance, of early Norse stugas, where the only window is the smoke hole in the roof (Fig. 341). In southern climates the history is quite different; where cold is no enemy, openings in the wall are more common. Window openings came into early use in Egypt and other Mediterranean centers like Crete. It is interesting that the earliest monumental examples known are the great clerestory windows in the hypostyle hall of the Great Temple at Karnak (Figs. 342, 343). They occupy the full height between the lower side sections and the higher central nave of the temple and are filled with pierced-stone grilles to modulate the savage brilliance of the Egyptian sun. As men became more civilized, the need for light within doors increased, and even in the north we find windows gradually becoming common during the classic and post-classic epochs. Roman dwellings made wide use of them, not only for light and ventilation but also for view, 1 and Roman windows in city apartment houses and country villas were large and numerous (Figs. 344, 345). The great baths and basilicas of the Roman Empire depended on large and carefully designed windows to make their magnificent interiors light and airy (see Fig. 4). The problem of window design was always a double one: first, to provide 1 Pliny the Younger, f o r instance, writes with manifest enthusiasm about the views to be seen from certain windows in his Laurentine villa.

WINDOWS

362 MMHHHMMP''

•••- !"

WÊSÈ

¡BP*

pi* '

jé J«. -MmBHak....

- e-'-i. ^mSsSs L

1

*

FIGURE 3 4 1 . " S T U G A " FARMHOUSE FROM SATERSDAL, NORWAY, NOW IN THE NORWEGIAN FOLK M U S E U M , ABOVE:

BYGDO

Interior view. The only light came from the hole in the roof which served as the chimney. Courtesy School of Architecture, Columbia University From Lundberg, Herremarmens Bostad

RF.IXIW:

Isometric of interior.

WINDOWS

363 FIGURE

342

HYPOSTYLE GREAT

(LEFT). HALL,

TEMPLE,

KARNAK,

EGYPT.

INTERIOR

The stone grating in the huge clerestory windows served to break up the direct light of the brilliant African sun. Courtesy Ware Library

ELEVATION PERSPECTIVE 0 Stt FIGURE 3 4 3

(ABOVE).

HYPOSTYLE

HALL,

GREAT

TEMPLE,

KARNAK, DETAIL

EGYPT. OF

WINDOW

These large clerestory windows were filled with pierced stone grilles, which admitted light but kept out the direct sun. Redrawn from Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de I'art . . .

both light and a barrier against weather; and, second, for purposes of ventilation to arrange an opening which could be closed at will. T h e former requirement called for some transparent or translucent medium that would admit light but keep out the elements; the latter necessitated some arrangement for opening and closing. These two basic factors have continued to govern all window design. T h e effort to find a transparent material has produced many different solutions. Textiles of various types, sometimes oiled to make them more waterproof as well as more translucent, were utilized in several primitive cultures. Paper was the common material in China and Japan until recent times and is still occasionally employed. It has the advantages of being easily replaceable and of

FIGURE 3 4 4 . VIA BIBERATICA, ROME.

The large rectangular windows that characterized many ancient Roman secular buildings. Photograph Ernest Nash

having good insulating value; it also gives a pleasant diffused light. Oiled paper was commonly employed in European houses throughout Romanesque times and much of the Gothic period; even for royal palaces it was used as late as the thirteenth century and was frequently decorated with paintings or trimmed with colored leather.2 Other parts of the world have made use of shells, polished thin and set into wooden gratings—as, for example, in parts of southern China and the Philippines. Their diffusion power is great, and they are remarkable for the beautiful quality and color of the light they transmit. Certain stones and minerals also have frequently been adapted for window use. Thus thin sheets of marble or alabaster have served for windows in some parts of the Middle East; a similar utilization of translucent alabaster furnishes the soft and beautiful light from the ceiling in the Lincoln Memorial in Washington. In the Roman world, where large windows in domestic buildings were customary, sheets of natural gypsum and mica were probably the most common glazing materials; fragments in great quantities have been found around the walls of many of the buildings of Ostia. Mica had the great advantage of being 2 Nathaniel Lloyd, History of the English House . . . (London: T h e Architectural Press; New York, VV. Helburn, Inc., 1931).

WINDOWS

3esljv WINDOW SHUTTERS

Courtesy Avery Library

T o this Roman development of glass windows the gradual death of Roman culture in the Dark Ages brought a complete close, and the architects of the Middle Ages fought with the problem anew (see Figs. 347-349). T h e history of the development of windows by medieval builders from the tenth to the sixteenth centuries is largely one of a new evolution leading at last to the common employment of glass. It is not strange that the first medieval use of glass was for ecclesiastical buildings. It appeared in fixed windows in little colored pieces—for designed ventilation in these large church interiors was comparatively unknown. It may be that the system of stained glass was borrowed from the Mohammedan culture of the Orient, where windows of jeweled richness formed of small pieces of glass set in a frame of plaster or cement had been common for centuries. In Europe, however, strips of lead, called cames, were used instead of cement to separate the different pieces and hold them in place; cames are H-shaped in section, with the glass fitted into the recesses on either side of the bar of the H . Because of the softness of lead the cames could be shaped to suit any desired pattern and pressed down on either side of the glass to make a practically waterproof joint. T h e early stained-glass windows were small in size, for glass was

WINDOWS

367

FIGURE 3 4 9 . WINDOWS IN NORTH GALLERY, SANTA SOPHIA, ISTANBUL A characteristic Bvzantine w i n d o w , with a frame of wood forming a rectangular grille of small openings to receive small glass panes. From a measured drawing by J. B. Fulton, from Atkinson and Bagenal, Theory and Elements of Architecture

expensive and the labor required to make them was great. Yet once the beauty of the effect was realized, the whole aim of the chief medieval architects seems to have been a search for ways in which to build safely larger and ever larger windows. This is not the place for an extended history of the development of stained glass. It is well to point out, however, that the creation and evolution of Gothic architecture resulted in part from the effort to obtain maximum glass areas and that the whole system of tracery arose from the necessity of subdividing a large window area into sizes that could be easily glazed (Figs. 3 50-3 54). T h e stainedglass window itself, with its little pieces of glass held in soft lead cames, was of course fragile and entirely lacking in rigidity. T o overcome this difficulty, t w o systems were devised. T h e first consisted of the use of a cast- or wrought-iron frame, the armature, often designed in rich patterns which controlled the stained-glass composition; this armature was built into the masonry opening, and to it the stained-glass window sections were fastened. T h e second method substituted the simple system of horizontal iron saddle bars built into the window jambs; the stained glass was fastened to these b y means of wires. In some

368

WINDOWS F I G U R E 3 5 0 . NAVE

WINDOWS,

CATHEDRAL, CHARTRES,

FRANCE.

FRAME

Here is an admirable example of twelfth-century plate tracery. The space between the buttresses and beneath the wall arch is filled with a relatively thin stone screen wall in which are two arched windows and a much-subdivided rose. Redrawn from Viollet-le-Duc, Dictiomuire rauoimé . . .

FIGURE

351.

CHARTRES, INTERIOR

CATHEDRAL,

FRANCE. OF

CROSSING

This view shows the powerful interior effect of plate tracery and the emphasis it places on the stained glass. Courtesy Ware Library

WINDOWS

369 FIGURE 3 5 2 . NOTRE DAME, PARIS. WINDOW OF SIDE CHAPEL The high-water mark of geometrical bar tracery was reached in the fourteenth century. This example shows die exact tangency of the circular curves, and how the system gives a single colonnette and molding Tor the smaller subdivisions, another "order" of colonnette and molding for the major subdivisions, and an additional molding around the arch as a whole. Redrawn from Viollet-Ie-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné . . .

Late Gothic and much modern stained-glass work certain sections of the windows are enclosed in a movable iron frame which is pivoted to allow ventilation. Since the earlier stained-glass windows were entirely fixed, there was no need for a frame and the window was merely cemented into rebates or grooves cut into the stonework of the jamb, sill, and head (Fig. 352). Although the glory of stained-glass design reached one of its major climaxes in church work of the late thirteenth century, glass still remained far too rare and expensive a material for common use in secular buildings. Occasionally in late twelfth-century town houses one finds small glazed openings either in fixed wooden transoms or contrived in the masonry itself above the window proper, whereas the rest of the window is formed with simple wooden shutters. One had the choice of being well lighted and cold or dimly lighted and warm. In castles and nobles' dwellings even that amount of glazing was rare, and much of the exuberant delight at the coming of spring to be found in medieval

37°

WINDOWS FIGURE

353.

NOTRE D A M E , CHOIR C H A P E L

PARIS. WINDOW

T h e geometric elaboration possible in developed bar tracery. Courtesy Ware Library

FIGURE 3 5 4 . CATHEDRAL, CARCASSONNE, F R A N C E . G E N E R A L

VIEW

T h e cathedral at Carcassonne owes much of its brilliant effect to the tall windows subdivided by elaborate bar tracery. Courtesy Ware Library

WINDOWS

FIGURE 3 5 6

( R I G H T ) . M U L L I O N E D WINDOW F R O M T H E P A L A C E , CNOSSOS,

C R E T E , AS RESTORED B Y SIR A R T H U R

EVANS

In the palace at Cnossos many rooms are lighted by large windows. For these heavy timber sills and lintels are used, which frequently continue across the masonry walls as binding timbers. The jambs are formed by timber posts and frames, and the weight of the stone walls above is carried on large mullion posts, doubled in the wall thickness.

poetry, as well as its ecstatic appreciation of nature, may be due to the long, smoky, and gloomy winters in these vast and cold feudal interiors (Fig. 357; Figs. 355, 356 show ancient types). The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries saw a gradually increased use of glass in domestic and civil buildings. Although most windows continued to be closed merely with shutters—or shutters and lattices—in many of the more highly developed examples of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the upper portion would be a fixed sash glazed with leaded glass and the lower portion would retain the solid or latticed shutters (Fig. 358). Many fifteenthcentury manuscripts show this arrangement, which apparently persisted well into the sixteenth century (Fig. 362). Yet by the second half of the fifteenth century glass was fairly common in city and town houses and glazed swinging shutters or casements were replacing the earlier solid type, so that for the first time the entire window opening

37*

WINDOWS FIGURE

357.

BARRED WINDOW FROM A FARMHOUSE IN EAST ANGLIA, ENGLAND

Glazed windows were rare in domestic work of the Middle Ages until almost the seventeenth century, except occasionally in certain towns and in the palaces and manors of the higher nobility. In many cases an opening through the wall, protected by wooden bars and closed by solid wood shutters, inside, was the usual window; this is an example. Redrawn from Braun, The Story of the English House

could admit light no matter what the weather. It was perhaps that new flooding of light into interiors which was the controlling impetus behind the enormously increased richness and refinement of furniture and interior decorations which characterize the period. This new freedom in the use of glass was given an especially exuberant development in England. For instance, in Ockwells—usually dated about 1465— the upper half of practically one whole wall of the great hall is almost entirely of leaded glass, set between the necessary timber framing, and in the bay at the lord's end of the hall the glazing continues nearly to the floor (Fig. 367). In masonry houses, the increase in window sizes persisted well into the Renaissance. Of Hardwicke Hall in Derbyshire a local jingle ran, "Hardwicke Hall, more glass than wall"; Francis Bacon, too, complained with respect to many houses of his time that there was no place in them where one could get away from glare and draft because of the enormous windows. Casement-window design demands that the swinging casements themselves be kept not only comparatively small in size—in order to avoid racking or warping—but also rectangular in shape, with the long dimension vertical, for the greater the ratio of width to height the greater the tendency toward racking. Consequently, since the masonry openings which were common in the early days of glass were often very large, they had to be subdivided into the requisite number of units by intermediate members—the vertical ones called mullions and the horizontal ones transoms (Figs. 363-366). In France and Italy, where tradition dictated openings of approximately classic proportions, the

WINDOWS

373

rxn *E m

FIGURE 3 5 8

NOEC

j -

arm: