Fashion Retailing : Part 2 9781845442941, 9781845441333

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06/05/2005

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ISSN 0959-0552

Volume 33 Number 4 2005

International Journal of

Retail & Distribution Management incorporating Retail Insights

Fashion retailing – part 2 Guest Editors: Grete Birtwistle and Christopher M. Moore

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International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management

ISSN 0959-0552 Volume 33 Number 4 2005

Fashion retailing – part 2 Guest Editors Grete Birtwistle and Christopher M. Moore

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Editorial advisory board __________________________

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Guest editorial ___________________________________

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A model of socially responsible buying/sourcing decision-making processes Haesun Park and Leslie Stoel_____________________________________

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A dedicated follower of fashion: the expansion strategy of David Linley & Co. Ltd Stephen A. Doyle and Jenny Reid__________________________________

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The nature of parenting advantage in luxury fashion retailing – the case of Gucci group NV Christopher M. Moore and Grete Birtwistle _________________________

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Bricks, clicks, and pix: apparel buyers’ use of stores, internet, and catalogs compared Ronald E. Goldsmith and Leisa R. Flynn____________________________

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Salesperson roles: are online retailers meeting customer expectations? Minjeong Kim and Leslie Stoel ___________________________________

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CONTENTS

CONTENTS continued

The unhappy shopper, a retail experience: exploring fashion, fit and affordability Rose Otieno, Chris Harrow and Gaynor Lea-Greenwood _______________

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Fashion and clothing: the construction and communication of gay identities ¨ . Schmidt _______________________________ Kate Schofield and Ruth A

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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Professor Stephen J. Arnold Queen’s University, Canada

Professor Michelle Morganosky University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Professor Leonard L. Berry Texas A&M, USA

Dr Jonathan Reynolds Oxford Institute of Retail Management, Templeton College, University of Oxford, UK Emeritus Professor Douglas J. Tigert Babson College, USA Professor Neil Wrigley University of Southampton, UK

Lawrence Christensen J Sainsbury plc, UK John Harvey Tibbett & Britten Group plc, UK Dr Christopher Knee International Association of Department Stores, France

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Vol. 33 No. 4, 2005 p. 232 # Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-0552

Guest editorial About the Guest Editors Grete Birtwistle is the Head of Division of Marketing at the Caledonian Business School, Glasgow Caledonian University. She has extensive fashion retailing experience and her PhD investigated the area of store image and store positioning for fashion retailers. In particular, she highlighted the importance of retail staff perception of store image factors and that employees should be advocates of the company. She has published a number of papers and made contributions to books, mainly on areas of fashion marketing. Her current research explores ways of increasing the speed in the fashion supply chain and in order to achieve this she is interviewing both suppliers at different stages within the chain as well as buyers and logistics managers from retail companies. She is a member of the Glasgow Centre for Retailing and through this forum provides business with training courses and consultancy advice. Her main teaching areas are fashion marketing, integrated fashion logistics and integrated fashion communication. She has recently been a guest lecturer at Florida State University in Tallahassee, Monash University, Melbourne and Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia. Christopher M. Moore, MA (Hons), MBA, PhD, is the Director for the Glasgow Centre for Retailing at Glasgow Caledonian University. A graduate of the Universities of Glasgow and Stirling, his doctoral thesis considered the internationalisation of foreign fashion retailers into the UK. His research interests include fashion buying and merchandising, fashion brand development and the internationalisation strategies of luxury brand retailers. His research activities have allowed him to work with many of the key international fashion retailers. He has recently co-authored with Professor John Fernie and Suzanne Fernie a major new textbook on retailing and marketing, Principles of Retailing. He is the assistant editor of the Journal of Customer Behaviour and sits on the editorial panels of a number of leading academic journals. Professor Moore currently holds the Scotmid chair in retailing. Scotmid is Scotland’s largest independent co-operative society. As part of his remit as director for the Glasgow Centre for Retailing, his duties include providing research and consultancy services for major retailers and consumer-facing organisations.

Welcome to the second of two special editions on Fashion Marketing. The editors were delighted with the response to the call for papers and the quality of submitted papers was so high that it has led to two editions being published. The articles in this edition follows the product supply chain commencing with a paper exploring issues on buying and sourcing of fashion goods, moving on to growth strategies of luxury brand management. This is followed by a comparison of store, internet and catalogue shopping behaviour which leads on to two customer service paper. The edition concludes with an exploration of the importance of fashion as semiotic markers for gay males. The first paper by Haesun Park and Leslie Stoel explores the process of socially responsible buying and sourcing. Buyers in US apparel and shoe companies were asked for their opinions and the study explored the various factors influencing the decision-making. The authors conclude that individual’s attitudes towards ethics and social responsibility and personal sources such as peer behaviour influenced ethical and socially responsible perceptions and consequently the process of buying and sourcing. Using the case study based on David Linley & Co. Ltd Stephen Doyle and Jenny Reid considers the adaptability of the traditional growth strategies of couture/fashion

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houses in the context of non-fashion sectors. In particular, the paper explores the relevance of implementing a strategy based upon product extension as a means to market development and internationalisation. Examining the higher echelons of the fashion distribution hierarchy, Moore and Birtwistle’s paper examines the realisation of parenting advantage within multi-brand luxury fashion conglomerates. By delineating the three-phased rejuvenation of the Gucci Group, they propose that expertise in luxury brand management and the exploitation of intra-business synergies are the core competitive advantages exploited by this entrepreneurial fashion empire. The paper concludes by proposing a model for luxury fashion brand creation and management. The following two papers appraise different aspects of internet versus store and catalogue shopping. The paper by Ronald E. Goldsmith and Leisa R. Flynn compares shopping behaviour across the three modes and found that regular purchasers of clothing were likely to use all three, likely to be more involved with fashion and more fashion innovative than those buyers purchasing less fashion. Furthermore, findings indicate that consumer perception of internet shopping was more highly related to catalogue shopping than purchasing from a store. The second paper on online shopping, by Minjeong Kim and Leslie Stoel, compares the customer service dimensions in stores and online and evaluates how attitude towards online customer service provisions influences purchase intent. The findings confirm that ease of navigation, availability of FAQs and in-stock information as well as ease of comparison shopping were important predictors of online purchase intent. Customer satisfaction with the retail offer is the tenet of the next paper by Rose Otieno, Chris Harrow and Gaynor Lea-Greenwood. The research proposes that a large percentage of the female population are reporting dissatisfaction with not only the style and size of garments but also the whole retail environment to the extent that they demonstrate avoidance behaviour. This is particularly demonstrated by those wearing clothes larger than the standard UK size 16. The final paper explores the importance of fashion as semiotic markers for gay males. In particular, it considers clothing as a way of communication of the individual’s identity. The findings identify the existence of specific codes with cultural embedded meanings which gay men can choose to identify with and make use of in different situations. The paper discusses the marketing implications of the findings. The above papers cover a variety of subjects in the discipline of fashion marketing. The strength of these are in the contributions made by the International authors as well as the depth of the research and analysis. The editors are grateful for all the contributions made to these two special editions and regret that lack of space did not allow more papers to be published. Grete Birtwistle and Christopher M. Moore Guest Editors

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A model of socially responsible buying/sourcing decision-making processes Haesun Park

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School of Human Ecology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA, and

Leslie Stoel Department of Consumer and Textile Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA Abstract Purpose – Socially responsible buying/sourcing (SRB) has become a critical issue in many companies. The purpose of this study was to build an exploratory model to describe buying/sourcing professionals’ SRB decision-making process. Design/methodology/approach – Adopting business ethics and attitude theories, the SRB process was hypothesized to be a composite of cognitive processing and affective reactions to personal sources of information (e.g. peers). The mail survey data obtained from buying/sourcing professionals in the US apparel/shoe companies were analyzed using a Structural Equation Modeling technique. Findings – SRB generally followed a cognitive decision framework and was partly influenced by the decision maker’s affective reaction to peer buying/sourcing professionals’ behaviors. Emotional reaction to top-management, however, was not significant. Research limitations/implications – The SRB scale created for this study is focused on the apparel/shoe buying context, which may limit its applicability to other industries. Also, SRB was measured through subjective perceptions of the respondents, which may be subject to some degree of social desirability bias. Practical implications – The results suggest that changing the organizational environment where employees observe peers and providing standards of what is socially acceptable can improve SRB. Originality/value – By employing individual decision makers as the unit of analysis, this study advances the field of ethical decision making by providing empirical evidence that SRB decisions are a product of both cognitive processing and emotional responses. Keywords Clothing, Garment industry, Business ethics, Organizations Paper type Research paper

The apparel industry is one of the most globalized industries worldwide. International sourcing has increased dramatically since the 1980s; and apparel products purchased from foreign countries reached $56 billion in 1999 (Cho and Kang, 2001; US Bureau of Census, 1999). The globalized production and sourcing have brought lower costs to the companies and consumers, yet there have been negative consequences as well. Globalization has caused conflicts for many businesses in terms of ethics and social responsibility because companies commonly confront different cultural standards and expectations when they conduct business with partners around the world (Ogrizek, 2002). In the US,

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sweatshop issues surrounding major US apparel/shoe companies resulted in government involvement, such as the Clinton administration’s Apparel Industry Partnership, as well as protests made by the public and labor/human rights activists. Moreover, labor standards and environmental issues appear in the international trade policy agenda these days, which elevates the risk of doing business globally if the issues are not properly managed. Therefore, it has become a priority of companies to make sure the products they source are manufactured in a socially responsible manner. Some visible corporate efforts have been reported such as implementation of codes of conduct and monitoring systems (Coats, 1996). However, such efforts tend to be a short-term response to the heated publicity. Such tactical responses by apparel firms may not fundamentally alter the nature of the socially responsible actions in the long run. The problem is: How can businesses build a long-term strategy to prevent future occurrence of social responsibility problems and still maintain strong relationships with their suppliers as well as customers? One way to create long-term solutions may be to build an organizational culture that reflects the socially responsible stance of the firm. Organizational culture influences individual employees’ decisions by setting organization-wide norms (Trevino, 1986). Business ethics scholars generally agree that ethical and socially responsible decisions, regardless of issues or focus, are best performed when organizational culture supports such decisions (Ferrell et al., 1989; Joyner et al., 2002). Organizational culture can be reflected by various features such as opportunistic factors that include policy and rewards, and socio-organizational factors that include personal sources of influence such as top-management and peers. Our approach in this study is to explore how the SRB decision is made by individual decision makers, focusing on the effects of personal sources on the decision-making process. We incorporated business ethics studies to obtain a sense of how SRB decisions are processed and affected by personal sources of influence in the organizational culture. While mainstream business ethics studies outline the decision-making process as a cognitive processes along with individual and organizational variables as influencing factors, recent studies have included a claim that ethical decisions or behaviors may not be completely cognitive; rather, both emotions and reasons are interactively involved in ethical choice decisions (Bos and Willmott, 2001; Gaudine and Thorne, 2001). Yet the affective nature of ethical and socially responsible decisions has not been systematically investigated in combination with the cognitive perspective. Our position is that ethical and socially responsible decisions are not purely rational (cognitive); rather they are a mixture of cognitions and emotions. We adopted the cognitive and affective perspectives of attitude formation and behavioral change from the consumer behavior field in combination with business ethics research to build an exploratory model to explain the SRB process and the effects of peers and top-management. The objectives of the study are: (1) to build a model of SRB to explore the SRB decision process; and (2) to examine the effects of personal sources of influence on the SRB decision process.

Literature review Buying/sourcing in the apparel industry Traditionally in the apparel business, functions were aligned in a manner such that manufacturers made products and retailers sold products. However, the distinction between retailers and manufacturers is not so clear today. Branded manufacturers such as Liz Claiborne are opening retail venues, while traditional retail stores such as Macy’s have added the product development function for private labels. Thus, most companies in the apparel industry now perform the sourcing function to produce products for the market. Generally, apparel buying/sourcing includes selection of suppliers and selection of merchandise (Hirschman, 1981). Selecting the most appropriate source of supply has long been regarded as one of the most important functions of buying/sourcing. The primary supplier selection factor is who can help their sales and profits increase (Wingate and Friedlander, 1978). In addition to explicit criteria such as price, service, delivery, and quality (Cho and Kang, 2001; Hirschman, 1981) and regulations and cultural difficulties (Cho and Kang, 2001), a set of implicit criteria that includes the competitive environment of the industry, the relative marketing effort of suppliers, and the suppliers’ corporate image, affects supplier selection (Sheth, 1973). However, as Sheth (1973) noted, the environment surrounding buying decisions affects their decisions. Most apparel companies that are involved in global sourcing, such as large retailers, branded marketers, and branded manufacturers set up decentralized production networks in a variety of exporting countries (U.S. imports, 1997). By exploring cheap labor sources in the developing world, a negative consequence has been eminent. These companies have faced heated criticism from the public during the last decade due to socially irresponsible production practices in their contractors’ facilities, where workers were found to be treated in an inhuman way (CBS Evening News, 1996; Greenhouse, 1997). While firm level efforts are also made in addition to US Department of Labor’s enforcement of codes of conduct monitoring, these companies struggle because a fundamental solution for sustainable corporate social responsibility cannot be achieved through instant attention or tactics. The final decisions may not be completely made by individual buying/sourcing professionals and need approval from a higher-level authority. However, business ethics studies have noted that the fundamental solution lies in the organizational culture, which members of the company influence and are influenced by (e.g. Trevino, 1986). Cognitive perspective of ethics The main stream of ethical decision models has focused on an individual’s cognitive thinking (Ferrell et al., 1989; Jones, 1991; Trevino, 1986). These models generally suggest the decision-making process as a sequence of cognitive processing that incorporates various factors that influence the processing: individual cognitive characteristics such as moral values, attitudes, and knowledge influence the process, and organizational environment factors such as individuals (e.g. peers and superiors) and opportunities for ethical behaviors (e.g. rewards and codes of ethics). Trevino (1986) proposed that ethical decisions are influenced by the interactions among individual cognitive variables and situational variables, which include organizational culture, immediate job context (i.e. reinforcement, other pressures), and characteristics

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of the work. The assumption of the cognitive framework is that business decision makers are involved in a complex, rational analysis of the organizational environment. Ethical values, beliefs, and attitudes of an individual determine how an issue is processed; yet the process is also influenced by factors in the organizational environment. Idealism and relativism. From an ethics perspective, the ethical philosophies an individual holds are an essential component of ethical and socially responsible decisions. They account for relational and situational ethical judgment rules commonly used by individuals making business decisions. Idealism and relativism have been found to be strong predictors of ethical and socially responsible attitudes and behaviors. According to Forsyth (1980), idealism reflects the beliefs that ethical judgments are morally absolute in terms of moral principles, norms, or laws. Relativism reflects the belief that all moral standards are relative to a society and culture and moral judgment and actions depend on the nature of the situations and circumstances (Forsyth, 1980). Idealistic individuals generally believe that morally right behavior always leads to good or positive consequences, and relativistic individuals tend to reject such notions of absolute or universal moral principles. Idealism and relativism have exhibited strong power in explaining ethical decision-making. Singhapakdi et al. (1999) found that idealism is positively and relativism is negatively related to attitudes and perceptions such as “perceived moral intensity”, and “perceived moral problems”. Sparks and Hunt (1998) also found similar contrasting effects of idealism and relativism on “ethical sensitivity”. Regarding their effects on behavioral intention, Singhapakdi et al. (1999) and Bass et al. (1999) found a positive effect of idealism and a negative effect of relativism on intentions to behave ethically. However, idealism and relativism are not conceptually discrete, opposite ends; rather they exist together (Forsyth, 1980). Personal sources of influence. Interactions with other people in the organization are the source of shared norms in an organization (Jones, 1991; Trevino, 1986). Because individuals are capable of learning, they observe others’ behaviors and internalize them to conform to organizational norms (Fritz et al., 1999). Consistent with these theories, empirical studies have found that top-management and peers (Fritz et al., 1999; Zey-Ferrell and Ferrell, 1982; Weaver et al., 1999) exert influence on ethical decision-making. Although top-management and peers are different in terms of authority and proximity, researchers have found similar effects of them on ethical behaviors; both are sources of ethical standards in an organization. The personal sources of influence seem to have emotional effects, and supplement the cognitive interaction with the sources. Drumwright (1994) found individuals, either who resisted but were gradually persuaded by others’ buying behaviors or those who initiated environmentally responsible buying efforts, expressed their emotional status. She interpreted these emotions operated in combination with the cognitive process based on opportunity. Emotions and decisions Humans experience a number of, or a combination of various affective states everyday. Emotion is an affective feeling state, which may vary depending on its intensity (Gaudine and Thorne, 2001). It is not a single concept; it is various human pervasive feeling states such as happiness, sadness, fear, and joy. In the psychology literature, emotion influences a broad spectrum of human behaviors. Especially relevant is the

decision context, because decision alternatives are ranked by affective attachments and a choice is made on the basis of affective factors (Etzioni, 1988). The effects of emotions can be very powerful in the decision context, because emotional responses to an event occur before the event is processed cognitively. Individuals may experience inconsistency between action and thought because feelings do not always originate in the same system (Woolfolk, 2000). In other words, feelings may lead an individual to take an action that opposes their beliefs. Ethical constructs such as intensity of response (Jones, 1991) and ethical sensitivity (Hunt and Vitell, 1992) are in fact associated with emotions. In Drumwright’s (1994) qualitative study, narratives by the interviewees showed such emotions as fear of career risks, feelings of guilt, and joy of internal rewards, which were aroused by other individuals in the workplace. Such emotions influenced employees’ decisions either to participate or extend environmental buying efforts. Recent arguments against the domination of cognitive perspective of ethics (Bos and Willmott, 2001; Gaudine and Thorne, 2001) have intrigued researchers in the field toward a new understanding of ethical decision-making. Gaudine and Thorne (2001) suggested that organizations could facilitate ethical actions of their employees by better understanding the effects of emotions related to ethics.

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Hypotheses Figure 1 shows the following hypotheses. Idealism and relativism are the ethical philosophies that reflect an individual’s beliefs of how ethical judgments should be made based on what is considered right and wrong. Idealistic individuals believe that moral principles, norms, or laws are universal in nature regardless of various situations, while relativistic individuals believe that such moral standards are relative to the situations and circumstances (Forsyth, 1980). According to the cognitive framework (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) frequently used in consumer behavior studies, attitude formation of an individual is cognitively based, which leads to the proposition that beliefs are the ultimate source of attitudes, while attitude changes are the precondition of behavior change. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) claimed that attitudes could be changed “only” when beliefs change. Thus, we predicted that idealism positively, and relativism negatively influences SRB indirectly through attitudes:

Figure 1. Parameter estimates from SRB model test

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H1. Idealism directly and positively influences attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility. H2. Relativism directly and negatively influences attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility.

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H3. Attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility directly influence SRB. Top-management and peers are the organizational source factors that may change beliefs to influence attitudes and SRB. However, relativism is dependent on the situation and circumstances, while idealism is universal in nature (Forsyth, 1980). Relativistic norms upon which individuals base their ethical decisions can be formed by observing the behaviors of others in the organization (Zey-Ferrell and Ferrell, 1982). If an individual’s beliefs about what is ethical change due to organizational factors, the beliefs would be relativistic, not idealistic. A study found that the ethical norms each individual holds in terms of what is right and wrong are influenced by personal cognitive variables, such as locus of control and Machiavellianism, but not by the organizational environment (Singhapakdi and Vitell, 1991). It seems that while idealism is stable, relativism is more likely to be changed by situation and organizational environment. H4. Perceived top-management’s ethics and social responsibility directly influence relativism. H5. Perceived peers’ ethics and social responsibility directly influence relativism. In contrast, researchers have suggested and found direct effects of organizational source factors on attitudes without a beliefs change (Kim et al., 1998; Petty et al., 1991). When the sources are “emotionally affective”, they influence attitude directly, not necessarily by changing beliefs. In a study (Singhapakdi et al., 1999), there was no significant evidence that idealism and relativism had direct effects on (un)ethical intentions, but they did significantly influence attitude constructs (i.e. perceived moral intensity and perceived ethical problems), while the attitude constructs directly influenced behavioral intention. Therefore, we hypothesize that personal sources will also influence attitudes directly: H6. Perceived of top-management’s ethics and social responsibility directly influence attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility. H7. Perceived peers’ ethics and social responsibility directly influence attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility.

Method Sample The sample for the study was buying/sourcing professionals affiliated with US-based apparel/shoe companies whose annual sales exceed $100 million. The companies listed in the Hoovers Online Company Directory were contacted to obtain lists of buying/sourcing professionals. The procedure for the mail survey followed Dillman’s (1978) survey design. A total of 164 completed questionnaires were returned (response rate: 18.4 percent), and six were excluded due to significant missing values. Most of the

respondents held a buyer position (64 percent) or a merchandising/sourcing executive position (31 percent). The average total years of buying/sourcing professional experience was 14 years, and average tenure with the current company was 8 years. Measures All scales were measured using a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree). Based on social screening criteria used by socially responsible investing firms (e.g. Domini Social Equity Fund?, 21 items of SRB issues were developed to tap three dimensions: (1) environment; (2) employment and human rights; and (3) consumer safety. Each respondent was asked to indicate the degree to which he/she considers each SRB issue for all purchases in general. The measure was designed to measure the propensity towards SRB decision rather than the actual decision outcome, considering that individuals tend to provide socially desirable responses when asked to indicate their own behaviors. Behavioral scientists frequently measure attitudes or intentions rather than a behavior itself as an indication of a behavior. Given that SRB is new to many firms and the scale was exploratory, a “not applicable” answer was included for each item. Five items were excluded because of frequent “non-applicability” responses (see Appendix for a complete list of items). Four additional items were excluded based on the 0.5 criterion. An initial confirmatory factor analysis of the three-factor structure indicated a slight misfit ðx 2 ¼ 75:67; df ¼ 51; p ¼ 0:014; GFI ¼ 0:90; AGIF ¼ 0:85; RMSR ¼ 0:082; RMSEA ¼ 0:064Þ: We excluded one additional item that exhibited correlations with items loaded on other factors. The confirmatory factor analysis with nine items was satisfactory ðx 2 ¼ 52:81; df ¼ 41; p ¼ 0:06; GFI ¼ 0:93; AGFI ¼ 0:88; RMSR ¼ 0:067; RMSEA ¼ 0:049Þ: The final scale has three dimensions: (1) environment (two items, Cronbach’s a ¼ 0:85Þ; (2) employment and human rights (six, a ¼ 0:96Þ; and (3) consumer safety (three, a ¼ 0:91Þ: Convergent and discriminant validity were achieved. Table I summarizes the final SRB scale items and the factor analysis. Attitude toward ethics and social responsibility was measured by the existing “perceived role of ethics and social responsibility” (PRESOR) scale. Two confirmatory factor analyses revealed that previous Etheredge’s (1999) two-factor structure was acceptable ðx 2 ¼ 46:89; df ¼ 26; GFI ¼ 0:93; AGFI ¼ 0:89; RMSR ¼ 0:10; RMSEA ¼ 0:07Þ: The two factors were: (1) importance of ethics and social responsibility; and (2) subordination of ethics and social responsibility. The reliability coefficients for the two dimensions in this study were 0.76 and 0.64. For top-management, seven items were developed to tap the extent to which top-management commits to and supports ethics and social responsibility.

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Table I. Confirmatory factor analysis of SRB scale

Factors SRB_EMP

SRB_ENV lij (factor loadings) Reducing environmental impact Environmental performance management Compliance with equal opportunity standards Compensating workers fairly Good labor-management relations Benefits to support workers and their families Adoption of human rights standards Combat against human rights abuses and environmental degradation Quality control and customer satisfaction Ability to respond promptly to correct problems with product safety issue Integrity in advertising and labelling

SRB_COS

0.77* 0.91* 0.87* 0.91* 0.90* 0.93* 0.89* 0.86* 0.89* 0.96* 0.81*

Notes: Factor loadings shown are standardized; *indicates t-value .2.0; SRB_ENV¼ “Environment”, SRB_EMP ¼ “Employment and human rights”, SRB_COS ¼ “Consumer safety”

For peers, seven items were also developed to tap the extent to which peers are ethical and socially responsible. An exploratory factor analysis resulted in two factors, four items for top-management and four for peers. Cronbach’s a for the top-management items was 0.85, and 0.96 for the peer items. The Ethics Position Questionnaire (Forsyth, 1980) was used to measure idealism and relativism. The reliability coefficient for the idealism scale was 0.85 and 0.83 for the relativism scale. Consistent with the conceptualization by Forsyth (1980), idealism and realism were found to be essentially orthogonal ðr ¼ 0:02Þ: Analysis and results The proposed model was tested using LISREL 8.2 (Jo¨reskog and So¨rbom, 1993). A zero-order correlation matrix was generated for the model test (refer Table II). To reduce the complexity of the model and enhance statistical power, the multi-item measures of all variables were summed. The summed scores of measures for idealism,

TOPM PEER IDEAL RELAT SBESR IMESR SRB_EMP SRB_COS Table II. Correlation matrix analyzed

TOPM

PEER

IDEAL

RELAT

SBESR

IMESR

SRB_EMP

SRB_COS

1.00 0.49 0.11 0.20 0.13 0.09 0.26 0.15

1.00 0.06 2 0.08 0.43 0.31 0.50 0.29

1.00 0.02 0.21 0.30 0.16 0.02

1.00 2 0.14 2 0.16 2 0.22 2 0.09

1.00 0.54 0.40 0.14

1.00 0.52 0.22

1.00 0.43

1.00

Notes: TOPM¼ top-management; IDEAL¼ idealism; RELAT ¼ relativism; SBESR ¼ subordination of ethics and social responsibility; IMESR ¼ importance of ethics and social responsibility; SRB_EMP ¼ employment/human rights dimension of SRB; SRB_COS ¼ consumer safety dimension of SRB

relativism, top-management, and peers served as single indicators, while summed scores of the two dimensions of attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility and SRB represent freely estimated measurements in the model. An examination of the measurement model of the freely estimated variables indicated that the environment dimension shares variance with the latent variable of attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility. Parameters with cross-loadings could yield noticeable misfits and should be dropped from the model (Byrne, 1998). Moreover, as indicated by the significant amount of “not applicable” responses for the environment items, the environmental dimension seems not applicable to the apparel buying/sourcing. Therefore, the environmental dimension was excluded from the model test. The fit was good: x 2 ¼ 18:58; df ¼ 14; p ¼ 0:12; GFI ¼ 0:96; AGFI ¼ 0:91; RMSEA ¼ 0:05; RMSR ¼ 0:05: Table III summarizes the result of the model test (see Figure 1). All paths of the hypothesized model were significant except the direct path from top-management to attitudes. H1, the direct effect of idealism on attitudes (0.32, t ¼ 3:09), H2, the direct effect of relativism on attitudes (2 0.21, t ¼ 22:02), and H3, the direct effect of attitudes on SRB (0.70, t ¼ 3:21) were all significant. The results of H1 and H2 show that the effects of idealism on attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility and SRB were stronger than the effects of relativism. The direct effect of top-management on relativism, H4 (0.41, t ¼ 3:21) and the direct effect of peers on relativism, H5 (2 0.31, t ¼ 22:59) were significant. Peers influenced attitude toward ethics and social responsibility directly (H6, 0.58, t ¼ 4:23). However, in contrast to our expectation, top-management did not influence attitude toward ethics and social responsibility (H7, 2 0.06, t ¼ 20:45). Peers had significant indirect effects on attitudes (2 0.07, t ¼ 1:62) along with the significant direct effect on attitudes, while both indirect (2 0.09, t ¼ 21:73) and the direct effects of top-management on attitudes were not significant. This result suggests that peers’ actions positively influence how an individual perceives the role of ethics and social responsibility and together they positively influence SRB. Top-management also

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Independent variables

Dependent variable Top-management Direct effects Relativism Attitude toward ethics and social responsibility SRB Indirect effects Attitude toward ethics and social responsibility SRB

0.41** (3.21) 2 0.06 (2 .45)

Peers

Idealism

Relativism

Attitude toward ethics and social responsibility

2 0.31* (22.59) 0.58** (4.23)

0.32** (3.09) 20.21† (2 2.02) 0.70** (3.21)

2 0.09 (2 1.73) 2 0.10 (2 1.16)

0.07* (1.62) 0.45** (2.98)

0.22* (2.45)

20.15† (2 1.80)

†

Notes: Coefficients are standardized; t-values are in parentheses; significant at 0.10 level, *significant at 0.05 level; **significant at 0.01 level. All parameter estimates of measurement model were significant and are not shown for the sake of clarity

Table III. Structural model result

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significantly influenced relativism, but the effect was positive, suggesting that top-management positively affects relativistic reasoning of employees. However, the indirect effect of top-management on attitudes was not significant. Discussion This study investigated the process of socially responsible buying/sourcing decision-making by incorporating business ethics and attitude theories from the viewpoints of both cognitive and affective nature of decision-making. This study contributes to the field of business ethics and social responsibility in two ways. First, a body of research has been devoted to the field of corporate social responsibility. However, most studies have focused on corporate social performance and its effect on financial performance (McGuire et al., 1988), employing the business as a unit of analysis. By focusing on the individual decision process in an organization, this study provides a different perspective of how corporate social responsibility can be enhanced from the bottom level. Second, business ethics studies have been dominated by a cognitive perspective of ethics and have ignored the role of emotions. By empirically examining both cognitive and affective elements of attitude formation, this study advances the field of ethical decision-making. The result contributes to business ethics literature, providing an empirical case in which both cognition and emotions influence socially responsible decisions. This study also advances the field by providing a better understanding of “how” emotions affect the decision. In addition to the theoretical insights this study offers, the results provide suggestions on how companies can implement SRB effectively by influencing their employees; yet fundamentally improve organizational culture. The results revealed that attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility significantly predicted SRB, while idealism and relativism of an individual significantly influenced ethical and socially responsible perceptions and consequently SRB. The findings support that the SRB decision process involves a cognitive decision framework of the beliefs-attitudes-behavior sequence. That is, individuals carefully assess their beliefs to process SRB issues. To minimize conflicts that might occur, management should communicate core ethical values and commitment with employees and integrate their own behaviors with the corresponding values ( Joyner et al., 2002). The positive effect of idealism was a strong contributor to attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility and SRB, while relativism exerted a relatively weak, negative effect. However, idealism mostly depends on personal moral development, which is influenced by personal variables such as religiosity and education (Singhapakdi et al., 1999), not by organizational environment. While relativism was influenced by how respondents perceive their peers and top-management, idealism was not. Thus, we believe organizations can make a difference in the practice of SRB by providing better standards from which employees obtain a sense of what is appropriate. This can be done by modifying the socio-organizational environment where top-management and employees observe each other. Changing relative beliefs can lead to higher idealistic norms gradually. Ethical beliefs are an instrumental part of organizational culture, and have been suggested as an ultimate solution for business ethics problems (Singhapakdi et al., 1999; Trevino, 1986). Thus, we suggest that the organization should provide explicit relative standards for employees, especially in workgroups. Programs, such as

workshops where employees and management can discuss what they believe, may be effective in reducing the gap between idealism and relativism. We found peers to be a source of emotional influence on socially responsible decision-making. This result indicates that attitude formation and change are complex in the SRB decision-context, involving both cognitive and affective elements of attitude formation. We found that peers are a source of change for relativistic beliefs and emotional arousals, which lead to attitude change. Programs that can promote interpersonal communications on social responsibility issues, such as inter-departmental meetings, internal publications, bulletin boards, discussion sessions, and reward systems, would be effective. Policy statements can be designed to facilitate emotions such as a feeling of reward/humanity associated with socially responsible decisions. It is also important to communicate with the public about the organization’s social performance, since consumers today care what businesses do and express their loyalty to socially responsible businesses (Gildea, 1994-1995). Many apparel organizations now have codes of conduct and disclose the codes on their corporate web sites to communicate with general public. However they tend to focus on employment and human right issues because they were a response to the criticism over sweatshop issues. Beyond the issues they currently confront, regarding and addressing various social responsibility issues will convince the public and contribute them to be sustainable in the fast-changing business environment. Some limitations are to be mentioned. First, we assessed buying/sourcing professionals’ propensity (or intention) for SRB decisions. Therefore, readers should note that we did not measure actual SRB performance. Second, the sample of the study was limited to buying/sourcing professionals from apparel/shoe companies, which may limit generalizability. Third, we dropped five items in the SRB scale due to non-applicability. Those items indicate that, at the time of the survey, buying/sourcing professionals perceive production oriented and intangible issues to be inapplicable criteria to apparel buying/sourcing. This may not be applicable to other industries, especially for those that source components for final production. A final consideration is social desirability bias, a continuing challenge for researchers studying ethics and social responsibility issues. All the measures, including the exploratory scale of SRB, considered only subjective perceptions of the respondents. Therefore, we speculate the results could be biased due to the tendency of social desirability even though we provided the respondents complete confidentiality. In future studies, to reduce the tendency of social desirability in responses, qualitative approaches may be useful to indirectly access underlying motivations and the process of socially responsible decision-making. References Bass, K., Barnett, T. and Brown, G. (1999), “Individual difference variables, ethical judgments, and ethical behavioral intentions”, Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 183-205. Bos, R.T. and Willmott, H. (2001), “Towards a post-dualistic business ethics: interweaving reason and emotion in working life”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 38, pp. 769-93. Byrne, B.M. (1998), Structural Equation Modeling With LISREL, PRELIS, and SIMPLIS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.

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CBS Evening News (1996), “Federal government believes retailers knowingly deal with sweatshops”, 11 June CBS Broadcasting Inc, New York, NY. Cho, J. and Kang, J. (2001), “Benefits and challenges of global sourcing: perceptions of US apparel retail firms”, International Marketing Review, Vol. 18 No. 5, pp. 542-61. Coats, S. (1996), “Corporate codes of conduct a start: U.S./Guatemala Labor Education Project”, Chicago Tribune, pp. 26, 3 July. Dillman, D. (1978), Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method, Wiley, New York, NY. Drumwright, M.E. (1994), “Socially responsible organizational buying: environmental concern as a noneconomic buying criterion”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, pp. 1-19. Etheredge, J.M. (1999), “The perceived role of ethics and social responsibility: an alternative scale structure”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 18, pp. 51-64. Etzioni, A. (1988), “Normative-affective factors toward a new decision-making model”, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 9, pp. 125-50. Ferrell, O.C., Gresham, L.G. and Fraedrich, J. (1989), “A synthesis of ethical decision models for marketing”, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 55-64. Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975), Beliefs, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Forsyth, D.R. (1980), “A taxonomy of ethical ideologies”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 175-84. Fritz, J.M.H., Arnett, R.C. and Conkel, M. (1999), “Organizational ethical standards and organizational commitment”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 20, pp. 289-99. Gaudine, A. and Thorne, L. (2001), “Emotion and ethical decision-making in organization”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 13, pp. 175-87. Gildea, R.L. (1994-1995), “Consumer survey confirms corporate social action affects buy”, Public Relations Quarterly, Vol. 39 No. 4, pp. 20-1. Greenhouse, S. (1997), “4 top retailers are linked to 2 factories said to be sweatshops”, The New York Times, 14 December, Section 1, p. 53. Hirschman, E. (1981), “An exploratory comparison of decision criteria used by retail buyers”, in Lusch, R.F. and Darden, W.R. (Eds), Retail Patronage Theory Workshop Proceedings, University of Oklahoma Printing Services, Norman, OK, pp. 1-15. Hunt, S.D. and Vitell, S. (1992), “The general theory of marketing ethics: a retrospective and revision”, in Smith, N.C. and Quelch, J.A. (Eds), Ethics in Marketing, Richard D. Irwin, Homewood, IL, pp. 775-84. Jones, T.M. (1991), “Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: an issue contingent model”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 366-95. Jo¨reskog, K.G. and So¨rbom, D. (1993), LISREL 8: User’s Reference Guide, Scientific Software International, Inc., Chicago, IL. Joyner, B.E., Payne, D. and Raiborn, C.A. (2002), “Building values, business ethics and corporate social responsibility into the developing organization”, Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 113-31. Kim, J., Lim, J.-S. and Bhargava, M. (1998), “The role of affective in attitude formation: a classical conditioning approach”, Journal of Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 143-52. McGuire, J.B., Sundgren, A. and Schneeweis, T. (1988), “Corporate social responsibility and firm financial performance”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 28, pp. 446-63. Ogrizek, M. (2002), “The effect of corporate social responsibility on the branding financial services”, Journal of Financial Services Marketing, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 215-28.

Petty, R.E., Unnava, R.H. and Strathman, A.J. (1991), “Theories of attitude change”, in Robertson, T.S. and Kassarjian, H.H. (Eds), Handbook of Consumer Behavior, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 241-80. Sheth, J.N. (1973), “A model of industrial buyer”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 50-6. Singhapakdi, A. and Vitell, S.J. (1991), “Research note: selected factors influencing marketers’ deontological norms”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 37-42. Singhapakdi, A., Vitell, S.J. and Franke, G.R. (1999), “Antecedents, consequences, and mediating effects of perceived moral intensity and personal moral philosophies”, Journal of Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 19-36. Sparks, J.R. and Hunt, S.D. (1998), “Marketing researcher ethical sensitivity: conceptualization, measurement, and exploratory investigation”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 62 No. 2, pp. 92-109. Trevino, L.K. (1986), “Ethical decision making in organizations: a person-situation interactionist model”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 11, pp. 601-17. US Bureau of the Census (1999), Statistical Abstract of the United States, 119th ed., US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. U.S. Imports (1997), “Who’s placing the orders?”, Bobbin, Vol. 39 No. 3, pp. 22-3. Weaver, G.R., Trevino, L.K. and Cochran, P.L. (1999), “Corporate ethics programs as control systems: influences of executive commitment and environmental factors”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 41-57. Wingate, J.W. and Friedlander, J.S. (1978), The Management of Retail Buying, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Woolfolk, R. (2000), “Cognition and emotion in counseling and psychotherapy”, Practical Philosophy, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 19-27. Zey-Ferrell, M. and Ferrell, O.C. (1982), “Role-set configuration and opportunities as predictors of unethical behavior in organizations”, Human Relations, Vol. 7, pp. 557-69. Appendix SRB scale (a) Compliance with federal, state, and local environmental regulations. (b) Reducing environmental impact. (c) Adoption of technologies or redesign of the products to conserve the use of energy, water, materials and/or land.a (d) Innovative pollution prevention programs and/or in-house recycling programs.a (e) Environmental performance management. (f) Disclosed environmental policies and practices.a (g) Compliance with equal opportunity standards. (h) Compensating workers fairly. (i) Good labor-management relations. (j) Programs and benefits to support workers and their families. (k) A safe and healthy workplace. (l) Adoption of human rights standards to govern international operations. (m) Enforcement of a code of conduct to contractors. (n) More stringent workplace standards than required in host countries.

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(o) Combat against human rights abuses and environmental degradation in international operations. (p) Compliance with Federal Consumer Product Safety guideline. (q) Enhancement of the health or quality of life for consumers.a (r) Quality control and customer satisfaction. (s) Ability to respond promptly to correct problems with product safety issue. (t) Integrity in advertising and labeling. (u) Provision of a viable rationale for using animals and has a set of standards for humane treatment of animals with efforts to reduce the animal testing.a Peers (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

scale My peers are highly ethical and socially responsible. My peers’ business decisions are highly socially responsible. My peers behave highly ethical and socially responsible manner. There is frequent encouragement of ethical and socially responsible buying from peers.a I very frequently talk to my peers regarding the standards in terms of ethics and social responsibility of business decisions.a (f) There are some barriers in talking with my peers about ethics and social responsibility, and business decisions related to them.a (g) Overall, my peers are highly ethical and socially responsible in terms of their buying decisions.

Top-management scale (a) Top-management behaves highly ethical and socially responsible manner. (b) Top-management provides invisible, but value-oriented support for socially responsible buying/sourcing. (c) Top-management believes that higher financial risks are worth taking for social welfare.a (d) There is frequent encouragement from top-management on socially responsible buying/sourcing.a (e) Top-management tends to concentrate profits and costs of each buying proposal and take it only if it is determined to provide high financial benefit.a (f) Top-management creates conductive organizational climates in which employees would take risks associated with socially responsible buying. (g) Overall, top-management is highly committed to socially responsible buying. Note. aIndicates excluded items.

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A dedicated follower of fashion: the expansion strategy of David Linley & Co. Ltd Stephen A. Doyle

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Division of Marketing, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK

Jenny Reid School of Marketing and Tourism, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK Abstract Purpose – This paper aims to consider the adaptability of the traditional growth strategies of couture/fashion houses in the context of non-fashion sectors. Design/methodology/approach – By means of a case study approach based upon David Linley & Co. Ltd, a furniture design company, it explores the relevance of implementing a strategy based upon product extension as a means to market development and internationalisation. Findings – The research demonstrates the distinct and conscious similarities between the strategy adopted by the company and that of the fashion houses as delineated in the literature. The paper concludes that there is value in pan-sector consideration in respect of strategic planning, particularly when there are acknowledged similarities in the relative positioning of the companies within their markets. Originality/value – Provides information on the strategic thinking of one company – based on the probable experiences and expectations of customers – which may have wider applicability in other areas of the fahion industry. Keywords Strategic planning, Fashion industry Paper type Research paper

The growth strategies of fashion houses In recognising the specific market limitations for haute-couture, fashion houses traditionally adopted an expansionist strategy that involved a sequential, multi-positioning of the brand in different market segments (Anon., 2001). This strategy may be typified through the initial establishment of the haute-couture brand/product, positioned as highly exclusive, specifically tailored, with high labour and material costs (Easey, 1999). Thereafter, the introduction of pret-a-porter provided a lower entry point to the fashion house (Easey, 1999), which subsequently enabled access to a wider market while capitalising upon the status of the original brand (Fernie et al., 1998). Further brand extension was achieved through the development of accessory ranges and fragrances (Farrow, 2003), which, while having possible relevance to the customers of the couture and pret-a-porter offer, also provided an opportunity to develop and service a new market segment based upon a low entry point to the brand. Such expansion strategies may bring with them a number of benefits including economies of scale and shared risk (Easey and Sorensen, 1999; Cheng-Hsui Chen and Chen, 2000); product portfolios and transferability of brand reputation (McGrath and Gilmore, 1995; Belen del Rio et al., 2001); brand equity (Glynn and Brodie, 1998;

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Cheng-Hsui Chen and Chen, 2000); income generation, stakeholder value and future value (Dias and Ryals, 2002); market expansion and multi-channel distribution (Willans, 1999). In respect of the latter, the labour intensity and localised skills base limits the geographical distribution of the couture offer while the pret-a-porter offer can be distributed through both solus stores and wholesale. Goldstein (2002) in suggesting that intimacy is an essential component of the couturier’s offer, with the salon providing a haven, privacy and proximity “the better to see the craftsmanship” (p. 54) emphasises the distribution limitations of couture. Critical to the process of brand extension is the symbiotic relationship that exists between the brand name and the brand extensions derived from it (Low and Lamb, 2000) such that the brand off-spring that stem from the couture brand must not diminish the standing of the parent, since it is the parent that is the principle source of differentiation and attraction. Any diffusion from the parent must be such that it engenders similar brand values in order to capitalise upon the allure of the parent while ensuring that, in respect of the couture range, the “goose that lays the golden egg” is not killed off in the process. While the economic imperative may lie with the offspring, the status remains through their association with couture. The relationship between couture and pret-a-porter is not necessarily uni-directional with the couture providing the concept platform for the lower level ranges. Goldstein (2002) identifies that in some cases, the pret-a-porter range may influence the couture range, citing Givenchy as an example, whereby the distinction is then achieved through cut, materials and service. Easey and Sorensen (1999) stressed the centrality of the product in the context of fashion, highlighting the iterative aspect of new product development as an industry driver. In addition, they suggested that the customer was complicit in this process of product development and may be influential. Thus the sources of reference available to the fashion houses are not necessarily internal and top-down, but instead may use customers to inform the development or modification of products (particularly haute couture), as well as incorporating elements or concepts from the diffusion ranges derived from the couture brand. Research method Data were collected from the case study company through key informant interviews with David Linley & Co. Ltd staff. The interviews were unstructured and took place over the course of one day. The interviews concentrated upon the organisation’s evolution from workshop (commission only) to retailer and wholesaler with international product distribution. The interviews sought to identify the strategies that the organisation had implemented in order to both achieve and manage its growth. The adoption of a single-case study approach was based upon Yin’s (1989) recommendation that this is an particularly appropriate mechanism for testing or exploring the applicability of existing theory. In addition, Eisenhardt (1989) suggested that case studies are valued as a method appropriate to theory building, or in the case of this research, theory transfer, since the case study is based upon developing insight and understanding of the dynamics of a phenomenon. Such insight and understanding is expressed as holism by Miles and Huberman (1994) and it is the ability of the case study to present an holistic overview that renders it an appropriate research strategy as exemplified by previous research undertakings (Doyle, 2002). The benefits notwithstanding, it must be recognised that the purpose of this research is not to

present a generalisable theory, but to examine the cross-sectoral transferability of strategies and as such, there is a corresponding limitation to the research resulting from its purpose. The case study organisation was selected on the basis of previous research (Doyle, 2002) focusing upon the relationship between growth and new product development. This research revealed a sequential growth strategy that was underpinned by product development, and as such, shared characteristics with growth models in the fashion sector. The research therefore sought to examine the extent to which those characteristics were shared and determine the whether such a strategy had been pursued with conscious reference to the fashion sector. In order to achieve this, a series of informal interviews were conducted with senior staff during which they were asked to delineate and rationalise the growth strategy implemented by the organisation. These interviews also sought to situate the organisational strategy in the context of market sector and segments, examining the customer targeted at each stage of the strategy’s evolution. The case study organisation – David Linley & Co. Ltd The research findings are based upon a study of David Linley and Co. Ltd. The company was established in 1985, with its first workshop premises located in New King’s Road, London, where the company remained until 1993. The company originally specialised in the design and manufacture of commissioned furniture, thus in its early stage the company operated what may be described as a furniture equivalent of the fashion salon, where the relationship between client and company was conducted in a highly proximate environment and associated with product specificity, labour intensity, craftsmanship, high material costs and high levels of exclusivity. The relocation of the company in 1993 reflected a shift in focus from design towards retailing, although, importantly, the company continues to direct significant effort towards its design activities. In 1998 it proved necessary to extend the premises threefold to accommodate increased retail activity, thus providing a larger showroom facility, trading area, and importantly, a more comfortable environment for retail customers. The company operates both its commissioned design and retail operations from the same unit, having identified that there are particular synergies between these two activities. In addition, the company retails its products through a network of international retailers. The sequential growth of David Linley & Co. Ltd In delineating the growth strategy of Linley & Co. Ltd a pattern emerged bearing similarities to the strategies of the couturiers and fashion houses as discussed in the preceding literature review. Also, the company recognised that its target market may be the same as the target market of the couture houses. While not viewing these companies as competitors, it did acknowledge the potential benefit in matching the experience, based upon benchmarking against the highest equivalents in distinct markets. Furthermore, the rational for such development was consistent with such organisations particularly in terms of the growth limitations of the original client base and subsequently, the company identified benefits commensurate with those associated with the brand and product expansionist strategies associated with fashion houses. In analysing the company’s policies, three distinct stages emerge that

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correlate to the stages of couture, pret-a-porter and accessory. These stages will now be considered in greater detail. The “haute couture” stage On establishing the company, the eponymous founder made a decision to position the company at the high level of the furniture market. In essence, the workshop operated as a couturier, designing and co-ordinating the production of one-off furniture pieces at high prices. Clients were wholly integrated into the production process, with regular “fittings” taking place with the client whereby they could request adjustments throughout the manufacturing process. The small scale of the operation provided the proximity and intimacy that the client sought and that Goldstein (2002) identified as critical to the haute couture experience, both in respect of exclusivity and relationship building between the client and the company. The company identified this period as critical to developing its brand, reputation and stylistic language, whereby, it demonstrated that it could “deliver” at the highest levels of design and manufacture. In addition, by positioning itself as an exclusive furniture company it created a desirability that established its uniqueness in the marketplace to the extent that the company stressed that it had no direct competitors at that level of activity. Associated with the brand were high levels of service and an expectation by the customer that the skills used to develop and manufacture the product would be based upon traditional methods. As with the fashion houses, the company recognised that the growth potential of such an elevated position was limited, and while it did have international customers, the bulk of its business was UK based, of which the majority was located in the South East of England. This, the company suggested, reflected two main factors. Firstly, the relative geographic inaccessibility of the company and subsequently its products in terms of its location, whereby national and international customers had to come to the company rather than the company’s products being widely distributed. The second reflects the company’s reasons for locating in London, these being the convenience in terms of the owners, the profile of the city itself and the affluence of the London and the South east of England, making this the most appropriate national market location. It should be noted that the location and the need for customers to “seek out” the workshop did, for certain customers, add to its allure, possibly in the same way as the seasonal trip to the couturier’s salon. However, in order to expand the business, it was recognised that the company needed to develop a product range, which, while capitalising upon the strength of the parent brand, was accessible to a wider market both in terms of distribution and, more significantly in the early stages, price. This resulted in the company’s entry into the “pret-a-porter” market. The pret-a-porter stage As David Linley & Co Ltd grew, it directed a greater proportion of its attention towards its retail activities, necessitating its change of location. Having secured the means and materials of production, the company was in a position to build upon that base and develop a wider offer to a retail public. The processes undergone in “haute couture” were fundamental in the company’s progression into this market. Prior to extending its offer in terms of product and market, David Linley & Co. had safeguarded its access to the factors of production. Added to this operational benefit, the company’s “haute couture”

offer had secured the desirability of the brand and its “aspirational” credentials. This allowed the company to develop not only new products, but also new markets. The products developed for retail purposes had to be such that they did not undermine the status and position of the company, diminishing it in the minds of its original, and initially still core customers. To achieve this, the company integrated into its retail products the stylistic language of its haute couture range, to the extent that the two ranges could sit in close proximity within the shop. The “haute couture” range was represented by a few samples (demonstrating the extent of the skills and conferring status upon the “pret-a-porter” range) and design drafts framed and hung in-store, with the commissioner often named. The ”pret-a-poter” range was merchandised throughout the store, presenting samples of the product that could either be purchased immediately or which could be made to order using different materials. These materials were standardised and as such, the made to order service did not impinge upon the existence, credibility and desirability of the commission only range. What the company identified was a blurring of customers, whereby, customers who had previously commissioned products from the company would engage at a different level with the ready to buy offer. It was acknowledged that this range offered a more “practical, every day” offer that provided an acceptable level of exclusivity with value for money. Critically, when these customers sought furniture that was special, they did revert to commissioning. Conversely, the company also identified that, by extending the range to establish a lower entry point, “pret-a-porter” customers, would, should they deem it appropriate, convert to commissioning customers. This, the company suggested resulted from the initial impetus to buy instigated by the lower prices, a shift in the perceived accessibility of the company, a positive purchase experience and, in some cases, the growth in wealth of customers who then “traded-up”. What also emerged at this time was the transference of ideas between the ranges with the role of the designers shifting from being dedicated to the interpretation of a client’s brief to one of concept generation appropriate to a wider market. To encourage such transferability, designers were not dedicated to either commissioned or retail furniture development. This crossover approach also maintained customers as a creative force within the company. In addition, this also achieved congruity between the two ranges while ensuring that the retail offer was not a replication of any single commissioned article. This distinction between the two ranges was imperative or the premium gained by the commissioning customer and the company would be foregone. The “accessory/diffusion” stage Although the ready-to-range had been successful in helping the company access new markets and develop its existing markets, the ability to grow the business was constrained by the size and price of the products comprising this range. Hence, while the company had offered a small range of accessories since relocating to its retail premises, it identified that the expansion of this range would overcome the physical and fiscal limitations associated with the furniture range. Subsequently, the company developed a range of accessories that diversified from the core product materials and values which had strong associations with wood and woodcraft. Having introduced fabric upholstery into its ready-to-buy range, the company then developed a range of accessories such as table-linens, using the same fabric suppliers and based upon its experience of working with fabrics. This range, because of its

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brand, had significant appeal, both to the company’s original commissioning customers and the newer customers of the ready-to-buy range by extending the opportunity to experience the brand. However, the company also recognised that the expansion of the accessory range would confer two major benefits, one being the repositioning of the entry point (without diluting the core brand values) and the other being the ease with which such a range could be distributed through a wider retail network. In addition, the risk to retailers of stocking this range was lower than that of stocking the furniture range in terms of cost commitment. The accessory range therefore became a missionary for the company by helping to introduce the brand to a wider audience (Table I). Conclusions What is demonstrated by this case study is the wider applicability of the growth strategies of the fashion houses and the appropriateness of pan-sector consideration in respect of strategic development. Central to this organisation was its early identification of the similarities between itself and the couture houses that it referenced when determining and implementing its strategies. As indicated in the case study, the company reflected upon the analogous nature not only of itself and the couturier but also of its customer and that of the couturier. Such analogies influenced the strategic thinking of the company, based upon the probable experiences and expectations of customers coupled with the proven success of the strategic model adopted by the company. On reflecting upon the strategic model, it highlights the importance of integrating the experiences of the intended customer beyond the limitations of the sector. What is demonstrated is that organisational and brand positioning may take cognisance of both competitors within its immediate segment and companies that may be perceived as benchmarks outside of its segment. Furthermore, it presents a route to brand development, through a product expansionist strategy, that avoids the dilution of Stage

Characteristics

Haute couture

High entry price point Studio-based distribution Unique/commission only Limited distribution Intensive design input High labour input High material costs Medium level entry price point Retail-based distribution Standardised/platform-based Platform-based design input Reduced labour input Complement to commissioned service Material and labour economies of scale Low entry price point Small scale product Retail and wholesale based distribution Complement to existing range Outsourced manufacturing

Pret-a-porter

Accessory/diffusion Table I. Summary of stages

the core brand values that render the brand attractive in the first place. David Linley & Co. Ltd sought and managed to achieve an extended range that adopted a standardised brand name, that had cross-segment appeal and that was symbiotic in its internal relationships. However, it is appropriate to recognise that such a strategy may not present a successful strategic template for all organisations, but instead, for those for which there are analogies in respect of brand-positioning, product development or customer segments. To determine whether the fashion growth model has been appropriated or implemented by organisations in other sectors, further research that reflects particularly upon those analogous factors may be necessary. References Anon. (2001), “Armani after all”, Newsweek, 3 September, p. 34. Belen del Rio, A., Vazquez, R. and Iglesias, V. (2001), “The role of brand name in obtaining differential advantage”, The Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 10 No. 7, pp. 452-65. Cheng-Hui Chen, A. and Chen, S.K. (2000), “Brand dilution effect of extension failure – a Taiwan study”, The Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 243-54. Dias, S. and Ryals, L. (2002), “Options theory and options thinking in valuing returns on brand investments and brand”, The Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 115-28. Doyle, S.A. (2002), “New product design – the growth and development of David Linley & Co. Ltd.”, The Design Journal, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 26-34. Easey, M. (1999), Fashion Marketing, Blackwell Science, Edinburgh. Easey, M. and Sorensen, C. (1999), “Segmentation and the marketing mix”, in Easey, M. (Ed.), Fashion Marketing, Blackwell Science, Edinburgh. Eisenhardt, K. (1989), “Building theories from case study research”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 532-50. Farrow, B. (2003), “Seeing and believing”, FT Creative Business, 29 April, pp. 2-3. Fernie, J., Moore, C.M. and Lawrie, A. (1998), “A tale of two cities: an examination of fashion designer retailing within London and New York”, The Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 7 No. 5, pp. 366-78. Glynn, M.S. and Brodie, R.J. (1998), “The importance of brand-specific associations in brand extension: further empirical results”, The Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 7 No. 6, pp. 509-18. Goldstein, L. (2002), “Haute Couture evolves: the high fashion shows are a battle between generations. this season the middle-aged win”, Time International, Vol. 160 No. 2, pp. 54-5. Low, G.S. and Lamb, C.W. (2000), “The measurement and dimensionality of brand associations”, The Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 350-70. McGrath, M. and Gilmore, D. (1995), “Achieving growth, competitive advantage and increased profits”, World Class Design to Manufacture, Vol. 2 No. 6, pp. 11-16. Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis. An Expanded Sourcebook, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Willans, J. (1999), “Fashion distribution”, in Easey, M. (Ed.), Fashion Marketing, Blackwell Science, Edinburgh. Yin, K. (1989), Case Study Research. Design and Methods, Sage, London.

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-0552.htm

The nature of parenting advantage in luxury fashion retailing – the case of Gucci group NV Christopher M. Moore and Grete Birtwistle Division of Marketing, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland, UK Abstract Purpose – Examines the application and nature of parenting advantage within the context of luxury fashion conglomerates principally as a means of understanding the synergistic benefits that accrue as a result of brand consolidation within the sector. Design/methodology/approach – Derived from company annual accounts, market analysts’ reports and other secondary sources, the paper delineates and evaluates the ten-year renaissance of Gucci brand from a company on the verge of bankruptcy to its emergence as the world’s second largest luxury group. Findings – Through the identification of intra-business group synergies, it is clear that the transference of brand management expertise and competence is the principal dimension of parenting advantage in the Gucci Group. Originality/value – From an examination of the Gucci Group’s brand management strategy, resource investments and business development activities, the paper proposes a model of the luxury fashion brand. This multi-dimensional model identifies the components of the luxury fashion brand, locates their inter-connections and illustrates how these collectively can provide and sustain advantage within this highly competitive sector. Keywords Fashion industry, Premier brands, Brand awareness Paper type Conceptual paper

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Vol. 33 No. 4, 2005 pp. 256-270 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-0552 DOI 10.1108/09590550510593194

Introduction April 30th 2004 not only marked the termination of Domenico De Sole and Tom Ford’s employment as president and CEO and creative director, respectively, of the Gucci Group, but it also concluded a period of office whereby the two executives achieved what has been variously described as the most radical and successful turnaround strategies within the luxury brand sector (Heller, 1999; The Economist, 2003). In 1994, Gucci made losses in excess of US$ 40 million and faced bankruptcy, while a decade later, the company emerged as the Gucci Group, one of the most important luxury brand groups, with sales in excess of US$ 2 billion and five-year average annual operating profits exceeding US$ 200 million (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2004). The transformation of Gucci in the period from 1995 to 2004 was achieved in three distinct phases, as is shown in Figure 1. The first phase, from 1995 to 1999, marked a period of brand stabilisation. Management re-established the integrity and luxury equity of Gucci through their pursuit of a consistent control and investment strategy. Management developed formidable expertise in product development, supply chain control, brand communications and luxury fashion retailing ( Jackson and Haid, 2002). These core

luxury brand management skills made Gucci attractive to other businesses, particularly their close rivals, LVMH and Prada who acquired, by stealth, sizeable share holdings. Another interested party, the French brand conglomerate, Pinault-Printemps Redoute (PPR), formed a strategic alliance with Gucci in March 1999. As part of a standstill agreement, PPR acquired a 42 per cent stake in Gucci for US$2.9 billion, agreeing not to exceed that level for a period of five years (Gucci Annual Report, 2000). It was PPR’s significant investment that facilitated the second stage of Gucci’s transformation – the multi-brand acquisition phase – which signalled their emergence as the Gucci Group. From November 1999 to July 2001 the company acquired equal or majority shareholdings in ten companies to form the Gucci Group NV, the world’s second largest (as measured by share of the luxury goods market) multi-luxury-brand conglomerate (Mintel, 2004). Finally, the period from August 2001 to April 2004 marked the Gucci Group’s consolidation phase. During this period the company sought to exploit “group resources – management; production and logistics; distribution – to build these brands, which over time can contribute meaningfully to Group returns” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2000, p. 16). With their expertise in luxury fashion brand management, the Gucci Group’s strategy was to bring the skills and advantages of the parent company to their subsidiaries. The emergence of Gucci as a multi-luxury-brand conglomerate is not unique within the luxury goods sector. The four leading companies are each multi-brand conglomerates: Louis Vuitton-Moet Hennessey (LVMH); Gucci Group NV; Prada; and Richemont Group (Mintel, 2004). Various commentators have attributed the success of these luxury businesses to their multi-brand status, and particular ability to exploit the expertise, resource and cost synergies of conglomeration (Matlock and Edmondson, 2002; The Economist, 2003). Consideration of the nature and characteristics of the luxury goods sector is sporadic and incomplete (Beverland, 2004; Jackson, 2004). There have been recent attempt to conceptualise the components of a successful luxury brand (Beverland, 2004; Kapferer, 2001; Vigneron and Johnson, 1999; Quelch, 1987), while other studies have examined the features of the trading strategies of the luxury retailers, (typically on a case-study basis) (Quelch, 1987; Dovaz, 1998, Jackson and Haid, 2002; Moore and Birtwistle, 2004). None have expressly considered the potential for their being unique characteristics in luxury fashion branding. Furthermore, little, if any consideration has been given to how luxury brand conglomerates secure what Goold et al. (1994, p. 13) described as “parenting advantage” – those strategies, structures and processes whereby the “parent works through its businesses to create value”. Parenting advantage is concerned with the extent to which a business unit gains a competitive advantage as a result of its link with a parent corporation and vice versa.

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Figure 1. The three phases in the development of the Gucci Group NV

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Therefore, given this clear research neglect, the aim of this paper is to draw upon the insights derived from an extensive review of the formation and development of the Gucci Group NV to inform understanding of the nature of parenting advantage as well as the management processes which facilitate its realisation, within the luxury goods sector. In order to satisfy this aim, the paper adopts the following structure. The literature relevant to luxury branding is examined, then the “Parenting Advantage Model” proposed by Goold et al. (1994) is reviewed. Subsequently, the paper considers the core brand management competences developed by the Gucci Group and reviews the procedures used by them in order to create parenting value within their subsidiary brands. A model of the luxury fashion brand is then proposed. The paper concludes by considering areas for future research. Definitions of the luxury brand There are many definitions of luxury which connect it with extravagance, prestige and elitism (Dubois and Czellar, 2002), but there are few definitions of the luxury brand. Beverland (2004) argues that most definitions fail to differentiate between a luxury product/brand and the wider concept of luxury. Jackson and Haid (2002) proposed that luxury brands have a heightened status that affords an opportunity for their owners to charge premium prices. These brands possess a desirability that extends beyond their function and which provide the user with a perceived status through ownership. Their appeal and desirability is as a result of their constructed scarcity in availability (usually as a result of enforced restrictions on distribution) and because of their associations with particular consumer segments (Kapferer, 2001; Vigneron and Johnson, 1999; Quelch, 1987; Prendergast et al., 2000; Dubois and Czellar, 2002). Phau and Prendergast (2001) proposed four central features of a luxury brand as perceived exclusivity; well recognised brand identity; high levels of brand awareness and strong sales and customer patronage. Similarly, Beverland (2004) provides a model of a luxury branding which identifies and unites six component dimensions. The model is shown in Figure 2. The six components of Beverland’s model drawn from previous studies, particularly with respect to brand heritage (history – culture); product quality,

Figure 2. The components of a luxury brand

credibility and excellence (product integrity); personality and consumer group support (endorsements); and brand image investments (marketing) (Dubois and Czellar, 2002; Vigneron and Johnson, 1999; Quelch, 1987) The value-driven emergence component identified by Beverland relates to the extent to which the brand actively seeks to have a luxury positioning and association through its marketing decisions. As to the transferability of the model to other luxury product categories, and particularly to luxury fashion, it is clear that the Beverland model has certain limitations and that additional components must be incorporated. The dimensions of parenting advantage The associations that exist between and among a parent and its subsidiaries have been considered within the business strategy literature (Ghoshal and Nohria, 1993; Weisz et al., 1984; Gaski, 1984; Frazier and Summers, 1986), with consideration given to how these relationships are structured, managed and developed. Researchers have been particularly interested in explaining not only how subsidiary companies benefit from the interventions and directions of the parent company but also how their value may be enhanced as a result of that relationship (Ghoshal and Nohria, 1993; Weisz et al., 1984; Nathans, 1988; Taggart and Harding, 1995; Rodrigues, 1995). Within the context of thinking of these as “value-creating relationships”, Goold et al. (1994) have provided a comprehensive account of how parent companies contribute to the achievements of subsidiary competitive advantage. By conceptualising this as a process of creating “Parenting Advantage”, Goold et al. (1994, p. 12) proposed that the fundamental role of the parent is to create value for the subsidiary; “to influence the decisions and strategies of its business units, while standing between these business and those who provide capital for their use”. As a simple mechanism for identifying the value created by the parent, they propose the “better-off test” which seeks to understand how the subsidiary is “better-off” as a result of its connection with the parent company. In their view, the business unit should gain competitive advantage “from its link with the corporation or vice versa. The combination should result in value creation” (p. 14). The achievement of “parenting advantage” necessarily depends upon the strategic fit that matches the core skills, expertise and resources of the parent company with the improvement requirements of the subsidiary company. This strategic fit is a dynamic connection that evolves and adapts in response to changes in the competitive environment. Realisation of “parenting advantage” necessitates a consideration of the skills available to the parent company that may be of strategic use to the subsidiary, as well as the mechanisms which facilitate the transfer of these from the parent to subsidiary. Goold et al. (1994) identified five groups of “parent company characteristics” which may advance the strategic position of the subsidiary. These are presented in Table I. With respect to the relationships and mechanisms by which a parent company can create parenting advantage within subsidiaries, Goold et al. (1994) identified four approaches to value creation. These are as follows. (1) Stand-alone influence – the parent company influences the strategies and performance of each business in the parent’s ownership by viewing each as a stand-alone profit centre in its own right. (2) Linkage influence – the parent company seeks to create value by enhancing the linkages that exist between and among the business units that it owns.

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Parent company characteristic

Description

The parent’s mental maps

The rules and models that parent management use in order to interpret and synthesize information. These serve as a blue-print for management decision-making and explain patterns of behaviour These are the mechanisms through which the parent creates value. These dimensions include budgeting and planning, capital approval systems and decision-making procedures The corporate staff departments and central assets that support subsidiary management in the value creation process Parents may create competitive advantage as a result of the expertise and skills of key individuals with vision who serve to inspire in the organisation The jurisdiction distinction between the parent and the subsidiary company in relation to decision-making powers and budgetary authority

The parenting structures, systems and processes Functions, central services and resources People and skills

Table I. Parent company characteristics for the creation of parenting advantage

Decentralisation contracts

Source: Goold et al. (1994)

(3) Functional and services influence – the parent’s corporate staff functions and services which create value by providing functional leadership and cost-efficient services for the businesses. (4) Corporate development activities – the parent can change the number of businesses in its portfolio by buying, creating and selling new businesses. Therefore, the parent can create (and destroy) value for the company through these activities. Such value is distinct from that which may be subsequently created through any ongoing parental influence. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to review the literature that debates the value or otherwise of Goold et al.’s view of “parenting advantage”, Have et al. (2003) provide a succinct and inclusive evaluation. The latter propose that the framework of parent company characteristics and value creation methods requires that management rethink the appropriateness of those corporate structures that evolved accidentally. Parental advantage awareness encourages the adoption of structures that encourage value transfer and encourages an evaluation of the essential purpose and contribution of the corporate parent. In terms of weaknesses, Have et al. (2003, p. 165) suggested that the four value creation opportunities can be difficult to utilise in practice due to “their strong dependence upon situational characteristics”. Furthermore, these activities are not mutually exclusive, with the potential for overlap in the value that is created. As has been noted above, there has been little or no consideration of the nature of “parenting advantage” within the luxury fashion sector, and by implication, the mechanisms by which parenting advantage is achieved in these conglomerates is unclear. Consequently, drawing from consecutive Gucci Group NV Annual Reports from 1998 to 2003, company press releases and market analysts’ commentaries, the remainder of this paper (through the use of the Gucci Group as a case-study) will seek to locate the characteristics of “parental advantage” principally in terms of luxury fashion brand creation and the mechanisms used to facilitate its transfer from parent to subsidiary firms.

A brief history of Gucci Founded in Florence in 1923 as a manufacturer and retailer of fine leather goods, the first store outside of Italy opened in London in 1967, followed by many others in the important world centres. With its associations with royalty and film stars, the Gucci brand had become synonymous with luxury (Forden, 2000). The third generation decedents proved to be poor custodians of the Gucci brand. Concerned more with internal family feuds over ownership and rewards, the family managers exploited the brand with a non-discriminating distribution and product licensing strategy. In 1979 Gucci introduced the Gucci Accessories Collection comprised of 20,000 product lines, including alcohol, playing cards and toilet paper. With a multitude of licensing contracts and availability in over 1,000 stores worldwide, the Gucci’s equity as a luxury brand had become untenable (Kwak, 2000). By the late 1980s, Gucci was in disarray. New appointments were made, instigated by Investcorp (a Bahrain-based investment company) which had acquired all the shares from the Gucci family by 1993. Previously President and Managing Director of Gucci America, Domenico De Sole was appointed as President and Chief Executive Officer in 1995 and Tom Ford was promoted from Assistant to Creative Director to affect a turnaround ( Jackson and Haid, 2002). Brand stabilisation phase: early 1995-October 1999 A grasp of the activities of De Sole and Ford during this period is critical for understanding their subsequent activities as the senior executives of the newly formed Gucci Group NV. During this time the two refined their skills in luxury brand management and established the internal resources for the exploitation of parenting advantage whenever the company extended to become a luxury brand group in 1999. Six key dimensions define their brand stabilization strategy. These are delineated in the following sections. Re-established control of Gucci product design and manufacture The Annual Report for 1999 states that “design and product development are the core of Gucci’s success, and interact with every other centre of activity . . . . We consistently strive to maintain a clear brand image”. To maximise product control, Gucci terminated or bought-back over 100 licenses for ready-to-wear (RTW), shoes and jewellery items, which reduced the number of products from 22,000 to 7,000. Production was then concentrated to 45 local manufacturers who were encouraged to participate in a partnership scheme which assured them of regular orders and payment and provided Gucci with improved quality and reliable availability (Rice, 1997; Burrough, 1999). In November 1997, Gucci acquired its watch licensee of 20 years, the Severin Montres Group for US$ 170.0 million, renaming the company, Gucci Timepieces. This licensee-acquisition, motivated to ensure that products lines were “consistent with the Gucci brand image and quality”, saw the volume of watches reduce from 950,000 to 825,000 in the first year, while business profits increased. This was explained as a manifestation of “the Company’s strategy to upgrade the distribution network and product portfolio by reducing significantly the number of points of sale and introducing new models at higher price points” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 1999, p. 26).

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Re-established control over Gucci product distribution In the last two decades, the company relied heavily upon franchising for international distribution. However, in 1996, and in accordance with the overall strategy of maximum control over every aspect of the brand’s presentation, Gucci commenced a franchisee buy-back strategy in order to take control over distribution through direct store ownership. In 1996, of the 180 Gucci stores, 69 were directly-operated. A period of acquisition followed and franchised stores were bought in Belgium, Italy, Korea, Taiwan and Spain and majority joint-venture control achieved over store operations in Singapore, Malaysia and Australia. By November 1999, of the 181 stores, 130 were directly-operated and by January 2004, 187 were directly-operated and 30 were franchise stores. In the 2003 Annual Report, the company explained that the 30 remaining franchise stores “are in markets (such as Moscow, Athens and Dubai), where the Company believes it does not have sufficient local expertise or where, for legal of other reasons, it would be impractical to establish directly-operated stores” (p. 24). Create a balanced product portfolio for a luxury brand In 1996, the contribution of RTW clothing sales to total sales was 7 per cent, with leather goods the most significant sales category, accounting for 60 per cent of turnover. In order to secure full creative control over the RTW range, Gucci repurchased their former ladies’ RTW licensee, thereby gaining production capability and distribution rights which would “improve operations and margins”. By the end of 1999 the product portfolio contribution balance had changed markedly, with leather goods accounting for 40 per cent and RTW contributing 14 per cent of the total sales. This change was explained by De Sole in the 1999 Annual Report – where he noted that until the mid-1990s, RTW “was not an integral part of Gucci’s history; however, under the creative direction of Tom Ford, it has become a significant and profitable business and the platform for communicating the Gucci image and lifestyle. We now use fashion as a driver to enhance the excitement and value of the Gucci image and lifestyle” (p. 14). Recognising the high levels of recognition of Gucci’s brand devices and iconic products, such as Gucci Loafers, Tom Ford reintroduced these elements into his collection in order to generate media interest and prompt consumer expenditure (Forden, 2000). Establish a luxury marketing communications platform Management recognised the importance of marketing communications to the re-establishment of Gucci as a credible luxury brand. Claiming to be effective brand managers, the senior management defined their communications strategy to be “coordinated in a highly focused manner, ensuring a single, clear and effective brand message worldwide, in all areas of communication including: fashion shows and special events/advertising/public relations, visual display and internet web sites” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 1999, p. 27). In 1996 Gucci spent US$ 61 million on advertising, which was 6.9 per cent of net revenues and by 1999 the budget had increased to US$ 87 million (7.3 per cent of net revenues). This expenditure reflected “management’s objective to maintain communications spent between 7.0 and 7.5 per cent of Gucci turnover. . . since this level of expenditure generates a level of public exposure for Gucci that will support long-term growth of revenues and profits” (Gucci Group Annual Report, 1999, p. 57).

Commentators have noted the contribution of evocative and often controversial advertisements to the renaissance of the Gucci’s luxury brand status (Burrough, 1999; Forden, 2000). Create a luxury brand consumption experience Given the representational significance of the luxury brand, management created a sophisticated store consumption experience that was “dramatic and highly recognisable” and “ensured that all products are presented to customers in a way that capitalises on the exclusivity and ultimate allure of the brand” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 1999, p. 14). A revised store concept was applied worldwide in flagships and other stores – in order that “at all points of contact with the customer, the brand speaks with one voice worldwide” (p. 27). Tom Ford – design direction and control As Creative Director of Gucci, Tom Ford’s role and involvement extended far beyond that of designer for the RTW collection. In order to create, maintain and protect a coherent handwriting, Ford’s design influence extended beyond product to include creative direction for the Gucci brand in all of its manifestations: store interiors; product packaging; marketing communications and major wholesale stockist selection. As a former model and now a successful and confident creative director, it was inevitable that Ford should become the public face of Gucci: a personification of the values and attributes of the brand (Forden, 2000). By late 1999 it was noted that Ford had become as famous as the brand he worked for and that his reputation as a consummate image maker made him Gucci’s most significant asset. He inspired customer confidence and was now seen to be synonymous with the very essence of Gucci ( Jackson and Haid, 2002). Multi-brand acquisition phase – November 1999-July 2001 The Annual Report for 1999 contained the following statement: In early March 1999, the Company (Gucci) was approached by Pinault-Printemps-Redoute (PPR), with an exciting proposition for a strategic alliance to create a multi-brand luxury goods Group, a concept which has been already considered by the Board and Management, as we believe there are natural limits to our growth as a single brand Company. The Board approved the alliance under which PPR contributed US$ 2.9 billion (p. 6).

Based upon the belief that management had the “proven expertise in the luxury brand business and the capacity to effective lead a multi-brand portfolio”, Gucci engaged in an luxury brand acquisition strategy that had been unprecedented in terms of its speed or its scope (Matlock and Edmondson, 2002). The acquisitions which transformed Gucci from their single brand status to become a multi-brand luxury goods group are detailed in chronological order in Table II. With their acquisition strategy largely complete, the company proposed a tripartite-brand categorisation of acquired brands which identified declining brands – such as Yves Saint Laurent (which have over-extended and required the rejuvenating inputs of Gucci management); emerging brands – such as Alexander McQueen and Stella McCartney (which would provide for future growth and healthy returns); and complementary brands – such as Boucheron and YSL Beaute (which would afford synergistic opportunities in manufacturing and distribution) (Guccigroup.com, 2003).

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Brand

264

November 1999 November 1999 November 1999 June 2000 December 2000 December 2000 February 2001 March 2001 April 2001 July 2001

Yves saint Laurent Sanofi Beaute – renamed YSL Beaute Sergio Rossi Boucheron Alexander McQueen Bedat & Co. Bottega Veneta Di Modolo Stella McCartney Balenciaga

Table II. Gucci Group NV Acquisitions 1999-2001

Gucci holding (per cent) 100 100 70 100 51 85 78.5 100 50 91

Source: Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2003, p. 10

The group believed that it had the requisite skills to advantage each category of acquisition and that intra-group synergies would provide positive benefits for the group as a whole. Each brand was acquired for its potential to “generate outstanding value for our shareholders through sustainable profit growth, returns in excess of our cost of capital and minimal short-terms earnings dilution” (Gucci Group NV Annual report, 1999, p. 19). The Group expected each brand to be accretive by the end of Year Three (Guccigroup.com, 2003). Gucci group consolidation phase – August 2001-April 2004 Delineating their strategy for the newly formed Group, Gucci stated that their “success will depend on our ability to manage effectively a portfolio of brands which will each be unique in its brand image and values, while leveraging the skills and infrastructure of the enlarged Group” (Gucci Group Annual Report, 1999, p. 14). In addition, the Group acknowledged that the successful brand management processes that will be “implemented by the newly acquired group brands were developed and tested over time within the Gucci Division” (p. 23). Rather than providing duplicate accounts of the actions undertaken by the Gucci Group in their pursuit of parenting advantage with respect to each of their acquired brands, the following section considers their rejuvenation strategy for arguably the most important of its acquisitions, the Yves Saint Laurent brand. In addition, it examines the synergies fostered by the Group between, and among, its respective businesses. This sharing of group resources is a secondary but nevertheless essential element of “parenting advantage” within the Gucci Group. The following statement by the Group’s CEO provides an overview of the Group’s strategy for Yves Saint Laurent: We see in Yves Saint Laurent the opportunity to implement the same strategy that we applied to rejuvenate Gucci. Over the years Yves Saint Laurent became overly dependent on royalties from licenses. We plan to develop a different business model, with the emphasis on a directly-operated store network as the principal sales vehicle. We will move decisively to terminate most Yves Saint Laurent licences upon expiration if not earlier. We will invest in communication to relaunch the worldwide image of Yves Saint Laurent (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 1999, p. 15).

Utilising the framework for the rejuvenation at Gucci, it is possible to delineate its application to the Yves Saint Laurent brand. This is presented in Table III.

Rejuvenation dimension

Action at Yves Saint Laurent

Re-established control over product design and manufacture

First step – regain control of the production of all core product categories from licenses – women’s RTW; watches and jewellery; women’s shoes; In 2000 “We enhanced control of distribution by cutting license contracts by more than 100 and buying back strategically significant licenses – women’s RTW, shoes, watches and jewellery” “Management transformed Yves Saint Laurent from a disparate collection of 167 licenses into a business built on directly produced high quality product distributed through stores owned and operated by the company” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2000, p. 64) January 2000 – acquisition of C. Mendes S.A. to “regain worldwide control of the key women’s RTW category and the Rive Gauche trademark”. Three factories acquired as a result, consolidated into one factory within one year Repurchased the license for watches and jewellery from Cartier Number of licensees reduced to six by 2003 Launch of flagship chain in key world centres Directly-owned stores increased from 15 in January 2000 to 58 by January 2004 Directly-owned stores contributed 32 per cent of total sales in 2000, increasing to 61.3 per cent in 2003 Elimination of all diffusion lines, including the variation line – incompatible with a luxury brand Introduction of Yves Saint Laurent branded leather accessories, shoes, watches, jewellery and licensed eyewear via group and associate company agreements In 2001, accessories contributed 10 per cent of total Yves Saint Laurent sales, increasing to 32 per cent in 2003 2002 launch of the Mombassa-design handbag – media support makes this an iconic product within one season Significant communications investment to improve and to relaunch the worldwide image of Yves Saint Laurent 2001 – spent US$ 8.8 million in second half in order to support women’s RTW A/W collection – first to be designed by Tom Ford 2002 – Yves Saint Laurent features on the front cover of more than 100 leading fashion and lifestyle magazines 2002 – US$ 34.6 million communication spent Renovation of Paris Rue Foubourg St Honore flagship store From 2001 – new store concept to forge Yves Saint Laurent’s new identity developed by Tom Ford and the Architect William Sofield “Colour palette of black and white, rich materials such as brushed steel to create a modern environment and makes reference to art deco and thereby serves as the architectural compliment to the products” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2001, p. 26) Expenditure of US$148 million on store openings, expansions and refurbishments from 2001 to 2003 January 2000 – Tom Ford appointed as Creative Director for Yves Saint Laurent – all product categories and communication activities 2001 – CFDA Award to Tom Ford as Designer of the Year for work at Yves Saint Laurent 2002 – CFDA Award to Tom Ford as Accessories Designer of the Year for work at Yves Saint Laurent

Re-established control over product distribution

Create a balanced product portfolio for a luxury brand

Establish a luxury marketing communications platform

Create a luxury brand consumption experience

Tom Ford – design direction and control

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Table III.

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These initiatives increased revenue for Yves Saint Laurent by 35 per cent in the period from 2001 to 2003. However, due to the significant expenditure for product development, new store openings, and communications, the operating loss for 2003 increased from US$ 40 million in 2001 to US$ 96.4 million in 2003. Gucci group synergies From its inception, the achievement of intra-brand synergies and the retention of brand image distinctiveness was a strategic objective for the Gucci group: The Group’s success is centred on the independently managed core brands – each distinct in its image and brand values – enhanced by the skills and strengths of the overall Group. A careful distinction is made between operational aspects where the individual brands need to have autonomy such as sales and merchandising, and those areas where the brands would benefit from guidance at the Group level – such as Communications, Image and Finance (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 1999, p. 58).

Based upon Goold et al.’s (1994) framework for the creation of value between parent and subsidiary companies, Table IV details the nature of advantage transfer and the mechanisms by which this was achieved. As Goold et al. (1994) acknowledge, the measurement of parenting advantage is not straightforward. For Gucci, it is clear that each of the acquired businesses benefited from the strategic direction and business resources provided by the parent as evidenced by the significant improvement in income enjoyed by each, the increased number of customer transactions and the improved media recognition (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2001). Yet, while all of the businesses enjoyed an increase in revenue in the period 2001-2003, none, other than Gucci Fashion and Gucci Timepieces, secured an operating profit. Given that all were still subject to substantial capital investment to support their launch, reconfiguration and/or development, the group maintained in its Annual Report for 2003 that a critical objective in the short-to medium-term would be to reduce and eliminate losses and have these generate positive earnings and cash flow. Developing a luxury fashion brand framework The parenting advantage provided by the Gucci Group to its subsidiary companies is inextricably linked to their core competency in luxury fashion brand building and the availability of corporate resources. The over-arching luxury brand strategy has been to “control product design and quality, global distribution and communications and so consistently maintain the image of the brand. . . to maximise the long terms growth and profitability” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2000, p. 14). Consequently, for each of the subsidiaries, the Group has implemented, to varying degrees, a luxury brand formula comprised of identifiable dimensions. The Group’s platform for the achievement of “parenting advantage” is their transfer of luxury branding expertise to each subsidiary. In each case, the subsidiary has implemented a radical transformation of its branding strategy to match the Group brand model. By virtue of their pre-eminent position and successes within the luxury fashion sector, it is credible to utilise their luxury brand formula as the basis for developing a model of luxury fashion branding. Returning to Beverland’s (2004) luxury model, while its component dimensions have application to luxury fashion, these require to be supplemented with additional

Relationship type

Gucci group activity

Stand-alone influence

The Group has a clearly defined strategy with respect to the management of a luxury goods brand “it entails distinct high quality merchandise, controlled distribution – often through directly operated stores – systematic communication and solid execution” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2003, p. 13) Given the importance of creative control to luxury brand success, Gucci states that it “maintains in-house the design responsibilities of all its brands”, achieved through Tom Ford, Creative Director of the Gucci Group In fiscal terms, the direct influence of the Group is explicit – “The Group therefore strives to maximise after tax return on invested capital (ROIC), an objective it aims to accomplish through: long-term revenue growth; strict cost control; an optimal fiscal structure and modest invested capital” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 1999, p. 58) In the 2003 Annual Report, the Group’s corporate objective for each business was clearly defined As each brand has been acquired, the Group has encouraged synergies in terms of intra-group supply and resource utilisation Examples include:-Sergio Rossi supplies shoes to Yves Saint Laurent; Gucci supplies leather goods to Yves Saint Laurent; Gucci Group Watches supply to Yves Saint Laurent; Bedat and Co. and Boucheron; Yves Saint Laurent Beaute supplies to Boucheron, Stella McCartney, Alexander McQueen As identified above, the Group provides central support to each brand with respect to communications, image and finance Additional support is also given: Group real estate experts provide store development activity – such as Yves Siant Laurent in the USA and Japan, Bottega Veneta flagships in Milan, Paris and London Administration and information systems centrally controlled Management personnel – “In addition to transferring several highly qualified and experienced operating and financial managers from Gucci, we have enjoyed outstanding success in recruiting some of the finest talent in the luxury goods industry” (Gucci Group NV Annual Report, 2000, p. 16) Group resources in product development, production and logistics support the Stella McCartney, Alexander McQueen and Balenciaga brands YSL Beaute utilises Gucci Group warehousing in the USA Safolia, Group eyewear partner, supply Gucci, Yves Saint Laurent and Stella McCartney Raw materials and media procurement for all brands is a centralised function The Group has engaged heavily in corporate development through the acquisition of other businesses. To date, none have been sold on by the Gucci Group

Linkage influence

Functional and service influence Central group services

Corporate development activities

Source: Gucci Group Annual Reports 1999 – 2003

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Table IV. Gucci group synergies

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Figure 3. A model for luxury fashion branding

dimensions. For example, flagship stores, situated in the premier shopping districts of the leading world centres, have previously been identified as a crucial dimension of luxury fashion brand positioning (Hollander, 1970; Alexander, 1997; Moore et al., 2000). The development of a network of “experience-branded” flagship stores, in tandem with controlled retail and wholesale brand distribution, are discriminating elements of the luxury fashion brand. Similarly, in recognition of the huge significance of distinctive brand identifiers, (such as the Gucci double G emblem or the inter-locking C’s for Channel); iconic products and recognisable symbols, to the activity of luxury fashion marketing, it is vital that these be recognised. Indeed, for many firms, such as Gucci, these iconic products and brand symbols provide a vital income source, while the designers who create them, such as Tom Ford, become inextricably linked to the brands they represent. While marketing activity is recognised in Beverland’s model, there are certain marketing activities that are distinctly critical to the luxury fashion brand. These include twice-yearly fashion shows; store window displays; distinctive carrier bags, as well the feting of fashion magazine editors to assure front page brand coverage, product placement and editorial endorsement. At Gucci, these activities clearly served to reinforce the allure and stature of the brand. Finally, premium pricing is a defining and non-negotiable dimension of luxury fashion brand positioning. For example, the Gucci Group’s Bottega Veneta brand, commands “super-premium” prices that outstrip its competitors. This is largely due to its reputation for superior quality, design innovation, superstar endorsements, near non-availability and extensive marketing support which promotes its place within the “prestige segment of the luxury goods market” (Gucci Group Annual Report, 2002, p. 39). Derived from the findings of the Gucci Group case-study, Figure 3 shows a proposed model for the luxury fashion brand.

In conclusion, a summation of the role of brand management in the creation of parental advantage within the luxury fashion conglomerate is provided by Domenico De Sole who stated: At Gucci, we are managers and business builders. We play close attention to the acquisition process, and we believe that we have demonstrated our ability to identify and complete investments on terms commensurate with the value of the acquired company. Any brand we acquire must achieve excellence in brand perception and financial results (Gucci Group Annual Report, 2000, p. 15).

Areas for future research This paper has proposed that brand development is the principal parenting advantage activity of the holding company in a luxury fashion conglomerate. There is an opportunity for other researchers to extend the application of parenting advantage to other luxury fashion conglomerates and to explore the mechanisms by which parent advantage transfer is achieved. The area of group synergy management is worthy of further exploration. Furthermore, there is also the opportunity for researchers to test the extent to which the proposed model for luxury fashion brands has cross-conglomerate, cross-sectoral application. References Alexander, N. (1997), International Retailing, Blackwell Science, London. Beverland, M. (2004), “Uncovering ‘theories in use’: building luxury wine brands”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 38 Nos 3/4, pp. 446-66. Burrough, B. (n.d.), “Gucci and Goliath”, Vanity Fair, New York, NY, June. Dovaz, M. (1998), Chateau La, Assouline, Paris. Dubois, B. and Czellar, S. (2002), “Prestige brands or luxury brands? An exploratory inquiry on consumer perceptions”, Marketing in a Changing World: Scope, Opportunities and Challenges: Proceedings of the 31st EMAC Conference, University of Minho, Portugal, 28-31 May. (The) Economist (2003), “A costly exercise: Pinault-Printemps-Redoute and Gucci”, The Economist, Vol. 366 No. 8310, p. 72. Forden, G.S. (2000), The House of Gucci, Morrow Publications, London. Frazier, G.L. and Summers, J.O. (1986), “Perceptions of interfirm power and its use within a franchise channel of distribution”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 23, pp. 169-76. Gaski, J.F. (1984), “The theory of power and conflict in channels of distribution”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 48 No. 9, pp. 9-29. Ghoshal, S. and Nohria, N. (1993), “Horses for courses: organisational forms for multinational operations”, Sloan Management Review, Vol. 28. Goold, M., Campbell, A. and Alexander, M. (1994), Corporate Level Strategy – Creating Value in the Multibusiness Company, Wiley, New York, NY. Gucci Group NV (1999), Annual Report and Accounts, Gucci Group The Netherlands. Gucci Group NV (2000), Annual Report and Accounts, Gucci Group The Netherlands. Gucci Group NV (2001), Annual Report and Accounts, Gucci Group The Netherlands. Gucci Group NV (2002), Annual Report and Accounts, Gucci Group The Netherlands. Gucci Group NV (2003), Annual Report and Accounts, Gucci Group The Netherlands.

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Guccigroup.com (2003), “Company history and strategy”, Gucci Group Web site (accessed 29 October). Have, S., Have, W., Stevens, F. and van der Elst, M. (2003), Key Management Models, FT Prentice-Hall, London. Heller, R. (1999), “Gucci’s £4 billion man”, Forbes, Vol. 163 No. 3, pp. 108-10. Hollander, S. (1970), Multinational Retailing, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. Jackson, T. (2004), “A contemporary analysis of global luxury brands”, in Bruce, M., Moore, C. and Birtwistle, G. (Eds), International Retail Marketing: A Case Study Approach, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Jackson, T. and Haid, C. (2002), “Gucci group – the new family of luxury brands”, International Journal of New Product Development and Innovation Management, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 161-72. Kapferer, J.N. (2001), (Re)-inventing the Brand: Can Top Brands Survive the New Market Realities?, Kogan Page, Milford, CT. Kwak, M. (2000), Harvard Business Review, Gucci Group NV, The Netherlands. Matlock, C. and Edmondson, G. (2002), “Maybe Gucci was too much of a luxury”, Business Week, No. 3803, pp. 30-2. Mintel (2004), Luxury Brand Retailing, Mintel Market Intelligence, London. Moore, C.M. and Birtwistle, G. (2004), “The Burberry business model – understanding a brand renaissance”, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 32 No. 8, pp. 412-22. Moore, C.M., Fernie, J. and Burt, S.L. (2000), “Brands without boundaries: the internationalisation of the designer retailer’s brand”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 34 No. 8, pp. 919-37. Nathans, L. (1988), “A matter of control”, Business Month, September, pp. 46-52. Phau, I. and Prendergast, G. (2001), “Consuming luxury brands: the relevance of the rarity principle”, Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 122-37. Prendergast, G., Phau, I. and Wong, C. (2000), “An exploratory study of the purchase of luxury brands on infants apparel”, in Chetty, S. and Collins, B. (Eds), Visionary Marketing for the 21st Century,: Facing the Challenge: Proceedings 2000 ANZMAC Conference, pp. 1005-8. Quelch, J.A. (1987), “Marketing the premium product”, Business Horizons, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp. 38-45. Rice, F. (1997), “The turnaround champ of haute couture”, Fortune, Vol. 136 No. 10, pp. 305-7. Rodrigues, C.A. (1995), “Headquarters-foreign subsidiary control relationships: three conceptual frameworks”, Empowerment in Organisations, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 25-34. Vigneron, F. and Johnson, L.W. (1999), “A review and a conceptual framework of prestige-seeking consumer behaviour”, Academy of Marketing Science Review, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 1-14. Weisz, J.R., Rothbaum, F.M. and Blackburn, T.C. (1984), “Standing out and standing in – the psychology of control in America and Japan”, American Psychologist, Vol. 39, pp. 955-69. Further reading Gucci Group NV (1998), Annual Report and Accounts, The Netherlands. Taggart, J. and Harding, M. (1998), “The process of subsidiary strategy: a study of Ciba-Geigy classical pigments”, Management Decision, Vol. 36 No. 9, pp. 568-79.

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Bricks, clicks, and pix: apparel buyers’ use of stores, internet, and catalogs compared Ronald E. Goldsmith and Leisa R. Flynn

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College of Business, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA Abstract Purpose – To compare and contrast clothing buyers who buy in stores, on the internet, and through catalogs so as to better understand these behaviors. Design/methodology/approach – We surveyed 805 US consumers. They reported attitudes and shopping behaviors. These were compared among those who shopped chiefly in stores, on the internet, and through catalogs. Findings – Consumers who shopped more and spent more for clothing did so via all three shopping modes. Buying on the internet was more highly related to buying by catalog than it was to store buying. Heavy buyers of clothing by all three shopping modes were more involved with fashion, more fashion innovative, and more innovative regarding online buying than light and medium buyers regardless of the shopping mode. Fashion opinion seeking and reliance on sales associates for information were unrelated to amount of buying for all three shopping modes. Research limitations/implications – The findings are limited to US consumers and the convenience sample. Other limitations include the specific measures used, and the cross-sectional survey method prevents us from making causal statements. The effects of other, unmeasured variables could not be assessed. Future studies could avoid these limitations by using data from several countries, representative samples, and additional variables. Practical implications – Brick and mortar stores have less to fear from the internet than often thought. Catalogs are more likely to lose sales to the internet than are stores. The most profitable apparel companies might be catalogs or physical retailers who add/build web sites, while pure play companies may have a more difficult time achieving profitability. Apparel managers should focus research attention on learning more about the psychology of their buyers. While involvement with clothing leads to buying more via all three shopping modes, it is more important for store buying than buying by catalog or internet. Remote buyers of clothing are less fashion involved. Catalogs and apparel web sites might wish to feature new fashions, but they may be more successful in selling “standard” or normal clothing online than the latest fashions. They might broaden the selection of fabrics and colors to offer buyers more choices in the styles they already like. Clothing innovators shop more frequently via all three modes, but are most strongly drawn to stores. Originality/value – Little research compares shopping across modes. Because modern clothing retailing involves all three modes, the study provides an unusual picture of this shopping behavior. Keywords Clothing, Shopping, Customer requirements Paper type Research paper

Introduction When e-commerce first boomed in the mid-1990s, alarms sounded. Retailers were warned that the age of connectivity (“clicks”) would put traditional “bricks and mortar” retailers out of business (Flynn, 1995). In particular, some thought buying apparel online would be a threat to brick and mortar retailers (Pastore, 2000), but by others to be an unlikely enterprise (Greenspan, 2003). Neither prediction has come to pass. We are beginning to see how shopping on the web is related to shopping in more

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traditional ways; and what we see is more “evolutionary than revolutionary” (Dholakia and Uusitalo, 2002, p. 459). Hence, there is interest in understanding how consumers react to the availability of shopping and buying online, how they adjust their buying behavior to this new mode of shopping, and how online shopping interacts with other buying modes. This interest is especially keen for apparel (Park and Stoel, 2002; Vijayasarathy and Jones, 2000). We argue that online apparel retailing will grow to supplement, but not replace other retail formats (stores, catalogs, TV), with the challenge being to construct the most effective integrated delivery channel combining all three shopping modes. Thus, this study was motivated by our interest in consumer apparel shopping and buying via all three dominant modes: bricks, clicks, and pix. There is growing evidence that internet buying is indeed a new form of remote buying, and consumers who bought remotely through catalogs before now buy over the internet (Pastore, 2001). Thus, more insight may be gained from viewing apparel shopping via several modes rather than a simplistic dichotomous characterization of consumers as either remote buyers or store only buyers. We feel that focusing on consumer characteristics related to all three modes of apparel buying can help us understand the emerging complex pattern of clothing retailing. We wish to better understand apparel consumption and provide insights for apparel marketers wishing to improve their strategies for reaching all types of buyers. Literature review and hypotheses Internet and catalog shopping are positively related (Chiger, 2001). A stream of research examines the differences between consumers who shop in stores exclusively and those who shop in both stores and catalogs (Beaudry, 1999). Other research examines differences between catalog shoppers and online buyers (Vijayasarathy and Jones, 2000). The emphasis has been on differences between buyers in different shopping modes. That makes sense because consumers willing to adopt a new behavior very early in its life cycle are innovators and by definition differ from the population at large. However, what happens as the new adaptation becomes old hat? As the innovation moves through the adoption curve, how do its adopters change? It makes sense that they become more and more “normal”. As online shopping diffuses, users seem to look more like catalog buyers (Keen et al., 2001). People who like to shop “remotely” resemble each other, no matter which medium they use. As non-store shopping becomes a more commonplace, there should be fewer differences between those who do and those who do not shop online. What differences there are, however, may still be important to retailing strategy. A recent study comparing catalog and online shoppers in general (Vijayasarathy and Jones, 2000) yielded no differences in a number of ease-of-use measures, none in attitude toward the shopping medium, and none in intention to shop using either medium. The only substantial difference was in the perception of risk, with online shopping perceived as more risky than catalogs (Vijayasarathy and Jones, 2000). This is consistent with studies of online apparel purchase (Pastore, 1999). Many consumers seem not to understand or trust internet encryption and feel unsafe about ordering online (Beaudry, 1999; Vijayasarathy and Jones 2000). Other studies show that previous catalog buying is a major predictor of online shopping (Schoenbachler and Gordon, 2002). Shoppers who enjoy the benefits of

catalog buying also enjoy those same benefits through buying online. Some advantages of catalog shopping include the convenience of shopping and buying from home, buying at any time of day, and a merchandise assortment broader than is available locally (especially for consumers in less urbanized areas). These advantages are copied and extended online. This is especially true in the case of catalog retailers who feature their own web sites. There is, moreover, some evidence of a “channel shift” of shopping away from catalogs toward online buying (Pastore, 2001). The leap from paper catalogs to virtual catalogs is relatively small compared to the differences between shopping in person and shopping remotely. Thus, our first hypothesis: H1. The correlation between amount of online shopping and catalog shopping is higher than the correlation between online shopping and in-store shopping. One of the more self-evident rules about consumer behavior is that consumers with more money shop and buy more. While catalog shopping occurs across income categories, and catalogs exist for nearly all categories and market segments, it does increase as income rises (Beaudry, 1999). The same may hold true for online shopping. Moreover, PC ownership climbs with increasing household income (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000); and access to a PC is a prerequisite to online buying. Donthu and Garcia (1999) report finding higher income is positively related to online shopping. Recent findings on the relationship between internet usage and income also show a positive impact (UCLA, 2003). Consequently, our second hypothesis: H2. Higher income leads to more remote shopping for clothing by both catalog and the internet. Next, compare the characteristics and behaviors of remote shoppers to those of store only shoppers. From past research, we know women buy more clothing than men, and remote buyers are more likely to be women (Beaudry, 1999). At the same time, internet buyers are reported to be more male. As use of the internet diffuses, more women are shopping online (UCLA, 2003). We suspect that while the first wave of internet users was largely male (Donthu and Garcia, 1999), the late majority will be more heavily female; and thus internet users will begin to reflect the population as a whole. Given that more women than men buy from catalogs, and adoption of the internet is widespread, we propose: H3. Women will report more remote buying of apparel than men. Researchers from a variety of perspectives have shown that as consumers age, their apparel spending tends to decline (Lee et al., 1997). Furthermore, store shopping is likely to be affected as the lives of older consumers contract (Phillips and Sternthal, 1977). This may be why increasing age is frequently cited as a factor leading to increased catalog shopping (Beaudry, 1999). However, internet users are younger on average than other buyers (UCLA, 2003). While access to the internet is growing among all persons, it increased by 11 percent among persons aged 55-65 between 2000 and 2002, while usage among people aged 25-35 went up only 2 percent (UCLA, 2003). Thus, the relationship between age and shopping mode is likely to be different for each mode of shopping. Thus: H4a. Amount of store shopping decreases as consumers grow older.

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H4b. Internet shopping is unrelated to age. H4c. Amount of catalog shopping increases as consumers grow older. Individual difference variables often predict consumer behavior better than demographics (Sheth, 1977) and may have more explanatory power for marketers endeavoring to understand target markets. Bloch (1986, p. 52) defined enduring involvement with a product category as “independent of purchase occasions and is motivated by the product’s relatedness to the self and/or the pleasure obtained from ownership and use”. Involvement is associated with amount of buying in a category (Goldsmith, 2000). Involved consumers are interested in and attentive to product related information (Griffith et al., 2001). It is logical and has been demonstrated that enduring involvement is related to enjoyment of shopping (Mittal and Lee, 1989). We expect involvement with the product category increases shopping in all modes. Therefore: H5. Enduring involvement with clothing leads to greater remote shopping. A history of research links domain specific innovativeness with increased shopping in a product category (Donthu and Garcia, 1999; Goldsmith, 2000). Earlier adopters are motivated by product interest to be more often in the market, looking and buying in their specific categories, and innovativeness for clothing is associated with greater levels of catalog shopping. Innovativeness for clothing is linked to an increase in online shopping (Park and Jun, 2002). Thus: H6. Clothing innovators are more likely to make remote purchases of clothing. Opinion seekers “search out advice from others when making a purchase decision” (Flynn et al., 1996, p. 138). While no research examines the relationship between a consumer’s tendency to seek opinions in a product category and their methods of shopping and buying, several speculations may be made. One appealing characteristic of shopping via the internet is the prevalence of information (Alba et al., 1997). This might encourage opinion seekers to use the internet to shop. At the same time, opinion seekers are less innovative, and that might discourage internet use (Flynn et al., 1996). Buying apparel from a catalog probably offers the least information and feedback of the three shopping modes. Conflicting deductions lead us to propose: H7. Clothing opinion seekers are neither more nor less likely to make remote purchases. Sales associates in retail stores are sources of information. Customer reliance on the input of a sales associate when making a clothing purchase is the classic image of the retail store apparel shopping experience. However, this scenario is becoming less common with the evolution toward self-service retailing and busier consumers with less time to shop. The impact of sales associates on purchase is not well understood. It is possible that heavy users of remote buying options do so to avoid the perceived intrusiveness of sales associates. Lokken et al. (2003) report a study by Forrester Research which states that one reason some consumers are skeptical about buying online is their desire to speak to a store clerk; and Lokken et al. (2003, p. 130) found that “a higher percentage of online shoppers do not enjoy shopping at retail stores and a higher percentage of non-online shoppers do enjoy shopping at retail stores”. Thus:

H8a. There is no relationship between reliance on sales associates’ input and amount of remote shopping.

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H8b. The more an individual relies on sales associates the more likely they are to go store shopping. Method Survey respondents Students in marketing classes at a large US public university completed the questionnaire and distributed copies to two adult non-students as part of a class assignment. The total sample was 805 consumers. While this is a convenience sample, the respondents provide considerable variation in their demographics, and since our interest is not in making point and interval estimates of the variables but testing relationships among them, the data are suitable (Calder et al., 1981). Moreover, the evident bias toward youth and affluence is appropriate for the topic of buying fashions online, as these upscale consumers are a desirable, realistic market segment. Table I shows sample demographics. There was no statistically significant ðp , 0:05Þ difference in mean age between men and women. Crosstabulations showed that there was no significant association between sex and race, income, or socio-economic status (SES). Age was weakly correlated with household income ðtau – b ¼ 0:14; p , 0:01Þ; and income was moderately correlated with SES ðtau – b ¼ 0:45; p , 0:01Þ; as one would expect. Thus, there were minimal relationships amongst the demographic variables. Measures Two items served as overall measures of clothing shopping (SHOP) and buying (SPEND) that served as an internal validity check. The first asked how often the respondent shopped for clothing, and the second read: “How much money, on average, do you spend on clothing each month?” Table I shows frequency distributions for SHOP and SPEND, which were correlated ðr ¼ 0:55; p , 0:01Þ: Multi-item scales measured the other five constructs (Table II). Mittal and Lee’s (1989) three-item scale measured enduring involvement with fashion (FIV). Fashion innovativeness (FIN) and online shopping innovativeness (OIN) were measured using the six-item domain specific innovativeness scale (Goldsmith and Hofacker, 1991) modified to fit each construct. Fashion opinion seeking (FOS) was measured by the six-item scale developed by Flynn et al. (1996). To measure salesperson assistance (SA), we wrote nine items to reflect the logical and semantic meaning of the construct. The items used a five- or seven-point agree/disagree response format. Self-reported shopping for clothing in stores, online, and by catalog were measured using identical questions. To enhance reliability, three items posed the question in different ways. Question one asked: “How often would you say that you purchase clothing in a regular store (online, from catalogs)?” Very often, Often, Sometimes, Rarely, Never. Question two was phrased: “Asked another way, how often do you purchase clothing in a regular store (online, from catalogs)?” More than once a week; About once a week; Only about once every two weeks; Less than once every two weeks, but more than once a month; About once a month; Only once or twice a year; I never do. Question three asked: “How many times have you bought clothing in stores (online, from a catalog) since May 1, 2001?”

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Table I. Descriptive statistics of sample

Sex Women Men Missing Age 15-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 þ Missing Income , $20K $20K-$49K $50K-$100K $100K þ Missing Race White Black Hispanic Other Missing SHOP More than once a week Once a week Once in every two weeks Once a month Special occasions Missing SES Elite Executive Managerial White Collar Blue Collar Unskilled Missing SPEND , $25 $25 to $50 $51 to $75 $76 to $100 $101 to $125 $126 to $150 $151 to $175 $176 to $200 $201 or more Missing

Number

Percent

424 378 3

52.7 47.0 0.4

494 122 92 80 13 4

61.7 15.2 11.4 10.0 1.6 0.5

98 202 273 222 10

12.2 25.1 33.9 27.6 1.2

637 78 55 32 3

79.1 6.8 9.7 4.0 0.4

33 69 165 328 202 8

4.1 8.6 20.5 40.7 25.1 1.0

10 150 293 286 43 11 12

1.2 18.6 36.4 35.5 5.3 1.4 1.5

135 156 130 134 76 64 37 17 48 8

16.8 19.4 16.1 16.6 9.4 8.0 4.6 2.1 6.0 1.0

Note: Percentages may not add to 100 percent because of rounding

Scales and items Fashion involvement New fashions are very important to me I have a strong interest in new fashions For me, new fashions do not matter Fashion innovativeness In general, I am the last in my circle of friends to know the names of the latest designers and fashion trends Compared to my friends, I do little shopping for new fashions In general, I am among the last in my circle of friends to purchase a new outfit or fashion I know more about new fashions before other people do If I heard that a new style was available through a local clothing or department store, I would be interested enough to buy it I will consider buying a new fashion, even if I have not heard of it yet Fashion opinion seeking I like to get others’ opinions before I buy a new fashion item I feel more comfortable choosing clothing items when I have gotten other people’s opinions on them When I consider new fashions, I ask other people for advice I do not need to talk to others before I buy a clothing item I rarely ask other people about what clothes to buy When choosing fashionable clothing, other peoples’ opinions are not important to me Salesperson assistance It is best to get input from a sales associated before making a fashion purchase When I am buying clothing it is often the comment of a sales associate that makes up my mind to buy or not to buy When I buy clothing, I always ask opinions of the sales associate Sales associates are not very useful when I make a clothing purchase decision Sales associates who know a lot about their merchandise often influence me to choose a certain fashion item What a sales person says never makes a difference in what clothing I buy What the sales associate says is not often the key to my choice for clothing If the sales person cannot give me information about the fashions in the store I will not buy there The sales personnel in clothing stores are usually fashion experts Online buying innovativeness In general, I am among the last in my circle of friends to purchase something over the internet In general, I am the last in my circle of friends to know the names of the latest places to shop on the internet Compared to my friends, I do little shopping over the internet I know more about shopping over the internet than other people If I heard that a new product that I was interested in was available over the internet, I would be interested enough to buy it I will consider buying something over the internet, even if I have not heard of it before

Loadings

a

0.913 0.888 0.809

0.90

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277 0.823 0.793 0.783 0.771 0.666 0.438

0.86

0.827 0.777 0.768 0.618 0.590 0.527

0.83

0.789 0.770 0.747 0.717 0.611 0.576 0.482 0.481 0.473

0.85

0.829 0.824 0.784 0.750 0.604 0.515

0.87

Table II. Measures used in the study

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To combine these responses, recognizing that they used different response formats, the correlation matrix of the responses to each set of three items was submitted to a principal components analysis, and factor scores were computed using the SPSS regression method. This analysis for the three focal variables yielded three distributions of factor scores we labeled “Store”, “Web”, and “Cat”, which could be correlated with the other variables. To assess the internal consistency of these three-item scales, we converted the individual items to z-scores and submitted them to the SPSS Reliability program. Coefficient a was acceptable, especially for such short scales: Store ¼ 0:80; Web ¼ 0:86; and Cat ¼ 0:79: Analyses and results A preliminary factor analysis of the items from each of the five multi-item scales (fashion involvement, fashion innovativeness, fashion opinion seeking, seeking salesperson assistance, and online innovativeness) using the common factor method verified that each scale was unidimensional and that the factor loadings were large (.0.4). Factor loadings and scale reliabilities appear with the items in Table II. The hypotheses were tested by the correlations shown in Table III. The first set of correlations, those between Store, Web, and Cat, shows that consumers tend to buy clothing through all three shopping modes. This finding is reinforced by the correlations of the two global shopping measures (SHOP and SPEND) with amount of shopping by all three channels. The amount of clothing buying is positively correlated across the three modes, although online buying and catalog buying are more highly correlated than are store and catalog or store and internet. The difference between the correlation between catalog and internet shopping ðr ¼ 0:49Þ is significantly larger ðz ¼ 5:4; p , 0:01Þ than the correlations between shopping by store with both catalog shopping ðr ¼ 0:29Þ and internet shopping ðr ¼ 0:29Þ: This supports H1, suggesting that non-store buyers are motivated to buy either by catalogs or on the internet, and that internet buyers likely come from the existing catalog buyers. Correlations between the three shopping modes and the demographic characteristics of sex, age, income, and SES suggest that amount of apparel buying is positively related to income and SES for all three shopping modes, confirming H2. Partial correlations of the three shopping modes with the effects of income and SES controlled reveal little differences in the size of these correlations, so we conclude that neither income nor SES are particularly good predictors of clothing buying, nor do they account for the overlap in apparel buying amongst the three shopping modes. Next, the correlations show women are more likely to buy in the store, over the internet, and through catalogs than men are, supporting H3. As hypothesized, there is a differential relationship with age, where age is negatively associated with buying fashions in stores ðtau – b ¼ 20:10Þ; but it is positively associated with catalog buying ðtau – b ¼ 0:11Þ and uncorrelated with internet buying ðtau – b ¼ 0:04Þ: Thus, H4a-c are supported. Correlations between the apparel involvement scores with clothing and the amount of shopping via each mode support H5. Greater levels of clothing and fashion involvement are positively correlated with store shopping ðr ¼ 0:45Þ; catalog shopping ðr ¼ 0:21Þ; and internet shopping ðr ¼ 0:20Þ: However, the influence of fashion

0 0 0

x 1.0 1.0 1.0

SD

Storea

Weba

Cata

Sexb Age

Income SES

FIV

FIN

FOS

SA

OIN

SHOP SPEND

21** 19** 237** 2 10** 09** 10** 35** 40** 08** 03 09** 65** 45** 29** 33** 213** 204 08* 11** 17** 20** 00 00 36** 24** 20** 29** 49** 219** 11** 12** 11** 14** 16** 04 11** 15** 21** 19** 244** 2 15** 221** 00 00 2 02 222** 218** 202 07* 03 2 35** 224** 31.3 12 214** 2 06 09* 203 14** 09** 218** 218** 2 09** 07** 209** 2 11** 00 13** 12** 15** 200 24** 45** 04 00** 01 03 02 07* 11** 14** 16** 18** 202 12** 50** 10** 14** 03 06* 02 09** 11** 10.1 3.0 45** 20** 21** 225** 2 28** 04 12** 55** 16** 08** 11** 36** 30** 18.1 5.2 53** 26** 25** 221** 2 26** 13** 17** 70** 08** 07** 19** 44** 34** 23.2 5.8 10** 00 06 202 2 14** 02 04 23** 14** 26** 01 09** 07* 21.2 5.8 03 02 10** 07* 08* 03 05 12** 11** 38** 202 07* 10** 15.7 5.3 10** 45** 24** 04 2 18** 02 05 19** 28** 03 200 13** 07** 2.3 1.1 77** 33** 30** 237** 2 12** 11** 12** 43** 53** 11** 10** 15** 49** 3.7 2.3 54** 30** 28** 226** 01 17** 25** 36** 41** 00 14** 09** 55** Notes: The lower diagonal contains Pearson Product Moment Correlations and the upper diagonal contains Kendall’s tau-b non-parametric correlations; a Factor scores; bscored so that 1=men and 0=women; * p , 0:05; and * * p , 0:01

Storea 22.3/3.9 Weba 20.54/5.9 Cata 20.87/5.4 Sexb 0/1 Age 15/85 Income 1/4 SES 1/6 FIV 3/15 FIN 6/30 FOS 6/37 SA 9/40 OIN 6/30 SHOP 1/5 SPEND 1/9

Range

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Table III. Correlations

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involvement on store shopping is significantly greater than its influence on the other two shopping modes, suggesting that buying online and by catalog are driven less by fashion involvement than by other forces, while fashion involvement is a major factor in store shopping. Correlations between online innovativeness and shopping support this notion. The correlation between online innovativeness and amount of online buying ðr ¼ 0:45Þ support H6 and is significantly larger ðz ¼ 4:9; p , 0:01Þ than corresponding correlations between online innovativeness with catalog buying ðr ¼ 0:24Þ and with store buying ðr ¼ 0:10Þ: H7 proposed that apparel opinion seeking is unrelated to remote shopping. The correlations in Table III confirm that scores on the apparel opinion seeking scale are uncorrelated with the amount of buying for catalogs and the internet, but there is a small positive correlation with store shopping ðr ¼ 0:10; p , 0:05Þ: Thus, H7 was partially confirmed. It may be that consumers who seek the opinions of others are neither attracted nor repelled by remote shopping, but there remains a slight tendency to shop in stores, where perhaps the sales associates are seen as sources of apparel information. H8 extends the idea of seeking opinions and assistance from sales associates. We hypothesize that seeking sales associates’ input is unrelated to catalog or to internet shopping, but is positively related to store shopping. The correlations suggest that H8 is unsound. Scores on the salesperson assistance scale are uncorrelated with store shopping, contrary to what we expected, and they are correlated with catalog shopping. Only the predicted lack of a relationship with internet shopping is confirmed. In summary, most hypotheses were confirmed. The exceptions involve salesperson assistance. This is discussed below. Moreover, the analyses show how important drivers of shopping and buying, innovativeness and involvement, are related to shopping and buying across all three shopping modes. They appear to be more important predictors of buyer behavior than demographic variables and thus should attract attention from both theoretical and applied researchers. Discussion As new opportunities for shopping and buying apparel appear, consumers adjust and adapt their purchasing behaviors, and marketers consequently must respond accordingly. To succeed, marketers must understand how their customers are changing and which customers are most likely to buy via alternative shopping modes. The purpose of the current study was to contribute by focusing on apparel shopping via three modes: stores, catalogs, and the internet. Online and catalog shopping were predicted to be more closely related than online and store shopping. Previous research has implied, and this study supports, the notion that shopping from home or remotely is different from store shopping. Catalog and internet shopping are more alike than different. This implies that brick and mortar stores should fear the internet as a shopping alternative less than originally thought. Paper catalogs are more likely to lose sales to the internet than are stores. For online sales as a whole, the most profitable are currently catalog retailers with web sites, followed by the “bricks and clicks” combination, with “pure play” or internet only companies still losing money (Wingfield, 2003). Our findings that consumers who buy more apparel seem to buy using different shopping modes and are motivated by

involvement with clothing (and also, in the case of the internet, by innovativeness), are consistent with this profitability ranking. In future, the most profitable apparel companies may be catalog sellers or physical retailers who add or build web sites, while pure play companies may have a more difficult time achieving profitability. Our findings showed that consumers who bought more apparel via one mode also bought more via the other two modes, but this association was higher between catalog and internet shopping than for stores. It appears that those who buy more clothing will do so using all three methods. We also confirmed that greater household income is associated with greater apparel buying by all three modes and that women buy more apparel than men regardless of shopping mode. Now that online shopping has become more diffused, we can examine and understand more about heavier users and what can be done to capture more of their business. We believe that innovativeness and involvement are more important predictors of shopping than are demographics. For apparel managers, this suggests they should focus on learning more about the psychology of buyers and using these insights to guide strategies. When it comes to online buying, much success comes from artfully crafted web sites that make shopping and buying easy and pleasurable, two adjectives not always associate with buying online. While clothing involvement leads to more buying via all three shopping modes, it is more important for stores than buying by catalog or internet. Remote buyers of clothing are less fashion involved. Catalog and apparel web sites may still wish to feature new fashions; but they may be more successful in selling “standard” or normal clothing online than the latest fashions. They might consider broadening the selection of fabrics and colors to offer buyers more choices in the styles they already like, encouraging additional purchases. Clothing innovators, in the same way, shop more frequently via all three modes, but are most strongly drawn to stores. This makes sense. Early buyers and those who are enduringly interested in fashion are likely to be excited by the more intense visual and tactile environment of the store. The two measures of information and input seeking revealed interesting though less powerful characteristics about buyers using the three modes. Clothing opinion seeking was unrelated to frequency of remote buying. Store shopping, however, had a weak, positive correlation with opinion seeking. One explanation is that opinion seekers are part of the early majority of buyers who are highly socially connected and rely heavily on formal and informal sources of information when making a purchase (Flynn et al., 1996). These consumers may enjoy talking about fashion with friends and also asking advice. Relying on input from sales associates is different from the more general construct of opinion seeking. It is less social and has the slant of being marketer controlled, but more expert than friendly recommendation. Only catalog shopping for fashion was related to sales associate influence. This finding is odd. Because so many stores are now self-service and do not use traditional sales associates, perhaps some consumers do not even relate the presence of a sales associate to the shopping experience. While this might account for the lack of findings for sales associates and stores, it does not explain the weak but positive correlation between use of sales associates and catalog shopping. While this anomalous result needs further research to explicate its meaning, if it is true, it suggests that catalog marketers might profit from offering some form of interactive customer service. One possibility is that when catalog shoppers talk

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with a sales associate on the phone, this associate may provide personal service not unlike what an in-store shopper experiences. Perhaps it is an even better experience because the associate totally concentrates on the customer and is not distracted by other customers or co-workers or other things happening in the store. Our study has limitations. Only US consumers participated. The convenience sample precludes generalizing the point and interval estimates. The results are limited to the specific measures used, and the cross-sectional survey prevents causal statements. The study does have strong features. The sample size afforded sufficient statistical power. The sample characteristics varied widely in all dimensions so that no data analyses suffered from restricted ranges. The multi-item scales all were unidimensional and possessed adequate internal consistency. Finally, the analyses were consistent with several well-documented regularities, lending confidence to the results. In conclusion, we achieved our stated purpose of expanding knowledge of apparel shopping via multiple distribution channels. We believe that our assertion that the internet will not supplant other shopping modes but supplement them instead is supported. Shoppers will buy apparel as before, but spread purchases over channels. Apparel marketers should benefit by crafting multiple access channels, each of which offers unique benefits, recognizing that many consumers will use more than one channel. Thus, a successful apparel retailing strategy should combine bricks, clicks, and pix into a good mix. References Alba, J., Lynch, J., Weitz, B. and Janiszewski, C. (1997), “Interactive home shopping: consumer, retailer, and manufacturer incentives to participate in electronic marketplaces”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 61 No. 3, pp. 38-53. Beaudry, L.M. (1999), “The catalog age 1999 consumer catalog shopping survey”, Catalog Age, Vol. 16 No. 6, pp. A5-A18. Bloch, P.H. (1986), “The product enthusiast: implications for marketing strategy”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 51-62. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2000), “August 2000 computer and internet use”, supplement to the Current Population Survey. Calder, B.J., Phillips, L.W. and Tybout, A.M. (1981), “Designing research for application”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 197-207. Chiger, S. (2001), “Catalog age’s exclusive consumer shopping survey: part I”, available at: http:// catalogagemag.com/ar/marketing_catalog_ages_exclusive/index.htm Dholakia, R.R. and Uusitalo, O. (2002), “Switching to electronic stores: consumer characteristics and the perception of shopping benefits”, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 30 No. 10, pp. 459-69. Donthu, N. and Garcia, A. (1999), “The internet shopper”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 39 No. 3, pp. 52-8. Flynn, L.R. (1995), “Interactive retailing: more choices, more chances, more growth”, in Forrest, E. and Mizerski, R. (Eds), Interactive Marketing: The Future Present, American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL. Flynn, L.R., Goldsmith, R.E. and Eastman, J.K. (1996), “Opinion leaders and opinion seekers: two new measurement scales”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 137-47.

Goldsmith, R.E. (2000), “Characteristics of the heavy user of fashionable clothing”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 1-9. Goldsmith, R.E. and Hofacker, C.F. (1991), “Measuring consumer innovativeness”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 209-21. Greenspan, R. (2003), “Apparel sales apparent online”, CyberAtlas, available at: www.cyberatlas. internet.com/markets/retailing/print/0,6061_2171361,00.html Griffith, D.A., Krampf, R.F. and Palmer, J.W. (2001), “The role of interface in electronic commerce: consumer involvement with print vs. online catalogs”, International Journal of Electronic Commerce, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 135-53. Keen, C., Wetzels, M., de Ruyter, K. and Feinberg, R. (2001), “E-tailers versus retailers: which factors determine consumer preferences”, Working Paper 2001-02, Maxx Working Paper Series. Lee, J., Hanna, S.D., Mok, C.F.J. and Wang, H. (1997), “Apparel expenditure patterns of elderly consumers: a life-cycle consumption model”, Family and Consumer Science Research, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 109-41. Lokken, S.L., Cross, G.W., Halbert, L.K., Lindsey, G., Derby, C. and Stanford, C. (2003), “Comparing online and non-online shoppers”, International Journal of Consumer Studies, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp. 126-33. Mittal, B. and Lee, M.-S. (1989), “A causal model of consumer involvement”, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 10, pp. 363-89. Park, C. and Jun, J.-K. (2002), “A cross-cultural comparison of online buying intention: effects of internet usage, perceived risks, and innovativeness”, in Treloar, A. and Ellis, A. (Eds), paper presented at the The Eighth Australian World Wide Web Conference, Twin Waters Resort, Sunshine Coast, Queensland. Park, J.H. and Stoel, L. (2002), “Apparel shopping on the internet: information availability on US apparel merchant web sites”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 158-76. Pastore, M. (1999), “Online gift spending up, apparel sales remain a question”, CyberAtlas, available at: http://cyberatlas.internet.com/markets/retailing/article/ 0,1323,6061_243231,00.html Pastore, M. (2000), “Online apparel shopping gaining in popularity”, CyberAtlas, available at: http://cyberatlas.internet.com/markets/retailing/article/0,1323,6061_411371,00.html Pastore, M. (2001), “Consumers shift from catalogs to web”, CyberAtlas, available at: http:// cyberatlas.internet.com/markets/retailing/print/0,6061_937191,00.html Phillips, L.W. and Sternthal, B. (1977), “Age differences in information processing: a perspective on the aged consumer”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 14, pp. 444-57. Schoenbachler, D.D. and Gordon, G.L. (2002), “Multi-channel shopping: understanding what drives channel choice”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 42-53. Sheth, J.N. (1977), “Demographics in consumer behavior”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 5, pp. 129-38. UCLA (2003), “The UCLA internet report: surveying the digital future – year three”, available at: www.ccp.ucla.edu Vijayasarathy, L.R. and Jones, J.M. (2000), “Print and internet catalog shopping: assessing attitudes and intentions”, Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 191-202. Wingfield, N. (2003), “Online merchants, as a whole, break even”, Wall Street Journal, pp. B4, 15 May.

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-0552.htm

Salesperson roles: are online retailers meeting customer expectations?

284

Minjeong Kim Department of Design and Human Environment, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA, and

Leslie Stoel Department of Consumer and Textile Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA Abstract Purpose – This paper aims to explore online customer service dimensions and to examine how attitude toward online customer service influences online purchase intent. Design/methodology/approach – The human factors approach was employed to identify online customer service dimensions by analyzing service provided by salespeople at retail stores. Regression analyses supported the predictive validity of these measures, revealing that customer service dimensions of ease in searching, availability of frequently asked questions (FAQs), availability of in-stock status information, and ease of comparison shopping were important predictors of online purchase intent. Findings – Results from this study suggest that online retailers need to provide more information (e.g. FAQs) and make browsing easier to help customers have satisfactory shopping experience. Originality/value – Provides useful information that online retailers can utilize in the development and operation of successful shopping sites. Keywords Electronic commerce, Shopping, Customer relations .

Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Vol. 33 No. 4, 2005 pp. 284-297 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-0552 DOI 10.1108/09590550510593211

The future growth of online retailing seems optimistic, as an increasing number of consumers worldwide are using the internet to shop for products (Ernst and Young, 2001). In the US, online retail sales are expected to reach $96 billion in 2003 (Hines, 2003) and projected to increase to $230 billion by 2008, accounting for 10 percent of total US retail sales (Shop.org., 2003). Globally, apparel products have recently emerged as important selling items despite their need for sensory product evaluation (Ernst and Young, 2001). Yet, despite an impressive sales growth rate, there is compelling evidence to suggest that online retailers fail to convert online shoppers to actual purchasers and further fail to convert one-time online purchasers to repeat purchasers (Lynch et al., 2001). The proportion of actual online purchasers to total browsers remains very low, ranging between 2.8 and 3.2 percent of the web site visitors (Shop.org and Boston Consulting Group, 2002). Recent surveys by Bizrate.com (Shop.org., 2001) found the “dumping shopping cart syndrome” to be prevalent among would-be online customers, and estimated that loss due to failed purchase attempts will approximate $6.1 billion. One of the main reasons for failed purchase attempts was the lack of customer service provided by online retailers. Another reason was that some online shoppers were

unable to get their questions answered. Online retailers have been criticized for spending a huge amount of money to attract new customers, but then failing to provide good customer service (Reed, 1999). Although customer service has been a popular research topic (Bitner, 1990; Leung and Fung, 1996), extant research on customer service is limited to the conventional retailing and service contexts. Many agree that good customer service is a key to success in business (Duffy, 2003; Leung and Fung, 1996), yet there is virtually no agreement on what dimensions of customer service are important in online shopping. Prior research has supported the critical role of the salesperson in delivering quality customer service in traditional stores, and thus a satisfactory shopping experience for customers (Beatty et al., 1996). Poor customer service by salespeople has been identified as one of the major reasons why many department stores are losing their customers and sales (Dotson and Patton III, 1992). According to a Chain Store Age report, nearly three-quarters of consumers attribute their great shopping experiences to a salesperson, and over 80 percent of shoppers blame the salespeople for their worst shopping experience (Osborn, 2000). Despite its self-service strategy, the outstanding success of Wal Mart may be related to its careful recruitment procedures to hire more customer-oriented store personnel and development of a corporate culture focusing on delivering quality service beyond low prices (Swinyard, 2003). Through both training and corporate culture, Wal Mart is committed to providing quality customer service by making their store personnel available and easily accessible by their customers when needed. However, a salesperson who serves customers at traditional retail stores is generally not present at virtual stores, even though online shoppers may expect and need customer services and assistance similar to what they can receive in store shopping. Online shopping can be a difficult and frustrating experience without a salesperson’s assistance (Levy, 2000), but it does not appear that current online retailers have taken customers’ needs and wants for service into consideration when operating online stores. Therefore, this study suggests that online retailers need to understand customers’ needs and wants in online shopping. One way to gain this knowledge is to employ the concept of “human factors”. “Human factors” is defined as the design of technology or equipment that takes into account how people use or operate it (Krantz, 1997). A survey of internet users showed that their online purchases, especially for apparel and electronics, are influenced by expectations deriving from their prior shopping experiences at stores or catalogs (Pastore, 2000). Although the concept of human factors is not new to many web designers who have used this concept in web site designs (Schaffer and Sorflaten, 1999), customer service research has not considered this aspect much. “Usability” or “user interface” represents the general concept of human factors used in web site design. It has placed a greater emphasis on design and functionality of the site such as speed, ease of browsing, or the number of buttons on the home page without relating these elements to online customer service. Many online retailers have approached online retailing as a revolutionary event in retailing (Needle, 1999) and ignored the lessons learned from centuries of brick and mortar retailing. As a result, they have failed to offer satisfactory online shopping experiences to their customers. To examine this problem, our study explored online customer service as an evolution of customer service at stores by incorporating the

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“human factors” approach. The first objective of this exploratory study was to identify a preliminary set of customer services expected and needed by online shoppers by analyzing how customers are served by retail salespeople throughout in-store shopping processes. The second objective was to examine predictive validity of the dimensions by investigating how attitude toward online customer service influenced online purchase intent.

286 Literature and review Customer service Services are sources of additional customer value added to or accompanying products (Gro¨nroos, 1997). Under increasingly competitive business environments, retailers are looking for ways to differentiate themselves from competitors and gain a sustainable advantage. One viable way to achieve a competitive advantage may be to pursue a more service-oriented business strategy (Wortzel, 1987). Customer service generally refers to the organization’s ability to meet customers’ needs and wants (Howardell, 2003), but the meaning of customer service varies to a great extent depending on customers and situations (What is customer service, 2000). Companies providing high quality service, as perceived by their customers, were found to be the most profitable companies, whereas poor service was found to be the major reason why customers switched to the competition (Leung and Fung, 1996). Customer service by retail salespeople Prior research supports the critical role of a salesperson on customers’ satisfaction (Babin et al., 1995). Many service interactions in a retail setting require extensive personal contact between a salesperson and a customer and this interpersonal interaction is significant, because it may affect customer perception of quality of service, satisfaction with a purchase experience, and future purchase intention (Babin et al., 1995; Westbrook, 1981). There are two distinct benefits that customers obtain from interacting with retail salespeople. First is functional benefit (Meyer, 1990), which is defined as a customer’s desire to get help from a salesperson in order to facilitate satisfying his or her needs. For example, some customers may have trouble locating a product. A salesperson’s assistance will solve this problem by helping a customer find the product. The second benefit concerns the social aspect of retail environments. Researchers suggest that the social aspects of a customer-salesperson relationship are critical (Czepiel, 1990), and a salesperson plays a critical role in building a strong long-term salesperson-customer relationship (Beatty et al., 1996). A customer’s emotional reaction to a personal interaction with a salesperson may influence the customer’s overall satisfaction with the purchase experience (Westbrook, 1981) and future purchase intentions (Babin et al., 1995). Purchase intent Purchase intent, a behavioral intention to buy is a good predictor of an actual purchase behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Empirical studies show that good customer service positively influences the overall evaluation of products and companies (Babin et al., 1995), and contributes to satisfaction with the purchase experience and future purchase intention (Taylor and Baker, 1994; Westbrook, 1981) or subsequent

purchase behavior (Cronin and Taylor, 1992). Positive customer service experience with a salesperson may further “spill over” to store level outcomes in the form of positive word of mouth, competitive resistance, and increased purchases (Reynolds and Arnold, 2000). Theoretical framework The expectancy value model (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) was used to conceptualize the perception of online customer service as an attitude toward online customer service (Bolton and Drew, 1991) and its relationship with online purchase intentions. This model has been widely used to study the relation of beliefs to attitudes. It proposes that one’s attitude toward a behavior (object) is a function of one’s salient beliefs about that behavior (object). The belief strengths and belief evaluations are two determinants of attitude toward the behavior (object). Belief strength refers to the likelihood that behavior will lead to consequences (i.e. unlikely-likely) and belief evaluation refers to the evaluation of consequences (i.e. bad-good). Both bi (belief strength) and ei (belief evaluation) are measured using semantic differential evaluative ratings. Prior research evidence supports reasonably strong positive correlations between beliefs and attitudes, ranging from 0.55 to 0.80 (O’Keefe, 1990). AB ¼

n X

bi ei

i

where AB ¼ attitude toward behavior (object), bi ¼ belief strength, ei ¼ belief evaluation. In our study, we propose that attitude toward online customer service is a function of one’s salient beliefs about online customer service. A consumer’s salient beliefs about online customer service may be largely influenced by their previous service experiences in traditional stores and other retail formats (e.g., catalog) both in the presence and absence of a salesperson. Based on customer services that shoppers have previously received in traditional stores, they may formulate salient beliefs about attributes of online customer service, and these beliefs are further weighted by the customers’ evaluation of each attribute to form attitudes toward online customer service. Therefore, attitude toward online customer service may reflect the relative importance of various online customer services desired or expected by online shoppers. The more an individual believes that specific online customer services will lead to positive outcomes such as a satisfactory shopping experience, the more favorable his or her attitude will be toward online customer service. According to Ajzen (1991, p. 181), behavioral intentions are “assumed to capture motivational factors that influence a behavior”, and can also measure the amount of effort one is willing to exert to perform a behavior. In online shopping, attitudes toward online customer service may influence how motivated online customers are to purchase online. The more favorable attitudes toward online customer service, the more likely one is willing to purchase online.

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Hypothesis development Based on the expectancy value model (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975), this study proposes: (1) that attitude toward online customer service is a function of one’s salient beliefs about online customer service; and (2) that attitude toward online customer service influences online purchase intent. Based on the literature reviewed and the expectancy value model, one main hypothesis was developed. H1. Consumer’s attitude toward online customer service is positively related to online purchase intent. Methodology To explore online customer service dimensions, a content analysis of retail salesperson job descriptions was performed. Based on dimensions identified in the content analysis, a paper-and-pencil survey of consumers was conducted to examine the relationship between attitude toward online customer service and online purchase intent. Instrument development Online customer service dimensions. This study incorporated the concept of “human factors” to explore online customer service dimensions. To assess a retail salesperson’s role in delivering customer service, a content analysis of retail salesperson job descriptions was conducted. Twenty-two job descriptions for retail salespersons were collected from an internet search engine (i.e. Google) and content analyzed using the unit of “mention”. A “mention” is a phrase used to describe a salesperson’s responsibilities. If listed phrases were synonymous or had close meanings, frequencies were combined. There were a total number of 107 mentions, and as shown in Table I, they fell into 12 types of responsibilities: help customers choose products ( f ¼ 17), ask if customers need assistance ( f ¼ 14), greet customers ( f ¼ 13), advise on the use and care of products ( f ¼ 12), recommend, select, and obtain suitable product based on customer needs and desire ( f ¼ 11), handle returns and exchanges ( f ¼ 9), take Components of retail salesperson’s job

Table I. Content analysis of retail salesperson’s job responsibilities

Help customers choose products Ask if customers need assistance Greet customers Advise on the use and care of products Recommend, select, and obtain suitable product based on customer needs and desires Handle returns and exchanges Take payment and process sales transaction Display merchandise and keep work areas clean Pack and wrap purchases Arrange for mailing or delivery of purchases Assist in stocktakes Handle or prevent security risks and thefts Total

Frequency

Percentage (percent)

17 14 13 12

15.6 13.1 12.2 11.2

11 9 9 8 7 3 3 1 107

10.3 8.4 8.4 7.5 6.5 2.8 2.8 0.9 100

payment and process sales transaction ( f ¼ 9), display merchandise and keep work areas clean (8), pack and wrap purchases ( f ¼ 7), arrange for mailing or delivery of purchases ( f ¼ 3), assist in stocktakes ( f ¼ 3), and handle or prevent security risks and thefts ( f ¼ 1). To make sure these responsibilities reflect what retail salespeople do, three retail salespeople employed at apparel stores reviewed these 12 job responsibilities identified from content analysis. They all agreed that these job responsibilities were consistent with what they do at work. Based on the 12 job responsibilities, single or multiple statements corresponding to each job responsibility were developed relative to online shopping by matching the job responsibilities to specific online customer service features used by the E-Retail Intelligence Program (Retail Forward, Inc., 2001). For example, the “ask if customers need assistance” service by a salesperson was linked to multiple items from E-Retail Intelligence Program including “search engine assists me with searching for items of my interest,” “virtual shopping advisor or online personal shopper is available,” “frequently asked questions (FAQs) are available,” “live online chat with a customer service representative is available,” and “company contact information is available”. A total of 35 statements reflecting a consumer’s beliefs about online customer service were adopted from E-Retail Intelligence Program to correspond to the 12 job responsibilities of a retail salesperson. These belief statements about online customer service were used to measure both belief strengths and evaluations. For each statement, a seven point rating scale was used with 1 representing “not important at all” and 7 representing “extremely important” to capture belief evaluation. The same 35 statements were used to measure belief strengths, using a seven point rating scale with 1 representing “very unlikely” and 7 representing “very likely”. All 35 statements were again reviewed by the same retail salespeople to make sure that all statements correctly translated from retail stores to online stores. Purchase intention scale. Two statements were developed to measure online purchase intent by modifying questions used in Taylor and Baker (1994) and Sewall (1981). The relative reliability (Cronbach’s a . 0.90) of these measures was established in previous studies. Two purchase intent measures were “how likely is it that you will purchase from the internet in the next 12 months,” and “how likely is it that you will purchase from the internet when you find something you like in the upcoming year.” Both statements used a seven point rating scale with 1 representing “very unlikely” and 7 representing “very likely”. Procedure and sample Survey methodology was used to collect data. Undergraduate students enrolled at a large Midwestern university were recruited for the current study. During class sessions, students were informed about the purpose of the study and asked for voluntary participation. Extra credit or a snack was provided as an incentive. A total of 94 undergraduate students completed the three-page survey. The questionnaire included two sets of 35 belief statements regarding online customer service, one set to measure belief strength and the second to measure belief evaluation. In addition, measures tapping general online shopping experience, online purchase experience, and demographic information were included. Participants took about 20 minutes to complete the survey in class.

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Results This study focused on: (1) exploring online customer service dimensions using a human factors approach; and (2) examining how attitude toward online customer service influences online purchase intent. Statistical methods used in the study included frequency distribution, principal component analysis, and simple regressions. A significance level of p , 0.05 was established as the rejection criterion for all analyses (Kennedy and Bush, 1985). Sample characteristics A total of 94 undergraduate students participated in the survey. After excluding two unusable questionnaires, responses from 92 participants were used for data analysis. There were 25 males and 67 females. The mean age of participants was 22 with the ages ranging from 18 to 40. Over 90 percent of participants were aged between 18 and 24. Over two-thirds of participants were junior or senior academic standing. Nearly 84 percent of them owned a personal computer and almost 98 percent had access to the internet. More than half of participants used the internet more than 10 hours a week. Over two-thirds of participants shopped online sometimes or frequently. But, nearly half purchased infrequently from online stores. Participants in the current study were more likely to be browsers than purchasers, consistent with previous findings (Shop.org and Boston Consulting Group, 2002). Online customer service dimensions Using the two sets of 35 statements tapping a consumer’s beliefs about online provision of salesperson functions (belief strengths and evaluations), cross products of belief strengths and evaluations were calculated to form attitude scores, following the method used by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). Based on the expectancy model, these cross products of belief strengths and evaluations represent attitudes toward online customer service. The 35 cross product items were analyzed using principal component analysis with varimax rotation as a data reduction technique. Principal component analysis, rather than common factor analysis was used because our goal was to simplify the dimensionality of online customer service, not to identify underlying common factors for observed variables of online customer service. The principal component solution assumes that each factor (component score) is uncorrelated with all other factors, and this eliminates the problem of multicollinearity (Lattin et al., 2003). The minimum eigen value of 1.0 was used as a criterion to control the number of factors extracted. Only items loading greater than 0.40 on a single factor and cross loading at less than 0.40 on the other factors were included. This principal component analysis yielded six factors containing a total of 20 items (Table II). These six factors combined accounted for 70.1 percent of the variance. The factors were named as follows: 1 “ease in searching”; 2 “availability of service information”; 3 “ease of comparison shopping”; 4 “availability of additional service”; 5 “availability of personalized shopping”; 6 “availability of product updates.” Consistency of each factor was reliable (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0:89, 0.55, 0.85, 0.83, 0.82, and 0.79, respectively), except for the second factor (0.55). Scores on the items within each factor with established

Factor loadings

Factor/factor items Factor I: ease in searching I can find the product that I am looking for easily Search function is easy to use Pages on the web sites load quickly I can find help from the site, when needed Close-up or 3D images of products are available Search engine assists me with searching for items of my interest Online shopping baskets are useful Factor II: availability of service information FAQs are available In-stock status information is available Factor III: ease of comparison shopping Product review/evaluations by experts/consumer advocates are available Product comparison guides are available Lists of products related to the product you are shopping for are available Factor IV: availability of additional service Option for gift-wrap is available I can use “Wish list” function Web site offers links to other relevant online contents Factor V: availability of personalized shopping Live online chat with a customer service representative is available Virtual shopping advisor or online personal shopper is available I can personalize the Web site to my needs Factor VI: availability of product updates Lists of new/recently released products are available Lists of future product releases are available

Eigen value

Percent of variance

Cronbach’s a

8.4

23.8

0.89

0.824 0.792 0.723 0.675 0.640

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0.606 0.551 4.7

13.5

0.55

3.3

9.3

0.85

2.9

8.2

0.83

2.8

7.9

0.82

2.5

7.3

0.79

0.580 0.558 0.769 0.731 0.682 0.807 0.764 0.691 0.806 0.803 0.724 0.724 0.674

Table II. Principal component analysis and reliability of online customer service

reliabilities were summed and used as independent variables for hypothesis testing. Because the reliability of factor 2 “availability of service information” was relatively low, separate sub-hypothesis testing was conducted for the two items loaded on factor 2. Higher scores for the scales indicated that participants had more positive attitudes toward online customer service. The mean value and range of each factor are available in Table III. Variable Ease in searching Availability of FAQs Availability of in-stock status information Ease of comparison shopping Availability of additional service Availability of personalized shopping Availability of product updates

Range

Min.

Max.

Mean

SD

322 48 48 137 124 137 96

7 1 1 3 3 3 2

329 49 49 140 127 140 98

213.22 21.43 29.54 65.27 49.47 47.62. 50.63

69.22 11.92 12.63 30.83 28.28 27.53 21.79

Table III. Ratings of participants’ attitude toward online customer service

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Purchase intention measures The purchase intention measures included two items using 7-point rating scales. Consistency of the two items was reliable (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0:92). Thus, scores from the two items were summed and used as a dependent variable labeled “online purchase intent”. Higher scores indicated greater intention to purchase online.

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Hypothesis testing H1. Consumer’s attitude toward online customer service is positively related to online purchase intent Each of the six online customer service factors was used as an independent variable, and in addition, the two items loaded on factor 2 were tested in two separate sub-hypotheses. Therefore, a total of seven sub-hypotheses were generated to test H1. Simple regressions were used to test these sub-hypotheses. H1a. Consumer’s attitude toward ease in searching online is positively related to online purchase intent. Simple regression analysis revealed that attitude toward ease in searching was a significant predictor of online purchase intent, F(1, 90 )¼ 13:844, p , 0.0001. Attitude toward ease in searching accounted for 13.3 percent (R 2 ¼ 0:133) of the variation in online purchase intent and these two variables were positively related, b ¼ 0:0220, p , 0:0001. Therefore, H1a was supported. H1b. Consumer’s attitude toward availability of service information is positively related to online purchase intent. H1b1.Consumer’s attitude toward availability of FAQs is positively related to online purchase intent. Simple regression analysis for H1b1 revealed that attitude toward availability of FAQs was a significant predictor of online purchase intent, F (1, 90)¼ 9.300, p , 0.01. Attitude toward availability of FAQs accounted for 9.4 percent (R 2 ¼ 0:094) of the variation in online purchase intent and these two variables were positively related, b ¼ 0:107, p , 0:01. Therefore, H1b1 was supported. H1b2.Consumer’s attitude toward availability of in-stock status information is positively related to online purchase intent. Simple regression analysis revealed that attitude toward availability of in-stock status information was a significant predictor of online purchase intent, Fð1; 90Þ ¼ 16:590, p , 0:0001. Attitude toward availability of in-stock status information accounted for 15.6 percent (R 2 ¼ 0:156) of the variation in online purchase intent and these two variables were positively related, b ¼ 0:130, p , 0:0001. Therefore, H1b2 was supported. H1c. Consumer’s attitude toward ease of comparison shopping is positively related to online purchase intent. Simple regression analysis revealed that attitude toward ease of comparison shopping was a significant predictor of online purchase intent, F (1, 90) ¼ 5.334, p , 0.05. Attitude toward ease of comparison shopping accounted for 5.6 percent (R 2 ¼ 0:056) of

the variation in online purchase intent and these two variables were positively related, b ¼ 0:0320, p , 0:05. Therefore, H1c was supported.

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H1d. Consumer’s attitude toward availability of additional service is positively related to online purchase intent Simple regression analysis revealed that attitude toward availability of additional service was not a significant predictor of online purchase intent. Therefore, H1d was not supported.

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H1e. Consumer’s attitude toward availability of personalized shopping is positively related to online purchase intent. Simple regression analysis revealed that attitude toward availability of personalized shopping was not a significant predictor of online purchase intent. Therefore, H1e was not supported. H1f. Consumer’s attitude toward availability of product updates is positively related to online purchase intent. Simple regression analysis revealed that attitude toward availability of product updates was not a significant predictor of online purchase intent. Therefore, H1f was not supported (Table IV). Discussion and conclusion This is an exploratory study on online customer service. Using the “human factors” approach, this study explored online customer service dimensions that may be expected and wanted by customers as a function of their prior customer service experiences in retail stores. This study further assessed how attitudes toward online customer service influence online purchase intent based on the expectancy value model (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Seven dimensions of online customer service emerged: (1) ease in searching; (2) availability of FAQs;

Variable Ease in searching Availability of FAQs Availability of in-stock status information Ease of comparison shopping Availability of additional service Availability of personalized shopping Availability of product updates

Adjusted R2

Sig.

0.365 0.133 0.306 0.094

0.124 0.084

0.000*** 0.01**

4.073 2.310

0.395 0.156 0.237 0.056

0.146 0.045

0.000*** 0.023*

0.199

1.928

0.199 0.040

0.029

0.057

0.066 0.199

0.629 1.929

0.066 0.004 0.199 0.040

0.007 0.029

0.531 0.057

b

Std. error

b*

t-value

0.0220 0.1070

0.006 0.035

0.365 0.306

3.721 3.050

0.1300 0.0320

0.032 0.014

0.395 0.237

0.0294

0.015

0.0100 0.0294

0.016 0.020

R

Note: b ¼ Unstandardized coefficients, b* ¼ standardized coefficients * p , 0:05, **p , 0:01, ***p , 0:001

R2

Table IV. Regression analyses

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(3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

availability of in-stock status information; ease of comparison shopping; availability of additional service; availability of personalized shopping; and availability of product updates.

Attitude toward each online customer service dimension was examined in its relationship to online purchase intent and supported the predictive validity of some dimensions. Simple regressions showed that among the seven dimensions of online customer service, ease in searching, availability of FAQs, availability of in-stock status information, and ease of comparison shopping were significant predictors of online purchase intent. Ease in searching has been recognized as a core element of successful online retailing by online retailers like Timberland.com and LLBean.com (Internet Retailer, 2003). Timerland.com emphasized the human factor approach in its site design by knowing its customers and how they shop, and the company has been praised for making it easy for shoppers to locate the products they are looking for. The availability of FAQs was also an important customer service dimension predicting online purchase intent. This finding is consistent with prior research suggesting that one significant reason for failed purchase attempts was that some online shoppers were unable to get their questions answered. In the absence of salespeople in online shopping, when online shoppers have questions, they need ways to get answers. Available FAQs allow shoppers to get immediate answers for common questions. Our study found that the availability of in-stock status information was an important customer service dimension predicting online purchase intent. Product unavailability was useful information that Internet users needed (Retail Forward, Inc. 2001). Tamimi et al. (2003) found that product availability information was frequently provided, but not until the checkout process was nearly complete, which is inconsistent with the in-store shopping experience. Another customer service dimension identified in our study was the availability of comparison shopping. Singh (2002) also supported the critical role of comparison shopping to transform online shoppers to purchasers by accommodating easier comparison shopping to facilitate the purchase decision. Perceived availability of additional service and product updates were only marginally significant. Availability of personalized shopping was not a significant predictor of online purchase intent. A recent study by Jupiter Research found that only 14 percent of consumers are enticed to purchase by personalized web sites (CyberAtlas Staff, 2003), because they do not accommodate shopping process or help shoppers accomplish their shopping tasks (e.g. buy a pair of shoes). Implications and future research The findings of this study provide useful information that online retailers can utilize in the development and operation of more successful shopping sites. First, online retailers need to understand that previous shopping experiences influence expectations about online shopping. Many online shoppers are goal-oriented and have a task to accomplish (CyberAtlas Staff, 2003). Thus, online shoppers may need help in locating a product. The utilization of search engines may be a great resource that can expedite

search processes. However, recent industry reports showed the low utility of search engines. Many fail to function when terms are misspelled or searched results are difficult to sort by online shoppers (Shop.org., 2003). Therefore, online retailers need to refine search engines that can enhance easy searching. The well developed list of FAQs helps online shoppers get common questions answered. Online retailers may want to pay more attention to questions frequently asked by their customers and to develop an extensive library of FAQs accessible by their customers. A toll-free telephone number and e-mail address available on the web site will also be useful for more specific questions. Timely in-stock information may also help online retailers provide a more satisfactory shopping experience for their prospective customers. By making in-stock information available before checking out, it will reduce the time that online shoppers spend to purchase a product and may facilitate additional browsing. This study was exploratory in nature and thus entails several limitations. First, the scales measuring online customer service developed in this study need to be replicated and refined in future research. Another limitation includes a relatively small sample size and a narrow demographic representation using college students. Future research thus needs to develop a more thorough and extensive measure of online customer service using more diverse demographic groups. Because we measured more general attitudes toward online customer service and online purchase intention without matching the behavior on the action, target, context, and time between attitude and behavioral intent (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977), the correlations between attitude and intention came out somewhat lower than previous studies. Thus, future research may want to investigate attitude toward online customer service and online purchase intent by matching four elements of a behavior. References Ajzen, I. (1991), “The theory of planned behavior”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, Vol. 50, pp. 179-211. Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1977), “Attitude-behavior relations: a theoretical analysis and review of empirical research”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 88, pp. 888-918. Babin, B.J., Boles, J.S. and Darden, W.R. (1995), “Salesperson stereotypes, customer emotions, and their impact on information processing”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 94-105. Beatty, S., Mayer, M., Coleman, J., Reynolds, K. and Lee, J. (1996), “Customer-sales associate retail relationship”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 72 No. 3, pp. 223-47. Bitner, M. (1990), “Evaluating service encounters: the effects of physical surroundings and employee responses”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 54, pp. 69-82. Bolton, R. and Drew, J. (1991), “A multistage model of customers’ assessments of service quality and value”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 375-84. Cronin, J. and Taylor, S. (1992), “Measuring service quality: a reexamination and extension”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56 No. 3, pp. 55-68. CyberAtlas staff (2003), “Personalization not to secret to e-commerce”, available at: http:// cyberatlas.internet.com/markets (accessed 26 November 2003). Czepiel, H. (1990), “Service encounters and service relationships implications for research”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 13-21.

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Dotson, M. and Patton, W. III (1992), “Consumer perceptions of department store service: a lesson for retailers”, Journal of Service Marketing, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 15-28. Duffy, D. (2003), “Internal and external factors which affect customer loyalty”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 5, pp. 480-5. Ernst and Young LLP (2001), Global Online Retailing: An Ernst & Young Special Report, National Retail Federation, Washington, DC. Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975), Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Gro¨nroos, C. (1997), “Value-driven relational marketing: From products to resources and competencies”, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 407-19. Hines, M. (2003), “Online retail sales up 27 percent”, available: http://news.com.com (accessed 26 November 2003). Howardell, D. (2003), “How to improve customer service”, available at: www.theacagroup.com/ customerservice.htm (accessed 27 November 2003). Internet Retailer (2004), “Internet retailer’s best of the web 2004”, available at: www. internetretailer.com/article (accessed 4 December 2003). Kennedy, J. and Bush, A. (1985), An introduction to the design and analysis of experiments in behavioral research, University Press of America, London. Krantz, J. (1997), “Human factors”, available at: http://psych.hanover.edu/classes (accessed 30 May 2002). Lattin, J., Carroll, J. and Green, P. (2003), Analyzing Multivariate Data, Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning, Pacific Grove, CA. Leung, C. and Fung, M. (1996), “Assessing perceived service quality of casual-wear chain stores”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 26-49. Levy, R. (2000), “Lending a hand electronically”, Direct Marketing, Vol. 63 No. 2, pp. 37-42. Lynch, P., Kent, R. and Srinivasan, S. (2001), “The global internet shopper: evidence from shopping tasks in twelve countries”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 15-23. Meyer, E. (1990), “Retail on the rebound”, Directing Marketing, Vol. 53 No. 1, p. 7. Needle, D. (1999), “Online stores not meeting customer needs”, available at: www.cnn.com/ TECH/computing/ (accessed 10 June 2002). O’Keefe, D. (1990), Persuasion: Theory and Research, Sage, Newbury Park, CA. Osborn, S. (2000), “Is your customer being served”, Chain Store Age, Vol. 76 No. 11, p. 52. Pastore, M. (2000), “Stores vs. websites: the battle continues”, available at: http://ecommerce. internet.com/news/insights/trends/article (accessed 10 February 2002). Reed, S. (1999), “Can’t get no satisfaction: online shopping can be as bad as the real thing”, InfoWorld, Vol. 21 No. 21, p. 83. Retail Forward, Inc. (2001), E-retail Intelligence Updates. Reynolds, K. and Arnold, M. (2000), “Customer loyalty to the salesperson and the store: Examining relationship customers in an upscale retail context”, Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 89-98. Schaffer, E. and Sorflaten, J. (1999), “Web usability illustrated: breathing easier with your usable e-commerce site”, The Journal of Economic Commerce, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 1-10.

Sewall, M. (1981), “Relative information contributions of consumer purchase intentions and management judgment as explanators of sales”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 249-53. Shop.org and Boston Consulting Group (2000), “State of online retailing 3.0”, National Retail Federation, Washington, DC, available at: www.shop.org (accessed 10 February 2002). Shop.org. (2001), Shop.org Press Room, National Retail Federation, Washington, DC. Shop.org. (2003), “Statistics: E-business trends”, available at: www.shop.org/learn/stats (accessed 26 November 2003). Singh, M. (2002), “E-services and their role in B2C e-commerce”, Managing Service Quality, Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 434-46. Swinyard, W. (2003), “The effects of salesperson mood, shopper behavior, and store type on customer service”, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Vol. 10, pp. 323-33. Tamimi, N., Rajan, M. and Sebastianelli, R. (2003), “The state of online retailing”, Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 146-55. Taylor, S. and Baker, T. (1994), “As assessment of the relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction in the formation of consumers’ purchase intentions”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 70 No. 2, pp. 163-78. Westbrook, R. (1981), “Sources of consumer satisfaction with retail outlets”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 57 No. 3, pp. 68-85. What is customer service (2000), Business Perspectives, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 2-3. Wortzel, L. (1987), “Retailing strategies for today’s mature marketplace”, Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 45-56.

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The unhappy shopper, a retail experience: exploring fashion, fit and affordability Rose Otieno, Chris Harrow and Gaynor Lea-Greenwood Clothing Design & Technology Department, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK Abstract Purpose – This paper explores fashion availability, fit and affordability in the UK stores especially for those women who wear size 16 and over; and examines their satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the retail experience. Design/methodology/approach – The satisfaction of customer needs remains a fundamental tenet of marketing theory, research and application. This survey was an exploratory study into satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the fashion provision and shopping environments for women in the UK. A questionnaire solicited the views of 250 women thereby enabling the researchers to gauge consumers’ views on sizing, fit and fashion availability, perception of current offers, pricing and shopping environments. Findings – A large percentage of females, particularly those who wear size 16 and over, are dissatisfied with retail environments, fashion and sizing provision among major UK market players. While most women shopped from the high street and department stores, the larger woman had great difficulty in finding well-fitting fashionable clothing in general, and with certain categories being most problematic. Respondents’ views would appear to contradict previously accepted wisdom that clothing consumption activity is leisure and pleasure orientated; many negative experiences prevailed leaving them unhappy and disenfranchised. Research limitations/implications – The findings presented are the views of women’s experiences in one city in the UK. Future research could include a wider sample from more cities. Practical implications – Marketers should be aware of the need for affordable fashions for larger women. Lack of appropriate sizes is a major source of dissatisfaction. This creates negative emotions in terms of: merchandise choice, visual merchandising, store environment, sales personnel attitude, pricing policies and promotional activities. These factors are the very foundations of consumer satisfaction and the evidence of consumer dissatisfaction resulting in avoidance behaviour should be particularly worrying for retailers, given that they are operating in an increasingly competitive and saturated fashion environment. Originality/value – This paper provides an initial indication of what creates consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction about fashion, fit, affordability and retail environments in the UK particularly among larger women. This paper shows areas of specific concern for marketers. Keywords Fashion, Women, Customer satisfaction Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Vol. 33 No. 4, 2005 pp. 298-309 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-0552 DOI 10.1108/09590550510593220

Introduction The UK retail fashion environment has been previously described in terms of a poorly differentiated offer (Birtwistle et al., 1999), as a sea of similar merchandise in similar environments. Retailers can increase their competitiveness by closely targeting and fulfilling their customers’ needs (Kotler, 1973). Tauber (1972) hypothesised three reasons for shopping: personal motives, social motives and impulse buying.

Atmosphere design is important for the retailer especially when the number of competitive outlets increases; or when the product and price differences are small; or when products are aimed at distinct segments. Creating consumer satisfaction involves delivering quality products that meet their needs and is core in highly competitive environments (Reid and Brown, 1996). While retailers have sought differential advantages (price, promotion, location), store environment has been sited as a competitive edge for market differentiation (Baker et al., 1994). Although some studies have researched into satisfaction with retail outlets and apparel fit, there has been limited focus on British samples, especially fashion environments. In the US for example, Kind and Hathcote (2000) concluded that dissatisfaction was greatest among the large-size group when studying size availability, pricing, colours, style selection and fit. The available clothes were sometimes considered “matronly” implying that the clothes were perceived to be for older women. Labat and Delong (1990) underscored the importance of determining levels of satisfaction with retail attributes and the fit of ready-to-wear garments. Shim and Bickle (1993) found that older women were dissatisfied with the fit of ready-to-wear garments purchased via home shopping catalogues. Choudhary and Beale (1988) found that for the plus size women, fit and sizing caused the most dissatisfaction. The current exploratory study looks at dissatisfaction with the retail environment, pricing, salespeople and merchandise choice among women in the UK who wear size 16 plus. Shopping for clothes involves making decisions about one’s appearance and is part of an overall life pattern that reflects attitudes towards stores and fashion as well as complex values and interests such as aesthetics and materialism (Tatzel, 1982). Moreover, in the clothing sector, customer satisfaction may lead to store patronage (Bennett, 1990) and the shopping experience uniquely has many social and hedonic components and provides opportunities (Talmadge, 1995). Clothing is linked to how consumers view themselves for example, as part of the extended self (Belk, 1988), as a “Second skin” (Horn, 1975) and enhances one’s psychological and social well-being. Understanding consumer satisfaction is important if clothing retailers and marketers wish to meet consumers’ needs. Body size and shape often influence perception about a person’s social role. In the past, sizing standardisation has been viewed as a panacea for solving problems of garment fit; it assumes the concepts of the “average” figure, usually up to size 14, and that every body size and shape fits into predetermined sizes. Size ranges usually concentrated on the smaller shapes and sizes, ignoring the endomorphic figures. It is common practice to use different size codes based on numbers and figure types. For numeric size codes, size 10-14 is average while size 16 and over is usually designated as large, size plus, outsize and even 16 plus. In this study, “size 16 plus” refers to sizes that are above 14. Body size and shape can create internal anguish that relates to self-image and may make shopping difficult (Tatzel, 1982). The recently concluded Size UK anthropometrical survey aims at determining body shape and size. The data, based on state-of-the-art scanning technology, promises to contribute significantly to solving problems associated with garment sizing as well as incorporating new approaches to shopping practices (Bougourd et al., 2000). According to Mintel (2000) the size 16 plus market segment will continue to grow as the number of women aged 45 and over increases. This is the largest population segment buying size 16 plus. In the last five years the size 16 plus market has increased

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by 22 per cent, the more standard size market had a growth level of only 11 per cent. This represents excellent performance in what has been a difficult and well-publicised trading climate for clothing (M&S troubles, the decline of C&A, the take-over of Bhs amongst others). The first four years of this millennium are predicted to see a growth rate of some 13 per cent in the number of 55-64 year olds, hence a growth in the size 16 plus market. The size 16 plus clothing market should therefore remain a very attractive proposition to suppliers and retailers. The problem may not lie solely with the variety of sizes and styling on offer but, more importantly, with their role in providing overall fashion content, fit and the shopping environment.

Consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the retail environment Retail satisfaction consists of three categories: shopping systems satisfaction which includes availability and types of outlets; buying systems satisfaction which includes selection and actual purchasing of products and consumer satisfaction derived from the use of the product (Westbrook, 1987). Dissatisfaction with any of the three aspects could lead to customer disloyalty, decrease in sales and erosion of the market share. Customer satisfaction has three stages: the pre-sales stage when expectations are about the product, service, benefits, price and availability; the sales period when the customer experiences the environment, the product, type of service, delivery, quality and redress from buying; the after-sales stage when the customer expects support or advice, replacement or refund, repair or uses the complaints procedures. These consumer satisfaction theories are based on analysing discrepancies between customer expectations and evaluation of those expectations about products and services (Churchill and Suprenant, 1982). Normal expectations are what the customer thinks the product ought to be in terms of specific elements such as size and colour. Comparison of such elements to expected norms is thought to lead to confirmation or disconfirmation. Meeting normal expectations therefore results in confirmation and therefore satisfaction. Although size charts provide norms for garment fit, they have been a source of confusion and dissatisfaction amongst consumers. This is because, even within the same retailer, there can be a variation of actual measurements in garments, which are labelled with the same size code. There is even more size variation amongst different retailers. One approach has been to evaluate satisfaction as a consumption experience: a post-choice evaluative judgement (Tse and Wilton, 1988). Consumer satisfaction therefore refers to consumers’ responses to the evaluation of perceived discrepancy between prior expectations and actual performance of the product. Therefore consumer satisfaction is influenced by a pre-experience comparison standard and disconfirmation. The second approach considers emotional response as satisfaction itself involving three constructs: expectations, perceived performance and disconfirmation (Cadotte et al., 1987). For marketers, consumer satisfaction is a desired outcome of activities and links processes culminating in purchase and consumption to post-purchase behaviour such as attitude change, repeat purchase and brand loyalty (Churchill and Suprenant, 1982; Smith, 1994). While the satisfied customer may influence others to buy, dissatisfaction can lead to complaints, legal action or negative word-of-mouth communication (Engel et al., 1990).

The retail experience The accepted wisdom that all women enjoy and are motivated to shop for clothing is one that is reflected in popular culture for example in fashion editorials in the media. It has been absorbed into the vernacular, in phrases such as “I shop therefore I am” (Reid and Brown, 1996). Jones (1999) supports the notion that shopping is an entertaining activity comprising two groups: retailer factors (selection, prices, store environment and salespeople) and customer factors (social, task, time, involvement and financial resources). Shopping activities can be viewed as a source of competitive advantage (Talmadge, 1995; Berry, 1996). The notion that women and shopping are synonymous may be a debatable generalisation. The extent to which consumers who are considered to be highly motivated and involved with fashion consumption activities and are dissatisfied with retail experiences has received scant attention in the literature. Tauber (1972) quotes this notion in literature about shopper motivation. Despite a small sample of 30, a raft of research has followed. This literature fails to identify why people do not shop. Tatzel (1982) redresses the balance by a descriptive narrative on the negative aspects exhibited by the “anxious” consumer, including the inability to find merchandise, coping with crowds and sales personnel, financial considerations, obesity and avoidance behaviours. Self-concept is a complex dimension that may include the self, ideal self, social self and expected self. Generally self-concept is characterised as the “ideal” (how one would like to be) and the “real” (how one really is) self-concept (Goldsmith et al., 1996). For fashion behaviour, self-image and self-concept may influence fashion interest and involvement. Since fashion clothing is highly related to feelings of esteem, self image and worth (Labat and Delong, 1990; Stanforth and Lennon, 1998; Horn, 1975; Belk, 1988) and the choice of retail environment is often a reflection of self image (Sirgy et al., 2000) it would seem appropriate to explore the extent to which the retail fashion environment satisfies customers’ needs. Merchandise quality and image usually associated with store brands have a significant impact on store image and that of its patrons (Dodds et al., 1991; Baker et al., 1994; Sirgy et al., 2000). This self-image congruence (matching the product user image with the consumer’s self-concept) is critical in retailing to specific targets (Sirgy, 1982; Sirgy et al., 2000). The apathetic consumer (Tatzel, 1982), often male, who positively avoids shopping environments, was not the focus of this study. Pursuing the recalcitrant or even unenthusiastic consumer is a waste of time (Reid and Brown, 1996). This research was undertaken at what might be termed “a shopper’s paradise” where it would be unlikely to find the apathetic shopper. This research was directed at women shoppers who were consciously involved in the activity of shopping in a fashion environment. The role and influence of the retail environment on the consumer in a variety of consumption sectors and situations has been the subject of intense scrutiny by academic researchers since Kotler’s (1973) seminal article on atmospherics. Babin and Darden (1995) suggest that negative feelings may cause withdrawal from environments and may leave a more vivid impression and are recalled more easily. This research concentrates on the negative impact which we term “avoidance triggers” of the retail environment: availability, fashion, fit, comfortable changing rooms, clothes enjoyment, personnel attitudes and body size characteristics, pricing perceptions and product display. These avoidance “triggers” widen the generally accepted satisfaction

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variables concerned with merchandise availability, pricing, service, and environmental factors and relate very specifically to the retail fashion environment for the general sample and specifically for the size 16 plus customer. For example, store personnel who are not helpful to the shopper are considered to be a negative stimulus in the retail environment. Jones (1999) suggests that the respondents reported 23 per cent of negative sales personnel encounters as opposed to 10 per cent of positive ones.

302 Methodology This was an exploratory study into satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the fashion provision for the 16 plus women and shopping environments (specifically display and changing rooms) in the United Kingdom. A questionnaire solicited the views of 250 women, some of whom wear size 16, thereby enabling the researchers to gauge consumers’ views on size availability, pricing, shopping environments and their perception of current offers. Women of all sizes answered the questionnaire but specific additional questions targeted the size 16 plus shopper. The sample consisted of women from various age year groups: 18-24 (49.6 per cent), 25-32 (17.4 per cent), 33-40 (14.9 per cent), 41-46 (7 per cent), 47-52 (6.2 per cent) and 53 and over (5 per cent) who shopped from the high street, catalogues, designer shops, department stores and supermarkets. The questionnaire items focused on age; clothing sizes worn; where they shopped; common problems with work wear, swimwear, casual wear and lingerie; availability of sizes in stores; display; changing rooms; pricing and their feelings when they did not find garments that fitted them. Both open-ended and closed items were utilised. The questionnaire was pre-tested at a railway station and with university employees in Manchester. This exercise enabled the researchers to detect ambiguities and biases. The questionnaire was administered to shoppers in the Trafford Centre and the Arndale Centre in Manchester city. These shopping malls were selected because they provided archetypal 1990s shopping fashion environments with activities, where a convenience sample was accessible. Customers from a wide variety of population segments usually visit these malls to purchase clothing. Sirgy et al. (2000) suggest that stores situated in large shopping malls are perceived as “being conspicuous” and one can be seen to shop. The respondents, therefore, were out to shop; they were not the “apathetical” type quoted by Reid and Brown (1996). The initial selection of respondents was chosen first by the researcher visually estimating the respondent’s body size. The respondent was then requested to participate in the study by either filling in the questionnaire or answering the questions as the research assistant wrote down the answers. Data analysis An exploratory design that emphasizes discovery over confirmation was used (Deshpande, 1983). The research design concurs with Wells (1993) who emphasised the need to start with the real world phenomena and the need for ground-level generalisations. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were utilised. First the questionnaire items were quantified in order to collate responses into categories of concepts (Strauss and Corbin, 1990) for qualitative analysis. Analysis is based on the grounded theory; an analytic procedure in which qualitative research data are conceptualised and built into an explanatory theory that sensitively integrates and represents reality (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Scheller and Kunz, 1998; Glaser, 1978).

The grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) involves the study of the phenomenon it represents and is discovered, developed and provisionally verified through systematic data collection and analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Glaser, 1992). Glaser (1992) suggests that data could be used for the development of a theory or a conceptual framework. Strauss and Corbin (1990) recommend such an approach for exploratory studies as this provides adequate grounding needed to generate an explanatory abstract. Strauss and Corbin (1990) suggested the procedures pertinent to the grounding theory analysis: open coding which involves conceptualisation, categorization, naming of categories, development of properties and dimensions; and axial coding which involves establishing subcategories and developing paradigms. Axial coding focuses on explaining the underlying linkages or relationships in order to reveal the phenomenon, context, causal and intervening conditions, consequences and actions. In questionnaire items, where respondents were asked to provide open-coded qualitative responses, the first step was for the researchers to identify the unit of analysis. These responses provided a rich source of data. The two researchers synonymised the responses by parsing the responses until complete agreement was reached. These analyses will form the basis for a subsequent in-depth quantitative analysis of variables derived. Discussion and findings The sample A convenience sample of 250 women participated. The majority (80 per cent) of these women were aged 18-40. Ninety-three (37.2 per cent) wore size 16 and over. The majority (65.6 per cent) of these 93 women wore size 16 to 18. It is common practice to designate and label size ranges up to 14 as “standard” or “regular”. For this sample, 22.3 per cent wore sizes 16-18 and may just be marginalized from these “regular” sizes. This may imply that retailers who segment and exclude sizes 16-18 from the standard are actually losing out on an important market. This has implications for fashion retailers especially where their strategies towards segmentation are concerned. Where do women shop? Researchers have suggested that merchandise quality and image usually associated with store brands have a significant impact on store image and that of its patrons (Dodds et al., 1991; Baker et al., 1994; Sirgy et al., 2000). Respondents were asked to indicate where they shopped. Analysing the overall sample, results indicated that the majority of women shopped in the High Street (64 per cent) and the department stores (58.4 per cent). For the size 16 plus subsample, 55.9 per cent shopped at the department stores while a clear majority (73.1 per cent) shopped at the High Street stores. This finding is important to marketers who may want to satisfy the needs of already existing customers; many of the larger women shop here (Table I). Home shopping through catalogues was more prevalent in the size 16 plus subset. It allows them the opportunity to try on in the comfort of their own home. Few size 16 plus respondents shop in sportswear outlets. This may be because they have no need for this type of clothing but also that they are avoiding contact with the more stereotypical ectomorphic (slimmer) figure. Sirgy (1982) and Sirgy et al. (2000) have suggested that this self-image congruence is critical in retailing and therefore of particular interest to marketers. When compared with the overall sample, a higher

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percentage of size 16 plus shop in supermarkets. This may be that they make only basic necessary purchases such as underwear and tights or that they are not as conscious of their body shape in a place with such an eclectic mix of people and feel more comfortable in this environment. Results reveal that very few size 16 plus shop in designer outlets. Most of these retailers would only extend their ranges up to size 14. More of the size 16 plus use discount shops that could also be a reflection of their selfimage. Shoppers also have stereotypical images of stores and they view some stores as either shopping channels for the more affluent consumer or as outlets for bargain hunters (Onkvisit and Shaw, 1994). Ease/difficulty in buying various garment types On a scale of 1-4 (1 being very easy, 4 being very hard), respondents indicated how easy or difficult it was for them to find different categories of garment types. Results revealed that more of the size 16 plus women have greater difficulty in finding garments in the following categories: lingerie (55.8 per cent), swimwear (50.7 per cent) and eveningwear (52.8 per cent). These garment types would usually require a greater degree of fit. On the other hand casual wear would have loose and less restrictive fit, for instance large tee shirts and the use of elasticated waists on trousers and skirts. Labat and Delong (1990) had suggested that body cathexis (evaluation of ones body compared to others) is significant among women. Lingerie, swimwear and to some extent eveningwear are usually body contour garments and so emphasise the appearance of the body shape and size. While 55.1 per cent stated that they could not find clothes that fitted them, 65.9 per cent of the 16 plus subsample could not find garments that they considered a good fit. The findings of the current study concur with Kind and Hathcote (2000) that larger women still find it difficult to find fashionable clothes that fit well. The availability of fashionable clothing The Oxford English Dictionary (1989) defines fashion as “The current popular custom or style especially in dress or social conduct”. Women were asked to state how often they are able to find fashionable garments. Of the whole sample 49.6 per cent were able to find something fashionable often and another 47.1 per cent were able to find something sometimes (96.7 per cent in total). Only 24.4 per cent of the size 16 plus could find fashionable clothing often and the figure for those who found it only sometimes jumped to 70 per cent. Results revealed a disparity between the overall sample and the Stores

Table I. Where do women shop?

Mail order catalogues Department stores Sports shops Supermarkets High Street chain stores Independent shops Designer wear Discount shops Charity shops Others

16 plus subsample (per cent)

Overall sample (per cent)

35.5 55.9 7.5 17.2 73.1 24.7 8.6 11.8 5.4 4.4

25.2 58.4 18.0 11.2 64.0 30.4 22.8 6.4 4.8 2.4

16 plus subsample. This may be due to their perception of fashion or their self-image. According to Sirgy (1982), a consumer’s attitude towards a product and its purchase is influenced by self-image congruence (matching a product user image with the consumer’s self image. The above data suggest that shopping is not such a pleasurable experience as perceived by many ( Jones, 1999).

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Rating of fashion availability by respondents Women were asked about the availability of fashion in various stores and outlets (mail order catalogues, department stores, high street stores, sportswear outlets, supermarkets and designer outlets). They were asked to select from a five-point Likert scale that contained the following categories: good, satisfactory, neutral, poor or very poor choice descriptors. For the total sample, only 36.4 per cent women said that availability was poor or worse, compared with 50 per cent of the 16 plus sample. Of the size 16 plus subset, 77.8 per cent found that their size in fashionable styles was not available in designer outlets, this effectively rules out a great deal of fashion availability for this size range. For the whole sample there is no disparity between those who indicated satisfactory choice (51.1 per cent) and those who indicated poor choice (49 per cent) at the designer outlets. Although a large proportion of the size16 plus subset choose to shop at the other end (cheaper) of the scale (in the supermarkets) the figures indicate a majority of 64.5 per cent of these shoppers cannot find fashionable clothing there either. This is a great wasted opportunity for the large supermarkets. Again there is no disparity in the whole sample. In the sportswear shops the whole sample reported a significant choice (74.8 per cent) as did the size 16 plus (59.4 per cent). A lot of styling relating to activity clothing uses lycra and other elastene/stretch fabrics and also styling often provides a loose and comfortable fit. For retailers the concept of marketing designer wear, or at least designer brand labels, could be a competitive strategy.

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Finding well-fitting clothes Respondents were asked if they were able to find clothes that were comfortable and fitted well. For the whole sample, 45.3 per cent said “yes” while only 34.1 per cent of the size16 plus agreed. However both sets of figures (54.7 per cent of the overall sample and 65.9 per cent of the 16 plus sub sample) showed that women had difficulty in finding well-fitting clothes. The size 16 plus sample have greater difficulty in finding satisfactory fit. For many shoppers there is still confusion and dissatisfaction with garment fit. Women’s opinions on store selection for fashionable clothing Women were asked about stores that specifically deal in larger sizes or have extended size ranges readily obtainable. These stores usually promote themselves as “fashion outlets” for larger sizes and claim availability of appropriate size ranges, style, fashion details and pleasant appropriate environments. None of the stores were given a high rating of excellent implying that even in the speciality stores fashion provision is still lacking. However, the majority considered provision in Evans (50.7 per cent) and Elvi (55.6 per cent) as good. Bhs (51.4 per cent) and Rogers and Rogers (52.9 per cent) were rated as poor in terms of fashion provision. This demonstrates a considerable need for improvement.

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Enjoyment of and reasons for shopping for clothes Women stated reasons why they enjoyed shopping: fashion trends, price, its fun, for browsing, they felt special, and thought they looked good, claimed to be “shopoholic”, bored of old clothes, variety, socialized with friends, enjoy spending (“it’s a girl thing”), retail therapy, forget other problems, creates individuality, search for my size and their love for clothes. Data showed a large missing sample when the size 16 plus woman was asked why she enjoyed shopping. Forty-one (52 per cent) of the size 16 plus group did not answer this question. Results imply that over half of the size 16 plus women did not choose to give a reason for enjoying shopping and this could be that they did not actually enjoy the experience. Women were then asked to state reasons why they did not enjoy shopping. Findings show two distinct categories of lack of enjoyment with the shopping experience: retailer related and consumer related (Jones, 1999). Although 50.5 per cent of the 16 plus sample opted not to respond, the answers available demonstrate that the main reasons why they did not like shopping for clothes were matters relating to their size. The missing responses for the overall sample show that 156 (62.4) women did not choose to say if they did not like shopping, of these 47 (50.5 per cent of the subset) did respond. Strauss and Corbin (1990) suggest that for exploratory research, grounded theory procedures could be used in determining concepts that help create a theoretical basis for study. This study sought to establish reasons for satisfaction/dissatisfaction with shopping environments. Data show that there are five main reasons why women do not enjoy the shopping experience: merchandise choice, time, attitudes, price and environment. Qualitative data show that merchandise choice is the main area of dissatisfaction. Women stated specific reasons why they did no enjoy shopping: resource (cost, hassle with children, time); emotive (hated crowds, hates shopping, felt fat, poor body shape); environment (communal or no changing rooms, gets too hot) and the product (poor fit, no choice, size). Typical comments on merchandise choice were related to size, style, fashion, fit and environment. “Because of my shape, my age and size, modern styles are rare. Department stores all seem to think that all large ladies have no shape.” “I am not able to choose from what looks nice in terms of colour and design but instead I have to choose what is available in size 16.” “They have communal changing rooms”. Visual merchandising Respondents were asked about merchandise display, in particular the size 16 plus were asked where their sizes were displayed and also where they would like to see their sizes displayed. 39.8 per cent of the 16 plus sample said their size were displayed at the back of the store (visual merchandising, promotional activities). The largest percentage (31.2 per cent) said they would like their sizes dispersed amongst others and not singled out. In terms of display, the normal sizes appear more attractive to most people but because of this the size 16 plus customer feels disenfranchised. Respondents were asked to state whether they felt that there was a different feel in shops, which catered for the larger sizes only. Of those who chose to answer this question, 52.2 per cent felt that there was a different feel to these types of retail outlets. Respondents state various opinion: boring, dull colours, frumpy styling, limited fashions, ranges and sizes, makes you feel larger, poor choice, selection for very old people, unattractive and very thin assistants. Respondents said there was a positive feel when pleasant and helpful assistants were at hand.

Qualitative data revealed concerns about sizing provision. There is still lack of size ranges in desirable styles and colours for the size 16 plus customer. Seemingly retailers are not creating an attractive environment for this shopper. Shop assistants need to be chosen carefully as thin sales people are found off-putting by the size 16 plus shopper. According to these respondents, salespeople can impact on the retail experience. While very thin salespeople affect the way consumers feel about their size (make them feel too big), helpful and knowledgeable assistants made them enjoy the experience. These findings are similar to what Jones (1999) found: sales people can make shopping enjoyable by providing an extra ordinary service, they should not be overbearing (overly aggressive), they should be helpful and knowledgeable about the product. The size 16 plus respondents were asked how they felt when they could not find clothes that fitted well. Of those who responded to the question, 60.7 per cent said that they felt frustrated. The overall sample shows emotive feelings towards not being able to find clothing which fits but it is significant that the size 16 plus are the most unhappy shoppers, displaying the following negative feelings: blame (the retailer), resentfulness, de-motivation, frustration, anger, disappointment, sadness, embarrassment because of their size, depressed and less feminine. Pricing policies Research has suggested that price levels have an important role on shoppers’ patronage decisions (Dodds et al., 1991). For example, higher prices are associated with higher quality merchandise and heavy discounting the opposite (Sirgy et al., 2000). The size 16 plus women (66.2 per cent) felt that they paid at least 20 per cent more for the larger size range. Women were also asked about their opinion on current pricing of size 16 plus garments. Of the size 16 plus sample 3.9 per cent felt that prices are reasonable, 49.4 per cent felt that they are average but 46.8 per cent felt that clothes in the size 16 plus range are expensive. This finding concurs with Jones (1999) that “smart-shopper feelings” are important and that while excitement can result from obtaining bargains at sales; respondents were disappointed with high prices (could not make a purchase or paid more). Some typical comments on price were: “The clothes I like are too expensive”. “You become quite despondent when you cannot find a nice outfit at a reasonable price”. When asked to state why they did not use the store they had mentioned, 64.5 per cent said that they were too expensive, 32.3 per cent said that they could not get their size. Only 3.2 per cent said that they were too fashionable. These statistics are yet another reflection on lack of availability of stylish clothing for the size 16 plus. Conclusion There are indeed a lot of unhappy shoppers in the overall sample that was accessed across all sizes and age ranges. The shoppers who are most unhappy are those in the size 16 plus group who have an emotional response to many issues concerning the whole fashion shopping experience. The issue of self-image and dissatisfaction with the shopping environment across the size 16 plus subset requires further investigation. This study revealed that women who wear size 16 plus could not find clothes they perceived as fashionable, which were a good fit and were affordable, in an environment, which does not make them, feel second-class to their thinner sisters. The product characteristics (fashionability, styling choice, colour options, fabric selections) were key retail selectors. These women want more choice in style, fashion, colour,

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fabric and size options, better quality, pricing, non-patronising and larger sales girls, integrated displays and opportunities for feedback. The “avoidance triggers” are aspects that require special focus in fashion retailing. The recently concluded Size UK survey (Bougourd et al., 2000) by a consortium of retailers, industry and academic institutions will hopefully give some much needed data on the changing shape and size of the UK population. Retailers will have to address the issues related to the shopping environment, specifically for the size 16 plus consumers. For managers, however, the store environment (specifically display and changing rooms) and policies could be addressed in order to meet the needs of this important segment. References Babin, B.J. and Darden, W.R. (1995), “Consumer self-regulation in a retail environment”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 71, pp. 47-70. Baker, J., Grewal, D. and Parauraman, A. (1994), “The influence of store environment on quality inferences and store image”, The Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 22, pp. 328-39. Belk, R.W. (1988), “Possessions and the extended self”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 15, pp. 139-69. Bennett, A. (1990), “Many consumers expect better service – and they say they are willing to pay for it”, Wall Street Journal, 13th November, Section B, p. 7. Berry, L.L. (1996), “Retailers with a future”, Marketing Management, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 39-46. Birtwistle, G., Clarke, I. and Freathy, P. (1999), “Store image in the UK fashion sector: consumer versus retailer perceptions”, International Review of Retail Distribution and Consumer Research, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 1-16. Bougourd, J.P., Dekker, L., Ross, P.G. and Ward, J.P. (2000), “A comparison of womens’ sizing by 3D electronic scanning and traditional anthropometry”, The Journal of the Textile Institute, Vol. 91 No. 2, pp. 163-73. Cadotte, E.R., Woodruff, R.B. and Jenkins, R.L. (1987), “Expectations and norms in models of consumer satisfaction”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 24, pp. 305-14. Choudhary, U. and Beale, N.V. (1988), “Plus-size women’s clothing interest, satisfactions and dissatisfactions with ready-to-wear apparel”, Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 66, pp. 783-8. Churchill, G.A. and Suprenant, C.F. (1982), “An investigation into determinants of customer satisfaction”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 19, pp. 491-504. Deshpande, R. (1983), “Paradigms lost: on theory and method research and method in marketing”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47, pp. 101-10. Dodds, W.B., Monroe, K.B. and Grewal, D. (1991), “The effects of price, brand, and store information on buyers’ product evaluation”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 28, pp. 307-19. Engel, J.F., Blackwell, R.D. and Miniard, P.W. (1990), Consumer Behaviour, 6th ed., The Dryden Press, Chicago, IL. Glaser, B. (1978), Theoretical Sensitivity, Sociology Press, Mill Valley, CA. Glaser, B. (1992), Emergence vs. Forcing: Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis, Sociology Press, Mill Valley, CA. Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Aldine, Chicago, IL. Goldsmith, R., Flynn, L.R. and Moore, M.A. (1996), “The self-concept of fashion leaders’”, The Clothing & Research Journal, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 242-8.

Horn, M. (1975), The Second Skin: An Interdisciplinary Study of Clothing, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. Jones, M.A. (1999), “Entertaining shopping experiences: an exploratory investigation”, Journal of Retail and Consumer Services, Vol. 6, pp. 129-39. Kind, K.O. and Hathcote, J.M. (2000), “Speciality-size college females: satisfaction with retail outlets and apparel fit”, Journal of Fashion Marketing & Management, Vol. 4, pp. 315-24. Kotler, P. (1973), “Atmospherics as a marketing tool”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 49, pp. 48-64. Labat, K. and Delong, M. (1990), “Body cathexis and satisfaction with fit of apparel”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 43-8. Mintel International Group Ltd (2000), Outsize Clothing, December. Onkvisit, S. and Shaw, J. (1994), Consumer Behaviour: Strategy and Analysis, MacMillan College Publishing, New York, NY, pp. 133-64. (The) Oxford English Dictionary (1989), 2nd ed., Vol. 1, Clarenden Press, Oxford. Reid, R. and Brown, S. (1996), “I hate shopping! an introspective perspective”, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 24, pp. 4-16. Scheller, H. and Kunz, G. (1998), “Toward a grounded theory of apparel product quality”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 57-67. Shim, S. and Bickle, M.C. (1993), “Women 55 years and over as catalog shoppers: satisfaction with apparel fit and catalog attributes”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 53-63. Sirgy, M.J. (1982), “Self -concept in consumer behaviour: a critical review”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 9, pp. 287-300. Sirgy, M.J., Grewal, D. and Mangleburg, T. (2000), “Retail environment, self-congruity, and retail patronage: an interactive model and a research agenda”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 49, pp. 127-38. Smith, I. (1994), Meeting Customer Needs, Butterworth-Heinemann, London. Stanforth, N. and Lennon, S. (1998), “The effects of customer expectations and store policies on retail salesperson’s service, satisfaction and patronage”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 115-24. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, Sage Publications, London. Talmadge, C. (1995), “Retailers injecting more fun into the stores”, Advertising Age, Vol. 66 No. 44, p. 38. Tatzel, M. (1982), “Skill and motivation in clothes shopping: fashion conscious, independent, anxious, and apathetic consumers”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 58, pp. 90-7. Tauber, E.M. (1972), “Why do people shop”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 36, pp. 46-9. Tse, D. and Wilton, P. (1988), “Models of consumer satisfaction formation: an extension”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. XXV. Wells, W.D. (1993), “Discovery orientated consumer research”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 19, pp. 489-504. Westbrook, R. (1987), “Product/consumption affective responses and post-purchase processes”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 24, pp. 258-70. Further reading Collins English Dictionary (1999), 3rd ed., Harper Collins, Glasgow.

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Fashion and clothing: the construction and communication of gay identities

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Kate Schofield Flat 5/80, Canfield Gardens, London, UK, and

¨ . Schmidt Ruth A Retail Management Subject Group, Manchester Metropolitan University Business School, Manchester, UK Abstract Purpose – This paper explores the importance of clothes for gay males as semiotic markers for identity creation and communication in order to highlight the increasing fragmentation of this market and the role of consumption practices as cultural markers. Design/methodology/approach – The study is grounded in qualitative data from participant observation, diaries interviews and a focus group of Manchester-based respondents; findings are linked back to literature on postmodernism, image and identity. Findings – Findings point to communication of individual identity through clothes; firstly, on a community level, as a marker of “gayness”; secondly, on a neo-tribal level, indicating tribal allegiance and aiding inter-tribal communication; thirdly, on a situational level, where clothing facilitates acceptance and integration. The proactive use of clothing as a semiotic marker enables the fluid construction and linking of multiple identities. Findings indicate the existence of quite specific codes with (gay) culturally embedded meanings which gay men can choose to identify with and make use of, or not, in different situations. Thus fashion is an important means of differentiation and communication of personal and group identities and affiliations. Research limitations/implications – This is an in-depth study of a small sample of subjects located in Manchester only. Despite satisfactory respondent and ecological validity it would therefore be desirable to extend the study to a larger sample size and replicate it in other settings before making wider generalisations. Practical implications – Implications for marketers include the need to move away from treating this market as homogeneous as well as opportunities for “tribal marketing”. Originality/value – Through its in-depth qualitative approach the paper represents a rich picture of the UK gay fashion market which has a good degree of respondent validity and useful insights for marketers. Keywords Fashion, Homosexuals, Management research, United Kingdom Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Vol. 33 No. 4, 2005 pp. 310-323 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-0552 DOI 10.1108/09590550510593239

Introduction: society, community and tribe Consisting of consumers of above average educational standards and earnings, with no children and a propensity to spend on hedonistic lifestyle pursuits, the male gay community has immense potential as a focal point for marketers. In 1967 UK legal liberation stimulated gay consumerism, linking sexuality and conspicuous consumption: “for Neil and Andrew, possession of a number of key commodities carried with it strong assumptions about . . . living a homosexual life” (Mort, 1996, p. 188). In a US context Rudd (1996) pointed to differences in aesthetic preferences of

apparel and fragrance choices as well as shopping styles between heterosexual and homosexual males. In the UK an increasing number of gay spaces promote a mixture of dining, shopping and clubbing (e.g. London, Manchester and Brighton). A “dream market” (Penaloza, 1996, p. 10) because of their spending power, gay consumers have been found to be more brand and fashion conscious than their heterosexual peers. Research to date has largely focused on macro-aspects of the gay “community” as a sub-culture within mainstream society, basing segmentation and target marketing on co-location, similarities in lifestyle and socio-economic profiles (Penaloza, 1996, Cole, 2000, Mort, 1996). Haslop et al. (1998) analyse the issues surrounding gay socialization and consumption patterns, identifying communitas, individualism and diversity as key aspects of the gay lifestyle. The extension of gay community into the virtual realm is reflected in an increasing number of gay magazines (Gay Times, Attitude, Fluid), (Mort, 1996), and internet sites (e.g. Planet Patrol, QueerCompany, Gay-to-z). Even though “homosexuals recognize each other – the way Jews do” (Cocteau as cited in Mort, 1996, p. 71), attempts at pinpointing the exact size of the gay community are problematic. Many homosexuals are hidden from general view, merging with dominant heterosexual culture. Also, since sexuality is only one of many characteristics shaping a person’s identity and expression thereof through consumption behaviour, the market is hard to conceptualise in terms of a traditional segmentation approach. Conventional niche and target marketing strategies may not be the most effective approach for reaching homosexual consumers. They could be perceived as clumsy and insincere, simultaneously alienating the mainstream. Furthermore, the gay market is far from homogenous. “Gay identity exists only at the point when one’s homosexual identity is actively presented to others and when affiliation within the gay community occurs”, (Cass (1984) as cited in Haslop et al. (1998, p. 319)). In particular clothes serve as semiotic markers and a non-verbal means of communication of the often highly fragmented and multi-faceted meanings of gay identity (Rudd, 1996). (For a full discussion of semiotics see Mick (1997) and Elliot and Ritson (1997)). This is reflected in the focus on subculture taken by some researchers. Freitas et al.(1996) discuss the use of clothing styles as a signifier of membership of specific gay subcultures in the US. Cole (2000) examines to some extent issues such as sexuality, identity and relationships between members of social groupings. He explains “It would be incorrect to assume that all gay men have shown a developed interest in what they wear and have made efforts to define their dress choices through or as a marker of their sexual orientation. However, there have been a considerable number of gay men who have made conscious efforts to utilize their clothing to express this important facet of their identity.” (Cole 2000, p. 2). Cole acknowledges the overall significance of clothing as a primary method of identification for gay men, but fails to discuss the use of clothing for communicating distinct subcultural allegiances within the gay community. Here the struggle for a “perfect” identity and marked space takes place on a personal level as well as a group level, where the “linking value” (Cova and Cova, 2002) of clothes is used to communicate, rather than compete for social space and identity. Arguably the phenomenon of homosexuality is as much created, affective and based on “fuzzy” allegiances as it is related to concrete observable behaviours, such as sexual practices.

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It is therefore proposed that the concept of “neo-tribes” (Maffesoli, 1996; Cova and Cova, 2002), which incorporates these characteristics, presents a useful tool for the study of subsections of the gay community. Table I sets out the related concepts of “community” and “tribe”. This paper presents an investigation into the way in which gay individuals use clothing and fashion choices as signifiers with linking value to blend and merge tribal, community and mainstream allegiances to express and communicate individual identity. Research design A qualitative study was designed to explore the role of fashion consumption as a signalling device in creating and expressing gay identities. The aim is to offer an initial insight into the complex links between communal, tribal and individual identity. The findings serve as an exploratory case study which looks at “gayness” as a communal and tribal label, highlighting how gay males use clothing choices as a semiotic tool for communication, integration, self-image, identity and “lifestyle” creation within an increasingly fragmented gay community[1]. A grounded theory approach was used to understand and explore the social world from the viewpoint of gay males at a micro-social level. The study focuses on the 21 to 30 age group as this is an important group in terms of fashion consumption, combining both the social and economic capital needed to be style leaders. The study followed Glaser (1992) definition of grounded theory as “a general methodology of analysis linked with data collection that uses a systematically applied set of methods to generate an inductive theory about a substantive area”. In this, reality is perceived as socially constructed and open to interpretation, rather than objective. Immersion in the respondents’ lifeworld formed the basis for theory development. The research was undertaken in three phases, grounded in continual observation and participation. Data collection methods were congruent with those advocated by Cova and Cova (2002), namely participant and non-participant observation (Phase 1, as well as throughout the study), semi-structured individual and group interviews, drawing on shopping diaries, accompanied shopping and projective techniques (Phase 2) and desk research (Phase 3). Phase 1: observation and immersion Hammersley (1990) maintains the necessity of learning the culture of the group being studied before generating key focal issues. In order to construct justifiable Community Definition

“Mutual participation; the public; a society of persons under the same law” (Patterson, n.d., p. 67) Characteristics Common situation Common activities Collective action Often co-location Homogeneity (Fulcher and Scott, 1999)

Table I. Community and tribe

Neo-tribe “micro-social cohort of individuals who share similar experiences and emotions” (Cova and Cova, 2002, p. 599) Decentralized Counter power Ephemeral Non-totalising Fluid boundaries Affective links Shared signs and symbols Heterogeneity (Cova and Cova, 2002)

explanations for the behaviour of males within the gay community, immersion and trust building were deemed vital. Thus Phase 1 used extended covert participant and non-participant observation and unstructured informal conversations in Manchester’s gay village bars. It aimed to map the gay tribal communities, to categorize clothing worn by members of the subcultures and to assess the impact of clothing on interactions within the gay community. It also informed Phase 2 sampling decisions.

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313 Phase 2: in-depth lifeworld exploration Drawing on themes emergent from Phase 1, Phase 2 consisted of the in-depth exploration of the life world of a small number of key informants. Members of the three major tribal strands identified in Phase 1 (i.e. “drag”, “invisible” and “aesthetes”) were selected as key informants so that their joint knowledge base would provide a fair representation of the gay population. Through purposive snowball sampling participants were selected on the basis that they were aged between 21 and 30, living in Manchester and self-identified as openly gay[2]. Participants were asked to complete one-week diary sheets, detailing the clothes they wore each date, the situations they wore them for and reasons for wearing particular outfits. They were asked to distinguish between expressive or functional purpose, and comment on the identity or image they were trying to communicate. Following this, the exploration of individual aspects of fashion choices took the form of four accompanied shopping trips, during the daytime in either Manchester City Centre or The Trafford Centre, as determined by participant preference. Interviews of approximately 50 minutes duration took place immediately after each shopping trip, either in the participant’s home or in a quiet coffee bar. Discussion themes were issues identified at the exploratory stage as needing deeper investigation. Interviewees were questioned upon their shopping and consumption habits and the identity and image they wish to portray in different situations. Since shopping is “not merely the acquisition of things: it is the buying of identity” (Clammer (1992) as cited in Gabriel and Lang (1995, p. 195)), the combined use of accompanied shopping and interviews enabled the researcher to put herself more into the interviewees’ shoes and construct an image of the male gay world, through naturalist participant observation. A focus group was then used to complement the individual interviews. Despite it being a small-sized group this served well to bring out the impact of group dynamics and consensus building on the understanding of communication through clothes and served as a validity check to ensure the interview results reflected the reality of inter-tribal communication. The projective techniques set out in Table II were used to facilitate deeper exploration of focus group respondents’ feelings about clothing and identity communication. Stereotype construction Choice ordering Association

Individual task utilizing pictures from men’s magazines: commentary on clothes depicted association with gay “tribe” or part of the community From magazine pictures selection and discussion of outfits for different occasions (e.g. shopping, evening out etc) Introduction of pre-prepared one-week diary. Discussion and association of diaries with tribal affiliation

Table II. Focus group projective techniques

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This was intended to highlight salient values in gay lifestyle and the extent to which these are portrayed through clothes. It was also used to check recognition of and perceptions about “tribal” clothing styles. All major three tribal strands identified in Phase 1 were represented in both the individual and group interviews. Sessions were audio taped, transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis. Progressive focusing allowed theoretical ideas and explanation to be drawn out and developed over the course of the investigation. To safeguard data validity and reliability, the information was supplemented by the expert knowledge of two carefully selected key informants, representing two different subsections of the gay community, thus closing the hermeneutic circle. Phase 3: linking grounded theory to literature Discovery and exploration, are best achieved by “first hand observations and participation in ‘natural’ settings guided by an exploratory orientation” (Hammersley (1990), as cited in Layder (1993, p. 39)). To understand how the research subjects themselves make sense of their world, gay males’ behaviour and views were studied in everyday contexts using an inductive approach. Thus fieldwork was undertaken prior to relating emergent theory to existing constructs from the literature. Findings Findings are presented exploring the different layers of individual gay identity construction through clothing shown in Figure 1. Individuals use clothes firstly on a gay community level to communicate “gayness” to others, secondly on a neo-tribal level to demonstrate “belonging” to their social sub-grouping, and thirdly on a situational level to be accepted or blend in fluid and ephemeral ways. In total this shapes individual identity.

Figure 1. Levels of gay identity expression

Participants are referred to by the tribal names identified in Figure 2, followed by a reference to the data collection method the quote was derived from (Appendix, Table AI). It should be noted that the tribal labels used in Figure 2 below are a combination of those used by Cole (2000) and those identified from conversations in the

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Figure 2.

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observation phase, verified by Phase 2 participants who use these labels in an affectionate way and were happy for them to be used in the presentation of findings. Level 1: shared gay identity Throughout the 20th century, before gay liberation, homosexual males relied upon an effeminate image, communicated through mannerisms and clothing choices, as a visible marker of sexuality and identity. For mainstream “straight” society this became an accepted stereotype for gay men. Consequently many newcomers to the “scene” used this effeminacy as a template for identity construction. Thus clothing came to signify homosexuality at an aggregate level (Rudd, 1996; Freitas et al., 1996). Findings support gay males’ high level of interest in fashion, which has labelled them “trendsetters” (Cole, 2000; Mort, 1996). Except for two participants who preferred not to show their sexuality openly, all relished the freedom of using clothes in constructing, maintaining and expressing gay identity: “your clothes are . . . part of who you are really. . .[they] help make you up.” (Mr Muscle Mary (I3)). Mr Camp (FG1) comments, “I don’t really seek out pleasure; it kind of comes to me. Yes it’s probably through the way I dress and yes I do stand in front of the mirror for hours thinking whether I look good and fancy myself . . . only when I am satisfied with the way I look will I go out”. Clothing within the gay community was also linked with communication of sexual availability: “white top and blue denim jeans – that means you’re available straight away” (Mr Camp (I1)). White t-shirt and blue jeans were identified as a generic way to communicate for sex in the gay community, recognized across tribal boundaries. The majority of interviewees showed strong commitment to their “gay identity” and use clothes as a way to express their feelings and beliefs. Diary entries highlighted this. Mr Leather (FG4) states, “No I was not trying to achieve a particular look, other than conforming to my community.” Whilst Mr Theatrical (I4) stated, “I don’t feel like I have to belong to a certain collective type . . . I wouldn’t wear something just because I want to look gay and let everyone know”, he admits that his outfit on one particular evening was chosen for expressive purposes, “conforming to typical gay looks”. Mr Camp (FG1) commented in his Christmas Eve diary entry on the importance of showing his gay identity above anything else. Respondents agree that clothes can also be used to fit in with mainstream society, but resent having a clothing style imposed upon them. Thus Mr Muscle Mary’s (I3) diary entry expresses frustration about having to wear a work uniform: “there is no room to show yourself off and let yourself go. I cannot show my gayness off”. In contrast Mr Invisible (FG2), told how he favoured not to show his gay identity, preferring to blend in with society and conventional fashion – looking ordinary and respectable, with his sexuality remaining invisible from the view of heterosexuals. Level 2: tribal identity Respondents confirm that from an insider perspective the gay community is far from homogeneous but consists of an extremely diverse and fragmented assortment of sub groups known as “tribes”. A historical summary of the evolution of these tribes is shown in Figure 2, which merges findings from Phase 1 with the work of Cole (2000). During the 1980s the gay community really began to fragment; each subgroup developing its own style, behavioural code, rules, beliefs and agenda. Three major tribal strands stand out – labeled “invisible”, “drag” and “aesthete”. Tribal identity is linked to distinctive styles of dress and clothing.

Table III summarizes the key characteristics of the major tribal strands, their core values and typical forms of sexual behaviour and use of clothing as a semiotic marker of tribal affiliation. Findings from all phases show that in terms of deliberate communication efforts individuals are selective and mindful of their target audience. Tribal identities enable gay males to fine-tune communication about sexual preferences, values, and personality through body shape[3] and clothing. Mr Muscle Mary (I3) explains “You might not have to speak to somebody. . . you see somebody walk past you and you’d know who they were and what they were instantly and half the time it’s because of what they’re wearing.” Certain clothing and styles are reserved for particular tribes, which is often how they get their names. Mr Camp (I1) affirms, “if I see men in bomber jackets and red Doc Martens with light denim washed jeans, I know they are quite hard people . . . Somebody who is a leather queen. . . is wearing leather all the time. . .they belong to a group”. Focus group participants’ ability to identify tribal affiliation from fashion magazine images confirms clothing as a shared visual code. Mr Camp (FG1) commented, “well, it’s easy, isn’t it? He’s into the Camp scene – you can tell by the clothes he’s wearing, mainly by the cut and the colours. The other guy is probably a Muscle Mary, reason being he’s not got his top on and his body is quite toned and fit looking.” The majority of communication occurs within individual tribes, with each tribe having its own language of body codes and clothing semiotics. Within the camp tribe individuals communicate availability for casual sex by wearing something tight; “tight means come and get it!” (Mr Camp (I1)). This communication code is evident to other camp men and more obscure to outsiders to the tribe. Likewise aesthete Mr Muscle Mary (I3) stated: “I took my shirt off when I was in the club, as this is how Tribal name

Dress/style

Drag, including Queens, Feminine dress. Sub tribe and individual Fairies, Theatricala body shape determine degree of femininity, e.g. Queens aspire to look like women; Drags do not attempt to disguise their maleness Aesthete, including Masculine dress with Effeminates, Camp, overtly feminine, tight New Edwardians, and fitted style Teddy Boys Invisible

Masculine dress, following male fashion trends; immense pride in appearance

Values

Sexual activity

Focus on identity and self-expression. Enjoy showing off. Pride in appearance. Favour socializing in gay spaces

Can take on a masculine role or a feminine role

Good looks as key to happiness. Friends and family valued. Socialize in both gay and mainstream bars and trendy areas Maximum immersion into “straight” society. Focus on work/home life

Take masculine or feminine role depending on current partner’s preferences Assume both masculine and feminine roles in their sexual activity; like equality in relationships

Note: aNone of these are to be confused with Transsexuals – who believe themselves to be women trapped in a male body

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Table III. Neo-tribal strands and main characteristics

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I communicate to people who are the same as me. It is kind of like a secret code. You reveal your body, and people know what you are like and [what you] want”. Different tribes rarely socialize and understand different meanings from individuals’ clothes. The ease of reading clothing codes “depends on . . . which group you belong to.” (Mr Invisible (I2)). Mr Camp (I1) comments “I wouldn’t mix with Boots and Braces. . . [they would] just interpret me as being a pansy, a wimp. . . we are. . .Camp, so we just stay together.” Cole’s (2000) view of the processes whereby tribes operate and evolve within themselves was supported by observation evidence in bars; the New Union is bursting with leather and hard tribes, the more sophisticated Prague V features camp and invisible “fashion conscious” tribes. Mr Camp (I1) said, “there is a divide really between us because of clothes”. Intertribal communication through clothing can assume particular importance for the negotiation and expression of cross-tribal sexual alliances and friendships. Mr Camp (I1) asserts that some tribes would interpret clothing and related signs in the same way as the communicating tribe. “When you’re Camp you go to the gym same as the Muscle Marys, so you’re well matched . . . they’d quite like you. . .rough people probably wouldn’t even like me at all. They wouldn’t respect my clothing.” Discussing past cross-tribal relationships, respondents admit having adjusted their clothing style: “because I wanted to fit in . . . feel accepted . . . so that he would like me more.” (Mr Invisible (I2)); “I’d look too out of place. . . I would adapt the way I was, knowing that I was going out with them.” (Mr Muscle Mary (I3)). Mr Invisible (FG2) comments on the linking value of clothes: “dressing as another tribe is your attempt, in a particular situation, to gain respect from the members. They know that that’s not really you and you have no roots in their tribe, but . . . it . . . shows them your willingness to try and integrate and be like them.” Overall findings show the gay community to be highly fragmented, with an abundance of different subcultures, best conceptualised as “neo-tribes”. Individuals seek tribal acceptance and integration throughout their lives. Findings confirmed clothing as a visual code communicating tribal affiliation. Clothes enable individuals to fit in and merge, thus creating collective tribal identity. Level 3: situational identity Highlighting the ephemeral and constantly fluctuating nature of neo-tribes (Cova and Cova, 2002), participants emphasized that clothes allow an individual to fit in or belong to situations, thus supporting the concept of the situational self. Mr Muscle Mary (I3) states, “if I was going shopping to Manchester, I’d . . . just wear a pair of jeans and a t-shirt. . . whereas if I was going into Wilmslow. . .I’d change the way that I dress again because it’s about fitting in with wherever you’re at.” Likewise, Mr Theatrical (I4) acknowledges: “I like to wear the appropriate clothes for the appropriate occasion. . .If I go to work I like to look very professional. . . that is the situational image.” Mr Camp (I1) highlights the importance of the situational self as a motivating factor for clothing choices, “it would have to be something that I know is in fashion. . .if I go to the gay community. . .but if I’m just going round to my parents. . . it’ll just be something I can just grab out of the wardrobe.” Belongingness is a key motivation: “clothes give you the ability to intermingle. . .and generally mix with everybody. . .It’s about fitting in. . .that’s the biggest thing. . .really that’s what clothes do, they make you blend in.” (Mr Muscle Mary (I3)).

Clothes gave participants the potential to act out possible identities – a “theatrical self”. Mr Camp (I1) described his lifestyle as “performing. . .My whole life’s on a stage”. Mr Invisible (I2) states “if you’re a man in drag, you don’t sit there quietly, you make a scene about everything . . . whereas if you’re a skinhead, then you need to be looking around and looking at people and looking hard. . .acting in a way, which fits in with the overall image of the tribe you belong to.” Mr Drag Queen (FG3), said, “I’m a man and I’m gay, but at the same time I’m a woman, an artist, an actor. Each one of these identities . . . hasn’t got a name, they are not different people, they are still me. I can be anyone I want to be and therefore I dress like the person I choose to be on that day, on that situation.” Mr Invisible (FG2) opposes this extreme view, “what’s the point, if you want to be someone you’re not then you should join the stage school down the road. It’s just like dressing up, in my opinion and that’s what actors do when they’re in a play.” This postmodernist idea of multiple identities allows individuals the control to show others only what they want them to see (Brown, 1995; Sarup, 1996; Lurie, 1992). Individuals may choose an identity for the day, using clothing to shape people’s perceptions. Mr Invisible (I2) asserts: “they are going to form an impression, which is your image in inverted commas, which is what you’re wearing.” At the situational level, clothes are therefore important in gay life, as they allow each individual to “have a different face for different occasions” (Stearn (1962) as cited in Cole (2000, p. 3)). Level 4: individual identity Findings indicate the tension between the need to belong to the wider gay community and the importance to remain individual. Mr Theatrical (I4) stated: “I like to stand out a bit but not to wacky proportions though. I like to add my own personal twist. I try and communicate my individuality.” Mr Camp (FG1) argues: “The community is not ‘gay’. It’s made up of so many different people doing their own thing, having their own style. Each one shows a different image, and yes it is often portrayed through the clothes of the individual. But it sends others a message of who they are and their identity. Yes, there are people who are of a similar makeup to them, and yes that means that they will communicate and reveal more to them than others, making it look like there are ‘tribes’ within a larger community – but everyone is individual”. Interpretation of individual expression through clothing requires a highly sensitised inside observer; e.g. Mr Camp (I1) sees differences on a tribal collective level, but cannot detect individualism within other tribes. Referring to the Boots and Braces tribe as an example, he explains “they are always in the same things, red boots, jeans and a bomber jacket. . .maybe if they have shiny caps on their boots . . . they look different [to each other] but it means nothing to us [camp]”. Participants’ diary entries emphasized the expressive purposes rather than practical use of the clothes worn: “the clothes were mainly for an expression of who I am.” (Mr Leather (FG4)), and “I thought the look was up to date fashion and I thought it would help me to express that this was me.” (Mr Camp (I1)). During the shopping trips none considered the practicalities of the clothes they were buying, but emphasized the need to look sexy instead. Clothes purchases served the construction of aspirational identities. The dynamics of gay male identity creation over time Clearly gay males do not wear clothes purely to show their homosexual status. The majority of participants saw clothes as expressions of individuality, lifestyle or

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life-stage, much like the rest of society. Findings illustrate how personal identity changes over the course of an individual’s life and between the different social settings, thus constantly interweaving and recombining elements from the different levels in Figure 1 with each other and also with further elements from their mainstream lifestyle. However, as individuals change during their gay socialization period, many use clothes as a means of identity experimentation, or battling against the tensions created by the possibility of multiple identities and the conflicting needs to belong to remain unique. Varying clothes and styles may represent changing identity as time passes (Boultwood and Jerrard, 2000; Elliott and Wattanasuwan, 1998). Mr Leather (FG4) said, “at one end of my wardrobe is [sic] all my old clothes – clothes that I have kept because they represent a stage in my life. They have sentimental value but at the time I think the reason I wore them was so that I was able to reflect to others the types of men I wished to “have” as company. At the other end of my wardrobe are my current clothes. I think that these represent the type of man that I now wish to be.” Clothing choices assume particular significance during and subsequent to the coming out process where learning to explore and communicate sexual identity and communicating it go hand in hand. A period of considerable uncertainty is often followed by experimentation and flamboyant expression of “gay pride” until a calmer state of equilibrium and integration is achieved (for a full discussion of “coming out” models, see Eliason (1996)). Mr Theatrical (I4) recalled when he first “came out” he bought clothes that he knew did not fit with his individual identity, but with the majority of gay people he wanted to be associated with. He did this because he was the “new boy” and at a stage in his life where he was unsure of who he really was, and the order in which different factors were to determine his identity. Mr Invisible (I2) talked about his favourite jumper, which he had owned when he first came out and it helped him socialize into the gay “scene”. Another item that he used to help him build his gay identity was Levi jeans. “I think they were very important to me, because I . . . realized . . . when I first started to . . . buy clothes that . . . a lot of gay men were wearing 501 jeans . . . I’d buy some . . . because that to me was giving me an identity.” Mr Leather (FG4) discloses in his diary, “I like experimenting but I added the wristbands to try and bring a bit of distinctiveness. . .Bit uncomfortable . . . It was drifting from my usual style.” Having long arrived at the final integration stage of the coming out process Mr Camp (I1) comments, “[this] is the real me, because that is how I have become, that’s not how I used to be. I used to be very reserved and very quiet.” At the same socialization stage the even more extrovert Mr Drag Queen (FG3) sees clothes as a way of poking fun at his sexuality, linking also to the post-modern ideas of theatrics and ironic self-referentiality. Discussion and conclusions Findings indicate that contemporary gay community still contains and reflects the historically embedded stereotypes; at the same time it has further fragmented into a large number of subgroups or tribes. Participants use clothes to construct individual identity and reinforce a shared community or tribal identity. This stabilizes self -perception and facilitates communication. The degree of exposure and accuracy of interpretation depend on individual characteristics. Thus a heterosexual male might only detect surface “gayness”, whereas another gay male would recognize tribal allegiances as an approach/avoidance cue.

Individuals construct identity using the layers of Figure 1 in a fluid manner. Clothes serve as a trademark, with varying degrees of emphasis on belonging to a particular tribe (e.g. as sought by Mr Camp, Mr Leather, Mr Drag Queen, Mr Muscle Mary), or as a means of distinguishing individuality (e.g. as sought by Mr Theatrical). This confirms Featherstone’s (1992) observation (as cited in Woodruffe-Burton (1998, p. 308)) that “the tendency is for social groups to seek to classify and order their social circumstances and use cultural goods as means of demarcation, as communicators which establish boundaries between some people and build bridges with others.” The extent to which different layers of the “onion” in Figure 1 are emphasized may also depend on the socialization stage of the individual, especially with respect to the coming out process. Gay males are highly sensitised to the situational “performance” aspect of social identity (Elliott, 1997). “Thus the gay man is playing to his heterosexual or homosexual audiences on differently defined stages, as those before whom he plays on of his parts won’t be the same individuals before whom he plays a different part in another setting” (Goffman (1959), as cited in Cole (2000)). In summary, gay males acknowledge the existence of post-modern multiple identities, which are combined to construct their overall image. Findings illustrate the role of clothing choices in the context of how these multiple identities relate to each other and interlink to form the dynamics of an individual’s overall ongoing process of gay identity formation. Thus fashion is used as a major means of expression of gay sexualities and a means of differentiation for individuals both from the straight society and within the complex tribal structures of the gay community. Future research on into this topic might involve further exploration of the interaction between the different layers in Figure 1 and the way this informs and uses fashion choices, using a larger sample. Implications for marketers are twofold. First, the tribal splintering depicted in Figure 2 points to the need for a fresh look at the gay market, in order to market consumer goods effectively. An alternative to a traditional approach, which assumes homogeneous segments, is needed. This is acknowledged by Penaloza (1996, p. 17): “issues of identity, subjectivity and agency are integral to the analysis of contemporary gay marketing because these aspects of individual and collective behaviour contribute to our understanding of how gays and lesbians constitute themselves and their relations towards others”. Secondly, since the gay market is defined in juxtaposition to the mainstream and consists of members who are often highly sensitised to the politics of sexuality as well as organised into relatively fleeting tribal groupings, fashion marketers need to consider making greater use of a tribal marketing as advocated by Cova and Cova (2002). This may mean greater involvement and the creation of committed symbiotic relationships of perpetual mutual indebtedness, and is already illustrated by the growing number of overtly gay businesses. Since this development is still relatively rare in the world of fashion clothing, a further study could focus on exploring the scope for tribal marketing in this area. Notes 1. In this it is not so much argued that gay men are substantially different from other men (who also use fashion as a key ingredient in the symbolic construction of identity and as sexual display, as discussed by Woodruffe-Burton (1998) and who may well express other communal and tribal allegiances, e.g. to their sport of choice or their profession). The very

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nature of neo-tribes as affective, ephemeral and interwoven with other allegiances means that in post modernity, men are likely to have multiple and often overlapping affiliations. This study simply uses one of these as a focal point for a case study to shed light on the study of these interconnections. 2. For a full profile of the respondents, see Appendix (Table AI). 3. To complete their outward image (to reflect the tribe to which they belong), gay males develop their body to a certain size and shape. For example, a Muscle Mary exercises by lifting weights to increase the size and definition of their muscles for a toned body-builder look, a Bear or Biker body is a more stocky or thickset build without defined muscles, whereas a Camp male is more likely to watch their weight because being thin is strongly linked to the standards set by society of female beauty and sexuality. These codes also act as a means of conveying their sexual preferences, whether they are “passive” (wish to play a feminine role) or “aggressive” (wish to play a masculine role) within a union. (For a thorough general discussion of the role of the body in the postmodern identity project, see Desmond (2003)).

References Boultwood, A. and Jerrard, R. (2000), “Ambivalence, and its relation to fashion and the body”, Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 301-21. Brown, S. (1995), Postmodern Marketing, Routledge, London. Cole, S. (2000), Don we now our gay apparel: Gay Men’s Dress in the Twentieth Century, Berg, Oxford. Cova, B. and Cova, V. (2002), “Tribal marketing”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 36 Nos 5/6, pp. 595-620. Desmond, J. (2003), Consuming Behaviour, Palgrave, Basingstoke. Eliason, M.J. (1996), “Identity formation for lesbian, bisexual and gay persons: beyond a ‘minoritizing’ view”, Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp. 31-58. Elliott, R. (1997), “Existential consumption and irrational desire”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 31 Nos 3/4, pp. 285-96. Elliot, R. and Ritson, M. (1997), “Post-structuralism and the dialects of advertising: discourse, ideology, resistance”, in Brown, S. and Turley, D. (Eds), Consumer Research: Postcards from the Edge, Routledge, London, pp. 190-219. Elliott, R. and Wattanasuwan, K. (1998), “Brands as symbolic resources for the construction of identity”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 131-44. Fulcher, J. and Scott, J. (1999), Sociology, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Freitas, A., Kaiser, S. and Hammidi, T. (1996), “Communities, commodities, cultural space, and style”, Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 31 Nos 1/2, pp. 83-107. Gabriel, Y. and Lang, T. (1995), The Unmanageable Consumer: Contemporary Consumption and its Fragmentations, Sage, London. Glaser, B. (1992), Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis, Sociology Press, Mill Valley, CA. Haslop, C., Hill, H. and Schmidt, R. (1998), “The gay lifestyle – spaces for a subculture of consumption”, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 318-26. Hammersley, M. (1990), Reading Ethnographic Research: A Critical Guide, Longman, London. Layder, D. (1993), New Strategies in Social Research, Polity Press, Cambridge. Lurie, A. (1992), The Language of Clothes, Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd, London. Maffesoli, M. (1996), The Time of the Tribes, Sage, London.

Mick, D.G. (1997), “Semiotics and marketing in consumer research”, in Brownlie, D., et al. (Eds), Rethinking Marketing: New Perspectives on the Discipline and Profession, Warwick Business School Research Bureau, Coventry, pp. 249-62. Mort, F. (1996), Cultures of Consumption: Masculinities and Social Space in Late Twentieth-Century Britain, Routledge, London. Patterson, R.F. (n.d.), The University English Dictionary, The Number One Publishing Company, London. Penaloza, L. (1996), “We’re here, we’re queer, and we’re going shopping! A critical perspective on the accommodation of gays and lesbians into the U.S. marketplace”, Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 31 No. 1&2, pp. 9-41. Rudd, N.A. (1996), “Appearance and self-presentation research in gay consumer cultures: issues and impact”, Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 31 No. 1&2, pp. 109-34. Sarup, M. (1996), Identity, Culture and the Postmodern World, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Woodruffe-Burton, H. (1998), “Private desires, public display: consumption, postmodernism and fashion’s ‘new man’”, International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, Vol. 26 No. 8, pp. 301-10.

Fashion and clothing

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Further reading Kaiser, S. (1990), The Social Psychology of Clothing: Symbolic Appearances in Context, Macmillan, New York, NY. Appendix

Method

Tribal allegiance

Interviews Mr Camp (I1)

Aesthete tribe; Camp subtribe

Mr Invisible (I2) Mr Muscle Mary (I3) Mr Theatrical (I4)

Aged 23; occupation: retail management (head office); cohabiting with partner in city centre flat Invisible tribe Aged 26; occupation: fashion retail management; currently single, living with parents and brother Aesthete tribe; Muscle Mary Aged 30; working with disabled children; subtribe currently single, living alone in South Manchester flat Drag tribe; Theatrical subtribe Aged 24; part-time department store beauty counter work to supplement main income/occupation as make-up artist; single, living in Chorlton

Focus group Mr Camp (FG1)

Aesthete tribe; Camp subtribe

Mr Invisible (FG2)

Invisible tribe

Mr Drag Queen (FG3) Drag tribe; Queen subtribe Mr Leather (FG4)

Informant profile

Drag tribe; Leather subtribe

Aged 26; works in a Manchester City Centre bar; currently single; living in Withington; Aged 28; occupation: financial management; living with long-term partner in Failsworth Aged 30; part-time work in a department store and one evening a week as female impersonator; living alone in Salford Aged 24; occupation: local clothes store assistant; single, living in Burnage

Table AI. Summary profile of respondents