Flight Identification of European Passerines and Select Landbirds: An Illustrated and Photographic Guide 9780691209890

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WILDGuides WILDGuides

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DEDICATION To Jadwiga, Mateusz, Grzegorz and Andrzej

Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 6 Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TR press.princeton.edu Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to Permissions, Princeton University Press First published 2021 Copyright © 2021 by Princeton University Press Digital images copyright © 2021 by Tomasz Cofta Copyright in the photographs remains with the individual photographers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available Library of Congress Control Number 2020943965 ISBN 978-0-691-17757-1 Ebook ISBN 978-0-691-20989-0 Production and design by WILDGuides Ltd., Old Basing, Hampshire UK Printed in Italy

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Contents Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Using this book  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Structure and shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Flocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Confusion species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The photographs, Nomenclature, Family and species order, Sources of knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Topography of a flying bird. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

The species accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The types of bird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Pigeons and doves (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Cuckoos  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Parakeets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Hoopoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Bee-eaters  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Rollers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Kingfishers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Woodpeckers (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Orioles  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Swifts, swallows and martins (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Shrikes (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Corvids (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Tits (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Larks and pipits (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Wagtails (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Cisticolas  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Prinias  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Acrocephalus and Locustella warblers (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Iduna and Hippolais warblers (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Phylloscopus warblers and crests (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Sylvia warblers (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Nuthatches  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Wallcreeper  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Treecreepers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Wrens  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Dippers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Waxwings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Starlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Thrushes (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Flycatchers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Robins, nightingales and chats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Wheatears (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Accentors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Sparrows and finches (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Buntings (including comparative illustrations)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Sources of further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Acknowledgements and credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

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Introduction “Identifying small songbirds in flight at a quarter mile is possible if you truly desire to do so.” —David Allen Sibley * If David Sibley is right, the obvious question must be how? Ever since I was a small boy, I have been fascinated with birds – as my mother reminded me recently when she gave me a picture I drew when I was about five years old, having treasured it over the intervening decades. That early fascination in birds certainly grew over the years to become my main passion – and, eventually, I was fortunate to be able to make studying birds my profession. When I first started working as a field ornithologist I needed to be able identify birds that were flying over my head in order to count and register them correctly. I was first taught the basics of flight identification 42 years ago by my mentor Professor Przemysław Busse, who is one of the foremost specialists on bird migration in Europe, and was also helped by other fellow ornithologists. Since that time, I have continued to learn during the countless hours spent watching, studying – and enjoying – birds. Although excellent books had already been published on the flight identification of ‘larger’ birds, such as raptors and seabirds, I increasingly came to appreciate that much of what I was finding out, especially with regard to ‘smaller’ birds, was not readily available to other bird watchers. As a consequence, it has long been my ambition to pull together all the knowledge I had accumulated and produce a book that covered how to go about identifying passerines in flight (together with a few of the select land birds that might typically be seen with them when on migration). Some bird watchers have a seemingly magical ability to put a name to a ‘dot’ flying overhead with only the briefest glimpse – so the question remains, how do they do it? The one thing that experience has taught me is that identification of flying birds is not the same as identifying a bird that is perched or standing still, when specific plumage details can be seen and studied, often for some length of time. In fact, plumage features are generally not particularly helpful when trying to identify a flying bird – what really matters is the structure of the bird, the way it flies, and what its call is like. This book covers all these aspects, with a combination of detailed artwork, thousands of accompanying photographs carefully selected to show typical shapes and profiles of actual birds in flight, concise text on plumages and flight behaviour, and information and links to vocalizations. When I showed an early draft of this book to a very experienced field naturalist and ornithologist he said “Now I will now have to start watching birds all over again!” Up until that point, he had never paid much attention to small flying birds. It is my hope that this book will encourage you, too, to look at birds in perhaps a slightly different way, and in doing so improve your identification skills. If it helps you to feel more confident about putting a name to the next bird that passes by – even if it is a quarter of a mile (half a kilometre) away – it will have been worth the effort.

* Quote by David A. Sibley from his Foreword to Jerry Liguori’s book Hawks from Every Angle – How to Identify Raptors in Flight (Princeton University Press). 4

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INTRODUCTION

Identifying a small bird in flight is possible! The human eye and brain are truly remarkable! Just consider the fact that you can recognize the face of a person you know in an instant (around one-twentieth of a second). Amazingly, after the retina in the eye is stimulated by the sight of a static object such as bird, the whole recognition and categorization process can be accomplished within around half a second. However, crucial to this is that to achieve a positive identification sufficient information must be available to be processed. An object needs to be large enough within the field of view, have an outline that can be determined and mentally compared, and perhaps also have some appreciable colour and/or contrast. Given enough information, and taking into account aspects of movement, it is possible to identify a flying bird in a second, perhaps even less, although this does depend on another necessary component in the identification process – prior knowledge. The crucial element in identifying the face of a person you know very quickly is the fact that you know them. Similarly, if you already know a bird species well, you can identify it from the merest glimpse, in the shortest time physically possible. If, in your mind, you have already stored a ‘model image’ of a particular bird, your brain is able instantly to connect that ‘model’ with the actual image you are seeing. Clearly, as with anything else, training and practice are essential. Your brain has to get used to quick thinking, deciding in an instant which ‘model’ best fits the bird you looking at. The larger the collection of such ‘models’ you have in your memory, the more accurate your identification ability will be – experience therefore being the key to this process.

The birds covered in this book This book describes 237 passerine and near-passerine species recorded in Europe and Turkey, including several vagrants from Asia (pipits and thrushes). Most of these species are migratory, although a few are continental residents that are often seen in flight. Non-migratory species inhabiting the Mediterranean islands and the Canary Islands are excluded, as are a few resident species of the Caucasus. The near-passerines are those landbirds whose ecology has many similarities to that of the passerines. They are often observed on migration together with passerines and 32 species are included in this book: 7 pigeons and doves, 2 cuckoos, 5 swifts, 3 kingfishers, 2 bee-eaters, 10 woodpeckers, European Roller, Common Hoopoe and Rose-ringed Parakeet. The largest of these are the Common Woodpigeon and Black Woodpecker, both smaller than crows. Most are similar in size to thrushes or starlings; the smallest is the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, comparable in size to European Robin.

How to look at a flying bird It is important to be aware of certain unavoidable limitations when trying to identify a bird in flight, as opposed to a perched bird: l as a rule, a bird is seen only once, with no possibility of seeing it again, particularly if it is on migration; l observation time is usually very short – up to 20 seconds, generally much less; l a bird will often be a long distance away, flying high and fast – and may only come close, at around 200–300 m, for just 1–2 seconds; l the light conditions may be poor and colours barely perceptible, or may not be discernible at all if viewed against the light (e.g. a bright sky); l background noise, such as from wind, rustling leaves, voices of other birds or humans, often reduces the audibility of a call from a flying bird, or makes it difficult to pinpoint. First impressions are particularly important when looking at a bird in flight: try to memorize features such as relative size, structure and shape, silhouette, and flight style. It is worth attempting 5

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INTRODUCTION

to describe what you see, as this often helps to fix things in your mind. When a bird is passing overhead you are more likely to get an accurate impression of its actual tail length and breadth, wing shape, and the shape and breadth of its bill. When a bird is flying away (giving a tail-on view), the flexibility of its wings and depth of its wingbeats are most easily appreciated. Avoid the temptation to look for the colours you are familiar with on a perched bird, as you are unlikely to be able to see sufficient detail unless it is very close. Instead, while the bird approaches, look for contrasts (pale or ‘white’ and dark or ‘black’) in its plumage, or notice whether it is more or less uniform. Contrasts are easier to appreciate than colours at longer distances and change only slightly as light conditions change: most obvious are pale (white) patterns on dark. Colours show (if at all) when a bird is closer than 100 m, so if you see colours you are lucky, and identification becomes more straightforward. Do not try to guess what species it is; avoid wasting what very little time you have looking for an answer, but use it to see and memorize all the available information. The time for identification will come later, when the bird has disappeared. This is worth keeping in mind; if the information you are able to assimilate on a bird that has flown away is not sufficient, it must be left unidentified – this happens much more often than is the case with a perched bird! Taking photographs can be very helpful, but you are either watching a bird or photographing it: trying to do both effectively in a few seconds is impossible. At the same time as looking at a bird in flight, you also need to listen carefully. Many birds call when they are flying, and this is often how they are first located. Indeed, some are detectable by ear much earlier than by sight (i.e. at a longer distance). However, although a good knowledge of calls can often enable an instant, safe identification, it is important to be aware that even if a bird is usually very vocal it may not always call in flight; even a large flock can be completely silent for minutes. Some species (such as shrikes, stonechats, wheatears and Phylloscopus warblers) call very seldom, as a rule only in short flights (as they take off and land, or while in conflict with another bird), and when on migration probably do not call at all. Columba pigeons and Sylvia, Acrocephalus, Locustella, Iduna and Hippolais warblers never call in flight (or their negligible flight calls remain unknown), and any distinct and repeated flight call rules out these species. Flycatchers, crests, thrushes, European Robin, Bluethroat, redstarts and buntings are known to utter distinctive flight calls when migrating at night, but it is not known whether other nocturnal migrants do likewise. A good sound recording (made with a hand-held digital recorder) of the call of a bird you are trying to identify can be very helpful, as such recordings can later be turned into a sonogram (a visual representation of the sound) and examined with computer software designed for scientific bioacoustic analysis or for music-making. A well-recorded sonogram is equivalent to a photograph, and can often be sufficient for a correct and safe identification of a bird in flight – but beware the sound of a camera shutter as it can obscure calls. (Further information on calls and sonograms is given on page 27.)

Optical equipment Binoculars with a wide field of view and fast focus adjustment are a particularly valuable piece of equipment when trying to identify a flying bird, often providing a clearer view of the bird’s profile and confirmation of certain plumage features that may not be obvious with the naked eye. A telescope can also be useful when watching a migration stream from the side at longer range.

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Using this book Each of the species covered in this book is the subject of an individual (or in some cases combined) Species Account that highlights the features which are particularly important for identifying a bird IN FLIGHT. Features that are impossible to perceive on a flying bird have therefore been excluded. These accounts have a consistent format which, as appropriate, covers the following aspects, each of which is explained in detail on the following pages, with clarification of the terminology used. l Size l Structure and shape l Coloration l Flight l Flocking l Calls l Confusion species

Size When assessing the overall size of a bird in flight, it is helpful to compare it with a species with which you are familiar. Each Species Account starts by relating the species concerned to one or more of the 20 species shown on the comparative plate on pages 8–9, which includes details of average wingspan and length. These species have been chosen because they are particularly common and/or widespread in Europe, and are most likely already to be well known. In some instances, a comparison of a bird’s body size (or ‘volume’) with a known species can also provide a useful clue to a bird’s identity. The term ‘body size’ used throughout this book refers to the combination of body, neck and head (bill length, tail length and wingspan are not taken into account). However, there is considerable variability in profiles and shapes, as illustrated show for eight species with the same body size (or ‘volume’).

White-throated Dipper

Middle Spotted Woodpecker

Common Starling

Hawfinch

Bohemian Waxwing

Song Thrush European Bee-eater Lesser Grey Shrike

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wingspan

Size comparison length 65–37 cm

EURASIAN JACKDAW

The annotated illustrations shown here are the baseline comparison species referred to in the SIZE paragraphs in the Species Accounts, highlighted in Small Capitals.

39–42 cm 31–34 cm

34–38 cm

EURASIAN BLACKBIRD

FIELDFARE

25–27 cm

38–42 cm

25–27·5 cm

33–36 cm

COMMON  SWIFT 16–19 cm

SONG THRUSH 31–40 cm 19–21·5 cm

30–35 cm

COMMON  STARLING 19·5–22 cm

EURASIAN SKYLARK

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SIZE

24–27 cm 23–29 cm

RED‑BACKED SHRIKE YELLOWHAMMER 16–18 cm 16–17·5 cm

32–34 cm 26–29 cm

BARN SWALLOW

NORTHERN HOUSE MARTIN 14–15 cm

15–21 cm 22–25 cm 21–24 cm

HOUSE SPARROW

WHITE WAGTAIL

14·5–15·5 cm

22–27 cm 17–18·5 cm

22–25 cm

22–25 cm

COMMON  REDSTART 13–14·5 cm

GREAT TIT

EUROPEAN  GOLDFINCH

19–22 cm

13–14 cm

13·5–15 cm

COMMON REED‑WARBLER 17–19 cm

LESSER  WHITETHROAT 12·5–13·5 cm

12·5–14·0 cm

18–21 cm

GOLDCREST 9–10 cm

COMMON CHIFFCHAFF 10·5–12·5 cm

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Structure and shape All the adjectives used in this book (large, small, long, short, etc.) refer to the overall visual impression of a bird in flight, not specifically to measurements. They are used to clarify the relative size and shape of body parts. For example, wing size and shape should be judged in relation to body size and shape – when the wing is large, the body looks relatively small, and when the wing is small, the body can look relatively large. The key aspects to focus on are the overall body shape, the head-with-bill profile, wing shape, tail shape and aspects of moult. Body shape When trying to gain an accurate impression of a bird in flight, it is important to be able quickly to assess the relative lengths of the three main body sections: 1. ‘front end’ – in front of the leading edge of the extended wings (neck and head with bill); 2. ‘middle’ – from front to rear edge of the extended wings; and 3. ‘rear-end’ – behind the trailing edge of the extended wings (often referred to as the stern, which comprises the vent, rump, undertail-coverts and uppertail-coverts). The deepness of the breast or belly can also influence your impression of the body shape of a bird in flight. Many juvenile passerines (e.g. nightingales, Sylvia warblers, tits) have uppertail-coverts and undertail-coverts that are shorter than in subsequent plumages, and this makes the rear body appear shorter and the tail longer than in adults. Head-with-bill profile The shape of the bill is an important factor that affects the head profile of a bird in flight. A deep-based bill blends with the head outline and if it is short (as in Eurasian Bullfinch, Common Rosefinch or Hawfinch) it forms a characteristic single smooth shape with the head (in the case of these examples making the head profile appearing rather rounded, blunt, or more triangular and pointed, respectively). A long bill is most easily discernible and its length assessed when a bird is seen in profile (for example on corvids). A fine, thin bill clearly juts out from the oval of the head (such as with pipits, wagtails and Phylloscopus warblers). Silhouettes of the flight profiles of a range of passerines are shown here, illustrating how the head-with-bill profile affects their appearance.

White Wagtail Lesser Whitethroat Northern Wheatear Common Stonechat Common Redstart Meadow Pipit Common Chiffchafff Goldcrest Northern Wren Eurasian Blue Tit Great Tit European Goldfinch Eurasian Bullfinch Common Rosefinch House Sparrow Hawfinch Bohemian Waxwing Eurasian Skylark Yellowhammer Corn Bunting Eurasian Blackbird Eurasian Golden Oriole Common Starling Savi’s Warbler Eurasian Nuthatch

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STRUCTURE AND SHAPE

Wing shape When assessing the overall shape of a bird’s wings in flight, a particularly important element is the relative area (length and breadth) and shape of the two parts: 1. the innerwing (arm) – feathering associated with the forearm (the secondaries and secondarycoverts); and 2. the outerwing (hand) – feathering associated with the bones of the carpal joint (wrist) and hand (the primaries and primary-coverts), and especially the shape of the wingtip. The illustrations below summarize the terms used when describing wing shape in the Species Accounts.

small

large

narrow

broad

short

rounded

pointed

long

blunt

narrow-tipped

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Tail shape The ‘type’ and shape of the tail is another important component of a bird’s shape in flight, determined not only by its length and breadth, but also the structure of the uppertail-coverts and undertail-coverts. Long and bulging coverts contribute to the length and ‘volume’ of the body, making a relatively long tail seem much shorter than it actually is (such as in Common Swift and Locustella warblers). Short coverts can make even a very short tail look conspicuous and easily discernible in outline (such as with Northern Wren). Tail streamers – elongated tail feather tips (in bee-eaters the central pair, in swallows the outermost pair) – are highly distinctive but can be broken or worn off, especially in late spring and summer. It is important to remember that tail shape varies considerably depending on whether it is spread or closed. The illustrations opposite show the tail shapes for a range of species, and the associated terms used in the Species Accounts. Legs In flight, a bird’s legs are usually flexed, pressed to the body and fully concealed by the belly and flank feathers, and are therefore of no significance in the identification of passerine or nearpasserine landbirds. Sometimes, however, flexed legs, or the feet only, are apparent as two dark stripes along the sides of the belly. Legs can dangle just after take-off, but during long-distance flight only very seldom and for a brief period of time; a permanently dangling leg usually indicates injury, but this is a rare occurrence. Moult During the moult of wing and tail feathers between the end of the breeding season and the beginning of autumn migration (30–100 days in the period June–September) passerines fly much less frequently, usually only for short distances, and become particularly elusive. In fact, some fastmoulting species can be flightless, or nearly so, for a short time. Consequently, flight observations of passerines with unusually shaped wings and/or tail due to moult are scarce. Moult is completed or suspended before the beginning of autumn migration and the wing and tail shapes of birds on passage therefore appear ‘normal’. The near-passerines covered in this book moult over a longer period of time, gaps often being evident in their wings or tail; however, distinctly ‘unusual’ wing or tail shapes caused by moult are unlikely to be seen. Changes in shape The shape of a bird in flight changes continually. First of all, wings flap, moving from extended to folded in a fraction of a second. The tail can be tilted up, drooped, rotated, fanned or tightly closed. Ruffled feathers on the head, rump and underbody, combined with full air sacs in the body, can make a bird’s silhouette look large and round. A few seconds later, while feathers are sleeked and air sacs partially emptied, the same individual can appear smaller and slimmer. The head and neck move frequently, changing both the length and breadth of the portion of a bird’s profile in front of the wings’ leading edge. Pipits, wagtails and Dunnock tend to incline their head downwards in flight; tits often hold the head slightly lifted above the level of the back; thrushes usually hold the head in line with the body axis but with the bill pointing slightly upwards; and finches generally hold the head in line with the body axis, with the bill level or slightly slanted down. When a bird’s head is inclined downwards, the nape becomes more prominent, giving a bulging (‘bull-necked’) effect. Tilting the bill upwards makes the nape more concave, the outline between the crown and shoulders being curved inwards. Wing shape can be affected by feather wear (especially in late spring and summer), mainly as primary tips are worn shorter, making the wingtip blunter. Gaps in the wing (where flight feathers are lost or shed, or broken) change the shape slightly, but usually not enough to prevent a correct identification. Worn tail feathers appear shorter and sometimes markedly narrower than fresh feathers: Sylvia warblers, for example, may retain only the ‘pins’ of their feather shafts. 12

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STRUCTURE AND SHAPE

Tail shapes Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon)

Lesser Whitethroat

Grey Wagtail

square-cut and broad

square-cut and narrow

square-cut and long

Syrian Woodpecker

Eurasian Treecreeper

Eurasian Siskin

split-tipped

split-tipped

notched

Common Swift

pointed

Barn Swallow

forked

European Bee-eater

forked square-cut with streamers

forked with streamers

Long-tailed Tit

ribbon-like

graduated rectangular

Bearded Reedling

Eurasian Magpie

graduated elliptical

graduated wedge-shaped

Savi’s Warbler

oval

graduated rounded at tip

Zitting Cisticola

graduated circular 13

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Symmetrical gaps in the tail can change its shape greatly; the loss of some central (and inner) feathers makes the tail look forked, whereas the loss of outer feather pairs makes the tail appear unusually narrow or less rounded. A bird that has completely lost its tail (especially a long-tailed species) can lead to confusion, particularly as its manner of flight is often different from normal. A tail that is lost accidentally can re-grow in a few weeks, but the feathers grow simultaneously, making it look markedly shorter than usual. Partial loss of body plumage caused by disease or accident can also alter a bird’s body shape: loss of feathers on the head and around the bill has an especially strong effect, as the head looks small and the bill much longer and even larger than usual. An unusual profile in flight can be caused by factors such as an object being carried in the bird’s bill, a fully filled crop (e.g. a Northern Nutcracker with a crop full of acorns) or an extended gular pouch (as in swifts).

Coloration Colours that are striking on a perched bird can often be either extremely difficult or impossible to see on a flying one (e.g. the vivid blue primary-coverts on a Eurasian Jay). When watching a bird in flight, gaining an overall impression is more important than spending time trying to judge precise colour(s). Depending on the light quality (strong or poor; ‘warm’ (i.e. more yellow or red); or ‘cold’ (i.e. bluish or greyish)), colours can look more saturated and more intense than usual, or paler, more diluted and dull. For example, the bright brownish-orange breast of a European Robin can appear reddish, rusty-brown, grey-brown or simply nondescript dark depending on the light conditions. Brown and olive hues often appear greyish (warmer or colder grey), and yellows and buff are also often difficult to discern as they can appear to range from orangey to pale grey. Judgement of colour should therefore always be undertaken with caution, particularly when looking at photographs of birds in flight. The contrasts in a bird’s plumage as it flies over are often much easier to appreciate and describe than colours, first impressions usually being either ‘uniformly dark’, ‘uniformly pale’ or ‘contrastingly dark and pale’. On a dull, overcast day even a pale or colourful bird can appear almost uniformly dark; only bright (‘white’) patterns juxtaposed to, or surrounded by, dark parts of the plumage being obvious. Nevertheless, given favourable circumstances (good light, close range and with the bird in an appropriate pose) it can be possible to see and describe accurately all the colours on a flying bird (including the underwing coverts). Even very small features can sometimes be noticeable, e.g. the red tips to a Bohemian Waxwing’s secondaries may be evident as ‘something red on the trailing edge’ when seen from above and well-lit against a dark background.

Samples of colours used in illustrations warm colours with perceptible red component relating to the sun and fire

cold colours with perceptible blue component relating to ice and water

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STRUCTURE AND SHAPE | COLORATION

Light reflection In most birds the under surface of the flight feathers reflects the light more strongly than other parts of the plumage. As a consequence, a dark (dark grey, dark grey-brown or blackish) underwing may appear shiny or simply pale, or even white when seen as just a ‘brief flash’ as a bird flies overhead. Wings with no contrast between areas of feathers may, for a moment, appear to have paler flight feathers and darker underwing coverts. Translucency Some species have pale (white) bases to their flight feathers and/or pale (white) tips to their greater upperwing coverts that can form a translucent wingbar; this is often particularly noticeable when viewed from below. Flight and tail feathers with pale (white) tips can, when sunlit from above, have an obvious ‘shine’ when seen from below. Sex Male and female (or ‘female-type’) plumages are shown in this book where they look obviously different in flight. The term ‘female-type’ plumage is used to describe adult female coloration that is shared temporarily (usually during autumn and early winter) by adult males and/or immatures of both sexes. Juvenile Some smaller passerine species in juvenile plumage (usually until late August) lack underwing coverts, the naked underwing appearing pink or reddish, sometimes with bones showing. Juvenile plumage is included in this book only where it looks distinctly different from that of an adult; in many species juvenile plumages are obviously (extensively or densely) spotted and/or streaked. Immature A passerine that has moulted out of juvenile plumage but not yet acquired adult plumage is referred to in this book as immature. This plumage is attained a few months after hatching and before migration, usually in August/September, both sexes often appearing rather similar to adult female. Immatures of most species in spring and summer of the following calendar year can only be told by examination in the hand or detailed observation of a relatively motionless bird, such as in a photograph. For this reason, immatures are rarely mentioned in the Species Accounts. The near-passerines covered in this book have no distinct immature plumage, most moulting directly from juvenile to adult plumage.

Plumages of Citrine Wagtail

juvenile

immature (first-winter)

adult female breeding

immature male breeding

adult male breeding

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Flight To maximize efficiency, passerines and near-passerines (and many other bird species, too) use an intermittent flight action that involves a series of wingbeats interspersed with non-flapping intervals. There are two broad types of intermittent flight: undulating (or flap-gliding) flight and flap-bounding flight. In flap-gliding flight, after every flapping phase the wings are held relatively motionless – extended, not quite fully spread, half-folded, nearly folded or swept-back – for a longer or shorter glide. This flight style is used by pigeons, doves, cuckoos, swifts and corvids. In flap-bounding flight, the wings are held completely folded closed and pressed against the body during a non-flapping interval in a ‘flexed-wing bound’. This flight style is used by passerines (except for corvids), woodpeckers, bee-eaters, rollers, kingfishers, parakeets and hoopoes. However, all of the species in these groups do, more or less frequently, also glide on open wings rather than using flexed-wing bounds. Swallows and martins, larks, thrushes, starlings and orioles usually hold their nearly folded wings horizontally, parallel to the sides of their body during nonflapping intervals, with the primary tips visible beside the tail base and/or the ‘wrist’ protruding from the body outline beside the breast. Types of flight The type of flight often varies depending on circumstances and the bird’s behaviour. Five broad categories are described here, although only the first two are generally referred to in the Species Accounts. – Long-distance flight – characteristic of birds on migration. Normally faster than shortdistance flight, with the pattern of flapping phases and non-flapping intervals remaining relatively constant (or at least less variable). F-wave is typical of a particular species or group of species. Flight path direct (or at least not very variable) and in some species at a markedly higher altitude than their usual short-distance flight. This is the type of flight used by birds flying at night. – Short-distance flight – characteristic of breeding birds, resident birds within their territory and nocturnal migrants during daytime. Usually slower than long-distance flight and with irregular non-flapping intervals. F-wave variable. Flight path changes according to circumstances, some species flying only at low altitude. – Escape flight [not described in species accounts]– fast (often fastest) type of flight. No non-flapping intervals. F-wave flat or non-existent (none). Flight path usually direct, but rapid manoeuvres can occur. – Foraging flight [not described in species accounts] – type of flight used when hunting or hawking flying insects. Usually slow (even in swifts), with frequent manoeuvres (often rapid and sharp in every direction). Non-flapping intervals rare or irregular. F-wave non-existent (none) or almost imperceptible; no characteristic pattern and very changeable, dependent on prey behaviour. Kingfishers and shrikes, hunting for aquatic and ground-dwelling prey respectively, often hover before a rapid dip or stoop onto their target. – Song-flight and courtship display-flight [not described in species accounts] – both are types of ritualized flight, with patterns completely different from any other kind of flight (e.g. very slow, ‘butterfly-like’; ‘parachuting’; only along a particular trajectory; or hovering). Manoeuvres in flight Birds hunting for flying insects show the highest manoeuvrability and their flight path can be very variable with sudden spurts that reflect the behaviour of their airborne prey (e.g. bee-eaters, swallows and martins, and flycatchers). However, species that usually fly direct can occasionally also chase insects (e.g. Eurasian Starling), giving an odd and rather atypical appearance. On migration (i.e. during long-distance flight) the number of manoeuvres is limited; even swallows, 16

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when not foraging, fly straight ahead. Some species are naturally far less manoeuvrable in flight than others: Common Kingfisher, for example, always has a very large ‘turning circle’. General description of flight The descriptions in this book relate primarily to long-distance flight on migration, when there is often very little chance of seeing the same bird again after it has flown by. No information is given on courtship display-flights and song-flights as, during the breeding season, displaying and singing birds can usually be observed in the same place hour by hour, day after day. This gives a birdwatcher the opportunity to repeat the observation another time or to follow the bird so that it can be identified once it has perched.

Definitions of terms used in the descriptions of flight – All terms are based on visual impression, not on any measurements; they are therefore subjective.

agile awkward casual confident direct easy energetic erratic fast fluent fluttering graceful heavy hesitant irregular jerky laborious languid light nervous powerful slow steady stiff strong sweeping uncertain uneven whirring winding zigzagging

lively; buoyant; adept; deft; dexterous lacking ease and grace nonchalant; free-and-easy; natural (e.g. Mistle Thrush, bee-eaters) assured; positive following a straight course, with no deviation to the sides relaxed; not forced; unstressed; tranquil; free from nervous tension; quiet (in a visual sense) vigorous; active; dynamic having no fixed course; liable to unpredictable change of course; deviating irregularly quick, at high speed smooth-flowing; fluid; unconstrained where wings flap rapidly but lightly, with rather shallow beats displaying elegance and simplicity in movements characterized by great effort; requiring considerable force indecisive; seemingly unsure where to fly, up or down or left or right lacking a fixed rate or pattern, or evenness characterized by abrupt motions appears to be becoming fatigued; requiring hard work; strenuous leisurely; lethargic; unhurried; lacking energy characterized by little effort; requiring little force anxious; uneasy; apprehensive; tense very strong, characterized by great power at low speed constant; regular; displaying a fixed pattern or evenness, not liable to changing or fluctuating lacking flexibility; characterized by ‘mechanical’ and rigid wing movements characterized by strength; forceful where flexible wings move in a wide curve; characterized by springy movements indicating a lack of confidence; unsure; uneasy; unsettled variable, recurring at irregular intervals; inconsistent where wings move very rapidly, with full or nearly full wingbeats irregular but obvious changes in flight direction to the left and to the right rather regular and frequent changes in flight direction to the left and to the right, alternately 17

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Flight characteristics Flapping phase – the active phase of flight, when the wings are beating continuously. Non-flapping interval – the passive phase of flight, when the wings are relatively motionless for a certain (often very short) time between flapping phases. Non-flapping intervals are short in warblers, shrikes, flycatchers and wrynecks; medium in accentors, finches, sparrows and buntings; long in wagtails, pipits and woodpeckers. Flight-wave (referred to in this book as the F-wave) –the imaginary, undulating (curved) line that a bird’s body traces in a vertical (up-and-down) plane as it travels through the air during undisturbed long-distance flight. The terminology used for describing F-waves, together with eight general F-wave types is illustrated below, with examples of the descriptions used for a range of species shown opposite.

Definitions of terms used in the descriptions of F-wave – All terms are based on visual impression, not on any measurements; they are therefore subjective. – flapping phase NONE

where there is no form of wave; i.e. no periodic up-and-down movement such as seen in the flight path of species not using a flap-bounding flight IRREGULAR where the distance travelled between the highest points is discernibly variable and/or the difference between the highest and lowest points of the curve is variable where the distance travelled between REGULAR the highest points of the curve or (wavelength) is about the same; sinusoidal the wave shape recurring at regular intervals; shaped like a sine wave flat where the difference between the (amplitude) highest and lowest points of the curve is very small; barely discernible and most easily perceived in a head-on/tail-on view slight where the difference between the highest and lowest points of the (amplitude) curve is moderate; easy to discern high where the difference between the highest and lowest points of the (amplitude) curve is great; obvious even at a glance short where the distance travelled (wavelength) between the highest points of the curve is short long where the distance travelled (wavelength) between the highest points of the curve is considerable sawtoothwhere there is a rapid rise during shaped the flapping phase followed by a slow descent with wings folded; usually obvious: NOTE the shape can be either regular or irregular distinct easy to perceive; instantly appreciable; well recognizable; clearly defined; obvious; evident – even if it is slight! 18

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Woodpeckers – very distinct, high; almost regular, deep and sinusoidal; flapping phases short (few wingbeats), non-flapping intervals about the same length .

– flapping phase

Wagtails and pipits – very distinct and long, highest of all European passerines; flapping phases very short, non-flapping intervals very long . Great Grey Shrike – distinct, regular, long, rather slight; nonflapping intervals long . Most finches – distinct, fairly long, medium-high or slight, slightly irregular; flapping phases short, non-flapping intervals longer . Dunnock – very distinct, moderately long, high; flapping phases long, non-flapping intervals short . European Robin – distinct, height markedly irregular . Phylloscopus warblers– indistinct, short and slight . Tits – usually distinct, short, sawtooth-shaped – rapid rise during the flapping phase followed by a slow descent with wings folded . Treecreepers – distinct, very short, sawtooth-shaped but smoother than in tits; flapping phases and non-and non-flapping intervals very short . Eurasian Siskin – moderately distinct, slight and markedly irregular, unpredictable rapid changes of height and direction . Meadow Pipit and Reed Bunting – moderately distinct, very slight and markedly irregular; flapping phases short, no rapid changes in height, bird appears to be uncertain, hesitant . Non-flapping intervals about the same length . 19

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Flight path – as well as moving in a vertical (up and down) plane, a bird’s flight path may also include lateral (left and right) movement. The three types of flight path referred to in this book are described below. – Direct – with no deviation to the sides. – Zigzagging – rather regular and frequent changes of flight direction to the left and to the right alternately. – Winding – irregular but obvious changes of flight direction. Wingbeats – the extent to which a bird flaps its wings (best seen from in front or behind) provides a valuable identification clue. Five broad categories are referred to throughout the Species Accounts, as illustrated opposite, and the other terms used when describing wingbeats are defined below.

Definitions of terms used in the descriptions of wingbeats – All terms are based on visual impression, not on any measurements; they are therefore subjective. abrupt deep easy energetic erratic even flexible floppy fluent fluttering full graceful high irregular light low nervous rapid regular shallow slow soft stiff strong sweeping weak whirring

sudden; sharp; lacking smoothness where during the downstroke wingtips reach very low beneath the belly relaxed; not forced; unstressed; tranquil; free from nervous tension; quiet (in a visual sense) vigorous; active; dynamic liable to sudden and unpredictable changes wingbeats at about the same rate, range and strength smooth and springy, where wingtips bend in a gentle curve (as seen in a head-on/ tail-on view) where fully open, flexible outerwings bend noticeably at end of the downstroke smooth-flowing; fluid; unconstrained where wings flap rapidly but lightly, with rather shallow beats wingbeats from high above the level of the back to low beneath the belly displaying elegance and simplicity in movements wingbeats from high above the level of the back to about the level of the belly obviously deviating from or lacking a fixed pattern; intermittent characterized by little effort; requiring little force wingbeats from barely above the level of the back to low beneath the belly anxious; uneasy; apprehensive; tense moving at high speed; fast movements recurring at constant intervals; not deviating from a fixed pattern wingbeats from barely above the level of the back to nearly the level of the belly moving with low speed delicate; gentle lacking flexibility; characterized by ‘mechanical’ and rigid wing movements characterized by strength; forceful where flexible wings move in a wide curve; characterized by springy movements lacking strength; feeble where wings move very rapidly, with full or nearly full wingbeats

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FLIGHT

Wingbeats – broad categories

An example of a deep, floppy downstroke – Eurasian Jay

full

high

low

shallow

deep

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Flocking Many birds migrate on their own, others are sociable and migrate in flocks. Long-tailed Tit, Bearded Reedling and Bohemian Waxwing are good examples of species that are extremely gregarious; during the non-breeding season they form strongly bound flocks, and on migration single individuals are scarce. Different species form different types of flock. In some, the flock will be disorderly scattered, loose and uncoordinated, each bird behaving individually and not repeating the movements of others in the flock. Flocks of other species have a characteristic shape

Definitions of terms used in the descriptions of flocks – All terms are based on visual impression, not on any measurements; they are therefore subjective. Terms that are illustrated opposite are indicated with an asterisk (*). agile compact coordinated *

lively; buoyant; adept; deft; dexterous characterized by well-defined, ‘tight’ shape; not extended and not dispersed (to varying degree)  where each bird repeats the movements of its nearest flock mates; when a flock is particularly well coordinated, most birds appear to be manoeuvring simultaneously deep * where there is a considerable distance between the uppermost and lowermost individuals in the flock, with many individuals in between dense * where the birds are packed relatively closely together disjointed (group of) birds coincidentally (i.e. not as a result of flocking behaviour) flying together in dense migration stream disorderly where birds are distributed in physical space with no order, and flock density is dispersed  very uneven disorderly where birds are distributed randomly in physical space, and flock density is scattered *  highly uneven extended where there is a considerable distance between the first and last individuals in backwards *  the flock, and a short distance between the leftmost and rightmost extended where there is a considerable distance between the leftmost and rightmost transversely *  individuals in the flock, and a short between the first and last flat * where there is a short distance is between the uppermost and lowermost individuals in the flock, with only a few individuals in between highly where there is a very considerable distance between individual birds within the dispersed  flock loose * where there is a relatively long distance between individual birds within the flock manoeuvring  when the flock as a whole makes a series of changes in flight direction mingled with other species – where only a few individuals are present in a flock of another or other species; this happens rather infrequently mixed where reasonable numbers of two species are flying together in a flock; this happens quite regularly randomly where birds are distributed randomly in physical space, and flock density is dispersed *  rather even rounded roughly ball-shaped or oval-shaped short * where there is a short distance is between the first and last individuals in the flock, with only a few individuals in between single-species consisting of only one species; monospecific uncoordinated  where each bird behaves individually and does not repeat the movements of others in the flock wavy, waving moving like a wave, when referring to a flock that is extended backwards

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FLOCKING

Flock types very dense

dense

loose

extended backwards extended transversely

deep short flat

randomly dispersed

disorderly scattered

well coordinated

moderately coordinated 23

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Flocking

24

Common Swift (p. 100) – loose and uncoordinated.

Barn Swallow (p. 114) – loose, randomly dispersed and uncoordinated.

Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) – rather dense and well coordinated, often dispersed transversely.

Redwing (p. 340) – randomly dispersed but fairly well coordinated.

Stock Doves (p. 46) and Common Woodpigeons (p. 48) – loose, with minimal intra-flock movement.

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FLOCKING

The photos shown here have been selected to illustrated a range of flock sizes and ‘structures’, as explained on pages 22–23.

Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) – rather loose and uncoordinated, with considerable intra-flock movement.

European Goldfinch (p. 444) – dense, compact and well coordinated.

Common Linnet (p. 446) – fairly dense, extended backwards and rather deep; agile but well coordinated, with very considerable and rapid intra-flock movement.

Red (Common) Crossbill (p. 422) – dense and compact, variable but often extended transversely; coordinated, with slight intra-flock movement.

Common Starling (p. 322) – on migration, rather dense, flat and short, markedly extended transversely; very well coordinated with slight and slow intra-flock movement.

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(e.g. extended backwards or transversely) and density, and some are coordinated, with each bird repeating the movements of its nearest flock mates. When a flock is particularly well coordinated, most birds appear to be manoeuvring simultaneously. These characteristic formations are a reflection of ‘intra-flock movement’. Two extremes of this behaviour are shown by the Common Woodpigeon and Eurasian Siskin. Any one woodpigeon stays in almost the same position within a flock, and distances between individuals remain relatively unchanged for many minutes. Thus, the inner structure of the flock is stable – the ‘intra-flock movement’ is minimal. By comparison, when siskins are in a flock they fly as if they are having a race, continually chasing and overtaking each other, with the position of each bird, and distance between them, changing rapidly all the time. Consequently, the inner structure of the flock is highly changeable in all dimensions and the ‘intra-flock movement’ is the greatest possible. The illustration below shows the relative position of each bird in the flock over a fairly short time period under the two scenarios described. The terms used to describe the different flock types in this book are illustrated on page 23 and defined on page 22. Some species on migration readily and frequently form mixed flocks (good examples include Eurasian Jackdaws with Rooks, Song Thrushes with Redwings, and Chaffinches with Bramblings). Other species, such as Long-tailed Tit, Eurasian Penduline-tit and Bearded Reedling, form exclusively monospecific (single-species) flocks. When a flock, especially one that is well coordinated, is threatened by an airborne raptor (e.g. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus, Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis or Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipter nisus) it will become much denser and take on a spherical form.

Eurasian Siskin flock

Common Woodpigeon flock

Comparison of intra-flock movement for Common Woodpigeon (individuals maintaining their relative position) (left) and Eurasian Siskin (considerable movement of individuals within the flock) (right).

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FLOCKING | CALLS

Calls A large proportion of flight calls are diagnostic of the species concerned and therefore very important in identification. A flight call is a particular vocal signal that is strictly connected with pre-flight and flight behaviour, and not uttered in other situations or contexts; it is especially well developed in finches. However, many species have no specialized flight call, giving instead their usual social calls and alarm calls (also uttered when perched); an alarm call is a vocal signal that is often evoked by ‘danger’, which can include a birdwatcher! Some species can utter all or almost every call from their repertoire in flight, including parts of their song. Calls made in flight are typically short, but usually repeated. The monosyllabic calls of Song Thrush, Hawfinch, Corn Bunting or Little Bunting are very short, around one-fiftieth (actually 0·020–0·023) of a second, but easily audible, distinct and diagnostic. The vast majority of calls are no longer than half a second. Exceptionally, a single call can be slightly longer than 1 second (e.g. the mewing “piaae” of a Eurasian Jay). Most trills and multisyllabic series of notes do not exceed 1 second in duration. All calls are variable in length, pitch or modulation, both between and within individuals of the same species, often very considerably. However, even where the differences are subtle and indistinguishable to the human ear, they will be apparent when looking at sonograms (see page 28). Transliterations of typical examples of any calls uttered in flight (including the true flight call and other types of call) are included in the Species Accounts. These are presented based on the standard list of phonetics shown here, with the following symbols used to indicate the length of the pause(s) between syllables:

Phonetics used in the descriptions of bird calls: a

arm

ä

between a and e

b

bit

ch

check

d

deep

e

let

f

fit

g

get

h

hot

i

eat

j

jet

k

key

l

lee

o

hot

p

pin

r

rolling ‘r’

s

sea

· shortest appreciable  - short  – medium  — long

sh

ship

Many of the words used in the Species Accounts to describe the calls are easily understood (e.g. high-pitched, smooth, rolling) but others may be less familiar. The terms upslurred and downslurred are used to describe a sound that simply ascends or descends. Inflected and deflected mean the sound goes upwards or downwards but with a variation in the rate of change. Thus, an upslurred call may sound like an ascending “sii”, whereas as an inflected call will sound more like an ascending “suii”). A trill is a quick repetition of a note; a rattle is similar with a harder, more ticking or wooden effect. A knock is like a hard rap or tap against a piece of wood, or two pebbles being struck against each other; a tick is sharper, more like a tap on metal or a thin, hard stick being snapped. Vocalic implies a richer vocal sound with a clear vowel quality; non-vocalic implies a non-musical note without an obvious vowel sound (more mechanical, dry, with less ‘voice’ involved).

t

ten

ts

as in Italian pizza and in German Ziel

u

put

ü

between i and u

v

van

w

week

x

tax

y

you

z

zip

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sound frequency, pitch

Sonograms Sonograms are essentially a visual presentation of a sound in graphical form, and are included in the Species Accounts as an alternative to the transliterations. The chart below shows the range of shapes shown on sonograms, with an explanation of their meaning. The most audible (loudest) part of a call is marked with a relatively broad black line or spot; parts marked grey and pale grey give a specific character but do not change the impression of pitch and duration. The vertical axis on the sonograms is the sound frequency in kilohertz (KHz), the higher the trace the higher the pitch; the horizontal axis shows time in 0·2 second intervals using black and white bars, with individual calls indicated with a break in the axis. 13 8

1

9

10

12

3 11

2 4

5

6

7

time sound frequency, pitch

18

14

15

16

17

19

20

21

22

23

time

1

high-pitched

9

2

low-pitched

10 knock

18 nasal

3

even-pitched

11 tick

19 accented at the beginning

4

upslurred, ascending

12 non-vocalic

20 accented in the middle

5

downslurred, descending

13 vocalic, melodious

21 accented at the end

6

inflected

14 smooth

22 ending

7

deflected

15 rolling

23 prefix

8

trill

16 vibrating

rattle

17 harsh, rasping

As mentioned previously, a good sound recording can later can be turned into a sonogram and examined using computer software; this is equivalent to a photograph and can often be sufficient for a correct and safe identification of a bird in flight. Recordings of calls A link is provided here to actual recordings of flight calls. This link is in the form of a ‘Quick Response’ (QR) code that enables immediate access via the Internet using a readable bar code app on a mobile phone. This resource aims to help you to learn the flight calls of a range of species, or to check an unfamiliar call, and will be continually updated as additional recordings become available.

Confusion species

28

Each Species Account includes a list of other species that are recommended for comparison and cross-checking in order to help ensure a correct identification. These are all cross-referenced to other relevant pages.

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CALLS | OTHER INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION

The species accounts The text in the Species Accounts that follow deals with the characters that enable a correct identification of birds IN FLIGHT. Features that are impossible to perceive on a flying bird are not relevant in this context and are therefore excluded. This approach also relates to calls: details are ONLY given for calls made during flight – ‘none known’ refers to flight calls, not calls given in other situations. Text highlighted in italics indicates characters that are comparable with those of another species.

Annotations The following annotations appear before English names in the Species Accounts: Baseline species for size comparison (see pages 8–9). V Vagrant or SM scarce passage migrant to Europe, with an indication of origin.

The illustrations The illustrations are the key component of this book. Each shows the shape, contrast and colour characters of the species concerned, and as such is intended as a replacement for a long description of such features in the text. Rigidly standardized views of the species from three ‘aspects’ – the side, from above and from below – enable direct comparisons between species and plumages. Illustrations of a particular ‘aspect’ are only included where it shows a key feature of a bird in flight, or where a direct comparison with another species is likely to be helpful. Although the illustrations show birds in flight, the plumage detail is equally applicable in many other situations.

The photographs A collage of photographs is included for each species to provide an indication of typical flight profiles, and to show how particularly distinctive characters are likely to be seen in the field. If a character is obvious even in a poor-quality photograph, it should also be possible to see it in difficult field conditions – and for this reason some images that might otherwise be considered to be poor quality have been included. For each species, a ‘thumbnail’ photo is shown for context; where there is a visual difference between the sexes, a male in breeding plumage is generally shown.

Nomenclature The English and scientific names used in this book are those adopted by BirdLife International.

Family and species order The order in which the bird families appear in this book is roughly consistent with the Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International digital checklist of the birds of the world. Version 4. 2019, but altered where appropriate to improve the ease of comparison. The order of species within each family is based on visual similarities/differences, with more common species coming first and similar-looking species appearing close together for ease of comparison. Thus, e.g. swifts are placed before swallows and martins (so that the superficially similar ‘aerial feeders’ appear together); Eurasian Wryneck is positioned close to Barred Warbler (the most likely confusion species); the crests are situated just after the Phylloscopus warblers; and White-winged Snowfinch appears after Snow Bunting.

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Sources of knowledge The information used to compile this book has been collected by the author over some 40 years. It reflects more than 3,000 hours of systematic observation and counting of migratory birds in flight (mainly on the Baltic coast in Poland) and very many other random observations, and draws on more than 500 field notes made during this period. Around 88,000 birds (of 153 species) have been examined in the hand, having been netted for ringing and subsequent release (in Poland, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Palestine/Israel and Egypt), with more than 1,300 detailed drawings and technical sketches (many of spread wing shapes) produced as a result. Museum specimens (from the Museum of Natural History, Wrocław University, Poland; the Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Science, Saint Petersburg; and the Zoological Museum of Moscow State University, Russia ) have been studied. The colours in most of the illustrations are matched to museum specimens, and/or wings, tails or feathers from private collections. Examples of calls have been selected from more than 4,400 sound recordings (totalling 96 hours) made by the author. In addition, numerous recordings by other observers have been studied, with 44 of these included in the book. A vast amount of valuable material has been found in books (field guides, handbooks, monographs), various birdwatching/ornithological periodicals, websites and blogs. Around 50,000 photos have been studied, chosen from millions found on the Internet, in books, periodicals and private archives, as well as dozens of video clips accessible on the Internet and hundreds of audio recordings published on commercial analogue or digital media and in sound collections accessible on several websites. In total, 2,488 photographs are featured, representing the work of 189 photographers; the contributing photographers are all listed in the photographic credits section on page 486.

Glossary (terms additional to those defined previously) diurnal migrant

a bird that migrates during the day (very seldom or never at night)

irruptive species

bird species (seed-eater/fruit-eater) liable to irruption, i.e. irregular massive migration dependent on food availability, when large numbers of birds move far away from the species’ regular range (usually from boreal regions to Central or Western Europe)

slant

overall angle of inclination of the body in flight, noticeable in some species (e.g. tits, Eurasian Jay, Northern Nutcracker), where the head and breast are somewhat raised and the ‘rear-end’ lowered, with tail drooped

mask

broad dark patch surrounding eye (e.g. on shrikes, Eurasian Penduline-tit)

near-passerine

landbird not closely related to passerines, whose ecology has many similarities to that of the passerines (often observed on migration together with passerines)

nocturnal migrant

a bird that migrates at night (very seldom or never during the day)

passage

flying from one place to another over land or water, when on migration

passerine

small and medium-sized landbirds of the order Passeriformes (in Europe, ranging in size from Goldcrest to Common Raven); commonly called ‘songbirds’

underbody

part of the trunk below the level of extended wings (breast, belly and flanks combined)

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Colour patterns Colour patterns are largely independent of topography, particular patterns involving different parts of a bird’s plumage to varying extents. Such patterns are usually much easier to appreciate than the associated feather tract(s) (e.g. a wingbar could be on the median coverts, greater coverts or secondary bases, or greater coverts and secondary bases combined). The annotated illustrations shown here indicate the terms used throughout the Species Accounts when describing particular colour patterns or shapes.

terminal band

‘vertical’ stripe on side of neck

subterminal band

wingbars wing patch

central crown stripe

braces

lateral crown stripe

moustache

‘wrapping around’ rump with vent

bib breast-band

central crown stripe wing band

braces

cheek

lateral crown stripe wingbars wing patch

trailing edge

tail sides

subterminal band tail corners

inverted ‘T’-shape terminal band

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Topography of a flying bird Underside

marginal coverts

underwing primary-coverts greater median lesser

chin

axillaries

throat

alula upper breast

lower breast primaries

belly

secondaries greater median lesser underwing secondary-coverts

flank

vent

tertials undertail-coverts undertail

Underside of wing carpal joint (wrist)

fingers

‘wingpit’

outerwing (hand)

innerwing (arm)

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The annotated illustrations shown here indicate the terms used throughout the Species Accounts .

Upperside forehead

scapulars upperwing primary-coverts

crown

alula nape

mantle primaries secondaries

back flank rump

lesser median greater upperwing secondary-coverts tertials

uppertail-coverts uppertail

Side view

scapulars median coverts lesser greater coverts coverts nape tertials eyestripe mantle secondaries supercilium primaries crown uppertail-coverts forehead lore tail chin undertail-coverts malar area vent flank ear-coverts belly upperwing primary-coverts alula lower breast

neck throat side upper breast 33

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The types of bird The 32 non-passerine landbirds and 205 passerines included in this book can be subdivided into 40 broad groups, an example of which is shown on the following pages to allow comparison of relative size and general shape, together with a broad description of its associated flight wave (if appropriate). Links are provided to the page where the section on that group starts.

Hoopoe (page 64)

F-WAVE distinct, irregular, rather long

Bee-eaters (page 66)

F-WAVE none

Parakeets (page 62)

F-WAVE none

Cuckoos (page 58)

34

F-WAVE none

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THE TYPES OF BIRD

Pigeons and doves (page 42)

F-WAVE none

Woodpeckers (page 78)

F-WAVE very distinct, high, regular, sinusoidal (except Black Woodpecker, which does not have an F-wave)

Roller

(page 70)

F-WAVE none

Corvids

(page 136)

F-WAVE none or slight, irregular

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THE TYPES OF BIRD

Swifts, swallows and martins (page 98)

F‑WAVE none

Kingfishers (page 72)

F‑WAVE none

Oriole

(page 96)

F‑WAVE indistinct, long, very slight

Dipper

(page 318)

F‑WAVE short, slight but distinct

Shrikes

(page 120)

36

F‑WAVE distinct (except in Lesser Grey Shrike, which is very flat)

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THE TYPES OF BIRD

Thrushes (page 328)

F‑WAVE usually slight, sometimes imperceptible, rather long

Starlings (page 320)

F‑WAVE long, almost flat

Waxwing (page 320)

F‑WAVE distinct, long, irregular in height

Larks

(page 186)

F‑WAVE slight, irregular

Pipits

(page 186)

F‑WAVE very easily discernible, long, high to very high

Wagtails (page 222)

F‑WAVE very easily discernible, very long, very high

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THE TYPES OF BIRD

Tits

(page 162)

F-WAVE short, sawtooth-shaped

Crests

(page 262)

F-WAVE short, irregular (height variable)

Phylloscopus warblers (page 262)

F-WAVE short, slight

Cisticola (page 234)

F-WAVE short, flat

Prinia

(page 246)

38

F-WAVE none

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THE TYPES OF BIRD

Wryneck (page 306)

F‑WAVE distinct, slight, long

Sylvia warblers (page 284)

F‑WAVE short and slight but appreciable, often of irregular length

Iduna and Hippolais warblers (page 232)

F‑WAVE short, slight, irregular

Acrocephalus and Locustella warblers (page 232)

F‑WAVE short, slight

Cetti’s Warbler

(page 248)

F‑WAVE short, very slight

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THE TYPES OF BIRD

Wheatears (page 388)

F‑WAVE distinct, short, slight

Flycatchers (page 354)

F‑WAVE distinct, slight

Robins, nightingales and chats (page 362)

F‑WAVE distinct, slight, irregular

Accentors (page 404)

F‑WAVE very distinct, moderately long or long, high

Wren

(page 316)

40

F‑WAVE flat

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THE TYPES OF BIRD

Nuthatches (page 308)

F‑WAVE distinct, short, slight, often irregular

Wallcreeper (page 312)

F‑WAVE none

Treecreepers (page 314)

F‑WAVE distinct, short, high

Sparrows (page 408)

F‑WAVE indistinct, fairly long, slight, irregular

Finches

(pages 408)

F‑WAVE distinct, fairly long, moderately high to slight

Buntings (page 456)

F‑WAVE distinct, rather slight, usually longer than in finches

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

PIGEONS and DOVES Key identification features pattern of black/grey/white on tail  contrasts on upperwing  relative wing length/width and tail shape  body size (differences often appreciable) Streptopelia doves have a characteristic wing position during a short glide: after a wingbeat the wings are held raised above the back, with the outerwing held horizontally . On both turtle-doves and Laughing Dove, the underbody behind the trailing edge of the extended wings, and undertail-coverts are white .

Eurasian Collared-dove (p. 50)



Laughing Dove (p. 56)

European Turtle-dove (p. 52)

Oriental Turtle-dove (p. 54) juvenile

Common Woodpigeon (p. 48)

Stock Dove (p. 46) Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) (p. 44) adult

Eurasian Collared-dove (p. 50)

Common Woodpigeon (p. 48)

Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) (p. 44)

Stock Dove (p. 46)

Laughing Dove (p. 56)

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

Common Woodpigeon (p. 48)

Eurasian Collared-dove (p. 50) Stock Dove (p. 46)

Laughing Dove (p. 56)

Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) (p. 44)

European Turtle-dove (p. 52)

Oriental Turtle-dove (p. 54)

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

Pigeons and doves compared p. 42

Columba pigeons STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Body large, deep-breasted but head small . Wing large, moderately pointed . Tail broad, with broad black terminal band . COLORATION: Shades of grey . FLIGHT: Fast, energetic with strong wingbeats . FLOCK: Gregarious .

Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) L 30–35 cm | W 62–68 cm SIZE Like Stock Dove [p. 46]; comparable to Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8]

Columba livia Non-migratory

and Eurasian Jay [p. 138]. Stock Dove (p. 46) Common Woodpigeon (p. 48) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather narrow but deep-breasted. Head small Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) and narrow. Wing large, moderately pointed. Tail broad. COLORATION Body mid-grey. Green and purple gloss on throat and around neck onto nape; no white on side of neck. Bill blackish. ABOVE: Upperwing grey, trailing edge black; two black bars on base of wing. Back contrastingly white. Tail grey with black terminal band, narrower than on Common Woodpigeon, sides white. BELOW: Underwing uniformly white except for black trailing edge. Underbody as dark as breast, neck and head. Feral forms very variable: black, brown, grey-blue or white, some with mottled or sharply contrasted patchy patterning; many lack white on lower back, but underwing usually white with black trailing edge. FLIGHT Fast, but slightly slower than Stock Dove, energetic; wingbeats full, stiffer than Common Woodpigeon. Glides on high-raised wings (in deep ‘V’shape), often ‘swaying’ from side to side. FLOCK Usually 10–60, most often 15–20. Compact and dense, usually rounded, sometimes extended transversely. Very well coordinated, continuously manoeuvring, rather similar to Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 154] flock. Will sometimes join a Common Woodpigeon flock.

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ROCK DOVE CALL  None known.

ROCK DOVE

FERAL PIGEONS

FERAL PIGEONS

ROCK DOVES

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

Stock Dove L 28–32 cm | W 60–66 cm SIZE Like Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon] [p. 46]; close to Eurasian Jackdaw

Pigeons and doves compared p. 42

Columba oenas Diurnal migrant

Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) [p. 8] and Eurasian Jay [p. 138], smaller than Common Woodpigeon [p. 48]. (p. 44) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather narrow but deep-breasted. Head small, Common Woodpigeon (p. 48) broader than on Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon). Wing large, moderately pointed. Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) Tail broad. COLORATION Body mid-grey. Glossy green band only on nape and neck side; no white on side of neck. Bill yellow-and-orange. ABOVE: Upperwing grey with paler grey midwing panel (can appear white in strong light) and contrasting broad blackish trailing edge; two black spots at wing base barely visible. Uppertail grey with broad black terminal band (narrower than on Common Woodpigeon) and narrow pale grey subterminal band. No white on back and rump. BELOW: Underwing as grey as body, with black trailing edge. In good light head, neck and breast darker than pale grey underside. FLIGHT Fast, slightly faster than Rock Dove or Common Woodpigeon, energetic. Sometimes holds wings over back, like Streptopelia doves [p. 50] but glides are shorter. FLOCK Usually 1–3 to some tens, rarely more than 100, but occasionally many hundreds. Much looser and not so coordinated as Rock Dove, more like Common Woodpigeon. Often 1–10 individuals mixed with larger flock of Common Woodpigeon.

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STOCK DOVE CALL  None known.

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

Common Woodpigeon L 38–43 cm | W 66–77 cm SIZE Larger than Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8], much larger than Rock Dove

Pigeons and doves compared p. 42

Columba palumbus Diurnal migrant

Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) (Feral Pigeon] [p. 46] and Stock Dove [p. 46]; smaller than Rook [p. 148] and (p. 44) crows [p. 150]. Stock Dove (p. 46) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump and heavy-looking. Head very small, round. Wing large, more pointed (triangular), and tail broad (longer than on Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) or Stock Dove). COLORATION adult white neck-patch; lacking on juvenile. adult bill yellow-and-orange; juvenile bill variably grey. ABOVE: Upperwing dark brownish-grey with large transverse white crescent (prominent in all plumages). Uppertail with black terminal band, which is broader than on Rock Dove or Stock Dove; faint narrow pale grey subterminal band. No white on back and rump. BELOW: Underwing grey, as dark as dull pinkish (or brownish) underbody (no contrast); no dark trailing edge. Undertail markedly tricoloured: terminal band black; subterminal band broad, pale grey; base dark grey. FLIGHT Fast, but slightly slower than Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) or Stock Dove. Wingbeats strong, even, very regular (less stiff than Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon)); wings held for a moment every 3–5 beats. FLOCK Often 5–15 to hundreds, thousands not uncommon. On long-distance migration intra-flock movement minimal, birds maintaining their position within the flock for many minutes. Larger flocks often include 1–10 Stock Doves; other species, such as Rock Dove, Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 154] or Common Starling [p. 322], may also mingle with Common Woodpigeon flocks.

JUveNILe

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COMMON WOODPIGEON CALL  None known. S 

stock dove

S

S S

S

S

JUV. JUV.

JUV.

 JUV.

JUV.

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

Pigeons and doves compared p. 42

Streptopelia doves FLIGHT: Flight manner characteristic: after almost every wingbeat the wings are held raised above the back with outerwing held horizontally, Typical profile of a gliding and the bird glides like this for a moment . The following wingbeat is Streptopelia dove from the strong but shallow, before another short glide on raised wings . This flight front or rear . action is also used by Stock Dove [p. 46] and Common Woodpigeon [p. 48], but rarely, and there are usually 3–5 wingbeats between glides . Streptopelia doves can also fly like Columba pigeons usually do, beating their wings uninterruptedly and evenly, without glides .

Eurasian Collared-dove L 29–33 cm | W 48–53 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8]; smaller than Rock

Streptopelia decaocto Diurnal migrant

European Turtle-dove (p. 52) Dove (Feral Pigeon) [p. 46], larger than European Turtle-dove [p. 52]. Stock Dove (p. 46) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated deep-breasted, slightly bulkier than European Turtle-dove. Head small, round. Wing large, wide at base, tip rather rounded (shorter than on European Turtle-dove). Tail rather narrow, tip rounded (longer than on European Turtle-dove). COLORATION Overall brownish-buff but can appear pale grey (paler than European Turtle-dove). ABOVE: Upperwing with pale grey midwing, contrasting with blackish-brown primaries. Back, rump and uppertail brownish-buff, appear pale; outer tail feathers grey with black patch on base and long white tip (pale terminal band broader than other Streptopelia doves). BELOW: Underwing whitish, gradually darkening towards brownish-grey tip. Underbody between wings darker than underwing but contrast weak. FLIGHT Direct, strong (less nervous than European Turtle-dove; more fluent, wingbeats slower). FLOCK Mostly 1–3, sometimes up to 10, rarely up to 25. Very loose, uncoordinated.

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EURASIAN COLLARED-DOVE CALL Nasal, harsh moaning “wurrr” or

“wäerrr” (single, double or triple), uttered at take-off and landing.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

European Turtle-dove L 25–26 cm | W 45–50 cm SIZE Like Fieldfare [p. 8]; smaller than Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8]

Pigeons and doves compared p. 42

Streptopelia turtur Mainly nocturnal migrant

Eurasian Collared-dove (p. 50) and Eurasian Collared-dove [p. 50], much smaller than Rock Dove (Feral Oriental Turtle-dove (p. 54) Pigeon] [p. 46]. Laughing Dove (p. 56) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated deep-breasted. Head small, round. Stock Dove (p. 46) Wing long, moderately pointed. Tail rather narrow, tip rounded. Compared with Eurasian Collared-dove: slightly slimmer; wing longer, narrower, tip more pointed; tail shorter. Compared with Oriental Turtle-dove [p. 54]: tail longer, head larger. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts darker than on Eurasian Collared-dove, paler and less uniform than Oriental Turtle-dove; mantle and scapulars can appear buff, orange or warm brown. Upperwing dark, with paler (but weakly contrasting) broad bluish-grey crescent on secondary-coverts. Uppertail black with fairly broad white terminal band (broader than on Oriental Turtle-dove, narrower than on Eurasian Collared-dove or Laughing Dove [p. 56]). On closed tail, white corners show well. BELOW: Underwing uniformly dark. Underbody between wings slightly paler than underwings but contrast weak. Underbody behind trailing edge of extended wings and undertail-coverts pure white, contrast most obvious when seen from side. FLIGHT Direct, strong (more nervous and stiffer than Eurasian Collared-dove or Oriental Turtle-dove; wingbeats faster). FLOCK Usually 1–3, rarely 10–30, extraordinarily to 300. Very loose, uncoordinated.

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EUROPEAN TURTLE-DOVE CALL Very short but energetic buzz of near

kHz 10

electronic quality (like strong buzzing of insect or short, muffled sneeze), uttered at take-off and landing.

8 6 4 2 0

COmmOn wOOdpigeOn

JUV .

JUV .

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

Pigeons and doves compared p. 42

V Oriental Turtle-dove Asia L 30–35 cm | W 55–60 cm

Streptopelia orientalis

SIZE Slightly larger than Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8]; like Rock Dove (Feral

Diurnal migrant

European Turtle-dove (p. 52) Pigeon] [p. 46], larger than Eurasian Collared-dove [p. 50], markedly larger Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) (p. 44) than European Turtle-dove [p. 52]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Rather large, compact, deep-breasted, reminiscent of Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon). Wing long, narrow, moderately pointed (more pointed than on Eurasian Collared-dove). Tail rather narrow (shorter and head smaller than on European Turtle-dove). COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts darker and more uniform than on European Turtle-dove; brown-and-rufous colour of mantle, scapulars and coverts difficult to see. Upperwing dark, middle of innerwing paler (only visible in good light). Uppertail black with narrow white terminal band. BELOW: Underparts as on European Turtle-dove but breast darker and more brownish-grey. Vent, undertail-coverts and tail tip pure white (on subspecies meena) or grey (on subspecies orientalis). FLIGHT Direct, less nervous than European Turtle-dove, appears slightly heavier; wingbeats slower, not so stiff, more like a Columba pigeon. FLOCK Vagrant. No flock recorded in Europe.

ssp . orientalis

ssp . meena

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ORIENTAL TURTLE-DOVE CALL Very short buzz of slightly electronic

quality (like strong buzzing of insect or short muffled sneeze) (similar to call of European Turtle-dove but downslurred and more hissing), uttered at take-off and landing.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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PIGEONS AND DOVES

Laughing Dove L 25–28 cm | W 40–45 cm SIZE Like Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8]; smaller than European Turtle-dove

[p. 52], markedly smaller than Eurasian Collared-dove [p. 50]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Slim and delicate. Wing small, short and rather rounded. Tail long. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts dark; brownish-rufous, brown and bluishgrey colours only visible in good light. Middle of tail same brown as rump and uppertail-coverts; outer tail feathers with broad white tips (black on bases more extensive than on Eurasian Collared-dove). BELOW: Underwing uniformly very dark, can appear black, contrasting with pale grey-pink underbody. FLIGHT Fast and agile, wingbeats faster than European Turtle-dove or Eurasian Collared-dove. FLOCK Usually 1–3, rarely up to 10, exceptionally 20–25. Very loose, uncoordinated.

Pigeons and doves compared p. 42

Spilopelia senegalensis Diurnal migrant European Turtle-dove (p. 52) Eurasian Collared-dove (p. 50) Eurasian Blackbird (p. 330)

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LAUGHING DOVE CALL Nasal, harsh, short “weär” or “wär”

(single or double), uttered at take-off and landing (similar to Eurasian Collared-dove but shorter, harsher and less vocal).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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CUCKOOS

Cuculus canorus

Common Cuckoo L 32–36 cm | W 54–60 cm SIZE Like male Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus or female Merlin

Mainly nocturnal migrant

Small falcons Falco spp . Falco columbarius, smaller than Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus; Eurasian Sparrowhawk comparable to Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8] or Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon] Accipiter nisus [p. 46]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body long. Head medium-sized, rounded; bill moderately long, decurved, juts out distinctly from head profile. In side view, bulging rump obvious. Tail very long. Wings long, narrow, pointed. At first glance, may resemble a small falcon Falco sp., but wing relatively narrower and shorter and tail longer and graduated. COLORATION ABOVE: adult uniformly grey. juvenile dull greyish-brown, indistinctly barred off-white. (‘Hepatic’ form rufous with dense, dark brown barring; rump and uppertail-coverts markedly orange-rufous.) BELOW: Underwing pale, broadly bordered dark; black-and-white band along centre. Underbody barred white and dark grey. Undertail black with white spots and white feather tips. ♂ neck and upper breast of grey, as head; ♀, breast creamy to rufous-buff, barred dark (some ♀s inseparable from ♂s in the field). FLIGHT Markedly different from a falcon or Eurasian Sparrowhawk; slower, with weaker but regular, shallow wingbeats. Rigid wings seem not to bend at the carpal joint; wingbeats usually low, wings barely raised above the level of the back. Flapping phase is interspersed with glides on extended and slightly drooped wings. Able to circle in updrafts. FLOCK On migration: single birds or two together.

♀

juvenile

♀HepatiC

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COMMON CUCKOO CALL Familiar “kuk-uu,”

first syllable higher and shorter. | Single low-pitched, throaty “gwo,” repeated. | Low, slightly ascending series, “gwa-ha-ka-ka” (like hoarse laugh). | juvenile: short, markedly vibrating, insect-like “ziiit,” frequently repeated.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♀ ♀

♀ HEPATIC

♀ HEPATIC

♀ HEPATIC

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CUCKOOS

Great Spotted Cuckoo L 35–39 cm | W 60–65 cm SIZE Like Eurasian Magpie [p. 144]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Slimmer than Eurasian Magpie. Head small; bill

Clamator glandarius Diurnal and nocturnal migrant None

slightly decurved. Wing narrow, long, fairly pointed. Tail very long and graduated. At first glance may recall a small falcon Falco sp. due to wing and tail shape. COLORATION Upperparts dark brown with neat rows of bold white spots (tips of all upperwing coverts). adult primaries same dark brown as upperparts; juvenile primaries rufous, tipped dark brown. FLIGHT Stronger than Common Cuckoo [p. 58], wingbeats more flexible; flapping interspersed with brief glides on half-folded wings; sometimes longer glides (2–4 seconds) like Eurasian Magpie. FLOCK Usually a few, not more than 10, rarely up to 20. Very loose, uncoordinated.

juvenile

juvenile

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GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO CALL  Various: quick series of mild croaks or rasping chatter (in sound quality

and rhythm reminiscent of woodpecker [p. 78], falcon or tern calls).

JUV. eurasian magpie

 JUV.

 IMM.

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PARAKEETS

Rose-ringed Parakeet L 37–43 cm | W 42–48 cm SIZE Body size like Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8], wingspan like Eurasian

Collared-dove [p. 50]; smaller than Common Cuckoo [p. 58]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slim; neck rather long and thick. Head large, rounded; bill short, deep and hooked. Wing long, narrow and fairly pointed. Tail extremely long, narrow, graduated and pointed. COLORATION Bill red. ABOVE: Upperparts vivid lime-green, flight feathers deeper green, tail turquoise-blue. BELOW: Underparts yellowish-green; flight feathers dark grey contrasting with much paler (greenish-yellow) underwing coverts. Undertail yellow. FLIGHT Agile, fast and direct. Wingbeats rapid, full, moderately deep. Long flapping phases interspersed irregularly with short glides on extended, slightly drooped wings. FLOCK Gregarious: where abundant up to hundreds. Flock moderately loose and coordinated, resembling Common Starling [p. 322] or even waders. Can mingle with Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 154] flocks.

Alexandrinus krameri Non-migratory Common Cuckoo (p. 58) Escaped long-tailed parakeets and parrots

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ROSE-RINGED PARAKEET CALL Loud, high-pitched, short squeak:

smooth “piy,” “fiyou” or slightly harsher “pirs,” “piärs,” “pire,” “firr,” very strong accent on start, then downslurred; singly or in quick (sometimes irregular) series.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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HOOPOES

Upupa epops

Common Hoopoe L 25–29 cm | W 44–48 cm SIZE Body size like Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body small, slim and flat-breasted; neck long. Head

Mainly nocturnal migrant None

small and rounded with large crest, usually folded on nape, sometimes partially raised like a fan; bill very long, thin and decurved. Wing disproportionately large, very broad and rounded. Tail long. COLORATION Wings and tail boldly barred black-and-white; broad white stripe across black outerwing (above and below). Head (including crest), neck, mantle, breast and forewings sandy-grey with variable orange or pinkish cast. FLIGHT Slow, rather direct. Wingbeats light, low and very deep; wings flexible, with a distinctive bend. Floppy flight action can recall Eurasian Jay [p. 138]. F-wave distinct, irregular, rather long. After 1–4 wingbeats, wings not fully folded, held horizontally along body for short or longer glide. Often flies high (over treetops). FLOCK Usually 1–5, rarely up to 15. Very loose, uncoordinated.

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COMMON HOOPOE CALL Rather quiet, throaty, harsh, scraping

“shrre,” singly or repeated.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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BEE-EATERS

European Bee-eater L 25–29 cm | W 36–40 cm SIZE Like Blue-cheeked Bee-eater [p. 68] and Eurasian Golden Oriole

Merops apiaster Diurnal and nocturnal migrant

Blue-cheeked Bee-eater (p. 68) [p. 96]; slightly larger than Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated, flat-breasted; neck short. Head rather large; bill long, slightly decurved, deep-based, sharply pointed. Wing long, with long ‘triangular’ outerwing. Tail long with central streamers (beware, often worn; juveniles lack streamers). Head often held low with bill slightly uptilted. Compared with Blue-cheeked Bee-eater: body thicker and heavier; head larger; bill shorter, deeper at base; wing relatively shorter and less pointed; tail streamers much shorter. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperwing colourful (including rufous or pale brown), with contrasts; scapulars paler than wings and mantle (yellow on adult). Brown coloration at least on crown (on juvenile) or also on mantle and wings (on adult). Black mask broad. BELOW: Underwing dull rufous-buff; dark trailing edge distinct, broader on secondaries. Underbody bright light blue, turquoise or pale greenish-turquoise. Chin and throat yellow. FLIGHT Light, casual and energetic, sometimes reminiscent of Common Starling [p. 322] or Barn Swallow [p. 114]. Wingbeats full, deep. A short flapping phase (3–6 wingbeats) is interspersed either with brief moments when wings are folded against body, or, after momentary folding, are extended and slightly drooped for a glide. During a longer glide, wings can be half-folded or closed for a moment. Each glide is followed by another flapping phase. A migrating flock frequently circles in an updraft (with wings fully extended and tail fanned), birds then gliding straight for a considerable distance, seldom flapping their wings. FLOCK Usually 20–30, sometimes up to hundreds. Extended backwards, rather deep, loose but birds keeping contact; intra-flock movement moderate. On long-distance passage, only in a single-species flock; when foraging, can mingle with Barn Swallows, Collared Sand Martins [p. 118) or Blue-cheeked Bee-eaters.

juvenile

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EUROPEAN BEE-EATER CALL Far-carrying, enabling

identification of birds out of sight, even when flying above 100 m high. Calls sound soft and murmuring, rather lowpitched. | Soft, slowly rolling “prrrü,” “prrüü.” | Short, smooth “pwi,” usually single, sometimes double or triple (like “pitpiiwi” of Common Quail Coturnix coturnix).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

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BEE-EATERS

Merops persicus

Blue-cheeked Bee-eater L 28–32 cm | W 35–39 cm SIZE Like European Bee-eater [p. 66] and Eurasian Golden Oriole [p. 96];

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant

European Bee-eater (p. 66) slightly larger than Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated, flat-breasted; neck short. Head medium-sized; bill long, slightly decurved, deep-based, sharply pointed. Wing long, with long ‘triangular’ outerwing. Tail long with central streamers (beware, often worn; juveniles lack streamers). Head often held low with bill slightly uptilted. Compared with European Bee-eater: body slimmer and lighter; head smaller; bill longer, tapering evenly towards tip; outerwing more pointed; tail streamers much longer. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperwing almost monochromatic (just shades of green), scapulars as wings and mantle. No brown coloration on upperparts. Black mask narrow. BELOW: Underwing bright orange-rufous; dark trailing edge inconspicuous, narrow. Underbody bright green to cold pale green. Chin yellow; throat of adult rufous-red, of juvenile warm buff. FLIGHT Light, casual and energetic, sometimes reminiscent of Common Starling [p. 322] or Barn Swallow [p. 114]. Wingbeats full, deep. A short flapping phase (3–6 wingbeats) is interspersed either with brief moments when wings are folded against body, or, after momentary folding, wings are extended again and slightly drooped for a glide. During a longer glide, wings can be half-folded or closed for a moment. Each glide is followed by another flapping phase. A migrating flock frequently circles in an updraft (with wings fully extended and tail fanned), birds then gliding straight for a long way, seldom flapping their wings. FLOCK Usually 20–30, rarely more than 100. Extended backwards, rather deep, loose but birds keeping contact, with intra-flock movement moderate. On long-distance passage, only in a single-species flock; when foraging can mingle with Barn Swallows, Collared Sand Martins [p. 118] or European Bee-eaters.

juvenile

juvenile

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BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER CALL Far-carrying, enabling

identification of birds out of sight, even when flying above 100 m high. Calls sound squeaky and pure, markedly higher-pitched than European Bee-eater. | Hard and rolling, quick “birr,” “bürrr.” | Short, sharp “pil,” “pül” single or double, or the same sound but even shorter, “tip.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV . JUV . JUV .

JUV .

JUV .

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ROLLERS

European Roller L 29–32 cm | W 35–39 cm SIZE Comparable to Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8], Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon]

Coracias garrulus Diurnal and nocturnal migrant

Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) [p. 46] or Common Cuckoo [p. 58]. Crows (p. 150) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body small, slim and flat-breasted. Head large with Pigeons (p. 42) powerful bill (like that of a crow [p. 150]). Wing disproportionately large, long, broad, usually slightly angled at the carpal joint; prominent bend in middle of leading edge. Fingers of wingtip seldom show. Due to the broadness of the outerwing, wing shape sometimes recalls Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus. Tail narrow and fairly long. COLORATION Brilliant pale blue, deep blue and black with light rufous saddle (mantle, scapulars and inner greater coverts). FLIGHT Light (recalls Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 154] but even lighter and less energetic). Wingbeats often irregular, slow (shallower and more flexible than corvids [p. 162]). Flapping tempo and flight velocity lower than pigeons [p. 42]. Wings never folded against body, instead half-folded outerwings held swept back. In glide, outerwings slightly drooped. Sometimes, after each wingbeat, longer glide on wings held horizontally with tips markedly bent upwards. When flying between trees, can have ‘slaloming’ side-to-side swerving action. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 10, rarely up to 50. Very loose, uncoordinated.

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EUROPEAN ROLLER CALL Very short cracking

“ke,” “krekre.” | Fast murmuring “krakrakrakrakrakra.” | Frog-like “kerre-kerre” or “kre-kra.” | Sound quality generally rather mild, more like a frog than a crow. Single birds usually silent, more vocal in a group.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

JUV . JUV .

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KINGFISHERS

Alcedo atthis

Common Kingfisher L 17–19·5 cm | W 25 cm SIZE Body size close to Hawfinch [p. 454]; smaller than Common

Starling [p. 8].

Mainly diurnal migrant None

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped. Head large, elongated; bill very long and straight. Wing small, moderately rounded. Tail very short and broad. COLORATION ABOVE: Strikingly blue and greenish-blue. Shining pale blue stripe from nape to uppertail-coverts, widest on rump. BELOW: Underparts mostly rufous-orange. FLIGHT Fast, direct; ‘turning circle’ always wide. Flapping phases short, interspersed with brief glides on extended, slightly drooped wings. Wingbeats rapid and stiff. Usually flies very low (0·5–1·0 m over water or ground), otherwise no higher than tree canopy. Occasionally hovers over water. FLOCK On migration: single birds or two together.

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COMMON KINGFISHER CALL Very loud, pure, high-pitched, shrill “tzi,” singly or in fast, irregular, decelerating series. | Longer variant a markedly downslurred “tiiiy.” | Disyllabic “tit–ziiy,” first syllable higher; short, second syllable downslurred and longer. kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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KINGFISHERS

White-breasted Kingfisher L 27–29 cm | W 30–33 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Fieldfare [p. 8]; almost twice the size of

Common Kingfisher [p. 72]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body relatively small and narrow. Head very large; bill huge. Wing large, rather rounded. Tail long. COLORATION Bill red or orange-red. ABOVE: Upperparts mostly turquoiseblue. Head, nape and lesser coverts warm brown. Primaries white, tipped black (above and beneath). BELOW: Underparts mostly warm brown. Large creamy-and-white patch from bill to belly. juvenile duller with black bill. FLIGHT Direct, fast but wingbeats rather slow. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Halcyon smyrnensis Diurnal migrant None

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WHITE-BREASTED KINGFISHER CALL Loud, fast (sometimes irregular)

series of nasal “ki,” decelerating and slightly downslurred at end (reminiscent of a woodpecker [p. 78] call).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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KINGFISHERS

Ceryle rudis

Pied Kingfisher L 25–30 cm | W 30–33 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Song Thrush [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slim. Head large; bill very long and narrow.

Diurnal migrant None

Wing large, long, rather narrow. Tail long. COLORATION Black-and-white. Bill black. ABOVE: Upperparts variably ‘chequered’; black carpal patch; primaries broadly tipped black. BELOW: Underparts mostly white; primaries broadly tipped black; row of black spots across secondaries. Black breast-band: on ♂, double (upper broad, lower narrow), unbroken; on ♀, single, broken (white gap in centre); on juvenile, single, broad, unbroken, spotted white. Black subterminal band on tail. FLIGHT Fast, graceful. Wingbeats deep. Frequently hovers over water. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

♀

juvenile

♂

76

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PIED KINGFISHER CALL Various loud, high-pitched, frequently

repeated chirps and tweets (some calls resemble those of waders), e.g. “wsip wsip wsip…,” rhythmic “chi-pi-trip chi-pi-trip…” or “tiyo-vi-tli tiyo-vi-tli….”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂ ♂

♂

♀

77

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WOODPECKERS

WOODPECKERS Key identification features size and silhouette overall colour (greenish/ black/black-and-white/brown)  colour of belly/vent/ undertail-coverts STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Body barrel-shaped. Head large and rounded; bill sturdy, straight. Wing large, broad, rather rounded; tip fingered. Tail rather short and narrow, split into two pointed tips. FLIGHT: Largest birds that use ‘flap-bounding’ flight. F-wave very distinct, high, regular, sinusoidal (except Black Woodpecker).  

Eurasian Green Woodpecker (p. 94)

78

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Eurasian Golden Oriole (p. 96)

Black Woodpecker (p. 90)

Grey-faced Woodpecker (p. 92)

female-type

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WOODPECKERS

SPOTTED WOODPECKERS

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (p. 86)

Three-toed Woodpecker (p. 88)

Middle Spotted Woodpecker (p. 82) Great Spotted Woodpecker (p. 80)

White-backed Woodpecker (p. 84)

Syrian Woodpecker (p. 80)

adult juvenile

White-backed Woodpecker (p. 84)

Three-toed Woodpecker (p. 88)

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (p. 86)

Middle Spotted Woodpecker (p. 82)

Syrian Woodpecker (p. 80)

Great Spotted Woodpecker (p. 80)

On Lesser Spotted and Three-toed Woodpeckers, belly, vent and undertail-coverts never red or pink; on other species these are always various shades of red or pink. Lesser Spotted and Whitebacked Woodpeckers have white patch or bars on back. Size and silhouette are much more important for identification than white pattern on wings, which is very difficult to appreciate.

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79

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WOODPECKERS

Spotted woodpeckers compared p. 79

Dendrocopos major Dendrocopos syriacus

Great Spotted Woodpecker Syrian Woodpecker Two species usually only separable in flight by call, unless plumage details can be seen clearly.

Diurnal migrants (Great Spotted Woodpecker irruptive)

L 23–26 cm | W 38–44 cm

Other spotted woodpeckers (p. 78)

SIZE Comparable to Song Thrush [p. 8], slightly smaller than White-

backed Woodpecker [p. 338].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped. Head large and rounded; bill

sturdy, straight, smaller than on White-backed Woodpecker. Wing large, rather rounded. COLORATION Black, spotted white; large white shoulder-patch (larger than on Middle Spotted Woodpecker). Great Spotted Woodpecker: ABOVE: Flight feathers appear predominantly dark. BELOW: Undertail-coverts, vent (and sometimes belly) bright red. Tail off-white with three black bars. Syrian Woodpecker: ABOVE: Flight feathers appear predominantly white, primaries in particular broadly striped white (but detail barely visible in flight). BELOW: Undertail-coverts, vent (and sometimes belly) pinkish-red. Undertail black with a few small white spots. Many juveniles have red breast-band. FLIGHT Direct, powerful. F-wave very distinct, high. Wingbeats rapid and deep (faster than White-backed Woodpecker). Flapping phases short (few wingbeats); non-flapping intervals of same length. Wings folded completely, sometimes preceded by a short glide on somewhat drooped wings. FLOCK Usually single birds, sometimes 2–3.

Great Spotted Woodpecker

Syrian Woodpecker

♂

GREAT SPOTTED SYRIAN ♂

juvenile

80

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GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER | SYRIAN WOODPECKER CALL Great Spotted Woodpecker: Single or

irregularly repeated, loud, distinct, short, abrupt “kik,” with strong accent on the middle of the note (higher-pitched than Syrian Woodpecker). | In short flights, sometimes a quick series, “kikikikiki.” Syrian Woodpecker: Single or irregularly repeated, loud, distinct, short, abrupt “chyek” with accent at the beginning, downslurred (lower-pitched than Great Spotted Woodpecker). | Call accentuated in the middle and not downslurred but lower-pitched and somewhat softer “pyep” (sometimes very similar to Great Spotted Woodpecker). | Short trill, “tirrrr.”

kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

GREAT SPOTTED

SYRIAN

GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER

♀

♀

♂ ♂

♀

♀

SYRIAN WOODPECKER ♂

♂

♀

♂

♀

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81

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WOODPECKERS

Spotted woodpeckers compared p. 79

Middle Spotted Woodpecker L 20–22 cm | W 35–38 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Great Spotted Woodpecker [p. 80]; comparable

to Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped. Head relatively smaller than that of Great Spotted Woodpecker; bill shorter. Wing relatively smaller and shorter, rather rounded. COLORATION Black, spotted white. ABOVE: Upperwing has small white carpal patch. White shoulder-patch (smaller than on Great Spotted Woodpecker) extends onto innerwing. Crown all-red (both sexes). BELOW: Undertail-coverts, vent and belly pinkish-red, rest of underbody pale yellowish-buff, streaked black (looks ‘dirty’). Tail off-white with black bars. FLIGHT Direct, powerful. F-wave very distinct, high. Wingbeats rapid and deep (slightly faster than Great Spotted Woodpecker). Flapping phases short (for few wingbeats); non-flapping intervals of the same length. Wings folded completely, sometimes preceded by short glide on somewhat drooped wings. FLOCK On migration, single birds.

Leiopicus medius Diurnal migrant Other spotted woodpeckers (p. 78)

82

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MIDDLE SPOTTED WOODPECKER CALL In non-breeding season probably

silent. During breeding season only call uttered is a quick series of squeaky yelps in territorial defence, “kwe·kwe·kwe·kwe·kwe·kwe….”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

83

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WOODPECKERS

Spotted woodpeckers compared p. 79

Dendrocopos leucotos

White-backed Woodpecker L 23–26 cm | W 33–44 cm SIZE Comparable to Fieldfare [p. 8]; like Grey-faced Woodpecker

Diurnal migrant

Other spotted woodpeckers [p. 92], slightly larger than Great Spotted Woodpecker [p. 80], smaller than (p. 78) Eurasian Green Woodpecker [p. 94]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped. Head large and rounded; bill ♂ sturdy, straight (longer and deeper than on Great Spotted Woodpecker). Wing large, rather rounded. COLORATION Black, spotted white. ABOVE: Large white patch between wings (back and rear scapulars). No white shoulder-patch. Narrow white stripe along forewing. Crown all-red on ♂, black on ♀. BELOW: Undertail-coverts, vent, hind flanks and belly red. Lower breast and flanks streaked black. Tail off-white with black bars. FLIGHT Direct, powerful. F-wave very distinct, high. Wingbeats rapid, deep. Flapping phases short (few wingbeats); non-flapping intervals of the same length. Wings folded completely, sometimes preceded by short glide on somewhat drooped wings. Wingbeats slightly slower than Great Spotted Woodpecker. Avoids flying over open landscapes. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

♂

84

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WHITE-BACKED WOODPECKER CALL Seldom uttered, single or repeated,

kHz 10

distinct, short, soft “tyok” or “tyük” with strong accent on the middle of the note (much lower-pitched than Great Spotted Woodpecker; resembles “tyuk” of Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330] but more ringing).

8 6 4 2 0

♂

♀

♂

♂

♀

♀

♀

85

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WOODPECKERS

Spotted woodpeckers compared p. 79

Dryobates minor

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker L 14–16·5 cm | W 24–29 cm SIZE Like European Robin [p. 362], smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9];

about half the size of Great Spotted Woodpecker [p. 80]; STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body and head small; bill tiny. Wing disproportionately large. Tail rather short. COLORATION Black, spotted white. ABOVE: No white shoulder-patch. Broad white stripes on back. BELOW: Undertail-coverts off-white or dull pale buff (no red). FLIGHT Direct, powerful. F-wave high (shorter and relatively higher than Great Spotted Woodpecker). Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals long. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Diurnal migrant Other spotted woodpeckers (p. 78)

♂

86

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LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER CALL  Usually silent.

♂

♀

♂

♂

87

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WOODPECKERS

Spotted woodpeckers compared p. 79

Picoides tridactylus

Three-toed Woodpecker L 20–24 cm | W 35–40 cm SIZE Like Middle Spotted Woodpecker [p. 82], slightly smaller than Great

Diurnal migrant

Spotted woodpeckers (p. 78) Spotted Woodpecker [p. 80]; comparable to Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped. Head large; bill sturdy, straight. Wing large (broader than Great Spotted Woodpecker), rather rounded. COLORATION Black, spotted and striped white. No red in plumage. Face longitudinally striped black and white, broad black eyestripe. ABOVE: Upperwing predominantly black; secondaries with just minute white spots, all coverts entirely black. No white shoulder-patch. Broad white stripe from nape to lower back (can be spotted black). BELOW: Undertail-coverts and vent white, spotted black. Tail off-white with black bars. On subspecies tridactylus flanks streaked black, on subspecies alpinus flanks broadly barred black. FLIGHT Direct, powerful. F-wave very distinct, high. Wingbeats rapid and deep. Flapping phases short (few wingbeats); non-flapping intervals of the same length. Wings folded completely, sometimes preceded by a short glide on somewhat drooped wings. Wingbeats slightly faster than Great Spotted Woodpecker. FLOCK Usually, single birds, sometimes 2 together.

♂

88

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THREE-TOED WOODPECKER CALL Usually silent. During

breeding season single or repeated distinct, short, rather soft, nasal “chak” or “chük,” with accent on the middle of the note (lower-pitched than Great Spotted Woodpecker).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ssp . tridactylus UNLESS INDICATED

♂ssp . alpinus

♂

89

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WOODPECKERS

Woodpeckers compared p. 78

Dryocopus martius

Black Woodpecker L 44–55 cm | W 64–84 cm SIZE Larger than Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8], smaller than Rook [p. 148]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body small and narrow. Head large and elongated,

slightly elevated, neck long and thin; short crest makes rear crown appear angular; bill sturdy, straight, long and deep. Wing large, broad (shorter and more rounded than those of crows [p. 150]); tip divided into six long fingers. Tail broad, split-tipped. COLORATION All-black except red crown (♂ ♂) or red patch on hind crown (♀ ♀). Eye white. Bill pale with dark tip. FLIGHT Direct, slow. F-wave: none. Wingbeats very strong, deep, floppy, slow, irregular. Flight path uneven. Wings constantly open with no nonflapping intervals, in a similar manner to crows. Seldom glides. Sometimes flies high over open landscapes. FLOCK Usually, single birds, sometimes 2–3.

Diurnal migrant Rook (p. 148) Crows (p. 150) Common Raven (p. 160 Northern Nutcracker (p. 140)

♂

90

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BLACK WOODPECKER CALL Very loud and far-carrying (audible

at distance of 1 km or more) fast series of ringing, rolling cries, “krrrrri-krrrri-krrrikrrri-krrrri-krrri….”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2

ALL ♀

0

91

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WOODPECKERS

Woodpeckers compared p. 78

Picus canus

Grey-faced (Grey-headed) Woodpecker L 28–33 cm | W 40–50 cm SIZE Comparable to Fieldfare [p. 8]; like White-backed Woodpecker

[p. 84], smaller than Eurasian Green Woodpecker [p. 94], slightly larger than Great Spotted Woodpecker [p. 80]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped with particularly short stern; neck rather long. Head large, rounded; bill long. Wing very broad, relatively short, rounded (longer and narrower than on Eurasian Green Woodpecker). Tail broad, split-tipped. COLORATION Generally uniform olive-green; rump pale olive-yellow, sometimes appearing bright yellow (can recall Eurasian Golden Oriole [p. 154]). Head grey. Lore and narrow ‘moustache’ black. No facial mask (unlike Eurasian Green Woodpecker). Forehead red on ♂. Underside of tail broadly edged pale. FLIGHT Direct, powerful. F-wave distinct, high but longer and slighter than Great Spotted Woodpecker. Wingbeats deep, slower than Great Spotted Woodpecker. Flapping phases longer than non-flapping intervals. Sometimes glides on somewhat drooped wings. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Diurnal migrant Eurasian Green Woodpecker (p. 94) Eurasian Golden Oriole (p. 96)

♂

92

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GREY-FACED WOODPECKER CALL Fast series of notes, slightly

kHz 10

downslurred to the end, starting with lowerpitched, very short “ük” then one to several higher-pitched notes, e.g. “ük ki-ki-ke-keke-he-he,” “ük ke-ke-che-che.” | Sometimes utters single “ük.” | Short, descending, clucking “chyok,” “tyok,” slowly repeated.

8 6 4 2 0

♀

♀

♀

♂

♂

93

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WOODPECKERS

Woodpeckers compared p. 78

Picus viridis

Eurasian Green Woodpecker L 31–33 cm | W 45–51 cm SIZE Like Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon] [p. 44], Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8] or

Eurasian Jay [p. 138].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped with particularly short stern; neck rather long. Head large, elongated; bill long, tapered. Wing very broad, relatively short, rounded (shorter and broader than on Grey-faced Woodpecker). Tail broad, split-tipped. COLORATION Generally uniform olive-green; rump pale olive-yellow, sometimes appearing bright yellow (can recall Eurasian Golden Oriole [p. 154]). Crown entirely red (both sexes). Black mask, white eye. Underside of tail dark. FLIGHT Direct, powerful. F-wave distinct, high but longer and slighter than Great Spotted Woodpecker. Wingbeats deep (slower than Great Spotted Woodpecker). Flapping phases longer than non-flapping intervals. Sometimes glides on somewhat drooped wings. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Diurnal migrant Grey-faced Woodpecker (p. 92) Eurasian Golden Oriole (p. 96)

♂

94

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EURASIAN GREEN WOODPECKER CALL Series of 2–4 (or more) impure

whistled syllables, “chyu-chee-chee,” “chyukyu-kyu,” “pye-chu-chu-chu,” “kyu-chee,” usually repeated.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂

JUV .

♀

♂

♂

♂

♀

95

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ORIOLES

Oriolus oriolus

Eurasian Golden Oriole L 19–22 cm | W 44–47 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8] or Mistle

Thrush [p. 336].

Mainly nocturnal migrant Mistle Thrush (p. 336) Fieldfare (p. 334) Eurasian Green Woodpecker (p. 94) Grey-faced Woodpecker (p. 92)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped, elongated, broad in the middle. Head long; bill rather long, pointed. Wing large, long, outerwing tapered, fairly pointed. Compared with Mistle Thrush: tail shorter, wing narrower, bill thicker. ♀ COLORATION adult ♂ bright yellow and black. all plumages: ABOVE: Upperwing with obvious pale carpal patch (primary-covert tips). Tail feathers (apart from central pair) broadly tipped yellow. BELOW: Underparts yellow on adult ♂; pale yellow-and-white, faintly streaked dark on ♀-type birds; boldly streaked dark on juvenile/immature. In all plumages, dark grey flight feathers contrast with pale underwing coverts. ♀-type birds greenish above with pale yellow rump, could initially be mistaken for Eurasian Green Woodpecker [p. 94] or Grey-faced Woodpecker [p. 92] (but shape and flight action very different). FLIGHT Steady, direct, rather slow, recalling Mistle Thrush; slower and easier than Fieldfare [p. 334]. Wingbeats slow, fluent. F-wave indistinct, long, very slight. Non-flapping intervals often long, wings not completely folded, with 2 or 3 primary tips visible at tail base (as on thrushes). Often flies high, at level of tree-tops or higher. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes 4–10, rarely up to 30. Loose, uncoordinated.

♀ ♂

♂

♂

immature

96

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EURASIAN GOLDEN ORIOLE CALL Slightly nasal, yelling, “kye,” “kye-

kHz 10

ye-yep,” “kye-ye-ye-yep,” usually repeated (somewhat woodpecker-like in quality).

8 6 4 2 0

IMM .

♂ ♂

♂

♂

IMM .

♂

♀ ♀

IMM.♂

or♀

IMM .♂

or♀ ♀

♀ ♀

♀

♀

97

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SWIFTS, MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

SWIFTS, SWALLOWS and MARTINS Key identification features  extent of white or pale colour on

 

 

STRUCTURE & SHAPE: In swifts, the wing is narrow, long, sickle-shaped and stiff; the carpal joint is situated very close to the body. In martins and swallows, the carpal joint is situated farther along the wing, making it easier to appreciate the bend in the wing. In martins, the wing is broader and shorter than swifts. In swallows, the wing is broad. FLIGHT: Swifts, martins and swallows often fly together while hunting for insects. On migration, when there is no prey to catch, all form single-species flocks. When migrating, martins and swallows glide more frequently than swifts.

underbody and/or throat (presence of dark breast-band) shape of white or pale patch on rump proportional length and shape of wing and tail (including presence of streamers) dark eye and eyepit contrast with side of head presence of white spots on tail

Alpine Swift (p. 104)

juvenile

Pallid Swift (p. 102)

Common Swift (p. 100)

White-rumped Swift (p. 108)

Eurasian Crag Martin (p. 116)

Collared Sand Martin (p. 118)

Eurasian Crag Martin

98

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Collared Sand Martin

Red-rumped Swallow (p. 112)

Little Swift (p. 106)

Northern House Martin (p. 110)

Barn Swallow (p. 114)

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SWIFTS, SWALLOWS AND MARTINS

Pallid Swift (p. 102)

Alpine Swift (p. 104)

Common Swift (p. 100)

Eurasian Crag Martin (p. 116)

Northern House Martin (p. 110)

White‑rumped Swift (p. 108) Little Swift (p. 106)

Collared Sand Martin (p. 118)

Red‑rumped Swallow (p. 112)

Barn Swallow (p. 114)

Pallid Swift (p. 102)

Alpine  Swift (p. 104)

Common Swift (p. 100) White‑rumped Swift (p. 108)

Northern House Martin (p. 110)

Eurasian Crag Martin (p. 116)

Little Swift (p. 106)

Collared Sand Martin (p. 118)

FIEP Prepress copy.indd 99

juvenile

adult

Barn Swallow (p. 114)

Red‑rumped Swallow (p. 112)

99

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SWIFTS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Common Swift L 17–18·5 cm | W 40–44 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Eurasian Crag Martin [p. 116], larger than Barn

Swallow [p. 9], approx. 20% smaller than Alpine Swift [p. 104].

Apus apus Nocturnal and diurnal migrant Pallid Swift (p. 102) Alpine Swift (p. 104)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped, head merging with body (no ‘neck’). Bill very small, barely perceptible. Wing sickle-shaped, very long, narrow and pointed; carpal joint situated very close to the body, making the wing look like one rigid structure that articulates only at the shoulder joint. Tail narrow and pointed when closed, moderately forked when fanned. COLORATION Sooty-black (darker than Pallid Swift [p. 102] or Alpine Swift), pale throat-patch diffuse and barely visible. No plumage contrasts but in some light conditions shiny flight feathers can contrast with underwing coverts or underbody. On juvenile, ill-defined white patch beside bill; contrasting narrow white leading edge to wing. FLIGHT Confident and fast with many manoeuvres; can fly surprisingly slowly. Wingbeats rapid (faster than Alpine Swift), flapping phases short and irregular, interspersed with free glides on slightly drooped wings. In strong wind, long glides on drooped wings; able to fly in very strong wind (over 70 km/h) and in heavy rain. Compared to Pallid Swift: more agile, wingbeats slightly quicker; glides shorter. FLOCK Usually 1–10, rarely up to 100. Loose, uncoordinated. On migration usually in a single-species flock; when foraging can mingle with Alpine Swifts, Pallid Swifts and Barn Swallows [p. 114].

juvenile

gular pouch filled with food

100

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COMMON SWIFT CALL Far-carrying,

markedly vibrating scream, “sriiiiiii…” or “zziiiiiiirr,” variable in pitch, volume and duration, single and often in series. | Short “vsii,” “siiy,” “sisisisi.” | Low-pitched “tsriip.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV . JUV .

JUV .

JUV .

JUV .

101

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SWIFTS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Pallid Swift L 16–18 cm | W 39–44 cm SIZE As Common Swift [p. 8]; slightly larger than Eurasian Crag Martin

Apus pallidus Nocturnal and diurnal migrant

Common Swift (p. 100) [p. 116], larger than Barn Swallow [p. 9], approx. 20% smaller than Alpine Swift (p. 104) Alpine Swift [p. 104]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Generally slightly more heavily built than Common Swift [p. 100]; head and body broader (most obvious behind wings); wing broader-based; wingtip blunter (consisting of two primaries); tail more shallowly forked, two outermost pairs of tail feathers of almost equal length. COLORATION Sandy-brown or grey-brown (paler than Common Swift). Unlike Common Swift has subtle plumage contrasts, most easily seen against a dark background. Dark eye and eyepit contrast with side of head (never a feature of Common Swift). ABOVE: On upperwing, darkest along leading edge from lesser coverts in carpal region and outer primaries; inner primaries and secondaries paler; greater and median coverts even paler, forming a blurred pale area within a dark frame. Mantle slightly darker than wing bases. BELOW: On underwing, outer primaries and all secondary-coverts darkest; inner primaries and secondaries pale; tips to greater primary-coverts and median primary-coverts even paler. Dark underwing base contrasts with paler underbody, where rows of even paler feather tips are sometimes visible, giving a mottled or scaly effect. Whitish throat-patch larger and less diffuse than on Common Swift. FLIGHT Similar to Common Swift but slightly less agile, wingbeats a little slower; glides longer. FLOCK Usually 1–10, rarely up to 100. Loose, uncoordinated. When foraging can mingle with Common Swifts, Alpine Swifts and Barn Swallows [p. 114].

102

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PALLID SWIFT CALL Some calls very similar to Common

Swift but many are lower-pitched, somewhat harder, less squeaky, harsher, rather nasal, fairly dry and hissing, always slightly downslurred “vrriiy,” “vrriiz.” | Disyllabic “viz-zri” is diagnostic.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

103

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SWIFTS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Alpine Swift L 20–23 cm | W 57 cm SIZE Similar to Merlin Falco columbarius, approx. 20% larger than

Common Swift [p. 8]; body size comparable to Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body massive, much larger than Common Swift [p. 100]; wing markedly longer, tail shorter. Overall shape can resemble Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts dull brown, paler than Common Swift. BELOW: Underbody between wings white; dark brown band across upper breast; throat and chin white (but sometimes barely visible). FLIGHT Confident and fast (often faster and with less manoeuvres than Common Swift). Wingbeats strong, deep (slower than Common Swift). FLOCK Often 10–30, sometimes up to 100. Loose, uncoordinated. Usually in a single-species flock, but when foraging can mingle with Common Swifts, Northern House Martins [p. 110] and Barn Swallows [p. 114].

Tachymarptis melba Nocturnal and diurnal migrant Common Swift (p. 100) Pallid Swift (p. 102) Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo

104

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ALPINE SWIFT CALL Series of slow, rolling trills

(single notes distinguishable), each trill accelerating initially and then decelerating, e.g. “tititititititititi·ti·ti-ti-ti-ti–ti—i—i” or “tyit-rit-rit·rit·it·it·ititititit·tieie-yet–yet–yet—yet.” | Single or repeated, slightly nasal “pyep.” | When migrating, flock chorus sounds like an uninterrupted trill, rising and falling in turn.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

105

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SWIFTS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Little Swift L 12–13·5 cm | W 32–34 cm SIZE Like Northern House Martin [p. 9]; smaller than White-rumped

Apus affinis Diurnal and nocturnal migrant

Northern House Martin (p. 110) Swift [p. 108], much smaller than Common Swift [p. 8]. White-rumped Swift (p. 108) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact, barrel-shaped, particularly obvious towards rear. Wing relatively short, broader and blunter than White-rumped Swift. Tail very short, square-ended (not forked), round when fanned. COLORATION Dark sooty-black with prominent white rump patch extending onto rear flanks. Black eye and eyepit distinct. ABOVE: Broad, ‘square’ white rump patch. Back, mantle and forewing darker than rest of wing, head and nape; head brownish-grey, rather pale. BELOW: Large white throat-patch. Underwing coverts sooty-black and dark grey; flight feathers somewhat paler (grey-brown), but contrast weaker than on White-rumped Swift. FLIGHT Slow but with rapid fluttering (reminiscent of a small bat), often interspersed with short glides; wingbeats stiff, less graceful and less agile than Common Swift [p. 100]. FLOCK Gregarious, migrating flock presumably like other swifts consisting of tens up to 100; associates with Northern House Martins [p. 110], Common Swifts and Pallid Swifts [p. 102].

106

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LITTLE SWIFT CALL Simple, rapid, rippling trill, regularly

rising and falling in pitch (resembling Eurasian Skylark song in sound quality). | Irregular fast series of high-pitched, pure, short whistles, “si si si…” (similar to Common Kingfisher call [p. 72]).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

107

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SWIFTS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

White-rumped Swift L 14 cm | W 32–33 cm SIZE Like Barn Swallow [p. 9]; smaller than Common Swift [p. 8],

larger than Little Swift [p. 106]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slim, particularly behind wings. Wing narrow, longer and more pointed than that of Little Swift. Tail long (much longer than on Little Swift) and deeply forked (recalling a juvenile Barn Swallow [p. 114]). COLORATION Dark sooty-black with narrow white rump patch not extending onto rear flanks. Head rather dark greyish-brown, black eye and eyepit rather indistinct. ABOVE: Narrow, crescent-shaped white rump patch half as broad as on Little Swift. Back, mantle and forewing barely darker than rest of wing, head and nape; inner secondary tips pale. BELOW: Large white throat-patch. Contrast between underwing coverts and paler flight feathers somewhat stronger than on Little Swift. FLIGHT Similar to Common Swift [p. 100] or even more graceful, glides longer. FLOCK Often 1–10, rarely up to 100; sometimes in mixed flocks with Common Swifts and Pallid Swifts [p. 102].

Apus caffer Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Little Swift (p. 106) Northern House Martin (p. 110) Pallid Swift (p. 102) Common Swift (p. 100)

108

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WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT CALL Very indistinct, rasping “pzzzi”

(reminiscent of Common Swift’s vibrating scream but lower-pitched). | Very impure and rasping “pzzzi.” | Fast series, “pzi-pzi-pzi-pzipzi-pzi-pzi-pzi,” rising in volume.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

109

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MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Northern House Martin L 13·5–15 cm | W 26–29 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Great Tit [p. 9]; slightly smaller than Barn

Swallow [p. 9], slightly larger than Collared Sand Martin [p. 118].

Delichon urbicum Diurnal migrant Barn Swallow (p. 114) Collared Sand Martin (p. 118) Little Swift (p. 106) Common Swift (p. 100)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated; neck very short. Head larger than on Barn Swallow [p. 114]; bill very short. Wing shorter and less pointed than on Barn Swallow (appears broader); tail much shorter (no streamers) and broader-based, tail fork moderately deep. COLORATION Very dark above, white below; broad white rump merging with flanks and underparts. ABOVE: Upperparts black (with deep blue gloss); wings and tail very dark brown. Rump strikingly white. BELOW: Underparts from chin to undertail-coverts white; in juvenile hint of narrow greyish breast-band. Underwing uniform, very dark. FLIGHT Fast, easy, less sweeping than Barn Swallow. Wingbeats faster than Collared Sand Martin and Barn Swallow; somewhat stiff but bend at carpal joint obvious. Flapping phases rather short; non-flapping intervals longer. Glides regularly frequent, usually long, on extended, drooped (often markedly) wings. FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 100, rarely some hundreds. Loose, randomly dispersed, uncoordinated. When foraging can mingle with Barn Swallows, Red-rumped Swallows [p. 112], Collared Sand Martins, Common Swifts [p. 100] and Alpine Swifts [p. 104].

110

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NORTHERN HOUSE MARTIN CALL Harsh, rolling chirp, a

kHz 10

slightly ascending “prrrrit” (more vocalic, higher-pitched and shorter than Collared Sand Martin). | Markedly descending, vibrating “tsyer” (very similar to Eurasian Crag Martin [p. 116] but slightly higher-pitched and a little quicker).

8 6 4 2 0

JUV . JUV .

JUV .

111

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MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Red-rumped Swallow L 14–19 cm (incl . tail 3–5 cm) | W 27–32 cm SIZE Like Barn Swallow [p. 9] and Eurasian Crag Martin [p. 116];

slightly larger than Northern House Martin [p. 9], much smaller than Common Swift [p. 8].

Cecropis daurica Diurnal migrant Barn Swallow (p. 114) Northern House Martin (p. 110)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Like Barn Swallow [p. 114]. Body slender; neck short. Head rounded; bill short, flat. Wing long, pointed. Tail long, deeply forked; adult has long streamers, on juvenile streamers broader and slightly shorter. Streamers in closed tail form long, very narrow, single point (Barn Swallow usually shows two thin points). COLORATION Tail with uppertail- and undertail-coverts black, very clearly demarcated from white (or pale buff) band ‘wrapping around’ rump and vent. Face and neck pale (throat whitish-buff, cheek warm buff, nape and side of neck rufous-buff) contrasting with black cap. ABOVE: Upperparts black with deep blue metallic gloss. Contrasting pale rump, orange-buff between tertials blurring to whitish towards tail. BELOW: Underparts mostly buff, underbody indistinctly streaked or plain (no dark band across upper breast as on Barn Swallow). Dark grey flight feathers contrast with buff underwing coverts. No pale tail-bar (sometimes diffuse whitish spot on outermost feathers). FLIGHT Fast, easy, sweeping, with many manoeuvres. Wingbeats flexible (outerwings bend flexibly and swivel noticeably at carpal joint). Flapping phases very long, irregular; non-flapping intervals very short. Glides of variable length (often long) on extended wings, much more frequent than Barn Swallow, rather like Northern House Martin [p. 110]. FLOCK Usually 1–15, sometimes up to some hundreds. Loose, randomly dispersed, uncoordinated. When foraging can mingle with Barn Swallows, Northern House Martins, Collared Sand Martins [p. 118], Common Swifts [p. 100] and Alpine Swifts [p. 104].

112

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RED-RUMPED SWALLOW CALL Upslurred, mild, nasal “wiyk”

(lower-pitched than Barn Swallow). | Short, energetic, ascending “vit” (similar to Barn Swallow but noticeably harsher and slightly lower-pitched).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

113

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MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Barn Swallow

Hirundo rustica

L 17–21 cm (incl . tail 3·0–6·5 cm); juv . 14–15 cm | W 29–32 cm

Diurnal migrant

SIZE Like Red-rumped Swallow [p. 112] and Eurasian Crag Martin [p. 116];

Red-rumped Swallow (p. 112)

Northern House Martin (p. 110) slightly larger than Northern House Martin [p. 9], smaller than Eurasian Crag Martin (p. 116) Common Swift [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slender; neck short. Head rounded (smaller than on Northern House Martin [p. 110]); bill short, flat. Wing long, pointed. Tail long; adult has very long, thin streamers, juvenile does not have streamers but tail still deeply forked. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts entirely black with deep blue metallic gloss (no pale rump). BELOW: Broad black band across upper breast and neck contrasting strongly with whitish (or pale pinkish-buff) underbody. On adult, chin, throat and forehead rusty-red-brown but usually imperceptible; on juvenile paler (various shades of buff), the contrast with black head and neck sometimes distinct. Underwing coverts pale (white to warm buff), contrasting with dark grey flight feathers. Undertail-coverts pale (pinkish-buff) contrasting with tail. White tail-bar (row of elongated subterminal spots) shows while tail fanned (most easily visible from below). FLIGHT Fast, easy, sweeping, with many manoeuvres. Wingbeats flexible (outerwings bend flexibly and swivel noticeably at carpal joint) (slower than Northern House Martin and Collared Sand Martin [p. 118]). Flapping phases very long, irregular; non-flapping intervals very short. Glides of variable length (not as frequent as Redrumped Swallow and Northern House Martin). FLOCK Mostly 1–10, often up to 100, rarely up to 250, exceptionally (in autumn) thousands. Loose, randomly dispersed, uncoordinated. When foraging can mingle with Common Swifts [p. 100], Alpine Swifts [p. 104], Northern House Martins, Collared Sand Martins and Red-rumped Swallows.

juvenile

114

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BARN SWALLOW CALL High-pitched, short, ascending

“vit,” “vit-vit.” | Distinct, nasal, peeping, descending “ti-tsi.” | Slightly hissing “pssiip.” | Various very quick, high-pitched, chirping chatters.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

JUV . JUV . JUV .

115

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MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

Eurasian Crag Martin L 14–15 cm | W 27–32 cm SIZE Comparable to Barn Swallow [p. 9], body slightly larger, tail

shorter.

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Ptyonoprogne rupestris Diurnal migrant Collared Sand Martin (p. 118) Northern House Martin (p. 110) Barn Swallow (p. 114)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Intermediate between Collared Sand Martin [p. 118] and Barn Swallow [p. 114]. Body bulky and heavy-looking; neck short. Head small, rounded; bill small, shallow. Wing long, pointed; when swept back, distinctly projects beyond tail tip. Closed tail broad, tail fork very shallow, tail tips broad and rounded; when fanned, tail slightly rounded. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts uniform dark grey-brown. BELOW: Underbody and throat dull buffish-white (no dark breast-band). Rear flanks and belly darken diffusely towards undertail-coverts. Vent and undertail-coverts dark grey-brown, no contrast with tail. White tail-bar (row of subterminal spots) shows briefly when tail fanned (best seen from below). Underwing coverts darker than flight feathers, contrast moderate but obvious. FLIGHT Fast, agile (similar to Barn Swallow); dives and swoops more frequently than other martins and swallows. Flapping phases very long, irregular; non-flapping intervals short. Glides on flexible, slightly drooped wings (more often than Collared Sand Martin). Wings stiff (do not move like ‘scissor blades’ as in Collared Sand Martin), bent at carpal joint (as Barn Swallow). In side view, movements more reminiscent of Collared Sand Martin. FLOCK Usually 1–10, rarely more. Highly dispersed, uncoordinated. When foraging, can mingle with Collared Sand Martins and Barn Swallows.

116

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EURASIAN CRAG MARTIN CALL Grating “tzrr-zrt” (like Northern House Martin [p. 110] but slightly higherpitched and purer, less harsh). | Markedly descending, vibrating “tsyer” (very similar to Northern House Martin but slightly lower-pitched and a little slower). | Pure, smoothly downslurred whistle, “tyyu” (pitch like Wood Warbler [p. 272], downslur like Eurasian Bullfinch [p. 432]). | Other short chirps reminiscent of Barn Swallow.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

117

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MARTINS AND SWALLOWS

Swifts, swallows and martins compared p. 98

Collared Sand Martin L 12–13 cm | W 26–29 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9], wingspan as

White Wagtail [p. 9]; smaller than Northern House Martin [p. 9], much smaller than Barn Swallow [p. 9].

Riparia riparia Diurnal migrant Eurasian Crag Martin (p. 116) Northern House Martin (p. 110)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, rotund. Head small, rounded; bill small, shallow. Wing long, pointed; when swept back, barely projects beyond tail tip. Tail fork shallow; tail almost square-cut when fanned, when closed appears short due to long, bulging undertail-coverts. COLORATION Dark ear-coverts contrast with white side of neck and throat. adult: ABOVE: Upperparts uniform dark sandy-brown. BELOW: Dark breast-band well demarcated, contrasting strongly with white throat and underbody. Underwing coverts dark greyish-brown, slightly darker than flight feathers. Undertail-coverts white. juvenile: ABOVE: Can appear paler, because of pale (white, grey or buff) feather fringes, very prominent in some individuals. FLIGHT Fast (but weaker than Barn Swallow [p. 114]). Flapping phases very long, irregular; non-flapping intervals very short and infrequent. Sometimes short glides. Wingbeats faster than Barn Swallow, slower than Northern House Martin [p. 110]; wings seemingly without bend (on Barn Swallow outerwings bend flexibly and swivel at carpal joint noticeably), appearing stiff (viewed from below appearing to move like ‘scissor blades’). FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 80, rarely up to 1,000. Highly dispersed, uncoordinated. When foraging can mingle with Barn Swallows, Northern House Martins, Eurasian Crag Martins [p. 116], Common Swifts [p. 100] and Alpine Swifts [p. 104].

118

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COLLARED SAND MARTIN CALL Distinctive, scratchy, non-vocalic,

even-pitched “djjt,” “dshrr,” “trrrer,” “dzzzzzirt,” single, repeated or in short series. | Higher-pitched, squeaky, somewhat harsh and vibrating, markedly downslurred “prriiz,” “pzziiy.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

JUV .

JUV . JUV .

JUV .

119

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SHRIKES Key identification features  size and shape of white patch on wing  black and white pattern on tail or tail colour  mantle and scapular colour (white on

scapulars)

 clarity and range of dark mask on face  relative wing length/width and tail shape

STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Rather large head with stout bill. Tail medium-length or long. FLIGHT: Easy, graceful, sweeping. F-wave distinct (except in Lesser Grey Shrike). Wingbeats rather slow, easy, deep, a little floppy. Flapping phases irregular; non-flapping intervals usually short, sometimes glides; can hover. CALLS: Usually silent but in short flights may occasionally utter social calls.

Iberian Grey Shrike (p. 128)

juvenile

Great Grey Shrike (p. 126)

juvenile

Lesser Grey Shrike (p. 130)

juvenile

juvenile

Red-tailed Shrike (p. 124) Isabelline and Red-tailed Shrike (p. 124) Isabelline Shrike (p. 124) ♀ Red-backed Shrike (p. 122) ♂ juvenile

Woodchat Shrike (p. 134)

juvenile

Masked Shrike (p. 132)

120

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SHRIKES

Iberian Grey Shrike (p. 128)

Great Grey Shrike (western Europe) (p. 126)

Great Grey Shrike (eastern Europe) (p. 126)

Lesser Grey Shrike (p. 130)

Woodchat Shrike (p. 134)

Masked Shrike (p. 132)

juvenile

male

Red-backed Shrike (p. 122)

Isabelline Shrike (p. 124)

(some have narrow pale outerwing patch)

Great Grey Shrike (p. 126)

Iberian Grey Shrike (p. 128)

Woodchat Shrike (p. 134)

Lesser Grey Shrike (p. 130)

Red-tailed Shrike (p. 124)

Masked Shrike (p. 132)

male

Red-backed Shrike (p. 122)

Isabelline and Red-tailed Shrike (p. 124)

Isabelline and Red-tailed Shrikes are very similar and hard to separate from each other, and to distinguish from female/immature/juvenile Red-backed Shrike, although Red-backed Shrike in these plumages lacks white patch on outerwing.

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SHRIKES

Shrikes compared p. 120

Lanius collurio

Red-backed Shrike Female/immature/juvenile very hard to distinguish from Isabelline and Red-tailed Shrikes [p. 124]. L 16–18 cm | W 24–27 cm SIZE Like Yellowhammer [p. 9]; larger than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head rather large, oval; bill stout.

Wing long, rather narrow, slightly pointed, obviously flexible. Tail long (slightly longer than on Isabelline Shrike or Red-tailed Shrike), square-cut. COLORATION ♂ terminal half of tail black, basal half white; mantle and upperwing secondary-coverts rufous; rump grey; long black mask. ♀ tail, mantle and upperwing secondary-coverts warm brown; rump grey; earcoverts dark brown; lores and forehead whitish; pale brown cap. juvenile/ immature: rather similar to female but appears almost uniform greyishbrown above (dark barring barely visible); head paler with dark brown ear-coverts. FLIGHT Fast, direct, agile, graceful, sweeping; faster than chats [p. 361], warblers [p.305] and pipits [p. 186]. F-wave distinct, long, moderately high (higher than Woodchat Shrike [p. 134]). Wingbeats rather slow, easy, deep, a little floppy. Flapping phases irregular; non-flapping intervals usually short, sometimes glides. Over open landscapes flies low, 0·5–1·0 m above vegetation. Can hover when hunting. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

♂

Nocturnal migrant Isabelline Shrike (p. 124) Red-tailed Shrike (p. 124) Other shrikes (p. 120) Eurasian Wryneck (p. 306) Rufous-tailed Scrub-robin (p. 376)

(some have narrow pale outerwing patch – see p. 121)

♂

♀

juvenile

122

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RED-BACKED SHRIKE

Difficult species compared p. 305 CALL In short-distance flight sometimes

kHz 10

utters an alarm call: a single, double or triple harsh crack, “chet,” repeated irregularly; or a fast, accelerating series of notes, “chet chet chet-chet-cht-chzchzchzcht cht.” In longdistance flight presumably silent.

8 6 4 2 0

♀ ♀

♀ JUV .

JUV .

♀ JUV .

♂ JUV .

♂ ♂

♂

♀

JUV .

♀

123

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SHRIKES V Asia V Asia

Shrikes compared p. 120

Isabelline Shrike

Lanius isabellinus

Red-tailed Shrike

Lanius phoenicuroides

Female/immature/juvenile of Isabelline Shrike and Red-tailed Shrike practically inseparable in flight; and both very hard to distinguish from Red-backed Shrike (p. 122) in respective plumages. Differences more obvious on adult male. Female/ immature/juvenile more dull coloured with weaker contrasts.

Nocturnal migrants Red-backed Shrike (p. 122) Other shrikes (p. 120)

L 16·5–18 cm | W 26–28 cm SIZE Like Red-backed Shrike [p. 9]; larger than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Like Red-backed Shrike [p. 122]. Body elongated.

Head rather large, oval; bill stout. Wing long, rather narrow, slightly pointed, obviously flexible. Tail long, square-cut (slightly longer than on Red-backed Shrike). COLORATION

Isabelline Shrike: Crown, nape, mantle and back greyish-brown or brownish-grey. Supercilium buff, indistinct. In many individuals the lores are pale, with black mask appearing shorter than on Red-tailed Shrike. Tail same rufous colour as rump. Underparts warm buff. Red-tailed Shrike: Nape, mantle and back colder brown (slightly darker than Isabelline Shrike). Crown with rufous cast. Supercilium white (more distinct than on Isabelline Shrike). Lores black (mask longer than on Isabelline Shrike). Tail same rufous colour as rump. Underparts pale buff to white, particularly on throat. FLIGHT Fast, direct, agile, graceful, sweeping (like Red-backed Shrike). F-wave distinct, long, moderately high. Wingbeats rather slow, easy, deep, a little floppy. Flapping phases irregular; non-flapping intervals usually short, sometimes glides. Over open landscapes flies low above vegetation. Hovers when hunting. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

ISABELLINE

RED-TAILED

ISABELLINE and RED-TAILED

juvenile

124

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ISABELLINE SHRIKE | RED-TAILED SHRIKE CALL  In short-distance flight sometimes utters an alarm call: harsh crack, “chet” (slightly lower and longer than Red-backed Shrike), repeated or in series.

ISABELLINE SHRIKE

RED-TAILED SHRIKE

125

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SHRIKES

Great Grey Shrike L 21–26 cm | W 30–34 cm SIZE Like Fieldfare [p. 8] or Iberian Grey Shrike [p. 128]; larger than

Lesser Grey Shrike [p. 130], much larger than Red-backed Shrike [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact. Head large; bill stout, medium-length (shorter than on Iberian Grey Shrike). Wing relatively short and broad, appears rounded. Tail very long, graduated. COLORATION White, pale grey and black, with narrow black mask (grey much paler than on Iberian Grey Shrike and mask narrower). On juvenile, breast greyish (looks ‘dirty’), mask smaller. ABOVE: Upperparts from forehead to uppertail-coverts, including scapulars and fore part of lesser coverts, grey. Wing black with white primary bases, forming distinct wing patch (narrower than on Lesser Grey Shrike). Tail white at sides; black along length when fanned (black patch across terminal half of tail on Lesser Grey Shrike). BELOW: Underwing with blackish flight feathers and contrasting white wing patch and coverts; indistinct grey carpal patch. Eastern subspecies homeyeri paler, with long white wing patch extending onto secondaries; outer scapulars, uppertail-coverts base of tail and two outer pairs of tail feathers white; black patch on fanned tail narrower. FLIGHT Easy, rather slow. F-wave distinct, regular, long, rather slight (flat in Lesser Grey Shrike). Flapping phase rather short; non-flapping phase long. Wingbeats regular, deep. Sometimes glides on nearly folded wings. Often hovers. FLOCK Usually, single birds, sometimes 2–5.

Shrikes compared p. 120

Lanius excubitor Mainly nocturnal migrant Iberian Grey Shrike (p. 128) Lesser Grey Shrike (p. 130)

ssp . homeyeri

juvenile

126

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GREAT GREY SHRIKE CALL Seldom utters alarm or social calls:

various simple shrills or trills, e.g. “trrrii.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

127

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SHRIKES

Iberian Grey Shrike L 24–25 cm | W 30–33 cm SIZE Like Great Grey Shrike [p. 126] or Fieldfare [p. 8]; larger than Lesser

Grey Shrike [p. 130], much larger than Red-backed Shrike [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact. Head large; bill stout (longer than on Great Grey Shrike). Wing relatively short and broad, appears rounded. Tail very long, graduated. COLORATION White, grey and black; black mask contrasting with narrow white supercilium (grey much darker than on Great Grey Shrike and mask broader). ABOVE: Upperparts from forehead to uppertail-coverts, including scapulars and fore part of lesser coverts, dark grey. Wing black with white primary bases, forming distinct wing patch (never white on secondaries). Tail mostly black, with white corners (some Great Grey Shrikes similar). BELOW: Underwing with blackish flight feathers and contrasting white wing patch and coverts; indistinct grey carpal patch. Flanks as grey as mantle. Underbody of ♂ pinkish; ♀ pinkish-grey or buffish-grey. juvenile, duller, brownish-grey. FLIGHT Easy, rather slow. F-wave distinct, regular, long, rather slight (flat in Lesser Grey Shrike). Non-flapping phase long. Wingbeats regular, deep. Sometimes glides on nearly folded wings. Often hovers. FLOCK Usually, single birds.

Shrikes compared p. 120

Lanius meridionalis Nocturnal migrant Great Grey Shrike (p. 126) Lesser Grey Shrike (p. 130)

juvenile

128

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IBERIAN GREY SHRIKE CALL  Seldom utters alarm or social calls:

various simple shrills or trills, e.g. “trriwi.”

JUV.

129

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SHRIKES

Lesser Grey Shrike L 19–21 cm | W 28–30 cm SIZE Comparable to Song Thrush [p. 8] or Common Starling [p. 8];

Shrikes compared p. 120

Lanius minor Nocturnal migrant

Great Grey Shrike (p. 126) larger than Red-backed Shrike [p. 9], smaller than Great Grey Shrike Iberian Grey Shrike (p. 128) [p. 126]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded, stern fairly plump. Head large, broad, deep, with high, steep forehead; bill deep, rather short. Wing flexible, relatively long, broad at base; outerwing tapered and fairly pointed. Tail long, narrow. Body shorter and more compact than Great Grey Shrike; tail markedly shorter. COLORATION White, grey and black. Black mask reaches over eye and covers whole of forehead; in juvenile, forehead pale sandy-grey. ABOVE: Upperparts from crown to uppertail-coverts, including scapulars, grey. Wing black with white primary bases (never white on secondaries), forming very distinct wing patch (broader than on Great Grey Shrike); flickers markedly. Tail white at base; black patch across terminal half of tail when fanned (black along length of tail on Great Grey Shrike). BELOW: Underwing with black flight feathers and contrasting broad white wing patch and coverts; distinct narrow black, crescent-shaped carpal patch. FLIGHT Light, easy, direct. F-wave very flat, often scarcely perceptible (distinct in Great Grey Shrike and Iberian Grey Shrike [p. 128]). Wingbeats regular, shallow, rather slow (single beats discernible). Flapping phase very long; non-flapping intervals short, infrequent. Wings rarely folded completely, more often half-folded and somewhat angled backwards for a short glide, when body is inclined slightly upwards and tail slightly drooped. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 5.

juvenile

130

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LESSER GREY SHRIKE CALL Seldom utters alarm call: short

“che,” “chre” or “shre,” singly or repeated.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

131

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SHRIKES

Masked Shrike L 17–18·5 cm | W 25–26 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Red-backed Shrike [p. 9] or Woodchat Shrike

[p. 134]; slightly larger than White Wagtail [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slim. Head rounded; bill relatively deep but short. Wing slightly shorter and more rounded than on Red-backed Shrike [p. 122]. Tail long. COLORATION Black-and-white; ♀ more greyish-brown. Black eyestripe from bill to nape, relatively narrow. Forehead and broad supercilium white. ABOVE: White scapulars form contrasting broad ‘braces’. Inner part of outerwing white, outer part black; white primary patch (markedly larger than on Woodchat Shrike). Tail mostly black, two outermost pairs of feathers white. BELOW: Underwing blackish with fairly large white primary patch (stronger contrast than on Woodchat Shrike). Flanks buff-orange. juvenile: very similar to juvenile Woodchat Shrike but cold brownish-grey; rump dark; tail blackish, broadly edged white; large white primary patch. FLIGHT Light (weaker and more uneven than Red-backed Shrike and Woodchat Shrike, not as energetic and graceful). F-wave slight, sometimes flat. FLOCK Usually single birds.

Shrikes compared p. 120

Lanius nubicus Nocturnal migrant Woodchat Shrike (p. 134) Other shrikes (p. 120)

juvenile

132

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MASKED SHRIKE CALL  Seldom utters alarm call: short rattling

notes, single, double or triple “chrrr,” “chrrchrr-chrr” (resembles Mistle Thrush [p. 336] in quality but tempo markedly quicker).

JUV.

133

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SHRIKES

Woodchat Shrike L 24–25 cm | W 25–27 cm SIZE As Red-backed Shrike [p. 9] or Yellowhammer [p. 9]; larger than

House Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head oval (can appear larger than on Red-backed Shrike [p. 122]); bill stout. Wings long, rather narrow, slightly pointed, obviously flexible (longer than on Masked Shrike [p. 460]). Tail long, square-cut. COLORATION Brownish-black and white with rufous crown and nape. Black mask broad and long, joins black stripe across forehead. ABOVE: White primary patch (markedly smaller than on Masked Shrike and Lesser Grey Shrike [p. 130]). White scapulars form very distinct broad stripes. Uppertailcoverts and rump white. Tail black but obvious white base when fanned. BELOW: Underwing grey with rather small white primary patch (less contrast than Masked Shrike). juvenile: similar to juvenile Red-backed Shrike but head paler (particularly forehead), scapulars white, rump pale; separable from juvenile Masked Shrike by generally rufous-brown coloration, brown tail, pale rump and smaller primary patch. FLIGHT Fast, direct, agile, graceful, sweeping; faster than chats [p. 361], warblers [from p. 232] and pipits [p. 186]. F-wave distinct, long, rather slight (slighter than Red-backed Shrike). Wingbeats rather slow, deep, easy, rather floppy. Non-flapping intervals usually short. Sometimes glides. Can hover when hunting. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Shrikes compared p. 120

Lanius senator Nocturnal migrant Masked Shrike (p. 132) Red-backed Shrike (p. 122) Other shrikes (p. 120)

juvenile

134

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WOODCHAT SHRIKE CALL  Sometimes utters alarm call in short-

distance flight: single, repeated, short, harsh, nasal slightly scraping “tchrr.”

 JUV.

 JUV.

135

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CORVIDS

CORVIDS Key identification features  overall coloration and

patterning  relative wing length/width and tail shape

FLIGHT: This group uses flap-gliding flight: during non-flapping phases the wings are not folded against the body but extended or half-folded, resulting in glides. Often gregarious, particularly on migration and during the winter, flying in groups and flocks.

Confusing piebald corvids 

Occasionally, Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154), Carrion and Hooded Crows (p. 150), Rook (p. 148) or Common Raven (p. 160) have prominent symmetrical white pattern on wings, e.g. wide white bar across all flight feathers, contrasting with dark trailing edge, rarely also across tail. This partial leucism is due a genetic abnormality.

Siberian Jay (p. 142)

Iberian Azure-winged Magpie (p. 146)

Red-billed Chough (p. 158)

Yellow-billed Chough (p. 156)

Hooded Crow (p. 150)

Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154)

Eurasian Jay (p. 138)

Carrion Crow (leucistic)

Northern Nutcracker (p. 140)

Eurasian Magpie (p. 144)

Rook (p. 148)

juvenile

Rook (p. 148)

Carrion Crow (p. 150)

Common Raven (p. 160)

136

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CORVIDS

Black corvid sihouettes Red-billed Chough (p. 158)

Yellow-billed Chough (p. 156)

Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154)

Rook (p. 148)

Carrion and Hooded Crows (p. 150)

Common Raven (p. 160)

Black Woodpecker (p. 90)

Common Buzzard Buteo buteo

The illustrations above are not drawn to scale, but presented to enable direct comparison of shapes (the wingspan of Common Raven is close to that of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo). The wingtips of all species are broad, divided into 4–6 long fingers, reminiscent of raptors. The most obvious structural difference is that the ‘front end’ of a corvid is longer than that of a raptor, and they have a longer straight bill.

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137

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CORVIDS

Eurasian Jay L 32–35 cm | W 50 cm SIZE As Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8] or Northern Nutcracker [p. 140];

Corvids compared p. 136

Garrulus glandarius Diurnal migrant (irruptive)

Northern Nutcracker (p. 140) slightly smaller than Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon] [p. 44]. Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body broad, rather short. Head round; bill stout, Siberian Jay (p. 142) medium-length (shorter than on Northern Nutcracker). Wing large, broad, markedly rounded; tip distinctly fingered. Tail fairly long (longer than on Northern Nutcracker). COLORATION Pinkish-grey (with rufous cast), black and white. ABOVE: White rump and uppertail-coverts contrast strongly with black tail (best identification feature and visible from a great distance). Blue colour on upperwing barely noticeable. Five longitudinal white stripes on black secondaries form prominent panel. BELOW: Underparts appear plain grey; paler underbody tinged pinkish. Diffuse but distinct white patch on throat; undertail-coverts white. South-eastern subspecies have extensive white face and black cap. FLIGHT Slow (less direct and slower than Northern Nutcracker). Wingbeats deep, floppy, a little erratic. F-wave slight, irregular. Short flapping phases interspersed with variably long glides on fully extended, slightly drooped wings (longer glides than Northern Nutcracker). Wings never folded completely; primary tips show at tail base. Body with head inclined upwards, tail slightly drooped (overall ‘slant’ more pronounced than on Northern Nutcracker). FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 100; during irruption 400 or more. Very loose, broadly and disorderly dispersed; intra-flock movement slight and birds do not overtake each other. Can occur with Eurasian Magpies [p. 144].

SOutH-eaStern ssp .

138

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EURASIAN JAY CALL Seldom calls in flight. Distinctive far-carrying, rasping scream, “hrrrrrae,” “hrrre.” | Harsh wooden rattle, “krt,” “krrre.” | Drawn-out, quiet, upslurred murmur, “korrrree,” “urrrr.” | Loud, mewing “piaae” (similar to Common Buzzard Buteo buteo but not so pure and usually slightly higher-pitched). kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

SOutH-eaStern ssp .

139

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CORVIDS

Northern Nutcracker

Corvids compared p. 136

Nucifraga caryocatactes

L 32–34 cm | W 40–50 cm SIZE Comparable to Eurasian Jay [p. 138] or Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump, rotund. Head large, elongated, forehead

Diurnal migrant (irruptive) Eurasian Jay (p. 138) Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) Siberian Jay (p. 142) Black Woodpecker (p. 90)

flat; bill long, tapered (longer than on Eurasian Jay). Wing large, broad, markedly rounded; tip distinctly fingered. Tail rather short and broad, slightly rounded at tip (shorter than on Eurasian Jay). COLORATION Black, dark brown and white. Cap warm dark brown surrounded by white spotting, lore white, cheek and throat streaked white. ABOVE: From nape to back, including scapulars and lesser coverts, dense white spots. Rest of upperwing brownish-black, white tips of coverts indistinct. Rump black; tail blackish with contrasting white corners: seen against a pale background white part of fanned tail can be invisible and tail appears wedge-shaped. BELOW: Underbody heavily spotted white. Vent and undertail-coverts contrastingly white. Undertail black at base, tipped white. Underwing dark greyish-brown, with three rows of white spots across underwing coverts; two white spots of variable size on inner primaries. FLIGHT More direct and faster than Eurasian Jay. Wingbeats deep, floppy (more even and faster than Eurasian Jay). F-wave slight, irregular. Short flapping phases interspersed with short glides on extended, slightly drooped wings (shorter than Eurasian Jay), or glide with wings not completely folded; fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. Flapping sometimes accelerates, but never as distinctly as Eurasian Magpie [p. 144]. Body with head inclined upwards (but bill slightly drooped) and tail slightly drooped (overall ‘slant’ less pronounced than Eurasian Jay). FLOCK Usually 1–5, occasionally up to 20, during irruption sometimes up to some hundreds. Very loose, broadly and disorderly dispersed, uncoordinated; intra-flock movement slight and birds do not overtake one another.

140

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NORTHERN NUTCRACKER CALL Very seldom calls, probably silent on

migration. Husky, grating, ascending “krrä,” single, double or triple “krrä-krrä-krrä,” or longer “rrääsh-rrääsh” (not so rasping and ‘offensive’ as Eurasian Jay, more even and somewhat buzzing).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

141

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CORVIDS

Siberian Jay L 25–31 cm | W 40–48 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8], markedly

smaller than Eurasian Jay [p. 138]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Large round head, long tail (long body feathers give an overall impression of being larger than Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330]). Bill rather short, medium-depth (smaller, relatively, than on Eurasian Jay). Wing short and very rounded. Tail fairly long, often fanned. Overall shape reminiscent of an oversized tit [p. 162]. COLORATION Grey and bright rufous. Upper part of head dark brown. ABOVE: Large carpal patch, uppertail-coverts and tail feathers (except grey central pair) rufous. BELOW: Carpal patch, most of underwing coverts, flanks, belly, undertail-coverts and undertail rufous. FLIGHT Short, rapid flapping phases interspersed with long, straight glides. Wings never folded completely. Strictly forest-dwelling, non-migratory species; predominantly flies only a short way, avoiding long distances over open landscapes. Often flies low. FLOCK Gregarious: groups often 3–5, sometimes up to 10, rarely up to 15.

Corvids compared p. 136

Perisoreus infaustus Non-migratory Eurasian Jay (p. 138) Northern Nutcracker (p. 140)

142

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SIBERIAN JAY CALL Seldom uttered; various short calls similar to Eurasian Jay and woodpeckers [p. 78] but softer and not so

loud.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

143

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CORVIDS

Corvids compared p. 136

Pica pica

Eurasian Magpie L 40–51 cm (incl . tail 20–30 cm) | W 56–61 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8] or Eurasian Jay

Diurnal migrant

Iberian Azure-winged Magpie [p. 138]; markedly larger than Iberian Azure-winged Magpie [p. 146]. (p. 146) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, rotund. Head relatively large; bill stout. Wing broad, markedly rounded, tip distinctly fingered. Tail very long, narrow, strongly graduated; wedge-shaped when fanned. COLORATION Body short, rotund. Head relatively large; bill stout. Wing broad, markedly rounded, tip distinctly fingered. Tail very long, narrow, strongly graduated; wedge-shaped when fanned. FLIGHT Languid, slow, uneven. Flight action unique: a long phase of slow flapping followed by a short phase of rapid, nervous wingbeats, before slow flapping again. No other bird in Europe flies in this way and Eurasian Magpie can be identified by its changeable wingbeat rhythm alone, even at very long distance. Sometimes short glide on extended, slightly drooped wings. Can glide long distance on extended wings held horizontally (like Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus). FLOCK Usually 1–8, sometimes up to 20; around nocturnal communal roosts occasionally hundreds, exceptionally up to 2,000. Very loose, uncoordinated, extended backwards or disorderly dispersed; intra-flock movement slight and birds do not overtake each other; in small groups (3–8) birds can fly close together. Can occur with Eurasian Jays.

adult

juvenile/immature

144

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EURASIAN MAGPIE CALL Most often short,

sharp, harsh “chaka,” “chaka-chaka,” with strong accent on first “cha.” | Also loud, dry rattle, “karrarara” (like toy machine-gun). | Rarely, loud, rather long, rasping “trrrrrre” (like tearing of heavy canvas).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

145

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CORVIDS

Iberian Azure-winged Magpie L 34–36 cm | W 45–50 cm SIZE Body size and wingspan like Fieldfare [p. 8]; markedly smaller than

Corvids compared p. 136

Cyanopica cooki Non-migratory

Eurasian Magpie (p. 144) Eurasian Magpie [p. 144]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather short, head moderately large; bill stout, medium-sized. Wing large, broad, markedly rounded, flexible (larger, broader and rounder than on Eurasian Magpie). Tail very long, narrow, strongly graduated; wedge-shaped when fanned. COLORATION ABOVE: Wing and tail pale blue; inner vanes of flight feathers grey. Mantle, scapulars and back pale brown-grey. Extensive black hood merges with black bill, concealing dark eye. BELOW: Underbody appears uniformly grey; throat white. In lateral view, a striking contrast between black hood and white chin and throat. FLIGHT Light and agile (more fluent than Eurasian Magpie). Wingbeats deep, floppy (faster and more flexible than Eurasian Magpie). F-wave slight, irregular. Variable flapping phases interspersed with short glides on wings fully extended, held horizontally or slightly drooped. Sometimes pursues flying insects. FLOCK Gregarious year-round: family groups of up to 10, flocks of up to 70; evening flights towards communal roost can number more than 100. Very loose, uncoordinated, extended backwards or disorderly dispersed.

146

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IBERIAN AZURE-WINGED MAGPIE CALL Mild, vibrating, upslurred “vrrrui”

kHz 10

(reminiscent of Common Starling [p. 322] but longer and vibration more pronounced.

8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

147

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CORVIDS

Rook L 41–49 cm | W 80–90 cm SIZE As Carrion/Hooded Crows [p. 150]; larger than Eurasian Jackdaw

Corvids compared p. 136

Corvus frugilegus Diurnal migrant

Carrion Crow (p. 150) [p. 8], much smaller than Common Raven [p. 160]. Hooded Crow (p. 150) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, barrel-shaped. Rounded head merges Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) with thick neck, forehead slanted; bill long, rather slender (more evenly Common Raven (p. 160) tapered than crows). Wing, particularly outerwing, narrower than on crows, appears longer; fingers shorter and less distinct. Tail moderately long, narrow, tip rounded. When circling with wings fully extended, narrower wing base makes trailing edge appear to bulge. In adult, skin around bill is bare, making bill appear long and rather slender; in juvenile and immature, complete feathering around bill and over nostrils makes bill appear shorter (as in crows). COLORATION All-black. In adult, bare skin on chin and upper throat is apparent from below as pale grey (or whitish) patch. In juvenile and immature, complete feathering around bill on chin and upper throat is black. Underside of flight feathers dark grey, paler than black underwing coverts, but contrast weak. FLIGHT Direct and confident. Wingbeats soft, shallow (weaker than crows). Wings often partially closed for short glide. Sometimes circles in updrafts. FLOCK Usually 1–10; on migration and in evening flight to communal roost many hundreds, sometimes up to 5,000. Loose, fairly coordinated; if large numbers (hundreds), long and wavy. Intra-flock movement slight. Can fly very low (0·5–1·0 m over water) or hundreds of metres high. On migration regularly in mixed flocks with Eurasian Jackdaws [p. 154], rarely with other corvids.

juvenile

148

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ROOK CALL Coarse, rasping scream, kHz

“raaaa,” “wraaa” (same pitch as crows). | Unmodulated, slightly upslurred, single or repeated; ringing, raven-like “kryo.” | Short, downslurred “kraw.”

10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV . JUV .

JUV .

euraSian jaCKdaw

JUV .

149

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CORVIDS

Carrion Crow Hooded Crow Two species usually only separable in flight by call, unless plumage details can be seen clearly. L 44–51cm | W 85–90 cm SIZE As Rook [p. 148]; larger than Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8], much smaller than Common Raven [p. 160]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump, barrel-shaped. Forehead almost flat, merges with powerful long, deep bill. Wing, particularly outerwing, broader than on Rook (appears shorter); fingers long, distinct. Tail moderately long, rather broad, nearly square-cut. Particularly difficult to separate from juvenile and immature Rook, which also has feathered face and nostrils, but bill of Carrion Crow appears shorter and deeper and merges more smoothly with forehead. Rook’s bill is longer, slimmer and more evenly tapered, and forehead somewhat sloping, forming angle with culmen line.

Corvids compared p. 136

Corvus corone corone Corvus corone cornix Diurnal migrants Rook (esp . juv./imm.) (p. 148) Common Raven (p. 160) Other black corvids (p. 162)

COLORATION

Carrion Crow

Carrion Crow: All-black. Underside of flight feathers dark grey, paler than black underwing coverts, but contrast weak. Hooded Crow: Black-and-grey. Populations variable: grey ranges from pale to dark, some with pinkish or creamy cast. Black hood covers whole of head; throat merges with boldly streaked bib on upper breast. ABOVE: Nape, lesser coverts, mantle, scapulars and back grey; rump grey, mottled black. BELOW: Neck sides and underbody, including vent and undertail-coverts, grey; lesser and median underwing coverts grey, contrasting with black greater and primary-coverts. FLIGHT Direct, confident, rather slow (heavier, more sweeping than Rook). Wingbeats slow, regular, even, shallow (stronger than Rook). During glides Hooded Crow (of variable length) innerwings slightly raised, outerwings levelled. Seldom circles in updrafts. FLOCK Carrion Crow: Usually 1–20, in winter, sometimes up to 100, rarely more. Loose, fairly coordinated, extended backwards. Intra-flock movement slight. Hooded Crow: Usually 1–10; on migration and in evening flight to roost sometimes up to 500. Sometimes join flocks of Rooks and/or Eurasian Jackdaws [p. 154]. CALL Harsh, slightly rolling scream, “kaaa,” “kaakaa,” “kra,” “kara,” “kaera,” initially accented, downslurred

at end (same pitch as Rook but not so coarse; rather melodious). | Slow, rolling “kwarrra.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0 kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

150

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Flight photos pp. 152–153

CARRION CROW | HOODED CROW

HOODED CROW CARRION CROW

151

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CORVIDS

Corvids compared p. 136

CARRION CROW

152

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CARRION CROW | HOODED CROW HOODED CROW

153

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CORVIDS

Eurasian Jackdaw L 30–34 cm | W 70–75 cm SIZE Much larger than Fieldfare [p. 8]; as Eurasian Jay [p. 138] or

Corvids compared p. 136

Corvus monedula Diurnal migrant

Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon) Northern Nutcracker [p. 140], slightly smaller than Rock Dove (Feral (p. 44) Pigeon] [p. 44] or Yellow-billed Chough [p. 156]. Common Woodpigeon (p. 48) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact. Head profile nearly triangular; Yellow-billed Chough (p. 156) almost flat forehead merges with moderately long bill. Wing relatively long, Eurasian Jay (p. 138) rounded (narrower than on crows [p. 150], outerwing smaller). Tail mediumOther black corvids (p. 162) length. COLORATION Greyish-black. Front of head black, rear of head grey to paler grey, or whitish on nape and neck sides just above upper breast; contrast weak. Eye white. Bill black. Underside of flight feathers dark grey, paler than black underwing coverts, but contrast weak. FLIGHT Direct, fast, fluent, energetic (similar to pigeons [p. 42], but slower; compared with crows, flight faster, softer and more fluent, wingbeats higher and deeper). Flapping phases long, irregular. Irregular short glides on wings held horizontally, fairly drooped or partially folded. Can circle in updraft, when beats wings rather frequently. FLOCK Usually 1–30, occasionally up to 200; on migration or in evening flight to communal roost many hundreds up to 5,000. Well coordinated (rather similar to Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon), but slower, looser and more dispersed transversely). Compared with Rook [p. 138] and crows, more compact and dense. Can fly very low (0·5–1·0 m over water) or hundreds of metres high. Intra-flock movement slight (just a little stronger than Common Woodpigeon [p. 48]). On migration regularly in mixed flocks with Rooks, sometimes with other corvids. Rarely mingles in flocks of Common Woodpigeons.

154

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EURASIAN JACKDAW CALL Loud, short, abrupt, sharp,

high-pitched “kyyak,” “tyäk,” “kya-ka,” “ya-a-ka,” repeated or in irregular series. | Longer harsh shriek, “ärrrrr.” | Note: even a very large flock can be totally silent.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

155

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CORVIDS

Yellow-billed Chough L 37–39 cm | W 75–85 cm SIZE As Red-billed Chough [p. 158], slightly larger than Eurasian

Jackdaw [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short. Head small (appears smaller than on Redbilled Chough); bill small (smaller than on Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 154]). Wing moderately long, rather narrow and rounded (shorter and rounder than on Eurasian Jackdaw), fingers indistinct, outerwing appears rather small. Tail long (longer than on Red-billed Chough or Eurasian Jackdaw). COLORATION Black. Bill obviously much paler than head (yellow not always evident). Underside of flight feathers dark grey, paler than black underwing coverts, but contrast weak. FLIGHT Adapted to wind conditions, changeable, can be very fast. Wingbeats slow, shallow, fluent; glides very long. Often uses updrafts for circling, soaring and skilful gliding, momentarily adjusting to changes in air current by altering wing shape. FLOCK Gregarious: often 50–200, where abundant hundreds, up to 1,000. Sometimes with Red-billed Choughs or Eurasian Jackdaws.

Corvids compared p. 136

Pyrrhocorax graculus Non-migratory Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) Red-billed Chough (p. 158) Crows (p. 150)

156

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YELLOW-BILLED CHOUGH CALL Characteristic trill, “prrrrri,” “wrrrri”

(reminiscent of Common Starling [p. 322] but purer, distinctly upslurred rolling of “r” slower than that of Common Starling).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

157

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CORVIDS

Red-billed Chough

Corvids compared p. 136

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax

L 37–41 cm | W 75–90 cm SIZE As Yellow-billed Chough [p. 156], slightly larger than Eurasian

Jackdaw [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short. Small head merges with thick neck (appears larger than on Yellow-billed Chough); bill very long, decurved, pointed. Wing large, broad with long fingers (reminiscent of a raptor in shape but, relatively, much shorter); outerwing appears large. Tail long (shorter than on Yellow-billed Chough), in lateral view appears shortened due to long and bulging undertail-coverts. COLORATION Black. Bill obviously paler than head (red not always evident). Underside of flight feathers dark grey, paler than black underwing coverts, but contrast weak. FLIGHT Adapted to wind conditions, changeable, can be very fast. Wingbeats slow, shallow, fluent; glides very long. Often uses updrafts for circling, soaring and skilful gliding, momentarily adjusting to changes in air current by altering wing shape. In calm air flies like crows [p. 150], or Rook [p. 148]. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 20; where abundant hundreds up to 1,000. Sometimes with Yellow-billed Choughs or Eurasian Jackdaws [p. 154].

Diurnal migrant Yellow-billed Chough (p. 158) Eurasian Jackdaw (p. 154) Crows (p. 150) Common Raven (p. 160)

158

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RED-BILLED CHOUGH CALL Frequently repeated, placid, slightly

drawn-out “piärrr,” “chiarrr,” with strong accent on initial “pi” then distinct downslur (the same quality and pitch as Eurasian Jackdaw).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

159

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CORVIDS

Common Raven L 54–67 cm | W 125–135 cm SIZE Huge, comparable to Common Buzzard Buteo buteo; more than twice

Corvids compared p. 136

Corvus corax Diurnal migrant

Crows (p. 150) the size of Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8], much larger than Rook [p. 148] or Rook (p. 148) crows [p. 150]. Raptors STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather short and deep, stern long. Head short and deep; bill powerful, long and deep. Wings long, rather narrow; fingers long, distinct. Tail long. Often ruffles elongated feathers (beard) beneath bill, and sometimes also crest. Bill often half-open. Compared with crows and Rook: wings longer and narrower; outerwing narrower; head smaller and shorter; bill deeper and somewhat longer; tail wedge-shaped, with more deeply curved rear edge when fanned. Compared with Common Buzzard: distinctly longer neck plus head; bill four times longer; wing narrower; tail wedgeshaped, appears longer. COLORATION All-black; in strong sunlight can appear to ‘glitter’. In certain lights, contrast between black underwing coverts and glistening flight feathers. FLIGHT Wingbeats shallow, regular (faster than Common Buzzard, more fluent and flexible than Goshawk AccipIter gentilis). Variable length glides on horizontally held wings. Soars with wings held horizontally or slightly angled at the carpal joint and drooped towards tip (Common Buzzard soars with wings slightly lifted). Readily circles in updrafts. FLOCK Usually 1–2, on migration sometimes 3–10, rarely up to 50; in winter sometimes up to 300. Loose, disorderly dispersed, hardly coordinated.

160

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COMMON RAVEN CALL Low-pitched (close to human voice),

far-carrying, distinct, ringing, markedly rolling “kruk,” “kra-kra-kra,” “hra,” “rra-aa-a,” “u-kuk,” “klok-klok” and many others, usually slowly repeated. Sound quality reminiscent of human voice; calls are ‘spoken’ rather than screamed as in other corvids.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

161

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TITS Key identification features head pattern (cheek, bib) underbody colour  relative tail length STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Rather small birds with relatively large, round wings; short, rotund body; large, rounded head; and short bill . Body and head usually inclined upwards and tail slightly drooped; ‘slant’ more pronounced in smaller species .  

FLIGHT: Slow . F-wave short, sawtooth-shaped: during flapping phase rising rapidly, before descending slowly with wings folded . Gregarious, on migration and during winter flying in uncoordinated and noisy groups and flocks . Flock continuously and obviously changes shape due to considerable intra-flock movement . Flocks fly high over open landscapes with no trees or bushes; where trees and/or bushes provide an opportunity to forage, birds fly low, moving ‘from tree to tree’, frequently stopping to feed .

Great Tit (p. 164) Sombre Tit (p. 176) Willow Tit Marsh Tit (p. 172) Eurasian Blue Tit (p. 168) Siberian Tit (p. 174)

Crested Tit (p. 178) Azure Tit (p. 170)

Coal Tit (p. 166)

Eurasian Penduline-tit (p. 180)

162

Long-tailed Tit (p. 182)

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TITS

Great Tit (p. 164) Coal Tit (p. 166)

Sombre Tit (p. 176)

Siberian Tit (p. 174)

Willow Tit (p. 172)

Crested Tit (p. 178) Marsh Tit (p. 172) juvenile

Eurasian Blue Tit (p. 168) Azure Tit (p. 170)

Long-tailed Tit (p. 182)

Eurasian Penduline-tit (p. 180) Bearded Reedling (p. 184)

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female

163

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Parus major

Great Tit L 13·5–15 cm | W 18–20 cm SIZE Smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9]; largest of all the tits [p. 162]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky. Head comparatively smaller than in

Diurnal migrant Other tits (p. 162)

other tits; bill strong. Wing large, fairly rounded. Tail relatively long. COLORATION Head black. Cheek patch white, ‘triangular’, surrounded by black. ABOVE: Mantle and scapulars olive-green. One distinct, narrow white wingbar. Upperwing coverts grey. Rump, uppertail-coverts and tail grey. BELOW: Underbody pale yellow with black ventral stripe: ♂ broad, black patch on belly; ♀ belly whitish, sparsely spotted black. Sides of tail white. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. FLOCK Usually 1–30, rarely up to 250. Deep, loose, disorderly dispersed, with considerable intra-flock movement. Often with Eurasian Blue Tits [p. 168].

♂

♀

164

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GREAT TIT CALL Harsh very short explosive “chüt,” in

quick series, “checheche” or longer. | Slightly higher-pitched “pchüchüchüchüchi.” | Soft, fast “twitlitlitli.” | Single “tink” (very similar to Common Chaffinch [p. 416]), or series of “pin-pin-pin-pink.” | More melodious and ringing “zitchlichli” and other song-like sounds. | Other various, very short, highpitched peeping notes.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂

♂

♀

♀

♂

♂ ♂

165

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Coal Tit L 10–11·5 cm | W 17–21 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; much smaller than

Great Tit [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Short and compact. Head very large, rounded; bill small. Wing short, fairly rounded. Tail short. COLORATION Black, white, grey and buff. Head black. Cheek patch white, more or less ‘triangular’, surrounded with black. ABOVE: ‘Square’ white patch on nape. From mantle to uppertail-coverts, including lesser coverts, grey (shades variable). Two white wingbars (tips of greater and median coverts). BELOW: Underbody buff, central breast and belly paler; strong contrast with black bib, which extends to lower throat. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. FLOCK Usually 1–10, rarely up to 150, exceptionally up to 800. Deep, loose, disorderly dispersed, with considerable intra-flock movement. Only occasionally with Great Tits [p. 164] or Eurasian Blue Tits.

Periparus ater Diurnal migrant (irruptive) Goldcrest (p. 282) Common Firecrest (p. 282) Eurasian Blue Tit (p. 168) Great Tit (p. 164) Other tits (p. 162)

166

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COAL TIT CALL Distinct, single, pure, short, thin whistle of varied pitch, quickly ascending towards the end, “tuit,” “twit,”

“tsvit” (sometimes reminiscent of Yellow-browed Warbler [p. 278]), irregularly repeated. | Double “tsvi-tit.” | Simple, evenly downslurred “psiy.” | Often in combination with other short, high-pitched peeping calls.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

167

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Eurasian Blue Tit L 10·5–12 cm | W 17–18 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Azure Tit [p. 170]; much smaller than Great

Tit [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, rotund. Head large, short and rounded; bill short, strong. Wing short, rounded. Tail moderately long. COLORATION Head mostly white, narrow black eyestripe; narrow black breast-band merges with narrow bib. Crown blue, can appear very pale when strongly lit. ABOVE: Upperwing mostly blue but with narrow (sometimes very narrow) white wingbar. Uppertail-coverts blue. Mantle, scapulars and back greyish-green. BELOW: Underbody pale yellow with blackish central streak. juvenile less blue, cap olive-grey, face pale yellow, no bib. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. FLOCK Usually 1–30, rarely up to 500. Deep, loose, disorderly dispersed, with considerable intra-flock movement. Often mixed with Great Tits [p. 164].

Cyanistes caeruleus Diurnal migrant Azure Tit (p. 170) Other tits (p. 162)

juvenile

168

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EURASIAN BLUE TIT CALL Short, slightly

descending series of rapidly downslurred peeping sounds, “pi-tsi-tsi-tsi,” “tsi-tsi-tsi.” | Sometimes quick series of “chichichip” (similar to Great Tit). | Various other very short, high-pitched peeping notes.

kHz 10

kHz

8 6 4 2 0

169

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Azure Tit L 13–14 cm | W 16–18 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; slightly smaller than

Great Tit [p. 9].

Cyanistes cyanus Diurnal migrant Eurasian Blue Tit (p. 168) Other tits (p. 162) Long-tailed Tit (p. 182)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE More elongated than Eurasian Blue Tit. Body short, rotund. Head short and rounded (larger than on Eurasian Blue Tit); bill short, strong. Wing short, rounded. Tail long (longer than on Eurasian Blue Tit). COLORATION White, black and blue (deep ultramarine hue). At long distance can appear black-and-white. Head white, except for narrow black eyestripe. No blue cap. ABOVE: Mantle, scapulars and back bluish-grey. Upperwing mostly blue but with very broad and long white wingbar; trailing edge and tertial tips white. Uppertail-coverts blue, spotted white. Fanned tail has broad white corners and central blue ‘wedge’. BELOW: Underbody white, except for black, longitudinal, central streak on lower breast. Tail has dark grey central ‘wedge’. juvenile has diffuse grey cap. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. FLOCK Usually 1–2; in winter often up to 10. Usually with Eurasian Blue Tits and/or other species of tit.

170

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AZURE TIT CALL Short, descending series of rapidly downslurred peeping

sounds, “pi-pi-tsi-tsi-tsey;” sometimes sounds like a rolling trill, “tsi-pri-pri-pri-pri” (similar to Eurasian Blue Tit but lowerpitched, quicker, with downslur of series (trill) deeper and more easily appreciable). | Other various very short, high-pitched peeping notes and churrs (reminiscent of Eurasian Blue Tit or Great Tit [p. 164] calls).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

171

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Marsh Tit Willow Tit Two species usually only separable in flight by call. L 11·5–13 cm | W 17–20 cm SIZE Like Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; smaller than Great Tit [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, rotund. Head large and rounded; bill

Poecile palustris Poecile montanus Diurnal migrants Sombre Tit (p. 176) Siberian Tit (p. 174)

short, rather slender. Wing short, very rounded. Tail fairly long, narrow. COLORATION Long black cap. White cheek patch large, merging with white throat and off-white breast. ABOVE: Upperparts mainly brownish-grey (shades variable). BELOW: Black bib indistinct (much smaller than on Sombre Tit [p. 176]). Underparts white and off-white suffused pale brown or pale buff. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. FLOCK Usually 1–2, migrating flock sometimes up to 30. Loose, disorderly dispersed.

Marsh Tit

Willow Tit

marSH tit

MARSH TIT WILLOW TIT

172

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MARSH TIT | WILLOW TIT CALL Marsh Tit: Rarely uttered,

distinctive high-pitched, pure, sharp, very rapid squeak, “pi-tsu,” “pi-tsyu,” first syllable explosive and extremely short, second syllable abruptly, smoothly downslurred, singly or in short series. | More frequently utters repeated, highpitched, very short, metallic “tit” (slightly flatter than Willow Tit) (sonogram analysis recommended). Willow Tit: Rarely uttered, distinctive nasal, coarse, drawn-out, even-pitched “dääy,” singly or in a fast, short series, “dääy-dääy-dääy-dääy.” | More frequently utters repeated high-pitched, very short, metallic “pit” (slightly sharper and more explosive than Marsh Tit) (sonogram analysis recommended).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0 kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

willOw tit

marSH tit

marSH tit

173

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Siberian Tit L 13·5–14 cm | W 17–18 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Willow Tit and Marsh Tit [p. 172], slightly smaller

than Great Tit [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, rotund; appears plump and round due to particularly long and dense body feathers. Head large and rounded; bill short, rather slender. Wing short, very rounded. Tail fairly long, narrow. COLORATION Cap brown-grey (not black). White cheek patch extending onto nape and neck sides, narrowly connected with pale breast, distinctly limited from beneath by contrasting bib. ABOVE: Upperparts mainly brownish-grey. Whitish-grey smudge along folded wing (greater covert tips and edges of secondaries). BELOW: Black bib broad, prominent, extends from chin to lower throat. Breast and belly white, flanks and undertail-coverts pale rufous-cinnamon (sometimes appear orange-tinged). FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. Similar to Eurasian Blue Tit, but appears more nervous. FLOCK Usually 1–2; in winter up to 9. Often mixed with Willow Tits.

Poecile cinctus Diurnal migrant Willow Tit (p. 172) Marsh Tit (p. 172)

174

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SIBERIAN TIT CALL Very infrequent. Reminiscent of

Willow Tit, nasal but not so coarse, milder, shorter and slightly downslurred at end, “chää,” singly or in fast, short series, “chäächää-chää-chää;” often in combination with other calls.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

175

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Sombre Tit L 14–15 cm | W 18–20 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Great Tit [p. 9]; larger than Marsh Tit and

Willow Tit [p. 172].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Similar to Great Tit [p. 164]. Body stocky. Head rather small; bill strong. Wing large, fairly rounded. Tail relatively long. Compared with Marsh Tit and Willow Tit: head smaller, bill stouter, wing longer. COLORATION Brownish-grey, brownish-black and white/off-white. Black cap from bill to nape. White cheek patch narrow, wedge-shaped, not merging with throat and breast, lower edge sharply defined by contrasting large, black bib. ABOVE: Upperparts mainly brownish-grey (tinged with variable amount of warm brown). BELOW: Black bib broad, prominent, extends from chin to upper breast (much larger than on Marsh Tit and Willow Tit). FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. FLOCK Usually 1, sometimes 2–3 or a few more.

Poecile lugubris Diurnal migrant Marsh Tit (p. 172) Willow Tit (p. 172) Great Tit (p. 164)

176

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SOMBRE TIT CALL Short series of downslurred peeps,

“tzi-tzi-tzi” (similar to Eurasian Blue Tit, same pitch, slightly faster rhythm) but vibrating (like insect stridulation). | Very insect-like, short, fine, slightly falling buzz, “tzzzzzz,” singly or in quick series. | Lowerpitched, harsh “chrip.” | Other very short, high-pitched sounds.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

177

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Crested Tit L 10·5–12 cm | W 17–20 cm SIZE Like Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; smaller than Great Tit [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, rotund. Head large and rounded; bill

short, rather slender. Wing short, very rounded. Tail rather short, narrow. Crest not usually noticeable. Compared with Marsh Tit and Willow Tit [p. 172], head even larger, tail shorter. COLORATION Head mostly greyish-white, cap spotted black. Very narrow black eyestripe merging with black ‘vertical’ stripe behind ear-coverts. On side of neck (from nape to breast) contrasting white band between two black stripes. ABOVE: Upperparts mainly greyish-brown. BELOW: Black bib narrow, reaching upper breast, merging with very narrow black breastband. Underparts off-white, tinged pale brown on flanks and undertailcoverts. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. FLOCK Usually 1–5, rarely up to 30. Loose, disorderly dispersed.

Lophophanes cristatus Diurnal migrant Marsh Tit (p. 172) Willow Tit (p. 172) Other tits (p. 162)

178

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CRESTED TIT CALL High-pitched (as Eurasian

Blue Tit), simple, drawnout, rather vibrating, slightly upslurred “siiii,” singly or in fast, somewhat irregular series. | Lower-pitched, hard, fast, short, rippling trill, “bi·ri·ri·ri·rit” (similar to Snow Bunting [p. 480] trill) or “bi·bi·bi·bi·rä·rä.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

179

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Eurasian Penduline-tit L 10–11·5 cm | W 16–17·5 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Goldcrest [p. 9]; smaller than Common

Chiffchaff [p. 9] and Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Tiny and compact: body short and rotund. Head rounded, neck very short; bill moderately long, sharply pointed, ‘triangular’. Wing short, rounded. Tail medium-length. COLORATION Appears pale. Head almost white (pale grey or buff above). adult with broad black mask; juvenile with no mask, whole of head pale greyish, eye distinct. ABOVE: Upperparts grey-and-brown; diffuse dark wingbar across greater coverts. BELOW: Underparts uniformly pale, underbody tinged warm buff. FLIGHT Slow, light, somewhat nervous (reminiscent of a Phylloscopus warbler [p. 262]), slightly zigzagging (direction changing slightly with every flapping phase). F-wave distinct, short (shorter than Eurasian Blue Tit), slight. FLOCK Usually 1–4, rarely up to 40. Moderately loose, uncoordinated.

Remiz pendulinus Diurnal migrant Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262) Eurasian Blue Tit (p. 168) Reed Bunting (p. 476)

juvenile

180

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EURASIAN PENDULINE-TIT CALL Single, very high-pitched, rather long, gently descending, smooth, thin whistled “tsiiiii,” repeated irregularly (fairly similar call of Reed Bunting [p. 476] (the two species often occur together) is always lowerpitched and generally much shorter). The ‘aerial predator’ alarm call uttered by many other small passerines can sound similar, but is usually even higher-pitched. kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

181

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Long-tailed Tit L 13–15 cm | W 16–19 cm SIZE Comparable to Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; much smaller than Great

Tit [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short and rotund; neck very short. Head large, rounded; bill short. Wing short, rounded (as other tits). Tail extremely long, narrow: ribbon-like when closed, appears as a ‘long rectangle’ when fully spread (Bearded Reedling [p. 184] tail shorter, broader and rounder). COLORATION Black-and-white, dull brownish-pink on shoulders, flanks, vent and undertail-coverts. Head completely white or with varying amounts of black concentrated mainly in lateral crown stripes; central crown stripe always white. ABOVE: Much white on inner upperwing greater coverts, inner secondaries and tertials. Tail black with broad white sides. juvenile has broad dark brown mask reaching nape, central crown stripe white. FLIGHT Slow, nervous (recalling Eurasian Blue Tit). F-wave distinct, short, slight, sawtooth-shaped. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt; lack fluency. Body with head inclined upwards; tail slightly drooped, freely waving. FLOCK Usually 2–20, up to 50; single birds scarce. Moderately loose, extended backwards, uncoordinated, considerable intra-flock movement.

Aegithalos caudatus Diurnal migrant Bearded Reedling (p. 184) Azure Tit (p. 170)

juvenile

182

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LONG-TAILED TIT CALL Loud, pure, high-

pitched (as Eurasian Blue Tit). Rather long, thin, evenpitched whistles, “sii-sii-sii-sii.” | The same pitch but shorter and harsher “tsi-si-si-si” or single “si,” “tsi.” | Disyllabic “si-dit.” | Almost nonvocalic downslurred, rattling “zirrrrrrr.” | Other very short, high-pitched peeping calls.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

183

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TITS

Tits compared p. 162

Panurus biarmicus

Bearded Reedling (Bearded Tit) L 14–15·5 cm | W 16–18 cm

Diurnal migrant

SIZE Body size as Great Tit [p. 9], wingspan as Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head medium-sized, rounded; bill

Long-tailed Tit (p. 182)

short, tit-like. Wing short and rounded. Tail long, graduated, elliptical when fanned (shorter, broader and rounder than Long-tailed Tit [p. 182]). COLORATION Diffuse mix of buff, ochre, cinnamon-brown and grey. ♂ head grey, with elongated black ‘moustache’; tail pale cinnamon, edged white, with small amount of black on outer feathers; vent and undertailcoverts black. ♀ head pale greyish-brown; narrow black stripe along mantle and back; tail as ♂; undertail-coverts cinnamon-buff. juvenile: head yellowish-buff; broad black stripe along mantle and back; tail buff with prominent broad black lateral stripes, fringed white; undertail-coverts pale buff. FLIGHT Slow (slower than tits), erratic. F-wave imperceptible. Flapping phases irregular, with split-second non-flapping intervals. Wingbeats full. Often moves the closed tail. FLOCK Migrating flock 4–30 (most often 9–10), in years of abundance sometimes up to 100; solitary birds scarce. Tit-like, rather loose, extended backwards, sometimes dense and rounded; intra-flock movement moderate, with relative position of birds stable for short periods. Species dependent on reedbeds, flying at a few to 20 m above reed tops. Elsewhere, can fly up to 100 m high or more (when invisible flock is often still audible).

♂

♀ juvenile juvenile

♀

♂

♀

184

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BEARDED REEDLING CALL Loud, distinct, nasal, explosive, with

kHz 10

strong accent at the beginning: from a distance sounds like a single jingling “ptin,” “bdin,” repeated irregularly. When in a flock, many birds call simultaneously.

8 6 4 2 0

♀

♂

♂ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀

♂

♂

185

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LARKS AND PIPITS

LARKS and PIPITS Key identification features  calls Larks STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Body rather thickset. Bill medium-sized, rather deep overall shape

(relative tail length)  wing shape

based. Grey-brown above and white below; pattern on upperparts complex but indistinct. Dark pattern on underbody usually concentrated around neck and across upper breast. Wing rather broad, wingtip moderately rounded to blunt. Tail mediumlength to short. FLIGHT: direct, rather slow, steady. CALLS: Uttered frequently, diagnostic. Pipits STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Body rather slim. Bill medium-sized, thin. Olivegrey-brown above and buffish to white below; pattern on upperparts indistinct. Wing moderately broad, outerwing tapered. Tertials very long, much longer than secondaries, rarely visible from above. Tail narrow, medium-length to very long. FLIGHT: F-wave very easily discernible: long, high to very high. Non-flapping intervals very long. No glides. CALLS: Uttered frequently, diagnostic.

Feature

Larks

Pipits

dark pattern on underbody

concentrated around neck and across upper breast pale ‘vertical’ stripe on side of neck; supercilium noticeable deeper-based, tends to merge with head profile

reaching farther towards flanks or belly pale ‘moustache’; supercilium very weak thin, juts out distinctly from head profile

head pattern bill

Eurasian Skylark (p. 188)

Tawny Pipit (p. 206)

Calandra Lark (p. 190)

Tree Pipit (p. 214)

Crested Lark (p. 196)

Meadow Pipit (p. 212)

Woodlark (p. 202)

Greater Short-toed Lark (p. 192)

The silhouettes shown here are intended to illustrate the differences in shape of five larks and three pipits; it is important to note that these are not shown to scale. 186

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LARKS AND PIPITS

Dupont’s Lark (p. 200)

Tawny Pipit (p. 206)

Blyth’s Pipit (p. 208) Thekla’s Lark (p. 196)

Richard’s Pipit (p. 208) Crested Lark (p. 196) Meadow Pipit (p. 212)

Lesser Short-toed Lark (p. 192)

Greater Short-toed Lark (p. 192)

Tree Pipit (p. 214)

Red-throated Pipit (p. 216)

male breeding

Pechora Pipit (p. 211) Calandra Lark (p. 190)

Olive-backed Pipit (p. 221) breeding

Eurasian Skylark (p. 188)

autumn

Rock Pipit (p. 218) Woodlark (p. 202) breeding

autumn

Horned (Shore) Lark (p. 204)

Water Pipit (p. 218) 187

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LARKS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Eurasian Skylark L 16–18 cm | W 30–36 cm SIZE Larger than House Sparrow [p. 9], smaller than Calandra Lark

[p. 190]; markedly smaller than Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather thickset; neck short. Head mediumsized; bill medium-sized, rather deep-based. Wing long (markedly longer than on pipits [p. 186]), moderately rounded, trailing edge rather straight. Tail medium-length. Compared with Calandra Lark: head smaller, bill much smaller; wing shorter and slightly narrower, outerwing narrower and more triangular; tail longer. COLORATION Brownish-grey and brown. ABOVE: On upperparts, feather centres dark, edges or tips paler sandy or buffish; tail sides white. BELOW: Underbody pale buffish or whitish. Upper breast warm buff or creamybuff, densely spotted dark, distinctly separated from pale, unspotted rest of underbody. Underwing uniformly grey; rather pale, with narrow but distinct white trailing edge (on Calandra Lark white trailing edge broader and longer, strongly contrasting with black underwing). FLIGHT Direct, rather slow, steady, strong. F-wave slight, irregular. Wingbeats rather slow. FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 300, where abundant even thousands. Much looser than Common Starling [p. 322], rather thrush-like [p. 328], uncoordinated; considerable intra-flock movement.

Alauda arvensis Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Calandra Lark (p. 190) Other larks (p. 187) Redwing (p. 340) Richard’s Pipit (p. 208) Lapland Longspur (p. 478)

188

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EURASIAN SKYLARK CALL Various markedly rolling and

downslurred short trills, “tirrrr,” “trri,” “trip,” “triwi,” “tyerrr,” “tzi-tyerrr,” “pirrr.” | Swift-like “vrrriw.” | Buzzing “brrrrriii” (lower-pitched than Calandra Lark, without downslur). On spring migration often sings on passage.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

189

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LARKS

Calandra Lark

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Melanocorypha calandra

L 18–20 cm | W 28–35 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Eurasian Skylark [p. 8] and House Sparrow

[p. 9]; slightly smaller than Song Thrush [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump (prominent behind wings). Compared with Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]: head larger, bill much stouter; wing longer and slightly broader, outerwing broader; tail shorter. COLORATION Brownish-grey and brown (like Eurasian Skylark). Underwing almost black with broad, contrasting, white trailing edge (in Eurasian Skylark white trailing edge is perceptible but narrower and shorter). Contrasting black-and-white patch on neck. Sides of tail white. FLIGHT Like Eurasian Skylark, rather slow, steady. F-wave slight, irregular. FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 100, occasionally more, where abundant even thousands. More compact than Eurasian Skylark, rather like Common Starling [p. 322].

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Eurasian Skylark (p. 188)

190

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CALANDRA LARK CALL Very quick and ‘dense’, downslurred

trill, “tr-dzrrrrrii,” “ptzrr-dzrrrrrrrrrrrii” (higher-pitched and more buzzing than rolling calls of Eurasian Skylark). | Harsh, vibrating, downslurred “tuzzip” with accented, descending ending (rather similar to some calls of Eurasian Skylark).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

191

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LARKS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Greater Short-toed Lark Lesser Short-toed Lark

Calandrella brachydactyla Alaudala rufescens

Two species practically inseparable in flight; distinguishing features are slight and seldom appreciable.

Diurnal and nocturnal migrants Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Other larks (p. 187)

L 14–16 cm | W 26–31 cm SIZE Greater Short-toed Lark: As House Sparrow [p. 9]; smaller than

Eurasian Skylark [p. 8]. Lesser Short-toed Lark: Slightly smaller than Greater Short-toed Lark and House Sparrow.

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather thickset; neck short. Head mediumsized; bill rather short, deep-based. Wing medium-length, moderately rounded. Greater Short-toed Lark: Compared with Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]: body more compact; bill relatively deeper and shorter (finch-like); wing shorter; tertials very long (as with pipits [p. 186] and wagtails [p. 222]), much longer than secondaries, very rarely visible from above; tail shorter. Lesser Short-toed Lark: Compared with Greater Short-toed Lark: slightly shorter body, tail and bill; blunter wings; tertials much shorter (imperceptibly Greater Short-toed Lark longer than secondaries). COLORATION Sandy-buff and grey-brown. On upperparts, feather centres dark, edges or tips paler sandy or buffish; tail sides white. Greater Short-toed Lark: Like Eurasian Skylark but paler, more sandy-buff and creamy-white; similar to Lesser Short-toed Lark. Tail sides white, tinged buff. ABOVE: Buff wingbar (tips of greater coverts) on extended wing moderately contrasting. BELOW: Upper breast buff, unspotted; narrow grey stripe between upper breast and whitish neck (sometimes no stripe). Underwing pale, no white trailing edge. Lesser Short-toed Lark: Like Greater Shorttoed Lark, shades between brown and grey variable. Breast and flanks streaked dark. Lesser Short-toed Lark FLIGHT Direct, rather slow, steady, strong (like Eurasian Skylark but wingbeats faster). F-wave distinct, slight, irregular. FLOCK Greater Short-toed Lark: Gregarious, often 20–50, sometimes hundreds, where abundant more than a thousand. Dense, well coordinated, agile (structure somewhat recalling that of European Goldfinch [p. 444]). Often fly low over the ground. Lesser Short-toed Lark: Usually some tens, sometimes up to 200, rarely more. Dense, well coordinated, agile (more compact than Eurasian Skylark, rather like Common Starling [p. 322]). CALL Greater Short-toed Lark: Like House Sparrow [p. 410] but softer,

“tilp,” “psilp.” | Harsh, rolling “pri-rrit” (like Northern House Martin [p. 110], the same pitch and rhythm). | Other short chirps (reminiscent of Eurasian Skylark or White Wagtail [p. 224]).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

Lesser Short-toed Lark: Quiet, high-pitched, rolling (almost rattling), decelerating “drrie,” “tshriririt,” “dirrrrri,” “pirrrt;” or sharper, markedly downslurred “dzirrrrr.” In pitch and quality both calls reminiscent of Northern House Martin [p. 110] but longer, and rolling effect is much slower.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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Flight photos pp. 194–195

GREATER SHORT-TOED LARK | LESSER SHORT-TOED LARK

GREATER SHORT-TOED LARK LESSER SHORT-TOED LARK

193

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LARKS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

GREATER SHORT-TOED LARK

194

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GREATER SHORT-TOED LARK | LESSER SHORT-TOED LARK LESSER SHORT-TOED LARK

195

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LARKS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Galerida cristata Galerida theklae

Crested Lark Thekla’s Lark Two species typically only separable in flight by call (differences in plumage not evident unless seen clearly at close range). L 17–19 cm | W 29–38 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Eurasian Skylark [p. 8]; comparable to

Diurnal and nocturnal migrants Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Other larks (p. 187)

House Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Crested Lark: Body thickset, deep-breasted; neck short. Head fairly large; bill rather long and deep. Wing very broad and blunt, tip almost square-cut. Tail rather short, often half-spread. Compared with Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]: body heavier; head larger; bill much longer, slightly downcurved; tail shorter. Thekla’s Lark: Similar to Crested Lark but bill and tail shorter; tail length reminiscent of Woodlark [p. 202]. COLORATION Crested Lark: Like Eurasian Skylark: brownish-grey and brown, shades variable. ABOVE: On upperparts, feather centres dark, edges or tips paler sandy or buffish. Rump barely greyer than brownish uppertailcoverts. No white in tail, sides warm brown. BELOW: Upper breast streaked blackish, distinctly separated from pale, unspotted rest of underbody (obvious contrast). Underwing warm cinnamon-brown, no white trailing edge. Thekla’s Lark: Similar to Crested Lark but uppertail-coverts tinged rufous, contrasting with much greyer rump and back; breast streaking heavier (contrast with underbody distinct); underwing more greyish. FLIGHT Direct, steady and strong (like Eurasian Skylark but languid). F-wave distinct but very irregular. Wingbeats rather slow. FLOCK Usually 1–8, sometimes up to 30. Rather dense but disorderly scattered, uncoordinated. CALL Crested Lark: Repertoire very varied,

usually 2–5 different syllables as short ‘melody’, sometimes longer phrases like part of song; pure whistles, mostly downslurred at end, often with mild, rolling “r” or sounding smoother with “l” instead of “r:” “fi-fii-fyiir,” “tirr-tyu-tyi,” “ti-tlu-tiree,” “deeblee-trle,” “jriiw.” | Lower-pitched nasal “düdli-düdli.” | Muffled “tuyyi,” “tushi,” “wey.” | Murmuring, markedly upslurred “wrrri,” “uwrrri.” Thekla’s Lark: Call is best identification character, but not straightforward. ‘Melodies’ are similar to Crested Lark, although not so variable; slightly lower-pitched and softer, sound quality rather flute-like (Crested Lark more like a fife (a piccolo-like instrument)), with no rolling “r,” last syllable often deflected, a downslurred “fiyu” (like part of Common Rosefinch [p. 428] song).

Greater Short-toed Lark

Lesser Short-toed Lark

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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Flight photos pp. 198–199

CRESTED LARK | THEKLA’S LARK

CRESTED LARK THEKLA’S LARK

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LARKS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

CRESTED LARK

198

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CRESTED LARK | THEKLA’S LARK THEKLA'S LARK

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LARKS

Dupont’s Lark L 17–18 cm | W 26–32 cm SIZE As Crested Lark [p. 196] or Eurasian Skylark [p. 8]; slightly larger

than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Compared with Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]: wing shorter, broader and blunter; bill twice as long. Compared with Crested Lark: wing much shorter; tail and bill longer. COLORATION Similar to Crested Lark; underwing with cinnamon hue but outer tail feathers white. Streaking on breast narrower, sparser and reaches lower down than on a typical Eurasian Skylark. FLIGHT Reminiscent of Eurasian Skylark. F-wave distinct. Only flies short distances, does not migrate (a sedentary, ground-dwelling species, seen in the air mainly while performing song-flight). FLOCK Does not form flocks.

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Chersophilus duponti Non-migratory Crested Lark (p. 196) Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Thekla’s Lark (p. 196)

200

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DUPONT’S LARK CALL  None known. ♂ often sings in flight.

201

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LARKS

Woodlark L 13·5–15 cm | W 27–30 cm SIZE Comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]; smaller than Eurasian

Skylark [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact and rotund. Head rounded; bill slender, medium-length. Wing much shorter and broader than on Eurasian Skylark [p. 188], blunt tipped, trailing edge markedly curved. Tail distinctive, very short for a lark, often slightly spread. Combination of short tail and large wings reminiscent of a nuthatch [pp. 308–311], or even Lesser Spotted Woodpecker [p. 86]. COLORATION Brownish-grey and brown (like Eurasian Skylark but warmer brown above). ABOVE: Short black stripe (primary-coverts) clearly visible between two white spots on edge of folded wing. Outermost tail feathers broadly edged white (with brown hue), 2nd–5th pairs of tail feathers have small contrasting white spots on the tips. BELOW: Underwing with contrasting pale bar along greater coverts; no white on trailing edge. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, irregular. Wingbeats very slow. FLOCK Usually 1–10, rarely up to 100. Loose, extended transversely.

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Lullula arborea Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Other larks (p. 187) Eurasian Nuthatch (p. 308)

202

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WOODLARK CALL Various melodious, pure whistles,

e.g. “pli-bli,” “yu-tili,” “tyuli-tli;” sometimes longer “didloi-dli-dli-dli-dli;” tranquil “li,” “li-lit.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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LARKS

Horned (Shore) Lark L 16–19 cm | W 30–34 cm SIZE As Eurasian Skylark [p. 8]; larger than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather thickset; neck short. Head medium-

sized; bill medium-sized, rather deep-based. Wing long, moderately rounded, trailing edge rather straight. Tail medium-length. Similar to Eurasian Skylark [p. 188] but often appears slimmer with narrower outerwing; vaguely reminiscent of pipits [p. 186]. COLORATION Supercilium pale yellow, long and broad. Black mask and breast-band contrasting with pale underparts. ABOVE: Upperparts brown-grey with pinkish cast, flight feathers darker. Uppertail-coverts paler and warm pinkish-brown contrasting with darker, greyer and darkspotted rump and back. Uppertail black with narrow white sides, central feathers brown. BELOW: Stripe along breast side and flanks brown-grey (as upperparts). Underwing very pale, appears to flicker white when well-lit. Undertail black with narrow white sides. FLIGHT Fast (faster than Eurasian Skylark). Wingbeats graceful, sweeping, flexible. F-wave flat. Flapping phase short; non-flapping intervals fairly long. FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 80, rarely up to 150, exceptionally up to 400. Dense, coordinated. Sometimes with Snow Buntings [p. 480] and/or Lapland Longspurs [p. 478].

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Eremophila alpestris Diurnal migrant Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Pipits (p. 187)

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HORNED LARK CALL Not at all like other larks: various very short, loud, pure, peeping notes (higher-pitched than Eurasian Siskin

[p. 436] and somewhat lower than Meadow Pipit [p. 212] and tits [p. 162]), mostly abruptly descending, “tsiy,” “si,” “i,,” often in short series, “tsiy-si-si-si ““tsiy-si-si-si. tsiy-si-si-si..” | Occasionally, nasal, buzzy “tzzzii tsiy-si-si-si ““tzzzii” tzzzii”” or shorter, high-pitched ““tzi,” “tzip.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187 | Wagtails and large pipits compared p. 222

Tawny Pipit L 15·5–18 cm | W 25–28 cm SIZE Like House Sparrow [p. 9] and wagtails [p. 222]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated; neck short. Head medium-sized; bill

medium-length (finer than on Richard’s Pipit [p. 208]). Wing broad-based, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail long. Overall shape like Western Yellow Wagtail [p. 226], but tail shorter. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts rather uniform brownish-sandy. BELOW: Upper breast usually unstreaked, but sometimes with dark streaking (as on Richard’s Pipit or Blyth’s Pipit [p. 208]), pale buff breast slightly more richly coloured than rest of buffish-white underbody, but no contrast. Underwing uniform buffish-white. FLIGHT Slightly faster and more energetic than wagtails. F-wave very distinct, long (but slighter than wagtails). Flapping phases short; nonflapping intervals long. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 13, rarely tens, where abundant exceptionally hundreds. Loose, disorderly dispersed, uncoordinated; moderate intra-flock movement.

Anthus campestris Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Richard’s Pipit (p. 208) Blyth’s Pipit (p. 208) Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226) Citrine Wagtail (p. 228)

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TAWNY PIPIT CALL Rather pure and mild,

kHz

10 accented at beginning, with downslurred ending “tshlip,” 8 “dslip,” “psyip,” “chlip” (same pitch as House Sparrow [p. 410]), 6 irregularly repeated. | Lower4 pitched, simple, short chirps, 2 “chip,” “tip,” often in quick series. 0

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187 | Wagtails and large pipits compared p. 222

Anthus richardi

V Richard’s Pipit Asia L 17–20 cm | W 26–30 cm

Diurnal migrant

SIZE Slightly larger than House Sparrow [p. 9] or White Wagtail

Blyth’s Pipit (p. 208) Tawny Pipit (p. 206) Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226) Citrine Wagtail (p. 228)

[p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body bulky, deep breasted; neck short. Head medium-sized; bill medium-length, (stronger than on Tawny Pipit [p. 206] or Blyth’s Pipit [p. 208]). Wing rather broad-based (broader than on Blyth’s Pipit), outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail long. Overall shape similar to White Wagtail [p. 224], but tail shorter. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts brownish-grey and brown, feather centres dark, edges or tips paler sandy or buffish (as on larks [p. 187]). BELOW: Upper breast streaked dark, lower breast buff, contrasting slightly with off-white belly. Underwing uniform greyish-buff. FLIGHT Strong (faster and more energetic than wagtails [p. 222]). F-wave very distinct, long (but slighter than wagtails). Flapping phases short; nonflapping intervals long. FLOCK Vagrant. Usually just an individual bird, exceptionally up to 4. CALL Impure, harsh, strongly accented at beginning, descending at end,

“psyu,” “psryu” (same pitch as House Sparrow [p. 410]; slightly lowerpitched and stronger and harsher than Tawny Pipit, sometimes very similar to Blyth’s Pipit).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

Anthus godlewskii

V Blyth’s Pipit Asia L 15·5–17 cm | W 23–28 cm

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant

SIZE Slightly larger than House Sparrow [p. 9] or White Wagtail

Richard’s Pipit (p. 208) Tawny Pipit (p. 206) Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226) Citrine Wagtail (p. 228)

[p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Overall shape similar to Tree Pipit [p. 214]. Body rather

slim (slimmer than Richard’s Pipit [p. 208]); neck short. Head medium-sized; bill medium-length (finer than on Richard’s Pipit). Wing narrower than on Richard’s Pipit, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts brownish-grey and brown, feather centres dark, edges or tips paler sandy or buffish (as on larks [p. 187]). BELOW: Upper breast streaked dark, lower breast buff, only very slightly more richly coloured than rest of underbody, no contrast. Underwing uniform greyishbuff. FLIGHT Slightly faster and more energetic than wagtails [p. 222]. F-wave very distinct, long (but slighter than wagtails). Flapping phases short; nonflapping intervals long. FLOCK Vagrant. Only individual birds recorded in Europe. CALL Impure, harsh, downslurred “psheyo,” “pjiyu,” “piyo,” strongly

accented at beginning (same pitch as House Sparrow [p. 410]; sometimes very similar to Richard’s Pipit). | Distinctive short, nasal, downslurred chirp, “tyep,” “chep,” often double or in quick series (no similar call in Richard’s Pipit repertoire).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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Flight photos p. 210

RICHARD’S PIPIT | BLYTH’S PIPIT

RICHARD’S PIPIT BLYTH’S PIPIT

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187 RICHARD’S PIPIT

BLYTH’S PIPIT

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RICHARD’S PIPIT | BLYTH’S PIPIT| PECHORA PIPIT

Anthus gustavi

V Pechora Pipit Asia L 14–15 cm | W 23–26 cm SIZE Like House Sparrow [p. 9] and wagtails [p. 222]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather slim; neck short. Head medium-sized;

bill medium-length, merges slightly with head profile. Wing moderately broad, outerwing tapered (shorter than on Red-throated Pipit [p. 216]), tip narrow. Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Olive-grey; contrasting black-and-white stripes on mantle (like narrow white ‘braces’); back, rump and uppertail-coverts obviously spotted dark. Two narrow white wingbars (more distinct than on other pipits). BELOW: Pale buffish to off-white; streaking on breast and flanks coarse (like Tree Pipit [p. 214]). FLIGHT Short flight appears irregular, jerky (but less so than Meadow Pipit [p. 212]). Long-distance flight (i.e. on migration) faster, more direct and steady. F-wave very distinct, long, rather regular. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. FLOCK Vagrant. Only single birds recorded in Europe. CALL Single, short, squeaky, accented at the

beginning, descending “chiwt,” sometimes quickly repeated (not like Meadow Pipit or Tree Pipit; more like a wagtail, between White Wagtail [p. 224] and Grey Wagtail [p. 230]).

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Other small pipits (pp. 212–221)

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Meadow Pipit L 14–15·5 cm | W 22–25 cm SIZE Like House Sparrow [p. 9] and wagtails [p. 222]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather slim; neck short. Head medium-sized;

bill fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing moderately broad, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail medium-length. Overall, similar to Dunnock [p. 404] but wing markedly longer, outerwing larger. COLORATION ABOVE: Olive-grey, diffusely spotted dark. BELOW: Pale buffishyellow to off-white; moderate contrast between darker (spotted) breast and rest of underbody. FLIGHT Short flight appears very irregular, awkward, jerky, hesitant with rather slow progression. Long-distance flight (on migration) faster, much more direct and steady (but not as direct and confident as Tree Pipit [p. 214]). F-wave very distinct, rather regular (shorter than other pipits), high (higher than Tree Pipit, Reed Bunting [p. 476] and Dunnock). Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. Wingbeats rapid, deep. FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 250. Loose, disorderly dispersed, uncoordinated; moderate intra-flock movement.

Anthus pratensis Diurnal migrant Other small pipits (pp. 211–221)

212

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MEADOW PIPIT CALL Frequently repeated, high-

pitched (slightly lower-pitched than Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]), abrupt, nervous, ‘inhaled’, ascending “psip,” sometimes shorter “it,” irregularly or in quick series, “psi-psi-psi-psipsi-psip.” | Less frequently, a repeated, appreciably lowerpitched, but also abrupt, nervous and ascending “vsit.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Tree Pipit L 14–16 cm | W 22–25 cm SIZE Like House Sparrow [p. 9] and wagtails [p. 222]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather slim; neck short. Head medium-sized;

bill medium-length, fairly deep-based, merges slightly with head profile. Wing moderately broad, outerwing tapered (shorter than on Red-throated Pipit [p. 216]], tip narrow. Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Olive-grey, diffusely spotted dark. BELOW: Pale buffishyellow to off-white; moderate contrast between blackish-spotted breast and rest of underbody. FLIGHT Direct, confident, steady, rather fast. F-wave very distinct, long, high, regular. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. Wingbeats rapid, deep. FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 120. Loose, disorderly dispersed, uncoordinated; moderate intra-flock movement.

Anthus trivialis Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Other small pipits (pp. 211–221)

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TREE PIPIT CALL Explosive,

harsh, markedly descending “pzzip,” “pzziy,” “pzziyp.” | Shorter, almost even-pitched, very harsh and buzzy “bzzi,” “bjji.” | Short, softer “psit.” | Short, descending, smooth whistle, “tsip.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Red-throated Pipit L 14–15 cm | W 25–27 cm SIZE Like House Sparrow [p. 9] and wagtails [p. 222]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather slim; neck short. Head medium-sized;

bill medium-length. Wing moderately broad, outerwing tapered (longer than on Tree Pipit [p. 214]), tip narrow. Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Olive-grey, distinctly spotted and striped dark; contrasting broad pale buff ‘braces’ on mantle; rump obviously streaked dark. BELOW: Pale buffish-yellow to off-white; streaking on breast and flanks coarse (not as distinct as on Tree Pipit); ‘red’ (rufous-pink) face and bib of adult difficult to see. FLIGHT Similar to Tree Pipit: direct, confident, steady, rather fast. F-wave very distinct, long, high, regular. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. Wingbeats rapid, deep. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 20. Loose, disorderly dispersed, uncoordinated; moderate intra-flock movement.

Anthus cervinus Diurnal migrant Other small pipits (pp. 211–221)

♂breeding

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RED-THROATED PIPIT CALL Single, high-pitched,

long, slightly descending “pssiiiip,” “pssyii,” repeated after long intervals (the same pitch as Tree Pipit but distinctly longer and lacking harsh or buzzing quality). | In flock, more often single or double, markedly lower-pitched, softer “psü,” “psiyi,” “psili,” where “i” trembling slightly, repeated irregularly.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187

Anthus spinoletta Anthus petrosus

Water Pipit Rock Pipit Two species practically inseparable in flight. L 17–19 cm | W 29–38 cm SIZE Like House Sparrow [p. 9] and wagtails [p. 222]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE

Diurnal and nocturnal migrants Other small pipits (pp. 211–221)

Body compact; neck short. Head medium-sized; bill medium-length, rather fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing broader-based than on Redthroated Pipit [p. 216], outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail medium-length. COLORATION Water Pipit: ABOVE: Rather uniform olive-grey; rump browner. BELOW: Breast and flanks spotted dark, front ‘half ’ of underbody appears darker, but contrast with off-white belly very weak. In breeding plumage almost unspotted beneath; breast pink, head grey. Rock Pipit: ABOVE: Rather uniform olive-grey. BELOW: Breast and flanks coarsely and diffusely spotted dark, front ‘half ’ of underbody appears dark, but contrast with off-white belly weak. In breeding plumage less spotted beneath, with pinkish tinge on breast. FLIGHT Similar to Tree Pipit: direct, confident, steady, rather fast. F-wave very distinct, long, high, regular. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. Wingbeats rapid, deep. FLOCK Water Pipit: Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 80. Loose, disorderly dispersed, uncoordinated; moderate intra-flock movement. Rock Pipit: Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 10.

Water Pipit

Rock Pipit

CALL Water Pipit: Western

subspecies spinoletta: rather similar to Meadow Pipit [p. 212] but lowerpitched and longer, not so nervous and abrupt, with perceptible upslur at beginning, “wsiit” (often indistinguishable from Rock Pipit in the field). Eastern subspecies coutelli: often no perceptible upslur at beginning, sometimes harsh “pssit,” “pssrit.”

Rock Pipit: Often indistinguishable from Water Pipit (subspecies spinoletta) in the field; short and abrupt “psiip,” upslurred at beginning, or shorter “sip” with no upslur.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ssp . spinoletta

ssp . coutelli

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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Flight photos p. 220

WATER PIPIT | ROCK PIPIT

breeding

nOn-breeding

WATER PIPIT ROCK PIPIT

breeding

nOn-breeding

219

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PIPITS

Larks and pipits compared p. 187 WATER PIPIT

ROCK PIPIT

220

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WATER PIPIT | ROCK PIPIT | OLIVE-BACKED PIPIT V Olive-backed Pipit Asia L 14–15·5 cm | W 24–27 cm SIZE Like House Sparrow [p. 9] and wagtails [p. 222]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather slim; neck short. Head medium-sized;

bill rather short and broad-based. Wing moderately broad, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Olive-grey, diffusely spotted dark. Broad pale supercilium. BELOW: Pale buff to off-white; streaking on breast and flanks coarse (similar to Tree Pipit [p. 214]). FLIGHT Similar to Tree Pipit: direct, confident, steady, rather fast. F-wave very distinct, long, high, regular. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. Wingbeats rapid, deep. FLOCK Vagrant. Only single birds recorded in Europe.

Anthus hodgsoni Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Other small pipits (pp. 211–220)

CALL Harsh, markedly descending “pzzip,” “pzziyp,” sometimes more

hissing than buzzing (rather like Tree Pipit but higher-pitched; length variable, some much longer than Tree Pipit and very similar to Redwing [p. 340], on same pitch).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

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WAGTAILS AND LARGE PIPITS

WAGTAILS and LARGE PIPITS Key identification features  colour of underbody Wagtails  STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Body elongated; neck short. Head medium-

and undertail-coverts sized; bill fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Tail narrow, mediumlength to very long. Wing moderately broad, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. back and rump with Tertials very long, much longer than secondaries, rarely visible from above. FLIGHT: F-wave very easily discernible, long, highest of any group of European uppertail-coverts passerines. Non-flapping intervals very long. No glides. CALLS: Uttered  head and breast frequently, diagnostic. pattern Large pipits  (see page 187).  colour of mantle,

♂

breeding

Citrine Wagtail (p. 228)

White Wagtail (p. 224)

♂

breeding

♀

breeding

Grey Wagtail (p. 230)

Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226)

Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226)

♂

White Wagtail (p. 224)

non-breeding

White Wagtail (p. 224)

juvenile

Citrine Wagtail (p. 228)

immature

breeding

♂

breeding

♀

breeding

Citrine Wagtail (p. 228)

Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226)

immature

Grey Wagtail (p. 230)

non-breeding

Tawny Pipit (p. 206)

Grey Wagtail (p. 230)

juvenile

Richard’s Pipit (p. 208)

Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226)

juvenile

juvenile

222

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WAGTAILS AND LARGE PIPITS ♂

breeding

♂

breeding

Citrine Wagtail (p. 228)

Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226)

Grey Wagtail (p. 230) ♀ juveniles

♂

breeding

♀

non‑breeding

Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226) ♀ ♂

breeding

Citrine Wagtail (p. 228) ♂

breeding

non-breeding

Tawny Pipit (p. 206) White Wagtail (p. 224) ♂

breeding

‘Pied’ Wagtail (p. 224) Richard’s Pipit (p. 208)

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WAGTAILS

Wagtails and large pipits compared p. 222

White Wagtail (including ‘Pied’ Wagtail) L 15–16 cm | W 28 cm SIZE Body size as other wagtails [p. 222], comparable to House Sparrow

[p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body bulkier than other wagtails. Head mediumsized; bill fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing appears broaderbased than other wagtails, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail markedly long (longer than on Western Yellow Wagtail [p. 226], shorter than on Grey Wagtail [p. 230]). COLORATION Grey, white and black. ABOVE: White to greyish wingbars, but variable, sometimes barely discernible. BELOW: Underbody (including undertail-coverts) white; flanks and mantle grey. Westernmost subspecies yarrellii (‘Pied’ Wagtail) much darker: adult ♂ has no grey above; upperparts mostly black with two prominent white wingbars; flanks blackish. FLIGHT Direct, fast. F-wave very distinct, very long and very high (the most extreme of all European passerines). Flapping phases short; nonflapping intervals long (longer than Western Yellow Wagtail). FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 30, rarely some hundreds. Moderately dense, extended backwards; slightly coordinated, very slight intra-flock movement.

Motacilla alba Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Other wagtails (p. 222)

White Wagtail

'Pied' Wagtail

♂ breeding

♂ breeding ‘pied’ wagtail

breeding

nOn-breeding

nOn-breeding

juvenile

224

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WHITE WAGTAIL + ‘PIED’ WAGTAIL CALL Strong, distinct, short, slightly

knocking “tzik,” most often double, first syllable higher so sounds accented, “tsi·vi,” “dsi·zi,” often triple, “tzi·zi-zik,” usually repeated rhythmically.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

juv.

juv. juv. juv.

nOn-breeding

nOn-breeding

nOn-breeding

♂breeding 225

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WAGTAILS

Wagtails and large pipits compared p. 222

Motacilla flava

Western Yellow Wagtail L 15–16 cm | W 25 cm SIZE Body size as other wagtails [p. 222], comparable to House Sparrow

[p. 9].

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Citrine Wagtail (p. 228) Grey Wagtail (p. 230) Large pipits (p. 222)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head medium-sized; bill fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing broad-based, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail markedly long (as Citrine Wagtail [p. 228]; shorter than White Wagtail [p. 224] and Grey Wagtail [p. 230]). Overall shape similar to large pipits [p. 222]. COLORATION ABOVE: Mantle and back olive-green to olive-buffish-brown. Variable pale wingbars, often barely discernible. BELOW: Underbody yellow, pale yellow or yellowish, including undertail-coverts. juvenile: almost no yellow; upperparts dark grey-brown; two creamy wingbars; underparts (including undertail-coverts) buff; black breast-band. FLIGHT Direct, fast. F-wave very distinct, long, high (but shorter and not as high as White Wagtail). Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals long (but shorter than White Wagtail). FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 100, rarely up to 300. Moderately dense, extended backwards, slightly coordinated; intra-flock movement very slight.

♀ juvenile

♀

nOn-breeding

♂ breeding ♂ breeding ♀

immature

juvenile

226

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WESTERN YELLOW WAGTAIL CALL Northern subspecies: Strong, explosive, distinct, descending at end peeping “htsyi,” “ptzyi,” or not so explosive, milder “psye.” Southern subspecies (e.g. ssp. feldegg): Sharper and harsher with distinct vibration (rolling rolling “r”), “r ),, “pizrri” ““pizrri (sometimes sometimes very similar to Citrine Wagtail). Wagtail . Flocks of all subspecies rather quiet, can be silent. kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ssp . flava

ssp . thunbergi

juv. 

ssp . feldegg

imm. ssp . flava

imm. ssp . flava

imm. ssp . flava

♂ ssp . flava

juv. 

♂ ssp . feldegg ♀ssp . feldegg ♀ssp . feldegg ♂ ssp . thunbergi

♂ ssp . thunbergi ♀ssp . feldegg ♂ ssp . feldegg

♀ ssp . flavissima

♂ ssp . flavissima

227

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WAGTAILS

Wagtails and large pipits compared p. 222

Motacilla citreola

Citrine Wagtail L 16 cm | W 25 cm SIZE Body size as other wagtails [p. 222], comparable to House Sparrow

[p. 9].

Mainly diurnal migrant Other wagtails (p. 222) Large pipits (p. 222)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE As Western Yellow Wagtail [p. 226]. Body elongated. Head medium-sized; bill fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing broad-based, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail markedly long (shorter than White Wagtail [p. 224] and Grey Wagtail [p. 230]). Overall shape similar to large pipits [p. 222]. COLORATION ABOVE: Mantle and back grey (no greenish hue). Two broad white wingbars, but often difficult to see. BELOW: Undertail-coverts white in all plumages. ♂ whole head bright yellow, nape black. ♀ forehead, crown and nape greyish-brown, ear-coverts mottled dark and fringed yellow including prominent yellow supercilium (pattern generally similar to Western Yellow Wagtail). juvenile: much as Western Yellow Wagtail but undertail-coverts white and face very pale, with brown-buff cheek encircled by broad creamy rim (including supercilium). immature: grey, white and black, no yellow; cheek grey encircled by white; narrow blackish breast-band; white wingbars (reminiscent of White Wagtail). FLIGHT Direct, fast (like Western Yellow Wagtail). F-wave very distinct, long, high (but shorter and not as high as White Wagtail). Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals long (but shorter than White Wagtail). FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 15. Moderately dense, extended backwards, slightly coordinated; intraflock movement very slight.

♀

♂

♂

♀

immature

juvenile

228

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CITRINE WAGTAIL CALL Strong, distinct, peeping, sharp, with

kHz 10

distinct harsh vibration “tzrrip,” “hzzrip” (can be very similar to southern subspecies of Western Yellow Wagtail).

8 6 4 2 0

♀ ♂

♀ ♀

♀

♂ ♂ ♂

♀

♂ ♂

♀

♂

229

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WAGTAILS

Wagtails and large pipits compared p. 222

Motacilla cinerea

Grey Wagtail L 17–20 cm | W 25–27 cm SIZE Body size as other wagtails [p. 222], comparable to House Sparrow

[p. 9].

Diurnal migrant Western Yellow Wagtail (p. 226) White Wagtail (p. 224)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slim. Head rather small; bill fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing narrower than other wagtails, outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail very long, narrow (longest of the European wagtails). COLORATION ABOVE: In all plumages, striking pale yellow rump merging with olive-yellow uppertail-coverts. Upperwing with distinct narrow white band along centre (white bases to flight feathers). BELOW: Underwing grey with whitish coverts; contrasting narrow white central band visible against the light (translucent). Undertail-coverts in all plumages yellow or pale yellow. ♂ breeding has black bib. FLIGHT Direct, fast. F-wave very distinct, long, high (but shorter and not as high as White Wagtail [p. 224]). Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals long. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 10. Moderately dense, extended backwards, slightly coordinated; intraflock movement very slight.

breeding

♂ breeding

♂ breeding

nOn-breeding

juvenile

230

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GREY WAGTAIL CALL Strong, distinct, short, sharp “dzik,”

kHz 10

most often double, “dzi·di,” “di·tsi,” often triple “di·ti·si,” first syllable higher so sounds accented, usually repeated rhythmically (markedly higher and purer than White Wagtail, tempo a little slower, rhythm similar).

8 6 4 2 0

♂

♂

♂

231

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WARBLERS

ACROCEPHALUS and LOCUSTELLA WARBLERS Key identification features  tail shape  broadness of rump  undertail-coverts and rump bulging or

sleeked

 length of undertail-coverts STRUCTURE & SHAPE: A good clue for separating Acrocephalus warblers from Locustella warblers in flight is the tail/rump shape: in Acrocephalus warblers the tail is narrow, square-cut (but slightly notched at tip) and nearly triangular when fanned, and the rump appears markedly narrow; in Locustella warblers the tail is broad, round-tipped and broadly oval when fanned, and the rump appears markedly broad. In lateral view Acrocephalus warblers can appear longertailed than Locustella warblers due to their shorter and less bulging (sleeked) uppertail- and undertail-coverts. Locustella warblers have obviously bulging rump and uppertail-coverts and long undertail-coverts, making the visible part of the tail appear very short. FLIGHT: Usually seen in short-distance flight, low down and only briefly. (Long-distance flights on migration are at high altitude and exclusively at night.) Flight direct and slow, but sometimes with agile manoeuvres. F-wave rather short and slight. Head and tail are often slightly inclined upwards. CALLS: Probably do not call in flight (either in short- or long-distance flight), or the calls have yet to be discovered.

Acrocephalus warblers: appear longer tailed because of sleeked vent with shorter undertail-coverts; tail square-cut, narrow, nearly triangular when fanned, rump markedly narrow. Locustella warblers: appear shorter tailed because of bulging vent with longer undertail-coverts; tail graduated, broad, round-tipped, broadly oval when fanned, rump markedly broad. Acrocephalus warblers

Locustella warblers

IDUNA and HIPPOLAIS WARBLERS Key identification features  tail shape  underparts colour  upperparts colour STRUCTURE, SHAPE AND COLORATION: Size between Common Chiffchaff (p. 266) and Barred Warbler (p. 298) or Red-backed Shrike (p. 122). Upperparts uniform grey or brown with greenish, olive or rufous tinge. Underparts unmarked; whitish with grey, buffish, yellowish or yellow tinge. Most similar to unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers, sometimes confusable with ‘grey’ Sylvia warblers (p. 284). Tail more prominently square-cut and undertail-coverts shorter than on Acrocephalus warblers; more similar in this regard to Sylvia Warblers. FLIGHT: Usually seen in short-distance flight, in the canopy or among bushes and only briefly. (Long-distance flights on migration are at high altitude and exclusively at night.) Flight direct. F-wave rather short and slight. CALLS: Probably do not call in flight (either in short- or long-distance flight), or the calls have yet to be discovered.

Unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers are either inseparable or scarcely discernible. Identification is more likely when a bird is observed close and is well lit, where the general colour and details of the head are noticeable. note: Garden Warbler, Lesser Whitethroat and Common Chiffchaff are shown here for comparison. 232

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WARBLERS

ACROCEPHALUS and LOCUSTELLA WARBLERS Key identification features  tail shape  broadness of rump  undertail-coverts and rump bulging or

sleeked

 length of undertail-coverts STRUCTURE & SHAPE: A good clue for separating Acrocephalus warblers from Locustella warblers in flight is the tail/rump shape: in Acrocephalus warblers the tail is narrow, square-cut (but slightly notched at tip) and nearly triangular when fanned, and the rump appears markedly narrow; in Locustella warblers the tail is broad, round-tipped and broadly oval when fanned, and the rump appears markedly broad. In lateral view Acrocephalus warblers can appear longertailed than Locustella warblers due to their shorter and less bulging (sleeked) uppertail- and undertail-coverts. Locustella warblers have obviously bulging rump and uppertail-coverts and long undertail-coverts, making the visible part of the tail appear very short. FLIGHT: Usually seen in short-distance flight, low down and only briefly. (Long-distance flights on migration are at high altitude and exclusively at night.) Flight direct and slow, but sometimes with agile manoeuvres. F-wave rather short and slight. Head and tail are often slightly inclined upwards. CALLS: Probably do not call in flight (either in short- or long-distance flight), or the calls have yet to be discovered.

Acrocephalus warblers: appear longer tailed because of sleeked vent with shorter undertail-coverts; tail square-cut, narrow, nearly triangular when fanned, rump markedly narrow. Locustella warblers: appear shorter tailed because of bulging vent with longer undertail-coverts; tail graduated, broad, round-tipped, broadly oval when fanned, rump markedly broad. Acrocephalus warblers

Locustella warblers

IDUNA and HIPPOLAIS WARBLERS Key identification features  tail shape  underparts colour  upperparts colour STRUCTURE, SHAPE AND COLORATION: Size between Common Chiffchaff (p. 266) and Barred Warbler (p. 298) or Red-backed Shrike (p. 122). Upperparts uniform grey or brown with greenish, olive or rufous tinge. Underparts unmarked; whitish with grey, buffish, yellowish or yellow tinge. Most similar to unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers, sometimes confusable with ‘grey’ Sylvia warblers (p. 284). Tail more prominently square-cut and undertail-coverts shorter than on Acrocephalus warblers; more similar in this regard to Sylvia Warblers. FLIGHT: Usually seen in short-distance flight, in the canopy or among bushes and only briefly. (Long-distance flights on migration are at high altitude and exclusively at night.) Flight direct. F-wave rather short and slight. CALLS: Probably do not call in flight (either in short- or long-distance flight), or the calls have yet to be discovered.

Unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers are either inseparable or scarcely discernible. Identification is more likely when a bird is observed close and is well lit, where the general colour and details of the head are noticeable. note: Garden Warbler, Lesser Whitethroat and Common Chiffchaff are shown here for comparison. 232

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ACROCEPHALUS, IDUNA AND HIPPOLAIS WARBLERS

Unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers

Great Reed-warbler (p. 236)

immature

Common Reed-warbler (p. 238)

Olive-tree Warbler (p. 258)

adult

Blyth’s Reed-warbler (p. 238)

Icterine Warbler (p. 260) Hippolais warblers

Marsh Warbler (p. 238)

Melodious Warbler (p. 260)

Paddyfield Warbler (p. 240) Isabelline Warbler (p. 256) Booted Warbler (p. 255) Olivaceous Warbler (p. 256)

Iduna warblers

Common Chiffchaff (p. 266)

Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

Garden Warbler (p. 287)

Lesser Whitethroat (p. 296)

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Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

233

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CISTICOLAS

Zitting Cisticola L 10–11 cm | W 12–15 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Goldcrest [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Tiny. Head rather small; bill relatively long. Wing

broad, very short, rounded. Tail very short, graduated; when fanned, small and almost circular. COLORATION Appears rather pale. Generally brown but variable, ranging from grey-brown to warm pale brown. ABOVE: Upperparts with blackish markings; black-and-white ‘braces’ on mantle. Back unstreaked; palest and most brightly coloured part. Tail brown with black subterminal spots and white tips. BELOW: Underparts whitish with buff tinge on flanks. Tail grey with distinct black subterminal spots (forming a contrasting dark band when spread) and obvious white tips. FLIGHT Slow, low, uneven, winding, usually for only a short distance. F-wave short and flat. Tail often spread. On migration flies high. (When displaying in high song-flight appears completely different, with distinctly ‘bouncing’ flight path.) FLOCK Small groups of up to 30.

Cisticola juncidis Diurnal migrant Pallas’s Grasshopper-warbler (p. 254) Graceful Prinia (p. 246)

234

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ZITTING CISTICOLA CALL On migration: loud, short, pure,

smoothly and rapidly falling squeak, “tsyep,” “tsip,” often repeated or in short series.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

235

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ACROCEPHALUS WARBLERS

Great Reed-warbler

unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers compared p. 233

Acrocephalus arundinaceus

L 16–20 cm | W 25–30 cm SIZE Body much larger than Common Reed-warbler [p. 9]; slightly

larger than House Sparrow [p. 9], smaller than Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Much longer and more slender than Common Reed-warbler [p. 238]. Body relatively short. Head and neck extended, flat forehead merging with fairly deep, blunt-tipped bill. Wing medium-length, fairly pointed (outerwing ‘triangular’). Tail long. COLORATION No contrasts (similar to Common Reed-warbler). ABOVE: Warm brown. BELOW: Buff, with whitish throat and belly. FLIGHT Direct, fluent, sweeping, often ‘sways’ markedly from side to side. F-wave short, slight. Non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats regular. Usually flies low (50–80 cm) over water. Tail often fanned. Head and tail often slightly inclined upwards. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Nocturnal migrant Other unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 238–240) Olive-tree Warbler (p. 258) Barred Warbler (p. 298) Rufous-tailed Scrub-robin (p. 376)

236

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Difficult species compared p. 305

GREAT REED-WARBLER

CALL  None known.

237

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ACROCEPHALUS WARBLERS

unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers compared p. 233

Acrocephalus scirpaceus Acrocephalus palustris Acrocephalus dumetorum

Common Reed-warbler Marsh Warbler Blyth’s Reed-warbler Three species inseparable in flight.

Nocturnal migrants

L 12·5–15 cm | W 18–20 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; much smaller than

Great Reed-warbler [p. 236].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped. Head elongated, flat forehead

Other Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–342) Locustella warblers (pp. 250–254) Hippolais warblers (pp. 258–260) Iduna warblers (pp. 255–256)

merging with rather slender bill. Wing medium-length, fairly pointed (outerwing ‘triangular’). Tail rather long. Overall structure and shape similar to Iduna warblers and Hippolais warblers (see p. 233]. COLORATION No contrasts. ABOVE: Upperside brown: Common Reed-warbler: warmer, with rufous hue; Marsh Warbler: colder, with slightly greenish hue; Blyth’s Reed-warbler: more neutral brown. These differences are usually too subtle to assess in flight, although some Common Reed-warblers have a distinctly rusty-brown rump. All three species are paler than Savi’s and River Warblers [p. 250]. FLIGHT Direct, light, confident, sometimes with agile manoeuvres (less energetic than Sedge Warbler [p. 242]). Often ‘sway’ from side to side. F-wave slight, irregular. Wingbeats shallow. Head and tail often slightly inclined upwards. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

immature

COMMON REED-WARBLER

MARSH WARBLER

COMMON/BLYTH'S REED-/MARSH WARBLER

BLYTH'S REED-WARBLER

238

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COMMON REED-WARBLER | MARSH WARBLER | BLYTH’S REED-WARBLER CALL  None known.

COMMON REED-WARBLER

MARSH WARBLER

BLYTH'S REED WARBLER

239

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ACROCEPHALUS WARBLERS

unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers compared p. 233

Paddyfield Warbler L 12–13·5 cm | W 15–17 cm SIZE Like Sedge Warbler [p. 242], comparable to Common Chiffchaff

[p. 9]; smaller than Common Reed-warbler [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Recalls a Phylloscopus Warbler [p. 262]. Body short, rounded. Head small, fairly rounded; bill fine. Wing short, rounded, almost oval-shaped. Tail fairly long, narrow. COLORATION Rather pale (paler than Common Reed-warbler [p. 238]). Short, pale supercilium barely discernible. ABOVE: Uniform warm sandyyellowish-brown. BELOW: Whitish, tinged buff on flanks. FLIGHT Direct, light, whirring, sometimes with agile manoeuvres. F-wave short, slight, sawtooth-shaped (reminiscent of a tit [p. 162]). Wingbeats rapid, shallow. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Acrocephalus agricola Nocturnal migrant Booted Warbler (p. 255) Other Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–243)

240

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PADDYFIELD WARBLER CALL  None known.

241

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ACROCEPHALUS WARBLERS

Sedge Warbler Aquatic Warbler

Flight photos p. 244

Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Acrocephalus paludicola

Two species generally inseparable in flight (differences in plumage not evident unless upperparts seen clearly at close range). L 11·5–13 cm | W 16–20 cm

Nocturnal migrants Other Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–243)

SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; smaller than Common

Reed-warbler [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped (more slender than Common

Reed-warbler [p. 238], not so stocky as Moustached Warbler [p. 243]). Head moderately elongated, forehead flat; bill fine, pointed. Wing narrower than on Common Reed-warbler but less pointed. Tail moderately long, rather narrow. COLORATION Distinct contrasts on head: chin and throat whitish; cheek greyish-buff to buff, rather pale; dark eyestripe; supercilium creamy, long, fairly broad; forehead and crown dark brown but can appear blackish (markings similar to Moustached Warbler but contrast on face weaker). ABOVE: Upperparts appear dark due to dense brown or blackish markings. BELOW: Underparts whitish, tinged greyish-buff or buff to yellow-buff. In Aquatic Warbler (at close range), sharply demarcated creamy central crown stripe; ‘black-and-white’ ‘braces’ on mantle; tertials with white inner edges and tips. FLIGHT Direct, light, sometimes with agile manoeuvres (more energetic than Common Reed-warbler). F-wave rather short, slight. Wingbeats shallow. Head and tail often slightly inclined upwards. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sedge Warbler

Aquatic Warbler

immature

SEDGE WARBLER AQUATIC WARBLER

242

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Flight photos p. 245

Moustached Warbler

SEDGE WARBLER | AQUATIC WARBLER | MOUSTACHED WARBLER

Acrocephalus melanopogon

L 12–13 cm | W 15–17 cm SIZE Like Sedge Warbler [p. 242], comparable to Common Chiffchaff

Nocturnal migrant

[p. 9]; smaller than Cetti’s Warbler and Common Reed-warbler [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped (slightly stockier than Sedge Warbler). Head moderately elongated, forehead flat; bill fine, pointed. Wing shorter and more rounded than on Sedge Warbler but not as short and round as on Cetti’s Warbler. Tail moderately long, rather narrow (not as broad or rounded as on Cetti’s Warbler). COLORATION Dark. Distinct contrasts on head: chin and throat creamywhite; cheek dark with blackish eyestripe; supercilium white, long and broad; forehead and crown dark brown but can appear blackish (contrast on face stronger than on Sedge Warbler). ABOVE: Rufous-brown to olivebrown; tail blackish-brown (similar in colour to Cetti’s Warbler). BELOW: whitish, tinged rufous on flanks. Note: two subspecies occur: western ssp. melanopogon more warm-coloured (rufous tint), and eastern ssp. albiventris colder (olive tint). FLIGHT Direct, light, confident, sometimes with agile manoeuvres. F-wave rather short, slight. Wingbeats shallow. Head and tail often slightly inclined upwards. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Cetti’s Warbler Other Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–242)

ssp. albiventris [EASTERN]

ssp. melanopogon [WESTERN] 243

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ACROCEPHALUS WARBLERS | PRINIAS SEDGE WARBLER

AQUATIC WARBLER

244

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SEDGE WARBLER | AQUATIC WARBLER | MOUSTACHED WARBLER | GRACEFUL PRINIA MOUSTACHED WARBLER

GRACEFUL PRINIA

245

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PRINIAS

Flight photos p. 245

Prinia gracilis

Graceful Prinia L 10–11 cm | W 12 cm

Non-migratory

SIZE Body size comparable to Goldcrest [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Tiny, rather slim. Body rounded. Head relatively

Zitting Cisticola (p. 234)

large, short with flat forehead; bill longish. Wing small, very short, ovalshaped. Tail very long, narrow, graduated, elliptical when fanned. COLORATION Rather pale. ABOVE: Grey-sandy-brown; tail grey-brown with dark subterminal spots and whitish tips. BELOW: Off-white with buff cast; tail grey with distinct black subterminal spots and obvious white tips. FLIGHT Whirring, uneven, jerky, winding. FLOCK Does not form flocks.

CALL Ringing, slightly upslurred, ‘electric’-buzzing “brrrriit”

(reminiscent of Northern House Martin [p. 110] and on same pitch but slower and softer).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

246

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DARK WARBLERS AND WREN

Dark warblers and Northern Wren

Dusky Warbler (p. 276)

Northern Wren (p. 316)

Radde’s Warbler (p. 277)

Cetti’s Warbler (p. 248)

Moustached Warbler (p. 243) Savi’s Warbler (River Warbler alike) (p. 250)

Cetti’s Warbler (p. 248)

Moustached Warbler (p. 243)

Dusky Warbler (p. 276)

Savi’s Warbler (p. 250)

Radde’s Warbler (p. 277)

Northern Wren (p. 316)

Skulking dwellers of densely vegetated habitats. In shadow can appear very dark. Usually seen briefly, flying low among vegetation. Key identification features: relative wing length/width; tail length and shape when fanned. 247

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ACROCEPHALUS WARBLERS | CETTI’S WARBLER

Cetti’s Warbler L 12–13 cm | W 15–17 cm SIZE Similar to Common Reed-warbler [p. 9], Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rotund. Head moderately large, rounded,

forehead steep; bill rather long and slender. Wing relatively small, short, oval-shaped (like Northern Wren [p. 316]). Tail long and broad, graduated. COLORATION Generally, much darker than any Acrocephalus warbler (pp. 236–243], except for Moustached Warbler. Pale grey supercilium contrasting with darker eyestripe and crown. ABOVE: Uniformly warm dark brown with markedly darker, blackish rear ‘half ’ of tail (dark tail slightly contrasting with brown rump). BELOW: Grey, tail darkest. FLIGHT Slow, whirring, somewhat zigzagging. F-wave short, very slight but perceptible. Non-flapping intervals very short. Head slightly raised above back level. Tail sometimes slightly inclined upwards (in a similar manner to Acrocephalus warblers). Flies low over reedbeds (up to 30–50 cm over reed tops or bushes); usually seen for just a few seconds, (but more frequently than Acrocephalus warblers). Can sometimes be seen ‘slaloming’ among reed tops, when broad, almost black tail obvious if fanned. Occasionally flies low over open landscapes without hiding among vegetation. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Dark warblers compared p. 247

Cettia cetti Nocturnal migrant Moustached Warbler Bluethroat (p. 372) Nightingales (p. 370) Savi’s Warbler (p. 250) River Warbler (p. 250) Northern Wren (p. 316)

248

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CETTI’S WARBLER CALL In short flights, scarcely calls; in long-

distance flight presumably silent. Rather low-pitched, explosive, short, energetic knocking “chik,” “chek,” single or repeated at long intervals (pitch and duration similar to Northern Wren but sharper and purer).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

249

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LOCUSTELLA WARBLERS

Savi’s Warbler River Warbler Two species practically inseparable in flight. L 13·5–16 cm | W 16–18 cm SIZE Comparable to Great Tit [p. 9]; slightly larger than Common Reed-warbler [p. 9], Common Grasshopper-warbler and Lanceolated

Warbler [p. 252].

Dark warblers compared p. 247

Locustella luscinioides Locustella fluviatilis Nocturnal migrants Cetti’s Warbler (p. 248) Other Locustella warblers (pp. 252–254) Acrocephalus warblers ( pp. 236–243) Bluethroat (p. 372)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped, elongated, ‘pointed at both ends’. Wing short, outerwing ‘triangular’ but not pointed. Tail broad, graduated, oval-shaped when fanned. Compared with Acrocephalus warblers [p. 232]: undertail coverts longer and more bulging; tail base broader; tail broader and much rounder. Compared with Cetti’s Warbler [p. 248]: elongated silhouette; wing longer with ‘triangular’ outerwing. COLORATION Dark brown: Savi’s Warbler warmer (rufous tint); River Warbler colder (olive tint). Generally darker than Common Grasshopper-warbler or Lanceolated Warbler. ABOVE: Upperparts unstreaked; tail same colour as rump and back (Cetti’s Warbler has tail markedly darker than rump and back). BELOW: Flanks, vent and undertail appear dark with brown tinges. River Warbler has a slightly darker breast (mottled or striped dark) than Savi’s Warbler, and brown undertail-coverts, broadly tipped white, but this is barely discernible in flight. FLIGHT Rather slow, winding, uncertain. F-wave slight but distinct. Wingbeats rather slow, full. Flapping phases longer than short non-flapping intervals. Tail often moving and fanned. Head and tail often slightly inclined upwards. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

SAVI'S WARBLER RIVER WARBLER

250

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SAVI’S WARBLER | RIVER WARBLER CALL  None known.

Savi's Warbler

River Warbler

SAVI'S WARBLER

RIVER WARBLER

251

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LOCUSTELLA WARBLERS

V Asia

Common Grasshopper-warbler Lanceolated Warbler Two species practically inseparable in flight. L 13·5–16 cm | W 16–18 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Reed-warbler [p. 9] or Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; Lanceolated Warbler imperceptibly smaller than

Common Grasshopper-warbler.

Locustella naevia Locustella lanceolata Nocturnal migrants Other Locustella warblers (pp. 250–254) Acrocephalus warblers ( pp. 236–243)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped, elongated, ‘pointed at both ends’. Wing short, outerwing ‘triangular’ but

not pointed. Tail broad, graduated, oval-shaped when fanned; Lanceolated Warbler tail very slightly shorter than Common Grasshopper-warbler. Undertail-coverts longer and more bulging than on an Acrocephalus warbler [p. 232], tail much rounder and tail base broader. COLORATION Dull grey-olive-brown (hay-coloured) (generally paler than Savi’s and River Warblers [p. 250]). ABOVE: Striped dark. BELOW: Pale greyish-buff: Common Grasshopper-warbler unstreaked; Lanceolated Warbler boldly streaked dark on breast, belly and flanks. FLIGHT Rather slow, direct. F-wave slight but distinct. Wingbeats rapid, full. Flapping phases short; nonflapping intervals short. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

COMMON GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER

LANCEOLATED WARBLER

252

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COMMON GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER | LANCEOLATED WARBLER CALL  None known.

Common Grasshopper-warbler

COMMON GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER

Lanceolated Warbler

LANCEOLATED WARBLER

253

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LOCUSTELLA WARBLERS | IDUNA WARBLERS V Pallas’s Grasshopper-warbler Asia L 13–14 cm | W 16–18 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Reed-warbler [p. 9], larger than Sedge

Warbler [p. 242].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped, ‘pointed at both ends’. Wing short, outerwing ‘triangular’ but not pointed. Tail broad, graduated, oval-shaped when fanned. Undertail-coverts longer and more bulging than on an Acrocephalus warbler [p. 232], tail much rounder and tail base broader. COLORATION More similar to Sedge Warbler than to Common Grasshopperwarbler and Lanceolated Warbler [p. 252]. ABOVE: Generally dark, warm olive-rufous, boldly striped black; upper part of head and nape almost black (streaked brownish and grey), obviously contrasting with pale buff supercilium. Terminal part of tail much darker than uppertail-coverts; fanned tail shows whitish feather tips. BELOW: Pale buff to whitish; throat sometimes pale yellow, breast sides brownish-buff; vent and undertailcoverts diffusely darkening to rufous-buff (sometimes with blurry white tip); fanned tail strikingly black with strongly contrasting silvery or white feather tips. FLIGHT Rather slow, direct. F-wave slight but distinct. Wingbeats rapid, full. Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals short. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Locustella certhiola Nocturnal migrant Other Locustella warblers (pp. 250–252) Sedge Warbler (p. 242) Zitting Cisticola (p. 234)

254

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PALLAS’S GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER | BOOTED WARBLER

Booted Warbler L 11–12·5 cm | W 18–21 cm Note: vagrant Syke’s Warbler Iduna rama inseparable in flight from Booted Warbler SIZE Comparable to Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9], Common Chiffchaff [p. 9] or Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; smaller than Common Reed-warbler [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Rather short with a rounded head (recalls a Phylloscopus warbler [p. 262]). Wing shorter than on Common Chiffchaff [p. 266], shorter and much rounder than on Common Reed-warbler [p. 238]. Tail medium-length (as narrow as a Phylloscopus warbler but narrower than on an Acrocephalus warbler [pp. 236–240]). COLORATION Recalls a reed-warbler [p. 238]. ABOVE: Upperparts uniform olive-brown, more or less tinged rufous. Fairly contrasting broad, short, creamy supercilium that merges with pale lore. BELOW: Underparts buffishcream. FLIGHT Direct, fast, nervous. F-wave short, slight, irregular. Non-flapping intervals very short but appreciable. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Iduna caligata Nocturnal migrant Paddyfield Warbler (p. 240) Common Chiffchaff (p. 266) and other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

255

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IDUNA WARBLERS

unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers compared p. 233

Olivaceous Warbler (Eastern Olivaceous Warbler) Isabelline Warbler (Western Olivaceous Warbler) Two species practically inseparable in flight. L 12–14 cm | W 18–21 cm SIZE Like Common Reed-warbler [p. 9], comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; smaller than Great Tit [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped (similar to Common Reed-warbler [p. 238] but body slightly shorter and rounder). Head elongated, flat forehead merging with rather slender bill. Wing broad with slightly tapered outerwing (rounder than on Common Reed-warbler). Tail medium-length, rather broad. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts uniform brownish-grey. Olivaceous Warbler paler grey; Isabelline Warbler darker brown. BELOW: Underparts off-white (with buffish, creamy or yellowish cast) to white. FLIGHT Direct. F-wave short, slight, irregular. Non-flapping intervals very short but appreciable. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Iduna pallida Iduna opaca Nocturnal migrants Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–243) Hippolais warblers (pp. 258–260) Booted Warbler (p. 255)

Olivaceous Warbler

Isabelline Warbler

OLIVACEOUS WARBLER ISABELLINE WARBLER

256

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O

OLIVACEOUS WARBLER | ISABELLINE WARBLER CALL  None known.

OLIVACEOUS WARBLER

ISABELLINE WARBLER

257

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IDUNA WARBLERS

unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers compared p. 233

Olive-tree Warbler L 16–18 cm | W 22–24 cm SIZE Comparable to Barred Warbler [p. 298]; larger than Icterine Warbler

and Melodious Warbler [p. 260], Common Reed-warbler [p. 9] and

House Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped. Head elongated, flat forehead merging with rather slender bill. Wing rather long, slightly pointed (very similar in shape to Common Reed-warbler [p. 238] but slightly larger). Tail square-cut. Recalls Common Reed-warbler but bill and tail longer. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts rather dark brownish-grey. BELOW: Underparts whitish with grey and yellowish cast. FLIGHT Direct, energetic, fluent. F-wave short, slight. Non-flapping intervals very short but appreciable. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Hippolais olivetorum Nocturnal migrant Icterine Warbler (p. 260) Melodious Warbler (p. 260) Olivaceous Warbler (p. 256) Unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–240) Garden Warbler (p. 287)

258

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OLIVE-TREE WARBLER CALL  None known.

259

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HIPPOLAIS WARBLERS

unstreaked Acrocephalus, Iduna and Hippolais warblers compared p. 233

Icterine Warbler Melodious Warbler Two species practically inseparable in flight. L 13·5–16 cm | W 16–18 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Great Tit [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped. Head elongated, flat forehead

merging with rather slender bill. Wing medium-length, slightly rounded. Tail rather long. Recall Common Reed-warbler [p. 238] but head (including bill) shorter; tail shorter and square-cut. Wing rather similar in shape to Common Reed-warbler, but in Melodious Warbler slightly shorter. COLORATION ABOVE: Olive-green: Icterine Warbler tinged grey; Melodious Warbler tinged brown. BELOW: Pale yellow. FLIGHT Direct. F-wave short, slight, irregular. Non-flapping intervals very short but appreciable. Can pursue insects in flight. Due to its shorter wings, Melodious Warbler appears to have more fluttering wingbeats. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Hippolais icterina Hippolais polyglotta Nocturnal migrants Iduna warblers (pp. 255–256) Unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–240) Olive-tree Warbler (p. 258) Garden Warbler (p. 287)

Icterine Warbler

Melodious Warbler

ICTERINE WARBLER MELODIOUS WARBLER

260

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ICTERINE WARBLER | MELODIOUS WARBLER CALL  None known.

ICTERINE WARBLER

MELODIOUS WARBLER

261

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS AND CRESTS

PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS and CRESTS Key identification features  colour of underside  head pattern if seen  call if heard

Phylloscopus warblers

STRUCTURE, SHAPE AND COLORATION: Differences in size and shape are minor . The size of most species is comparable to smaller Sylvia warblers (e.g. Lesser Whitethroat (p. 296)) and smaller tits (e.g. Coal Tit (p. 166)) . The smallest Phylloscopus warblers are closer in size to Goldcrest (p. 282) and Eurasian Penduline-tit (p. 180) . Upperparts are shades of olive-green, olive-brown or olive-grey but differences in coloration can be very difficult to detect (in many cases even on birds in the hand) . Seeing details such as thin wingbars or the supercilium or eyestripe on a bird in flight is very seldom possible . FLIGHT: The manner of flight of the species within this group is practically the same: light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight . While most Phylloscopus warblers fly over open landscapes, usually low over the ground up to tree-top level, they prefer to stay concealed among trees, bushes, shrubs or reeds . Flocks are never formed, birds migrating alone and, as a general rule, only at night . Exceptionally, during peak migration, when a stream of birds is particularly concentrated, Common Chiffchaffs (p. 266) and/or Willow Warblers (p. 264) can pass so frequently during the daytime that disjointed groups of up to 20 flying birds may form coincidentally . CALLS: Very seldom uttered, but always a single ‘note’ and, if heard, can provide a conclusive identification .

Crests STRUCTURE, SHAPE AND COLORATION: Very small . Body and tail very short, wing short and round . Upperside colour and wing pattern similar to leaf-warblers, but head smaller, crown stripe with black and more prominent . FLIGHT: Nervous and uncertain, less fluent than Phylloscopus warblers . On migration often in flocks . CALLS: More vocal than Phylloscopus warblers .

Pallas’s Leaf-warbler (p. 280)

Wood Warbler (p. 272)

Goldcrest (p. 282)

chiffchaffs (pp. 266–269)

Wood Warbler (p. 272) Goldcrest (p. 282) Willow Warbler (p. 264)

Common Chiffchaff (p. 266)

262

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS AND CRESTS

Phylloscopus warblers and crests

Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler (p. 270)

Western Bonelli’s Warbler (p. 270)

Willow Warbler (p. 264)

Iberian Chiffchaff (p. 409)

Common Chiffchaff (p. 266)

Siberian Chiffchaff (and ‘Caucasian’ Mountain Chiffchaff ) (p. 268)

Wood Warbler (p. 272)

Green Warbler (p. 274)

Greenish Warbler (p. 274)

Arctic Warbler (p. 273)

Hume’s Leaf-warbler (p. 278)

Yellow-browed Warbler (p. 278)

Pallas’s Leaf-warbler (p. 280) Dusky Warbler (p. 276)

Common Firecrest (p. 282)

Radde’s Warbler (p. 277)

Lesser Whitethroat (p. 296)

Goldcrest (p. 282)

Northern Wren (p. 316)

note: Lesser Whitethroat and Northern Wren are shown here for comparison.

263

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Willow Warbler L 11–12·5 cm | W 15–21 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body oblong. Head medium-sized; bill fine, juts out

from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail medium-length. Often appears slightly slimmer than Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]. COLORATION Underbody varying shades of pale yellow; immature in autumn bright yellow. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Phylloscopus trochilus Nocturnal migrant Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

264

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WILLOW WARBLER CALL Variable, but

typically a whistle, “tyyuwiit,” with initial part accented, lower-pitched, longer, with rapidly upslurred ending.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

265

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Common Chiffchaff L 10–12 cm | W 15–21 cm SIZE Larger than Goldcrest [p. 9], smaller than Lesser Whitethroat

[p. 9]; comparable to Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body oblong. Head medium-sized; bill fine, juts out from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail medium-length. Often appears slightly bulkier than Willow Warbler [p. 264]. COLORATION Underbody varying shades of pale brown and buff, never lemon-yellow. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Phylloscopus collybita Nocturnal migrant Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

266

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COMMON CHIFFCHAFF CALL Geographically very variable. Sharply ascending “wii,” “hwii;” less energetic, quickly ascending “psi.” |

Equally short, “psiyu,” with ascending, accented, longer first part (“psi-”) and weaker, rapidly descending second part (“yu”).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

267

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Phylloscopus ibericus

Iberian Chiffchaff L 11–12 cm | W 15–21 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE As Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]. Body oblong.

Head medium-sized; bill fine, juts out from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail medium-length. COLORATION Underbody mostly lemon-yellow, belly paler yellow or kHz white. 10 FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, 8 slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and 6 slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds. 4 CALL Short whistle, “psiiye,” accented 2 at the beginning, markedly descending 0 towards the end.

Siberian Chiffchaff ‘Caucasian’ Mountain Chiffchaff

Nocturnal migrant Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

Phylloscopus tristis Phylloscopus sindianus lorenzii

Two species only separable in flight by call. L 10–12 cm | W 15–21 cm SIZE As Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE As Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]. Body oblong. Head

Nocturnal migrants Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

medium-sized; bill fine, juts out from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail medium-length. COLORATION Greyish-brown above (no green hue), pale buff to white beneath (no yellow hue on face and/or underbody); ‘wingpit’ and underwing-coverts lemon-yellow (very seldom noticeable). FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds. Siberian Chiffchaff

CALL Siberian Chiffchaff:

Typically an even-pitched whistle, “fii.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

‘Caucasian’ Mountain Chiffchaff: Short whistle, “fsii” or “fsiiy,” accented in the middle, descending markedly at the end.

'Caucasian' Mountain Chiffchaff

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

268

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SIBERIAN CHIFFCHAFF | ’CAUCASIAN’ MOUNTAIN CHIFFCHAFF | IBERIAN CHIFFCHAFF IBERIAN

SIBERIAN

IBERIAN CHIFFCHAFF SIBERIAN/’CAUCASIAN’ MOUNTAIN CHIFFCHAFF

'CAUCASIAN' MOUNTAIN

269

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Western Bonelli’s Warbler Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler Two species only separable in flight by call. L 10·5–12 cm | W 18–20 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body oblong. Head medium-sized; bill fine, juts

out from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail rather short (shorter than on Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]). COLORATION Rather pale grey head, neck and mantle. Wing with vivid green hue (like Wood Warbler). Rump paler than back and uppertailcoverts. Underparts white or off-white. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Phylloscopus bonelli Phylloscopus orientalis Nocturnal migrants Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

Western Bonelli's Warbler

Eastern Bonelli's Warbler

WESTERN EASTERN

270

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WESTERN BONELLI’S WARBLER | EASTERN BONELLI’S WARBLER CALL Western Bonelli’s Warbler: Disyllabic

“tuyip,” the first syllable (“tuy”) is long, ascending, inflected and accented, the second syllable (“ip”) is very short and rapidly descending. Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler: Monosyllabic, short, slightly nasal, sharply descending “chyip.”

kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

WESTERN

EASTERN

WESTERN BONELLI'S WARBLER

EASTERN BONELLI'S WARBLER

271

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS

Wood Warbler L 10–12 cm | W 15–21 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body oblong. Head medium-sized, elongated; bill

fine, juts out from head profile. Wing relatively long, outerwing narrow. Tail relatively short. Silhouette slightly longer; wing larger, longer and more ‘triangular’ than on other Phylloscopus warblers. COLORATION Upperparts bright green. Chin, throat, neck and upper breast pale yellow, rest of underbody white. FLIGHT Somewhat flycatcher-like [pp. 354–356], easy, light; wingbeats deep, sweeping. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL Drawn-out, almost even-pitched, pure whistle, “piiy,” descending slightly towards the end.

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Phylloscopus sibilatrix Nocturnal migrant Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

CALL Drawn-out, almost even-pitched, pure whistle, “piiy,”

descending slightly towards the end.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

272

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WOOD WARBLER | ARCTIC WARBLER

Arctic Warbler L 11·5–13 cm | W 17–19 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body oblong. Head rather large (larger than

Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]); bill fine, juts out from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail medium-length. COLORATION Upperparts greenish-grey; underparts white, breast often mottled grey. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Phylloscopus borealis Nocturnal migrant Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

CALL Short, insect-like “bzzt” (longer and higher-pitched than Dusky

Warbler [p. 276]), or the same sound quality but double “tz·zt.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

273

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS

Greenish Warbler Green Warbler

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Phylloscopus trochiloides Phylloscopus nitidus

Two species inseparable unless coloration seen. L 9·5–11 cm | W 15–18 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body oblong. Head medium-sized; bill fine, juts

out from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail rather short (shorter than on Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]). COLORATION Greenish Warbler: Upperparts olive-greenish-grey; underparts white with pale yellow cast but yellow usually not discernible. Green Warbler: Upperparts bright green (as Wood Warbler [p. 272]); underparts wholly yellow, with no white or pale buff. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Nocturnal migrants Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

Greenish Warbler

Green Warbler

GREENISH WARBLER GREEN WARBLER

274

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GREENISH WARBLER | GREEN WARBLER CALL Greenish Warbler: Somewhat hissing “pslii,” “psiye” or

“psye,” accented at the beginning, downslurred towards the end (reminiscent of some White Wagtail [p. 224] calls, the same pitch but softer).

Green Warbler: Short, harsh, sharp, upslurred “tzit” or longer, disyllabic “tziiwii,” first syllable accented, second upslurred

kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

GREENISH WARBLER

GREEN WARBLER

275

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Phylloscopus fuscatus

V Dusky Warbler Asia L 10·5–12 cm | W 16–19 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slightly rounded. Head medium-sized; bill

fine, juts out from head profile. Wing short and very rounded (similar to Northern Wren [p. 316]). Tail proportionally short, graduated, tip rounded when fanned. COLORATION Very dark for a Phylloscopus warbler: upperparts grey-brown, underparts (greyish-)buff. FLIGHT Whirring (reminiscent of Northern Wren). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL Quiet, non-vocalic, short cluck, “tek.”

Nocturnal migrant Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262) Northern Wren (p. 316)

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

276

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DUSKY WARBLER | RADDE’S WARBLER

Dark warblers compared p. 247

Phylloscopus schwarzi

V Radde’s Warbler Asia L 11·5–12·5 cm | W 17–19 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky. Head rather large; bill fine, juts out

from head profile. Wing rather short, fairly rounded. Tail medium-length. Appears stockier than Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]. COLORATION Upperparts dark. Underparts variable, usually rather dark (‘dirty’-looking), undertail-coverts warm buff to orange-buff. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL Very short, nasal,

muffled, soft, squeaking, ascending “chik,” “twek.”

Nocturnal migrant Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

277

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS SM Asia V Asia

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Yellow-browed Warbler

Phylloscopus inornatus Phylloscopus humei

Hume’s Leaf-warbler

Nocturnal migrants

Two species only separable in flight by diagnostic calls.

Pallas’s Leaf-warbler (p. 280) Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262) Goldcrest (p. 282) Common Firecrest (p. 282)

L 9–10·5 cm | W 15–16 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Goldcrest [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded. Head relatively large; bill fine, juts

out from head profile. Wing short, broad, rounded. Tail short. Similar to Goldcrest [p. 282]; head appears smaller than on Pallas’s Leaf-warbler [p. 280]. COLORATION Central crown stripe, if noticeable, much less distinct than pale supercilium. No pale band on back (unlike Pallas’s Leaf-warbler). Two wingbars but one (on median coverts) usually not obvious. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging; F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Yellow-browed Warbler

Hume's Leaf-Warbler

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

CALL Yellow-browed Warbler:

YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER

Disyllabic but continual pure, smooth whistle, “siiwii,” initially downslurred, ascending towards end (reminiscent of Coal Tit [p. 166]). | Indistinct harsh knock “chk”.

HUME'S LEAF-WARBLER

278

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YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER | HUME’S LEAF-WARBLER CALL Hume’s Leaf-warbler:

Disyllabic, short, whistle, “tyu·vi,” first syllable descending, second ascending (similar to Yellow-browed Warbler but lower-pitched and syllables appreciably separated).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER

HUME'S LEAF-WARBLER

279

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PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS V Pallas’s Leaf-warbler Asia L 9–9·5 cm | W 14–16 cm SIZE Comparable to Goldcrest [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded. Head relatively large; bill fine, juts

Phylloscopus warblers compared p. 263

Phylloscopus proregulus

out from head profile. Wing short, broad, rounded. Tail short. Similar to Goldcrest [p. 282]; appears larger-headed than on Yellow-browed Warbler or Hume’s Leaf-warbler [p. 278]. COLORATION Yellow central crown stripe and supercilium, both distinct. Broad pale yellow band across back strongly contrasting with mantle and rump (unlike on Goldcrest, Common Firecrest [p. 282] and other Phylloscopus warblers [p. 262]). Two whitish wingbars. FLIGHT Light, often somewhat jerky, slightly zigzagging, F-wave short and slight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Nocturnal migrant Goldcrest (p. 282) Common Firecrest (p. 282) Yellow-browed Warbler (p. 278) Hume’s Leaf-warbler (p. 278) Other Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

280

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PALLAS’S LEAF-WARBLER CALL Mild, inflected, markedly upslurred

“dsuwii” (sometimes reminiscent of Common Chiffchaff [p. 266] call, “hui”).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

281

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CRESTS

Phylloscopus warblers and crests compared p. 263

Goldcrest Common Firecrest Two species practically inseparable in flight; distinguishing features seldom appreciable. L 8·5–10 cm | W 14–15 cm SIZE Smallest birds in Europe: smaller than Common Chiffchaff [p. 9], slightly smaller than Northern Wren [p. 316] and Eurasian Penduline-tit [p. 180]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded; neck short, thick. Head relatively large; bill thin, pointed. Wing short, broad, rounded. Tail short. Compared with Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]: neck and head shorter, wing rounder, stern and tail much shorter. COLORATION Upperparts greenish-olive, no pale band on back (unlike Pallas’s Leaf-warbler [p. 280]). Underparts off-white, tinged buff. Goldcrest: Face plain brownish-grey, paler around eye and bill base, eye distinct; narrow black crown stripes. Common Firecrest: Eye concealed by black and dark grey eyestripe obviously contrasting with broad, white supercilium and white spot below eye (visible at close range); broad, black crown stripes form oval patch bordered white. FLIGHT Winding, light, nervous and uncertain (obviously even less fluent than Phylloscopus warblers). F-wave short, irregular (height variable). Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals appreciable. FLOCK Goldcrest: Usually 1–20, on autumn migration sometimes up to 100. Very loose, uncoordinated. Common Firecrest: Usually 1–2, on autumn migration occasionally up to several among a larger flock of Goldcrests.

Regulus regulus Regulus ignicapilla Mainly nocturnal migrants Coal Tit (p. 166) Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

Goldcrest

Common Firecrest

GOLDCREST COMMON FIRECREST

282

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GOLDCREST | COMMON FIRECREST CALL Short series (2–6 syllables) of very

high-pitched notes; Goldcrest slightly higher than Common Firecrest, squeaky, harsh notes, “tzi-tzi-tzi-tzi-tzi;” Goldcrest evenpitched, sometimes descending, Common Firecrest usually ascending.

COMMON FIRECREST

kHz 10 8 6 4 2

GOLDCREST

0

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

GOLDCREST

COMMON FIRECREST

283

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

SYLVIA WARBLERS Key identification features  size and shape (silhouette, relative tail length)  white on outer tail feathers  extent of black on head STRUCTURE, SHAPE AND COLORATION: Body elongated. Head round, forehead steep; bill medium-length. Wing rounded. Coloration often dull, grey, whitish, rufous or rusty-red or brown and black. Grey often with brownish or olive cast. No streaking or spotting (Barred Warbler adult is barred below). Most species have white or pale tail sides. Females of Common Whitethroat, Spectacled, Subalpine, Moltoni’s, Menetries’s, Sardinian and Rüppell’s Warblers all have very similar coloration (differing mostly in intensity of grey or brown hues) and, as a consequence, are very difficult to separate in flight. For this reason, the following descriptions of coloration and lists of confusion species relate mainly to adult males, unless stated otherwise.

Western Orphean Warbler (p. 297)

FLIGHT: All are strictly nocturnal migrants and do not undertake long-distance flights during daytime. They migrate alone, never in groups or forming flocks. During the day they fly low over the ground up to tree-top level. All share the same flight manner, but this can vary depending on a bird’s size and the relative length of its wings. The flight is direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (slower than in finches), and there is often a slight sway from side to side. F-wave is short and slight but appreciable, and often of irregular length. Wingbeats are strong and fluent. Flapping phases are short, and non-flapping intervals short or very short. CALLS: Flight calls, if any, are not known.

Barred Warbler (p. 298)

Eastern Orphean Warbler (p. 297) Eurasian Blackcap (p. 286) Rüppell’s Warbler (p. 300)

284

immature

Garden Warbler (p. 287) ♂ Lesser Whitethroat (p. 296) ♂

Sardinian Warbler (p. 302)

♂

Menetries’s Warbler (p. 303)

♂

Sardinian Warbler (p. 302) Dartford Warbler (p. 293)

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adult

♀

♀

Spectacled Warbler (p. 291)

♂

Common Whitethroat (p. 290)

♂

♀

Subalpine Warbler (p. 292)

♂

Dartford Warbler (p. 293)

♂

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Western Orphean Warbler (Eastern Orphean Warbler alike) (p. 297)

Barred Warbler (p. 298)

♂

Garden Warbler (p. 287)

Eurasian Blackcap (p. 286) ♂ Lesser Whitethroat (p. 296)

Sardinian Warbler (p. 302) Common Whitethroat (p. 290) Subalpine Warbler (Moltoni’s Warbler alike) (p. 292) Menetries’s Warbler (p. 303)

Spectacled Warbler (p. 291) Dartford Warbler (p. 293) Rüppell’s Warbler (p. 300)

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285

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

Sylvia atricapilla

Eurasian Blackcap L 13·5–15 cm | W 20–23 cm SIZE Like Garden Warbler [p. 287]; comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head round, forehead steep; bill

medium-length, rather deep. Wing rather narrow, fairly long, rounded. Tail moderately long. COLORATION Distinct contrast between cap and face: black cap on ♂, brown cap on ♀ and juvenile; face cold grey. ABOVE: Plain olive-grey. BELOW: Off-white with grey cast. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (slightly lighter than Garden Warbler; heavier and less graceful than Common Whitethroat [p. 290]). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Nocturnal migrant Garden Warbler Other dark-headed Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

♂

♂

♀

286

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Flight photos p. 288

EURASIAN BLACKCAP | GARDEN WARBLER

Garden Warbler L 13–14·5 cm | W 20–22 cm SIZE Like Eurasian Blackcap [p. 286]; comparable to House Sparrow

[p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head moderately round; bill medium-length, rather deep. Wing rather narrow, rounded (shorter than on Eurasian Blackcap). Tail moderately long. COLORATION ♂ and ♀ similar. Appear pale, no contrasts: upperparts uniformly grey; underparts creamy-white. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (slightly heavier than Eurasian Blackcap; heavier and less graceful than Common Whitethroat [p. 290]). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sylvia borin Nocturnal migrant Eurasian Blackcap Barred Warbler (p. 298) Iduna warblers (pp. 255–256) Hippolais warblers (pp. 258–260) Unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers (pp. 236–240) Spotted Flycatcher (p. 354) Nightingales (p. 370)

287

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

EURASIAN BLACKCAP

♂

♂ ♂

♀

♀

GARDEN WARBLER

288

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EURASIAN BLACKCAP | GARDEN WARBLER | COMMON WHITETHROAT | SPECTACLED WARBLER COMMON WHITETHROAT

SPECTACLED WARBLER

289

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Common Whitethroat L 13–15 cm | W 18–22 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9], Common

Chiffchaff [p. 9] and Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head round; bill medium-length. Wing medium-width, rather short, rounded. Tail narrow, long (longer than on Lesser Whitethroat [p. 296]). COLORATION ♂ and ♀ similar. ABOVE: Upperwing median and greater coverts, tertials and secondaries fringed rufous, forming a diffuse rufous panel (less distinct than on Spectacled Warbler [p. 291]). Tail dark browngrey, edged white on adult, pale brownish on immature. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (lighter, more agile and graceful than Eurasian Blackcap [p. 286] and Garden Warbler [p. 287]). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

Sylvia communis Nocturnal migrant Spectacled Warbler (p. 291) Other Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

♂

♀

290

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Flight photos p. 289

COMMON WHITETHROAT | SPECTACLED WARBLER

Spectacled Warbler L 12–13 cm | W 18–20 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; slightly

smaller than Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9], smaller than Common Whitethroat. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head round; bill medium-length. Wing medium-width, rather short, rounded. Tail narrow, medium-length (shorter than on Common Whitethroat). COLORATION ♂ and ♀ similar. ABOVE: Upperwing greater coverts, tertials and secondaries mostly rufous, forming a solid rufous panel (more distinct than on Common Whitethroat). BELOW: Underbody on adult ♂ pinkish, on ♀ paler pink, on immature buffish. White lower half of head contrasts with grey hood and pinkish breast. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (appears more whirring than Common Whitethroat); often moves tail. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sylvia conspicillata Nocturnal migrant Common Whitethroat Other small Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

291

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

Sylvia cantillans Sylvia subalpina

Subalpine Warbler Moltoni’s Warbler

Nocturnal migrants

Two species inseparable in flight. L 11·5–13 cm | W 17–21 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9], Common Chiffchaff [p. 9] and Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168].

Other small Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head round; bill medium-length. Wing medium-width, rather short, rounded. Tail narrow, medium-length (shorter than on Lesser Whitethroat [p. 296]). COLORATION ♀s and immatures of the two species (and subspecies) inseparable; breeding ♂s differ slightly in underbody coloration. ♂ rump and uppertail-coverts bluish-grey; contrasting white ‘moustache’. Moltoni’s Warbler: ‘Red’ on underparts slightly paler and colder (more pink) than on ‘Western’ Subalpine Warbler, extending onto breast and flanks. ‘Western’ Subalpine Warbler (subspecies iberiae): ‘Red’ on underparts paler than on ‘Eastern’ Subalpine Warbler, slightly darker and warmer than on Moltoni’s Warbler (more orange), extending onto breast and flanks. ‘Eastern’ Subalpine Warbler (subspecies cantillans and albistriata): ‘Red’ darker (more brown) and concentrated on chin and throat (breast and flanks paler). FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (rather similar to Lesser Whitethroat but wingbeats faster). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

MOLTONI’S WARBLER

‘WESTERN’ SUBALPINE WARBLER ssp. iberiae

‘EASTERN’ SUBALPINE WARBLER ssp. cantillans 292

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Flight photos p. 294

SUBALPINE WARBLER | MOLTONI’S WARBLER | DARTFORD WARBLER

Dartford Warbler L 13–14 cm | W 16–18 cm SIZE Body size and wingspan slightly larger than Northern Wren [p. 316],

smaller than Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded (ball-shaped); neck long. Head large, rounded; bill medium-length. Wing short, oval-shaped (similar to Northern Wren; much shorter than Lesser Whitethroat [p. 296]). Tail narrow, very long (somewhat recalling Bearded Reedling [p. 184]]. COLORATION Very dark, appearing almost uniformly dark grey. ♀ more brownish than ♂. ABOVE: Tail black with noticeable white sides. BELOW: Throat, breast and flanks dark brownish-red (immature duller and paler). Pale stripe along centre of lower breast and belly contrasts with rest of underbody. FLIGHT Slow, low; F-wave short (shortest of all Sylvia warblers). Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals very short. Wingbeats whirring. Often moves tail. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sylvia undata Nocturnal migrant Other small Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

♀

♂

293

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284 | Difficult species compared p. 305

SUBALPINE WARBLER [all images unless indicated] & MOLTONI'S WARBLER ♀

♀

MOLTONI’S WARBLER DARTFORD WARBLER ♀

♀

294

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SUBALPINE & MOLTONI’S WARBLERS | LESSER WHITETHROAT | ORPHEAN WARBLERS LESSER WHITETHROAT

WESTERN ORPHEAN WARBLER & EASTERN ORPHEAN WARBLER [all images unless indicated]

WESTERN ORPHEAN

295

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Lesser Whitethroat L 11·5–13·5 cm | W 17–22 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9] and Eurasian

Blue Tit [p. 168], but looks larger due to longer wings and tail. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head round; bill medium-length. Wing medium-width, rather short, rounded. Tail narrow, medium-length (shorter than on Common Whitethroat [p. 290]). COLORATION ♂ and ♀ similar. Dark ear-coverts contrast with white lower half of head. ABOVE: Brown-grey. Tail dark grey with variably distinct white or pale sides. BELOW: White with slight buffish cast. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (relatively faster, steadier and more fluent than other small Sylvia warblers). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

Sylvia curruca Nocturnal migrant Other Sylvia warblers (p. 284) Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

296

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Flight photos p. 295

LESSER WHITETHROAT | ORPHEAN WARBLERS

Western Orphean Warbler Eastern Orphean Warbler Two species practically inseparable in flight. L 15 cm | W 25 cm SIZE Like Barred Warbler [p. 298], Red-backed Shrike [p. 9] and Eurasian Skylark [p. 8]; larger than Eurasian Blackcap [p. 286].

Sylvia hortensis Sylvia crassirostris Nocturnal migrants Barred Warbler (p. 298) Other dark-headed Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body heavy, elongated; neck long. Head moderately

round; bill long, rather deep. Wing rather long, moderately round. Tail long, sides straight, base narrow. Similar to Barred Warbler but tail shorter. Compared with Red-backed Shrike [p. 122]: head and neck narrower; wing much broader. COLORATION From side, obvious contrast between black hood, longer on Eastern Orphean Warbler than Western Orphean Warbler; and white chin and throat; in adult, contrastingly pale eye. ABOVE: Grey on Eastern Orphean Warbler, more brownish on Western Orphean Warbler; tail darker grey, edged white. BELOW: Off-white; warm buffish cast on Western Orphean Warbler, cold greyish cast on Eastern Orphean Warbler. FLIGHT Direct, steady. F-wave very slight, barely appreciable (reminiscent of Barred Warbler). Wingbeats even (shallower than Barred Warbler, slower than in smaller Sylvia warblers [p.284]). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Western Orphean Warbler

WESTERN

EASTERN 297

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

Sylvia nisoria

Barred Warbler L 15·5–17 cm | W 22–25 cm SIZE Like Eurasian Skylark [p. 8], Red-backed Shrike [p. 9] and

Eurasian Wryneck [p. 306]; larger than Eurasian Blackcap [p. 286] or House

Sparrow [p. 9].

Nocturnal migrant Other large Sylvia warblers (p. 284) Red-backed Shrike (p. 122) Eurasian Wryneck (p. 306)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body heavy, elongated; neck long. Head moderately round; bill medium-length, rather deep. Wing rather long, outerwing ‘triangular’ but not pointed. Tail long, sides straight, base narrow. Compared with Red-backed Shrike [p. 122]: head and neck narrower; wing much broader. COLORATION adult: ABOVE: Grey with two narrow, white wingbars. Distinct white tips to outermost tail feathers. BELOW: Off-white with variable amounts of indistinct, dark grey barring (can appear ‘dirty’). Pale eye (yellow) contrasts with dark grey face. immature: Dark (grey) eye contrasts with paler, greyish-buff face. ABOVE: Rather pale, sandy-grey. Two narrow wingbars greyish-buff or whitish, less obvious than on adult. White tips to outermost tail feathers often very narrow. BELOW: Off-white with buff cast. FLIGHT Direct, steady, sweeping, low, often concealed among vegetation (most similar to Red-backed Shrike). F-wave very slight, barely appreciable. Wingbeats full and even (slower than in smaller Sylvia warblers [p.284], softer and less energetic than Eurasian Wryneck). Tail sometimes slightly inclined upwards. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

immature

298

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Difficult species compared p. 305

BARRED WARBLER

CALL  None known.

299

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Rüppell’s Warbler L 14 cm | W 23–25 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9]; like Common

Whitethroat [p. 290], larger than Sardinian Warbler [p. 302] and Menetries’s Warbler. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated. Head round; bill medium-length. Wing medium-width, rather short, rounded (shorter than on Lesser Whitethroat [p. 296]). Tail narrow, medium-length (shorter than on Common Whitethroat). COLORATION Black hood and bib, contrasting white ‘moustache’. ABOVE: Nape grey, diffusely demarcated from black crown (nape as black as crown on male Sardinian Warbler). Rump and uppertail-coverts bluishgrey contrasting with black tail. Tail black, boldly edged white. BELOW: Underparts pale, almost white, strongly contrasting with large bib. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (slightly heavier and less graceful than Common Whitethroat). FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

Sylvia ruppeli Nocturnal migrant Sardinian Warbler (p. 302) Other dark-headed Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

300

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RÜPPELL’S WARBLER CALL  None known.

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

301

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Sardinian Warbler L 13–14 cm | W 18–22 cm SIZE As Menetries’s Warbler [p. 303]; body size comparable to Eurasian

Penduline-tit [p. 180], smaller than Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather short. Head round; bill medium-length. Wing medium-width, short, rounded. Tail graduated, narrow, mediumlength, rounded when fanned. More compact and larger-headed than Lesser Whitethroat [p. 296]; wing much shorter and rounder; tail looks shorter. COLORATION Black hood strongly contrasting with white lower half of head; black on crown extends onto nape (nape grey on male Rüppell’s Warbler [p. 300]). Tail black with conspicuous white sides. FLIGHT Rather whirring, due to short, round wings; often moves tail. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

Sylvia melanocephala Nocturnal migrant Menetries’s Warbler Rüppell’s Warbler (p. 300) Other dark-headed Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

♂

♀ 302

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Flight photos p. 304

SARDINIAN WARBLER | MENETRIES’S WARBLER

Menetries’s Warbler L 13 cm | W 20–25 cm SIZE As Sardinian Warbler [p. 302]; body size comparable to Eurasian

Penduline-tit [p. 180], smaller than Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather short. Head round; bill medium-length. Wing medium-width, rather short, rounded. Tail graduated, narrow, medium-length, rounded when fanned. Appears slender; shorter bodied, rounder winged and longer tailed than Lesser Whitethroat [p. 296]. COLORATION Black mask merges with black cap. Black on crown diffuse (shorter than on otherwise similar Sardinian Warbler). Uppertail black, boldly edged white; undertail black with extensive white feather tips. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy, with few manoeuvres (more languid and less fluent than Lesser Whitethroat). FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL None known.

Sylvia mystacea Nocturnal migrant Sardinian Warbler Other small Sylvia warblers (p. 284)

303

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SYLVIA WARBLERS

Sylvia warblers compared p. 284

SARDINIAN WARBLER

♀ ♂

♂

♂

♀

♂

MENETRIES’S WARBLER ♂

304

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SARDINIAN WARBLER | MENETRIES’S WARBLER | COMPARISON OF DIFFICULT SPECIES

Difficult species similar in size to Great Reed-warbler and Red-backed Shrike

Common Nightingale (p. 370)

Great Reed-warbler (p. 236)

Barred Warbler (p. 298)

immature

adult

adult

Eurasian Wryneck (p. 306)

juvenile

Red-backed Shrike (p. 122)

♀

Western Orphean Warbler (p. 297) Eastern Orphean Warbler (p. 297)

The species shown here are approximately the same size, and have similar proportions. The important identification features are: head pattern; coloration of rump and tail (on Eurasian Wryneck dark stripe along nape and mantle). Patterning on the wings is rarely noticeable.

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305

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EURASIAN WRYNECK

Eurasian Wryneck L 16–18 cm | W 25–27 cm SIZE Like Barred Warbler [p. 298], Eurasian Skylark [p. 8], Red-

backed Shrike [p. 9] or nightingales [p. 370]; longer than House Sparrow [p. 9].

Difficult species compared p. 305

Jynx torquilla Nocturnal migrant Barred Warbler (p. 298) Red-backed Shrike (p. 122)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Although a woodpecker (see p. 78), most resembles a large, long-necked, long-tailed warbler (particularly Barred Warbler, and hence positioned here in this book). Body rather slim and elongated. Bill tapers evenly to a sharp point. Wing broad, slightly pointed. Tail long, square-cut, often slightly fanned. COLORATION Looks uniform brownish-grey, with dark eyestripe. ABOVE: Rump grey, paler than brownish wings. Nape and mantle grey with very dark central stripe. BELOW: When flying against the light, barring on flight feathers may be visible (slightly translucent). FLIGHT Direct (more energetic than Red-backed Shrike [p. 122] and Barred Warbler (with which easily confused)). Wingbeats full. Flapping phases rather long and even; non-flapping intervals short (wings folded completely). F-wave distinct, slight, long. Tail sometimes slightly inclined upwards. Usually avoids flying over open areas. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

306

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EURASIAN WRYNECK CALL  None known.

307

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NUTHATCHES

NUTHATCHES STRUCTURE, SHAPE AND COLORATION: Body stocky and short; head very large with long, strong bill . Wing large, broad-based, blunt . Tail markedly short, square-cut . Coloration bluish-grey and white with variable amount of buff and/or brown . CALLS: Uttered quite often .

Eurasian Nuthatch L 12–14·5 cm | W 22·5–27 cm SIZE Body size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, barrel-shaped. Head very large; bill

long, strong. Wing large, broad-based, blunt. Tail markedly short, squarecut. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts grey (darker than Western Rock Nuthatch [p. 310]). Prominent black eyestripe merges with dark bill; cheek white. Uppertail pattern obvious during manoeuvres: centre grey, inner part black, sides white and grey. BELOW: Chin and throat white, rear flanks and stripes on undertail-coverts chestnut or dark red-brown. Underwing grey with contrasting black-and-white carpal patch. Underbody colour variable depending on subspecies: warm orange-buff, buff or white. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, often irregular. Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals obvious, often rather long. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt, floppy, often shallow. Sometimes pursues flying insects. FLOCK Often 1–2, sometimes up to 6. Loose, uncoordinated.

Sitta europaea Diurnal migrant Other nuthatches (p. 310) Wallcreeper (p. 312) Woodlark (p. 202)

308

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EURASIAN NUTHATCH CALL Very high-pitched (similar in pitch to Goldcrest [p. 282], higher than tits [p. 162]), quiet, short “ptsi-tsi-

tsi” or longer “titzi·si-si-si,” “pi-si-si-si-syi–syi,” usually downslurred and decelerating. | Much lower-pitched, loud “twet,” “dwit,” single or irregularly repeated. | Soft, subdued, quick trill, “tsi·i·i·i·i·i,” single or irregularly repeated. | Barely appreciable, high-pitched (similar in pitch to Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]), very short “pit,” single or irregularly repeated (similar to shortest calls of Goldcrest and tits).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0 kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

309

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NUTHATCHES

Sitta neumayer

Western Rock Nuthatch L 13–13·5 cm | W 22–25 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Eurasian Nuthatch [p. 308] and House Sparrow

[p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, barrel-shaped. Head very large; bill long, strong. Wing large, broad-based, blunt. Tail markedly short, squarecut. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts grey (paler than Eurasian Nuthatch). Head grey above, prominent black eyestripe merging with dark bill; cheek white. Uppertail almost uniform grey, no white or black. BELOW: Underbody mostly white, rear parts darken gradually to rufous-buff vent and undertailcoverts (no chestnut or dark red-brown). Underwing grey with contrasting black-and-white carpal patch. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, often irregular. Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt, floppy. Sometimes pursues flying insects. kHz FLOCK Usually 1–2, in winter loose group of 10 several. 8 CALL Short, explosive “pwit,” every call of a slightly different pitch, single or irregularly 6 repeated. | High-pitched, quick, mild, quiet 4 “stititititi.”

Non-migratory Other nuthatches (p. 308) Wallcreeper (p. 312)

2 0

310

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WESTERN ROCK NUTHATCH | KRUEPER’S NUTHATCH

Sitta krueperi

Krueper’s Nuthatch L 12·5 cm | W 21–23 cm

Non-migratory

SIZE Body size comparable to Lesser Whitethroat [p. 9] and Eurasian

Blue Tit [p. 168]; markedly smaller than Eurasian Nuthatch [p. 308]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body short, rounded (almost ball-shaped). Head very large; bill long, strong. Wing large, broad-based, blunt. Tail very short, square-cut. COLORATION adult: black cap and chestnut breast patch; no buff on underside; narrow black eyestripe; rather broad white supercilium (tail pattern similar to Eurasian Nuthatch but much less white). juvenile: lacks cap and breast patch; upperparts paler dull grey than adult; white supercilium and grey eyestripe less obvious; underbody grey and dull ochraceous-buff, hint of a rufous breast patch sometimes appreciable. FLIGHT Slow. F-wave distinct, short, slight, often irregular. Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals obvious. Wingbeats energetic, abrupt. Sometimes pursues flying insects. kHz FLOCK Usually 1–2; in winter, sometimes up to 5. 10 CALL Indistinct, short, soft, nasal “chep.” | Presumably also other calls 8 from usual repertoire.

Other nuthatches (p. 308)

6 4 2 0

immature

311

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WALLCREEPER

Tichodroma muraria

Wallcreeper L 16 cm | W 27–32 cm SIZE Like Eurasian Nuthatch [p. 308]; body size comparable to House

Sparrow [p. 9].

Diurnal migrant Eurasian Nuthatch (p. 308) Western Rock Nuthatch (p. 310)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump, barrel-shaped, wing very broad (reminiscent of Eurasian Nuthatch but comparatively larger, shorter and rounder); tail short, square-cut (as on nuthatches). Bill extremely long, slender, slightly decurved. COLORATION Body and head grey. ABOVE: Upperwing shows flashes of purplish-red. Tail black with white corners. BELOW: Underwing blackbrown with two rows of white spots on primaries. ♂ breeding: black bib, extending onto upper breast. ♀ white bib, often with black spot. nonbreeding (both sexes): white bib (mixed with black on some), brownish crown. juvenile: almost uniformly grey beneath (no contrast on throat and breast); bill pale and shorter (in adult black and long). Shape and number of white and rufous-buff spots on flight feathers variable: ♂s tend to have white spots on 4 outer primaries only; ♀s tend to have more, on some birds forming a continuous band along wing. FLIGHT Long-distance flight laborious, often uneven and jerky. Wingbeats deep, floppy and slow (each beat discernible); non-flapping intervals appreciable, but sometimes infrequent. Manner of flight can, at times, recall Common Hoopoe [p. 64] or a butterfly. Characteristic buoyant soaring and gliding in updraft, with shallow wing movements and fanned tail. Sometimes pursues insects in flight. FLOCK Usually 1–2; in autumn and winter occasionally up to 6, exceptionally up to 50. Disorderly dispersed, uncoordinated.

♂ ♂

juvenile

♀ nOn-breeding

312

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WALLCREEPER CALL Loud, disyllabic whistle, “pwi-dryii,”

first syllable shorter and slightly higherpitched, or single syllable “pwi,” repeated.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

313

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TREECREEPERS

Eurasian Treecreeper Short-toed Treecreeper Two species practically inseparable in flight. L 12·5–14 cm | W 17·5–21 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Goldcrest [p. 9], wingspan comparable to

Certhia familiaris Certhia brachydactyla Diurnal and nocturnal migrants None

Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body small, short, rounded (ball-shaped). Head

relatively large, rounded; bill long (shorter on Eurasian Treecreeper than Short-toed Treecreeper but not evident in flight), slender, decurved. Wing very short, broad and rounded (almost oval-shaped). Tail long, tip deeply split. COLORATION Brown, grey and white, with some buff. Narrow, pale, contrasting stripe along wing (clearly visible from above and below). Eurasian Treecreeper: Relatively pale and warm coloured; back, rump and uppertail-coverts sometimes bright orange-brown; rear underbody white. Short-toed Treecreeper: Relatively dark and rather fuscous; back, rump and uppertail-coverts generally lack warm brown cast; rear underbody brownish. FLIGHT Slow, laborious. F-wave distinct, short, high. Wingbeats deep (can recall a woodpecker [p. 78]). Flapping phases very short, rapid, abrupt, non-flapping intervals appreciable. Body with head inclined upwards, tail slightly drooped. FLOCK Usually 1–2; in winter, sometimes up to 10.

Eurasian Treecreeper

Short-toed Treecreeper

EURASIAN SHORT-TOED

314

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EURASIAN TREECREEPER | SHORT-TOED TREECREEPER CALL Seldom heard in flight. Eurasian Treecreeper: Very high-pitched (same pitch as Goldcrest [p. 282]), short,

thin, smoothly ascending “sit,” single, repeated or in short series. Short-toed Treecreeper: Not so high-pitched (same as Eurasian Blue Tit), longer, slightly downslurred, vibrating “tzyt,” single, repeated or in short series. | Very short “psit” (pitch as Eurasian Blue Tit, shorter and harsher than Eurasian Treecreeper). kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2 0

0

EURASIAN

SHORT-TOED

EURASIAN TREECREEPER

SHORT-TOED TREECREEPER

315

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WRENS

Dark warblers and Northern Wren compared p. 247

Northern (Eurasian) Wren L 9–10·5 cm | W 13–17 cm SIZE Comparable to Goldcrest [p. 9]; smaller than Coal Tit [p. 166]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded (ball-shaped) (stockier and more

rotund than Goldcrest [p. 282]). Head very large; bill slender, fairly long, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing relatively large, broad, short and oval-shaped. Tail very short. COLORATION Warm brown or greyish-brown, appears very dark. Underbody pale brownish-buff, darker brown at rear and on undertailcoverts. FLIGHT Fast and direct. F-wave flat. Wingbeats rapid, whirring. Usually flies low over the ground and tends to remain concealed among vegetation in flight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Troglodytes troglodytes Nocturnal migrant Dusky Warbler (p. 276) Cetti’s Warbler (p. 248)

316

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NORTHERN WREN CALL Rather low-pitched, explosive, short,

knocking, harsh “chik,” “chuk,” single or irregularly repeated, sometimes in a short, quick, series, “chruk-chruk-chruk.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

317

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DIPPERS

Cinclus cinclus

White-throated Dipper L 17–20 cm | W 25–30 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Common Starling [p. 8] and Song

Thrush [p. 8].

Nocturnal and diurnal migrant None

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump, barrel-shaped; neck long and thick. Head round; bill moderately long, sturdy. Wing relatively short, outerwing slightly tapered. Tail fairly short (when seen from above or below); in lateral view tail appears very short due to long, bulging uppertail- and undertailcoverts. COLORATION Dark brown and dark grey, but usually appears to be black; large, ‘shining’, white bib extending onto lower breast. juvenile: slaty-grey above, ‘dirty’ white beneath. FLIGHT Short flight within territory: fast, direct, usually low, F-wave flat; wingbeats whirring, deep, almost uninterrupted. Prefers to fly over water, avoiding open ground. Sometimes pursues flying insects. On migration, behaviour is different: flies very high; F-wave short, slight but distinct; nonflapping intervals short; wingbeats rapid but not whirring. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

318

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WHITE-THROATED DIPPER CALL Moderately high-pitched (same pitch

as Yellowhammer [p. 460]), energetic loud, short, upslurred, somewhat insect-like buzzing, “vzit,” usually regularly repeated.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

319

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WAXWINGS

Bohemian Waxwing and starlings Key identification features  head and bill profile  wing position during non-flapping intervals  wing flexibility  call

STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Silhouettes very similar . Body stocky, wing long, broad-based; outerwing tapered, ‘triangular’; tail relatively short . FLIGHT: Direct, fast, confident . F-wave long . Gregarious, form similarly structured flocks .

Bohemian Waxwing L 18–21 cm | W 32–35 cm SIZE Like Common Starling [p. 8] or Redwing [p. 340]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Slender (neck markedly longer than on Common

Bombycilla garrulus Mainly nocturnal migrant (irruptive)

Common Starling (p. 322) Starling [p. 322]). Head thickset, rather broad from below; crown distinctly Rosy Starling (juvenile) (p. 326) bulging (crest never visible). Bill short, barely distinguishable in head profile. Wing rather long, ‘triangular’, sometimes sharply pointed (not as broad as on Common Starling). Rounded, sleek body outline clearly visible from behind/head-on when wings are fully folded (distinct difference when compared to Common Starling). Outerwings tend to be bent (more flexibly than on Common Starling (visible from behind/head-on)). Rump somewhat longer and narrower than on Common Starling. Tail short, square-cut. COLORATION Light grey or ash-grey; in good light and against a dark background (pinkish-) brown-grey, with white, yellow and red clearly visible in wing. ABOVE: Black/yellow contrast on tail very prominent. Against a neutral background, pale tips to tail feathers sometimes scarcely apparent, giving a strikingly short-tailed appearance. Contrasting small pale patch (white primary-coverts tips) halfway along the outerwing obvious on folded wing, even in poor light. Rump and uppertail-coverts uniform pale grey, contrasting with black tail base. BELOW: Contrasting ‘oval’ black bib. Underwing almost uniformly grey. Undertail-coverts and vent chestnut-brown, can appear very dark (even black), merging with tail base. juvenile: no pinkish cast or rufous-red on head; bib dark grey, short and diffuse; breast blotchy grey; undertail-coverts and vent buffish-brown. FLIGHT Fast, confident, light (less laborious than Common Starling), slightly winding. F-wave distinct, long, irregular in height. Wingbeats soft. Sometimes glides briefly on slightly drooped wings. FLOCK Usually 10–40, sometimes up to some hundreds, exceptionally up to 1,200; on migration, single birds unusual. Dense, rather flat, extended transversely (like Common Starling). Intra-flock movement fast (markedly faster than Common Starling due to winding flight-path). A flock may occasionally be joined by Fieldfare [p. 334].

juvenile

320

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BOHEMIAN WAXWING CALL Quiet but distinct,

thin, high-pitched, somewhat metallic, pure trill, on even pitch, “sililililililili,” varying in length, frequently repeated. | Very high-pitched (same pitch as Goldcrest [p. 282]), gently descending, smooth, thin whistle, “tziii” (like Eurasian Penduline-tit [p. 180] but higherpitched), single or repeated. A lone bird, or even a flock, can be completely silent (but calls much more frequent than Common Starling).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

321

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STARLINGS

Sturnus vulgaris

Common Starling L 19–22 cm | W 35–40 cm SIZE Like Song Thrush [p. 8] and Redwing [p. 340]; smaller than Eurasian

Blackbird [p. 8], much larger than House Sparrow [p. 9].

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Spotless Starling (p. 324) Bohemian Waxwing (p. 320) Rosy Starling (juvenile) (p. 326) Redwing (p.340) Song Thrush (p. 338) juvenile: Corn Bunting (p. 458)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, short-necked. Head rather small, forehead flat; bill fairly long, evenly tapered, merges with head profile. Wing long, broad-based; outerwing tapered, slightly pointed, ‘triangular’. Tail relatively short; long, bulging uppertail- and undertail-coverts make tail appear even shorter than it actually is. COLORATION Black, variably spotted white and buff. Pale spotting most obvious in autumn, when dull buff rump and/or crown and whitish nape appear particularly pale. By spring spots worn off to varying degree; by summer some males can appear almost unspotted. ‘Rainbow-coloured’ gloss barely appreciable in flight. Wings and tail with no contrasts. Underwing appears uniformly dark grey. In breeding season bill yellow. juvenile: almost uniformly (dull) grey, diffuse paler stripes on underbody; eye, blackish lore and bill merge to form straight, dark stripe. Moulting immature birds in autumn variably patchy grey-and-black. FLIGHT Laborious, energetic, direct, fast. F-wave long, almost flat. Wingbeats stiff, abrupt. In non-flapping intervals wings never folded fully, carpal joints protruding to side; wingtips reach tail base. Outerwings tend to be stiff and barely bent (unlike Bohemian Waxwing [p. 320]) (visible from behind/head-on). Frequent short glides on slightly drooped wings. FLOCK Migrating flock usually 1–40, rarely up to 12,000. Rather dense, flat and short but markedly extended transversely (if numerous birds, can be hundreds of metres wide). Very well coordinated; intra-flock movement slight and slow. Flies rather high, usually over tree-tops or higher, but over fields, grassland or water can fly low (2 m or lower). Can occur in mixed flocks with Fieldfares [p. 334] or Common Woodpigeons [p. 48]. Red Crossbills [p. 422] or Eurasian Blackbirds [p. 330] can sometimes mingle with Common Starling flock. Nomadic flocks of young birds in summer often particularly dense and more changeable in shape, manoeuvring frequently. Extremely large flocks can form temporarily in the evening before going to communal roost, giving the appearance of quickly swirling clouds of black smoke (no other passerine in Europe does this).

juvenile

immature autumn

adult autumn

322

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COMMON STARLING CALL Most often uttered when in a flock: low-pitched, murmuring, slightly rolling, muffled, indistinct “wrrrii,” “prrrii,” single or irregularly repeated. | In short flights, usually harsh, vibrating, even-pitched or slightly downslurred “kzziiii,” “kjjii,” “kjjje,” single, repeated or in short series, “kzii-zi-zi.” | When flushed, soft, throaty “wrrräät,” “wrrret” repeated regularly. | Short, nasal, accented “chet” (like Great Spotted Woodpecker [p. 80] but lower-pitched). | A migrating flock, even if very large, can be silent for long periods.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

juv.

323

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STARLINGS

Spotless Starling L 20–22 cm | W 35–40 cm SIZE As Common Starling [p. 8]: like Song Thrush [p. 8] and Redwing

Sturnus unicolor Diurnal migrant

Common Starling (p. 322) [p. 340]; smaller than Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8], much larger than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE As Common Starling [p. 322]: body stocky, shortnecked. Head rather small, forehead flat; bill fairly long, evenly tapered, merges with head profile. Wing long, broad-based; outerwing tapered, slightly pointed, ‘triangular’. Tail relatively short; long, bulging uppertailand undertail-coverts make tail appear even shorter than it actually is. COLORATION adult unspotted, uniformly glossy black (particularly male), appearing ‘oily’ or ‘wet’. Immatures less glossy, with minute pale spots usually not discernible in flight. Only immature ♀ in autumn and winter confusable with Common Starling due to pale spotting, but spots smaller, hardly appreciable; head can appear pale. Underwing coverts black, contrasting moderately with dark grey flight feathers. juvenile (as Common Starling but darker) with cold blackish cast. FLIGHT As Common Starling: laborious, energetic, direct, fast. F-wave long, almost flat. Wingbeats stiff, abrupt. In non-flapping intervals wings never folded fully, carpal joints protruding to side; wingtips reach tail base. Outerwings tend to be stiff and barely bent (visible from behind/head-on). Frequent short glides on slightly drooped wings. FLOCK Mainly resident, but on short-distance migration can form small flocks. In winter, large non-migrating flocks of up to many thousands can occur.

♀ immature autumn

324

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SPOTLESS STARLING CALL  Very similar to Common Starling,

various low-pitched, murmuring, slightly rolling, muffled, harsh, indistinct sounds.

325

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STARLINGS

Rosy Starling L 19–22 cm | W 37–42 cm SIZE Like Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Similar to Common Starling [p. 322], but head larger,

Pastor roseus Diurnal migrant Common Starling (p. 322) juvenile: Bohemian Waxwing (p. 320)

not so flat, crown rounded; bill shorter and distinctly deeper; tail slightly shorter. Wing (like Common Starling) long, broad-based, outerwing tapered, slightly pointed, ‘triangular’. Crest usually not raised in flight. COLORATION adult: bicoloured. In fresh (autumn) plumage less contrasting, pale parts with brown cast, dark parts with grey feather fringes or tips; bill base yellow. ABOVE: Upperparts from mantle to rump and scapulars pale: pink or pinkish-buff to pale pinkish-brown. Long black hood (from base of bill onto nape and breast). Wings black. Uppertailcoverts black. BELOW: Wings almost uniformly dark grey. Undertail and undertail-coverts blackish. juvenile: very pale (pale sandy to sandybrown); dark eye stands out markedly from pale face; bill base yellow; dark tail contrasts with pale rump; underparts off-white, darkish streaks on foreneck, grey-brown centres to undertail-coverts. FLIGHT Direct, strong and fast (as Common Starling). Wingbeats stiff, rapid. Non-flapping intervals less frequent than Common Starling, wings never folded fully, carpal joints protruding to sides; wingtips touch tail base. Glides on slightly drooped wings (much less frequent than Common Starling). FLOCK Outside regular range usually single birds, rarely 2–20, very occasionally up to 30; where abundant hundreds; in Asian winter quarters thousands. Migrating flock rather dense, with slight intra-flock movement, very well coordinated; usually single-species but vagrants often mingle with Common Starling flocks.

adult autumn

juvenile

326

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ROSY STARLING CALL Vibrating, muffled, indistinct (markedly higher-pitched

than Common Starling, vibration milder, shorter), “tzirk,” “wrrik” (somewhat reminiscent of Northern House Martin “prrit” [p. 110]). | Eurasian Tree Sparrow-like [p. 413], soft chirp, “tchi-chip.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

COmmOn Starling

juv.

COmmOn Starling

juv.

juv. juv.

juv.

juv.

juv.

327

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THRUSHES

THRUSHES Key identification features  contrasts on underbody

FLIGHT: Fast, energetic, slightly winding or direct . F-wave  underwing-coverts (‘wingpit’) colour usually slight, sometimes imperceptible, rather long . During

non-flapping intervals wings either folded fully, or glides on open or half-folded wings with 3 fingers of wingtip appearing  tail length close to tail base . Rather gregarious, flock usually loose,  pale sheen along greater coverts and randomly dispersed, moderately coordinated . Mainly nocturnal tertials migrants but migrating individuals and flocks are often seen during the day, mostly in autumn and winter . CALLS: Various, STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Medium-sized passerines . Body stocky, wing relatively but three call types uttered by most species: high-pitched with rapidly vibrating “i” | nasal “kwii” or “kwe”| knocking series often long, wingtip rounded . Tail in some accelerating or ascending . species markedly long .  wing width/length proportion

Song Thrush (p. 338)

Mistle Thrush (p. 336)

Fieldfare (p. 334)

Redwing (p. 340)

White’s Thrush (p. 352) Dusky Thrush (p. 342)

Eyebrowed Thrush (p. 345)

♀

♀ Siberian Thrush (p. 350) Naumann’s Thrush (p. 342)

♀ Rufous-throated Thrush (p. 346) Siberian Thrush (p. 350)

immature ♂

Black-throated Thrush (p. 346)

♀ 328

Eurasian Blackbird (p. 330)

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♀

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THRUSHES

immature ♂

Siberian Thrush (p. 350)

Song Thrush (p. 338) ♀

♂

Rufous-throated Thrush (p. 346) White’s Thrush (p. 352)

♀

immature

♂

Black-throated Thrush (p. 346) ♀

♂

Mistle Thrush (p. 336)

Eyebrowed Thrush (p. 345)

Fieldfare (p. 334) Redwing (p. 340)

ssp. torquatus ssp. alpestris Ring Ouzel (p. 332) Naumann’s Thrush (p. 342)

♂

juvenile

Eurasian Blackbird (p. 330)

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Dusky Thrush (p. 342)

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THRUSHES

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus merula

Eurasian Blackbird L 23·5–29 cm | W 40–45 cm SIZE Larger than Song Thrush [p. 8] and Common Starling [p. 8];

smaller than Fieldfare [p. 8] and Mistle Thrush [p. 336]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, elongated. Head medium-sized; bill longish, rather deep. Wing relatively small, rather narrow and rounded. Tail long. COLORATION Generally very dark, all-black to warm blackish-brown. Upperwing and underwing uniformly black. ♂ bill often strikingly bright yellow. ♀ olive-brownish-black above, dark grey to dull grey-rufous beneath, breast usually warmer brown, spotted black. juvenile: blackish with rusty cast, underbody rather pale, dull, greyish-buff, mottled or barred dark, breast more rusty-brown. FLIGHT Fast, slightly winding. F-wave slight, barely appreciable. Wingbeats moderately rapid, irregular. Flapping phases long; non-flapping intervals very short. During non-flapping intervals wings often half-folded, with 3 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 7, rarely up to 20. Loose, uncoordinated, single-species; rarely, a single bird in a flock of Common Starlings [p. 322].

Mainly nocturnal migrant Ring Ouzel (p.332) Fieldfare (p. 334)

♂

♀

♂

juvenile

330

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EURASIAN BLACKBIRD CALL High-pitched, slightly downslurred “tsziii” with rapidly vibrating “i” (the same pitch as Redwing [p. 340]

but usually shorter, with more appreciable, slower vibration). | Lower-pitched, slower “shlilili.” | High-pitched, very short “tip,” “zit” (similar to Song Thrush [p. 338]). | When flushed: low-, even-pitched, soft, knocking series, “chuche-chek-chek-chek,” or accelerating and nervously ascending “chu–chek–chek–chek-chek-che-kwi-swi·wi·wi·wi.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂ ♂

♂

♂

♀

♀ ♀

♀ ♀

♀ JUV .

♂

♂ ♂

♀

JUV .

♂ 331

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THRUSHES

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus torquatus

Ring Ouzel L 24–27 cm | W 41–45 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Mistle Thrush [p. 336]; slightly larger than

Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8].

Mainly nocturnal migrant Eurasian Blackbird (p.330) Fieldfare (p. 334)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body elongated, rather slim. Head medium-sized; bill longish, rather deep. Wing broad-based, outerwing tapered, tip moderately rounded. Tail markedly long. Shape more similar to Fieldfare [p. 334] than to Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330]. COLORATION Mostly brown-black but never uniform. ABOVE: Wings paler than body, silvery to white sheen on greater coverts, edges of secondaries and tertials. BELOW: Underwing appears almost uniformly pale. Breastband on breeding ♂ white, in autumn mottled or barred brown; on ♀ ‘dirty’ white mixed with brown (spring) or dull grey-brown (autumn); on immature indistinct, grey-brown, lacking on some young females. Northern subspecies torquatus: ‘cleaner’ black; narrow whitish feather fringes on underpart soon wearing-off. Southern subspecies alpestris: broad whitish feather fringes making underparts appear blotchy dark grey. FLIGHT Direct, easy. F-wave distinct, long, slight. Wingbeats rather slow, regular. Flapping phases long; nonflapping intervals rather long. Often glides on half-folded wings with 3 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail-base. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 15. Loose, uncoordinated, single-species.

♂

♀

♂

ssp . torquatus

♀

ssp . alpestris

332

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RING OUZEL CALL Low-pitched, wooden knocking “tak” or in series, “duk-duk-duk… .” | Fieldfare-like squeaky “kwe-jak”

and nasal “kwe-we-we-we.” | Low-pitched, slightly upslurred, rolling “prrrrrrrrt,” almost non-vocalic (rolling slower than Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]). | Quickly vibrating, upslurred “prrrrwip” (similar in sound quality to Northern House Martin [p. 110] or Common Starling [p. 322] but lower-pitched). kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂

♂

♂ ♀JUV .

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

333

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THRUSHES

Fieldfare L 24–28 cm | W 40–42 cm SIZE Comparable to Mistle Thrush [p. 336] and European Turtle-dove

[p. 52]; slightly larger than Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, elongated. Head medium-sized;

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus pilaris Mainly nocturnal migrant (irruptive) Mistle Thrush (p. 336)

bill strong, medium-length. Wing broad-based, outerwing tapered, tip moderately rounded. Tail markedly long. Compared with Song Thrush [p. 338]: body heavier, wing larger and longer, tail much longer. Similar to Mistle Thrush but wings, stern and tail slightly shorter. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts rather plain, dark; mantle, back, scapulars and upperwing coverts tinged warm brown; rump paler (grey), contrasting with black tail. BELOW: Underwing coverts white. White ‘wingpit’ contrasts strongly with breast side. Breast dark (warm buff, spotted black), contrasting with whitish belly. FLIGHT Easy and steady, rather direct. F-wave distinct, long, slight. Wingbeats rather slow, soft and easy. Flapping phase fairly short (but longer than Song Thrush); non-flapping intervals long. Glides on open or halffolded wings with 3 or 4 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. FLOCK Usually 1–30, rarely up to 200, exceptionally up to 1,000. Moderately dense, wavy, agile, somewhat nervous in actions; well coordinated, intra-flock movement slow. Usually single-species but can form a mixed flock with Common Starlings [p. 322]; Redwings [p. 340] occasionally intermingled.

334

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FIELDFARE CALL Slightly nasal, markedly upslurred “kwii.” | Slightly lower-pitched and hoarser “kwe” or double “kwe-we.” |

High-pitched (like Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330]), slightly downslurred “sziii” with rapidly vibrating “i.” | Cackling “ge-tyep-tyep.” | Harsh, noisy, scolding, rattled “ge-che-che-che-che-chet.” | Low-pitched gurgle, “chuk—chuk— chuk…,” repeated slowly or in accelerating series.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

miStle tHruSH

335

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THRUSHES

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus viscivorus

Mistle Thrush L 26–29 cm | W 43–45 cm SIZE Like Fieldfare [p. 8] and Eurasian Collared-dove [p. 50]; larger than

Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8].

Mainly nocturnal migrant Song Thrush (p.338) Fieldfare (p. 334) White’s Thrush (p.352)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, elongated. Head medium-sized; bill strong, medium-length, rather deep. Wing broad-based, outerwing tapered, tip moderately rounded. Tail markedly long. Compared with Song Thrush [p. 338]: body heavier, wing larger and longer, tail much longer. Similar to Fieldfare [p. 334] but wings, stern and tail slightly longer. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts almost uniform (greyer than Song Thrush); silvery sheen on greater coverts, edges of secondaries and tertials. Rump slightly paler than back and uppertail-coverts. Fanned tail grey, tinged olive on inner feathers, two outermost pairs of tail feather slightly paler grey (no black); outer tail feathers distinctly tipped white. Head weakly marked: pale face (between bill and eye), diffuse diagonal dark stripe from eye to lower edge of ear-coverts (but seldom visible). BELOW: Underwing coverts white. White ‘wingpit’ contrasts strongly with breast side. Pale bases of secondaries and inner primaries whitish, in some cases appearing to form a white bar along underwing (hence potential for confusion with vagrant White’s Thrush [p. 352]). No contrast on underbody; breast, flanks and central belly almost evenly spotted. juvenile: finely and densely spotted and streaked creamy above; back, rump and uppertail-coverts patterned very indistinctly, almost plain. FLIGHT Easy and casual, slightly winding. F-wave distinct, long, slight. Wingbeats rather slow and easy. Flapping phase longer than Song Thrush and Fieldfare; non-flapping intervals long. Glides on open or halffolded wings with 3 or 4 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. Often flies over tree-tops or higher. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 50. Loose and irregular, wavy (rather similar to Fieldfare flock but less agile and less nervous), or long, irregular, coordinated line; intra-flock movement slow. Rarely in mixed flocks with Redwings [p. 340].

juvenile

336

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MISTLE THRUSH CALL Rather slow, wooden, drawn-out,

rattling “trrrrrrrrrrr,” repeated at long intervals.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

337

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THRUSHES

Song Thrush L 20–22 cm | W 33–36 cm SIZE Like Redwing [p. 340], Common Starling [p. 8] and Hawfinch

[p. 454].

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus philomelos Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Redwing (p.340) Mistle Thrush (p. 336)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact (similar to Redwing but bulkier); neck short. Head slightly elongated; bill rather short, merging considerably with head profile. Wing moderately narrow, rounded, outerwing broad (broader than Redwing). Compared with Mistle Thrush [p. 336]: wing smaller and rounder, tail much shorter, body more dainty. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts uniform olive-grey (as Redwing, more brownish than Mistle Thrush), no pale sheen along greater coverts and tertials (as shown on Redwing). Head almost unmarked, pale eyering most pronounced feature. BELOW: Underwing coverts buff (can appear pale orange). Pale patch in ‘wingpit’ (much less prominent than on Mistle Thrush). Breast and flanks evenly spotted, contrast between breast and belly (weaker than on Redwing). FLIGHT Energetic, very slightly zigzagging or winding, fast (as Redwing). F-wave slight, often barely noticeable. Wingbeats rapid, even. Flapping phases regular, very short (shorter than Mistle Thrush or Fieldfare [p. 334]); during non-flapping intervals wings folded fully. Often glides on open or half-folded wings with 3 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 30, rarely up to 200. Randomly dispersed (usually looser than Redwing), fairly coordinated (more agile than Mistle Thrush). Often in a mixed flock with Redwings, occasionally with Meadow Pipits [p. 212].

338

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SONG THRUSH CALL High-pitched, not loud but very

distinct, always abrupt, extremely short, clipped “tsit,” “tsik,” “it.” | When flushed, low, usually even-pitched, soft, knocking series, “tu-tup–typ–typ–typ–typ” (higher-pitched and more vocalic than Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330]).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

339

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THRUSHES

Redwing L 19–23 cm | W 30–34 cm SIZE Like Song Thrush [p. 8], Common Starling [p. 8] and Hawfinch

[p. 454].

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus iliacus Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Song Thrush (p. 338) Eurasian Skylark (p. 188)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact (similar to Song Thrush [p. 338] but slimmer); neck short. Head slightly elongated; bill rather short, merging considerably with head profile. Wing moderately narrow, slightly rounded, outerwing narrow (narrower than Song Thrush). COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts uniform olive-grey (as Song Thrush) but pale sheen on greater coverts, edges of secondaries and tertials. Pale supercilium, ‘moustache’ and vertical stripe on neck side (sometimes very difficult to see). BELOW: Underwing coverts and upper flanks rusty-red. Contrast between dark breast and white centre to belly (stronger than on Song Thrush). FLIGHT Energetic, very slightly zigzagging or winding, fast (same speed as Song Thrush); sometimes slightly fluttering (reminiscent of Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]). F-wave slight, often imperceptible. Wingbeats rapid (even faster than Eurasian Skylark). Flapping phases regular, very short (shorter than Mistle Thrush [p. 336] or Fieldfare [p. 334]); during non-flapping intervals wings either folded fully, or glides on open or half-folded wings with 3 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. FLOCK Usually 1–3, rarely up to 50. Randomly dispersed (usually denser than Song Thrush); fairly coordinated. Often in a mixed flock with Song Thrushes, only occasionally with Fieldfares or Mistle Thrushes; sometimes mingles with Common Chaffinches [p. 416] or mixed Common Chaffinch and Brambling [p. 418] flock.

340

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REDWING CALL High-pitched, rapidly vibrating, piercing but not loud, rather soft and hissing, rather long, not clipped,

slightly descending “ziiiiii” (same pitch as Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330] but usually longer, with less appreciable vibration). kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

341

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THRUSHES V Asia V Asia

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus naumanni

Naumann’s Thrush

Turdus eunomus

Dusky Thrush Two species inseparable unless coloration seen.

Nocturnal migrants Redwing (p. 340)

L 21–24 cm | W 34–40 cm SIZE Like Song Thrush [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact; neck short. Head slightly elongated;

bill rather short, merging considerably with head profile. Wing moderately narrow (outerwing longer than on Song Thrush [p. 338], less rounded). Tail moderately long (appears longer than on Song Thrush). COLORATION Dusky Thrush: ABOVE: Upperparts olive-grey-brown; striking orange-rufous on wings; rump grey-brown, tinged rufous. Fanned tail dark grey-brown, hint of rufous on base. Head markings (like Redwing [p. 340]): long, broad, pale supercilium; dark eyestripe; dark ear-coverts. BELOW: Underwing coverts orange-rufous; flight feather bases orange-rufous, tips darker grey-brown forming contrasting broad trailing edge. Strong but diffusely demarcated contrast between white belly and black-spotted breast and flanks. White band across black breast sometimes visible. Flanks boldly spotted black. Undertail-covert centres dark brown, broadly fringed white. Undertail blackish. ♂ brighter and more contrasted; ♀ and immature duller. Naumann’s Thrush: ABOVE: Upperparts almost plain olive-greybrown, rump paler. Weak pale sheen on greater coverts, edges of secondaries and tertials. Fanned tail bright rufous, when closed more olive-grey-brown. Head markings (like Redwing): long, broad, pale supercilium; dark eyestripe; dark ear-coverts encircled pinkish-buff. BELOW: Underwing coverts orangerufous; flight feather bases buff, tips darker brown-grey. Strong but diffusely demarcated contrast between rufous (spotted) breast and white underbody. Flanks boldly spotted orange-rufous. Undertail-covert centres rufous, fringes white. Undertail with distinct rufous tinge. ♂ brighter and more contrasted; ♀ and immature duller. FLIGHT Energetic, direct, fast. F-wave slight, often imperceptible. Wingbeats rapid, even. Flapping phases very short, regular. During nonflapping intervals, wings folded fully; often glides on open or half-folded wings with 3 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. FLOCK Vagrants, only individual birds recorded in Europe. CALL Low-pitched, nasal, slowly vibrating

“wrrrii,” “brrrii.” | Short, vibrating “tzriii” (the same pitch and quality as Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330], but upslurred). | Harsh, hoarse “kwi-kwi-kwi” (like Fieldfare [p. 334] but higher-pitched). | Low-pitched, soft, knocking “chek” (like Eurasian Blackbird).

Naumann's Thrush

Dusky Thrush

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

342

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NAUMANN'S THRUSH

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Dusky Thrush flight photos p. 344

NAUMANN’S THRUSH | DUSKY THRUSH

NAUMANN’S THRUSH DUSKY THRUSH

343

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THRUSHES

Thrushes compared p. 328

DUSKY THRUSH

344

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DUSKY THRUSH | EYEBROWED THRUSH

Turdus obscurus

V Eyebrowed Thrush Asia L 20·5–23 cm | W 37–40 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than Song Thrush [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact; neck short. Head slightly elongated;

bill rather short, merging considerably with head profile. Wing moderately narrow, slightly rounded. Similar to Redwing [p. 340] but tail longer; compared with Song Thrush [p. 338], body slimmer, outerwing narrower, tail longer. COLORATION White supercilium (‘eyebrow’) and short black eyestripe sometimes very difficult to see. ABOVE: Upperparts uniform dark, brownisholive, no pale sheen on greater coverts, edges of secondaries and tertials. BELOW: Breast and flanks cinnamon-rufous, belly white; contrast greatest on male. Underwing appears uniformly dark (dull grey). FLIGHT Energetic, direct, fast. F-wave slight, often imperceptible. FLOCK Vagrant, only individual birds recorded in Europe. CALL High-, even-pitched,

vibrating, piercing but not loud, rather soft and hissing “ziiii” (similar to Redwing but shorter and slightly higherpitched). | The same quality but harder “dziii.” | Low-pitched, soft, knocking series, “chukchuk-….”

Nocturnal migrant Redwing (p. 340) Naumann’s Thrush (p. 342) Dusky Thrush (p. 342)

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♀

♂

♀

♂ 345

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THRUSHES V Asia V Asia

Thrushes compared p. 328

Turdus naumanni

Black-throated Thrush

Turdus ruficollis

Rufous-throated (Red-throated) Thrush Two species inseparable unless coloration seen.

Nocturnal migrants Redwing (p. 340) Eurasian Blackbird (female) (p. 330)

L 23–25·5 cm | W 35–39 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Song Thrush [p. 8], slightly smaller than

Eurasian Blackbird [p. 8] and Fieldfare [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact; neck short. Head rather small; bill short, fairly deep. Wing relatively narrow, outerwing slightly rounded, (longer than on Redwing [p. 340]). Tail comparatively longer than on Redwing and Song Thrush [p. 338]. COLORATION Black-throated Thrush: ABOVE: Upperparts uniformly dark, grey to brownish-grey; pale sheen on greater coverts, edges of secondaries and tertials; tail darkest part. BELOW: Strong, well-demarcated contrast between dark breast and white underbody. Underwing coverts cinnamon-buff to orange-buff, flight feathers with cinnamon cast. On some individuals, slight rufous tint can be visible on uppertail base, vent and undertail-coverts. In male, black mask, chin, throat and upper breast. In ♀ breast grey diffusely spotted dark. Rufous-throated Thrush: ABOVE: Upperparts uniformly dark brownishgrey; pale sheen on greater coverts, edges of secondaries and tertials; tail mostly rufous with darker, brown-grey tip and central feathers. BELOW: Strong, well-demarcated contrast between rufous breast and off-white underbody. Underwing coverts cinnamon-rufous, flight feathers with cinnamon tinge (colour more saturated and more obvious than on Blackthroated Thrush). In ♂, rufous mask, chin, throat and upper breast. In adult ♀, breast rufous, feathers fringed whitish. In immature ♀, breast greyish, spotted rufous. FLIGHT Energetic, fast. F-wave slight, often imperceptible. During nonflapping intervals, wings fully folded or glides on half-folded wings with 3 fingers of wingtip appearing close to tail base. FLOCK Vagrants, only individual birds recorded in Europe. CALL Energetic, very harsh, distinctly vibrating, buzzing,

drawn-out “bjjjiiip,” even-pitched or slightly upslurred (similar quality and same pitch as Tree Pipit [p. 214] but much stronger, longer and with slower vibration). | Fine, jingling “silililili” (very like Bohemian Waxwing [p. 320], the same pitch and tempo). | Nasal “kwii” (like Fieldfare [p. 334] but slightly higher-pitched, more strongly accented and more nervous). | Harsh, knocking “chak-chak;” other chuckling calls (similar to Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330], Ring Ouzel [p. 332] or Redwing).

Black-throated Thrush

Rufous-throated Thrush

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

346

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BLACK-THROATED THRUSH | RUFOUS-THROATED THRUSH

Flight photos pp. 348–349

♂

♀ ♀

♂ immature

BLACK-THROATED RUFOUS-THROATED

♂

♀

immature

♀

♂

347

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THRUSHES BLACK-THROATED THRUSH

348

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BLACK-THROATED THRUSH | RUFOUS-THROATED THRUSH RUFOUS-THROATED THRUSH

349

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THRUSHES

Thrushes compared p. 328

Geokichla sibirica

V Siberian Thrush Asia L 20–21 cm | W 35 cm SIZE Comparable to Song Thrush [p. 8], Redwing [p. 340] and Common

Starling [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact; neck short. Head round; bill moderately long, does not merge with head profile (unlike Song Thrush [p. 338] and Redwing). Wing long, fairly narrow, outerwing tapered, slightly pointed (longer, narrower and less rounded than Song Thrush or Redwing). Tail rather short. COLORATION Striking, strongly contrasting underwing pattern: two pale and two dark bars along wing. Pale bar along upperwing also visible when fully extended. adult ♂ dark slaty-grey (can appear black). ABOVE: Almost uniform with pale wing-bar. BELOW: Whitish central stripe along underbody, undertail coverts black, spotted white; tail feathers tipped white. immature ♂ duller. BELOW: Finely spotted black-and-white; chin and throat whitish. ♀ ABOVE: Upperparts uniform olive-brown (slightly darker than Song Thrush and Redwing); facial pattern distinct, pale supercilium, dark eyestripe, dark cheek rimmed pale (with whitish central spot). BELOW: Underbody dark greyish-brown, spotted pale, barred dark with pale central stripe along underbody. FLIGHT Energetic, fast. F-wave slight, often imperceptible. Similar to Redwing and Song Thrush. FLOCK Vagrant: only individual birds recorded in Europe. CALL On migration, slightly vibrating, downslurred, not

particularly short “siiii” (reminiscent of Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330] but somewhat higher-pitched). | High-pitched, slightly downslurred “tsziii” with rapidly vibrating “i” (reminiscent of Eurasian Blackbird). | High-pitched, not loud but very distinct, abrupt, extremely short, clipped “tsit” (similar to Song Thrush).

Nocturnal migrant Redwing (p. 340) Song Thrush (p.338) White’s Thrush (p.352)

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

350

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SIBERIAN THRUSH

♀

♂

♀ ♀

♂

♂ 1St-winter

351

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THRUSHES V White’s Thrush Asia L 27–31 cm | W 35–40 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Eurasian Jackdaw [p. 8] and Eurasian Jay

[p. 138]; markedly larger than Mistle Thrush [p. 336], wingspan as Eurasian Golden Oriole [p. 96]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body bulky with very broad stern. Head rather large, rounded; bill long (longer than Mistle Thrush) and rather deep. Wing long (narrower than on Mistle Thrush and Fieldfare [p. 334]), outerwing less tapered. Tail moderately long, but very broad and very broad-based and so can appear deceptively short. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts variegated, greyish-olive with yellow and golden tones, finely and densely spotted, barred and scalloped black with creamy streaks and spots. Upperwing broadly but diffusely barred, most prominent a short, broad, black bar across tips of primary-coverts, contrasting with pale (golden) of surrounding feathers. Tail tricoloured: centre olive-grey, outer feathers black, except outermost, which are pale grey; white spots on tips very variable. BELOW: Striking strongly contrasting underwing pattern: two pale and two dark bars along wing. Underbody mostly white with bold, black scalloping (sharp crescent-shaped marks, not spots). FLIGHT Strong, fast, low. F-wave distinct. FLOCK Vagrant: only individual birds recorded in Europe.

Thrushes compared p. 328

Zoothera aurea Nocturnal migrant Mistle Thrush (partiCularly juvenile) (p. 336) Siberian Thrush (partiCularly female) (p. 350)

352

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WHITE’S THRUSH CALL Very high-pitched (same pitch as

Goldcrest [p. 282]), rather short, slightly descending, smooth “tsii” (reminiscent of Eurasian Penduline-tit [p. 180], but much shorter, slightly higher-pitched and more evenly downslurred).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

353

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FLYCATCHERS

Juvenile flycatchers compared p. 361

Spotted Flycatcher L 13·5–15 cm | W 23–25·5 cm SIZE As House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Elongated. Neck short. Head large, rather flat

forehead merges with moderately large, broad bill, making head appear pointed. Wing long, tip rounded. Tail fairly long. COLORATION ABOVE: Appears plain grey. BELOW: Underbody off-white with buffish cast, breast appears darker due to indistinct brown-grey streaking. immature (in autumn): wingbar of creamy spots on greater coverts and some pale spots on uppertail-coverts. juvenile: heavily spotted pale buff on upperparts. FLIGHT Direct, easy, steady. F-wave distinct, slight, regular. Flapping phases usually shorter than non-flapping intervals. Sometimes short glides on slightly drooped wings. Usually flies high within tree canopy. Often pursues insects in flight. FLOCK Usually 1–2.

Muscicapa striata Nocturnal migrant Other flycatchers (pp. 356–358) Garden Warbler (p.287)

juvenile

354

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SPOTTED FLYCATCHER CALL Quiet short, high-pitched,

downslurred “zzzzi,” single, repeated after long intervals; at long distance harsh quality and very rapid vibration imperceptible. Uttered mainly at night.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

355

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FLYCATCHERS

Juvenile flycatchers compared p. 361

Ficedula parva

Red-breasted Flycatcher L 11–12 cm | W 18·5–21 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; smaller than

European Pied Flycatcher [p. 358]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Short, compact. Head large, rounded; bill short. Wing slightly broader, shorter and more rounded than on Pied Flycatcher, but longer than on Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]. Tail rather short. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts plain greyish-brown. Tail bold, black inverted ‘T’-shape with white side patches (easily appreciable on fanned tail) (like wheatears or Whinchat [p. 382]). BELOW: Underside pale: underbody whitish, breast pale buff; in adult ♂ bright orange bib (but usually imperceptible). juvenile: upperparts faintly and densely spotted buff; head appears dull brownish-buff; underparts pale buff, fading to white on belly, dark feather fringes sometimes giving mottled effect. FLIGHT Light, jerky, slightly zigzagging (somewhat like Phylloscopus warblers [p. 262]). F-wave short, moderately high (more distinct than Phylloscopus warblers). Wingbeats rapid, full, whirring. Often pursues insects in flight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Nocturnal migrant European Pied Flycatcher (p.358) Collared Flycatcher (p.358) Semi-collared Flycatcher (p.358)

♂

♀

juvenile

♀

♂

356

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RED-BREASTED FLYCATCHER CALL Rather slow, non-vocalic, dry rattle,

“tr·r·r·r·rt” (pitch similar to Mistle Thrush [p. 336] but much slower and softer).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

357

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FLYCATCHERS

Juvenile flycatchers compared p. 361

European Pied Flycatcher Collared Flycatcher Semi-collared Flycatcher Females, immatures and juveniles of the three species inseparable in flight; adult males in breeding plumage (February– August) may be identifiable if seen well. L 12–13·5 cm | W 21·5–24·5 cm SIZE Comparable to Great Tit [p. 9]; smaller than House Sparrow

Ficedula hypoleuca Ficedula albicollis Ficedula semitorquata Nocturnal migrants Red-breasted Flycatcher (p.356) Spotted Flycatcher (p.354) Sylvia warblers (p.284)

[p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump, broad. Head large, rounded; bill rather short. Wing rather broad, slightly rounded. Tail rather short. COLORATION ♀s and immatures: upperparts plain grey-brown, with buff to whitish tertial edges, greater covert tips and primary bases; underparts white with brownish to buff cast. breeding ♂s: European Pied Flycatcher: Nape and back same colour as head and mantle; pale wingbar narrow. Semi-collared Flycatcher: Nape and back same colour as head and mantle; diffuse grey band across back, sometimes mottled whitish; pale wingbar medium-width, short white bar on median coverts (difficult to see). Collared Flycatcher: Large white patch on forehead; nape white; back white, silvery or distinctly mottled pale grey; wingbar white, broad and long; often no white on fanned tail. juveniles: upperparts faintly and densely spotted buff; underparts pale buff, fading to white on belly, dark feather fringes sometimes giving mottled or ‘scaly’ effect. FLIGHT Light, slow, slightly and frequently zigzagging. F-wave distinct, slight, irregular. Often pursue insects in flight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

European Pied Flycatcher

Collared Flycatcher

CALL European Pied Flycatcher: Short, variable, buzzing or rapidly

vibrating “pzzz” or “pzzri” (often similar to Spotted Flycatcher [p. 354] (same pitch) but vibration slightly slower or more irregular). | Short, explosive, ascending “pwit” (slightly reminiscent of “pink” of Common Chaffinch [p. 416] or some Eurasian Tree Sparrow [p. 413] chirps). Both calls uttered mainly at night.

kHz 10 8 6

Semi-collared Flycatcher

4 2 0

Collared Flycatcher and Semi-collared Flycatcher: Flycatcher May give similar calls to European Pied Flycatcher but these have not been recorded.

358

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Flight photos p. 360

EUROPEAN PIED FLYCATCHER | COLLARED FLYCATCHER | SEMI-COLLARED FLYCATCHER 1St-Summer ♂

♂ ♀

♀

♀

EUROPEAN PIED FLYCATCHER

juvenile

COLLARED FLYCATCHER ♂

♂

♂ SEMI-COLLARED FLYCATCHER

♂ 359

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FLYCATCHERS

Juvenile flycatchers compared p. 361

EUROPEAN PIED FLYCATCHER

COLLARED FLYCATCHER

SEMI-COLLARED FLYCATCHER

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♀

♂

♀

♂

♀

♂

♂

♂ ♂ ♂

♂

♂ ♂

♂

♀

♀

♀

♀

♀

360

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EUROPEAN PIED FLYCATCHER | COLLARED FLYCATCHER | SEMI-COLLARED FLYCATCHER | JUVENILE CHATS

Juvenile chats, flycatchers and wheatear

Bluethroat (p. 372)

Common Nightingale (Thrush Nightingale alike) (p. 370) European Robin (p. 362)

Common Redstart (p. 366) Red-breasted Flycatcher (p. 356)

Black Redstart (p. 366)

Spotted Flycatcher (p. 354)

European Pied Flycatcher (Collared and Semicollared Flycatchers alike) (p. 358) Whinchat (p. 382)

Northern Wheatear (juveniles of other wheatears have similar general coloration pattern of shades of grey and brown) (p. 390)

Common Stonechat (‘Eastern’ Stonechat similar but paler) (p. 384)

Plumage distinctly different from that of adults: obviously (densely and/or extensively) spotted and/or streaked buff, underparts buff to whitish with dark feather fringes or edges that may appear as mottles or ‘scales’; tail colour and pattern as in adult. 361

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CHATS

Juvenile chats compared p. 361

ROBINS, NIGHTINGALES and CHATS STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Size various, from comparable to Common Chiffchaff (p. 266) to slightly smaller than Common Starling (p. 322) . Body rather compact . Wing round-tipped, mostly medium-length to short . FLIGHT: Nocturnal migrants; during the day seen mainly in short-distance flight, often low among vegetation . Flight usually slow . F-wave distinct, slight and irregular . CALLS: In short flights scarcely utter usual social calls .

European Robin L 12·5–14 cm | W 22–25 cm SIZE As redstarts [p. 366]; smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Compact, body rounded; neck short and thick. Head

large, rounded; bill medium-length, rather thin. Wing moderately short, rounded. Tail medium-length, narrow. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts appear dark, uniform olive-brown, sometimes uppertail-coverts with distinct orange tinge. BELOW: Face, throat and breast brownish-orange. Rest of underbody whitish with dull buff cast. juvenile: no orange on face, throat or breast; upperparts warm brown, faintly and densely spotted buff; underparts warm buff to whitish on belly with dark feather fringes that may appear as mottles or ‘scales’. FLIGHT Laborious, slow, nervous, slightly zigzagging. F-wave distinct, medium-height, irregular. Flapping phases irregular; non-flapping intervals obvious. Usually flies low. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Erithacus rubecula Nocturnal migrant Nightingales (p. 370) Orange-flanked Bush-robin (p. 364) Other small chats (p. 361)

juvenile

362

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EUROPEAN ROBIN CALL Very short (harsh if heard at close range), usually descending “tsi” or “zi” with distinct, sharp (vibrating)

“i,” single, repeated at long intervals (higher-pitched than flycatchers [p. 354], closer to pitch of Redwing [p. 340]); uttered mainly at night. | Extremely short, non-vocalic, high-pitched ticking “tk” or “tik,” single, sometimes repeated (much higher-pitched than nightingales’ [p. 370] and Bluethroat’s [p. 372] “kek”, similar to Hawfinch’s [p. 454] “tik”). kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

363

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CHATS

Orange-flanked Bush-robin (Red-flanked Bluetail) Tarsiger cyanurus L 14 cm | W 25–26 cm

Nocturnal migrant

SIZE Like European Robin [p. 362] and redstarts [p. 366]; smaller than

House Sparrow [p. 9].

European Robin (p. 362)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Compact, body rounded; neck medium-length. Head large, rotund; bill fine, pointed. Wing moderately short, rounded (as on European Robin). Tail medium-length, narrow (relatively longer than on European Robin). COLORATION ABOVE: On adult and immature, tail and uppertail-coverts (and rump to variable degree) blue. Blue upperparts of adult ♂ not always prominent, in dull light can appear grey or just ‘dark’. On ♀ and immature, upperparts plain olive-brown (like European Robin). BELOW: Narrow pale bib from chin to upper breast, contrasting with head sides; lower breast sides and flanks bright orange. FLIGHT Rather slow, uneven, agile. F-wave distinct, irregular. Flapping phases irregular; non-flapping intervals obvious. Usually flies low. Often pursues insects in flight. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

♂

♂

♀ ♂

♀

364

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ORANGE-FLANKED BUSH-ROBIN CALL Low-pitched, tapping/knocking

(sometimes slightly grating) “gak,” “gek,” “grk” (slightly lower-pitched, shorter and softer than Bluethroat’s [p. 372] “kek”).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

365

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CHATS

Juvenile chats compared p. 361

Phoenicurus ochruros Phoenicurus phoenicurus

Black Redstart Common Redstart

Two species barely separable in flight (differences in plumage not evident unless seen at close range). L 13–14·5 cm | W 25 cm SIZE As European Robin [p. 362]; smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Moderately slim. Body slightly elongated. Head large,

rotund; bill medium-length, rather thin. Wing broad-based, moderately long, rounded. Tail medium-length, narrow. COLORATION In all plumages, rump, uppertail-coverts and tail orangerufous; central tail feathers dark brown, variable amounts of dark brown on the other tail feathers. Black Redstart: ♂ vent and undertail-coverts pale, contrasting with dark grey belly and rear flanks; breast and most of head entirely black; white wing panel sometimes obvious; no white on forehead or supercilium. ♀ nearly all-dark, dull grey; vent and undertail-coverts pale. Common Redstart: ♂ white forehead and supercilium, black on head contrasting strongly with orange-rufous breast and flanks (south-eastern subspecies samamisicus has a similar white wing panel to Black Redstart). ♀ upperparts dark brownish-grey; underparts rather pale brownish-buff; chin and throat white to buff. juveniles: similar to female but duller; Black Redstart has indistinct pale breast spotting; Common Redstart is heavily spotted buff. FLIGHT Light, steady, sweeping, uncertain, rather slow, slightly winding. F-wave distinct, long, slight. Wingbeats irregular. Flies rather high, often over tree-tops. FLOCK On migration, usually single birds. Exceptionally, at peak of migration, when a stream of birds is particularly concentrated, Black Redstarts can fly by so frequently that disjointed groups of up to 15 birds may form coincidentally.

Mainly nocturnal migrants European Robin (p. 362) Common Stonechat (p. 384) Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush (p. 378)

Black Redstart

Common Redstart

CALL In short flights both species call, but only very occasionally.

Black Redstart: Short, simple, ascending whistle, “vsit” (much shorter and higherpitched than Common Redstart). | Short, abrupt, metallic knocking “teg” (lower-pitched and slightly shorter than ticking of Common Redstart). | During long-distance flights (also at night), short, rapidly ascending, more ticking than whistled “pyt,” as short as “vsit” but sounds sharper and higher-pitched.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

BLACK REDSTART

Common Redstart: Sharply ascending whistle, “whii,” “huii” (often sounds identical to Common Chiffchaff [p. 266]). | Short, soft “tik” (markedly lower-pitched than ticking of European Robin and slightly longer, not so abrupt). | During long-distance flights (also at night) short, slightly ascending “fyi,” similar in pitch and duration to “whii” but markedly less ascending and not so energetic. kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

COMMON REDSTART 366

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BLACK REDSTART | COMMON REDSTART

Flight photos pp. 368–369

♂

♂

♀

♂

♀

juvenile

BLACK REDSTART COMMON REDSTART ♂

♀

♂

♂

♀

juvenile

367

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CHATS

Juvenile chats compared p. 361

BLACK REDSTART

♂

♀

♂

♂

♀

♀

♀

♂

♀

♂

♀

368

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BLACK REDSTART | COMMON REDSTART COMMON REDSTART

♂

♂

♀

♀

♀

♀ ♀

♂

♂

♂

369

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CHATS

Juvenile chats compared p. 361

Luscinia luscinia Luscinia megarhynchos

Thrush Nightingale Common Nightingale Two species practically inseparable in flight.

Nocturnal migrants

L 15–16·5 cm | W 26–28 cm SIZE Slightly larger than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Elongated and slim; neck medium-length. Head

River Warbler (p. 250) Savi’s Warbler (p. 250) Cetti’s Warbler (p. 248) Bluethroat (p. 372) European Robin (p. 362) Garden Warbler (p. 287) Rufous-tailed Scrub-robin (p. 376)

rather small; bill medium-length. Wing moderately long and rather rounded. Tail fairly long. COLORATION Appear dark. ABOVE: Upperparts plain greyish-brown. On Thrush Nightingale rump as back, tail slightly warmer (rufous cast); on Common Nightingale rump as tail, more obviously rufous. BELOW: Underbody off-white: on Thrush Nightingale, cold, greyish cast, breast grey or blotched grey (from below can appear dark), sometimes irregular dark spots on undertail-coverts (variable); on Common Nightingale, paler with warm, buffy cast, breast paler buffish or greyish. juvenile (both species): upperparts faintly and densely spotted buff; underparts pale buff to whitish on belly, dark feather fringes sometimes visible, appearing as mottling or ‘scaly’ effect. FLIGHT Direct, steady, rather slow (slightly recalling Red-backed Shrike [p. 122]); often sways from side to side. F-wave slight. Flapping phases shorter than non-flapping intervals. Wingbeats rather slow, soft, graceful. FLOCK On migration: single birds. CALL Thrush Nightingale:

Low-pitched, non-vocalic, wooden knocking “kek” or “kak,” single, repeated, (shorter and ‘drier’ than Bluethroat [p. 372]; much lower-pitched and softer than “tik” of European Robin [p. 362]).

kHz 10 8 6

Common Nightingale: Very similar. Nocturnal fight calls (if any) are currently unknown (both species).

kHz 10 8 6

4

4

2

2

0

0

THRUSH COMMON

juvenile

370

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Difficult species compared p. 305

THRUSH NIGHTINGALE | COMMON NIGHTINGALE

Thrush Nightingale

Common Nightingale

THRUSH NIGHTINGALE

COMMON NIGHTINGALE

371

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CHATS

Juvenile chats compared p. 361

Cyanecula svecica

Bluethroat L 13–14 cm | W 23–25 cm SIZE Like European Robin [p. 362] and redstarts [p. 366]; smaller than

House Sparrow [p. 9] and nightingales [p. 370].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Compact, body elongated; neck medium-length. Head large, rounded; bill medium-length, rather thin. Wing broad, moderately short, rounded (shorter and more rounded than nightingales and redstarts). Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts very dark, plain cold brown (can appear almost black), rump slightly warmer; closed tail appears all-black, bright rufous patches on tail sides not often seen in flight. BELOW: Pale lower breast and belly contrast with variably coloured dark bib. Blue coloration often barely visible. juvenile: upperparts black, faintly and densely streaked buff; underparts pale buff to whitish on belly, throat and breast boldly striped black. FLIGHT Rather fast, direct, confident. F-wave distinct, short, slight, irregular. Sometimes pursues flying insects. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Nocturnal migrant River Warbler (p. 250) Savi’s Warbler (p. 250) European Robin (p. 362) Cetti’s Warbler (p. 248) Nightingales (p. 370)

♂

juvenile

♂

♂

♀

372

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BLUETHROAT CALL Fairly short, harsh (somewhat buzzing), upslurred

“tzri,” “pzri” “bzui” (lower-pitched than flycatchers [p. 354], European Robin or Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330]), single, repeated after long intervals, uttered mainly at night. | Low-pitched, non-vocalic, soft (‘clapping’ rather than ‘knocking’) “chak,” “chuk,” “kek” (longer and milder than Thrush Nightingale [p. 370]). | Short, low-pitched, simple whistled “pü.”.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂ ×3

♂

♂

♂

JUV .

373

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CHATS

Irania gutturalis

White-throated Robin L 15–17 cm | W 25–27 cm SIZE Comparable to Red-backed Shrike [p. 9] and Barred Warbler

[p. 298]; slightly larger than nightingales [p. 370]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Elongated, elegant (reminiscent of nightingales). Head moderately rounded; bill strong. Wing long (longer than on nightingales), fairly rounded (length and shape close to Redwing [p. 340]). Tail long, moderately broad. COLORATION ♂ face black, contrasting with prominent, long, white supercilium and white ‘wedge’ on black throat. ♀ face grey; short, buff supercilium barely appreciable. ABOVE: Upperside plain grey (bluish hue on ♂, brownish hue on ♀). Tail black, contrasting strongly with grey rump. BELOW: Underbody on male orange, merging diffusely into white undertailcoverts (strong contrast with black tail), underwing coverts orange. Pale variant of male: underbody light yellow-buff, underwing-coverts warm buff. On ♀, breast mottled grey, flanks and underwing coverts orange-buff. FLIGHT Direct, steady, agile (slightly recalling Redwing). F-wave slight. Wingbeats rather slow, soft, graceful. Sometimes pursues flying insects. FLOCK Usually 1–2, on migration sometimes up to a few tens.

Nocturnal migrant Red-backed Shrike (p. 122) Nightingales (p. 370) Small thrushes (pp. 338–340)

♂

♂

♀

♂

♂

♀

374

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WHITE-THROATED ROBIN CALL None known.

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♀

♀

375

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CHATS

Rufous-tailed Scrub-robin L 15–16 cm | W 26–28 cm SIZE Comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9] slightly smaller than

Red-backed Shrike [p. 9] and nightingales [p. 370].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Similar to Great Reed-warbler [p. 236]. Body compact. Head large, flat forehead merging with deep-based, fairly long bill. Wing medium-length, slightly pointed (outerwing ‘triangular’). Tail long. COLORATION Appears pale. Distinct long, blackish eyestripe bordered by pale buff supercilium and cheek. ABOVE: Upperparts sandy with variable rufous (in Iberian Peninsula, subspecies galactotes), buff or grey tint (in Balkans and Turkey, subspecies syriaca/familiaris). Tail and uppertailcoverts striking orange-rufous, contrasting with black subterminal band and prominent white tips to 3–4 pairs of outer tail feathers; rump somewhat paler. BELOW: Underparts pale, whitish with warm buff to grey cast. FLIGHT Direct, steady, rather slow, low (slightly recalling Red-backed Shrike [p. 122]); often sways from side to side. F-wave short, slight but appreciable. Flapping phases and non-flapping intervals short. Wingbeats fairly slow, rather deep, easy. FLOCK On migration: single birds.

Cercotrichas galactotes Nocturnal migrant Red-backed Shrike (p. 122) Great Reed-warbler (p. 236) Nightingales (p. 370)

376

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RUFOUS-TAILED SCRUB-ROBIN CALL  None known.

ssp. syriaca/familiaris

ssp. galactotes

ssp. syriaca/familiaris

ssp. galactotes

ssp. galactotes

377

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CHATS

Monticola saxatilis

Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush L 18 cm | W 32–35 cm SIZE Like Blue Rock-thrush [p. 380]; slightly smaller than Common

Starling [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact. Head medium-sized; bill rather long. Wing long, slightly rounded. Tail short. Compared with Common Starling [p. 322]: head, body and tail similar; wing broader, outerwing much broader and rounder (not as ‘triangular’). COLORATION Tail orange-rufous to orange (central tail feathers dull brown); uppertail-coverts similar colour to tail, paler on ♂, more buff on ♀ and immature. Underwing coverts paler than flight feathers, obvious contrast. ♂ in breeding plumage, head, neck, mantle and rump blue; back and scapulars white; underbody orange, fading to orange-buff on undertailcoverts. In autumn, vivid colours concealed by pale buff and brownish bars and spots. ♀ and immature: dark brownish-grey above, barred and spotted off-white; underbody pale buff, merging to pale orange on undertail-coverts; dark feather fringes form narrow bars, sometimes visible as a ‘scaly’ or mottled effect. FLIGHT Direct (thrush-like [p. 328]). Wingbeats rapid, strong. Often pursues flying insects. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 10. Loose.

Nocturnal migrant Blue Rock-thrush (p. 380) Black Redstart (p. 366) Common Redstart (p. 366) Small thrushes (pp. 338–340)

♂

♀

♂

♀

♂ ♀ 378

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RUFOUS-TAILED ROCK-THRUSH CALL In short flights utters usual calls: low-pitched, rather soft, knocking “chek,” sometimes double or triple. | Fairly low-pitched, short, fluty whistle, upslurred at end, “pyit” (similar to Eurasian Bullfinch [p. 432] but shorter and more energetic). | Short, markedly nasal, slightly harsh (vibrating) “pjii” (on same pitch as Eurasian Bullfinch and reminiscent of that species’ ‘trumpeting’ call but not so smooth, with vibration like ‘rain-call’ of Common Chaffinch [p. 416]). kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂ ×3

♂ NON-BREEDING

♂

♂

♂

379

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CHATS

Monticola solitarius

Blue Rock-thrush L 21–23 cm | W 37–40 cm

Nocturnal migrant

SIZE Like Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush [p. 378]; slightly smaller than

Common Starling [p. 8].

Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush (p. 378) Black Redstart (p. 366) Common Redstart (p. 366) Small thrushes (pp. 338–340)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Thrush-like [p. 328]. Body elongated. Head rather small; bill long. Wing moderately short, slightly rounded. Tail rather long. Compared with Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush: slimmer; head, body and tail longer; wing shorter. COLORATION In all plumages, uppertail appears blackish, slight contrast with rump and back; underwing coverts dark, no contrast with flight feathers. ♂ plain greyish-blue, sometimes looks dark grey. ♀ and immature: bluish-grey above; dull pale greyish-brown beneath, underbody barred dark, throat and breast dull brown, heavily streaked off-white. FLIGHT Direct (thrush-like). Wingbeats rapid, strong. FLOCK Usually 1–2, occasionally up to 5. Loose.

♂

♀

♂

♀

380

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BLUE ROCK-THRUSH CALL In short flights utters usual calls (but

kHz 10

rarely): low-pitched, rather soft, wooden knocking “chek” (similar to Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush), sometimes double or triple. | High-pitched, short, downslurred whistle, “tyip” (markedly higher-pitched than Rufoustailed Rock-thrush; reminiscent of Northern Wheatear [p. 390] but slightly lower-pitched).

8 6 4 2 0

♀ ♂

♂

♀

♀

♂

♂

♂

♀

♀

♀

♀

♀

381

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CHATS

Wheatears and ‘white-tailed’ chats compared p. 388 | Juvenile chats compared p. 361

Saxicola rubetra

Whinchat L 12–14 cm | W 22–24 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than redstarts [p. 366] and European Robin [p. 362];

Nocturnal migrant

Common Stonechat (p. 384) smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9] and Northern Wheatear [p. 390]; ‘Eastern’ Stonechat (p. 386) slightly larger than Common Stonechat [p. 384]. Wheatears (p. 388) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact, rotund. Head large, rounded (markedly larger than on Common Stonechat); bill medium-length, rather broad-based. Wing rather narrow, moderately long, rounded. Tail short. COLORATION Upperparts brown-buff, boldly striped and spotted black. Tail dark brown with white base (visible when fanned). Prominent long, broad, pale (white to buff) supercilium. ♂ breeding: upperwing coverts blackish with contrasting white patch on inner median and greater coverts (adult also has white patch on primary-coverts); cheek black with contrasting narrow white stripe below; chin, throat and breast ochre-orange. ♀ somewhat duller than breeding male, no distinct black-and-white patches except for white tail base. juvenile: upperparts densely spotted buff; underparts pale buff to whitish on belly, dark feather fringes sometimes giving mottled or ‘scaly’ effect. FLIGHT Slow, uncertain, slightly winding, low. F-wave distinct, slight, irregular. Tends to remain concealed among vegetation in flight. Sometimes pursues insects in flight. FLOCK Usually 1–2, rarely up to 30, exceptionally hundreds. Very loose, disorderly dispersed. Sometimes with Common Stonechat.

♂ immature

♂ adult

♀

♂

♂

♀

♀

juvenile

382

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WHINCHAT CALL In short flights scarcely calls; in

long-distance flight presumably silent. Easy, simple, downslurred, smooth whistle, “tyup” (intermediate (in pitch and length) between Common Chaffinch [p. 416] and Eurasian Bullfinch [p. 432]). | Low-pitched, nonvocalic, knocking “tk,” “tuk” (same pitch as Common Stonechat but markedly shorter).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂ NON-BREEDING

♂ NON-BREEDING

♀

♂ NON-BREEDING

♂

♂ IMM .

383

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CHATS

Juvenile chats compared p. 361

Saxicola torquatus rubicola/hibernans

Common Stonechat

Common Stonechat and ‘Eastern’ (or ‘Siberian’) Stonechat (see p. 386) can be inseparable in flight. L 11·5–13 cm | W 21–23 cm SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; slightly smaller than

Nocturnal migrant ‘Eastern’ Stonechat (p. 386) Whinchat (p. 382) Common Redstart (p. 366) Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262)

Whinchat [p. 382], smaller than Common Redstart [p. 9] and House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact, rotund. Head medium-sized (markedly smaller than Whinchat), rounded; bill medium-length, fine. Wing short, obviously rounded. Tail rather short. COLORATION Generally dark; underwing primary-coverts appear darker than (variably grey) underwing secondary-coverts. ♂ breeding: black-andwhite with orange-red breast and flanks; uppertail-coverts always streaked black; white on rump does not extend onto lower back (when in worn plumage some birds inseparable from male ‘Eastern’ Stonechat). ♀ dull brown; indistinct dark spots and streaks above, cinnamon-buff beneath. In autumn, all plumages (including male and immatures) like female (femaletype plumage markedly darker than ‘Eastern’ Stonechat). juvenile: upperparts densely spotted buff; underparts pale buff to whitish on belly, dark feather fringes sometimes visible, giving rather mottled appearance. FLIGHT Slow, uncertain, sometimes hesitant, slightly winding (but lighter and more graceful than a tit [p. 162]). F-wave distinct, very short, sawtooth-shaped, irregular. Tends to remain concealed among vegetation in flight. Sometimes pursues insects in flight. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 25, rarely up to 100. Very loose, disorderly dispersed. Sometimes with Whinchat.

♂ ♂ ♀

♂

♀

juvenile

384

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COMMON STONECHAT CALL In short flights calls infrequently,

in long-distance flights presumably silent. Short, simple, ascending whistle, “vsit” (similar to Black Redstart [p. 366]; ‘Eastern’ Stonechat lower-pitched and descending). | Non-vocalic grating “jrek,” “krek” (higherpitched, longer and more rattling than ‘Eastern’ Stonechat).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀

♀

385

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CHATS V Asia

Wheatears and ‘white-tailed’ chats compared p. 388

‘Eastern’ (‘Siberian’) Stonechat (incl . ‘Armenian’ and ‘Caspian’)

Saxicola torquatus maurus (+ S. t. hemprichii + S. t. variegatus)

be inseparable LCan 11·5–13 cm | W 21–23from cm Common Stonechat (p. 384) in flight.

Nocturnal migrant

Common Stonechat (p. 384) SIZE Comparable to Common Chiffchaff [p. 9]; slightly smaller than Whinchat (p. 382) Whinchat [p. 382], smaller than redstarts [p. 366], House Sparrow [p. 9]. Common Redstart (p. 366) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact, rotund. Head medium-sized Phylloscopus warblers (p. 262) (markedly smaller than Whinchat) rounded; bill medium-length, fine. Wing male sspp . hemprichii/ short, obviously rounded. Tail rather short. variegatus: Wheatears COLORATION Generally pale; underwing primary-coverts appear paler (p. 388) than (grey to black) underwing secondary-coverts. ♂ breeding: blackand-white with orange-red breast; uppertail-coverts always unstreaked; white on rump usually extends onto lower back (inseparable from some Common Stonechats in worn plumage). ♀ less dark-spotted than Common Stonechat; rump and uppertail-coverts unstreaked, warm buff, yellowishbuff to white suffused buffish; white patch on base of upperwing often visible. In autumn all plumages (including male and immatures) like female (generally buff), many males with black mask on face (female-type plumage markedly paler than Common Stonechat). juvenile: upperparts densely spotted buff, underparts pale buff to whitish on belly; dark feather fringes sometimes visible, giving rather mottled appearance. 'Siberian' Stonechat ssp . maurus Males of subspecies hemprichii and variegatus (both of which occur in the region between the Black and Caspian Seas) in all other respects are similar to ‘Eastern’ Stonechat but have a more or less extensive white tail base that merges with white (suffused buff or yellow) uppertail-coverts and rump, and a strongly contrasting broad black terminal band (could be mistaken for a wheatear [p. 388]). FLIGHT Slow, uncertain, sometimes hesitant, slightly winding (but lighter and more graceful than a tit [p. 162]). F-wave distinct, very short, sawtooth-shaped, irregular. Sometimes pursues insects in flight. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 5–7.

♂ ♂ ♀ ssp . maurus

ssp . hemprichii/variegatus

♂

♂nOn-breeding

♀ 386

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‘EASTERN’ STONECHAT (INCL. ‘ARMENIAN’ + ‘CASPIAN’) CALL In short flights rarely calls; in long-

distance flights presumably silent. Nonvocalic, more clapping than knocking, short “chek,” “chuk” with no rattling quality (lower-pitched and shorter than Common Stonechat, probably lowest-pitched click of all chats). | Short, simple, descending whistle, “syu” (Common Stonechat higher-pitched and ascending). | Ssp. hemprichii: simple whistle, “syip”, ascending at the beginning and descending at end (slightly longer than northern ssp. maurus).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ssp . maurus

ssp . hemprichii

♂ NON-BREEDING ×3

♂

♂ NON-BREEDING

♂

♂

♂

♂ NON-BREEDING

♂ NON-BREEDING ssp . hemprichii

♂

♂ ssp . hemprichii

387

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WHEATEARS

WHEATEARS (and ‘white-tailed’ chats) Key identification features  proportion of black  

 

and white on tail breadth of black terminal bar on tail extent of white (pale colour) on rump and back mantle colour pattern on head

STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Distinctive white tail base with inverted black ‘T’-shape (i.e. black central pair of tail feathers and black terminal bar, of variable breadth) (similar to tail pattern of Red-breasted Flycatcher (p. 356), Whinchat (p. 382) and ‘Eastern’ Stonechat (p. 386) subspecies hemprichii and variegatus) . Uppertail-coverts and rump white (some species have a buff, orange or brownish cast) . Breeding males readily identifiable . Birds in female-type plumage often very difficult or impossible to identify . Juveniles various hues of grey, buff and brown, spotted pale above, dark mottling or scalloping on foreparts of underbody; tail pattern as adult . FLIGHT: Direct, sweeping . F-wave distinct, short, slight . Wingbeats deep, floppy . CALLS: On migration probably do not call in flight (or at least if there are any nocturnal flight calls, these are unknown) . In short-distance flight sometimes utter usual contact calls .

♂

Black Wheatear (p. 402)

♂+♀

‘Eastern’ Stonechat ssp . variegatus (p. 386)

aliKe

♂

♂+♀ Isabelline Wheatear (p. 392)

Whinchat (p. 382)

aliKe

♀

♀

nOn-breeding

Northern Wheatear (p. 390)

breeding

♂

breeding

Black-eared Wheatear (p. 396)

weStern

ssp . hispanica

♂

breeding

eaStern

ssp . melanoleuca

♀

Pied Wheatear (p. 396)

♂

breeding

Finsch’s Wheatear (p. 400) ♂

♀

breeding

Desert Wheatear (p. 394) 388

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♀

♂

breeding

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WHEATEARS | ‘WHITE-TAILED’ CHATS

♂+♀

♂

aliKe

breeding

Pied Wheatear (p. 396)

Black Wheatear (p. 402)

♂

breeding

Finsch’s Wheatear (p. 400)

♂

♀

breeding

Desert Wheatear (p. 394)

Black-eared Wheatear (p. 396)

♀

♀ Black-eared Wheatear (p. 396)

♂

♂

breeding

breeding

‘Eastern’ Stonechat ssp . variegatus (p. 386)

Northern Wheatear (p. 390)

♂+♀ aliKe

Isabelline Wheatear (p. 392)

♂

♀ Northern Wheatear (p. 390)

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breeding

Whinchat (p. 382) 389

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WHEATEARS

Wheatears compared p. 388 | Juvenile chats and wheatear compared p. 361

Oenanthe oenanthe

Northern Wheatear L 14–16·5 cm | W 27–28 cm SIZE Body size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]; wingspan only

slightly less than Common Starling [p. 8] and Song Thrush [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body relatively small. Head large, rounded; bill medium-length. Wing relatively very long and narrow; outerwing slightly tapered (less rounded than in other wheatears [p. 388]). Tail rather short. COLORATION Rump, uppertail-coverts and basal ¾ of tail white, black tail-band of even breadth. Underwing coverts grey, no contrast with flight feathers. ♂ pale grey above; black mask, pure white supercilium and forehead. FLIGHT Combination of rather slim body and relatively long wings make flight appear lighter, more graceful and more sweeping than other wheatears. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 10, rarely up to 30. Loose.

Nocturnal migrant Isabelline Wheatear (p. 392) Black-eared Wheatear (p. 396) Pied Wheatear (p. 396)

♂

♂

♀

♀

♀

juvenile

♀/ immature 390

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NORTHERN WHEATEAR CALL In short-distance flight sometimes a

single or double, sharp, energetic knocking “chak” or “tak–tak,” can be repeated irregularly. | High-pitched, short, markedly descending whistle, “syit” (higher-pitched and much shorter than Isabelline Wheatear [p. 392]).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂ NON-BREEDING ×5

♂

391

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WHEATEARS

Isabelline Wheatear L 15–16·5 cm | W 26–28 cm SIZE Body size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]; wingspan only

slightly less than Common Starling [p. 8] and Song Thrush [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump and rounded. Head large, rounded; bill medium-length. Wing relatively very long and narrow (outerwing a little more rounded than that of Northern Wheatear [p. 390]). Tail rather short. COLORATION Sexes alike. Sandy or greyish-sandy above, off-white beneath with pale warm buff breast. Underwing pale buff to whitish, no contrast. Black tail-band very broad (‘half ’ of tail length); white base to tail feathers merging with white (often tinged buff) uppertail-coverts and rump. FLIGHT Direct, sweeping. F-wave distinct, short, slight. Wingbeats deep, floppy. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 15.

Wheatears compared p. 388

Oenanthe isabellina Nocturnal migrant Northern Wheatear (p. 390 Desert Wheatear (p. 394)

392

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ISABELLINE WHEATEAR CALL In short-distance flight rather soft,

knocking “chek,” often repeated (softer and less energetic than Northern Wheatear). | Loud, smooth, mild, rather long, markedly descending whistle, “hyiip” (lower pitched and much longer than Northern Wheatear).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

393

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WHEATEARS

Wheatears compared p. 388

Oenanthe deserti

Desert Wheatear L 14·5–15·5 cm | W 25–26 cm SIZE Like Finsch’s Wheatear [p. 400], Pied Wheatear [p. 396] and Black-

eared Wheatear [p. 396]; body size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Rather slim. Body relatively small. Head large, rounded; bill medium-length. Wing moderately long, medium-width, rounded. Tail moderately long. COLORATION In all plumages tail black (no ‘T’ pattern, white on base of tail barely appreciable), strong contrast with whitish rump and pale buff or pale sandy uppertail-coverts. On upperwing, pale fringes to scapulars, inner secondary-coverts and tertials forms diffuse pale patch on wing base, contrasting with blackish wing and sandy-grey mantle and back. Underwing mostly pale but median and lesser coverts black, contrasting strongly with white greater coverts. FLIGHT Direct, sweeping. F-wave distinct, short, slight. Wingbeats deep, floppy. FLOCK Only individual birds recorded in Europe.

Nocturnal migrant ‘Eastern’ Stonechat (p. 386) Black-eared Wheatear (p. 396) Isabelline Wheatear (p. 392)

♂

♀ ♂

394

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DESERT WHEATEAR CALL In short-distance flight very short,

non-vocalic, ticking “tk” (shorter than other wheatears), repeated or in series as short, quick rattle. | Rather low pitched, drawnout, slightly inflected, soft whistle, “hyuii” or double “hyuii-dyi,” second syllable of the same quality but shorter.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂

♂

♂

♀

♂

♂

395

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WHEATEARS

Wheatears compared p. 388

Oenanthe hispanica (incl. ssp. melanoleuca) Oenanthe pleschanka

Black-eared Wheatear Pied Wheatear

Two species practically inseparable in flight apart from males in breeding plumage. L 13·5–16·5 cm | W 25–26 cm SIZE Like Finsch’s Wheatear [p. 400] and Desert Wheatear [p. 394]; body

Nocturnal migrants Finsch’s Wheatear (p. 400) Northern Wheatear (p. 390) Desert Wheatear (p. 394)

size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Rather slim. Body relatively small. Head large,

rounded; bill medium-length. Wing moderately long, medium-width, rounded. Tail moderately long. COLORATION Tail with black central pair of feathers and variable black tail-band, broader on outer tail feathers than on inner pairs; rarely, tail almost all-white, with black evident only on outermost and central feathers. Underwing coverts black, contrasting moderately with grey (sometimes shining silvery) flight feathers. ♀/immature: black tail-band as on average male, less often fairly broad and of even width. Black-eared Wheatear: breeding ♂ black-and-white with variable amount of warm buff to pale buff or sandy-greyish tinge. Black wings separated by pale mantle and back, and by white rump. Western subspecies hispanica more warm coloured, white parts with orange-buff to rusty-brownish suffusion; eastern subspecies melanoleuca colder coloured, white parts with brownish-grey suffusion; ♀/immature of both subspecies alike. Pied Wheatear: breeding ♂ crown often suffused (dull) grey. Black wings merge with black mantle. FLIGHT Direct, sweeping. F-wave distinct, short, slight. Wingbeats deep, floppy. FLOCK Usually 1–2, occasionally up to 5.

Black-eared Wheatear ssp . hispanica

Black-eared Wheatear ssp . melanoleuca

CALL Some calls in short-distance flight of both species are similar, e.g.

short, harsh, grating “zzak” or “jjak” (vaguely reminiscent of Corncrake Crex crex).

kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

Black-eared Wheatear: Sharply rasping “bzirp” or “pjirp.” | Single sharp, knocking “chak,” can be repeated irregularly (very similar to Northern Wheatear but less energetic). | High-pitched, short, markedly descending whistle, “syit,” (slightly lower-pitched and shorter than Northern Wheatear).

Pied Wheatear

Pied Wheatear: Single sharp, knocking “chak,” can be repeated irregularly (like Blackeared Wheatear; very similar to Northern Wheatear but less energetic). | Mild, smoothly descending “tyep” (markedly lower-pitched than Black-eared Wheatear, Finsch’s Wheatear and Northern Wheatear).

396

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BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR | PIED WHEATEAR

Flight photos pp. 398–399

♂ ♂

♀

♀

♀/ immature

BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR ssp . hispanica

♂ ♂ ♀ ♂

BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR ssp . hispanica PIED WHEATEAR ♂ ♂ ♀ ♂

397

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WHEATEARS

Wheatears compared p. 388

BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR ssp. hispanica

 IMM.

♂ ♂

 IMM.  IMM.

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

♀

♀

398

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BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR | PIED WHEATEAR BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR ssp. melanoleuca ♂

♀

PIED WHEATEAR

IMM.

IMM.

♂

♂

♀

♀

399

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WHEATEARS

Wheatears compared p. 388

Oenanthe finschii

Finsch’s Wheatear L 15–16 cm | W 25–26 cm SIZE Like Pied Wheatear [p. 396], Black-eared Wheatear [p. 396] and Desert

Wheatear [p. 394]; body size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Rather slim. Body relatively small. Head large, rounded; bill medium-length. Wing moderately long, medium-width, rounded. Tail moderately long. COLORATION breeding ♂ black-and-white, crown and mantle often suffused (dull) grey. Black wings separated by white mantle, back and rump. Black tail-band evenly fairly narrow. Underwing coverts black, moderately contrasting with grey (sometimes shining silvery) flight feathers. FLIGHT Noticeably faster and more agile than Black-eared Wheatear and Pied Wheatear. FLOCK Usually 1–2.

Nocturnal migrant Black-eared Wheatear (p. 396) Pied Wheatear (p. 396)

♂

♂

♂

♀

400

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FINSCH’S WHEATEAR CALL In short-distance flight rather soft,

kHz 10

short, knocking “trk” of slightly rattling quality (higher than other wheatears). | Smoothly descending “tyip” (higher-pitched and shorter than Pied Wheatear).

8 6 4

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

2 0

♀

♀

401

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WHEATEARS

Black Wheatear L 18 cm | W 30 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Northern Wheatear [p. 390]; body size comparable

to Yellowhammer [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump. Head large, rounded; bill relatively fine. Wing rather broad, medium-length, rounded. Tail medium-length. COLORATION Both sexes uniformly black (to dark grey-brown) with white on stern and tail. Rump, uppertail-coverts, vent and undertail-coverts white. Black tail-band evenly narrow or medium-width. White ‘wraps around’ tail base, making tail appear rather long. Underwing coverts black, contrasting moderately with grey (sometimes shining silvery) flight feathers. FLIGHT Combination of relatively large body and short wings makes flight appear slower and heavier than other wheatears [p. 388]. FLOCK Usually 1–2.

Wheatears compared p. 388

Oenanthe leucura Non-migratory None in Europe

402

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BLACK WHEATEAR CALL  In short-distance flight sometimes

utters usual contact calls.

403

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ACCENTORS

Sparrows, ‘brown’ finches and buntings, etc. compared p. 408

Dunnock L 13–14·5 cm | W 19–21 cm SIZE As Meadow Pipit [p. 212]; comparable to Common Chaffinch [p. 416],

slightly smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body slim. Head slightly elongated with rounded forehead; bill fine, juts out distinctly from head profile. Wing short, rounded (tit-like [p. 162]). Tail medium-length, narrow. Overall similar to Meadow Pipit but wing markedly shorter, outerwing smaller. COLORATION Appears dark, no contrasts: upperparts brown; underparts grey, belly palest. FLIGHT Slow, steady, winding (more finch-like [p. 408] than tit-like). F-wave very distinct, moderately long, high. Flapping phases long; non-flapping intervals short. Wingbeats laborious, easy, rather even. On migration often flies high (e.g. over tree-tops). FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 20, rarely more than 50. Very loose, extended backwards, uncoordinated.

Prunella modularis Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Meadow Pipit (p. 212) tits (p. 162) finches (p. 408)

404

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DUNNOCK CALL Distinct, far-carrying, jingling, quick series of 2–5 same simple, pure, high-, even-pitched notes,

“di·di·di·di” or “zi·zi·zi·zi,” repeated rather frequently and irregularly (same pitch as Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168], markedly lower pitched than Goldcrest [p. 282]). kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

405

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ACCENTORS

Alpine Accentor L 18 cm | W 25 cm SIZE Comparable to Eurasian Skylark [p. 8]; slightly smaller than Song

Thrush [p. 8], much larger than House Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rather plump; neck medium-length. Head medium-sized, slightly rounded; bill rather deep-based, evenly tapered, merging moderately with head profile. Wing large, long; outerwing broad, rounded (shorter and broader than Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]). Tail moderately short. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts grey-and-brown; black wing panel (greater and median coverts) with two rows of white spots. Uppertail blackish with distinct whitish to pale buff terminal band. BELOW: Whitish bib variably spotted black. Underbody grey with prominent rufous flanks. Undertail-coverts white with dark spots. Underwing dark grey; greater underwing coverts rufous (very difficult to see); indistinct pale trailing edge. Undertail black with obvious white feather-tips. FLIGHT Direct, strong, easy (finch-like [p. 408]). F-wave distinct, long, medium-height. Sometimes glides on half-folded wings. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 20.

Prunella collaris Non-migratory Rock Sparrow (p. 414) larks (p. 186) finches (p. 408)

406

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ALPINE ACCENTOR CALL Rather low-pitched, loud, short, hard,

very harsh “djip,” often double “dji·djip.” | Short, vibrating, ascending “trrüit” (pitch lower and vibration quicker than Eurasian Skylark).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

407

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SPARROWS, ‘BROWN’ FINCHES AND BUNTINGS, AND DUNNOCK

SPARROWS, ‘BROWN’ FINCHES, ‘BROWN’ BUNTINGS, LAPLAND LONGSPUR, AND DUNNOCK Key identification features  structure and shape  cheek colour  white pattern on wing  streaking on underparts

Common Chaffinch (p. 416)

 white pattern on tail  black bib

House Sparrow (p. 410)

♂

Italian Sparrow (p. 410)

♂

Spanish Sparrow (p. 410)

♂

Eurasian Tree Sparrow (p. 413)

House Sparrow (Italian and Spanish Sparrows alike) (p. 410)

Common Rosefinch (p. 428)

♀

♀

♀-type

Dunnock (p. 404)

♂+♀

♂+♀

Common Linnet (p. 446)

♀

Reed Bunting (p. 476)

♀-type

Twite (p. 448)

♂

Rock Sparrow (p. 414)

♂+♀

Lapland Longspur (p. 478)

♀-type

aliKe

aliKe

Corn Bunting (p. 458)

Yellowhammer (p. 460)

aliKe

♂+♀ aliKe

♀

immature

408

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SPARROWS, ‘BROWN’ FINCHES AND BUNTINGS, AND DUNNOCK

♂+♀ aliKe

♂+♀ aliKe

Dunnock (p. 404)

Corn Bunting (p. 458) ♀-type Common Rosefinch (p. 428)

♂

♂

House Sparrow (p. 410)

male

♂+♀

Spanish Sparrow (Italian Sparrow alike) (p. 410)

aliKe

Eurasian Tree Sparrow (p. 413)

female-type

♂

nOn-breeding

Reed Bunting (p. 476)

Lapland Longspur (Bunting) (p. 478)

♂+♀ aliKe

Rock Sparrow (p. 414)

♂ Common Linnet (p. 446)

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♂ Twite (p. 448) 409

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SPARROWS

Sparrows compared p. 408

Passer domesticus Passer italiae Passer hispaniolensis

House Sparrow Italian Sparrow Spanish Sparrow Except for subtle differences in coloration, males of the three species share identification features; females and juveniles inseparable. L 14–16 cm | W 18–25 cm

Diurnal migrants Common Rosefinch (p. 428) Eurasian Tree Sparrow (p. 413) Rock Sparrow (p. 414)

SIZE Comparable to Common Chaffinch [p. 416]; larger than Great Tit

[p. 9], slightly smaller than Yellowhammer [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped. Head fairly large; bill conical, deep-based, merges with head profile. Wing moderately long, rather narrow-based; outerwing broad, rounded. Tail medium-length. Spanish Sparrow body and head slightly broader than on House Sparrow. COLORATION ♂ (all three species): rather dark above; distinctly contrasting pale (grey to white) cheek; on dark upperwing rather short, narrow, contrasting white wingbar (median coverts). House Sparrow: ♂ grey crown seldom appreciable; rump dull brownish-grey; black bib variable (but often larger than on Eurasian Tree Sparrow [p. 413]); no black streaks or stripes on breast sides and flanks (unlike Spanish Sparrow). ♀ nondescript; brown-grey above, grey to pale grey beneath; pattern on upperparts very indistinct. juvenile: like female but paler. Italian Sparrow: ♂ brown on upperparts more saturated than House Sparrow (has more of a red cast); crown rusty-brown (no grey); cheek white (on House Sparrow usually pale grey). Spanish Sparrow: ♂ sides of breast and flanks boldly streaked or striped black (brown on upperparts more saturated than House Sparrow (has more of a red cast)), crown rusty-brown (no grey); cheek white (on House Sparrow usually pale grey). FLIGHT Direct, strong, slightly whirring. F-wave indistinct, fairly long, slight, irregular. Flapping phases long; non-flapping intervals short. FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 50 (where abundant, winter flocks of up to a few thousand). Rather dense, extended transversely, waving, well coordinated, with slight and slow intra-flock movement.

House Sparrow

Italian Sparrow

Spanish Sparrow

CALL No characteristic

flight call; can utter almost every sound from repertoire, but most often “shlip,” “tlip,” “dslip,” “sip” or “t-chip.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

410

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HOUSE SPARROW | ITALIAN SPARROW | SPANISH SPARROW

Flight photos p. 412

♂

♀

♂

♂

HOUSE SPARROW ITALIAN SPARROW

♂ ♂

SPANISH SPARROW

♂ ♂

411

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SPARROWS

Sparrows compared p. 408

HOUSE SPARROW ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀

♀

♀ ♀

♀

ITALIAN SPARROW ALL ♂

SPANISH SPARROW ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀ ♀ ♀

412

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EURASIAN TREE SPARROW

Eurasian Tree Sparrow L 12–14 cm | W 18–22 cm SIZE Slightly smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9]; slightly larger than

European Goldfinch [p. 9].

Passer montanus Mainly diurnal migrant Other sparrows (p. 410)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Compared with House Sparrow [p. 410]: slightly slimmer, head and bill slightly smaller, wing shorter and more rounded. COLORATION Sexes look alike. Black spot on white cheek. ABOVE: Rump paler and more sandy-brown than on House Sparrow. BELOW: Underbody pale sandy-buff; black bib (often smaller (narrower) than on House Sparrow). juvenile: paler and duller than adult. FLIGHT Direct, strong, slightly whirring. F-wave indistinct, fairly long, slight, irregular. Flapping phases long; non-flapping intervals short. FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 80 (where abundant, winter flocks of up to a few thousand). Rather dense, extended transversely, waving, well coordinated, with slight and slow intra-flock movement. CALL In short flights, single bird utters an abrupt, hard, harsh “chep,” “che-

chep,” or the same sound in quick rattling series, “chi-chr-r-r-rt.” | Flock in long-distance flight usually very vocal, uttering different calls, “chyep,” “chip, “tswiwit, chip,” “ship,” “tswiwit tswiwit,” ““swit, tswiwit swit,,” but can be silent for long periods.

kHz

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0 kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

413

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SPARROWS

Rock Sparrow L 14–15 cm | W 20–22 cm SIZE Body size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, barrel-shaped; neck thick. Head very

Sparrows compared p. 408

Petronia petronia Diurnal migrant Alpine Accentor (p. 406) Other sparrows (p. 410)

large (larger than on House Sparrow [p. 410]); bill conical, deep-based, merges with head profile (also larger than on House Sparrow). Wing moderately long, rather narrow-based; tip broad, rounded. Tail short (markedly shorter and broader than on House Sparrow). COLORATION Sexes look alike. ABOVE: Dark and pale stripes along crown and mantle. Pattern on upperwing complex but indistinct. White subterminal band on tail (formed by white spot near tip of each feather). Rump distinctly pale brown-grey. BELOW: Underparts rather pale, offwhite to white; breast and flanks indistinctly streaked and striped brown; undertail-coverts spotted brown, tipped white. Yellow throat-spot usually impercetible. FLIGHT Direct, strong, fast, slightly whirring. F-wave indistinct, fairly long, slight, irregular. Flapping phases long; non-flapping intervals short. FLOCK Usually 1–20, occasionally up to a few hundred; rather dense, well coordinated, with slight and slow intra-flock movement.

414

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ROCK SPARROW CALL Various: rather long, slightly nasal,

smoothly ascending, usually inflected “puyyi,” “piyyi,” “pwi,” “pwep,” “pyulis,” “pliewi,” “pwewip,” “pwivi,” “pswiyp,” “vyuw.” | Harsher, muffled “twe,” “tshe.” | Quick, slightly uneven, squeaky rattle “trrrrrpipipidete.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

415

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FINCHES

Sparrows, ‘brown’ finches and buntings, etc. compared pp. 408, 456

Fringilla coelebs

Common Chaffinch L 14–16 cm | W 24–28 cm SIZE As Brambling [p. 418]; comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Similar to Brambling. Body rather slim. Head

Diurnal migrant Brambling (p. 418) House Sparrow (p. 410) Common Rosefinch (p. 428) Ortolan Bunting (p. 468)

medium-sized; bill deep-based. Wing broad-based, rather long, tip moderately rounded (slightly longer than House Sparrow [p. 410], outerwing slightly broader than Yellowhammer [p. 460] (not tapered)). Tail moderately long; tip notched. COLORATION ABOVE: Conspicuous pale oval patch on upperwing (evident on bend in wing when folded). Rump green. BELOW: Underwing and underbody appear dark (grey) (not so bright white as Brambling), contrast between dark breast and pale belly very weak, seldom obvious (contrast strong on Brambling). Long, pale wingbar visible against the light (translucent). ♂ mantle warm brown, crown and nape bluish-grey; face, throat and breast greyish-pink. ♀ dull brownish-grey, pale wing pattern slightly less extensive. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy (appreciably slower than Brambling). F-wave distinct, fairly long, moderately high, slightly irregular. Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals longer. FLOCK Usually 1–40, exceptionally many thousands. Short, extended transversely, moderately coordinated; intra-flock movement slow and rather slight. This is the only species in Europe that undertakes migratory movements known as ‘carpet passage’ at some sites (e.g. along narrow spits or through high mountain cols). Such dense passage can last for some hours in mornings, with concentrations of up to 1,200 birds per minute passing by. Often forms mixed flocks with Bramblings (with Common Chaffinches always predominating); can mingle with Eurasian Siskins [p. 436], Redpolls [p. 450] and Redwings [p. 340]; occasionally a few among a larger flock of Bramblings.

♂

♂

♀

♂

♀

416

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COMMON CHAFFINCH CALL Distinct but quiet, short, pure,

kHz 10

descending, simple whistle, “tyup,” “tyep” (often higher-pitched than Brambling), frequently repeated. | Single “fink” (very similar to Great Tit [p. 164]).

8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀

♀

♀ ♀ great tit

♀

417

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FINCHES

Brambling L 14–16 cm | W 25–26 cm SIZE As Common Chaffinch [p. 416]; comparable to House Sparrow

[p. 9].

Fringilla montifringilla Diurnal migrant (irruptive) Common Chaffinch (p. 416)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Like Common Chaffinch; tail can appear broader and shorter, markedly notched at tip. COLORATION ABOVE: Pale brownish-orange to bright golden-orange patch on upperwing (evident on bend in wing when folded) (much less obvious than white patch on Common Chaffinch). Back and rump white, bordered black. On breeding ♂, extensive contrastingly black hood. BELOW: Middle of underwing and belly bright white (contrast with breast much stronger than on Common Chaffinch). Orange breast of male often conspicuous. Pale wingbar visible from below against the light (translucent) (but shorter than on Common Chaffinch). FLIGHT Fast (appreciably faster than Common Chaffinch). F-wave distinct, fairly long, moderately high, slightly irregular. Flapping phases short; nonflapping intervals longer. FLOCK Usually 1–40, if single-species 20–50, sometimes up to 100; in winter up to many thousands. Singlespecies: dense, coordinated (denser than Common Chaffinch flock, not so extended and flies faster; structure similar to Redpoll [p. 450] or Eurasian Siskin [p. 436] flocks). Often forms mixed flocks with Common Chaffinch (with Common Chaffinches always predominating), and adapts to the structure and speed such flocks; occasionally, there may be a few Common Chaffinches among a larger flock of Bramblings.

♂

breeding

♂

nOn-breeding

♀

418

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BRAMBLING CALL Low-pitched (same pitch as

Common Chaffinch or lower), quiet, impure, soft (more hiccupping than whistled) “tyek,” “chyup,” “tüp,” irregularly repeated, in series when flushed. | Haunting, loud, harsh, nasal, drawn-out, upslurred “jjyew,” “jiye,” the “ye” component strongly accented and highest-pitched, single or repeated at long intervals.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀

♀ ♀

♀

COmmOn CHaffinCH

419

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SPARROWS AND FINCHES

‘RED-BODIED’ FINCHES (all males)

Key identification features  extent of red on underbody  size and shape (silhouette)  relative size  shape of head with bill

Pine Grosbeak (p. 430)

Parrot Crossbill Red Crossbill (p. 422) (p. 422)

Eurasian Bullfinch (p. 432)

Common Rosefinch (p. 428)

Redpoll Common Linnet (p. 450) (p. 446)

Pine Grosbeak (p. 430)

Parrot Crossbill (p. 422) Eurasian Bullfinch (p. 432) Red Crossbill (p. 422)

Two-barred Crossbill (p. 426)

Common Linnet (p. 446)

Common Rosefinch (p. 428)

Redpoll (p. 450)

420

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FINCHES

‘YELLOW-GREEN’ FINCHES and YELLOWHAMMER

Key identification features  colour of tail (brown-grey or yellow-and-black)  pattern on upperwing;  size and silhouette  relative size of head with bill

Yellowhammer (p. 460)

♀

♀

Red Crossbill (p. 422) ♀

European Greenfinch (p. 434)

male

Citril Finch (p. 442)

fe

European Serin (p. 438) ♂

Eurasian Siskin (p. 436) note: all (except for Yellowhammer) have a yellow or greenish-yellow rump.

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FINCHES

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420 | ‘Yellow-green’ finches compared p. 421

Loxia curvirostra Loxia pytyopsittacus Loxia scotica

Red (Common) Crossbill Parrot Crossbill Scottish Crossbill Red and Scottish Crossbills inseparable in flight; both also typically inseparable from Parrot Crossbill. Scottish Crossbill intermediate in structure and shape between Red and Parrot Crossbills; no differences in coloration or flight behaviour; flight calls require further studies.

Diurnal migrants (irruptive) Two barred Crossbill (p. 426) Hawfinch (p. 454)

L 14–16 cm | W 18–25 cm SIZE Comparable to Corn Bunting [p. 458]; larger than House Sparrow

[p. 9] and Common Chaffinch [p. 416], smaller than Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Red Crossbill: Body rather plump, broad, short, potbellied; neck very short. Head large (longer than on European Greenfinch [p. 434] or Hawfinch [p. 454]). Bill large, deep-based, crossed mandible tips sometimes evident while overhead; in side view, longer hooked tip of upper Red Crossbill mandible appreciable. Wing moderately long, narrow; outerwing tapered, fairly pointed. Tail relatively short, notched at tip. Parrot Crossbill: Head relatively larger, broader, heavier; bill larger, deeper and broader-based. Differences most pronounced on adult ♂s; many ♀s and immatures indistinguishable from Red Crossbill. COLORATION Head and body variably olive-greenish-yellow, yellow or orange to bright red, sometimes as a blotchy mixture. ABOVE: Upperwing uniformly brown (some, mainly immatures, have narrow whitish wingbar, (but always narrower than on Two-barred Crossbill [p. 426])). BELOW: Underwing appears almost uniform dark grey. On belly distinct white central stripe or patch; undertail coverts white with dark spots. Parrot Crossbill juvenile: rather dark; grey-brown above, pale buffish beneath; head and body streaked and striped dark. FLIGHT Direct, steady, very fast (as Common Starling [p. 322]). F-wave long, moderately high (same length as Common Chaffinch, marginally slighter). FLOCK Red Crossbill: Usually 1–30, rarely up to 160. Dense, compact, shape changeable but often extended transversely, coordinated; intra-flock movement slight. Often flies over tree-tops. Can mingle in Common Starling flock. Parrot Crossbill: Usually 1–3, occasionally up to 20, rarely up to 50.

CALL Red Crossbill: Loud, strong, energetic, short, metallic “kip,” “glip,” “klip,” “bit” (at least six different

variations of these calls identified, but all have the same sound quality), single, frequently but irregularly repeated (pitch and sound quality same as Parrot Crossbill). Parrot Crossbill: Loud, strong, energetic, short, metallic “kyep,” “klip,” “chlip” (less variable than Red Crossbill), single, frequently but irregularly repeated. For reliable distinction between Red and Parrot Crossbills analysis of sonogram recommended.

kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

RED CROSSBILL

PARROT CROSSBILL

422

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RED CROSSBILL | PARROT CROSSBILL | SCOTTISH CROSSBILL

Flight photos pp. 424–425

♂

♂

♀

♂

juvenile

RED CROSSBILL PARROT CROSSBILL

♂

♂

423

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FINCHES

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420 | ‘Yellow-green’ finches compared p. 421

RED (COMMON) CROSSBILL ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

JUV.

 IMM.

IMM. JUV.

♀ ♀

♀

♀

JUV.

424

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RED CROSSBILL | PARROT CROSSBILL PARROT CROSSBILL ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀ ♀ ♀

♀

♀

425

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FINCHES

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420

Loxia leucoptera

Two-barred Crossbill L 14–16 cm | W 25–29 cm SIZE As European Greenfinch [p. 434]; comparable to House Sparrow

Diurnal migrant (irruptive)

Other crossbills (p. 422) [p. 9] and Common Chaffinch [p. 416], smaller than Red Crossbill [p. 422]. Common Chaffinch (p. 416) STRUCTURE & SHAPE Slimmer than Red Crossbill; head smaller, bill not as deep. Similar to European Greenfinch but wing narrower, wingtip more pointed; tail appears slightly longer. COLORATION Body and head variably olive-greenish-yellow, yellow or orange to bright red, sometimes as a blotchy mixture. ABOVE: Upperwing blackish-brown with two conspicuous white wingbars: broad at base on greater coverts, tapering outwards; ‘elliptical’ on median and lowest row of lesser coverts (showing near bend in wing when folded) (smaller than on Common Chaffinch). BELOW: Underwing appears almost uniform dark grey. On belly distinct white central stripe or patch; undertail-coverts white with faint dark spots. juvenile: rather dark; grey-brown above, pale buffish beneath; head and body streaked and striped dark; white wingbars markedly narrower than on adult. FLIGHT Direct, confident, easy (faster than Common Chaffinch, slightly like Common Linnet [p. 446]). F-wave distinct, moderately long, high. FLOCK Usually 1–3, occasionally up to 20, exceptionally up to 400. Dense, compact, coordinated; slight intraflock movement.

♂

♂

♂

♀

juvenile

426

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TWO-BARRED CROSSBILL CALL Distinctive, short, slightly nasal, even-pitched, ‘toy-like’ sound, “pyep,” or double “bip-bip,” repeated (no

other crossbill has a similar call). | Short, rather soft, impure chirping “chik,” “tlik,” “klip,” frequently repeated, often in quick series (higher-pitched than Red Crossbill, weaker and non-metallic; same pitch as Redpoll [p. 450] but shorter and harder).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0 ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED IMM .

♀

♀

♀

♀

♀

♀

427

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FINCHES

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420 | ‘Brown’ finches compared p. 408

Carpodacus erythrinus

Common Rosefinch L 13·5–15 cm | W 24–25 cm SIZE Comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9] and Common Chaffinch

[p. 416].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Similar to House Sparrow [p. 410] but slimmer, wingbase broader, outerwing slightly tapered. Bill deep-based and very short, almost imperceptible in head profile. Tail notched at tip. COLORATION ♀ and immature: upperparts almost uniform brownishgrey, rump paler; two usually almost indiscernible narrow, pale wingbars (on immature slightly broader); underbody off-white (with buffish cast), breast faintly streaked brown, underwing plain grey. ♂ same pattern but bright red, especially on head, rump and breast (no streaks on breast); red rarely replaced by orange or golden hue. FLIGHT Direct (reminiscent of House Sparrow but less energetic). F-wave short, high, regular (shorter and higher than Common Chaffinch). Often flies high (e.g. over tree-tops). FLOCK Usually 1–2, rarely up to 20, exceptionally up to 40 (where abundant even up to 200). Loose, slightly coordinated.

Nocturnal migrant House Sparrow (p. 410) crossbills (pp. 422–426) Other ‘red-bodied’ finches (p. 420)

♀/immature

♂

♂

♂ ♀/immature

♀/immature 428

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COMMON ROSEFINCH CALL Sharply ascending

“wii,” “hwii,” single or repeated after long intervals (almost identical to Common Chiffchaff call [p. 266], the difference inappreciable by ear but in a clear sonogram Common Rosefinch has a minute ‘prefix’ (“wit”), which is lacking in Common Chiffchaff). | Nasal, slightly impure, squeaky, upslurred “däewi,” “däe,” usually single.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀ ♀ ♀ ♀

IMM .

♀

♀

429

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FINCHES

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420

Pinicola enucleator

Pine Grosbeak L 18–20 cm | W 30–35 cm SIZE Comparable to Song Thrush [p. 8] and Redwing [p. 340]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body bulky, barrel-shaped; neck rather long. Head

medium-sized, rounded; bill fairly short, very deep (convex, rounded outline), merges with head profile. Tail markedly long, making wing appear fairly narrow (relatively smaller than Common Chaffinch [p. 416]). Wingtip rounded. COLORATION Grey with variable amounts of greenish-yellow, yellow, orange and/or pink-red, particularly on crown, rump and breast. ABOVE: Upperwing blackish with two narrow white wingbars (white edges of secondaries and tertials usually imperceptible). BELOW: Mainly grey, no white on belly. FLIGHT Direct, easy (somewhat thrush-like [p. 328]). F-wave distinct, long, slight. FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 20, rarely up to 65 (where abundant exceptionally some hundreds up to 1,000). Sometimes mingles with crossbills [pp. 422–426].

Diurnal migrant Crossbills (pp. 422–426) Eurasian Bullfinch (p. 432)

♂

♀ ♂

430

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PINE GROSBEAK CALL Very variable;

usually disyllabic, first syllable short quick trill, second with loud, drawnout, very melodious, fluty whistle, e.g. “pili·tyi,” “silli-prüji,” “tri-pwyi” (resembling Woodlark [p. 202] or Crested Lark [p. 196]).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♀ ♀ ♂

♀

♂

♀

♂

♀

431

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FINCHES

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420

Pyrrhula pyrrhula

Eurasian Bullfinch L 15·5–17 cm | W 22–29 cm SIZE Comparable to Corn Bunting [p. 458]; slightly larger than

Yellowhammer [p. 9], larger than House Sparrow [p. 9], smaller than Common Starling [p. 8].

Diurnal migrant Other ‘red-bodied’ finches (p. 420)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body plump, broad; neck very short. Head rounded, crown domed; bill deep-based and very short, almost imperceptible in head profile. Wing relatively long (outerwing slightly broader than Common Chaffinch [p. 416]). Stern rounded, bulging. Tail narrow, juts out markedly from body outline and hence appears fairly long. COLORATION Striking contrasts: between black tail and white stern surrounding tail base; dark body and white rump, rear belly, vent and undertail-coverts; and black hood and much paler large cheek. White wingbar broad, tapering outwards. Underwing whitish, paler than body. ♂ cheek and body pink to bright red. ♀ cheek and body grey (with pinkishbrown cast). juvenile: underbody buff; face pale (buff-and-grey), eye clearly evident as no black hood; upperparts dull brown-grey. FLIGHT Slow (appears slower than other finches), easy (like Common Chaffinch but less energetic). F-wave distinct, long, rather slight. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 30, rarely up to 100. Loose, extended transversely, moderately coordinated (structure like Common Chaffinch flock but looser).

♂

♂ ♂

♀ ♀

juvenile

432

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EURASIAN BULLFINCH CALL Loud, simple, moderately short,

kHz 10

descending whistle, “piye,” “pyu” (very similar to a human whistling), single, rather regularly repeated. The same call can be given in a different way, a slightly nasal “pyü,” sounding like a whistle on two or three instruments simultaneously, each instrument tuned slightly differently (when two or three tones are audible at the same time, this sounds like small toy-trumpet).

8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀ ♀

♀

♀

♀

♀

433

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FINCHES

‘Yellow-green’ finches compared p. 421

European Greenfinch L 14–16 cm | W 24–27 cm SIZE Body size comparable to House Sparrow [p. 9] and Common

Chaffinch [p. 416].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Appears chunky. Body deep-breasted; neck short. Head large, ‘heavy’-looking; bill large (although smaller than on Hawfinch [p. 454]), very deep-based, conical, merging with head profile. Wing long, broad-based; outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail relatively short, notched at tip. COLORATION Olive-green, olive-brown, yellow and grey. Lower edge of folded wing (alula and primary edges), centre of rump, tail base, belly, vent and undertail-coverts, and diffuse band along leading edge of underwing contrastingly yellow. ♂ yellow noticeably saturated and extensive. ♀ dull; yellow rather pale and not particularly extensive. juvenile: somewhat paler than adult, grey-brown; yellow restricted to outerwing and tail base; underbody off-white to yellowish, narrowly striped (streaked) dull brown. FLIGHT Direct, easy, fast (but slower than crossbills (pp. 422–426]). F-wave distinct, fairly long, rather slight. Flapping phases short; non-flapping intervals longer. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 35; in winter up to 200. Loose (structured like Common Chaffinch but looser), extended transversely, moderately coordinated; intra-flock movement slight.

Chloris chloris Diurnal migrant House Sparrow (p. 410) Common Chaffinch (p. 416) Hawfinch (p. 454) Other ‘yellow-green’ finches (p. 421)

juvenile

434

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EUROPEAN GREENFINCH CALL Distinct, strong, short, descending tweet, “düp,” “chip,” often double “di·dip,” “chi·chip,” repeated

rhythmically or in quick, even series, “didididip.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

435

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FINCHES

‘Yellow-green’ finches compared p. 421

Spinus spinus

Eurasian Siskin L 11–12·5 cm | W 18–22 cm SIZE Body size comparable to European Serin [p. 438] and Common

Chiffchaff [p. 9]; smaller than European Goldfinch [p. 9].

Diurnal migrant Redpoll (p. 450) Other ‘yellow-green’ finches (p. 421) Serins (pp. 438–440)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped; neck very short. Head round; bill ‘triangular’ (longer than on serins [pp. 438–440]). Wing relatively large; tip tapered, narrow. Tail short, notched at tip. COLORATION Yellow, black, dull yellowish-green and olive grey. Long, narrow, pale wingbar, also visible from below against the light (translucent). ♂ black cap bordered by yellow supercilia; black wingbar on dull green upperwing coverts; rump pale yellow; tail yellow with black terminal band; underbody yellow, belly white; flanks striped black. ♀ and immature: greyer and darker than male, no black cap; black wingbar difficult to see; rump streaked dark; tail blackish with variable amount of yellow on base; underbody off-white, streaked and striped dark; breast pale yellow. juvenile: even duller and greyer with brown and buff cast, streaked dark on head, mantle, rump and underparts. FLIGHT Direct. F-wave distinct, when a single bird, short; when in a flock very slight but flight path very winding, height and direction changing constantly. FLOCK Usually 1–40, rarely up to 500. Dense (densest of any European passerine), compact, short, deep, well coordinated, extremely agile, noisy; intra-flock movement very intense and fast. A small flock of just a few birds can be rather loose and quieter (similar to Common Chaffinch [p. 416]). Can mingle with Common Chaffinch or Redpoll [p. 450] flocks; Eurasian Siskin flocks sometimes joined by European Goldfinches [p. 444].

♂

♂

♀ ♂

436

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EURASIAN SISKIN CALL Distinct, far-carrying, long, pure, downslurred whistle, “piyie,” “piylie,” “psiyye,” “psiy,” single,

irregularly repeated. | Mild, slow, usually upslurred “psu·vi,” single, irregularly repeated. | Long, harsh, ‘inhaled’, even-pitched hiss, “psssss.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂

♂

♂ ♂

♂

♂

437

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FINCHES

‘Yellow-green’ finches compared p. 421

Serinus serinus

European Serin L 11–12 cm | W 18–22 cm SIZE Body size comparable to Eurasian Siskin [p. 436] and Common

Chiffchaff [p. 9]; smaller than European Goldfinch [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped; neck very short, nape thick. Head relatively large, very rotund; bill short, ‘triangular’, merging with head profile. Wing broad, medium-length, rounded. Tail fairly long, narrow, deeply notched at tip. COLORATION Yellow, yellowish-green, brown and white. ABOVE: Tail dark brownish-grey (no yellow patches) (unlike Eurasian Siskin and European Greenfinch [p. 434]); yellow wingbar, but difficult to see or lacking. Rump yellow, unstreaked. ♂ yellow forehead, long yellow supercilium and pale (yellow) ‘vertical’ stripe on side of neck often very distinct. Underparts similar to Eurasian Siskin but lacks black bib and translucent wingbar. ♀ browner, with less yellow; less contrasted than male. juvenile: pale brownand-buff (no yellow), densely and diffusely streaked and striped dark; rump pale warm brown, streaked dark. FLIGHT Fast, energetic, slightly nervous and jerky. F-wave distinct, fairly long, moderately high. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 40, rarely up to 100. Loose, coordinated.

Diurnal migrant Eurasian Siskin (p. 436) Other ‘yellow-green’ finches (p. 421)

♂

♂

juvenile

438

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EUROPEAN SERIN CALL Metallic, jingling, trill, slightly

uneven-pitched, “briririririri,” first note often appreciably higher, repeated rather regularly at short intervals (similar to Bohemian Waxwing [p. 320], tempo equal but pitch higher, and sound more rattling (not so ‘silvery’)).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

439

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FINCHES

Red-fronted Serin L 11·5–12 cm | W 18–20 cm SIZE Comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped; neck very short, nape thick. Head relatively large, very rotund; bill short, ‘triangular’, merging with head profile. Wing broad, medium-length, rounded. Tail fairly long, narrow, deeply notched at tip. COLORATION Rump yellow, bordered black. Bright red patch on forehead. adult: head black, contrasting with yellow-and-white underbody; breast and flanks boldly striped black; underwing coverts yellow; pale buff wingbars but difficult to see. juvenile/immature: head warm brown, underbody off-white, diffusely striped brown. FLIGHT Fast, energetic, winding and jerky. F-wave distinct, fairly long, moderately high. FLOCK Usually 1–30, sometimes up to 60. Dense, compact, coordinated.

Serinus pusillus Diurnal migrant Other small finches (pp. 420–421)

juvenile

440

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RED-FRONTED SERIN CALL Chirping trill with markedly uneven

pitch, “triririririri,” often ascending, repeated at short intervals. Compared with European Serin [p. 438]: tempo the same, pitch markedly lower, sound with no metallic quality.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

441

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FINCHES

‘Yellow-green’ finches compared p. 421

Citril Finch L 11·5–13 cm | W 20–22 cm SIZE Comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped; neck very short, nape thick. Head round; bill ‘triangular’. Wing relatively large; tip narrow, slightly rounded. Tail moderately short, notched at tip. COLORATION Yellow, black, dull yellowish-green and grey. ABOVE: Head rather pale, mostly grey; face yellow (less extensive on ♀). Wingbar indistinct, black on dull yellowish-green background of upperwing coverts. Rump pale yellow, uppertail-coverts greenish-yellow. Tail dark brownishgrey (no yellow patches) (unlike Eurasian Siskin [p. 436] and European Greenfinch [p. 434]). BELOW: Underwing rather pale with yellow tinge on lesser coverts. Underbody plain: yellow with white belly and grey flanks. juvenile: brown, buff, grey and black (no yellow or green); underbody streaked dark. FLIGHT Fast, energetic, slightly winding. F-wave distinct, medium-high, slightly irregular, medium–long (shorter than Common Chaffinch [p. 416], reminiscent of European Goldfinch [p. 444]). FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 150; in winter, up to 200, exceptionally thousands. Looser and less coordinated than European Goldfinch.

Carduelis citrinella Diurnal migrant Eurasian Siskin (p. 436) European Greenfinch (p. 434)

juvenile

442

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CITRIL FINCH CALL Very short, simple, markedly nasal

“tä,” single, repeated at long intervals, double “te-di” or in series “ti-di-dä-di-de,” each note on a slightly different pitch (vaguely reminiscent of European Goldfinch). | Very high and very short peeping “twik,” “ti·ik,” often in quick series (similar to “ti·si” of European Goldfinch).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV .

JUV .

443

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FINCHES

European Goldfinch L 12–13·5 cm | W 20–25 cm SIZE Comparable to Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; smaller than House

Sparrow [p. 9] and Common Chaffinch [p. 416], larger than Common Chiffchaff [p. 9].

Carduelis carduelis Diurnal migrant Other small finches (pp. 420–421)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Spindle-shaped; neck very short. Head round; bill ‘triangular’ (longer than on other smaller finches). Wing relatively large; tip narrow, slightly rounded. Tail moderately short, notched at tip. COLORATION Mid-brown, black, yellow and white (red on face seldom discernible). Striking vertical broad white stripe on side of head. Upperwing black with very broad yellow band; against the light wing band also obvious from below (translucent). Rump and uppertail-coverts white. Fanned tail black-and-white. juvenile: head almost plain pale brown, underbody spotted dark. FLIGHT Fast, slightly winding. F-wave distinct, medium high, slightly irregular, medium–long (shorter than Common Chaffinch). FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 50, rarely up to 600; in winter, up to a few thousand. Dense, compact, well coordinated, agile. Can mingle in Eurasian Siskin [p. 436] flock.

juvenile

444

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EUROPEAN GOLDFINCH CALL Energetic, ‘joyful’, short, pure, low-pitched “plit,” “ti-pi,” “ti-li-pi,” ascending series “ti-pü-py-pi.” |

Higher-pitched, disyllabic “tit-sie,” “ti·si,” first syllable high, second syllable lower. All these calls frequently, quickly and disorderly repeated. | Seldom uttered, harsh, rolling chirp, “pzrrit” (higher-pitched and less vocalic than Northern House Martin [p. 110]), single or in short series.

kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

JUV .

JUV .

JUV .

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FINCHES

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420 | ‘Brown’ finches compared p.408

Linaria cannabina

Common Linnet L 12·5–14 cm | W 20–24 cm SIZE Comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped; neck very short, nape thick. Head round; bill short, ‘triangular’, merging with head profile. Wing relatively large; tip narrow, slightly rounded. Tail rather long, narrow, notched at tip. COLORATION Chestnut, brown, grey and buff. Face, neck and breast rather pale; grey to brownish-grey. On upperwing, white edges to inner primaries usually apparent as pale panel on folded wing. Rump pale brown; uppertailcoverts whitish, streaked black. On ♂, red patch on breast. FLIGHT Strong, confident, direct, fast (faster than Common Chaffinch [p. 416]). F-wave distinct, moderately short, high, irregular, coordinated. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. FLOCK Usually 1–20, sometimes up to 60, rarely up to 650, where abundant exceptionally up to a few thousand. Fairly dense (more so than Common Chaffinch), extended backwards and rather deep (less so than Eurasian Siskin [p. 436]), well coordinated, agile; intra-flock movement very significant and fast (almost like Eurasian Siskin, much more intense than Common Chaffinch).

Diurnal migrant Twite (p. 448) Redpoll (p. 450) Other small finches (p. 421) ‘Red-bodied’ finches (p.420)

♂

♂

♂

♀

446

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COMMON LINNET CALL Energetic, distinct but quiet, short,

kHz 10

pure, downslurred, chirped “tyep,” usually double “tyedi,” “tye-che,” “tye-tyup” or triple “tyedi·ti,” “tyetye-ti,” frequently but irregularly repeated (stronger, shorter and slightly lower-pitched than “tyup” of Common Chaffinch; notes less evenly spaced than European Greenfinch [p. 434] but the same pitch; not as rhythmic as Redpoll [p. 450]). | Quiet, moderately short, quickly vibrating, ringing trill, “trrrrri.”

8 6 4 2 0

♀

♀

447

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FINCHES

Twite L 12·5–14 cm | W 22–24 cm SIZE Comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped; neck very short, nape thick. Head round; bill short ‘triangular’, merging with head profile. Wing relatively large; tip narrow, slightly rounded. Tail rather long, narrow, notched at tip. COLORATION Brown, buff and off-white. Face, neck and breast rather pale; warm ochre-buff, spotted and streaked brown. ABOVE: On upperwing, single pale, narrow wingbar; white edges to inner primaries, but seldom obvious as narrow pale panel on folded wing (panel usually apparent on Common Linnet [p. 446]). Pink rump on male often imperceptible. BELOW: Underwing pale. Weak contrast between whitish belly and darker breast. FLIGHT Strong, confident, fast (faster than Common Chaffinch [p. 416]; similar to Common Linnet but more winding). F-wave distinct, moderately short, high, irregular. Flapping phases very short; non-flapping intervals long. FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 50, rarely hundreds. Fairly dense (more so than Common Chaffinch flock but looser than Eurasian Siskin [p. 436]), coordinated; intra-flock movement considerable (but slower than Eurasian Siskin). Sometimes mingles with Snow Bunting [p. 480].

‘Brown’ finches compared p. 408

Linaria flavirostris Mainly diurnal migrant Common Linnet (p. 446) Redpoll (p. 450) Other small finches (p. 421)

448

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TWITE CALL Energetic, distinct but fairly quiet, short, impure, nasal, downslurred, chirped “chyu,” “chyaw,” “chyew,” sometimes purer “tyup” (like Common Chaffinch and on same pitch but shorter, more abrupt), often double “chiu-chi,” triple “chi-chiu-chet” or in quick series. | Variable, nasal, harsh, drawn-out, upslurred “pjjit,” “pzwi,” “pshwi,” sometimes purer “psui.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

449

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FINCHES

Redpoll ‘Common’ (or ‘Mealy’) Redpoll (north-eastern/northern subspecies flammea and rostrata), ‘Lesser’ Redpoll (western ssp. cabaret) and ‘Arctic’ Redpoll (subspecies hornemanni and exilipes) are treated in this book as a single species. L 11–14 cm | W 16–26 cm

‘Red-bodied’ finches compared p. 420

Acanthis flammea Diurnal migrant Other small finches (p. 421) ‘red-bodied’ finches (p. 420) ‘Common’ Redpoll (ssp . flammea)

SIZE Comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped; neck very short, nape thick.

Head relatively large, very rounded; bill small, ‘triangular’, merges with head profile. Wing broad, medium-length, rounded. Tail fairly long, narrow, deeply notched at tip. COLORATION ‘Common’ Redpoll: ABOVE: Brownish-grey, rump paler (whitish, buffish or pink); two narrow, pale buff wingbars but barely Redpoll noticeable. Small red cap usually imperceptible. BELOW: Off-white to grey, flanks streaked dark brown. Contrasting small black bib. On ♂, breast and rump pink. ‘Lesser’ Redpoll: Usually inseparable from ‘Common’ Redpoll but generally warmer brown. On ♂, breast and rump rosy-red (more extensive than on ‘Common’ Redpoll). ‘Arctic’ Redpoll: Obviously paler than ‘Common’ Redpoll. ABOVE: Mantle and scapulars buff or pale grey, striped dark. Rump pure white or white with pink tinge. Wingbars white (not buff) (more conspicuous than on ‘Common’ Redpoll). Face and neck off-white or pale buff. BELOW: Underbody, including flanks and undertail-coverts, white, (almost) unstreaked. Intermediates between ‘Arctic’ Redpoll and ‘Common’ Redpoll not uncommon. FLIGHT Fast, agile, winding. F-wave distinct, slightly irregular, moderately high, moderately long (shorter than Common Chaffinch [p. 416]). FLOCK ‘Common’/‘Lesser’ Redpoll: Usually 1–30, rarely up to 600, exceptionally a few thousand. Dense, often extended backwards, agile, coordinated (denser and faster than Common Chaffinch). Flock sometimes mingles with Eurasian Siskins [p. 436] and/or Common Chaffinches. ‘Arctic’ Redpoll: Usually 1–10, occasionally up to 40; often with ‘Common’ Redpolls.

CALL Energetic, distinct but quiet, rather soft, impure, short, rhythmical “di-chi,” “chi-chi-chi” or single “chi,”

first syllable usually markedly accented, frequently, irregularly repeated. | Nasal, slightly hissing whistle, an upslurred “chuwi,” “puuwi” or inflected “plwsi,” single, rarely repeated. | Fine, very quick trill, “bzrri,” single, rarely repeated. (‘Arctic’ Redpoll is not known to have any distinctive calls.)

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

450

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REDPOLL

Flight photos pp. 452–453

♂ ‘LESSER’ REDPOLL ssp . cabaret ‘COMMON’ REDPOLL ssp . flammea and ‘ARCTIC’ REDPOLL ssp . hornemanni

♂ ssp . hornemanni

♂ ssp . flammea

451

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FINCHES REDPOLL ssp. flammea and ssp. cabaret

452

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REDPOLL REDPOLL ssp. hornemanni unless indicated

ssp. flammea

453

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FINCHES

Coccothraustes coccothraustes

Hawfinch L 16·5–18 cm | W 29–33 cm

SIZE Body size comparable to Common Starling [p. 8]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, relatively short; neck short, thick. Head

very large; bill powerful, extremely deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing long, relatively narrow; tip narrow and blunt. Tail short, often slightly spread. COLORATION In all plumages: black, white and various shades of brown; strong contrasts on wings. ABOVE: Two distinct white patches on black upperwing: large patch along centre of outerwing; smaller patch on greater and median coverts. Tail black, broadly tipped white. BELOW: Underwing mostly white, with broad black trailing edge and tip and large black patch on outer primary bases (resembling a carpal patch). ♀ slightly greyer than ♂, white patterns somewhat less extensive. juvenile: head dull pale yellowish, nearly plain, eye conspicuous; underbody off-white, boldly spotted/barred black. FLIGHT Fast, energetic, slightly winding. F-wave fairly short, very slight, irregular. Flapping phases long; non-flapping intervals short. FLOCK Usually 1–4, sometimes up to 15, rarely up to 60. Extended transversely, slightly coordinated (like Common Chaffinch [p. 416]).

Mainly diurnal migrant Parrot Crossbill (p. 422) Red Crossbill (p. 422)

♂

♀

juvenile

454

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HAWFINCH CALL Very high-pitched (like Goldcrest [p. 282]), piercing “tziit,” single, repeated. | Very short, very strong,

explosive “pix,” “tix,” frequently, irregularly repeated – this call is variable, ranging from a jingling “piit,” through a hard, metallic ticking “tix” with audible “i” (very similar to European Robin [p. 362]) to a nonvocalic “tx” or double “t-tx” (like Corn Bunting [p. 458]). kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

455

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BUNTINGS

BUNTINGS Key identification features  calls  head pattern  rump colour  underbody colour

STRUCTURE & SHAPE: Bill deep-based, merging with head profile . Wing shorter than on finches (p. 408) . Tail rather long . Breeding males are readily identifiable in flight . Birds in female-type plumage (which in autumn includes immature and adult males) are barely separable or inseparable in very many cases . FLIGHT: Mostly direct and confident . F-wave distinct, rather slight, usually longer than in finches . CALLS: Uttered frequently and are diagnostic .

Corn Bunting (p. 458)

♂/♀

White-winged Snowfinch (p. 482)

♂/♀

Rock Bunting (p. 472)

♂

Snow Bunting (p. 480)

♂

♂

♂

♂

FIEP Prepress copy.indd 456

♀

Cirl Bunting (p. 464)

♀

♀

♂

Black-headed Bunting (p. 466)

♀

♂

456

Yellowhammer (p. 460)

♂

♂

Ortolan Bunting (p. 468)

♀

Yellow-breasted Bunting (p. 470)

♂

♂

Pine Bunting (p. 462)

Rustic Bunting (p. 473)

♀

Lapland Longspur (Bunting) (p. 478)

♀

Reed Bunting (p. 476)

♀

♂/♀ Little Bunting (p. 474)

Cretzschmar’s Bunting (p. 468)

♂

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BUNTINGS ♂/♀

♂

♂ Black-headed Bunting (p. 466)

Corn Bunting (p. 458)

♂

♂ Cirl Bunting (p. 464)

Yellowhammer (p. 460)

♂

Ortolan Bunting (p. 468)

♂

♂ Rustic Bunting (p. 473)

Pine Bunting (p. 462)

♀

Reed Bunting (p. 476)

♂

♂/♀ Yellow-breasted Bunting (p. 470) ♂/♀

Rock Bunting (p. 472)

non-breeding

Little Bunting (p. 474) ♂

♂

Lapland Longspur (Bunting) (p. 478) Yellow-breasted Bunting (p. 470)

Common Chaffinch (p. 416)

Species with a more or less rufous rump are on the left; those with a brown or brownish-grey rump on the right. Corn and Black-headed Buntings lack white in the tail. Colours of upperwing coverts are rarely appreciable. Cretzschmar’s Bunting (not illustrated) is very similar to Ortolan Bunting but has a grey to bluish-grey head. Note: Common Chaffinch is shown here for comparison

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BUNTINGS

Corn Bunting L 16–19 cm | W 26–32 cm SIZE Comparable to Eurasian Bullfinch [p. 432]; slightly larger than

Yellowhammer [p. 9], larger than House Sparrow [p. 9], smaller than Common Starling [p. 8].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body chunky, pot-bellied; neck short. Head large; bill short, very deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing broad-based (outerwing slightly broader than on Yellowhammer [p. 460]). Tail relatively long, narrow. COLORATION adult: brownish-grey cheek bordered below and behind with pale buff stripe. ABOVE: Upperparts almost uniform brownish-grey (pale fringes and dark streaking and spotting inconspicuous). No white on tail. BELOW: Underparts pale; underwing and underbody can appear white when lit, tail contrastingly dark; dark streaking on off-white breast shows very little contrast but sometimes dark spot on centre of breast. juvenile: paler (buff) above, strong contrast between blackish feather centres and creamy fringes; face pale warm buff, ear-coverts broadly bordered dark brown. FLIGHT Direct, strong, energetic, easy, fast. F-wave distinct, moderately long (shorter than Common Starling [p. 322]), medium-high. FLOCK Usually 1–2, sometimes up to 50. Moderately dense, usually extended transversely, regularly changing shape (agile and wavy), well coordinated; intra-flock movement moderate.

Buntings compared p. 456

Emberiza calandra Diurnal migrant Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Common Starling (p. 322) Other large buntings (female-type) (p. 456)

juvenile

458

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CORN BUNTING

Sparrows, ‘brown’ finches and buntings, etc. compared p. 408

CALL Extremely short, explosive, distinct but fairly quiet “pik,” “pk,” “pt” (sound reminiscent of a thin but

very hard stick being snapped), frequently repeated or in series (lower-pitched and more energetic than ticking of Hawfinch [p. 454]). | Almost toneless, harsh, hissing “tjjep,” double or triple “tjjep·jep·jep.” | Higher-pitched, ‘electric’-rasping ““pzriiip,” with distinctly vibrating “i.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

JUV . JUV . JUV .

459

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456 | ‘Yellow-green’ finches and Yellowhammer compared p. 421

Emberiza citrinella

Yellowhammer L 16–17 cm | W 23–29 cm

Diurnal migrant

SIZE Slightly larger than House Sparrow [p. 9]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded. Head rather large; bill small, short,

Pine Bunting (p. 462) Corn Bunting (p. 458) Cirl Bunting (p. 464)

deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing medium-length, broad-based; outerwing rather broad, tapered at tip. Tail narrow, relatively long. COLORATION Grey-and-brown with variable amount of yellow. Rump and uppertail-coverts rufous. adult: head yellow with dark patterning; underbody yellow with narrow grey-olive breast-band and rufous-blotched breast. Some immature ♀s lack yellow. juvenile: yellowish, boldly streaked dark beneath. ♀-type: often inseparable from Pine Bunting [p. 410] and Cirl Bunting [p. 464]. FLIGHT Direct, confident. F-wave distinct, long (longer than Common Chaffinch [p. 416], closer to Western Yellow Wagtail [p. 226]), rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 30, rarely more than 100. Loose, slightly coordinated.

♂

♂

♀ ♂

♀

460

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YELLOWHAMMER CALL Short, vibrating, harsh “tzip” or smoother “tsip,” “tip;” also double “tsi·vi,” frequently repeated. | Soft

rattling trill, usually descending at the beginning, “pi·r·r·r·r·ri,” or slower, “ti·ri·rit.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

461

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Emberiza leucocephalos

Pine Bunting L 16–17·5 cm | W 25–30 cm SIZE As Yellowhammer [p. 9]; slightly larger than House Sparrow

[p. 9].

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Yellowhammer (p. 460) Corn Bunting (p. 458)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE As Yellowhammer [p. 460]. Body rounded. Head rather large; bill small, short, deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing broad-based, outerwing rather broad, tapered at tip. Tail narrow, relatively long. COLORATION Grey-and-brown with variable amount of chestnut-red. Rump and uppertail-coverts chestnut-red (darker and more saturated than on Yellowhammer). In autumn and winter appears greyer. breeding ♂ head with contrasting white/black/deep red patterning, including white crown stripe and white stripe on cheek; lower part of throat also white. Breast and flanks boldly spotted chestnut-red. ♀-type: often inseparable from Yellowhammer. FLIGHT As Yellowhammer: direct, confident. F-wave distinct, long (longer than Common Chaffinch [p. 416], closer to Western Yellow Wagtail [p. 226]), rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 25; loose, slightly coordinated.

♂

♀

♂

♂

♀

462

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PINE BUNTING CALL As Yellowhammer: short, vibrating,

harsh “tzip” or smoother “tsip,” “tip;” also double “tsi·vi,” frequently repeated. | Soft rattling trill, usually descending at the beginning, “pi·r·r·r·r·ri,” or slower, “ti·ri·rit.”

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀

463

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Emberiza cirlus

Cirl Bunting L 16–16·5 cm | W 22–25 cm SIZE Body size as Yellowhammer [p. 9]; slightly larger than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded. Head rather large; bill small, short, deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing (shorter than on Yellowhammer [p. 460]) broad-based; outerwing rather broad, tapered at tip. Tail relatively long (but shorter than on Yellowhammer). COLORATION In all plumages, rump olive-grey, uppertail-coverts dull rufous; scapulars rufous. breeding ♂ ‘stripy’ face pattern: pale yellow supercilium and stripe on cheek, dark eyestripe and lower edge of earcoverts; black bib; yellow lower part of throat. Breast sides blotchy rufous, contrasting with pale yellow underbody. ♀-type: often inseparable from Yellowhammer. FLIGHT As Yellowhammer: direct, confident. F-wave distinct, long (longer than Common Chaffinch [p. 416], closer to Western Yellow Wagtail [p. 226]), rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 30, rarely more. Loose, slightly coordinated.

Diurnal migrant Yellowhammer (p. 460) Reed Bunting (p. 476)

♂

♂

♀ ♀

♂

464

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CIRL BUNTING CALL Very high-pitched, abrupt, extremely

short, clipped “tsip,” “sip” (like Song Thrush [p. 338] but softer; shorter and markedly higher-pitched than Yellowhammer), frequently repeated, sometimes in series. | Softly rattling trill, usually descending at the beginning “pi·r·r·r·r·ri” (higher-pitched and quicker than Yellowhammer).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

465

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Black-headed Bunting

Emberiza melanocephala

L 15·5–17·5 cm | W 20–23 cm SIZE Body size as Yellowhammer [p. 9]; slightly larger than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE More elongated than Yellowhammer [p. 460]; neck longer. Head medium-sized; bill medium-sized, deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing broad-based; outerwing rather broad, tapered at tip. Tail long (but shorter than on Yellowhammer). COLORATION Undertail-coverts bright yellow to pale yellow. Tail brownishgrey, no white. breeding ♂ upperparts rufous; rump rufous, or yellowish with rufous cast; black hood contrasting with yellow neck and throat; underparts bright yellow, sides of breast tinged rufous. ♀-type: sandybrown above, streaked dark; rump paler, almost unstreaked; face plain; side of neck paler than cheek and side of breast. FLIGHT Direct, confident. F-wave distinct, long, rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–10, sometimes up to 50. Loose, slightly coordinated.

Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Other buntings (p. 456) female-type: sparrows (p. 408)

♂

♂

♂

♀

466

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BLACK-HEADED BUNTING CALL Distinctive; very

low-pitched (slightly higher-pitched than “chek” of Eurasian Blackbird [p. 330]), almost toneless, harsh but rather soft “chut,” “chet,” repeated. | Other short chirps and clicks (vaguely reminiscent of Ortolan Bunting [p. 468]).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀

♀

467

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Emberiza hortulana Emberiza caesia

Ortolan Bunting Cretzschmar’s Bunting Two species practically inseparable in flight; breeding male distinguishing features are slight and seldom appreciable; female-type plumage inseparable.

Diurnal and nocturnal migrants Other buntings (p. 456)

L 14–16·5 cm | W 21–27 cm SIZE Body size as Yellowhammer [p. 9]; slightly larger than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded. Head rather large; bill small,

deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing (slightly shorter than on Yellowhammer [p. 460]) broad-based; outerwing rather broad, tapered at tip. Tail relatively long. COLORATION Ortolan Bunting: ABOVE: Rump pale brown, streaked dark. Tail black with grey-brown centre and two outermost feather pairs partly white (appears tricoloured). BELOW: Underbody rusty-buff, slight contrast with greenish-grey hood extending onto breast; pale yellow ‘moustache’ usually imperceptible. Undertail-coverts pale buff. ♀ duller than ♂, breast streaked dark. Cretzschmar’s Bunting: Only breeding ♂ distinguishable in flight: underbody rusty-buff, slight contrast with bluish-grey hood; ‘moustache’ rusty-buff, but usually imperceptible. FLIGHT Direct, confident. F-wave distinct, long, rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 20, rarely up to 50. Loose, slightly coordinated.

Ortolan Bunting

Cretzschmar's Bunting

♂

♂ ♀

♂ ♂ ORTOLAN CRETZSCHMAR'S

♂ 468

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ORTOLAN BUNTING | CRETZSCHMAR’S BUNTING CALL Ortolan Bunting: Short, flat “plik.” | Short, more ringing and energetic, rapidly upslurred “plük,” accented

in the middle, descending at end. | Slightly harsh chirp, “tyew.” | Short, descending whistle, “pyu” (like “tyup” of Common Chaffinch [p. 416] and of same pitch and length, but with fuller whistling quality of Eurasian Bullfinch [p. 432]). | Low-pitched, non-vocalic, wooden knocking, “kek.” | At night also utters “plik,” “tyew” and “pyu.” Cretzschmar’s Bunting: Explosive, rapidly descending “chiw,” “tzep.” | Mild “pit,” “plit” (similar to Ortolan Bunting). | Short “tzp,” “tsip,” “tip” (similar to Yellowhammer but no vibration, slightly shorter and lower-pitched), frequently repeated. kHz 10

kHz 10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0

CRETZSCHMAR'S BUNTING

ORTOLAN BUNTING

ALL ORTOLAN BUNTINGS (8) UNLESS INDICATED

CRETZSCHMAR'S BUNTING

469

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Yellow-breasted Bunting L 15 cm | W 20–22 cm SIZE Body size comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than

House Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact. Head large; bill small, deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing relatively small, broad-based; outerwing tapered, rounded. Tail moderately long. COLORATION Underparts pale yellow, streaked dark on flanks; undertailcoverts off-white. breeding ♂ upperparts, including rump, mostly rustyred; uppertail-coverts paler, browner; large oval white patch on upperwing (median and lesser coverts) (relatively larger than on Common Chaffinch [p. 416]); face black; rusty-red breast-band contrasting with yellow background. ♀-type: paler, sandy to brown-grey above; rump warmer rufous-brown; two white wingbars, one of even width on median coverts, the other much less distinct on greater coverts; face pale yellow with dark border around ear-coverts. FLIGHT Direct, confident, light (rather finch-like). F-wave distinct, moderately long, rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 20. Loose.

Emberiza aureola Diurnal and nocturnal migrant Other buntings (p. 456 Common Chaffinch (p. 416)

♀

♂

♂

♂

♀

470

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YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTING CALL Extremely short, high-pitched ticking

kHz 10

“tik,” repeated (similar to European Robin [p. 362] but sharp “i” much clearer).

8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♀/ NON-BREEDING UNLESS INDICATED

♂ ♂

♂

♂

imm.

juv.

471

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Emberiza cia

Rock Bunting L 16 cm | W 20–27 cm

Diurnal migrant

SIZE Body size as Yellowhammer [p. 9]; slightly larger than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

Other buntings (p. 456)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body rounded. Head rather large; bill medium-sized, deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing shorter than on Yellowhammer [p. 460]; broad-based; outerwing broad, slightly rounded. Tail relatively longer than on Yellowhammer. COLORATION No yellow. Rump rufous. Underbody mostly rufous to pale rufous. Underwing coverts white. Tail black with grey-brown centre and two outermost feather pairs partly white (appears tricoloured). breeding ♂ grey bib extends onto upper breast; contrasting face pattern, with black lateral crown stripe, eyestripe and long ‘moustache’, and pale grey supercilium, cheek and throat. ♀-type: similar to breeding male, less contrasted, grey colour suffused brown. FLIGHT Direct, confident. F-wave distinct, long, rather slight, regular (as Yellowhammer). FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 20. Loose, slightly coordinated. CALL Very high-pitched, short, smooth, falling “tsip,” “sip,”

frequently repeated (same pitch as Song Thrush [p. 338], same length as Yellowhammer). | High-pitched, distinct, short, sharp, markedly downslurred “tzit,” “zit,” accented at the beginning, single, repeated (same pitch as Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂

♂

♂

♀

472

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ROCK BUNTING | RUSTIC BUNTING

Flight photos p. 475

Emberiza rustica

Rustic Bunting L 13–14·5 cm | W 20–24 cm

Nocturnal migrant

SIZE Body size comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than

House Sparrow [p. 9].

Reed Bunting (p. 476) Little Bunting (p. 474) Other small buntings (p. 456)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped. Head large; bill small, deepbased, merging with head profile. Wing relatively small, broad-based; outerwing tapered, rounded. Tail moderately long. COLORATION In all plumages, rump and uppertail-coverts rusty-red (on ♂) to chestnut (on ♀). Tail black with grey-brown centre and two outermost feather pairs partly white (appears tricoloured). breeding ♂ upperparts mostly rusty-red; head black-and-white, with broad white supercilium and white chin and throat. Underparts white, breast and flanks with contrasting bold, rusty-red to chestnut streaking. FLIGHT Direct, confident (rather sparrow-like [p. 408]). F-wave distinct, fairly short, rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 25. Loose.

CALL High-pitched, quiet but very distinct, abrupt, extremely short,

clipped “tsit,” “tsik,” “it” (similar to Song Thrush [p. 338] but often lower-pitched, same pitch as Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; very similar to Little Bunting [p. 474] (analysis of sonogram recommended)).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

♂

♂

♀ ♂

♀

473

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Emberiza pusilla

Little Bunting L 12–13·5 cm | W 18–20 cm SIZE Body size comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; smaller than

House Sparrow [p. 9].

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body compact. Head large; bill small, deep-based, merging with head profile. Wing broad-based, outerwing rather broad, rounded. Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts grey-and-brown; rump brownish-grey, streaked dark. Face rufous. BELOW: Underparts white to off-white, breast and flanks streaked black. FLIGHT Direct, confident, light (rather finch-like). F-wave distinct, moderately long, rather slight, regular. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 10. Loose.

CALL High-pitched, quiet but very distinct,

abrupt, extremely short, clipped “tsit,” “tsik,” “it” (similar to Song Thrush [p. 338] but often lower-pitched and ascending rather than descending, same pitch as Eurasian Blue Tit [p. 168]; very similar to Rustic Bunting [p. 473], (analysis of sonogram recommended)).

Nocturnal migrant Rustic Bunting (p. 473) Other small buntings (p. 456)

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

474

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LITTLE BUNTING | ROCK BUNTING | RUSTIC BUNTING ROCK BUNTING

RUSTIC BUNTING

LITTLE BUNTING

475

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Emberiza schoeniclus

Reed Bunting L 14–16 cm | W 21–28 cm SIZE Geographically variable. Northern and western birds smallest,

smaller than House Sparrow [p. 9], body size comparable to European Goldfinch [p. 9]; southern and eastern birds largest, slightly larger than House Sparrow, body size as Yellowhammer [p. 9].

Diurnal migrant Rustic Bunting (p. 473) Cirl Bunting (p. 464) Other buntings (p. 456)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body barrel-shaped; neck short. Head medium-sized; bill small. Wing short; outerwing broad, blunt. Tail relatively long. COLORATION Upperparts mainly brown, lesser coverts rufous; buff ‘braces’ on mantle. Rump brownish-grey, diffusely spotted brown. Tail black with grey-brown centre and two outermost feather pairs partly white (appears tricoloured). breeding ♂ head black with contrasting white ‘moustache’ and white neck side. ♀-type: mostly brown above, striped black and buff; cheek brown; pale ‘vertical’ stripe on side of neck often distinct; supercilium broad, whitish to buff; throat white to buff, edged blackish. FLIGHT On migration, slow, slightly whirring, somewhat hesitant (faster and less nervous than Meadow Pipit [p. 212]). In short flights more uncertain and awkward (more like Meadow Pipit). F-wave short, irregular. FLOCK Usually 1–3, sometimes up to 15, rarely up to 60, exceptionally up to 150; in winter, 50–60. Loose, extended backwards, slightly coordinated (flies more slowly than finches).

♂

♂

♀

♀

476

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Sparrows, ‘brown’ finches and buntings, etc. compared p. 408

REED BUNTING

CALL High-pitched, slightly drawn-out, markedly descending, smooth whistle, “dsii,” “ssiy,” single, repeated irregularly (calls of Eurasian Penduline-tit [p. 180] similar but always higher-pitched and much longer than most calls of Reed Bunting; (the two species often occur together)). | Lower-pitched, moderately short, slightly harsh, vibrating, upslurred “wzi.” | The same quality but downslurred “pzü.” kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0 ALL ♀ -TYPE UNLESS INDICATED

♂

♂

♂

♂

♂

477

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Lapland Longspur (Bunting) L 15–16 cm | W 24–27 cm SIZE Body size as Yellowhammer [p. 9]; slightly larger than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

Calcarius lapponicus Diurnal and nocturnal migrant

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body bulky, barrel-shaped; neck short. Head rounded; bill short, ‘triangular’. Wing long (but markedly shorter than Eurasian Skylark [p. 188]); outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail medium-length. COLORATION ABOVE: Upperparts grey-and-brown, spotted and streaked dark; two narrow white wingbars, greater coverts warm brown often giving overall impression of a broad, rufous bar between two white lines. BELOW: Underparts mostly white; underwing coverts greyish and white. breeding ♂ rufous nape; black crown, face and bib; broad, pale supercilium; neck side white; strong contrast between white underbody and black breast sides. ♀-type: head pattern less distinct than on breeding male; pale ‘vertical’ stripe on neck side often apparent. juvenile: similar to young Emberiza buntings [pp. 458–476], breast off-white, streaked dark. FLIGHT Strong, easy, fast, confident (often lark-like [p. 186]). F-wave long, rather slight, somewhat irregular. Wingbeats rapid. Flapping phases variable. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 30, rarely up to 130. Occasionally in mixed flock with Snow Bunting [p. 480], very occasionally with Eurasian Skylark.

Eurasian Skylark (p. 188) Reed Bunting (p. 476) Other buntings (p. 456)

♀

♂

nOn-breeding

♂ nOn-breeding

juvenile

♂

juvenile

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LAPLAND LONGSPUR

Sparrows, ‘brown’ finches and buntings, etc. compared p. 408 CALL Variable, dry rattling “ti·ri·tek,”

“tr·ri·re·re·tek,” “ti·ri·ri·rip,” repeated irregularly; “i” is very brief and often only audible at close range; at long distance more like “t·r·r·rp” (higher and drier than Snow Bunting trill). | Tranquil, smooth, falling whistle, “piu,” “pyu,” “tuy” (somewhat reminiscent of Eurasian Bullfinch [p. 432] but more variable and usually higherpitched; similar to Snow Bunting whistle but more energetic). | High-pitched, nasal, downslurred, short, chirping “tyi,” “tji,” “tjip,” usually in slow series “tji—tji—tji—tji…;” also uttered at night.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♀/ NON-BREEDING UNLESS INDICATED

♂ ♂

♂

♂

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

Plectrophenax nivalis

Snow Bunting L 15·5–18 cm | W 32–38 cm SIZE Slightly larger than Yellowhammer [p. 9]; larger than House

Sparrow [p. 9].

Mainly nocturnal migrant White-winged Snowfinch (p. 482) Lapland Longspur (p. 478)

STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body large, barrel-shaped. Head moderately large, round; bill short, deep. Wing long, broad-based; outerwing tapered, tip narrow. Tail fairly short, notched. COLORATION Brown, black and white; flying flock shows distinctive white ‘flickering’. ABOVE: On ♂, lesser coverts white; on ♀ dark grey, fringed white. The amount of white on upperwing often allows sexing and ageing of a bird in flight. Rump pale brown. Black centre of uppertail broad (narrow on White-winged Snowfinch [p. 482]). BELOW: Underwing tip dark: on ♂ black, demarcation straight and clear-cut; on ♀ tip dark grey, demarcation line arched and blurred. Black underwing patch ‘triangular’ (‘diamond’shaped on White-winged Snowfinch). FLIGHT Strong, direct, confident (reminiscent of a lark [p. 186] due to large wings). F-wave distinct, long, rather slight. Flapping phases rather short; non-flapping intervals long. FLOCK Usually 1–8, sometimes up to 30, rarely up to 120, exceptionally up to 5,000. Loose (similar to Yellowhammer [p. 460], looser than Common Chaffinch [p. 416]). Rarely in mixed flocks with Twite [p. 448], Lapland Longspur [p. 478] or Horned (Shore) Lark [p. 204].

adult ♂

immature ♂

adult ♀

♀

immature ♀

♂

adult ♂

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SNOW BUNTING CALL Rather low-pitched, hard, fast, short, rippling trill, “ti·ri·ri·ri·ri,” “di·di·di·di,” repeated (same rhythm as

Crested Tit [p. 178] and a similar pitch, but sounds purer; lower and softer than Lapland Longspur). | Moderately short, gently descending whistle, “tyi,” repeated (like Reed Bunting [p. 476] but lower-pitched; similar to Lapland Longspur whistle but softer and less energetic). | When about to land, ‘electric’-buzzing, even-pitched “pjje” (similar to Collared Sand Martin [p. 118] but much softer, not so rasping and toneless).

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0 ALL ♂ NON-BREEDING UNLESS INDICATED

♀

♀ / imm.

♀

♂ BREEDING

♀

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BUNTINGS

Buntings compared p. 456

White-winged Snowfinch L 17–18 cm | W 30–34 cm SIZE Comparable to Eurasian Skylark [p. 8]; slightly larger than Snow

Montifringilla nivalis Diurnal migrant

Snow Bunting (p. 480) Bunting [p. 480], larger than House Sparrow [p. 9] or Common Chaffinch [p. 416]. STRUCTURE & SHAPE Body stocky, elongated. Head rather small; bill medium-sized, conical, merging with head profile. Wing very large, long, broad-based, markedly tapered; tip slightly pointed. Tail relatively long and broad. Overall shape finch-like but wings larger. COLORATION Body brown, grey and off-white; flying flock shows distinctive white ‘flickering’. ABOVE: Wings black-and-white. Rump dark brown, merging with narrow black central stripe on tail. Tail sides extensively white, narrow black terminal band. Base of upperwing white from leading to trailing edge. BELOW: Black underwing patch ‘diamond’shaped (‘triangular’ on Snow Bunting). Underbody off-white to white, grey tips to undertail-coverts. FLIGHT Direct, strong, fast. F-wave distinct, long. FLOCK Usually 1–5, sometimes up to 30; in winter up to some hundreds. Rather dense, compact, coordinated.

adult ♂

juvenile

immature ♀

immature ♂

adult ♀

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WHITE-WINGED SNOWFINCH CALL High-pitched, extremely harsh, shrill

“zzzzip,” “ziik,” “zik” (duration variable), repeated or in series; nasal. Rasping scream, “tshrre,” “hreae” (imagine the scream of an undersized Eurasian Jay), repeated or in series. | Various other short chirps and tweets.

kHz 10 8 6 4 2 0

ALL ♂ UNLESS INDICATED

♀

♀

♀

♀

ssp . alpicola

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Sources of further information Reference books Bergmann, H-H., Helb, H-W. & Baumann, S. 2008. Die Stimmen der Vögel Europas. AULAVerlag GmbH. Constantine, M. and The Sound Approach. 2006. The Sound Approach to Birding: A Guide to Understanding Bird Sound. The Sound Approach. Hume, R., Still, R., Swash, A. & Harrop, H. 2021. Europe’s Birds: An Identification Guide. Princeton WILDGuides. Keller, V., Herrando, S., Voříšek, P., Franch,, M., Kipson M., Milanesi, P., Martí, D., Anton, M., Klvaňová, A., Kalyakin,, M.V., Bauer, H-G. & Foppen, R.P.B. 2020. European Breeding Bird Atlas 2: Distribution, Abundance and Change. EBCC and Lynx Edicions Molodovsky, A.V. 1997. Keys for identification of flock birds in nature. Nizhny Novgorod University (in Russian). Shirihai, H. & Svensson, L. 2018. Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds: Passerines. Helm. Videler, J.J. (2005). Avian Flight. Oxford University Press Relevant papers Rayner, J.M.V. 1985. Bounding and Undulating Flight in Birds. J. Theor. Biol. 117, 47–77 Tobalske, B.W., Hearn, J.W.D. and Warrick, D.R. 2009. Aerodynamics of intermittent bounds in flying birds. Exp. Fluids 46, 963–973. Tobalske, B.W. 2016. Avian Flight. In Fitzpatrick, Koenig, Lovette and Winkler (Eds.), Handbook of Bird Biology, 3rd edition. Blackwell. Tobalske, B.W., Hearn, J.S. and Warrick, D.R. 2010. Aerodynamics of intermittent bounds in flying birds. 2010. Ed(s): Graham K. Taylor, Michael S. Triantafyllou and Cameron Tropea, Collection: Animal Locomotion, The Physics of Flying, The Hydrodynamics of Swimming. SpringerVerlag, Berlin Tobalske, B.W. 2007. Biomechanics of bird flight. J. Exp. Biol. 210, 3135–3146. Tobalske, B.W., Dial K.P. 1996. Flight kinematics of black-billed magpies and pigeons over a wide range of speeds. J. Exp. Biol. 199, 263–280 Tobalske, B.W. 1995. Neuromuscular control and kinematics of intermittent flight in the European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). J. Exp. Biol. 198, 1259–1273 Tobalske, B.W. 2001. Morphology, Velocity, and Intermittent Flight in Birds. AMER. ZOOL., 41:177–187 Tobalske, B.W. 2010. Hovering and intermittent flight in birds. Bioinsp. Biomim. 5. 045004 (10pp) Other papers on bird flight by Bret W.Tobalske listed at: https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Bret-W-Tobalske-39755436

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FURTHER INFORMATION

Online resources

Companion volume

Flight identification birds-in-flight.net Details of identification blascozumeta.com/species-files/ anillamiento.net/guia/ ringersdigiguide.ottenby.se Sounds dutchbirding.nl/soundgallery ebird.org soundapproach.co.uk xeno-canto.org Bird photos birdguides.com clanga.com dutchbirding.nl/gallery netfugl.dk north.eurasia.birds.watch tarsiger.com trakus.org trektellen.nl/photo General bird photography birdphoto.fi birdpix.nl flickr.com pbase.com

Flight Identification of European Passerines and Select Landbirds has been designed to provide information about those features that can be observed on a flying bird, and associated flight calls. As such, any plumage details that are not readily discernible in flight, or other vocalizations, are not covered in this book. Readers who want a comprehensive field guide covering the identification of all the birds of the region might consider Europe’s Birds: An identification guide. Detailed descriptions provide the information necessary to identify the birds of Europe in all their plumages—male, female, breeding, non-breeding, adult and immatures, as well as distinctive subspecies—yet the book is easy-to-use, practical and accessible. The authors include top-class wildlife photographers, writers and editors, and an imaginative, highly skilled designer. All are experienced birdwatchers themselves, who know what is needed and what is useful in an identification guide for birdwatchers living or travelling in Europe. ● Covers all 916 species ever recorded in Europe, including established introductions ● Describes all distinctive plumages and subspecies ●

●

Provides details of vocalizations, flight action and favoured habitats Features more than 3,800 photographs, including comparison pages of birds in flight, cross-referenced to Flight Identification of European Passerines and Select Landbirds where relevant.

press.princeton.edu

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Acknowledgements and credits Many people have contributed, directly or indirectly, to the production of this book since its inception over six years ago, and my sincere thanks go to everyone who has influenced the final product. I would particularly like to acknowledge the immeasurable efforts from the team at WILDGuides, especially Andy Swash and Rob Still, without whom this book would not have come to fruition. Andy’s involvement in managing the project since the outset, including editing the text and preparing the photographic credits, sourcing and collating missing images and vocalizations, and generally keeping me on track in such a professional manner is very greatly appreciated. Rob’s graphic design skills are clearly second to none when it comes to laying out a book such as this, the result of which is an order of magnitude better than I had ever imagined was possible; his seemingly magical ability to be able to merge many photos and create truly artistic plates is quite remarkable. I would also like to thank Agnieszka Ożarowska and especially Gill Swash and Rob Hume for their major contributions in correcting and copy editing the text at an early stage, and Brian Clews for his help and support in sourcing many of the images. Robert Kirk’s continued encouragement throughout this lengthy project, as Publisher, Field Guides & Natural History, at Princeton University Press, is also gratefully acknowledged. At a more personal level, I am infinitely grateful to my wife Jadwiga for her unwavering patience and support, and my sons Mateusz, Grzegorz and Andrzej for their ongoing contributions and invaluable advice. My mentor and former boss, Professor Przemysław Busse, who has an unsurpassed knowledge of birds, provided much inspiration over many years. Grateful thanks are due to him and also to Michał Goc, Wojciech Kania, Marek Keller, Beata Michno, Czesław Nitecki and Andrzej Petryna for teaching me so much about birds. Thanks are also due to Jan Lontkowski, Tadeusz Stawarczyk, Vladimir A. Payevsky and Pavel S. Tomkovich for help with, or facilitating, my studies of museum collections, and Paweł Szymański, Tomasz Tumiel, Arkadiusz Szymura and Zenon Lewartowski for their helpful advice on flight calls. I would also like to thank the following institutions and organizations for providing the opportunity for me to collect data for this book while participating in their activities, in most cases generously helping to finance my living and travel expenses: the Bird Migration Research Station at the University of Gdańsk and the SE European Bird Migration Network (SEEN) (both thanks to Prof. Przemysław Busse), the Polish Society for the Protection of Birds (OTOP) (thanks to Bogna Błaszkowska), the KuzeyDoga Society (KuzeyDoğa Derneği) (thanks to Çağan Hakkı Şekercioğlu, Kayahan Ağırkaya and Emrah Çoban) and the tour company Bird Service (thanks to Maciej Zimowski). Sound recording credits Sound recordings of 44 species’ calls have kindly been provided by the following: Krzysztof Deoniziak, Zbigniew Kajzer, Konrad Leniowski, Paweł Malczyk, Jarek Matusiak, Yann Muzika, Michał Polakowski, Waldemar Półtorak, Arkadiusz Sikora, Marcin Sołowiej, Piotr Szczypiński, Paweł Szymański and Tomasz Tumiel. Photographic credits A very considerable proportion (actually just over one-third) of the photos in this book were taken by the principal photographer Michał Skakuj (851 of the 2,488 photos that are featured), to whom I would like to express my gratitude. The remainder were obtained from various sources, and the extensive coverage of most of the species is due to the generous support of the 189 other photographers who kindly supplied images: thanks are due to them all. Collating these photos proved to be a monumental task and I would particularly like to express my thanks to Marc Guyt at the Agami photo agency in the Netherlands (agami.nl) for his invaluable help in this process. Many photographers generously provided access to their entire portfolio of images and their work is featured extensively throughout the book. I would especially like to mention the contributions made by the following, each of whom provided more than 30 photos: in descending order, Marc Guyt (agami.nl), Helge Sørensen (agami.nl), Wojciech Guzik, Andy & Gill Swash (worldwildlifeimages.com), the late David Kjaer (who specifically requested that his portfolio of excellent photos be put to good use in the project), Rauli Pudas (flopshots.1g.fi), Ran Schols (agami. nl), Jan Lontkowski, Zbigniew Kajzer, Markus Varesvuo (facebook.com/markus.varesvuo), Daniele Occhiato (agami.nl), Stephen A. Daly (flickr.com/photos/sdaly), Dani López-Velasco (agami.nl) and Michał Polakowski. I would also like to express my gratitude to Fetmi Yıldız, Fatih Yıldız and Ayşe Ünal, who kindly went to the trouble of taking photos specifically for this book. 486

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PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS Each of the contributing photographers is listed below, in alphabetical order by surname, together with the photographer’s initials [in square brackets] that is used when referring to their images, and the total number of their images selected. Photos sourced via Agami (agami.nl) are indicated with A after the photographer’s initials: A Dave Andrews [DA] (2); Luis Mario Arce [LMA] (1); Rafael Armada [RAA] (10); B Ferit Başbuğ [FB] (1); Bill Baston [BBA] (1); Roy & Marie Battell (moorhen.me.uk) [R&MB] (1); Martin Bennett [MBe] (5); Tobias Berger [TB] (1); Joachim Bertrands (flickr.com/ photos/141891542@N04) [JBe] (4); Anders Blomdahl (andersblomdahl.se) [AB] (11); Valerii Bogdanovich [VB] (3); Bas van den Boogard [BvdBA] (1); Herman Bouman (flickr.com/ photos/birdaddict) [HBoum] (2); Martijn Bot [MBo] (1); Han Bouwmeester [HBouwA] (2); Neil Brimacombe (flickr.com/photos/neilb0147) [NBri] (2); Monika Broniszewska [MBro] (1); Nick Brown (flickr.com/photos/suffolkbirder) [NBro] (1); Mika Bruun [MBru] (6); Andreas Bruun Kristensen [ABK] (1); Jonas Buddemeier [JBu] (3); C Sampsa Cairenius [SC] (1); Oscar Campbell [OC] (1); Keith Chapman [KC] (1); Roger & Liz Charlwood (worldwildlifeimages.com) [R&LC] (4); Tomasz Chodkiewicz [TCh] (2); Trevor Codlin [TCo] (2); Mateusz Cofta [MCo] (22); David Cooper [DC] (14); Nick Croft [NC] (5); Murat Çuhadaroğlu [MÇu] (1); D Stephen A. Daly (flickr.com/photos/sdaly) [SAD] (46); Mitra Daneshvar [MDane] (1); Mike Danzenbaker [MDanzA] (3); Greg & Yvonne Dean (worldwildlifeimages.com) [G&YD] (20); Berkan Demir [BD] (3); Jaap Denee [JDA] (1); Oscar Díez [ODA] (1); Dmitry Dubikovskiy [DD] (7); E Kari Eischer [KEA] (21); Richard Ek (pbase.com/eken) [RE] (1); Erik Etienne [EE] (1); F Marcin Faber [MF] (3); Efi First (pbase.com/efifirst) [EF] (3); Dick Forsman [DFA] (10); Alain Fouclet [AF] (4); Paul French (nomadbirder.com) [PF] (3); G Steve Gantlett [SGanA] (1); Peter Garrity [PG] (1); Saverio Gatto [SGatA] (1); George Gay [GGa] (1); Hans Gebuis [HGA] (23); Alain Ghignone [AGA] (7); Gediminas Gražulevičius [GGr] (2); Kevin Groocock [KG] (1); Boris Gubin [BG] (2); Çağlar Güngör [ÇG] (1); Graeme Guy (malaysianwildlifephotography.blogspot.com) [GGu] (3); Marc Guyt [MGA] (133); Wojciech Guzik [WG] (101); H Roy de Haas [RdHA] (1); Stefan Hage [SHag] (3); Thomas Hallfarth [TH] (1); Gunilla Hammarström (pbase.com/nillakajsa) [GH] (1); Hugh Harrop [HH] (27); Stanislav Harvančík [SHar] (3); John Hawkins [JH] (1); Alexandre Hespanhol Leitão [AHL] (3); Steven Hueting [SHu] (1); William Hunt [WH] (2); I Askar Isabekov [AI] (12); Vadim Ivushkin [VI] (7); J Toy Janssen (globalbirding.com) [TJ] (1); Ayuwat Jearwattanakanok [AJe] (9); Josh Jones [JJA] (3); Kev Joynes [KJ] (1); Arto Juvonen [AJuA] (13); K Grzegorz Kaczorowski [GK] (4); Aisagali Kadirov [AKad] (2); Zbigniew Kajzer [ZK] (55); Ahmet Karataş [AKar] (3); Alexandr Katuncev [AKat] (1); Derek Keats [DKe] (1); Özcan Kılıç [ÖK] (1); David Kjaer [DKj] (63); Ron Knight [RK] (1); Yuriy Kodrul [YK] (1); L Mike Lane (nature-photography.co.uk) [ML] (3); Jim Lawrence [JLa] (1); Vincent Legrand [VLA] (13); Wil Leurs [WLA] (1); Anton Liebermann [ALie] (3); Tom Lindroos [TL] (3); Andrew Lipczynski [ALip] (2); Jan Lontkowski [JLo] (57); Dani López-Velasco [DLVA] (42); M Paweł Malczyk [PMa] (2); Klaus Malling Olsen [KMO] (1); Ronald Marshall [RMars] (1); Ralph Martin [RMartA] (27); T. I. Mathew [TIM] (1); Mateusz Matysiak [MMa] (15); Michael McKee (michaelmckee.co.uk) [MMc] (6); Rossa Meade [RMea] (3); Arnold Meijer [AMA] (1); Tim Melling (flickr.com/photos/timmelling) [TMe] (1); Roberto Menéndez [RMenA] (3); Wilco Minten (wmnatuurfotografie.nl) [WM] (1); Peter Moore [PMoo] (1); Denzil Morgan (facebook.com/ Denzil-Morgan-Photography-786259851389520) [DM] (1); Pete Morris [PMorA] (5); Mårten Müller (pbase.com/m_muller) [MMü] (5); Tomi Muukkonen [TMuA] (30); N Rama Neelamegam [RN] (2); Grzegorz Neubauer [GN] (1); Mark Newsome (flickr.com/ photos/135328644@N03) [MNe] (4); Uwe Nielitz [UN] (2); Malik Nukusbekov [MNu] (4); O Daniele Occhiato [DOA] (47); Astrid Oehl [AOe] (4); János Oláh (sakertour.com) [JO] (1); Silas K.K. Olofson [SKKO] (2); Leif Høgh Olsen [LHO] (2); Arie Ouwerkerk [AOuA] (1); P Jaysukh Parekh-Suman [JPS] (1); Martin D. Parr [MDP] (1); Frédéric Pelsy [FP] (1); Jari Peltomäki [JPelA] (4); Joe Pender (wwwsapphirepelagics.blogspot.com) [JPen] (1); Michał Polakowski [MPo] (31); Rene Pop [RPoA] (1); Rauli Pudas (flopshots.1g.fi) [RPu] (61); Mathias Putze [MPu] (7); R Markku Rantala [MRA] (26); Alexander Rogal [AR] (2); Konstantin V. Romanov [KVR] (6); S Juan Sagardia Pradera [JSP] (1); Gauvain Saucy [GSa] (5); Thijs Schipper [TS] (1); Ran Schols 487

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PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS

T U V

W Y Z

[RScA] (60); Wolfram Schulze [WS] (1); Reint Jakob Schut [RJSA] (1); Imran Shah [IS] (1); Dubi Shapiro [DSA] (1); Gábor Simay [GSi] (1); Amar Singh HSS [ASHSS] (3); Michał Skakuj [MS] (851); Raymond De Smet (pbase.com/raydes) [RDS] (1); Marcin Sołowiej [MSo] (5); Song Yingtao (lonelyshrimp) [SY] (1); Helge Sørensen [HSA] (112); Giuseppe Speranza [GSp] (3); Laurens Steijn [LSA] (13); Johan Stenlund [JS] (1); Paul Steward (flickr.com/photos/paul-steward) [PSt] (1); Emanuele Stival [ES] (2); Richard Stonier (birdsonline.co.uk) [RSt] (1); Andy & Gill Swash (worldwildlifeimages.com) [A&GS] (86); Maciej Szymański [MSz] (1); Paweł Szymański [PSz] (2); Tim Taylor (wildimaging.co.uk) [TTa] (1); David Tipling (birdphoto.co.uk) [DT] (6); Ralph Todd [RT] (2); Paul Tomlinson (paulrichardtomlinson.co.uk) [PT] (1); Terry Townsend [TTo] (1); Jeremiah Trimble [JT] (2); Ayşe Ünal [AÜ] (3); José Ignacio Valdenebro Rubio (docnatureblog.blogspot.com) [JIVR] (7); Harvey van Diek [HvDA] (9); Menno van Duijn [MvDA] (1); Chris van Rijswijk [CvRA] (1); Rene van Rossum [RvR] (1); Markus Varesvuo (facebook.com/markus.varesvuo) [MV] (54); Vasily Vishnevskiy / Shutterstock [VV] (1); Fred Visscher [FVA] (5); Arend Wassink [AWaA] (1); Alexander Weis [AWe] (1); Paul Wilson [PW] (1); Edwin Winkel [EWA] (20); Jakub Wyka [JW] (3); Adem Yağız [AY] (1); Fetmi Yıldız [FeY] (17); Faith Yıldız [FaY] (5); Vyacheslav Zametnya [VZ] (1); and Piotr Zientek [PZ] (8).

Four images are featured under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic license. These are indicated by “/CC” after the photographer’s initials in the list. Given the large number of photos on many of the plates, and the desire to maintain their overall visual effectiveness by minimizing distractions, each individual image has not been specifically coded. The following schedule therefore provides a summary for each page of the number of photos (if more than one) taken by the contributing photographer(s), as far as practicable listed in the order the images appear from the top of the page down, and left to right. I believe this is the most pragmatic solution to ensuring the photographers are duly credited, although a detailed inventory of all the images included in the book is available on request. INTRODUCTION (flocks)  p24: Common Swift [A&GS]. Barn Swallow [VV]. Eurasian Jackdaw [HH]. Redwing [HGA]. Common Woodpigeons and Stock Doves [A&GS]. p25: Eurasian Skylark [MGA]. European Goldfinch [TMuA]. Red Crossbill [DT]. Common Linnet [MV]. Common Starling [A&GS]. PIGEONS and DOVES  p44: Rock Dove [DKj]. p45: Rock Dove [A&GS (4)], [HH], [MGA], [MDanzA], [MV], [GGa]. p46: Stock Dove [A&GS]. p47: Stock Dove [MS (10)], [MV]. p48: Common Woodpigeon [DKj]. p49: Common Woodpigeon [MS (15)], [DKj (4)]. p50: Eurasian Collared-dove [A&GS]. p51: Eurasian Collared-dove [MCo (4)], [JLo (2)], [WG], [MV]. p52: European Turtle-dove [DKj]. p53: European Turtle-dove [WG (6)], [MS (3)], [JLo (2)], [RScA (2)], [RPu (2)], [SAD], [DOA]. p54: Oriental Turtledove [HH]. p55: Oriental Turtle-dove [MGA (3)], [RScA (2)], [ASHSS]. p56: Laughing Dove [A&GS]. p57: Laughing Dove [MGA (5)], [A&GS], [RPu], [RDS]. CUCKOOS, PARAKEET, HOOPOES, BEE-EATERS, ROLLER and KINGFISHERS  p58: Common Cuckoo [DKj]. p59: Common Cuckoo [MS (8)], [JLo (2)], [HSA (2)], [MCo]. p60: Great Spotted Cuckoo [DKj]. p61: Great Spotted Cuckoo [DLVA (6)], [A&GS (3)], [JLo], [SHar], [MDP]. p62: Rose-ringed Parakeet [A&GS]. p63: Rose-ringed Parakeet [ASHSS (2)], [RPu (2)], [DOA], [KC], [DT]. p64: Common Hoopoe [A&GS]. p65: Common Hoopoe [WG (4)], [MS], [DOA], [BD]. p66: European Bee-eater [DKj]. p67: European Bee-eater [MV (3)], [DOA (2)], [A&GS], [JLo], [MMa]. p68: Blue-cheeked Bee-eater [G&YD]. p69: Blue-cheeked Bee-eater [MCo (10)], [TCo], [VLA]. p70: European Roller [A&GS]. p71: European Roller [A&GS (8)], [MV (3)], [MMa], [DLVA], [AWaA]. p72: Common Kingfisher [DKj]. p73: Common Kingfisher [MS (5)], [HBouwA], [EWA], [MCo], [MvDA], [JPelA], [HSA]. p74: White-breasted Kingfisher [EF]. p75: White-breasted Kingfisher [GGu (3)], [HBouwA], [EF]. p76: Pied Kingfisher [A&GS]. p77: Pied Kingfisher [RPu (4)], [RMartA], [A&GS], [PMorA]. WOODPECKERS and ORIOLE  p80: Great Spotted Woodpecker [DKj]. Syrian Woodpecker [RMartA]. p81: Great Spotted Woodpecker [MS (13)], [HSA]. Syrian Woodpecker [MGA (2)], [RScA (2)], [SAD], [SC]. p82: Middle Spotted Woodpecker [G&YD]. p83: Middle Spotted Woodpecker [MS (11)]. p84: White-backed Woodpecker [MV]. p85: White-backed Woodpecker [MRA (3)], [RPu], [MMa], [JO], [DFA]. p86: Lesser Spotted Woodpecker [MV]. p87: Lesser Spotted Woodpecker [HvDA (3)], [HSA (3)]. p88: Three-toed Woodpecker [G&YD]. p89: Three-toed Woodpecker [DFA (3)], [TMuA (3)], [RPu], 488

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PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS Woodpecker [MV]. p93: Grey-faced Woodpecker [AJuA (2)], [MV], [TMuA], [MRA]. p94: Eurasian Green Woodpecker [MBe]. p95: Eurasian Green Woodpecker [RScA (4)], [HvDA (2)], [R&MB]. p96: Eurasian Golden Oriole [MV]. p97: Eurasian Golden Oriole [MS (8)], [HSA (4)], [WG (2)], [MRA], [MGA]. SWIFTS, SWALLOWS and MARTINS  p100: Common Swift [A&GS]. p101: Common Swift [MS (11)]. p102: Pallid Swift [DOA]. p103: Pallid Swift [MS (5)], [JLo (5)], [DOA (2)]. p104: Alpine Swift [A&GS]. p105: Alpine Swift [MS (8)]. p106: Little Swift [MGA]. p107: Little Swift [ZK (10)], [MGA]. p108: Whiterumped Swift [DKe/CC]. p109: White-rumped Swift [ZK (11)]. p110: Northern House Martin [MV]. p111: Northern House Martin [MS (10)]. p112: Red-rumped Swallow [R&LC]. p113: Red-rumped Swallow [MS (11)], [JLo (2)], [JIVR]. p114: Barn Swallow [WLA]. p115: Barn Swallow [MS (11)], [A&GS (2)], [RScA], [MGA]. p116: Eurasian Crag Martin [HH]. p117: Eurasian Crag Martin [MGA (6)], [JLo (3)], [RMartA (2)], [A&GS], [SAD], [AY], [DOA]. p118: Collared Sand Martin [DKj]. p119: Collared Sand Martin [MS (7)], [A&GS (3)], [HSA], [RScA], [JPelA]. SHRIKES  p122: Red-backed Shrike [ML]. p123: Red-backed Shrike [MS (8)], [RPu (3)], [WG (2)], [TMuA], [AGA]. p124: Isabelline/Red-tailed Shrike [DT]. p125: Isabelline Shrike [HH (7)], [RPoA], [DLVA]. Red-tailed Shrike [ABK], [MNu], [MÇu], [KVR], [JPelA (2)], [BG], [MBru], [AI]. p126: Great Grey Shrike [MBe]. p127: Great Grey Shrike [MS (8)], [WG (6)], [HvDA], [BD]. p128: Iberian Grey Shrike [RMartA]. p129: Iberian Grey Shrike [SAD (3)], [HSA], [MGA]. p130: Lesser Grey Shrike [DOA]. p131: Lesser Grey Shrike [HSA (5)], [JLo (3)], [A&GS], [RMartA]. p132: Masked Shrike [DOA]. p133: Masked Shrike [RPu (8)], [MS (2)]. p134: Woodchat Shrike [DKj]. p135: Woodchat Shrike [RScA (2)], [SAD (2)], [MV], [MRA], [HSA], [MS]. CORVIDS  p136: Carrion Crow [RT (2)]. p138: Eurasian Jay [DKj]. p139: Eurasian Jay [MS (7)], [ÇG]. p140: Northern Nutcracker [CvRA]. p141: Northern Nutcracker [MS (6)], [MPo], [HSA], [MV]. p142: Siberian Jay [HH]. p143: Siberian Jay [MV (6)], [SAD], [RPu]. p144: Eurasian Magpie [A&GS]. p145: Eurasian Magpie [MS (11)]. p146: Iberian Azure-winged Magpie [DFA]. p147: Iberian Azure-winged Magpie [MGA (4)], [RMartA], [RE], [JH]. p148: Rook [A&GS]. p149: Rook [MS (12)]. p150: Carrion Crow [ML]. Hooded Crow [A&GS]. p152: Carrion Crow [A&GS (8)], [WG (2)]. 153: Hooded Crow [MS (9)]. p154: Eurasian Jackdaw [A&GS]. p155: Eurasian Jackdaw [MS (9)]. p156: Yellow-billed Chough [MV]. p157: Yellow-billed Chough [JLo (5)]. p158: Red-billed Chough [DKj]. p159: Red-billed Chough [ZK (3)], [JLo (2)], [MCo]. p160: Common Raven [DKj]. p161: Common Raven [MS (12)]. TITS  p164: Great Tit [A&GS]. p165: Great Tit [MS (13)]. p166: Coal Tit [DKj]. p167: Coal Tit [MS (10)]. p168: Eurasian Blue Tit [DKj]. p169: Eurasian Blue Tit [MS (10)], [HGA], [HSA]. p170: Azure Tit [R&LC]. p171: Azure Tit [VI (4)], [DD (3)], [KVR], [KEA], [DLVA], [MRA], [TMuA]. p172: Marsh Tit [ML]. Willow Tit [G&YD]. p173: Marsh Tit [AGA (5)], [MS]. Willow Tit [MS (3)]. p174: Siberian Tit [G&YD]. p175: Siberian Tit [GH], [MV], [TMuA], [HSA], [DD], [RMartA]. p176: Sombre Tit [RMartA]. p177: Sombre Tit [ÖK], [DOA]. p178: Crested Tit [DKj]. p179: Crested Tit [TMuA (4)], [RMartA (3)], [HSA]. p180: Eurasian Penduline-tit [HH]. p181: Eurasian Penduline-tit [MS (7)], [MGA], [HvDA]. p182: Long-tailed Tit [DKj]. p183: Long-tailed Tit [MS (13)], [HGA], [SAD]. p184: Bearded Reedling [DKj]. p185: Bearded Reedling [HGA (7)], [MS (4)]. LARKS  p188: Eurasian Skylark [DKj]. p189: Eurasian Skylark [MS (9)], [RScA (2)], [HvDA]. p190: Calandra Lark [G&YD]. p191: Calandra Lark [MS (11)], [MGA (2)], [RScA]. p192: Greater Short-toed Lark [G&YD]. Lesser Short-toed Lark [JSP]. p194: Greater Short-toed Lark [MS (10)], [MGA (4)]. p195: Lesser Short-toed Lark [MGA (5)], [MS (4)], [DFA], [MRA]. p196: Crested Lark [A&GS]. Thekla’s Lark [A&GS]. p198: Crested Lark [MS (16)]. p199: Thekla’s Lark [MS (6)], [RAA (2)], [A&GS]. p200: Dupont’s Lark [MGA]. p201: Dupont’s Lark [RAA (5)], [VLA (2)], [A&GS]. p202: Woodlark [DKj]. p203: Woodlark [MS (14)]. p204: Horned Lark [DT]. p205: Horned Lark [ZK (4)], [WG (3)], [DFA], [MMa], [PZ]. PIPITS  p206: Tawny Pipit [MMc]. p207: Tawny Pipit [MS (8)], [RScA (4)], [MGA]. p208: Richard’s Pipit [RSt]. Blyth’s Pipit [MV]. p210: Richard’s Pipit [ZK (8)], [JW (3)], [WG], [PZ], [MRA], [JLo], [MMa]. Blyth’s Pipit [JLo (3)], [DLVA (2)], [MRA]. p211: Pechora Pipit perched [HH]; flight [LSA (3)], [DC (2)], [MRA (2)]. p212: Meadow Pipit [DKj]. p213: Meadow Pipit [MS (14)]. p214: Tree Pipit [A&GS]. p215: Tree Pipit [MS (8)], [WG (4)], [HSA], [RScA]. p216: Red-throated Pipit [R&LC]. p217: Red-throated Pipit [WG (12)], [MS (3)]. p218: Water Pipit [DT]. Rock Pipit [DKj]. p220: Water Pipit [WG (6)], [RPu (2)], [RScA]. Rock Pipit [HSA (6)], [MV (3)], [MGA], [MV], [TMuA]. p221: Olive-backed Pipit perched [MMc]; flight [JBu (3)], [MMü], [VLA (3)], [FVA]. WAGTAILS  p224: White Wagtail [DT]. ‘Pied’ Wagtail [DKj]. p225: White Wagtail [MS (12)], [WG (3)], [TMuA]. p226: Western Yellow Wagtail [A&GS]. p227: Western Yellow Wagtail [MGA (6)], [WG (4)], [MS], [DLVA], [RScA], [SAD]. p228: Citrine Wagtail [A&GS]. p229: Citrine Wagtail [WG (3)], [MPo (3)], [MRA (2)], [MMa], [WG], [TMuA], [SAD], [MV]. p230: Grey Wagtail [DKj]. p231: Grey Wagtail [WG (8)], [RScA (4)], [MBru]. ACROCEPHALUS, CETTIA, LOCUSTELLA, IDUNA and HIPPOLAIS WARBLERS, CISTICOLA and PRINIA  p234: Zitting Cisticola [DOA]. p235: Zitting Cisticola [MS (7)], [MGA (6)], [DOA]. p236: Great Reedwarbler [HH]. p237: Great Reed-warbler [MS (5)], [WG (2)], [DC (2)], [RPu], [AJuA]. p239: Common Reedwarbler perched [DOA]; flight [RPu (2)], [HSA], [MGA], [MS], [SAD], [AF]. Marsh Warbler perched [HH]; flight [JS], [DC]. Blyth’s Reed-warbler perched [A&GS]; flight [DD], [RPu], [KEA], [MRA], [TS]. p240: Paddyfield Warbler [RMartA]. p241: Paddyfield Warbler [GN], [PMoo], [RN (2)], [DD], [YK], [TIM]. p242: Sedge Warbler [A&GS]. Aquatic 489

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PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS Warbler [RK/CC]. p243: Moustached Warbler [DOA]. p244: Sedge Warbler [MS (6)], [HSA], [MMa], [WG], [FeY]. Aquatic Warbler [MMa (3)], [EE], [KJ], [GGr (2)], [SHu], [MBo]. p245: Moustached Warbler [AÜ (3)], [HSA]. Graceful Prinia [RPu], [AKar (2)], [MBru]. p246: Graceful Prinia [TCo]. p248: Cetti’s Warbler [DKj]. p249: Cetti’s Warbler [FeY (3)], [MNu], [PSt], [PT]. p251: Savi’s Warbler perched [DOA]; flight [DLVA], [MPo]. River Warbler perched [RMartA]; flight [FeY (3)], [AJuA], [RPu]. p253: Common Grasshopper-warbler perched [DKj]; flight [DLVA (5)], [HSA (2)], [AWe]. Lanceolated Warbler perched [DOA]; flight [SHag (3)], [SKKO]. p254: Pallas’s Grasshopper-warbler perched [MMc]; flight [DLVA (7)]. p255: Booted Warbler perched [HH]; flight [KEA (3)], [MRA (2)]. p256: Olivaceous Warbler [A&GS]. Isabelline Warbler [VLA]. p257: Olivaceous Warbler [HSA], [FeY], [MS (2)]. Isabelline Warbler [MGA (6)], [EWA]. p258: Olive-tree Warbler [DOA]. p259: Olive-tree Warbler [SAD (8)]. p260: Icterine Warbler [HH]. Melodious Warbler [DOA]. p261: Icterine Warbler [HSA (5)], [KEA (3)], [SAD]. Melodious Warbler [ES], [EWA], [GSi]. PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS and CRESTS  p264: Willow Warbler [DKj]. p265: Willow Warbler [WG (5)], [RPu (4)], [HSA (3)]. p266: Common Chiffchaff [DKj]. p267: Common Chiffchaff [RScA (3)], [WG (2)], [MS (2)], [MGA (2)], [AF]. p268: Iberian Chiffchaff [VLA]. Siberian Chiffchaff [A&GS]. ‘Caucasian’ Mountain Chiffchaff [TCh]. p269: Iberian Chiffchaff [BBA], [HvDA]. Siberian Chiffchaff [AI (2)], [MF]. ‘Caucasian’ Mountain Chiffchaff [TCh], [LMA]. p270: Western Bonelli’s Warbler [HH]. Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler [A&GS]. p271: Western Bonelli’s Warbler [MGA (3)], [DLVA], [SAD], [DO]. Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler [EWA (2)], [MS (2)], [MGA], [MBru]. p272: Wood Warbler perched [DKj]; flight [MS], [TMuA], [MV (2)]. p273: Arctic Warbler perched [HH]; flight [SKKO], [MRA], [MV], [DLVA]. p274: Greenish Warbler [HH]. Green Warbler [DOA]. p275: Greenish Warbler [MS (3)], [PMa (2)]. Green Warbler [FeY (3)]. p276: Arctic Warbler perched [AMA]; flight [DC], [AR], [JLo]. p277: Radde’s Warbler perched [HH]; flight [JPen], [VB], [KMO]. p278: Yellow-browed Warbler [HH]. Hume’s Leaf-warbler [MV]. p279: Yellow-browed Warbler [LSA (3)], [MV (2)], [HSA], [MPo], [MGA]. Hume’s Leaf-warbler [TJ], [TB], [MRA], [HSA (2)]. p280: Pallas’s Leaf-warbler [HH]. p281: Pallas’s Leaf-warbler [MSo (2)], [MDanzA], [A&GS], [MGA (2)]. p282: Goldcrest [DKj]. Common Firecrest [DKj]. p283: Goldcrest [MS (13)], [MV]. Common Firecrest [RScA (2)], [MGA], [SAD]. SYLVIA WARBLERS and WRYNECK  p286: Eurasian Blackcap [G&YD]. p287: Garden Warbler [A&GS]. p288: Eurasian Blackcap [RScA (2)], [MGA ], [HSA (2)]. Garden Warbler [HSA], [RPu], [FeY]. p289: Common Whitethroat [MS (4)], [MGA (3) ], [SAD]. Spectacled Warbler [MS (3)]. p290: Common Whitethroat [DKj]. p291: Spectacled Warbler [G&YD]. p292: Subalpine Warbler [SAD]. p293: Dartford Warbler [MBe]. p294: Subalpine Warbler [MS], [PW], [WS], [MGA ], [DOA]. Moltoni’s Warbler [DLVA]. Dartford Warbler [SAD], [NBro], [HBoum (2) ], [A&GS]. p295: Lesser Whitethroat [FeY (6)], [RPu], [JPS], [KG]. Western Orphean Warbler [DLVA]. Eastern Orphean Warbler [RPu], [SAD], [EF ], [HSA]. p296: Lesser Whitethroat [MBe]. p297: Western Orphean Warbler [DOA]. p298: Barred Warbler [HSA]. p299: Barred Warbler [MS (7)], [WG (4)], [MV ], [RScA]. p300: Rüppell’s Warbler [HSA]. p301: Rüppell’s Warbler [A&GS], [MGA], [MS (2) ], [RPu (2)], [AHL], [SAD]. p302: Sardinian Warbler [DOA]. p303: Menetries’s Warbler [TMuA]. p304: Sardinian Warbler [RPu (2)], [SAD], [DFA], [DOA (2) ], [TMuA], [MDane]. Menetries’s Warbler [TMuA], [MDane (2) ], [FeY (2)]. p306: Eurasian Wryneck [RScA]. p307: Eurasian Wryneck [RPu], [A&GS (2) ], [KEA], [MRA]. NUTHATCHES, WALLCREEPER, TREECREEPERS, WREN, DIPPER, WAXWING and STARLINGS  p308: Eurasian Nuthatch [DKj]. p309: Eurasian Nuthatch [MS (9)]. p310: Western Rock Nuthatch perched [MGA]; flight [HSA], [MGA], [RPu (2)]. p310: Krueper’s Nuthatch perched [DOA]; flight [MGA], [WM], [AKar]. p312: Wallcreeper [G&YD]. p313: Wallcreeper [JLo (5)], [DFA (2) ], [SAD (2)]. p314: Eurasian Treecreeper [DKj]. Short-toed Treecreeper [HBouwA]. p315: Eurasian Treecreeper [MS (5)]. Short-toed Treecreeper [RScA (4)], [MGA], [EWA]. p316: Northern Wren [A&GS]. p317: Northern Wren [RPu (5)], [DLVA (4)], [MRA]. p318: White-throated Dipper [NBri]. p319: White-throated Dipper [MV (4)], [HSA (2)], [A&GS (2)], [SAD (2)]. p320: Bohemian Waxwing [HH]. p321: Bohemian Waxwing [MS (6)], [RPu]. p322: Common Starling [MBe]. p323: Common Starling [MS (13)], [RScA], [DKj]. p324: Spotless Starling [RMartA]. p325: Spotless Starling [MS (14]. p326: Rosy Starling [MDanzA]. p327: Rosy Starling [JLo (6)], [ZK (5) ], [PMorA (2)], [RScA (2)], [RMartA]. Common Starling [PMorA (2)]. THRUSHES  p330: Eurasian Blackbird [DKj]. p331: Eurasian Blackbird [MS (16)], [HSA]. p332: Ring Ouzel [MV]. p333: Ring Ouzel [HGA (7)], [MGA (4)], [RScA (2)], [VLA]. p334: Fieldfare [DKj]. p335: Fieldfare [MS (11)], [A&GS]. Mistle Thrush [MS]. p336: Mistle Thrush [DKj]. p337: Mistle Thrush [MS (15)], [RScA]. p338: Song Thrush [DKj]. p339: Song Thrush [MS (14)]. p340: Redwing [DKj]. p341: Redwing [MS (12)], [RScA (2)]. p342: Naumann’s Thrush perched [MV]; flight [AR], [VI], [VB]. Dusky Thrush [MGA]. p344: Dusky Thrush [LSA (6)], [MGA (6)]. p345: Eyebrowed Thrush perched [JDA]; flight [RdHA], [JBe], [KEA (3)]. p346: Black-throated Thrush [HSA]. Rufous-throated Thrush [DLVA]. p348: Black-throated Thrush [AI (5)], [MPu (3)], [KEA (2)], [DD], [KVR], [MNu]. p349: Rufous-throated Thrush [MPu (4)], [JT (2)], [VI (2)], [KVR], [VB]. p350: Siberian Thrush perched [BvdBA]; flight [TTo], [DLVA ]. p352: White’s Thrush [MMc]. p353: White’s Thrush [DC (3)], [NC (5)], [PG].

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PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS FLYCATCHERS  p354: Spotted Flycatcher [DKj]. p355: Spotted Flycatcher [HSA (7)]. p356: Red-breasted Flycatcher [MGA]. p357: Red-breasted Flycatcher [MGA (6)], [HSA (3)]. p358: European Pied Flycatcher [DKj]. Collared Flycatcher [MV]. Semi-collared Flycatcher [MGA]. p360: European Pied Flycatcher [MS (11)], [TMuA]. Collared Flycatcher [MPo (5)], [MBro]. Semi-collared Flycatcher [OC], [HSA], [PF (3)], [RPu]. CHATS  p354: European Robin [DKj]. p355: European Robin [LSA], [MS (5)], [DOA (2)]. p364: Orangeflanked Bush-robin [DKj]. p365: Orange-flanked Bush-robin [AJuA (5)], [DC]. p366: Black Redstart [DOA]. Common Redstart [DKj]. p368: Black Redstart [MS (4)], [RScA], [WG], [DOA (4)]. p369: Common Redstart [MS (7)], [HSA], [TMuA], [MV]. p371: Thrush Nightingale perched [MV]; flight [TMuA], [MS ], [FeY (2) ]. Common Nightingale perched [G&YD]; flight [SAD], [WH (2)], [RMea (3)]. p372: Bluethroat [A&GS]. p373: Bluethroat [HSA (3)], [RAA (2)], [JIVR], [HH], [RPu (2)]. p374: White-throated Robin [DM]. p375: White-throated Robin [MBru], [RMartA], [MNu], [TMuA (2)], [DA (2)]. p376: Rufous-tailed Scrub-robin [A&GS]. p377: Rufous-tailed Scrub-robin [HSA (2)], [RvR], [MRA], [RPu]. p378: Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush [G&YD]. p379: Rufous-tailed Rock-thrush [JLo (3)], [JLa], [SHar (2)], [TMuA]. p380: Blue Rock-thrush [A&GS]. p381: Blue Rock-thrush [AF], [SAD (4)], [HSA (2)], [KEA], [MGA (5)]. p382: Whinchat [A&GS]. p383: Whinchat [MS (3)], [RPu], [RMartA], [HSA]. p384: Common Stonechat [A&GS]. p385: Common Stonechat [MS (9)], [DOA (4)]. p386: ‘Eastern’ Stonechat [A&GS]. p387: ‘Eastern’ Stonechat [MGA (6)], [ZK (2)], [MF (2)], [MS], [JLo], [BD]. WHEATEARS  p390: Northern Wheatear [DKj]. p391: Northern Wheatear [MGA (6)], [ZK (2)], [MF (2)], [MS], [JLo], [BD]. p392: Isabelline Wheatear [A&GS]. p393: Isabelline Wheatear [A&GS (2)], [JLo (3)], [SAD], [VLA (2)], [WG (6)]. p394: Desert Wheatear [TTa]. p395: Desert Wheatear [JLo (2)], [TMuA], [VLA (2)], [HSA]. p396: Black-eared Wheatear (ssp. hispanica) [ODA]. Black-eared Wheatear (ssp. melanoleuca) [A&GS]. Pied Wheatear [G&YD]. p398: Black-eared Wheatear (ssp. hispanica) [HSA (8)], [JIVR (2)], [MS (2)], [MGA], [RAA]. p399: Black-eared Wheatear (ssp. melanoleuca) [MGA], [DLVA]. Pied Wheatear [HSA (2)], [RMartA], [SAD], [MS (2)]. p400: Finsch’s Wheatear [G&YD]. p401: Finsch’s Wheatear [MNe (4)], [ALie (2)], [ALip (2)], [FP]. p402: Black Wheatear [DOA]. p403: Black Wheatear [KEA], [MGA (3)], [JLo], [HSA (5)]. ACCENTORS and SPARROWS  p404: Dunnock [DKj]. p405: Dunnock [MS (11)], [WG], [DOA]. p406: Alpine Accentor [A&GS]. p407: Alpine Accentor [RMartA (2)], [TH], [AOe (4)]. p410: House Sparrow [DKj]. Italian Sparrow [DOA]. Spanish Sparrow [DOA]. p412: House Sparrow [MS (13)]. Italian Sparrow [HSA (3)]. Spanish Sparrow [MS (12)], [JLo]. p413: Eurasian Tree Sparrow perched [NBri]; flight [MS (5)], [RScA ]. p414: Rock Sparrow [G&YD]. p415: Rock Sparrow [AI (2)], [KVR (2)], [KEA], [BG], [AKad (2)], [AKat], [VZ], [JLo]. FINCHES  p416: Common Chaffinch [A&GS]. p417: Common Chaffinch [MS (12)], [RScA (2)] Great Tit [MS]. p418: Brambling [DKj]. p419: Brambling [MS (17)], [DKj]. p422: Red Crossbill [DKj]. Parrot Crossbill [TMe]. p424: Red Crossbill [MS (15)], [HSA]. p425: Parrot Crossbill [HSA (6)], [MSo (3)], [TMuA (2)]. p426: Two-barred Crossbill [DC]. p427: Two-barred Crossbill [AB (11)], [RJSA], [HSA], [DC (3)], [SGanA]. p428: Common Rosefinch [RScA]. p429: Common Rosefinch [MS (8)], [WG], [MMa (2)], [FeY]. p430: Pine Grosbeak [G&YD]. p431: Pine Grosbeak [AJuA (2)], [MRA (3)], [HSA (2)], [MV]. p432: Eurasian Bullfinch [A&GS]. p433: Eurasian Bullfinch [MS (13)], [TMuA]. p434: European Greenfinch [G&YD]. p435: European Greenfinch [MS (12)], [EWA (2)], [MGA (2)], [FVA]. p436: Eurasian Siskin [MMc]. p437: Eurasian Siskin [MS (15)]. p438: European Serin [DOA]. p439: European Serin [MS (9)], [RScA (2)], [ES]. p440: Red-fronted Serin [G&YD]. p441: Red-fronted Serin [DLVA], [AI (2)], [MBru], [KEA]. p442: Citril Finch [AGA]. p443: Citril Finch [GSa (5)], [GSp (3)], [JIVR], [UN], [LHO (2)], [MGA]. p444: European Goldfinch perched [DKj]; flight [MMa]. p445: European Goldfinch [MS (12)]. p446: Common Linnet [DKj]. p447: Common Linnet [MS (14)], [MGA], [EWA]. p448: Twite [DKj]. p449: Twite [EWA (5)], [RMartA (2)], [FVA], [DOA], [TMu*A]. p450: Redpoll [A&GS]. p452: Redpoll (ssp. cabaret) [MPo (15)], [HSA (4)]. p453: Redpoll (ssp. flammea/ hornemanni) [HSA (4)], [MPo (5)]. p454: Hawfinch [DKj]. p455: Hawfinch [MS (15)]. BUNTINGS  p458: Corn Bunting [DKj]. p459: Corn Bunting [MS (14)], [WG], [MGA], [FVA (2)]. p460: Yellowhammer [DKj]. p461: Yellowhammer [MS (9)], [MCo (2)], [MGA (3)], [AJuA (2)]. p462: Pine Bunting [DSA]. p463: Pine Bunting [EWA], [TL (3)], [JJA (3)]. p464: Cirl Bunting [A&GS]. p465: Cirl Bunting [RMars], [RMen/DLVA (3)], [DLVA (4)], [AF]. p466: Black-headed Bunting [RMart*]. p467: Black-headed Bunting [MSz], [PSz (2)], [DOA], [KEA], [SAD (2)]. p468: Ortolan Bunting [DOA]. Cretzschmar’s Bunting [G&YD]. p469: Ortolan Bunting [MGA (2)], [RScA], [KEA], [RPu (3)], [EWA]. Cretzschmar’s Bunting [FB]. p470: Yellowbreasted Bunting [SY/CC]. p471: Yellow-breasted Bunting [AJe (9)], [DLVA], [JBe (3)], [ALie]. p472: Rock Bunting [HH]. p473: Rustic Bunting [MV]. p474: Little Bunting [MMc]. p475: Rock Bunting [AHL (2)], [IS/CC]. Rustic Bunting [RScA (3)], [MGA]. Little Bunting [MMü (4)], [MGA], [RPu (2)], [KEA]. p476: Reed Bunting [DKj]. p477: Reed Bunting [HGA (5)], [MS (11)], [JIVR]. p478: Lapland Longspur [SGatA]. p479: Lapland Longspur [EWA (5)], [ZK (7)], [WG], [MV (2)], [MGA (3)], [MRA]. p480: Snow Bunting [DKj]. p481: Snow Bunting [PZ (6)], [WG (5)], [MV], [ZK (5)]. p482: White-winged Snowfinch [A&GS]. p483: Whitewinged Snowfinch [RMartA (3)], [JLo], [GK (4)], [JIVR].

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Index This index includes the English and scientific (in italics) names of all the birds featured. Bold figures are used for the SECTION INTRODUCTIONS and main Species Accounts. Bold Italicized figures indicate page(s) on which photographs appear if not on the main pagespread for the species concerned. Normal figures indicate comparison spreads. Regular text is used for alternative English names or spellings. A Acanthis flammea ............................................ 450 Accentor, Alpine ............................................ 406 Acrocephalus agricola ..................................... 240 — arundinaceus ............................................... 236 — dumetorum ................................................. 238 — melanopogon ............................................... 243 — paludicola .................................................... 242 — palustris ....................................................... 238 — schoenobaenus ............................................ 242 — scirpaceus .................................................... 238 ACROCEPHALUS WARBLERS ................. 232 Aegithalos caudatus ........................................ 182 Alauda arvensis ............................................... 188 Alaudala rufescens .......................................... 192 Alcedo atthis ...................................................... 72 Alexandrinus krameri ....................................... 62 Anthus campestris ........................................... 206 — cervinus ....................................................... 216 — godlewskii .................................................... 208 — gustavi .......................................................... 211 — hodgsoni ....................................................... 221 — petrosus ........................................................ 218 — pratensis ....................................................... 212 — richardi ........................................................ 208 — spinoletta ..................................................... 218 — trivialis ......................................................... 214 Apus affinis ...................................................... 106 — apus .............................................................. 100 — caffer ............................................................ 108 — pallidus ........................................................ 102 B Bee-eater, Blue-cheeked ................................. 68 —, European ..................................................... 66 Blackbird, Eurasian ..................... 328, 269, 330 Blackcap, Eurasian ............... 284, 285, 286, 288 Bluetail, Red-flanked ...................................... 364 Bluethroat .............................................. 361, 372 Bombycilla garrulus ........................................ 320 Brambling ....................................................... 418 Bullfinch, Eurasian .............................. 420, 432 Bunting, Black-headed ................ 456, 457, 466 —, Cirl ............................................. 456, 457, 464 —, Corn .......................... 408, 409, 456, 457, 458 —, Cretzschmar’s .......................... 456, 457, 468 —, Lapland ...................... 408, 409, 456, 457, 478 —, Little .................................. 456, 457, 474, 475 —, Ortolan ..................................... 456, 457, 468 —, Pine ............................................ 456, 457, 462 —, Reed ................................... 409, 456, 457, 476 492

Bunting, Rock ....................... 456, 457, 472, 475 —, Rustic ................................ 456, 457, 473, 475 —, Snow .................................................. 456, 480 —, Yellow-breasted ....................... 456, 457, 470 BUNTINGS ........................................... 408, 456 Bush-robin, Orange-flanked ....................... 364 C Calandrella brachydactyla .............................. 192 Calcarius lapponicus ....................................... 478 Carduelis carduelis .......................................... 444 — citrinella ....................................................... 442 Carpodacus erythrinus ................................... 428 Cecropis daurica .............................................. 112 Cercotrichas galactotes .................................... 376 Certhia brachydactyla ..................................... 314 — familiaris ..................................................... 314 Ceryle rudis ........................................................ 76 Cettia cetti ........................................................ 248 Chaffinch, Common .................... 408, 416, 457 CHATS ............................................................ 362 Chersophilus duponti ...................................... 200 Chiffchaff, ‘Caucasian’ Mountain ...... 263, 268 —, Common .......................... 233, 262, 263, 266 —, Iberian .............................................. 263, 268 —, Mountain .......................................... 263, 268 —, Siberian ...................................................... 268 Chloris chloris .................................................. 434 Chough, Red-billed ...................... 136, 137, 158 —, Yellow-billed ............................ 136, 137, 156 Cinclus cinclus ................................................. 318 Cisticola juncidis ............................................. 234 Cisticola, Zitting ............................................ 234 Clamator glandarius ......................................... 60 Coccothraustes coccothraustes ........................ 454 Collared-dove, Eurasian .................... 42, 43, 50 Columba livia .................................................... 44 — oenas .............................................................. 46 — palumbus ....................................................... 48 Coracias garrulus .............................................. 70 CORVIDS ....................................................... 136 Corvus corax .................................................... 160 — corone cornix ............................................... 150 — corone corone .............................................. 150 — frugilegus ..................................................... 148 — monedula ..................................................... 154 CRESTS ........................................................... 262 Crossbill, Common .............................. 422, 424 —, Parrot ........................................ 420, 422, 425 —, Red ..................................... 420, 421, 422, 424 —, Scottish ...................................................... 422

INDEX Crossbill, Two-barred .......................... 420, 426 Crow, Carrion ....................... 136, 137, 150, 152 —, Hooded ............................. 136, 137, 150, 153 Cuckoo, Common ........................................... 58 —, Great Spotted ............................................. 60 Cuculus canorus ................................................ 58 Cyanecula svecica ............................................ 372 Cyanistes caeruleus ......................................... 168 — cyanus .......................................................... 170 Cyanopica cooki ............................................... 146 D Delichon urbicum ............................................ 110 Dendrocopos leucotos ........................................ 84 — major .............................................................. 80 — syriacus .......................................................... 80 Dipper, White-throated ............................... 318 Dove, Collared ...................................... 42, 43, 50 —, Eurasian Collared- .......................... 42, 43, 50 —, European Turtle- ............................. 42, 43, 52 —, Laughing ......................................... 42, 43, 56 —, Oriental Turtle- ............................... 42, 43, 54 —, Rock .................................................. 42, 43, 44 —, Stock ................................................. 42, 43, 46 —, Turtle ................................................ 42, 43, 52 DOVES .............................................................. 42 Dryobates minor ................................................ 86 Dryocopus martius ............................................ 90 Dunnock ........................................ 404, 408, 409 E Emberiza aureola ............................................ 470 — caesia ............................................................ 468 — calandra ....................................................... 458 — cia ................................................................. 472 — cirlus ............................................................. 464 — citrinella ....................................................... 460 — hortulana ..................................................... 468 — leucocephalos ............................................... 462 — melanocephala ............................................ 466 — pusilla .......................................................... 474 — rustica .......................................................... 473 — schoeniclus ................................................... 476 Eremophila alpestris ........................................ 204 Erithacus rubecula .......................................... 362 F Ficedula albicollis ............................................ 358 — hypoleuca ..................................................... 358 — parva ............................................................ 356 — semitorquata ............................................... 358 Fieldfare ......................................... 328, 329, 334 Finch, Citril ........................................... 421, 442 FINCHES ....................................... 408, 420, 421 Firecrest, Common .............................. 263, 282 Flycatcher, Collared ..................... 358, 360, 361 —, European Pied ......................... 358, 360, 361 —, Red-breasted ..................................... 356, 361 —, Semi-collared .......................... 358, 360, 361 —, Spotted ................................................354, 361 Fringilla coelebs ............................................... 416 — montifringilla .............................................. 418

G Galerida cristata .............................................. 196 — theklae .......................................................... 196 Garrulus glandarius ........................................ 138 Geokichla sibirica ............................................ 350 Goldcrest ........................................ 262, 263, 282 Goldfinch, European .................................... 444 Grasshopper-warbler, Common ................ 252 —, Pallas’s ........................................................ 254 Greenfinch, European ......................... 421, 434 Grosbeak, Pine ...................................... 420, 430 H Halcyon smyrnensis .......................................... 74 Hawfinch ......................................................... 454 Hippolais icterina ............................................ 260 — olivetorum ................................................... 258 — polyglotta ..................................................... 260 HIPPOLAIS WARBLERS ............................ 232 Hirundo rustica ............................................... 114 Hoopoe, Common .......................................... 64 I Iduna caligata .................................................. 255 — opaca ............................................................ 256 — pallida .......................................................... 256 IDUNA WARBLERS ..................................... 232 Irania gutturalis ............................................... 374 J Jackdaw, Eurasian ........................ 136, 137, 154 Jay, Eurasian .......................................... 136, 138 —, Siberian ............................................. 136, 142 Jynx torquilla ................................................... 306 K Kingfisher, Common ...................................... 72 —, Pied ............................................................... 76 —, White-breasted ........................................... 74 L Lanius collurio ................................................. 122 — excubitor ...................................................... 126 — isabellinus .................................................... 124 — meridionalis ................................................ 128 — minor ........................................................... 130 — nubicus ........................................................ 132 — phoenicuroides ............................................ 124 — senator ......................................................... 134 Lark, Calandra .............................. 186, 187, 190 —, Crested .............................. 186, 187, 196, 198 —, Dupont’s ........................................... 187, 200 —, Eurasian Sky ............................. 186, 187, 188 —, Greater Short-toed ................. 187, 192, 194 —, Horned .............................................. 187, 204 —, Lesser Short-toed .................... 187, 192, 195 —, Shore ........................................................... 204 —, Sky .............................................. 186, 187, 188 —, Thekla’s ..................................... 187, 196, 199 —, Wood ................................................. 187, 202 LARKS ............................................................. 186 Leaf-warbler, Hume’s ........................... 263, 278 —, Pallas’s ....................................... 262, 263, 280 Leiopicus medius ............................................... 82 493

INDEX Linaria cannabina ........................................... 446 — flavirostris .................................................... 448 Linnet, Common .................. 408, 409, 420, 446 Locustella certhiola ......................................... 254 — fluviatilis ...................................................... 250 — lanceolata .................................................... 252 — luscinioides .................................................. 250 — naevia .......................................................... 252 LOCUSTELLA WARBLERS ........................ 232 Longspur, Lapland ......... 408, 409, 456, 457, 478 Lophophanes cristatus ..................................... 178 Loxia curvirostra ............................................. 422 — leucoptera .................................................... 426 — pytyopsittacus ............................................. 422 — scotica .......................................................... 422 Lullula arborea ................................................ 202 Luscinia luscinia .............................................. 370 — megarhynchos ............................................. 370 M Magpie, Eurasian .................................. 136, 144 —, Iberian Azure-winged ................... 136, 146 Martin, Collared Sand ..................... 98, 99, 118 —, Eurasian Crag .............................. 98, 99, 116 —, Northern House .......................... 98, 99, 110 MARTINS ......................................................... 98 Melanocorypha calandra ................................ 190 Merops apiaster ................................................. 66 — persicus .......................................................... 68 Monticola saxatilis .......................................... 378 — solitarius ...................................................... 380 Montifringilla nivalis ...................................... 482 Motacilla alba .................................................. 224 — cinerea .......................................................... 230 — citreola ......................................................... 228 — flava ............................................................. 226 Muscicapa striata ............................................ 354 N Nightingale, Common ................ 305, 361, 370 —, Thrush ........................................................ 370 NIGHTINGALES ......................................... 362 Nucifraga caryocatactes .................................. 140 Nutcracker, Northern .......................... 136, 140 Nuthatch, Eurasian ....................................... 308 —, Krueper’s ................................................... 311 —, Western Rock ............................................ 310 NUTHATCHES ............................................. 308 O Oenanthe deserti ............................................. 394 — finschii .......................................................... 400 — hispanica (incl. melanoleuca) .................... 396 — isabellina ...................................................... 392 — leucura ......................................................... 402 — oenanthe ...................................................... 390 — pleschanka ................................................... 396 Oriole, Eurasian Golden .......................... 78, 96 Oriolus oriolus ................................................... 96 Ouzel, Ring .................................... 328, 329, 332 P Panurus biarmicus .......................................... 184 494

Parakeet, Rose-ringed .................................... 62 Parus major ..................................................... 164 Passer domesticus ............................................ 410 — hispaniolensis .............................................. 410 — italiae ........................................................... 410 — montanus ..................................................... 413 Pastor roseus .................................................... 326 Penduline-tit, Eurasian ............... 162, 163, 180 Periparus ater .................................................. 166 Perisoreus infaustus ........................................ 142 Petronia petronia ............................................. 414 Phoenicurus ochruros ..................................... 366 — phoenicurus ................................................. 366 Phylloscopus bonelli ........................................ 270 — borealis ......................................................... 273 — collybita ....................................................... 266 — fuscatus ........................................................ 276 — humei ........................................................... 278 — ibericus ........................................................ 268 — inornatus ..................................................... 278 — nitidus .......................................................... 274 — orientalis ...................................................... 270 — proregulus .................................................... 280 — schwarzii ...................................................... 277 — sibilatrix ....................................................... 272 — sindianus lorenzii ........................................ 268 — tristis ............................................................ 268 — trochiloides .................................................. 274 — trochilus ....................................................... 264 PHYLLOSCOPUS WARBLERS .................. 262 Pica pica ........................................................... 144 Picoides tridactylus ........................................... 88 Picus canus ......................................................... 92 — viridis ............................................................. 94 Pigeon, Common Wood ..................... 42, 43, 48 —, Feral ................................................. 42, 43, 44 —, Wood ................................................ 42, 43, 48 PIGEONS .......................................................... 42 Pinicola enucleator .......................................... 430 Pipit, Blyth’s .................. 187, 208, 210, 222, 223 —, Meadow .................................... 186, 187, 212 —, Olive-backed .................................... 187, 221 —, Pechora ............................................. 187, 211 —, Red-throated ................................... 187, 216 —, Richard’s .................. 187, 208, 210, 222, 223 —, Rock ........................................... 187, 218, 220 —, Tawny ........................................ 186, 187, 206 —, Tree ............................................ 186, 187, 214 —, Water ......................................... 187, 218, 220 PIPITS .................................................... 186, 222 Plectrophenax nivalis ...................................... 480 Poecile cinctus .................................................. 174 — lugubris ........................................................ 176 — montanus ..................................................... 172 — palustris ....................................................... 172 Prinia gracilis ................................................... 246 Prinia, Graceful ............................................. 246 Prunella collaris ............................................... 406 — modularis .................................................... 404 Ptyonoprogne rupestris ................................... 116 Pyrrhocorax graculus ...................................... 156

INDEX Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ............................... 158 Pyrrhula pyrrhula ........................................... 432 R Raven, Common ........................... 136, 137, 160 Redpoll ................................... 420, 450, 452, 453 —, Arctic .......................................................... 450 —, Common .................................................... 450 —, Mealy .......................................................... 450 Redstart, Black .............................. 361, 366, 368 —, Common .................................. 361, 366, 369 Redwing ......................................... 328, 329, 340 Reed-warbler, Blyth’s ........................... 233, 238 —, Common .......................................... 233, 238 —, Great .......................................... 233, 236, 305 Reedling, Bearded ........................ 162, 163, 184 Regulus ignicapilla .......................................... 282 — regulus .......................................................... 282 Remiz pendulinus ............................................ 180 Riparia riparia ................................................. 118 Robin, European ................................... 361, 362 —, Orange-flanked Bush- .............................. 364 —, Rufous-tailed Scrub- ................................ 376 —, White-throated ........................................ 374 ROBINS .......................................................... 362 Rock-thrush, Blue ......................................... 380 —, Rufous-tailed ............................................ 378 Roller, European ............................................. 70 Rook ................................................ 136, 137, 148 Rosefinch, Common ............ 408, 409, 420, 428 S Saxicola rubetra .............................................. 382 — torquatus hemprichii .................................. 386 — torquatus hibernans ................................... 384 — torquatus maurus ....................................... 386 — torquatus rubicola ...................................... 384 — torquatus variegatus ................................... 386 Scrub-robin, Rufous-tailed ......................... 376 Serin, European .................................... 421, 438 —, Red-fronted .............................................. 440 Serinus pusillus ................................................ 440 — serinus .......................................................... 438 Shrike, Great Grey ........................ 120, 121, 126 —, Iberian Grey ............................ 120, 121, 128 —, Isabelline .................................. 120, 121, 124 —, Lesser Grey .............................. 120, 121, 130 —, Masked ...................................... 120, 121, 132 —, Red-backed ...................... 120, 121, 122, 305 —, Red-tailed ................................. 120, 121, 124 —, Woodchat ................................. 120, 121, 134 SHRIKES ........................................................ 120 Siskin, Eurasian .................................... 421, 436 Sitta europaea .................................................. 308 — krueperi ....................................................... 311 — neumayer ..................................................... 310 Skylark, Eurasian .......................... 186, 187, 188 Snowfinch, White-winged .................. 456, 482 Sparrow, Eurasian Tree ............... 408, 409, 413 —, House ................................ 408, 409, 410, 412 —, Italian ........................................ 408, 410, 412 —, Rock ........................................... 408, 409, 414

Sparrow, Spanish .................. 408, 409, 410, 412 —, Tree ............................................ 408, 409, 413 SPARROWS ................................................... 408 Spilopelia senegalensis ....................................... 56 Spinus spinus ................................................... 436 Starling, Common ......................................... 322 —, Rosy ............................................................ 326 —, Spotless ...................................................... 324 STARLINGS ................................................... 320 Stonechat, ‘Armenian’ ..................................... 386 —, ‘Caspian’ ..................................................... 386 —, Common .......................................... 361, 384 —, ‘Eastern’ .................................... 386, 388, 223 —, ‘Siberian’ ..................................................... 386 Streptopelia decaocto ......................................... 50 — orientalis ........................................................ 54 — turtur ............................................................. 52 Sturnus unicolor .............................................. 324 — vulgaris ........................................................ 322 Swallow, Barn .................................... 98, 99, 114 —, Red-rumped ................................ 98, 99, 112 SWALLOWS ..................................................... 98 Swift, Alpine ...................................... 98, 99, 104 —, Common ...................................... 98, 99, 100 —, Little .............................................. 98, 99, 106 —, Pallid ............................................. 98, 99, 102 —, White-rumped ............................ 98, 99, 108 SWIFTS ............................................................. 98 Sylvia atricapilla .............................................. 286 — borin ............................................................. 287 — cantillans ..................................................... 292 — communis .................................................... 290 — conspicillata ................................................. 291 — crassirostris .................................................. 297 — curruca ........................................................ 296 — hortensis ...................................................... 297 — melanocephala ............................................ 302 — mystacea ...................................................... 303 — nisoria .......................................................... 298 — ruppeli .......................................................... 300 — subalpina ..................................................... 292 — undata ......................................................... 293 SYLVIA WARBLERS .................................... 284 T Tachymarptis melba ........................................ 104 Tarsiger cyanurus ............................................ 364 Thrush, Black-throated ....... 328, 329, 346, 348 —, Blue Rock- ................................................. 380 —, Dusky ................................ 328, 329, 342, 344 —, Eyebrowed ................................ 328, 329, 345 —, Mistle ........................................ 328, 329, 336 —, Naumann’s ................................ 328, 329, 342 —, Red-throated ............................................. 346 —, Rufous-tailed Rock- .................................. 378 —, Rufous-throated .............. 328, 329, 346, 349 —, Siberian ..................................... 328, 329, 350 —, Song ........................................... 328, 329, 338 —, White’s ...................................... 328, 329, 352 THRUSHES .................................................... 328 Tichodroma muraria ....................................... 312 Tit, Azure ....................................... 162, 163, 170 495

INDEX Tit, Bearded ..................................................... 184 —, Blue ............................................ 162, 163, 168 —, Coal ........................................... 162, 163, 166 —, Crested ...................................... 162, 163, 178 —, Eurasian Blue .......................... 162, 163, 168 —, Eurasian Penduline- ................ 162, 163, 180 —, Great .......................................... 162, 163, 164 —, Long-tailed .............................. 162, 163, 182 —, Marsh ........................................ 162, 163, 172 —, Penduline .................................. 162, 163, 180 —, Siberian ..................................... 162, 163, 174 —, Sombre ...................................... 162, 163, 176 —, Willow ....................................... 162, 163, 172 TITS ................................................................. 162 Treecreeper, Eurasian ................................... 314 —, Short-toed ................................................. 314 Troglodytes troglodytes .................................... 316 Turdus atrogularis ........................................... 346 — eunomus ...................................................... 342 — iliacus ........................................................... 340 — merula ......................................................... 330 — naumanni .................................................... 342 — obscurus ....................................................... 345 — philomelos .................................................... 338 — pilaris ........................................................... 334 — ruficollis ....................................................... 346 — torquatus ..................................................... 332 — viscivorus ..................................................... 336 Turtle-dove, European ....................... 42, 43, 52 —, Oriental ........................................... 42, 43, 54 Twite ............................................... 408, 409, 448 U Upupa epops ....................................................... 64 W Wagtail, Citrine ............................ 222, 223, 228 —, Grey ........................................... 222, 223, 230 —, ‘Pied’ ........................................................... 224 —, Western Yellow ........................ 222, 223, 226 —, White ......................................... 222, 223, 224 —, Yellow ........................................ 222, 223, 226 WAGTAILS .................................................... 222 Wallcreeper ..................................................... 312 Warbler, Aquatic ........................................... 242 —, Arctic ................................................. 263, 273 —, Barred ............................... 284, 285, 298, 305 —, Blyth’s Reed- .................................... 233, 238 —, Bonelli’s ............................................. 263, 270 —, Booted ............................................... 233, 255 —, Cetti’s ................................................ 247, 248 —, Common Grasshopper- ........................... 252 —, Common Reed- ................................ 233, 238 —, Dartford ........................... 284, 285, 293, 294 —, Dusky ........................................ 247, 263, 276 —, Eastern Bonelli’s ............................. 263, 270 —, Eastern Olivaceous ................................... 256 —, Eastern Orphean ..................... 284, 285, 295, 297, 305 —, Garden ..................... 233, 284, 285, 287, 288 —, Great Reed- ............................... 233, 236, 305 —, Green ................................................. 263, 274 —, Greenish ........................................... 263, 274 496

Warbler, Hume’s Leaf- .......................... 263, 278 —, Icterine .............................................. 233, 260 —, Isabelline .......................................... 233, 256 —, Lanceolated ............................................... 252 —, Marsh ................................................ 233, 238 —, Melodious ........................................ 233, 260 —, Menetries’s ....................... 284, 285, 303, 304 —, Moltoni’s ................................... 285, 292, 294 —, Moustached ...................................... 247, 243 —, Olivaceous ........................................ 233, 256 —, Olive-tree ......................................... 233, 258 —, Orphean ................... 284, 285, 295, 297, 305 —, Paddyfield ........................................ 233, 240 —, Pallas’s Grasshopper- ............................... 254 —, Pallas’s Leaf- ............................. 262, 263, 280 —, Radde’s ...................................... 247, 263, 277 —, River .................................................. 247, 250 —, Rüppell’s ................................... 284, 285, 300 —, Sardinian .......................... 284, 285, 302, 304 —, Savi’s .................................................. 247, 250 —, Sedge .......................................................... 242 —, Spectacled ........................ 284, 285, 289, 291 —, Subalpine .......................... 284, 285, 292, 294 —, Western Bonelli’s ............................ 263, 270 —, Western Olivaceous .................................. 256 —, Western Orphean ................... 284, 285, 295, 297, 305 —, Willow ....................................... 262, 263, 264 —, Wood ......................................... 262, 263, 272 —, Yellow-browed ................................. 263, 278 Waxwing, Bohemian ..................................... 320 Wheatear, Black ............................ 388, 389, 402 —, Black-eared ............. 388, 223, 396, 398, 399 —, Desert ........................................ 388, 389, 394 —, Finsch’s ...................................... 388, 389, 400 —, Isabelline .................................. 388, 389, 392 —, Northern ........................... 361, 388, 389, 390 —, Pied .................................... 388, 389, 396, 399 WHEATEARS ................................................ 388 Whinchat ............................... 361, 382, 388, 223 Whitethroat, Common ....... 284, 268, 289, 290 —, Lesser ............... 233, 263, 284, 285, 295, 296 Woodlark ................................................ 187, 202 Woodpecker, Black ........................... 78, 90, 137 —, Eurasian Green .................................... 78, 94 —, Great Spotted ....................................... 79, 80 —, Green ...................................................... 78, 94 —, Grey-faced ............................................. 78, 92 —, Grey-headed ................................................ 92 —, Lesser Spotted ...................................... 79, 86 —, Middle Spotted ..................................... 79, 82 —, Syrian ..................................................... 79, 80 —, Three-toed ............................................. 79, 88 —, White-backed ....................................... 79, 84 WOODPECKERS ........................................... 78 Woodpigeon, Common ...................... 42, 43, 48 Wren, Northern (Eurasian) ......... 247, 263, 316 Wryneck, Eurasian ............................... 305, 306 Yellowhammer .............. 408, 421, 456, 457, 460 Zoothera aurea ................................................ 352