Figurine Makers of Prehistoric Cyprus: Settlement and Cemeteries at Souskiou 9781789250190, 9781789250206, 1789250196

Table of contents :
Cover
Book Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Plates
Abbreviations and special terms
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction (Edgar Peltenburg)
1.1 Background to current research
1.2 The site of Souskiou
1.3 Research framework: variability among small scale societies
Part I Chronology and environment
2 Chronology (Charalambos Paraskeva)
2.1 Relative chronology
2.2 Absolute chronology
2.3 From absolute to relative and back again: the chronology of Souskiou Laona
3 The setting (Katleen Deckers and David Sewell)
3.1General remarks (D. S.)
3.2 Vegetation and wood use (K. D.)
4 Quaternary landscape evolution in the vicinity of Souskiou (John E. Dixon and Tim C. Kinnaird)
4.1Introduction
4.2 Geomorphological setting
4.3 Geological setting
4.4 Landscape evolution
4.5 Conclusions
Part II Settlement: built and open environment
5 Site survey and surface collection (Andrew McCarthy)
5.1Introduction
5.2 Summary of transect finds
5.3 Conclusions
6 Chalcolithic settlement on the Laona ridge (Edgar Peltenburg)
6.1Introduction
6.2 Structural components
6.3 Buildings, walls and other features from the settlement
6.4 Intra-settlement burials and human bone
7 Geoarchaeological analyses of domestic space and building technologies (Matthew Dalton)
7.1Introduction
7.2 Micromorphological methodology
7.3 Summary of micromorphological results
7.4 Summary of spatial microartefactual and geochemical analyses
7.5 Conclusion
Part III Mortuary contexts
8 The cemetery (Lindy Crewe)
8.1Introduction
8.2 Aims and methodologies
8.3 Terminology and definitions
8.4 Catalogue of tombs and related features in Operation C
8.5 Additional Period I or I/II features in Operation C
8.6 Discussion of mortuary and other features
9 Human remains (Kirsi O. Lorentz)
9.1Introduction
9.2 Materials and methods
9.3 Analytical results
9.4 Discussion
9.5 Conclusion
Part IV Integrated studies
10 Chalcolithic pottery (Diane Bolger)
10.1Introduction
10.2 Ceramic typology
10.3 Decorative and technological features
10.4 Fabric composition
10.5 Pottery from the transect survey
10.6 Pottery vessels and miscellaneous objects from the Souskiou settlement
10.7 Pottery vessels and sherdage from the cemetery
10.8 The stylistic development of Red-on-White pottery
10.9 Comparison of the Laona and Vathyrkakas assemblages
10.10 Ceramics and social identity at Souskiou
Plate section
11 Figurines and figurative pendants (Elizabeth Goring)
11.1Terminology
11.2 Typology
11.3 Corpus
11.4 Picrolite and figurative objects
11.5 Figurines
11.6 Figurative pendants
11.7 Fragmentary figurative objects
11.8 Roughouts and pre-forms
11.9 Pottery and fired clay fragments
11.10 Stone other than picrolite
11.11 Shell
11.12 Pig’s tusk (and possibly bone)
11.13 Discussion
12 Other body ornaments and objects (Edgar Peltenburg)
12.1Introduction
12.2 Beads
12.3 Pendants
12.4 Materials
12.5 Production on site
13 Picrolite: procurement, manufacture and use (Edgar Peltenburg)
13.1Introduction 233
13.2 The outputs
13.3 Manufacture
14 The ground stone industry (John E. Dixon, Romesh Palakumbura and Edgar Peltenburg)
14.1Lithology and provenance (J. D. and R. P.)
14.2 Ground stone typology (E. P.)
14.3 Caches and other objects (E. P.)
15 The chipped stone industry (Carole McCartney)
15.1Introduction
15.2 The assemblage
15.3 Core technology
15.4 The tools
15.5 Working picrolite with chipped stone techniques and tools
15.6 Production loci
16 Chemical analyses of copper objects and faience beads using portable X-Ray Fluorescence (Vasiliki Kassianidou and Andreas Charalambos)
16.1Introduction (V. K.)
16.2 Chalcolithic metal artefacts from Cyprus (V. K.)
16.3 Chalcolithic faience objects from Cyprus (V. K.)
16.4 A new analytical study (A. C. and V. K.)
17 Animal remains and the bone and antler industry (Paul Croft)
17.1Animal remains
17.2 The bone and antler industry
18 The plant remains (Leilani Lucas)
18.1Introduction
18.2 Methodology and presentation of data
18.3 Contexts of the samples
18.4 Analytical results
18.5 The plant remains in a wider context
19 Mollusca (Janet Ridout-Sharpe)
19.1Introduction
19.2 Mollusca from the settlement
19.3 Mollusca from the cemetery
19.4 Mollusca from Souskiou Laona in a wider context
20 Periods III–VI (Peter Cosyns, Agata Dobosz, Lisa Graham and Edgar Peltenburg)
20.1Periods III–VI at Souskiou (E. P.)
20.2 Early and Middle Bronze Age pottery from Period III (L. G.)
20.3 Pottery of Periods V–VI (A. D.)
20.4 The glass (P. C.)
21 Ritual, identity and community at Souskiou: traditions and transformations (Diane Bolger, Lindy Crewe and Edgar Peltenburg)
21.1Introduction
21.2 Re-assessing the Souskiou cemeteries
21.3 The Laona settlement and the ritual economy of Souskiou
21.4 The emergence of social inequality at Souskiou
21.5 The decline of the cruciform and the transformation of social identity
List of References
Appendices
Appendix A: Catalogue of registered objects (full version on ADS)
Appendix B: Objects from buildings, features and trenches
Back Cover

Citation preview

Figurine Makers of Prehistoric Cyprus

Settlement and Cemeteries at Souskiou

EDITED BY

Edgar Peltenburg, Diane Bolger and Lindy Crewe

Oxford & Philadelphia

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 1

31/05/2019 14:25

Published in the United Kingdom in 2019 by OXBOW BOOKS The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JE and in the United States by OXBOW BOOKS 1950 Lawrence Road, Havertown, PA 19083 © Oxbow Books and the authors 2019 Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-019-0 Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-020-6 (epub)

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number:2019942980

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher in writing.

Printed in Malta by Melita Press Ltd For a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact: UNITED KINGDOM Oxbow Books Telephone (01865) 241249 Email: [email protected] www.oxbowbooks.com UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Oxbow Books Telephone (610) 853 9131, Fax (610) 853 9146 Email: [email protected] www.casemateacademic.com/oxbow Oxbow Books is part of the Casemate Group

Front cover: A selection of anthropomorphic pendants and figurines from Souskiou Laona (photo credits: Bob Miller). Back cover: Copper spiral pendant 544 from Souskiou Laona settlement (photo credit: Bob Miller). Title page: Panorama of the Souskiou Laona ridge taken from Vathyrkakas (Ben Blakeman and Charalambos Pareskeva).

Oxbow imprint page 2019.indd 1

07/06/2019 15:57:23

Contents

Preface vi List of Figures vii List of Tables xi List of Plates xiv Abbreviations and special terms xvii Acknowledgments xviii 1 Introduction (Edgar Peltenburg) 1.1 Background to current research 1.2 The site of Souskiou 1.3 Research framework: variability among small scale societies

1 3 5

Part I Chronology and environment 2 Chronology (Charalambos Paraskeva) 2.1 Relative chronology 2.2 Absolute chronology 2.3 From absolute to relative and back again: the chronology of Souskiou Laona 3 The setting (Katleen Deckers and David Sewell) 3.1 General remarks (D. S.) 3.2 Vegetation and wood use (K. D.) 4 Quaternary landscape evolution in the vicinity of Souskiou (John E. Dixon and Tim C. Kinnaird) 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Geomorphological setting 4.3 Geological setting 4.4 Landscape evolution 4.5 Conclusions

7 31 41

47 53

59 59 59 63 66

Part II Settlement: built and open environment 5 Site survey and surface collection (Andrew McCarthy) 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Summary of transect finds 5.3 Conclusions 6 Chalcolithic settlement on the Laona ridge (Edgar Peltenburg) 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Structural components 6.3 Buildings, walls and other features from the settlement 6.4 Intra-settlement burials and human bone 7 Geoarchaeological analyses of domestic space and building technologies (Matthew Dalton) 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Micromorphological methodology 7.3 Summary of micromorphological results 7.4 Summary of spatial microartefactual and geochemical analyses 7.5 Conclusion

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 3

67 69 73

75 76 80 90

91 91 91 95 96

31/05/2019 14:25

Part III Mortuary contexts 8 The cemetery (Lindy Crewe) 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Aims and methodologies 8.3 Terminology and definitions 8.4 Catalogue of tombs and related features in Operation C 8.5 Additional Period I or I/II features in Operation C 8.6 Discussion of mortuary and other features

97 98 99 102 128 130

9 Human remains (Kirsi O. Lorentz) 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Materials and methods 9.3 Analytical results 9.4 Discussion 9.5 Conclusion

135 135 137 160 163 Part IV Integrated studies

10 Chalcolithic pottery (Diane Bolger) 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Ceramic typology 10.3 Decorative and technological features 10.4 Fabric composition 10.5 Pottery from the transect survey 10.6 Pottery vessels and miscellaneous objects from the Souskiou settlement 10.7 Pottery vessels and sherdage from the cemetery 10.8 The stylistic development of Red-on-White pottery 10.9 Comparison of the Laona and Vathyrkakas assemblages 10.10 Ceramics and social identity at Souskiou

165 166 170 170 171 172 185 194 201 205

11 Figurines and figurative pendants (Elizabeth Goring) 11.1 Terminology 11.2 Typology 11.3 Corpus 11.4 Picrolite and figurative objects 11.5 Figurines 11.6 Figurative pendants 11.7 Fragmentary figurative objects 11.8 Roughouts and pre-forms 11.9 Pottery and fired clay fragments 11.10 Stone other than picrolite 11.11 Shell 11.12 Pig’s tusk (and possibly bone) 11.13 Discussion

207 208 209 209 210 211 215 216 217 218 219 219 219

12 Other body ornaments and objects (Edgar Peltenburg) 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Beads 12.3 Pendants 12.4 Materials 12.5 Production on site

223 224 227 231 232

13 Picrolite: procurement, manufacture and use (Edgar Peltenburg) 13.1 Introduction 13.2 The outputs 13.3 Manufacture

233 233 235

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 4

31/05/2019 14:25

14 The ground stone industry (John E. Dixon, Romesh Palakumbura and Edgar Peltenburg) 14.1 Lithology and provenance (J. D. and R. P.) 14.2 Ground stone typology (E. P.) 14.3 Caches and other objects (E. P.) 15 The chipped stone industry (Carole McCartney) 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The assemblage 15.3 Core technology 15.4 The tools 15.5 Working picrolite with chipped stone techniques and tools 15.6 Production loci

249 250 261

265 265 267 270 272 275

16 Chemical analyses of copper objects and faience beads using portable X-Ray Fluorescence (Vasiliki Kassianidou and Andreas Charalambos) 16.1 Introduction (V. K.) 16.2 Chalcolithic metal artefacts from Cyprus (V. K.) 16.3 Chalcolithic faience objects from Cyprus (V. K.) 16.4 A new analytical study (A. C. and V. K.)

279 279 282 283

17 Animal remains and the bone and antler industry (Paul Croft) 17.1 Animal remains 17.2 The bone and antler industry

287 293

18 The plant remains (Leilani Lucas) 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Methodology and presentation of data 18.3 Contexts of the samples 18.4 Analytical results 18.5 The plant remains in a wider context

297 297 297 297 299

19 Mollusca (Janet Ridout-Sharpe) 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Mollusca from the settlement 19.3 Mollusca from the cemetery 19.4 Mollusca from Souskiou Laona in a wider context

301 301 302 304

20 Periods III–VI (Peter Cosyns, Agata Dobosz, Lisa Graham and Edgar Peltenburg) 20.1 Periods III–VI at Souskiou (E. P.) 20.2 Early and Middle Bronze Age pottery from Period III (L. G.) 20.3 Pottery of Periods V–VI (A. D.) 20.4 The glass (P. C.)

307 310 313 320

21 Ritual, identity and community at Souskiou: traditions and transformations (Diane Bolger, Lindy Crewe and Edgar Peltenburg) 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Re-assessing the Souskiou cemeteries 21.3 The Laona settlement and the ritual economy of Souskiou 21.4 The emergence of social inequality at Souskiou 21.5 The decline of the cruciform and the transformation of social identity

323 323 328 330 333

List of References

337 Appendices

Appendix A: Catalogue of registered objects (full version on ADS) Appendix B: Objects from buildings, features and trenches

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 5

354 360

31/05/2019 14:25

Preface

While the main focus of this volume has been the publication of the Lemba Archaeological Project’s excavations at Souskiou Laona, where possible we have attempted to interpret those results within the larger framework of previous work in the region, particularly at Souskiou Vathyrkakas, which was excavated by four missions from 1950 to 1997 and published jointly by the Department of Antiquities and members of the Lemba Archaeological Project in 2006 (Vathyrkakas). Under the skilled leadership of project director Eddie Peltenburg, fieldwork at Laona delivered far more than it initially promised. Since the cemetery site (Operation C) had been extensively looted, we expected to devote one or two seasons to planning and recording empty tombs; but looters had frequently failed to reach the lowest levels of tombs and in some cases missed entire tombs; even many of the partially looted tombs proved to contain intact burial deposits, including extensive human remains. As a result, six seasons of excavation (2001–2006) were required to complete the excavations. Investigations at the Laona settlement also yielded results that were far more fruitful than initially anticipated—not, in this case, due to looting activity, but to erosion activities on the steep slope of the Laona ridge, resulting in the substantial loss of domestic structures into the Vathyrkakas ravine below. Trial trenches in Operation A in 1992 showed promising results, however, and more extensive operations between 2006–2011 revealed the partial remains of 27 Chalcolithic buildings and possible structures, as reported in Chapter 6. In essence, what had initially been regarded as a short-term rescue operation evolved into a long-term research excavation of 11 field seasons (2001–2011) and four seasons of post-excavation work (2012–2015). A detailed comparison of the Laona settlement and cemetery with more distant sites in the region, such as Kissonerga and Lemba, lies beyond the remit of the

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 6

current volume. However, the reader who is familiar with the material from those sites will note striking differences at Souskiou—not only with regard to the unprecedented practice on the island of collective burials in extra-mural cemeteries, but also in many aspects of material culture, most notably the extensive evidence for picrolite production at the Laona settlement. This shows the value of excavating contemporary sites within a single region: rather than simply yielding more of the same material, they allow us to identify and investigate significant differences in behavioural practices between temporally overlapping and spatially proximate communities. While the eroded nature of the settlement and the extensive looting of many of the tombs at the cemetery have posed challenges to writing up this final report, the most difficult aspect of the editing process, both academically and personally, has been the tragic loss of Eddie Peltenburg, whose contribution to the prehistory of Cyprus for over half a century, from his first excavations at Ayios Epiktitos Vrysi in the late 1960s until his death in 2016, remains unparalleled. It is testimony to his keen interest in this site and his determination to see it through to print that despite his illness, he managed to complete all but the concluding chapter of this volume during the final months of his life. As his co-editors, we have had to face the daunting task of fashioning all of the chapters into a coherent whole, and writing the conclusion, and we are the first to acknowledge that we have not been able to do so in the deeply informed and insightful way that Eddie would have done. However, in bringing this volume to fruition we have tried our best to do justice to Eddie’s unimpeachable record of publication and to his unstinting efforts for more than a decade at the archaeological site in Cyprus that was closest to his heart. Diane Bolger Lindy Crewe Nicosia, May 2019

31/05/2019 14:25

List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Figure 1.2: Figure 1.3: Figure 1.4: Figure 1.5: Figure 1.6: Figure 2.1: Figure 2.2: Figure 2.3: Figure 2.4: Figure 2.5: Figure 2.6: Figure 2.7: Figure 2.8: Figure 2.9: Figure 2.10: Figure 2.11: Figure 2.12: Figure 2.13:

Figure 2.14: Figure 2.15:

Figure 2.16:

Figure 2.17:

Figure 3.1: Figure 3.2: Figure 3.3: Figure 3.4: Figure 3.5: Figure 3.6:

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 7

View of the Souskiou Laona cemetery in 1972 (photograph F. G. Maier). View of the Souskiou Laona cemetery from the west in 1975 (photograph S. Hadjisavvas). View of the top of the Souskiou Laona ridge in 1975 (photograph S. Hadjisavvas). View of the Laona ridge from the north. View of the Laona settlement from the south. View from Laona ridge to the Mediterranean Sea. Aspect-slope map of Souskiou Laona with survey transects, survey finds and excavated areas. Analytical Harris matrix of Building 34 with stratigraphic phases. Overview of the stratigraphic sequences and relative chronology of unit groups at the Souskiou Laona settlement. Quantitative and proportional comparison of ceramics from select units in BU897, BU1015 and Pre-BU796. Proportional comparison of ceramics by concordance group for all unit groups (UG) and surface groups (TS) at the Souskiou Laona settlement. Quantitative and proportional comparison of settlement units by integrity status, Operation and assignment to unit groups. Quantitative and proportional tabulation of sherdage from the Souskiou Laona settlement by general periodisation group, Operation and unit integrity status. Quantitative and proportional tabulation of compound ceramic inventories for unit groups in sequences. Seriation of typologically classified Chalcolithic pottery for unit groups in Sequences 1–8. Kernel density analysis of combined topsoil and survey sherdage for the Souskiou Laona settlement by relative period. Correlations between radiocarbon samples and site stratigraphy by Operation. Probability density distributions of the Interval with Gap (10) and Gap (15) OxCal functions illustrating the likely gap between Pre-Phase 1 and Phase 2 of BU34. A. Plot of radiocarbon samples from the Souskiou Laona settlement against the IntCal13 calibration curve with comments on modality, skewness and weight of probability densities. B. Scatterplot of skewness to data points for the radiocarbon samples from the Souskiou Laona settlement with the upper and lower normal skewness limits for normal distributions. Double scatterplot of the agreement indexes for the Period I–I/II models group (above) and the Period I/II–II models group (below) by model type (Contiguous, Sequential, Overlapping). Individual sample agreement indexes for samples in the Period I–I/II models group (above) and for samples in the Period I/II–II models group (below) by model type (Contiguous, Sequential, Overlapping). Cross plot of the one sigma (68.27%) sub-ranges for all modelled radiocarbon samples in all the passes (including the Outlier Pass) of the Contiguous, Sequential, and Overlapping models of the Period I–I/II and Period I/II–II models groups without the OxCal calculated boundaries. Cross plot of the one sigma (68.27%) sub-ranges for all modelled radiocarbon samples in all the passes (including the Outlier Pass) of the Contiguous, Sequential, and Overlapping models of the Period I–I/II and Period I/II–II models groups without the OxCal calculated boundaries. General view of the Laona ridge. Excavation of Building 850 in Operation D. View of the Dhiarizos valley from Operation B. Erosion gully on the Laona ridge. Aerial view of Laona with the West Ridge in the foreground. Map of landscape resource zones around Laona.

31/05/2019 14:25

viii

List of Figures

Figure 3.7: Figure 4.1: Figure 4.2: Figure 4.3: Figure 4.4:

Period V retaining wall on Laona ridge lower slope. View of the Souskiou Laona ridge taken from the east-facing slope of the Vathyrkakas ravine. View of the Vathyrkakas ravine looking east across the Dhiarizos River from the village of Nikokleia. View of the mouth of the Vathyrkakas ravine from the riverbed of the Dhiarizos River. Structural trends in the bedrock geology. Outcrop of Pakhna Formation chalk at the point where the Kouklia–Souskiou dirt road crosses the Vathyrkakas ravine. Figure 4.5: View of the upper reach of the Vathyrkakas ravine from a vantage point on the Kouklia– Archimandrita road. Figure 4.6: View of the lower reach of the Vathyrkakas ravine looking south along the valley axis. Figure 4.7: Provenance data from prominent geomorphological features (and the associated sediments) in the Sousikou Laona region. Figure 4.8: View south from Archimandrita village looking at the northern slopes of the topographically elevated Orietes Forest block. Figure 4.9: Luminescence stratigraphies for the sediment sequence sampled at the northeast of the most northwestern structure, and into the foundation fill of this structure. Figure 5.1: Overview of surface collection transects from the Souskiou Laona ridge. Figure 5.2: Prehistoric ceramic distribution from surface collection transects. Figure 5.3: Period V ceramic distribution from surface collection transects. Figure 5.4: Chipped stone tool distribution from surface collection transects. Figure 5.5: Chipped stone debitage distribution from surface collection transects. Figure 5.6: Small finds and ground stone tool distribution from surface collection transects. Figure 6.1: Legend for symbols on plans. Figure 7.1: Large earthworm burrow filled by excremental aggregates (A) in wall collapse fill 990, bisected by void containing humified rootlets (B). Also, smaller faunal voids throughout otherwise well-preserved clay floor 1000.1 (C). Figure 7.2: Probable dung-derived phosphatic material in collapsed mudwall. Figure 7.3: Aggregate in fill 979 containing multiple layers of mud wall plaster (A, C) and clay wash (B). Figure 7.4: Detail of same mud wall aggregate in fill 979 (D). Figures 7.5–6: Slide scans of MM07 (L) and MM08 (R) with interpreted micro-contexts. Figure 7.7: Multiple water-laid crusts (with vertical drying cracks) in floor 1000.4. Figure 7.8: Calcareous plaster floor 1000.3 with partially-burnt (?) calcareous aggregates (A), microfossils (B) and fragmentary potsherd (C). Plaster directly overlays water-laid crusts on floor 1000.4 (D). Figure 7.9: Calcareous clay floor (A) and laminar, micro-charcoal-rich occupation deposits (B) in floor 1000.6, with ochre fragment (C). Figure 7.10: Red clay (probably ground ochre) overlying floor 1000.1. Figure 7.11: Spatial distribution of soil potassium (K) in floor sequence 1000 and hearth fill 1008. Figure 8.1: View of the central area of Operation C looking northeast prior to commencing excavation in 2001. Figure 8.2: View of Square H8/I8 from the northwest prior to excavation in 2001. Figure 8.3: View of Operation C from the west showing tomb density after full exposure of the outcrop. Figure 8.4: Types of Period I or I/II rock cut features. Figure 8.5: Proportions of major types of Period I or I/II rock-cut features in Operation C (n=142). Figure 8.6: Percentages of feature types in relation to bedrock composition. Figure 8.7: Proportions of different feature types with capstone cuts. Figure 8.8: Classes of anthropogenic inclusions within intact/looted facilities by type. Figure 8.9: Integrity status of tombs and pits in Operation C. Figure 8.10: Integrity status of features in Operation C by type. Figure 9.1: Percentages of tombs in Operation C with 0, 1, 2 or 3 articulated individuals. Figure 9.2: Percentages of articulated individuals with sufficient age data (n=25) by decade. Figure 9.3: Percentages of bonestack individuals with sufficient age data (n=65) by decade. Figure 9.4: Numbers of articulated and bonestack individuals by decade. Figure 9.5: Percentages of articulated and bonestack individuals with sufficient age data (n=90) by decade. Figure 9.6: Percentages of females/probable females and males/probable males among articulated individuals in Operation C. Figure 9.7: Percentages of tombs in Operation C with specific types of body treatment (n=26). Figure 9.8: Percentages of tombs in Operation C with specific combinations of degrees of articulation (n=26).

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 8

31/05/2019 14:25

List of Figures

ix

Figure 9.9: Photograph of three articulated skeletons in Tomb 207 of Operation C. Figure 10.1: Motifs recorded on pattern-painted wares at Souskiou Laona. Figure 12.1: Incidence of beads and pendant shapes at Neolithic to Early Bronze Age sites. Figure 12.2: Numbers of ornaments at Souskiou according to material type (excluding dentalia). Figure 13.1: Picrolite disc 966. Figure 13.2: Picrolite adze 596. Figure 13.3: Picrolite tool 1749. Figure 13.4: Possible picrolite tool 2048. Figure 13.5: Picrolite source at Pano Amiandos. Figure 13.6: Picrolite source from Pano Amiandos (A–C) and the Loumata River near Mazora (D). Figure 13.7: Picrolite pebbles in the Kouris River. Figure 13.8: Possible tool 2324. Figure 13.9: Fragmentary figurative object 1414. Figure 13.10: Pendant 530. Figure 13.11: Pendant 264. Figure 13.12: Figurine/pendant 1941. Figure 13.13: Percentages of picrolite types (finished objects) from the Souskiou sites. Figure 13.14: Picrolite pendants from Souskiou Laona (top row) and Souskiou Vathyrkakas (bottom row). Figure 13.15: Picrolite slabs 591, 1962 and 2623. Figure 13.16: Picrolite slab 2191. Figure 13.17: Picrolite pebbles 990, 991 and 1478. Figure 13.18: Picrolite pebble 991. Figure 13.19: Picrolite pebble 589. Figure 13.20: Picrolite pebble 2962. Figure 13.21: Picrolite roughout 1899. Figure 13.22: Pre-form 1681. Figure 13.23: Pre-form 1970. Figure 13.24: Pre-form 1612. Figure 13.25: Pre-form 2491 and roughly executed pendant 2961. Figure 13.26: Figurine/pendant 1692. Figure 13.27: Picrolite manufacturing debris from Trench 30 in Operation D at Laona. Figure 13.28: Picrolite manufacturing debris from Trench 30 in Operation D at Laona. Figure 13.29: Breakdown of picrolite objects and production material from Trench 30 at Laona. Figure 13.30: Debitage (including partly cortical irregular blade 2488) and flakes. Figure 13.31: Sandstone anvil 2374. Figure 13.32: Pre-form 2833. Figure 13.33: Pre-form 2940. Figure 13.34: Pre-form 2831. Figure 13.35: Pre-form 1829. Figure 13.36: Pre-form 1913. Figure 13.37: Picrolite tool 1354. Figure 13.38: Pendant 2261. Figure 13.39: Pendant 2808. Figure 13.40: Pre-form 239. Figure 13.41: Figurine/pendant 387. Figure 13.42: Close-up of suspension hole on pendant SVP 29/25 from Souskiou Vathyrkakas. Figure 13.43: Pendant 279. Figure 13.44: Pendant 1866. Figure 13.45: Pendant 246. Figure 13.46: Picrolite pebble 2962. Figure 13.47: Figurine/pendant 433. Figure 13.48: Figurine/pendant 553. Figure 13.49: Picrolite bead 408. Figure 14.1: Lithology of tool types.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 9

31/05/2019 14:25

x

List of Figures

Figure 14.2: Figure 14.3: Figure 14.4: Figure 15.1: Figure 15.2: Figure 15.3: Figure 15.4: Figure 15.5: Figure 15.6: Figure 15.7: Figure 15.8: Figure 15.9:

Ground stone assemblage by artefact class (showing above 1% occurrence). Varieties of pestle types inside buildings. Locations of caches inside buildings (North/back=back of house). Material from flint caches. Tools from buildings. Tools from buildings, pit 1073 and Trench 30. Flaked slab core 2191 (L); various flakes and chips (R). A. Experimental 90° cut and one of five utilised tools used; B. 279. A. Experimental flaked and incised pebble; B. Experimental incision; C. 408. A. Experimental facetting using burin facet; B. Experimental facetting using a break; C. 2261. A, B. Experimental perforation with hand-held spall, L 14.6 mm, Diam. 1.9 mm; C. 397. A, B. Correlation of picrolite debitage, selected chert tools and core reduction evidence in buildings and features of Operations A and B with Trench 30 of Operation D. Figure 16.1: Copper spiral pendant 554 from Building 34 in Operation B. Figure 16.2: Miscellaneous copper fragment 569 from Building 34 in Operation B. Figure 16.3: Miscellaneous copper fragment 570 from Building 34 in Operation B (not analysed). Figure 16.4: Miscellaneous copper fragment 867 from Building 34 in Operation B. Figure 16.5: A selection of faience beads 488 retrieved from Tomb 221 in Operation C. Figure 17.1: Body part representation for the main animals. Figure 17.2: Mortality of deer and caprines from Souskiou Laona, Marki Alonia and other sites. Figure 17.3: Deer distal radius. Distal breadth (Bd) plotted against breadth of distal articulation (BFd). Figure 17.4: Maximum shank diameters of needles. Figure 17.5: Lengths (mm) of Type 7 antler beads. Figure 17.6: Type 7 beads. Length x breadth (mm). Figure 18.1: Pie chart of the proportional representation of the total number of plant specimens per building. Figure 18.2: Scatter gram plot showing the relationship between the numbers of taxa and sample volume classified by building. Figure 18.3: Scatter gram plot showing the relationship between the number of items per litre and sample size from Souskiou Laona (SL) and Kissonerga Mosphilia (KMos). Figure 20.1: Period V sherd distribution. Figure 20.2: View of the top of Period V rubble fill layer within Tomb 201 of Operation C. Figure 20.3: East–west terrace wall 14 in Operation A/B (Period V and later). Figure 20.4: East–west terrace wall 60 in Operation A/B (Period V and later). Figure 20.5: Stone gaming board 648 from survey transect B1 on the West Ridge of the settlement. Figure 20.6: Wall 440 in Operation C. Figure 20.7: Numbers of open and closed vessel forms for Period III pottery wares. Figure 20.8: Period III sherds. Figure 20.9: A selection of fragmentary pottery vessels from Period III at Souskiou Laona. Figure 20.10: Period V stamped amphora handle 599. Figure 20.11: Fragmentary pottery vessels from Period V at Souskiou Laona (RS 125–1650). Figure 20.12: Fragmentary pottery vessels from Period V at Souskiou Laona (RS 1656–2111.1). Figure 20.13: Fragmentary pottery vessels from Period V at Souskiou Laona (RS 2112.2–2281, 3186, 3187). Figure 20.14: A selection of fragmentary glass objects from Souskiou Laona Period V. Figure 21.1: Types and numbers of anthropogenic materials within intact or largely intact deposits in Period I and I/II rock-cut features in Operation C (n=31). Figure 21.2: Map of western Cyprus showing the strategic location of Souskiou within the region. Figure 21.3: Distribution of picrolite objects, unworked fragments and debitage at the Souskiou sites.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 10

31/05/2019 14:25

List of Tables

Table 2.1: Table 2.2: Table 2.3: Table 2.4: Table 2.5: Table 2.6: Table 2.7: Table 2.8: Table 2.9: Table 2.10: Table 2.11: Table 2.12: Table 2.13: Table 3.1: Table 3.2: Table 3.3: Table 4.1: Table 8.1: Table 9.1: Table 9.2: Table 9.3: Table 9.4: Table 9.5: Table 9.6: Table 9.7: Table 9.8: Table 9.9: Table 9.10: Table 9.11:

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 11

Analytical presentation of unit groups by Operation from older to younger based on the stratigraphic analysis of Souskiou Laona settlement units. Allocation of wares to general periodisation groups for the analysis of statistical difference in the dating of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and unit groups. Surface groups and their associated units for the analysis of statistical difference in the dating of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and unit groups. Concordance groups and their descriptions for the analysis of statistical difference in the dating of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and unit groups. Results of the statistical processing of data regarding the presence of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and unit groups by concordance group. Integrity status levels and their description for the analysis of potential use of ceramic material from contaminated and mixed units. Results of statistical correlations between unit integrity and concordance percentages and their statistical interpretation. Correspondences between unit integrity and pottery concordance. Extrapolated sequences by Operation based on the stratigraphic analysis of the Souskiou Laona settlement unit groups. Contextual and content data, material information, and initial calibration at one and two sigma of radiocarbon samples from the Souskiou Laona settlement. Model and overall agreement indices with gap estimation at different gap argument values for the models regarding the interval between Pre-Phase 1 and Phase 2 of BU34. Results of skewness analysis for the radiocarbon samples of the Souskiou Laona settlement. Results of the data quality analysis for the radiocarbon samples of the Souskiou Laona settlement. Samples from sealed Chalcolithic deposits indicating their charcoal fragment count content. Samples from mixed or unsealed Chalcolithic deposits with their charcoal fragment count content. Summary of contents of charcoal samples as absolute fragment counts or fragment percentages. Prominent erosional surfaces, with associated sediments, in the vicinity of the Souskiou Laona excavations. Minimum, maximum and mean dimensions of attributes of tombs and pits in Operation C. Number of articulated individuals within intact or semi-intact graves from the settlement (Operations A and B). Numbers of articulated individuals within intact or partly intact tombs in Operation C with sufficiently intact burial layers for assessment. Minimum number of individuals (MNIs) in tombs in Operation C with intact or largely intact burial layers. Minimum number of individuals (MNIs) in Operation C. Percentages of subadults in Operation C. Age and sex estimates of individuals from Operations A and B of the settlement. Age and sex data for disturbed commingled human remains recovered from general settlement contexts in Operations A and B. Age and sex estimates for articulated individuals from Chalcolithic contexts at the Souskiou Laona cemetery. Age and sex estimates of Period V burials in Tomb 201. Age and sex data for bonestack material in tombs with intact or mostly intact burial layers. Age distribution of subadults from bonestacks in Operation C.

31/05/2019 14:25

xii

List of Tables

Table 9.12: Age distribution of subadults from tombs with intact or largely intact burial layers in Operation C. Table 9.13: Distribution of sex estimates for individuals with recovered diagnostics from intact tombs (n=75) in Operation C. Table 9.14: Numbers and percentages of females/probable females and males/probable males in intact tombs of Operation C (n=75). Table 9.15: Stature estimates for individuals from Operation C. Table 9.16: Stature estimates from larger longbones within bonestacks of Operation C. Table 9.17: Patterns of burial deposition in tombs of Operation C. Table 9.18: Number of crania, mandibles and extremities in bone groups of Tomb 168. Table 9.19: Numbers of subadults (40%) - SW

Excavated Areas

Slope (%) - Direction

Low slope (5-20%) - S

Moderate slope (20-40%) - E

High slope (>40%) - N

High slope (>40%) - W

Surveyed Areas

Near flat slope (0-5%) - N/A

Low slope (5-20%) - SW

Moderate slope (20-40%) - SE

High slope (>40%) - NE

High slope (>40%) - NW

Low slope (5-20%) - N

Low slope (5-20%) - W

Moderate slope (20-40%) - S

High slope (>40%) - E

Low slope (5-20%) - NE

Low slope (5-20%) - NW

Moderate slope (20-40%) - SW

High slope (>40%) - SE

!

1 Dot = 30 Sherds

Low slope (5-20%) - E

Moderate slope (20-40%) - N

Moderate slope (20-40%) - W

High slope (>40%) - S

!

Total Sherds

Survey and Topsoil Sherds

¯ 0

25

50 m

Figure 2.1: Aspect-slope map (Brewer and Marlow 1993) of Souskiou Laona with survey transects, survey finds and excavated areas.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 8

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology 0

1 610 132 43

91

184

12

Phase 2 end

4 4 1 11 103 28 8 6

9

19

8

67

74

36

44

2

20

463

33 45

4 13 411 20 1 1 382 23

38

11161812

66

492

2

2

Post-Phase 2 and Topsoil 1

84 128 1

16

73

72

42

4

4

14

21

1

71 66 Phase 1 end 1

4

7

2 3

58

221

15

96

97

11 27

98

493

3

95

85

86

3

801

789

53

65

Phase 2 start

788 7

8

1

1

1

1

786

784

551

1

787

785

650

Unit Status Sealed Mixed Natural Contaminated Pottery Wares

576

5

1

3 2 1 1 1

18

1

5

84

87

2

641

642

775

507

649

652

783

508

1 1

71

6

2

58

22 1

632

575 574

640

2 3 1 5 12

617 616 32

28 5 Pre-Phase 1 and bedrock

2

731

44

732

57

25 6

89 1

16 4

10

5

639 88

1

6

18

19

20 3

6 Phase 1 start

13

166

118

151

495 21 26

92

90

CPW (mono) RWL (coarse) RMP-B (coarse) RB/B (coarse) UCHAL CHAL? LATE

2

81

592

2

Legend

RMP-A RWPB CW PW RM (coarse) SW PW (coarse)

15 1 14

494 6

1

35 23

2

1 3

23

43 504 Vessel (coloured by ware) Unit’s ceramic profile Stratigraphic link

94 93 91

Note: A few sherds from vessel 1454 in unit 36 were also found in unit 493. Also, a few sherds of vessels 1460 and 1463 in unit 97 were found in units 493 and 36/86 respectively.

Figure 2.2: Analytical Harris matrix of Building 34 with stratigraphic phases. Pottery sherds by unit are displayed as 100% stacked bars with numbers indicating the exact number of sherds for each ware, while the number of vessels by unit and ware is indicated within their respective triangles.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 9

31/05/2019 14:25

10

Charalambos Paraskeva

by creating queries. This process allowed data verification by checking for inter-source correspondence, which in turn aided the discovery and resolution of several issues with non-corresponding, isolated, misattributed and orphan data points resulting either from errors introduced in the digital files or errors in the pre-existing analogue sources. Finally, tables containing artefactual data were also linked to the project’s GIS dataset in ArcMap to perform spatial analyses. 2. Unit groups formation based on stratigraphy: This stage of analysis concerns solely the Souskiou Laona settlement as the evidence preserved at the cemetery was not sufficient for sequencing any of the tombs (see Chap. 8). After constructing a unified environment for data interrogation and analysis, it was initially attempted to reconstruct the stratigraphy for each Operation of the settlement on a per unit basis by considering stratigraphic information from the Unit Log (App. C on ADS), archival sources (unit sheets, photographs, notes), written accounts, Harris matrixes, trench plans, and associated ceramic data for each unit. However, as the example from the well-stratified and relatively undisturbed B 34 in Fig. 2.2 illustrates, the limitations posed by the natural and cultural site formation processes mentioned above would have yielded incomprehensible and/or unusable results. In particular, there are several nodal units that do not contain datable material or contain cultural material that cannot be confidently dated (Fig. 2.2: units 66, 86, 44); fills and surfaces with complex stratigraphy are on occasion recorded as singular entities (e.g. midden fill 1038, Fig. 2.2: units 97, 493); the quantity of datable ceramics per unit is in several occasions not statistically important (Fig. 2.2: all sealed units except 97, 493, 783); the number of pottery sherds per unit is too small to justify dating the unit (Fig. 2.2: units 731, 28, 575, 784, 641, 85, 96, 67, 492, 784, 786); and certain complex and/or inferred links between units, particularly in extra-mural areas between buildings, decrease the stratigraphic certainty of their association (see discussion of feature unit groups below). The same type of unit analysis was attempted for B 604, B 897 and B 920 from Op. A, and B 915 from Op. D with similar unsatisfactory results. Since detailed per unit analysis failed, it was decided to abandon the unit as a useful division of spacetime,6 and to adopt the unit group instead as a more suitable conceptual instrument for the delineation of stratigraphic sequences. For the purposes of this analysis, the unit group is defined as an aggregative entity stemming from the coalescence of natural and cultural material at specific loci, which are characterised by relative spatiotemporal stability, lateral and vertical stratigraphic links, and fuzzy boundaries due to the residual and/or intrusive material within their limits and the difficulty in ascertaining the boundaries of their constituent units (as discussed above).7 The specific unit group categories proposed and distinguished are as follows: a. Buildings (BU): This category encompasses all units associated with the mono- or polyphasic spatial-conceptual entity of the Chalcolithic roundhouse from its construction and use to its ultimate abandonment or replacement.8 It is considered rather safe since the existence of partial walls in each building kept significant proportions of its interior stratigraphy intact, sealed or less disturbed than in extra-mural areas. b Preparatory building site works (Pre-BU): Occasionally it was possible to discern unit groups representing preparatory building site works (e.g. natural accumulation of soil, platform creation, ground levelling, etc.), which typically contained artefacts predating the building’s construction. As this category is generally sealed by overlying buildings or sandwiched between buildings, it is also considered relatively safe.

unit groups between buildings allows both the lateral linking of quasi coeval loci in the site, and the verification of their contemporaneity via cross-comparison of their accompanying material culture inventories. d. Trenches (TR): This final category concerns units located in trenches excavated at various, usually remote parts of Ops A, A/B, D, and E. The trenches in question are predominantly shallow, lack stratigraphy and architectural features, contain mostly slopewash material, and were excavated in isolation and without attempt to link them to other trenches on the site. Consequently, it was decided to group cultural material from all or most units below topsoil in each trench and evaluate the latter as a singular entity. After conceptually defining the unit group categories, the stratigraphic information of all settlement units in Ops A, A/B, B, D, and E was thoroughly examined; logical inter-connections, relations and dependencies between units were formed; and 713 of 838 units (c. 85.1%) containing 72,747 of 96,178 sherds collected during excavations at the settlement (c. 75.6%) were eventually assigned to unit group categories. Specifically, this part of the analysis distinguished 20 BU, four Pre-BU, 22 FE, and nine TR unit groups that were transferred to the next stage of research for verification and further analysis. 3. Spatial-statistical analysis and visualisation of results: In this final stage of analysis, the artefactual (principally ceramic) inventories from the unit groups distinguished and sequenced from the settlement, tombs and other features from the cemetery, and survey transects were cross-plotted in suitable queries and pivot tables. These were then subjected to statistical and spatial analyses in Microsoft Excel, Minitab and ArcMap with the aims of verifying the concept of the unit group advocated for above, and elucidating the development of human habitation at the site. The results of these spatiotemporal analyses were also visualised utilising suitable software packages (i.e. Microsoft Excel, Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop) and are discussed extensively in the following sections of this chapter.

Unit groups delineation and stratigraphic sequences The best preserved and stratified evidence for the Souskiou Laona settlement is found at Op. A, while Ops B, A/B, D and E produced mostly laterally dispersed and, to a lesser degree, vertically stratified habitation evidence. Table 2.1 shows the results of stratigraphic analysis and lists the emergent unit groups by Operation and in stratigraphic order from older to younger, while briefly discussing the units and criteria for their inclusion in each unit group (for further details on individual units and stratigraphy, see Chap. 6 and App. C on ADS). The inter-relations, dependencies and links between unit groups are illustrated in Fig. 2.3, while the ceramic assemblage and special finds associated with each unit group are showin in Table 2.14 on ADS.

c. Features (FE): Contrary to the spatially definable and stratigraphically secure buildings, an FE unit group is characterised as a collection of units surrounding a central feature or area of features, such as large occupational deposits, pits, and hollows; walls and wall remnants unrelated to buildings; and extra-mural areas of potentially contemporary pits or postholes. Although the boundaries of and stratigraphic links between members of FE unit groups are more vague and harder to detect, the post res analyses permit a rudimentary assessment for their temporal placement and/or reveal stratigraphic issues and the effects of natural/cultural formation processes over larger areas of the site. At the same time, on several occasions, the existence of FE

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 10

31/05/2019 14:25

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 11

Site Period

I

I/II

II

Space *

FE808

FE653

East

relative spacing, not absolute

FE1073Lower

FE1073Upper

BU984

= FE, Pre-BU, TR

BU1178 = BU

FE629

Legend

BU13

BU604

FE629

FE488

BU800

Operation A

BU995

BU69

FE30

TR32

TR30

* Separately for each operation,

West

TR34

Operation E

FE505

FE698

FE60

Operation A/B

TR28

Operation D

FE1180

BU1149

FE1043

BU897

BU897 or BU1015

BU1015

Pre-BU838

BU838

FE628

BU850

Stratigraphic link = vertical & lateral Relative/ceramic = contemporaneity

FE1163

FE830

FE880

FE767

BU915

FE1166

Pre-BU796

BU796

I-a

I

I-b

I/II

Periodisation key

**Spatial order inversion to accomodate stratigraphic linking. This column is west of the column starting with F1180.

FE1101**

BU648

FE550

BU920

I-c

II

BU1169

Pre-BU920

Pre-BU648

BU895

BU1178

FE1102

BU34

Operation B

I-d

FE9

Chapter 2. Chronology 11

Figure 2.3: Overview of the stratigraphic sequences and relative chronology of unit groups at the Souskiou Laona settlement.

31/05/2019 14:25

Charalambos Paraskeva

12 Unit Group

Op.

Units

Criteria

FE629

A

536, 537, 539, 541, 556, 560, 561, 577, 578, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 593, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 614, 615, 629, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 682?, 683?, 705?, 706?, 711?, 712?, 713?, 714?, 715?, 716?, 717?, 718?, 719?, 720?, 721?, 722?, 723?, 724?, 725?, 728, 729?, 730?, 733, 734?, 735?, 749?, 750?, 1199

FE629 represents a group of contemporary and quasi-contemporary features extending over a c. 10x4 m area in Tr. 11, 12, and 22. Its main feature was the extensive curvilinear depression 629 that was neatly cut into bedrock and accommodated a total of nine postholes, namely 578, 581, 583, 585, 587, 591, 634, 636, 638 with fills 577, 580, 582, 584, 586, 590, 633, 635, 637, respectively; and shallow pit 589 with fill 588. The postholes were radially aligned in groups of three or four and may have functioned as roof supports or more likely supports for one or more temporary wooden structures, since no walls have been found in this locale. Depression 629 was also covered by c. 5–10 cm of unpaved earthen surface 539 mixed with evidence of human occupation. To the S and W of this area lay a host of features cut into soil deposits or natural bedrock, which are deemed to be contemporary or slightly ante-date activities at depression 629/surface 539 due to bordering or underlying them or underlying the relatively undisturbed compacted surfaces 455 and 461 of FE653 that sealed FE629. As such, the following features have been associated with FE629 with varying degrees of certainty: fireplaces 713, 733, 728, and 541 (the latter reminiscent of the configuration of platform hearths); postholes 597, 615, 683, 723, 725, 730, 735, and 750 with fills 596, 614, 682, 722, 724, 729, 734, and 749, respectively; pits 536, 560, 599, 601, 706, 712, 715, and 717 with fills 537, 556, 598, 600, 705, 711, 714, and 716, respectively; soil deposits 561 and 593 over pit 599 and under surface 539, stakescape 719 with fill 718, and finally rock-cut scoops 720, 721 and 1199.

FE1180

A

1150?, 1176?, 1179, 1180, 1181, 1182, 1184, 1196, 1197, 1198

FE1180 comprised several likely contemporary features cut into the bedrock and its associated marls below the stack of buildings that begins with BU1149. The main feature was irregular cut/hollow 1180 that contained fill 1182, fireplace 1181, and pits 1196, 1197, and 1198. Two more fireplaces, 1179 and 1184, were situated on slightly higher surfaces to the N of cut 1180, but they are considered to be contemporary with FE1180 as they were sealed by the levelling fill 1172 of BU1149. Slopewash 1150 with bedrock pit 1176 cut from it is also tentatively associated with FE1180, as it underlay BU1149, but extended to an open area in the N and E, which may have contributed to its partial contamination by later deposits, as it was also cut by wall 9/FE9.

FE653

A

455, 461, 479?, 480?, 481?, 482?, 483?, 484?, 498?, 499?, 500?, 509?, 510?, 516?, 535, 538, 562?, 563?, 565, 568?, 569?, 570?, 571?, 572, 573, 653, 690?, 695?, 696?, 697?

FE653 is a second area of quasi-contemporary features that overlay and to a certain extent sealed FE629 to the N and W in Tr. 11, 12 and 22. Its main connective elements were compacted grey surfaces 455 and 461, which contained a total of 1098 sherds. These surfaces were cut by the linked contiguous curvilinear channels 535 and 573 with fills 538 and 572, respectively, which may have housed a row of upright timbers for at least one wooden structure. Small stones and reddish soil 565 continued along the same arc as the channels, while the area inside the arc was dotted with radially aligned postholes 563, 569, and 571 with fills 562, 568, and 570, respectively, reminiscent of the similarly configured postholes in FE629 below. Further features tentatively associated with surfaces 455 and 461 lay on the exterior of the arc formed by channels 535 and 573 and were affected by erosion and other post-depositional processes. These included postholes 480, 482, 499, 509 and 696 with their respective fills 481, 483, 500, 510, and 695, soil deposit 479, stakescape 484 with fill 498, burned patch 516, and potspreads 690 and 697.

FE808

A

709, 747?, 779?, 808, 819?, 907, 977, 993?

Curvilinear pit 808 was cut into natural 780 immediately below BU13 and was occupied by fills 709, 907, 993, and stone tumble 977. The eastern side of pit 808 was eroded, which allowed fill 993 to spill over the limits of the pit and to merge to some extent with FE1073-Lower. Another unit tentatively associated with FE808 was cut 819 with light brown soil 779 and yellowish wash 747 above it. Although horizontal linking of cut 819 and pit 808 was impossible, their relative contemporaneity was ensured by the presence of extensive BU13 units above them.

FE1073Lower

A

938, 1002, 1020, 1022, 1024, 1030, 1034, 1058, 1059, 1073, 1074, 1075, 1086, 1095, 1096, 1118, 1119, 1124, 1132, 1139, 1140, 1141, 1151, 1152

Extensive pit 1073 covered part of Tr. 2, 4 and 20 and was one of the richest deposits finds-wise. For the purposes of this analysis the feature has been divided into two logical entities, namely FE1073-Lower and FE1073-Upper, the former containing units that lie at the base of pit 1073 or underlie midden 1038, and the latter including all units that are contemporary with or post-date midden 1038. This division is considered crucial, as the basal deposits represent early activities at the settlement that potentially pre-date its permanent habitation or are broadly contemporary with the earliest buildings on the site, and the later deposits indicate that the area after the early phases of its habitation functioned as a midden for the discard of occupational refuse. The basal units of FE1073-Lower were found at the base of pit 1073, cut into the base of pit 1073, or cut the natural bedrock surrounding it. Such features include pit 1139, fireplace 1034 with fill 1020/1140, firepit 1132, oven 1030, burnt patch 1141, potspread 1124, and pits 1118 and 1119 with fills 1151 and 1152, respectively. These basal features were later covered by fills 1022, 1024, 1058, 1059 of pit 1073, while the surrounding bedrock was covered by the compact unpaved surface 1002. A few more features were cut into these early fills of pit 1073, such as firepit 1075 with fill 1074, fireplace 1086, and fireplace 1095 with fills 1096 and 938. Beyond the above, pit 1101 also partially cut into the early fills of pit 1073, but as this is a complex feature that is not encapsulated by FE1073-Lower, it is discussed in further detail below.

FE1163

A

1134, 1163, 1164, 1167

Natural cut 1163 lay between the southern boundary of pit 1073 and the western border of pit 1101. This cut was filled by 1164, 1167 and 1134, the latter of which seems to have partially spilled into pit 1073 (albeit below the deposits of midden 1038), hence the stratigraphic association with early deposits in FE1073-Lower and FE1101.

FE1101

A

1101, 1161, 1162, 1173, 1175, 1186, 1187

Pit 1101 was cut into bedrock and partially into early pre-midden 1038 fills of pit 1073 in order to prepare the ground for BU1178 or for another non-surviving structure, as hinted by wall 1173 (see discussion in Chap. 6). The pit has been divided into two logical entities, namely FE1101 that consisted of the initial cut, early fills and associated features, and FE1102 that contained later material potentially largely postdating the abandonment of BU1178. This distinction is crucial, as it indicates that BU1178 was one of the earliest permanent structures at the settlement since it overlay early fills of a pit cut into bedrock, while at the same time it demonstrates that after its abandonment, the general area of BU1178 assumed a similar function as the area of FE1073-Upper, i.e. it became a midden for occupational refuse. Returning to FE1101, the lowermost fill of the pit is 1186, overlain by 1175 and both underlying BU1178, while other early features included single lined wall/stones arc 1173 with cache 1187 beside its base that overlay the aforementioned fills, and natural cut 1161 with fill 1162. Furthermore, it is clarified that fill 1175 lay in Tr. 14 and was designated as equivalent to fill 1102 in Tr. 20. However, fill 1175 occupied only a limited space under and between wall 1173 and BU1178 in Tr. 14, whereas fill 1102 covered several more extensive areas, such as the space N of wall 1173, as well as the area under and between wall 1173 and BU1178 in Tr. 20, and the space bordering midden 1038 (per a pottery archive sheet for a joint 1038/1102 ceramic unit) and natural cut 1163, while it was also reported that midden 1038 partially covered wall 1173 and the later fills of pit 1101, i.e. it mostly affected fill 1102. The above stratigraphic data and associations justify the separation of fill 1102 from the other features of pit 1101, as it potentially contains materials that are both contemporary with and/or post-date features in FE1101 and BU1178.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 12

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology

13

Unit Group

Op.

Units

BU604

A

62, 63, 528, 540, 566?, 603, 604, 612, 613, 630, 631, 643, 644, 645, 654, 655, 656, 660, 665, 666, 667, 669, 672, 673, 674, 675, 685, 687, 692, 694, 726, 737, 738, 741, 748, 761, 762, 763, 777, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 809, 810, 818, 820, 821, 832?, 834, 835, 856, 890, 891, 892

Remains of BU604 include stone wall 540, which was built atop floor levelling/packing 832 and was later displaced by BU69 above. The original position of the wall was indicated by foundation trench 63, which contained fills 62 and 891, packing 566 and wall foundation rubble 856, and was overlain by wall tumble 890. One of the main features that survived in the building’s interior was flattened bench 667 that ran along the interior of wall 540, was lined by stone skirtings 674 and 603, and formed the exterior circumference of depression 675 in bedrock cut 630. The latter contained surfaces 791/818 and 654, which represent two consecutive phases in the life of the building. Phase 1 started with the construction of central platform hearth 741 (associated with fills 761-762 and fire-bowl 763) and the application on bedrock of primary plaster floor 791 in the western half of the building, and unpaved mixed surface material 818 in the eastern half. Atop the Phase 1 surfaces lay stone settings 795 and 835, potspread 820, and burnt floor patch 834; while pit 792 with fill 793, pits 794 and 821, stone tool cache 892, and pit 809 with refuse fill 810 cut through these surfaces. All Phase 1 features and occupational deposits were covered at the onset of Phase 2 by the thinly applied, but compact surface material 654, while friable floor patch 687 found in the occupational deposits overlying 654 may have formed part of the same floor. Even the Phase 1 central hearth 741 was replaced in the exact spot first by hearth 685 with stone foundation 748 and irregular fire-bowl 737, and later by hearth 631 in cut 726 with stone foundation 694, ashy fill 660, and reddish fire-bowl 692. This pattern of hearth replacement, and the lack of occupational accumulations between Phases 1 and 2 indicates that they are temporally close, and perhaps signify inter-generational renovation of the building. Apart from the hearth’s potspread 666, ashy hearth refuse 738, ashy deposit 665, and stone setting 643 lay on surface 654. During and after the abandonment of BU604, surface 654 became covered by occupational deposits 644–645, and 669, as well as upper wall collapse material 528. Finally, posthole 672 with fill 673, and posthole 777 filled by the surface material 654, cut through the surfaces/floors of both Phase 1 and 2 and are not assignable to any of the phases; while two more postholes, 612 and 655, with fills 613 and 656 respectively, were cut into bench 667, which also renders their attribution to any phase impossible.

BU13

A

5, 7, 11, 13, 22?, 450?, 451?, 471?, 472, 487?, 501?, 657, 684, 703, 746

The almost entirely washed away BU13 was defined by wall arc 7 and its foundation trench with fills 657 and 684. Floor 11, fills 5, 472, 703 and 746 were found inside the building. General 451 lay on the interior and against wall 7 but was slightly higher than the rest of the building fills, thus its relation to BU13 is less certain. Another set of features tentatively related to BU13 includes surface 22 and general 450 and 471 to its N, S and W exterior sides, plaster and stones accumulation 501 abutting the building, and potspread 487 that lay on surface 22. These features, adversely affected by erosion, appear to have formed part of a plastered exterior surface adjacent to and likely contemporary with BU13.

BU1149

A

1130, 1131, 1135, 1136, 1137, 1138, 1149, 1156, 1171, 1172?, 1183, 1185, 1193, 1194, 1195

BU1149 is considered to be one of the earliest permanent structures of the settlement, and the best preserved at Op. A. Stratigraphically it replaced FE1180 and pre-dated BU897. Its eroded wall 1131 and the fully surviving plaster floor 1137 overlay levelling fill 1172 and general fill 1185, the latter extending beyond BU1149 and underlying general deposits W of and beneath BU920, while the floor curved up to the flat bench surface 1156. Features on this floor included the central platform hearth 1136, posthole 1183, pit/pot holder 1171, likely door stopper 1195 consisting of three flat-topped blocks, and, finally, two low radial plaster ridges 1193–1194 that ran from the central hearth to curvilinear plaster lens 1138 surrounding the southern third of floor 1137 and likely represent the face of disturbed wall 1131. All BU1149 features were covered by extensive fill 1130 and its contemporary general fill 1135, which like 1185 also extended beyond BU1149 partially under the broadly contemporary FE1166 deposits, thus laterally linking BU1149 to BU1169.

FE1166

A

557, 595, 1166

Slopewash deposits 557, 595, and 1166 covered the area between BU1149 and BU1169, thus linking the two buildings and indicating strongly their contemporaneity. Slopewash 557 lay beside wall 9 and just above floor deposits of BU1149; 595 comprised a lens of stones and pebbles within 557, while compact deposit 1166 lay outside BU1169 and covered the area to BU1149. Notably, although these units covered a rather extensive area, they are artefactually poor, which suggests that at least in the earlier stages of permanent occupation of the site, refuse material was not discarded in extra-mural areas, as is the case later with the formation of middens in empty areas between buildings. Alternatively, this specific area was never used as a midden.

BU1169

A

1061, 1109, 1113, 1121, 1133, 1145, 1146, 1147, 1148, 1157, 1169, 1170

BU1169 is another instance of early permanent occupation at Op. A and was erected in hollow 1146 that was cut into bedrock. Even though the building’s walls were not present, its curvilinear shape was indicated by cut 1146, whitish paving 1170 laid directly on the natural base of the hollow, and the flattened natural bench 1113 that traced the northern arc of the structure. Features on floor 1170 included a duo of off-centre fireplaces, 1133 and 1145 filled by 1147 and 1148, respectively, posthole 1157, cache 1109 on ledge 1113, and potspread 1121 near the centre of the building. All floor features were later sealed by jumbled fill 1061 that likely consisted of both occupational deposits and walls collapsed/dumped in the structure’s shell. In regard to stratigraphic connections, BU1169 abutted and/ or partially underlay FE1166, hence was contemporary with BU1149, while after its abandonment the area became covered by slopewash layers and remained uninhabited until the construction of BU920. However, knowledge of the building’s location seems to have persisted, as BU920 lay almost concentrically on top of it.

BU1178

A

1174, 1177, 1178

Barely surviving BU1178 was located at the edge of the steep scarp at Op. A and consisted of wall 1174 with fill and floor 1177. Stratigraphically it overlay FE1101, specifically fills 1175 and 1186, and maintained a complex relationship to FE1102, which both pre-dated and post-dated BU1178. To clarify this complex situation, it is noted that FE1102 filled the space under and behind the exterior face of wall 1174; hence its base is likely antecedent to and/or contemporary with BU1178, while its upper part that also spilled over wall 1173 in FE1101 is likely to post-date the abandonment of BU1178.

BU69

A

42, 53, 54, 55, 56, 64, 65, 68, 69, 76, 78, 81, 82, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 473, 485, 486, 502?, 514, 515, 520, 522, 525, 526, 527, 532, 533, 534, 547, 579

BU69 succeeded BU604 and was built inside the derelict shell of the latter structure, which partly guarded it from slopewash and severe erosion. Its principal component was wall 56 with abraded plaster render 469, of which only the northern arc survived and partly lay atop the underlying flattened bench 667 of BU604; it was partly sunk in basal cut 547 and filled under the wall with packing material 579 and on the exterior of the wall with stony bands 68, 78, and 534. The extent of wall 56 was indicated to the W by wall collapse material 485 and the linear cache of stones 42, and to the E and S by the single, multiply re-plastered floor 82 with floor packing material 522. Features on or cutting the floor included the central platform hearth 468, stone caches 42 (see above), 54 in cut 65, 464–467, 486, and 520; depressions with ashy deposits 514, 515, posthole 527 partly filled by 515, pit 526 with stone setting 525, and lined pit 532 with fill 533. Above floor 82 and/or between wall collapse 485 and floor 82 lay occupation deposits 81, 470, and 473, which were later further sealed by abandonment/destruction fills 53, 55, 64 and 76. One final feature tentatively associated with BU69 is the small eroded patch 502 on the exterior of wall 56.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 13

Criteria

31/05/2019 14:25

Charalambos Paraskeva

14 Unit Group

Op.

Units

Criteria

FE880

A

836, 837, 839, 853, 857, 858, 859, 871, 872, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 894, 929, 939, 940, 941, 951, 952, 953, 1066, 1067

FE880 incorporated a series of rock-cut scoops, hollows, one grave and associated in-between mostly ashy soils in an extensive area c. 8 x 2.5 m in Tr. 23 and 26 to the N and W of BU897. More specifically, the following units were associated with this feature: rock-cut scoops 872, 874, 876, 878, and 879 with fills 871, 836, 875, 877, and 859, respectively; stakescapes 939, 940, and 941 in scoops 879, 874, and 876, respectively, all filled by 953; hollow 1067 with fill 1066; pit grave 853 with ash and pot boiler fills 839 (lower) and 858 (upper) that was cut into both yellowish paving surface 857 and burned stones 929, near deposit 894; and, finally, ashy patches 837, 951, and 952 spread in between the aforementioned units. Although no sherdage was recovered from any of the units, their contemporaneity is suggested by the depth at which they were found, the similar mode of cutting into bedrock, their spatial proximity, and their stratigraphic associations. In regard to the latter, FE880 was partly overlain by slopewash layers that also covered FE830, and is thus considered either contemporary or slightly later than FE830, while FE488 deposits lay over most units in FE880, thus FE880 is contemporary or slightly older than FE488. By extension of these associations, FE880 is also considered to be contemporary with BU897. The exact dating and function of this area remain unknown, but it is noted that a similar phenomenon of rock-cut scoops and graves cut into bedrock and placed at a small distance behind and uphill from buildings has been observed for MChal contexts at Lemba Lakkous (tombs and pits behind and uphill from contemporary Per. 2 buildings, such as B 1 (LAP I, fig. 10), B 4 and B 10 (LAP I, fig. 22), and more recently at Chlorakas Palloures (Düring et al. forthcoming).

FE1043

A

1043, 1100

FE1043 consisted of soil accumulations 1043 and 1100 that partially overlay pit 1073 and midden 1038 (1043 is considered a donor area for midden 1038), but underlay BU897, as its foundation trench 1093 cut through them. Whether the accumulation of these soil deposits was the product of natural erosive processes, discard of material similar to midden 1038 or intentional levelling action remains unknown, but their stratigraphic order before the construction of BU897 is certain, while later they were covered by BU897, FE830 and FE767.

FE830

A

830, 873, 893, 899, 905, 906, 1099

FE830 likely represents a continuation, restoration or extension of FE488 to the E, as the main, badly and sporadically surviving wall 830 appears to have covered a c. 3 m distance between FE488 on the natural terrace and BU897. The wall was placed in foundation trench 906, which cut soil deposits FE1043 contemporary with BU897 and contained fill 905 at least on the W side of the wall. Other units associated with FE830 included arcing mixed soil and slopewash deposit 873 suggesting a no longer surviving wall curve; two similar unpaved external surfaces, 893 and 899, W and NW of the wall respectively (the latter underlying wall tumble, which by extension verifies the contemporaneity of both surfaces with FE830) and, finally, general soil deposit 1099 below and SW of wall 830.

FE488

A

488, 625, 679?, 686, 688?, 689?, 831

FE488 has been interpreted as a potential retaining wall dating to the Chalcolithic, which ran for c. 8 m diagonally across Op. A and along a natural terrace that divided the former into an upper and lower terrace (see Chap. 6). As with most open areas, the feature is particularly affected by erosion and other natural post-depositional formation processes that render elucidation of the feature’s stratigraphy difficult since post-Chalcolithic material was abundant at this locale. However, a few units have been positively associated with the feature, such as wall 488 installed in cut 831, and its tumble material 625, which sealed silty slopewash deposit 686 and likely 679. Two more slopewash deposits, 688 and 689, accumulating respectively at the northern face of and immediately downslope from wall 488 are considered to be entrapped soil lenses with material coeval to the wall, and hence have been tentatively included in the units comprising FE488. In terms of relative order, FE488 was likely constructed after the abandonment of BU604 and BU13, as on the one hand it was built on top of c. 25cm of soil that had accumulated over the line of boulders forming the natural terrace and underpinning the forward edge of BU604, namely it was built on soils post-dating BU604; and on the other hand the wall tumble material 625 sealed slopewash soils that spread over the uppermost deposits of BU13. To the E, wall tumble material 625 covered slopewash 686 found above deposits associated with FE830, which indicates that likely the two features are either contemporary or FE488 slightly post-dates FE830.

BU897

A

797, 827, 828, 829, 896, 897, 994, 1016, 1054, 1091, 1092, 1093, 1103, 1104, 1105, 1106, 1107, 1111, 1112, 1114, 1115, 1116, 1122, 1125, 1126, 1127, 1144, 1159, 1160

BU897 was a single-phased and probably short-lived structure that replaced BU1149 and was later substituted by BU1015. Its main feature was wall 896 that was built in foundation trench 1092. The latter cut the soil accumulations of FE1043, was lined with plaster 1091 and was filled by 1093. Below the stone base of wall 896 lay main floor 1111 in a hollow cut out from soil accumulation 1043 and midden 1038. The floor was plastered, but it survived only in patches, namely 1111 at the N with likely floor makeup 1144 above fill 1130 of BU1149, 1127 to the centre and W, and 797 at the S, while occupation fill 1107 underlay or continued parts of the floor patches and overlay general fill 1130 of BU1149 below. Floor and other interior features included entrance 1103 in the SW, central platform hearth 1104 surrounded by ashy deposit 1105 and posthole 1106 also filled with ash; stakeholes 1115 with fill 1114 cutting main floor 1111, pit 1125 with fill 1126 cut from floor patch 797, pit 1159 with fill 1160 cut from occupation deposit 1107 and cutting floor patch 1127, pit 827 cut into floor patch 797 with fills 828 and 1122, and grey layer 829 and flint cache 1112 on floor patch 797. Beyond the interior, features associated with BU897 can also be found on the exterior. Specifically, linear revetment 1016 projected perpendicularly from wall 896 in order to prevent slopewash from slipping into BU897 through entranceway 1103. The revetment was likely reused later by occupants of BU1015 to construct an alcove or porch. Finally, during the use and after the abandonment of BU897, the interior features became covered by occupation deposits 994, 1054 and 1116, with some of the above becoming slighted by BU1015 above, and cut by Pre-BU796/BU796 further up.

BU897 or BU1015

A

911, 1017, 1050, 1108

The units included in this feature belonged to either BU897 or BU1015, but due to natural (erosion) and cultural (building renovation and replacement) formation processes, it is not possible to assign them to one or the other with any degree of certainty. The units in question are mixed soil and slopewash deposits 1017, 1050 and 1108 that lay inbetween walls 896 and 1014 of BU897 and BU1015, respectively, and the fill of large mortar SL1808 in 1103 of BU897, which may have come from contexts associated with BU1015 further above.

FE505

A

505, 564, 567

FE505 comprised of cut 567 with ash fill 564 at its base, and fill and stone spread 505 at the upper part, over and around the cut. This configuration has been interpreted as a potential remnant of a structure above and potentially associated with either BU604 or BU69 (see Chap. 6). However, the absence of distinctive features and the amorphous character of FE505 do not allow its designation as a building, while its association to any building is tentative, as the slopewash layers above it cover mostly features in FE653 and FE629 rather than BU604 or BU69.

FE30

A

30, 75

Small-sized FE30 lay close to the surface and consisted of pit 75 cut from topsoil and stone setting 30 next to it. Both units were found at a distance of c. 30 cm above and immediately to the SW of the postulated entrance for BU69. They have been interpreted as evidence for a potential third or fourth superimposed structure in this locale (see discussion on the post-B 69 structure in Chap. 6). Due to the absence of concrete evidence for a building, this group of units has been characterised as a feature for the purposes of this analysis.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 14

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology

15

Unit Group

Op.

Units

Criteria

BU1015

A

798, 918, 931, 932, 960, 1014, 1015, 1031, 1032, 1033, 1076, 1077, 1097, 1098, 1110, 1117

BU1015 was the third superimposed structure in the location of the FE1180 initial occupation. The building lay in the empty shell of BU897 and it partly reused wall 896, entrance 1103, and revetment 1016 from the latter structure. Its main wall, 1014, and floor surfaces 1032/1097 survive only in the NW of the building, as the eastern half was truncated later by BU796. Wall 1014 was built in segments and bonded with underlying wall 896 near the N jamb of reused entrance 1103, while plaster patches 1032/1097 lay immediately above floor 1111 and occupational fill 994 of BU897, which indicates rapid abandonment or replacement of the latter building. Features found on floors 1032/1097 include the partly preserved central hearth 1077 that lay exactly on top of hearth 1104 of BU897; buttress 1110 against the interior of wall 1014 that likely served as support for the inward leaning wall 1104; ashy deposits 960 and 1076 under or close to central hearth 1077; upright stone setting 1117 that was possibly used as an edge-set stone; and an off-centre plastered secondary hearth or stand 798/1033. These features were partially covered by occupation fills 1031 and 1098, while the jumbled stone tumble 931/932 with mixed fill 918 was either the result of natural post-abandonment collapse or deliberate tipping of stones into the entrance of BU1015 during its closure. After its abandonment, BU1015 was covered by midden fill/ foundation deposit 628-a, which prepared the ground for BU838, and was also cut by Pre-BU796/BU796. 628-a and 628-b are described within the Pre-BU838 unit group criteria.

PreBU796

A

1083, 1087

Deposits 1083 and 1087 belonged to Pre-BU796, lay on top of BU1149 and FE1166 fills, cut through BU897/BU1015, and were sealed by floor 1079 and fill 622 of BU796. It is argued that these deposits constituted a preparatory semi-artificial platform-like surface for the construction of BU796, as indicated by the end result of a rather even and flattened ground surface. Moreover, the Pre-BU796 deposits likely reused material from occupational fills 994 and 1031 of BU897 and BU1015, respectively, that were cut to make room for BU796 (see Pl. 7.1). Though tentative, the argument for reused material is based on the observation for changing building practices (see BU796 below), the quantitative absence of sherds and other objects in the thick deposit 1087 in respect to units above and below it, and the quantitative and qualitative similarity of material profiles from deposit 1087 and occupational fills 994 and 1031 of BU897 and BU1015, respectively (Fig. 2.4, see below Table 2.1). Specifically, deposit 1087 contained 199 sherds and 3 objects. This number contrasts sharply to the comparatively much smaller fill 622 of BU796 above that furnished 814 sherds and 13 other objects, and the somewhat larger fill 1130 of BU1149 below that produced 5608 sherds and 95 objects. Essentially, viewed in section, unit 1087 is a rather poor deposit sandwiched between artefactually rich fills. Beyond ceramics, all units mentioned also contained picrolite debitage, which is nearly absent from floor 1079 and fill 622 of BU796 above.

BU796

A

524, 618, 619, 620, 622, 627, 766, 796, 1040, 1041, 1044, 1079, 1082, 1088, 1089, 1090

BU796 was erected above BU1015 and BU1149, partially cut through and reused occupational fills of BU1015 and BU897 (see Pre-BU796), and was later covered by Pre-BU838 deposits. Almost two quadrants of disturbed and inconsistent wall 627 survived to the N and W and were inserted in foundation trench 1089 filled by 1088 that was cut into Pre-BU796, thus rendering BU796 a potential first attempt at erecting buildings in foundation trenches cutting through artificial or semi-artificial consolidated soil platforms (see also BU838 and BU920). This emerging building technique was likely necessitated by severe erosion that constantly beleaguered the settlement, and signified the abandonment of the previous practice of erecting buildings inside the empty shells of earlier structures (see BU69 and BU1015), which although potentially successful, led to architectural limitations and stability issues (see interior buttress 1110 in BU1015), did not prevent soil loss, and did not assist the proactive consolidation of building grounds. Beyond the above, the remaining features in BU796 can be separated into two phases. The construction of central platform hearth 1040 and brown-grey compacted soil floor 1079 marked the beginning of Phase 1, while burning patch 1082 and occupational fills 622 and 1090 indicated its duration and ending. Phase 2 commenced with compact whitish floor 618/1041 laid on top of fill 622. Features on the latter floor included cache 1044 and pit 619 with fill 620 that also contained a tool cache. The end of Phase 2 and likely abandonment of BU796 are denoted by wall collapse material 524 and 766 of BU796 and extensive fill 628-a of Pre-BU838 that lay directly on floor 618/1041 and wall 627.

BU800

A

707, 708?, 776, 800, 816, 817, 901?

BU800 was founded in the southern section of the extensive silty slopewash deposit 686, partially overlay midden 1038 of FE1073-Upper, and potentially represents the continuation of building practices observed at BU796, which is considered a contemporary structure. The building was severely eroded and comprised only of single course wall 707, floor packing 816, stone setting 817, and mixed wall tumble material 776. Two more units, namely rocky deposit 708, which is characterised as a denser lens in 686 of FE488 and occupational deposit 901, which is considered to equate with 708 above, have been tentatively associated with BU800. These units abutted wall 707, overlay FE488, and were not cut by BU800, thus are considered to be accumulations associated with activities occurring likely outside BU800.

FE767

A

670?, 767, 781?, 806?, 862?

Five extensive slopewash soil deposits, 670, 767, 781, 806, and 862, comprised this extra-mural feature that partly overlay and partly accumulated to the western side of BU897. Slopewash 670, 781, 806, and 862 were more tentatively associated with FE767 due to difficulties in ascertaining their boundary with underlying FE1043. These slopewash deposits were quite deep and extensive but did not contain any Per. I/II Chalcolithic material, which indicates that erosion during and after the lifetime of the quasi-contemporary BU69, BU897, BU1015, BU796, FE488 and FE830 must have been severe. Based on the above, it is observed that although stratigraphically higher than Pre-BU838, FE767 is likely antecedent.

BU895

A

860?, 868, 869, 870?, 895, 944, 945, 954

The stratigraphic relations of BU895 were quite complex, as it overlay BU1015, cut through the lowermost part of Pre-BU838, was overlain by BU838, and was probably erected within the long-abandoned shell of BU897, as remnants of wall 896 of BU897 stood higher than the single course wall 868 of BU895. This last association is perhaps the most important as it hints at the order of events in this locale. According to the stratigraphic data, the abandonment of BU897 was followed by the construction of BU1015 that partially reused its empty shell, which had not yet been covered by slopewash. BU1015 was then replaced by BU796 that was experimentally built on a platform of reused soil from previous structures (see BU796). Upon its abandonment, Pre-BU838 started to form and partially covered BU796, BU1015, and BU897, although parts of their walls were still protruding. The foundation trench 944 of BU895 cut through Pre-BU838, and wall 868 was installed approximately within the shell of BU897, perhaps as a creative or experimental mixing of two previously tested building practices, namely the installation of structures within the shell of past structures (see BU69, BU1015), and the erection of structures by cutting foundation trenches in natural or semi-artificial platforms (see BU796), as was the thick deposit 628-a of Pre-BU838. In any case, BU895 must have been short-lived, as it was replaced/cut by BU838, while parts of it might had been removed to construct the latter and accommodate the laying down of Pre-BU838. Beyond wall 868 and foundation trench 944 filled by 945, BU895 featured possible floor surface 869 in its interior, hardened lens 954 in fill 628-a of Pre-BU838, grey unpaved surface 870 adjacent to the exterior of wall 868, and potspread 860 near the projecting and disused wall 896 of BU897, but at the same height as wall 868.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 15

31/05/2019 14:25

Charalambos Paraskeva

16 Unit Group

Op.

Units

Criteria

FE1073Upper

A

1038, 1120, 1142, 1143, 1153, 1165?

Deposits from the upper part of extensive pit 1073, predominantly midden 1038, sealed the early features in FE1073-Lower and indicate that the area started to function as a dumpsite. Discard activities at FE1073-Upper must have commenced slightly after the abandonment of BU1149, and certainly before the construction of BU897. This argument is based on the contemporaneity of midden 1038 with fill 1130 of BU1149 (Pl. 7.1), and the fact that FE1043, which underlay and was cut by the foundation trench of BU897, was a donor area for midden 1038. At this point, it should be noted that due to the highly mixed/contaminated nature of midden 1038, it was not possible to discern many subdivisions, and it was thus excavated as a single extensive unit, which in retrospect does not allow a detailed examination of its history. However, based on artefacts and analysis of materials, it is obvious that midden 1038 remained in use up until Per. I/II. Other units associated with FE1073-Upper include lenses 1142 and 1143 within midden 1038, posthole 1120 filled by 1153 that was cut into the base of midden 1038, and more tentatively fill 1165 that represents the lower part of midden 1038 below wall 896 of BU897, which could potentially be associated also with FE1073-Lower covering fills.

PreBU920

A

927, 928, 1001, 1068, 1072, 1078

A set of slopewash and occupational debris layers, namely 927, 928, 1001, 1068, 1072, and 1078, covered the area between and above BU796 and BU1169, thus Pre-BU920 post-dated BU1169 and was synchronous to and/or post-dated BU1169. These deposits, along with the extensive occupational/tumble fill 1061 of BU1169, functioned as a platform upon which BU920 was erected, with the foundation trench of the latter structure cutting through many of the PreBU920 deposits. It remains unknown whether material was also brought to this space specifically for constructing a platform, as was the case for BU796 and BU838, but the lack of post-Per. I ceramics and absence of evidence for levelling actions hint that the platform consisted of deposits that accumulated due to natural and cultural processes not related to the construction of BU920. However, the fact that BU920 cut through these deposits provides a safe stratigraphic link to both BU796 and underlying BU1169.

PreBU838

A

628-a, 930, 1057

Three heterogeneous extensive fills, namely 628-a, 930, and 1057, covered the floor and occupational deposits of BU897, BU1015, and BU796. Deposits 1057 and 930 consisted of slopewash material eroding in this locale, while fill 628-a comprised material resembling a deliberate midden infill. This, in turn, has been interpreted as an attempt to create an artificial platform to function as foundation for BU838, similar to the situation observed for BU796, albeit in this case the material seems to have been brought from elsewhere, as it contained white fragments of hard havara-like material that can be found at nearby tabular limestone courses. It is noted that fills 930 and partly 628-a were cut by features associated with BU895, but the main body of 628-a lay around, within and above the latter structure, which indicates a deliberate action of levelling for the formation of the foundation platform for BU838 (see B 838 and B 1015 in Chap. 6). Note on unit 628: This unit was excavated between 2006 and 2009 with material kept separate for each year. In 2006–2008 excavation focused on the upper strata of Tr. 20, while in 2009 the deeper layers of 628 in Tr. 14, 20 and 26 were explored. For the purposes of this analysis, the 2009 material, which is stratigraphically deeper, was separated from the rest of the deposit and associated with Pre-BU838 as unit 628-a, while the upper western part of 628 was associated with FE628 as unit 628-b.

FE1102

A

1102

FE1102 contained the upper more mixed fill of pit 1101, namely 1102. As explained above, it is highly likely that fill 1102 contains material that is both contemporaneous to and/or later than material from all other FE1101 features, hence its treatment as a later feature at the settlement.

BU838

A

838, 902, 942, 943, 1188

The barely surviving BU838 consisted of wall 1188 inserted into foundation trench 942 filled by 943. The foundation trench cut through the Pre-BU838 platform and BU895, while the builders of this structure were likely aware of BU897, since the top of wall 896 of BU897 lay at the same height as wall 1188. The interior of BU838 had almost entirely eroded away with only coarse, brownish floor surface 902 surviving, which accounts for the small quantity of sherdage from the building.

FE628

A

628-b

Heterogenous midden material 628-b overlay BU1015 and lay outside and to the W of BU838. It is considered likely that FE628 represented a continuing use of the area immediately N of FE1073-Upper as a midden area for the late Op. A buildings.

BU920

A

908, 909, 919, 920, 961, 965, 989, 990, 996, 997, 999, 1000, 1003, 1005, 1006, 1008, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1012, 1013, 1018, 1023, 1037, 1039, 1045, 1046, 1048, 1049, 1069, 1070

BU920 was stratigraphically the last building in Op. A and was constructed using the same building technique as BU838. Its foundation trench 919 cut through the underlying Pre-BU920 and BU1169 deposits, as well as the natural bedrock. Nevertheless, BU920 was not placed straight against the backside of the foundation trench, which left empty space behind the building that was initially filled by 1084, and later by slopewash deposits 910 and 1128 with potspread 1129, which were not included in the unit group. The building’s main wall 908 with mud mortar/packing 996 survived in the N, entrance 1048 was situated in the W, while the main plaster floor 1011 survived in patches and was characterised by the presence of ochre red/burned plaster portions 1012 and extensive pitting. Specifically, pits 1013, 1018, 1039, and 1046 with their respective fills 1023, 1010, 1003 and 1045 cut through floor 1011. Other features on the main floor included posthole 1069 with fill 1070, stone tool caches 1009 and 1049 in pits 1018 and 1039, potspreads 997 and 1037, and the off-centre, sub-circular platform hearth 999 with ashy fill and pot boilers 1008. The main floor was overlain by multiple resurfacings 1000 with potspreads 1005 and 1006 on top of the latter. Both floors were covered by use and abandonment fills 909, 989 and 990, which were later sealed by extensive wall tumble 965 and the heterogenous soil fill 961.

FE9

A

9, 10, 511, 521, 529, 531, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 548, 553, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 621, 626, 998, 1123, 1154, 1155, 1168

FE9/wall 9 was a post-Chalcolithic c. 60 m long linear retaining structure along the southern forward edge of Op. A. Due to trapping slopewash (10, 511, 529, 531, 546, 553, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 621, 998, 1158, 1168), collapse material (542, 544), and eroding occupational deposits (521, 543, 545, 548, 626) at its settlement-facing side, it was difficult to link FE9 to any buildings or features, apart from BU1178 and perhaps BU1169 that were slighted by FE9, pit 1154 with fill 1155, and potentially its foundation trench 1123. Also, the currently surviving wall did not conform to Chalcolithic building traditions, and was likely put in place in Per. V to retain soil for agriculture. However, it is highly likely on the basis of ceramic evidence that the wall was initially constructed during the Chalcolithic.

FE698

A/B

698, 699?, 807

FE698 comprised slightly curving wall 698 installed in cut 807, overlain by wall tumble material 699, which was partially mixed with slopewash from further above. FE698 was cut by FE60 below and contained very little datable material, but likely represents a derelict and severely truncated Chalcolithic building.

FE60

A/B

60, 693, 710, 764, 765

FE60 cut through and truncated FE698, and is considered a likely Chalcolithic retaining wall similar to FE488. This feature included wall 60 (with its likely jumbled upper part consisting of smaller stones 693) erected inside foundation trench 764 that was filled by 765. Beyond these, fill 710 that lay in the space between FE698 and wall 60, but above the former and below 693 has been associated with FE60.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 16

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology

17

Unit Group

Op.

Units

Criteria

TR32

A/B

1055, 1062, 1063, 1064, 1065, 1071

TR32 was an isolated trench that reached bedrock after 85 cm, did not contain architectural features, but did reveal some features associated with domestic activities, such as pit 1063 with fill 1064 and posthole 1071. Pit 1063 was cut from general deposit 1055, while posthole 1071 was cut into the bedrock. As such, deposits 1062 and 1065 underlying 1055 were considered contemporary with the two domestic features in TR32 and have been included in this analysis, while overlying slopewash layers 1051 and 1047 have been excluded, as they belong to topsoil accumulations.

BU34

B

20, 28, 33, 34, 36, 38, 44, 45, 57, 66, 67, 71, 72, 73, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, 97, 98, 463, 492, 493, 494, 495, 507, 508, 551, 574, 575, 576, 592, 616, 617, 632, 639, 640, 641, 642, 649, 650, 652, 731, 732, 775, 783, 784?, 785?, 786, 787, 788, 789, 801

BU34 was the most westerly of two partially surviving, contiguous structures in Op. B, and was placed in a cut into consecutive natural layers of gravel, cobbles and conglomerate stones (21, 26, 43, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 504; for descriptions see App. C on ADS) that in turn served as a stance for the building. At least two pits, extensive amorphous depression 495 and large extra-mural pit 732 with their respective fills 57 and 731, were cut into the underlying natural before or during the installation of main wall 28 in foundation trench 44 that was filled by 89. It is highly likely that both pits were cut while BU34 was under construction, as pit 732 reportedly slighted foundation trench 44, while the relation of the large depression 495 to the overlying floor 87 is indeterminate due to likely subsidence. The wall construction was followed by the laying down of foundation packing 88 for compacted chalky floor 87, the first of two floors in the building that divided BU34 into two occupational phases. Features associated with Phase 1 and floor 87 included central pit or oven 652 with red clay lining 642 and next to it a flimsy internal wall arc/division 801; a more loosely associated pit or entrance jamb cut 785 filled by 784, natural concretion 788, stone packing 574 with plaster coating 592, filled by 574 and overlain by a basin and potspread 576; potspread 493; pits 616, 649, 650, 783, and 787 with their corresponding ashy fills 617, 641, 551, 775, and 786; pit 95 filled by 96 and a large mortar with fill 98; and, finally, the large ash-filled depression 494 that was partly re-cut and re-plastered. With regard to the latter feature, plastery basin 507 filled by 508 was placed inside it, tool group 789 lay beside basin 507 within 494, pit 639 filled by 640 re-cut its W side and held cache 632, while pit 84 filled by 85 bordered and re-cut the S side, was sealed by potspread 97, and either re-cut or overlay earlier pit 783. Most of these features were covered by occupational deposit 86, which designated the end of this initial period of habitation at BU34. Phase 2 began with the laying down of compacted white floor 66, which brought about a very different configuration of the interior space in comparison to its predecessor. Characteristically, there was no central hearth, and almost none of the pits in floor 87 was re-cut, except perhaps for pit 84, which was either continued by pit 71, or the latter was a depression into floor 87 coincidentally placed in the same general area as pit 84. Pit 71 was filled by 72 and was sealed by potspread 36 the vessels of which were filled by 67, while potspread 73 lay further E. In turn, these features were covered by occupational fills 33 and 45, which were mixed with wall collapse material 38 that likely originated from wall 28 and covered most of BU34’s interior. It is noted that the collapse material 38 sealed Phase 2 units, but could not be assigned to the latter, as it could have contained material embedded into wall 28 during construction. Other undatable features included degraded lime deposit 492 that bordered the interior of wall 28 since its construction; silty sand deposit 20 that overlay the Phase 2 use and abandonment fills; and ground stone tools cache 463, which was found in the abovementioned surficial deposit.

PreBU648

B

769, 770, 773, 823, 824

Two pits, 770 and 824 filled by 769/773 and 823, were dug into the sandy gravel substrate of BU648. Even though they are likely to have pre-dated the building, their function remains unknown, but it may have been of preparatory nature (e.g. position markers), as they both fell on the line of foundation trench 772 of BU648.

BU648

B

602, 646, 647, 648, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 758, 760, 771, 772, 774, 802, 803, 804, 805, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 822

BU648 was potentially constructed about the same time as BU34, utilising the same building technique, namely installing the main wall 602 in foundation trench 772, which was filled by 771 and cut into natural layers of fine gravel. Due to a slight height drop of the terrain, wall 602 is not likely to have required a foundation trench toward the SW of the building, where a ghost wall continuation of it appeared in the form of the calcium carbonate deposit 758. The interior of BU648 was then covered by compact grit and clay floor with whitish patches 812 that marked the onset of Phase 1 in the building. Due to the extensive erosion and truncation of BU648 by later wall FE550, almost no Phase 1 features survived, except for the amorphous and possibly redeposited natural gravel and pebble deposit 760 at the SW terminal of wall 602 marking the potential position of entrance 774. Floor 812 was soon replaced by poorly preserved and similarly constructed compact floor 802 that was laid c. 6 cm above the former and marked the onset of Phase 2 at BU648. Though devoid of habitational features, save for potspread 754, floor 802 was characterised by the presence of numerous pits containing burials. Specifically, pits 751, 804, and 822 contained graves 814 (one burial with fill 811 around the skull), 805 (one burial), and 813 (two burials), and were filled by 755/646, 803, and 815, respectively. The graves were covered by the silty grey deposit 647, which marked the end of Phase 2 and contained material associated with either house clearance domestic activities or mortuary and post-funerary rites and customs. One last feature, pit 753 with fill 752, was cut at the exterior of wall 602 but could not be associated with either of the two phases in BU648.

FE550

B

550, 651, 702, 704, 739, 756, 757

FE550 was a post-Chalcolithic feature that comprised wall 550 set in cut 704, cut 757 lying parallel to wall 550 and filled by 756, and stone tumble deposits 651, 702, and 739 associated with the collapse of wall 550. Although a late feature, it was included in this analysis as a unit sealing Chalcolithic deposits in order to investigate the degree of disturbance caused to underlying material. With regard to the latter, a small number of mostly non-classifiable Chalcolithic sherds was displaced due to the construction and collapse of wall 550 (102 sherds, of which 86 unclassifiable; compared to 784 sherds, of which 616 unclassifiable in BU648), while a proportionally greater number of ground stone objects and tools likely deriving from fill 647 of BU648 further below was reused (18 stone objects, compared to 23 stone objects in BU648).

BU995

D

921, 980, 981, 995, 1004, 1007, 1021, 1025, 1026, 1027, 1052, 1053

BU995 was the sole structure found in Tr. 29 of Op. D and was erected by installing wall 921 in foundation trench 1027 filled by 1004/1021; this in turn cut natural bedrock to form a stance for the building. A partially surviving compacted floor, 1025, was laid directly on the flattened bedrock and was cut to the S by erosion line 1026 filled by 1007. The only other feature surviving was circular shallow fireplace, 1052, which directly cut the underlying bedrock near wall 921, partially discoloured floor 1025, and was filled by 1053. All features and the interior space of BU995 were covered by the thin occupational fill 980, and the more substantial stony rubble 981, the latter likely deriving from the collapse of wall 921 and/or other contexts eroding from upslope.

TR28

D

841, 842, 866, 867, 957, 962, 963, 964, 968, 967?, 969, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 991, 992, 1028, 1029, 1189

TR28 was the only trench excavated on the Dhiarizos River side of the Laona W Ridge. Although architectural features were not located, the excavation produced several rock-cut features that indicate the area was actively used for some time. Specifically, features in TR28 included postholes 992 and 1028, the latter filled by 1029; bedrock pits 957, 962, 963, and 971 with their respective fills 975, 974, 968, and 972; empty pit 973; pits or empty graves 866 and 867 cut at the cliff’s edge; large basin-like cut or pit 991 recut by pit 964 with fill 969; and pits or empty graves 1189 and 842 with fill 841 that were found at a distance of c. 18 m to the E of the actual trench, but included for consideration in TR28 as part of the same phenomenon. All trench features were eventually covered by general deposit 967, which although just beneath topsoil did not contain any post-Chalcolithic sherdage, hence its tentative inclusion in the list of units associated with TR28.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 17

31/05/2019 14:25

Charalambos Paraskeva

18 Unit Group

Op.

Units

Criteria

BU850

D

844, 845, 847, 848, 849, 850, 863, 865, 926, 933, 946, 947, 948, 949

BU850 was the easternmost of three identically constructed, poorly preserved but contiguous buildings in Tr. 27. Its main wall, 845, was installed in foundation trench 865, which cut into tabular rock seam 949 to form a stance for the building. The foundation trench was filled by 849 and 933, the latter found at the junction of wall 845 with wall 914 of BU915. Four layers of render 863 indicated that the interior face of wall 845 was plastered, while the partially surviving floor 946 was laid directly on the flattened underlying bedrock 926 and likely comprised of reconstituted natural material. Posthole 948 with fill 947 was the sole surviving feature in the building, as the rest was lost due to erosion. The features and floor were covered by occupational fills 847/848 and later by wall collapse material 844.

BU915

D

864, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 923, 924, 925, 934, 935, 936?, 937?

BU915 was constructed between BU850 and BU984, either as an additional abutting space or a non-freestanding building, since its wall 914 rested on wall 845 of BU850 and wall 983 of BU984, even if the latter assertion is less certain due to erosion. This relationship suggests that BU915 likely post-dated the nearby structures, but its builders did not seek to replace or cut through their walls. Although the tabular limestone seam outcrop behind the building was cut by foundation trench 917 in an arc shape, wall 914 was not placed flush up against it, thus leaving ample space for material 916 to fill up the foundation trench. Prior to laying the floor, the bedrock was artificially flattened to form make-up surface 925, which was initially covered by floor 924 consisting of hard plastery havara, and was later re-surfaced by the charcoal-flecked plastery surface 935. Other features on the floor included the off-centre, irregular and badly damaged hearth 923 with plaster matrix 934 beneath it, and probably also pit 937 with fill 936. The latter pit was cut into bedrock, which suggests that it either belonged to BU915 or ante-dated it. However, the fact that the bedrock was flattened prior to laying down the floors in BU915 suggests that any prior features would have been covered, plastered or at least emptied and reused, hence the incorporation of pit 937 and its contents to the BU915 assemblage. As with other buildings in this vicinity, all features were covered initially by occupational deposit 913, and later by wall tumble 912/864.

BU984

D

978, 979, 982, 983, 984, 985, 988, 1035, 1036

BU984 was the worst preserved of the three abutting structures in Tr. 27. Its wall 983 was installed in foundation trench 1035 with fill 1036 that cut the tabular limestone seam behind the building to form a supportive stance for BU984. The interior space was covered by compacted earthen floor 982 and lacked features, save for fills 985/988 from and around large mortar 2044. The floor, interior space and wall of the building were covered by fills 978/979 consisting of wall tumble and other soil deposits. Finally, the small number of sherds in this building hints that it was either cleared prior to abandonment, or that its interior was almost entirely washed away by extreme post-abandonment erosional phenomena.

TR30

D

986, 987, 1056, 1080, 1081, 1085, 1094

TR30 was placed at the western end of the W Ridge and, although no architecture was revealed, it produced the highest concentration of picrolite debitage, hinting at the existence of one or more now entirely eroded structures where the inhabitants were involved in the intensive production of picrolite objects, even if not in the context of a specialised workshop (see Chap. 6). All the deposits associated with TR30 are characterised as sub-surficial slopewash, but they contained predominantly Chalcolithic pottery (c. 98%) and objects, particularly picrolite and ground stone tools that renders them suitable for consideration by the current study.

TR34

E

27, 37, 46, 47, 48, 58, 70, 489, 490

TR34 was the only trench excavated in Op. E, and the main target was to explore what lay beneath visible terrace wall 490. Although no architectural or domestic features were found, slopewash deposits 27, 37, 46, 47, 48, 58, 70, and 489 were successively stratified and contained a considerable amount of Chalcolithic sherdage, which allows for a rudimentary assessment of TR34’s relative dating.

TR3/9

A

19, 23, 24, 25, 35, 50, 51

TR13

A

475, 491, 496, 497

TR25

A/B

778

TR15

B

523

These TR unit groups did not contain architectural features that can be attributed with any degree of certainty to the Chalcolithic, or deposits that could be associated with extra-mural activities of domestic nature. Furthermore, most unit groups (TR13, TR15, TR24, TR25) did not contain sufficient quantities of datable material beneath the topsoil, while TR3/9 presented an inversion of stratigraphy (see endnote 12). As a result, these unit groups were eventually rejected and removed from consideration.

TR24

E

736, 740

Table 2.1: Analytical presentation of unit groups by Operation from older to younger based on the stratigraphic analysis of Souskiou Laona settlement units. Units included in each unit group are listed with an explanation of the criteria for their inclusion.

Having established the unit groups, it is essential to demonstrate that the definitions for the terms proposed by this study are verifiable, namely that the coalescence of material at specific loci is not accidental and reflects the outcome of past human actions rather than natural transformative processes occurring during and after the settlement’s lifetime. In order to test validity, it was necessary to conduct two post res analyses, namely tests that were conducted after the conclusions of the relative dating study were reached in order to avoid imposing results on both the verification analyses and the conclusions of the study:

100%

1. Verification of statistical difference in the dating of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and the unit groups: The aim of this first test was to exhibit that the unit groups included pottery dating to site periods (e.g. I, I/II, II) and that the overlying topsoil and surficial deposits contained pottery dating both to the specific cultural period of the underlying unit groups and to other site periods (e.g. III–VI), i.e. that the surface deposits have sealed and preserved the Chalcolithic settlement or at least pockets of habitation dating to the Chalcolithic. To assess this, all sherds from the settlement were assigned to seven general periodisation groups. It should be emphasised that the periodisation of sherdage was a blind process

20%

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 18

90% 80%

72

42

36

26

76

70% 60% 50% 40% 30%

10% 0%

UCHAL

12 7 5 11

11 6 7

39

16

Fill 994/BU897 CHAL?

68

CW

Fill 1031/BU1015 PW

RM (coarse)

8 5 7 8 27 Deposit 1087/ Pre-BU796 RMP-A

RWPB

Figure 2.4: Quantitative and proportional comparison of ceramics from select units in BU897, BU1015 and Pre-BU796.

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology based on prior knowledge of the Chalcolithic typology as developed in the past (Stewart 1978; 1985a; 1985b; Bolger et al. 1998a; 1998b; 2006. See also Chap. 10). Table 2.2 below summarises the associations drawn between general periodisation groups and wares. Even though the blind assignment of sherds to general periodisation groups can potentially lead to circular argumentation, the integrity of the analysis is safeguarded by the fact that any misattributions will result in statistical aberrances and inversions of stratigraphy in this test. In the next step of this analysis, 78 pottery-containing units, which were not associated with a unit group in Table 2.1, were stratigraphically analysed and clustered by trench on the basis of relevant data from App. C on ADS. This exercise allowed the formation of 36 surface groups that essentially contained the topsoil and all surficial (mostly general and slopewash) deposits overlying unit groups. Table 2.3 below lists these surface groups and their associated units. Although it would have been more appropriate to isolate the specific units overlying each unit group, this was impossible to achieve since the vast majority of units comprising surface groups covered entire trenches and/or significant parts of their associated Operation. Following the formation of surface groups, a pivot table was setup to cross-plot sherds by unit group/surface group and general periodisation group. Data from the pivot table were then extracted, transformed and formatted according to the following principles: a. Formation of the second term of comparison for unit groups: The trench numbers associated with each unit group were used to sum data from the related and overlying surface groups. For example, BU69 was located in Tr. 8, hence surface groups A4/8, A4+8, and A8 were considered to overly it and therefore formed the second term of comparison (TS). As a number of unit groups, particularly in Op. A, occupied spatially the same trench(es), certain surface groups were inevitably reused many times. However, in order to avoid biases, General periodisation group Per. I

Wares BW, BTW, RMP-A, RWPB

Per. I/II

RWL, RMP-B

Per. II

CPW (mono), PW (coarse), RB/B, RB/B (coarse), RMP-B (coarse), RWL (coarse)

Per. I or I/II or II

statistics were applied to both the entire population of pairs under comparison and to a select sample of unit groups located at the uppermost layers of the settlement. The latter sample pool included the following unit groups: BU984, BU915, BU850, BU995, FE550, BU648, BU34, FE60, BU920, FE628, BU838, FE1102, Pre-BU838, FE1073-Upper, BU895, FE767, BU800, BU796, FE30, FE505, FE488, BU69. b. Reduction/transformation of comparison dimensions: As the purpose of the analysis was to test for differences between the unit groups (UG) and the surficial deposits (TS) at the settlement, the periodised ceramic inventories for each of the UG/TS pair under comparison were transformed to concordance groups that reflected the level of agreement between the ceramic inventory and the dating assigned to the underlying unit group in the conclusions of this study. Five concordance groups were formed, as shown in Table 2.4 below. At this point it should be emphasised that sherds have been blindly assigned a priori to general periodisation groups while their dating had been determined before this analysis took place. Finally, the concordance group data were converted to percentages in order to provide a common scale for comparisons. c. Removal of indirectly dated, empty and non-Chalcolithic unit groups: Certain unit groups, such as all TRs, were assigned to site periods on the basis of their ceramic profile rather than their stratigraphic associations while other unit groups (Pre-BU648, FE880) did not contain sherds or were not Chalcolithic features (FE9); all of these groups were removed from the current test in order to avoid introducing biases into the statistical estimates. The analysis of UG/TS ceramic inventories concluded with the visualisation of the normalised concordance groups for the UG/TS pairs examined, which can be consulted in Fig. 2.5, and the statistical processing of the data as outlined in Table 2.5 below. As the most salient Uppermost unit groups+ statistics reveal, the TS deposits present a c. 12% drop in the quantity of sherds that belong to the same cultural horizon ascribed to the underlying UG, and in parallel a c. 10% increase in unclassifiable material. These figures are likely linked to an increase of sherdage abrasion in TS deposits due to more frequent exposure to cultural (agriculture) and natural (erosion, weather) formation processes. More importantly, however, the TS deposits present a near fivefold increase of sherds that post-date the Chalcolithic (2.6±1.6% to

SW

Per. I to II

CW, PW, RM (coarse), RW (coarse) UCHAL (= arbitrary class combining RM?, RW?, X), CHAL?

Unclassified Late (post-Chalcolithic)

LATE

Concordance group

Contents description

Agreement (A)

Sherds in agreement with the final primary dating of the unit group. Primary dating refers to the dating assigned to the majority of sherds from the unit group.

Neutrality (N)

Sherds that neither agree or disagree with the final primary dating of the unit group, namely sherds in Per. I–II, and Per. I, I/II or II general periodisation groups, which were produced during the entire Chalcolithic occupation at the settlement.

Table 2.2: Allocation of wares to general periodisation groups for the analysis of statistical difference in the dating of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and the unit groups. Surface group (units) A/B10 (52, 61, 668, 676, 74, 83); A/B25 (0); A1+2 (0); A11 (0, 454, 457, 459, 460, 462, 474, 518, 519); A11/12 (0); A12 (0, 452, 453, 456); A13 (0); A14 (0, 506, 512, 513, 517); A14+20 (0); A2 (0, 2, 3, 552, 555, 59, 8, 80); A2/4 (0); A2+20 (0); A20 (0, 1060, 558, 559, 956); A20,23,26 (624); A20/23 (0); A20+23 (0, 513); A22 (0, 658, 659, 661, 662, 663, 664, 671, 677, 678, 680, 691); A23 (0, 701, 727, 782, 898, 959); A26 (0, 513, 558, 559, 854, 910, 966, 970, 1128, 1129); A4 (0, 15, 16, 17, 18, 29, 31, 32, 40, 79); A4/7 (0); A4/8 (15); A4+8 (0); A8 (0, 15, 41, 503, 77, 851); Agen (0); B15 (0); B16 (0); B18 (0); B18/19 (0); B19 (0); B5 (0); B5/7 (0); B6 (0); B7 (0, 39); B32 (1047, 1051); Bgen (0); D27 (0, 840, 843, 846, 861, 903, 904); D28 (0); D29 (0, 1019); D30 (0); D31 (0); E1 (1, 4, 6); E24 (0).

Table 2.3: Surface groups and their associated units for the analysis of statistical difference in the dating of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and unit groups.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 19

19

Disagreement (D)

Sherds in disagreement with the final primary dating of the unit group.

Unknowability (U)

Sherds that are impossible to classify, namely in the Unclassified general periodisation group, but which are most likely Chalcolithic based on their fabric composition.

Lateness (L)

Sherds that post-date the Chalcolithic settlement, thereby belonging to the Late general periodisation group.

Table 2.4: Concordance groups and their descriptions for the analysis of statistical difference in the dating of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and unit groups.

31/05/2019 14:25

Charalambos Paraskeva

20 BU984-UG BU984-TS BU915-UG BU915-TS BU850-UG BU850-TS BU995-UG BU995-TS FE550-UG FE550-TS BU648-UG BU648-TS BU34-UG BU34-TS FE60-UG FE60-TS FE698-UG FE698-TS BU920-UG BU920-TS FE628-UG FE628-TS BU838-UG BU838-TS FE1102-UG FE1102-TS Pre-BU838-UG Pre-BU838-TS Pre-BU920-UG Pre-BU920-TS FE1073-Upper-UG FE1073-Upper-TS BU895-UG BU895-TS FE767-UG FE767-TS BU800-UG BU800-TS BU796-UG BU796-TS BU1015-UG BU1015-TS FE30-UG FE30-TS FE505-UG FE505-TS Pre-BU796-UG Pre-BU796-TS BU897 or BU1015-UG BU897 or BU1015-TS BU897-UG BU897-TS FE488-UG FE488-TS FE830-UG FE830-TS FE1043-UG FE1043-TS

77.2

22.8 3.6

73.2

20.0 16.7

3.6 14.4

35.6 11.6

2.9

11.8

11.6 84.3

1.5 2.5 1.8 0.9

69.3

19.9 49.2

32.4 74.9

9.7

0.4 7.2 69.0

6.9

74.9

9.7

0.4 7.2

56.9 23.0

64.8

9.8

39.0

13.6

34.0

55.1

10.1

34.3

42.9

22.9

29.2

60.6

13.4 34.0 60.7 9.6

24.6

9.0

1.3 55.1

10.1

24.0

26.3

14.0 40.3

13.0 50.5

10.7 44.9

42.9

12.0

31.3

57.2

9.9

28.0

1.6 0.0 2.9

59.5

9.5 36.7

1.5

51.0

10.8

34.0

0.8

55.1

10.1 65.5

23.0

11.5 63.4

9.9 57.5

31.4

11.1

49.3

43.5

7.2

40.1 60.7

27.6

11.7

35.0

0.3 3.0

45.1

11.4 40.6

15.7 72.4

7.4 17.6

10.1 64.8

9.0 63.9

28.0

63.5 26.9

7.4 7.2

10.4 9.9

30% A%

2.3

57.2

61.1 30.6

28.4

57.2

40% N%

U%

50% D%

60%

0.0 2.9

0.8

47.7

9.9

0.0 3.1

3.1 0.1 2.9

55.8

44.3 30.6

1.2

0.1 3.0

59.3

10.0

31.1

27.2

9.3 60.0

10.1

30.2

22.0

14.1 59.5

9.5

0.1 3.1 0.1 3.0

60.0

10.1

20%

0.2 0.0 3.6

62.8

9.0

23.0

0.0 3.6 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.8

62.8

46.5

26.9

0.1 0.2 2.9

63.3

36.8

23.5

0.8 25.9

13.4

59.7

24.6

0.0 2.3

58.9

9.6

24.6

0.4 0.1 0.1 2.4 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.8

29.3

13.4

47.2

10%

4.5

79.4

16.7 24.1

7.8

0.9

83.8

12.5 7.8

1.5 2.5 78.6

13.6 12.0

3.9

1.0

83.8

8.1

0%

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 20

43.0 73.9

6.9

1.3

3.2

21.5

12.0

0.2

1.8

73.2

20.0

2.9

3.2 69.0

14.8

3.6

0.4

73.2

20.0

0.2

3.2 65.2

17.8

70%

2.3

80%

90%

100%

L%

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology BU69-UG BU69-TS BU1178-UG BU1178-TS BU1169-UG BU1169-TS FE1166-UG FE1166-TS BU1149-UG BU1149-TS BU13-UG BU13-TS BU604-UG BU604-TS FE1101-UG FE1101-TS FE1163-UG FE1163-TS FE1073-Lower-UG FE1073-Lower-TS FE808-UG FE808-TS FE653-UG FE653-TS FE1180-UG FE1180-TS FE629-UG FE629-TS

21

60.3

13.8

46.5 28.1

36.8

15.0

39.6

11.2 10.6 10.2

34.5

14.6

40.8

47.8

12.4 9.4

26.5

10.8

0.1

59.2

9.9

2.3

57.2

11.2

62.1

37.6

11.1

0.0 1.4

49.8

50.6

14.4

37.9

35.0

11.3 11.7

41.5

66.6

13.0 15.1

37.4

0.1 0.1 2.1

33.1

13.2

32.6

0.1 2.0

48.7

55.2 43.1

20.4 4.3 1.1

47.0

8.5

54.1

9.9

0.1 3.1 0.1 0.4

63.4

52.8

10.7

32.6

15.1

30% A%

0.1 0.1 1.8

48.1

13.2

26.6

0.2 0.2 2.7

43.9

64.1 39.1 30.6

0.1 0.1 2.4

59.5

37.3

27.6

0.0 2.1

60.7

54.8 27.8

0.1 0.0 3.1

64.8

45.5 25.9

20%

2.3

11.7

9.0

10%

2.6

57.2

51.5

23.5

2.7

49.7

9.9

23.0

0.1

39.9

19.6

30.6

0%

25.8

10.9

40% N%

U%

36.0

4.3 1.1

47.0

50% D%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

L%

Figure 2.5: Proportional comparison of ceramics by concordance group for all unit groups (UG) and surface groups (TS) at the Souskiou Laona settlement. TS concordance group profiles are listed immediately below the concomitant UG profiles.

All unit groups

Uppermost unit groups

Uppermost unit groups+

Average

Sigma

Average

Sigma

Average

Sigma

UG A%

40.9

20.5

33.5

20.8

32.1

21

TS A%

25.3

12.7

21

14.8

19.7

14.8

UG N%

13.4

4.1

14.2

4.3

14.6

3.9

TS N%

11.5

2.6

12.1

3.4

12.2

3.7

UG U%

45.1

18.1

51.6

19.1

52.5

19

TS U%

59.2

10.9

61.8

12.3

62.7

11.1

UG D%

0.2

0.5

0.3

0.6

0.4

0.6

TS D%

1.5

5.2

2.6

7.1

2.8

7.9

UG L%

0.5

1.2

0.4

0.7

0.5

0.8

TS L%

2.4

1.3

2.5

1.4

2.6

1.6

Table 2.5: Results of the statistical processing of data regarding the presence of ceramics found in topsoil accumulations and unit groups by concordance group. Notes: All unit groups=statistics run on the percentages of all unit/surface group pairs; Uppermost unit groups=statistics run on the percentages of the select sample of unit/surface group pairs defined in discussion above; Uppermost unit groups+=statistics run on the percentages of the select sample of unit/surface group pairs defined in discussion above that satisfy a clause of comparability proposing that the number of ceramics in the inventory of the unit group is no more than five times the number of ceramics in the inventory of the relevant surface group(s), and vice versa.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 21

31/05/2019 14:25

Charalambos Paraskeva

22

0.5±0.8%) and a near sevenfold increase of material that disagrees with the relative dating of the UG below (2.8±7.9% to 0.4±0.6%). These numbers suggest that the pottery found in UGs is quite sealed and suitable for relatively dating the associated archaeological features. Parallel to the above, caution seems appropriate as on average 52.5% of all UG sherds were not classified, a figure that at first glance appears capable of significantly distorting the above conclusions. However, upon further scrutiny, the distortion is considered rather small as the number of unclassified sherds drops considerably to 35.5% for UGs in Op. A (Fig. 5.1), where the majority of pottery was recovered (c. 90%); and as the analysis of survey sherds from transects H, M, N, and P in Op. A indicates that ware classes associated with the Unclassified concordance group (e.g. RW?, RM?, X) are considered to date to Per. I to I/II rather than Per. I/II to II by a ratio of 20:1 (see also Chap. 10 with further data on unclassified Chalcolithic sherdage dating to Per. I).

100%

2. Potential for the use of ceramic material from contaminated and mixed units: A second analysis was designed to test whether sherdage from units presenting low stratigraphic integrity was suitable for inclusion in analyses regarding the relative dating of unit groups, and it is considered an attempt to standardise analytical safety levels for use of problematic material in chronological studies (see relevant discussion in LAP II.1A, 8). To begin with, all units at the Laona settlement were assigned a level of stratigraphic security/integrity during excavation. Table 2.6 below outlines the integrity status levels utilised, while Fig. 2.6 illustrates the 838 settlement units by ascription to unit group, Operation and integrity status. Integrity statuses were linked to the pottery inventories of each unit and unit group upon compilation of the latter, and numerical values were converted to percentages to avoid issues of scale and allow cross-Operational comparisons. Following preparation of the data, the steps employed in the previous test concerning the blind ascription of sherds to general periodisation groups and concordance groups were reiterated. This allowed for

30%

Integrity status Sealed (S)

Mixed (M)

Contaminated (C)

Natural (Na)

Description Stratigraphically sealed and undisturbed units in all operations, especially in situ floors, intact walls and intra-mural features like potspreads, stakescapes, hearths, and pits with their associated fills. Specifically, in Op. A and D these units do not contain later material from uphill, while in Op. B the status indicates chronologically safe units that may contain very small numbers of residual Per. I material. Similar to sealed units, namely they are relatively well-stratified entities, such as pit fills and ashy or stony deposits in buildings, but the associated material likely derives from chronologically mixed periods. This integrity status is also assigned to certain slopewash deposits in Op. A, even if the material does not necessarily derive from as high as Op. B and D. Mostly extra-mural fills, slopewash and general deposits that are contaminated by Per. III–IV or other late material, and/or are affected by major root action. Cultural material in these units is considered highly mixed and unsafe for chronological studies. Units associated with natural features, such as bedrock, tabular limestone ledges, gravel pockets at the crest of the Laona ridge, and other non-anthropogenic deposits. These units do not contain any cultural material and are not considered for analytical purposes.

Table 2.6: Integrity status levels and their description for the analysis of potential use of ceramic material from contaminated and mixed units.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 22

1 44

90%

6

70%

2

17

15

2 1

5 6

80

80%

7

7

2

9 3

3

3

60%

7

7

35

1

1

50% 40%

1 2

1 2 1

37 342 113

60

2 10

20% 3

10% 0%

S

M

C

N

S

UG A

M

C

N

Non-UG

A/B

B

D

E

Topsoil

Figure 2.6: Quantitative and proportional comparison of settlement units by integrity status, Operation and assignment to unit groups. Correlation pair

r

df

p

Result

C% to D%

-0.071

41

0.651

NSS

C% to L%

0.092

41

0.556

NSS

C% to D+L%

0.063

41

0.689

NSS

-0.079

41

0.616

NSS

M% to D% M% to L%

0.068

41

0.664

NSS

M% to D+L%

0.037

41

0.815

NSS

BU C% to D%

-0.219

18

0.354

NSS

BU C% to L%

0.500

18

0.025

SS

BU C% to D+L%

0.231

18

0.326

NSS

-0.093

18

0.696

NSS

BU M% to D% BU M% to L%

-0.240

18

0.308

NSS

BU M% to D+L%

-0.241

18

0.307

NSS

FE C% to D%

0.099

21

0.652

NSS

FE C% to L%

-0.024

21

0.915

NSS

FE C% to D+L%

-0.003

21

0.990

NSS

0.004

21

0.984

NSS

FE M% to D% FE M% to L%

0.128

21

0.561

NSS

FE M% to D+L%

0.130

21

0.556

NSS

Table 2.7: Results of statistical correlations between unit integrity and concordance percentages and their statistical interpretation. Notes: r=Pearson correlation coefficient; df=degrees of freedom; p=significance at 5% level; NSS=not statistically significant; SS=statistically significant; BU=test run only on BU units; FE=test run only on FE units.

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology the production of a general overview of the settlement’s ceramic profile by Operation, general periodisation group and integrity status (Fig. 2.7); and for the estimation of statistical correlations between unit integrity and concordance percentages as summarised in Table 2.7 below. Results from the statistical analysis of correlations indicate that (contrary to the Null hypothesis as expressed in the initial definition of C and M units, namely that they are moderately to highly mixed and the former mostly unsuitable for chronology studies) there is no statistically significant linear correlation between contaminated and mixed ceramic assemblages and pottery in disagreement with the post res relative dating of concomitant unit groups. The same is true for extra-mural (FE) and intra-mural (BU) C and M units, while the only borderline statistically significant emergent relationship is between C units in buildings and post-Chalcolithic ceramics. Essentially, these results provide sufficient evidence that ceramics in C and M units should not be excluded from consideration, as the units have not been adversely affected by natural and cultural processes after the abandonment of the Chalcolithic settlement. Moreover, the fact that there is no correlation between C/M units and D pottery across the board, but there is some correlation for C units to L sherds, provides hints for the Chalcolithic settlement’s life history. According to this inverse relation of correlations, it appears that during the Chalcolithic, the inhabitants of the settlement either elected to continually shift location for their buildings (cf. LAP II.1A, 259–260), thus precluding the accumulation and mixing of ceramic material between site periods, or the site suffered from extreme erosional phenomena (i.e. landslides) that rapidly, and perhaps massively, removed later material at each locus of habitation. This argument is supported by the stronger correlation of BU C% units to L% sherds (r = 0.4998, df 41, p = 0.0248) and the proportionally increased presence of L sherds in C and M units (Fig. 2.7, C% μ and

100%

43

219

7048

16278

23

M% μ for D and L in Table 2.8), which can be linked with certainty to post-Chalcolithic anthropogenic activities, such as the cultivation and potential ploughing of parts of the site from the Hellenistic to the Early Byzantine periods. In other words, the presence of L sherds indicates that the human actions responsible for pushing them down into deeper Chalcolithic strata were not instrumental to the introduction of D sherds to unit groups beneath the topsoil—not for lack of required energy, but because when these actions were taking place, the D sherds in the topsoil were either too sparse or in some cases were already beneath the topsoil and overlay such deposits (e.g. BU920, FE628, FE1102). Unit Integrity

A

D

N

U

L

C (C%)

17185 (46.3%)

21 (0.1%)

4481 (12.1%)

15230 (41.1%)

165 (0.4%)

M (M%)

7497 (44.5%)

33 (0.2%)

2130 (12.6%)

7152 (42.5%)

34 (0.2%)

S (S%)

5739 (46.1%)

51 (0.4%)

1625 (13%)

5041 (40.5%)

0 (0%)

C% μ (n=23)

39.4

0.1

13

46.7

0.9

M% μ (n=33)

39

0.2

13.6

46.9

0.3

45.8

0.1

13.6

40.5

0

S% μ (n=27)

Table 2.8: Correspondences between unit integrity and pottery concordance. Notes: μ=Sample population mean for all C, M, S units after conversion of each A, D, N, U, L row to percentages; n=Number of unit groups with relevant data.

1

2

20

21

2

5

220

348

90% 80%

3261 116

119 70% 60%

149

1155 6 533

50%

2079

4773

25

298 3

40%

1674

654

544

1225

7 29 35

71

4912 20%

7659

18158

30

82

10%

26

0% S

M A

C

M

C

444

199 25 S

A/B Period I

Period I/II

Period II

1 M B

50 47 6 C Neutral

202

155

133

1

67

65

30%

217

8 93

S Unclassified

3

M D

115 1 152

93

C

M

C E

Late

Figure 2.7: Quantitative and proportional tabulation of sherdage from the Souskiou Laona settlement by general periodisation group, Operation and unit integrity status. Note that sherds from the Period I to II and Period I or I/II or II general periodisation groups have been conflated under the term Neutral.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 23

31/05/2019 14:25

24

Charalambos Paraskeva

Apart from statistical correlations, the raw ceramic data from C, M, S units were further processed in order to better understand the correspondences between unit integrity and post res concordance of pottery. Results of the aforementioned endeavours are presented in Table 2.8. Beyond the obvious fact that datable sherds (A+D) from C and M units outnumber those from S units by a ratio of 4.3:1, it is also revealed that D sherds represent c. 0.2% of the total assemblage and exist in almost equal parts in S, M, C units (μ of 0.1% to 0.4%); upon further data drilling, most of them derive from likely transitional entities (BU920), multi-phase middens (FE1073-Upper, FE1102) and Per. II buildings with small numbers of Per. I and I/II residuals (BU34, BU648, BU850). L sherds are slightly more (c. 0.3% of the total assemblage), and the increased but virtually minimal presence of L material in C and M units (μ of 0.9% and 0.3% respectively), which are usually located at the uppermost strata or in extra-mural areas of the settlement, lends further support to the argument that in later times the site was intensively cultivated. Lastly, an inverse 6% difference between C%/M% and S% averages for A and U sherds emerges, signifying slightly better preservation of sherds in S units and likely exposure of sherds in C/M units to processes that wore them down (e.g. erosion, water weathering, exposure to more acidic or humid environments).

In concluding the post res analyses, it is argued that the concept of the unit group proposed by this study is valid, as it indeed emerges from the complex web of stratigraphic relations of individual units (see Table 2.1) and contains spatiotemporally confined and relatively consistently dated cultural material that significantly differs from topsoil and other surficial accumulations. Boundary fuzziness in unit groups is expressed by the existence of nearly negligible quantities of residual and/or intrusive pottery within their limits, while it has also been demonstrated that the level of stratigraphic integrity assigned to individual units during excavation should not and does not preclude the use of their contents for elucidating the relative dating of the settlement. Apart from the above, a second corollary of outlining the unit groups and their relations was the extrapolation of eight stratigraphic sequences across all Operations, each occupying a discreet space in the settlement and tying together vertically stratified or laterally intersecting and/ or abutting unit groups. Vertical links are considered to indicate passage of time and are associated with the replacement, renovation or succession of structures and features, while horizontal associations hint at contemporaneity and/ or spatial diversification of the habitational environment. Since excavations at Souskiou Laona were conducted in five spatially distant locales and it was not possible to stratigraphically link the sequences across them, the ceramic profile of each sequence allowed for the relative temporal alignment of Operations, and for the post hoc assignment of certain isolated archaeological entities and trenches to site periods. In Op. A, the largest exposure, five sequences were formed and the multiple links between them allowed for the generation of the complex interlocking stratigraphy visualised in Fig. 2.3. Table 2.9 below lists the extrapolated sequences by Operation and contained unit groups, the latter ordered with those closer to bedrock first, and explains the rationale for their compilation. After the allocation of unit groups to sequences, the latter were further grouped based on lateral stratigraphic relations that indicate potential temporal contemporaneity, while the

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 24

grouped Sequences 1–4 in Op. A were colour-coded based on inter-sequence links and formed stratigraphic horizons that were useful for elucidating the relative dating in this area of the settlement (Figs 2.8–9).9 Following the grouping of sequenced unit groups, the ceramic inventories of stratigraphically coeval and linked unit groups within each sequence were conflated, and the new, compound inventories were cross-tabulated in order to assess the evolution of pottery wares in time as a proxy for tracing the development of human habitation at the site, and as “a useful yardstick to allocate stratigraphically isolated” unit groups to relative site periods (LAP II.1A, 8). Relative site periods: Souskiou Laona in space and time Ceramics, either in the form of complete vessels or more frequently in the form of sherds, were the most ubiquitous class of material culture found at Souskiou Laona; therefore, the elucidation of the site’s relative dating has relied heavily on the statistical and spatial analysis of pottery deriving principally from the settlement, and to a lesser extent from the cemetery and survey. Beginning with the settlement, the cross tabulation of compound ceramic inventories of grouped and sequenced unit groups provided evidence for the prevalence of certain wares at different periods (Figs 2.8–9). Before discussing these, it is important to stress that even though UCHAL and CHAL? seem to adversely affect our understanding of ceramic developments due to their high numbers— they jointly occupy 20% to 85% of total sherds in each compound assemblage, as shown in Fig. 2.8—in reality they average c. 44% (=27,360 sherds) of the sequences’ total assemblage (=66,236 sherds). This number drops to c. 35% for Op. A assemblages in Sequences 1–4 that form the backbone of ceramic phases at the site. Additionally, the highest percentages of unclassifiable material occur in compound inventories that contain a very small number of sherds (i.e. FE60, FE698, FE550); belong to buildings affected by extreme erosion (i.e. BU915, BU984, BU850, BU800); or are found in buildings with high numbers of complete or near complete vessels derived from potspreads whose sherdage was not registered in sherd counts (i.e. BU34, BU648) in order to avoid duplication of data. Finally, according to the analysis of survey sherdage, the UCHAL class consists primarily of sherds with abraded surfaces, but with fabrics that do not negate the dating of their associated transect square, an element that further countenanced the exploration of the settlement’s spatial spread at different periods (see Fig. 2.10). Returning to classifiable ceramic material, the data presented in Fig. 2.9 indicate the percentage of each ware in each compound inventory for all eight established sequences.10 Numbers of complete and near complete vessels are presented alongside the percentage of wares in order to assist interpretation, while red and yellow warning signs accompany assemblages containing sherd counts lower than the 10th and 30th percentiles, respectively, of the

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology Sequence

Unit groups

25 Description

Operation A Sequence 1: Upper terrace

FE629, FE653, BU604, BU69, FE505, FE30

The deepest unit groups in the upper terrace sequence are composite rock-cut features FE629 and FE653, which are considered to provide indications for early site use, but not necessarily of permanent habitation. These features were later overlain by BU604, one of the first buildings erected in the settlement by cutting the foundation trench into the underlying bedrock. Later, this building was replaced by BU69 that was inserted into the empty shell of BU604, a technological novelty that was probably an architectural response to the high rates of soil erosion and may be utilised as a temporal marker, as it appears to characterise a group of buildings that succeeded the earliest buildings in the settlement. Two more potential structures, the amorphous pit FE505 and a collection of interior building features FE30, lay close to the surface and over BU604 and BU69; hence they are likely to be contemporary with or slightly later than BU69.

Sequence 2: Lower terrace W

FE808, BU13, FE488, FE830, FE880, FE767, BU800

Unit groups in this sequence spatially cover areas from the W end of the Lower Terrace to just N of BU897. Its members include early pit FE808 with BU13 constructed directly above it. The use and abandonment deposits of the latter building are covered by units associated with potential terrace walls FE488 and FE830, which spread diagonally through most of Op. A and divide the latter into an Upper and Lower terrace. The multiple rock-cut scoops FE880, just N of BU897, are mixed and/or underlie units associated with FE830 and FE488, while partially surviving BU800 overlies the latter and is considered one of the later buildings erected at the settlement. Likely contemporary or more possibly slightly antecedent to BU800 is FE767, an extra-mural accumulation of slopewash deposits immediately to the W of BU897 and N of extensive midden FE1073.

Sequence 3: Lower terrace centre

FE1180, BU1149, FE1166, FE1043, BU897, BU897 or BU1015, BU1015, PreBU796, BU796, BU895, Pre-BU838, BU838, FE628

The central sequence of the lower terrace offers perhaps the most lucid image of habitational developments at Op. A and indeed at the Laona settlement. The earliest feature is rock-cut pit FE1180, which likely pre-dates permanent occupation at the settlement. This was succeeded by BU1149 with contemporary extra-mural slopewash deposits FE1166 to the E. The former building marked the beginning of permanent and persistent occupation at this locale involving six successively erected buildings. Specifically, BU897 was constructed atop BU1149 and FE1043, a composite feature containing soil accumulations that are considered contemporary with or slightly antecedent to midden 1038/FE1073Upper. Returning to the buildings sequence, BU897 was quickly replaced by BU1015, which partially reused the empty shell of BU897 in similar fashion to BU69. Deposits trapped between BU897 and BU1015 could not be definitively assigned to either building. Soil from the use and abandonment deposits from both of these buildings appears to have been used to create semi-artificial platform Pre-BU796 that supported BU796. This pattern of construction and abandonment seems to recur, as after BU796 was deserted, soil began to naturally accumulate and formed part of semi-artificial platform Pre-BU838. At the lower part of Pre-BU838, and close to the still protruding wall of BU897, a short-lived structure, BU895, was erected. Later, fresh soil was brought for Pre-BU838, which completely covered the derelict BU895. The final building in this sequence, BU838, was constructed on platform Pre-BU838 and was eventually partially covered by FE628, a heterogeneous midden deposit similar to FE1073-Upper.

Sequence 4: Lower terrace E

BU1169, Pre-BU920, BU920

One more sequence was distinguished at the eastern end of Op. A and contained a small number of unit groups. The earliest was BU1169, another early building at the settlement that is stratigraphically linked to contemporary BU1149 by extra-mural deposits FE1166. After the building was abandoned, slopewash and occupational debris started to accumulate and formed Pre-BU920, a likely natural platform that partially spread over BU796 to the W and was later cut by the foundation trench of BU920, which marks the end of habitation at this locale and more generally in Op. A.

Sequence 5: Lower terrace middens

FE1073-Lower, FE1101, FE1163, BU1178, FE1073-Upper, FE1102

One last sequence in Op. A concerns the two extensive and abutting middens to the W and S of features in Sequence 3 above. The lowermost part of the middens is characterised by early composite rock-cut features in FE1163, FE1101, and FE1073-Lower. In the case of FE1101, BU1178 was constructed on top of the early features, and was later covered by FE1102. The area above the rock-cut features and BU1178 began to be used as a dumping ground after the permanent habitation of the site and remained in use until the abandonment of the latest buildings at the site. This practice led to the accumulation of extensive heterogeneous midden deposits FE1073-Upper and FE1102.

Sequence 6: Mid-hill

FE698, FE60

A brief sequence was established for Tr. 10 in Op. A/B. The sequence contained a derelict and severely truncated potential Chalcolithic building, FE698, which was succeeded by FE60, likely a retaining wall similar to FE488.

Sequence 7: Ridge crest

Pre-BU648, BU34, BU648, FE550

The crest of the Laona ridge contained sufficient evidence to establish one more sequence of unit groups. The earliest evidence comes from Pre-BU648, a set of features cut into natural gravel beneath BU648 that may have functioned as position markers for the building above them. This was overlain by contemporary buildings, BU34 and BU648, which contained the bulk of datable material for this sequence. The buildings were capped by FE550, a post-Chalcolithic wall included in the sequence to investigate the degree of disturbance caused to Chalcolithic layers below.

Sequence 8: W ridge

BU984, BU850, BU915

The last sequence distinguished concerns Tr. 27 in Op. D. The earliest unit groups assigned to this sequence are BU984 and BU850, while BU915 is considered a generally contemporary, but slightly later structure placed in-between them.

Operation A/B

Operation B

Operation D

Isolated unit groups Op. A: FE9, TR3/9, TR13; Op. A/B: TR25, TR32; Op. B: TR15; Op. D: BU995, TR28, TR30; Op. E: TR24, TR34.

Table 2.9: Extrapolated sequences by Operation based on the stratigraphic analysis of the Souskiou Laona settlement unit groups. Unit groups included in each sequence are listed along with a description of the sequence.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 25

31/05/2019 14:25

Charalambos Paraskeva

26

8

BU915 3

6 33 3

56

45

BU984, BU850 4 6

60

FE550 1 2 3 1

7

15 41

8

61

18 10

209

7 10

72

201

9 72

51

6 148 84

307

34

926

1315

Pre-BU648 FE60 1 2 5 2 FE698

2

FE1073-Upper 11 FE1102 3

FE1073-Lower, FE1101 7 FE1163, BU1178 3

2

3

12 12 9 384 564 746 157 22

2

161

109

84

1114

BU13 2

299

3

FE808 1

153

86

1188

7

BU69, FE505, FE30 2 BU604

35 1

32 49 11

587

20%

40%

843

50%

8

1508

70%

128

269 602

3 498

433

80%

3

348

183

1 15 64 97 135 2

60%

5

106

1 2815 49 7

480

30%

1723

1 144 69 169 11 217

3 2

97

256 9

1

426

312 43 3 77

1077

10%

649

2230

466

FE629, FE653 34

619

171

645

1179

199

372

58 14 207 30112

937

96

476

121 3 100 551 18

1

270

439

68 1 89 238 8

10 2 14 44 5 6 15

455

137 15 124 233 3

2121 127

8

253

294

69 4

1351

200

246

65 1

1473

1920

2

FE488, FE830, FE880, 2 FE767 1

5 54 41 104

1109

FE1180 1 BU800

7 1 50

261

10

499 5

82 26

45 7 66

349

925

BU1149, FE1166 1

26 6 92

984

313

1559

2672

513

405

2

4501

141 3 228 325 56

761

197

Pre-BU838, BU838 1 BU796, BU895 FE1043, BU897 3 BU897 or BU1015 1 BU1015, Pre-BU796

59

8 2840

200

FE628

0%

84

662

BU1169

1

7

1147

Pre-BU920

2

19

3437

BU920 1 95

4

20

1 1

5

2

233

35

BU34, BU648 1 28 8543 3

6

150

99

411

2 1

218 3

90%

100%

Figure 2.8: Quantitative and proportional tabulation of compound ceramic inventories for unit groups in sequences. Plain text indicates the number of sherds by ware. Colour-coding of unit groups in Sequences 1–4 matches the periodisation key in Fig. 2.4.

SL ch 1 & 2 incl prelims.indd 26

31/05/2019 14:25

Chapter 2. Chronology

8

BU915

190

BU984, BU850

176

2.27

FE550

16

6.25

BU34, BU648

867

0.12

FE60

37

2.70

FE698

7

7

6

5

FE1073-Upper FE1102

1.73

2.27

27

1.58

29.47

17.37 1.58

3.16 32.11 9.47

5.26

3.41

2.84

34.09

4.55 40.91 5.68

3.98

18.75

6.25 56.25

8.30

0.35 35.41 17.07 9.69

12.50 3.92

3.23

2.70

5.41

6

6

1

4.73

9.80

4.96

1

13.51

1

5.41 51.35 18.92 28.57 28.57 42.86 1

1

8185

0.69

0.04

0.13 41.99 34.70 0.11

0.15

0.27

4.69

6.89

9.11

1.92

5.28

8.54 12.17 2.10

2.16

7.64

2.21

3.25 12.84 0.39

1.04

7.46

2

FE1073-Lower, FE1101, FE1163 BU1178

2671

BU920

1204

Pre-BU920

2033

0.11

0.26 42.94 28.49 0.11 1

4

0.08

7.89 16.61 0.17 13.37 42.61

0.50

32.56 48.40 0.34

6.81

2.16

1

BU1169

670

29.40 52.09 0.15

9.70

0.15

FE628

995

40.70 31.46 0.50

4.12 10.45 6.93

0.40

Pre-BU838, BU838 BU796, BU895

2911

0.03 31.78 50.60 0.52

4.71

4.26

8.00

0.10

FE1043, BU897 3 BU897 or BU1015

2865

0.03 38.71 47.16 0.03

2.37

3.11

8.31

0.28

BU1149, FE1166

4835

0.02 39.71 43.87 0.06

2.50

2.07 11.40 0.37

FE1180

405

0.49 49.38 31.36 0.49

2.47

3.46 10.86 1.23

BU800

250

FE488, FE830, FE880, FE767

2646

BU13

632

FE808

2225

BU69, FE505, FE30

2169

BU1015, Pre-BU796

5.43

1

0.25

1

2

43.60 33.60

2.40 6.00 14.00 0.40

1

0.04

1

0.08 42.10 35.41 0.53

2.19

7.82 11.38 0.45

2

0.32 47.31 24.21

13.61 5.06

0.04

0.13 53.39 28.99 0.13

1.93

3.46 11.51 0.40

0.09

0.32 54.36 27.06 0.05

6.64

3.18

7.79

3.58

1.92

6.26

0.89

5.09

7.09

0.10

2

1

BU604

783

7.75

1

1.74

0.51

1

59.51 27.71 0.13

1

FE629, FE653

1905

1.78 56.54 25.20 0.79

0.05

3.36

n

Legend