Facade Construction Manual [3nd edition (reprint)] 9783955533700, 9783955533694

Table of contents :
Contents
Foreword
Shell, wall, facade – an essay
Part A. The fundamentals
1. External and internal conditions
2. General basics of construction
3. Aspects of building physics and planning advice
Part B. Structures built with specific materials
1. Natural stone
2. Clay
3. Concrete
4. Timber
5. Metal
6. Glass
7. Plastics
Part C. Special topics
1. Multilayer glass facades
2. Manipulators
3. Solar energy
4. Integrated facades
5. Refurbishing existing facades
6. Green facades
Appendix

Citation preview

THOMAS HERZOG ROLAND KRIPPNER WERNER LANG

Facade Construction

Edition ∂

MANUAL SECOND EDITION

THOMAS HERZOG ROLAND KRIPPNER WERNER LANG

Facade Construction

Edition ∂

MANUAL SECOND EDITION

Authors Thomas Herzog Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rome) Dr. h.c. Dipl.-Ing. Architect BDA Technical University of Munich, Department of Architecture, Chair of Building Technology (until 2006) TUM Emeritus of Excellence Roland Krippner Prof. Dr.-Ing. Architect BDA Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm, Department of Architecture, Field of Construction and Technology Werner Lang Prof. Dr.-Ing., M. Arch. II (UCLA) Architect Technical University of Munich, Department of Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering and Department of Architecture, Chair of Energy Efficient and Sustainable Design and Building

Student research assistants: Simon Axmann, Lilly Brauner, Annika Ludwig, Verena Schmidt, Fabiola Tchamko, Ka Xu Authors of the 2004 edition: Dr.-Ing. Winfried Heusler (Aspects of building physics and planning advice) Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Michael Volz (Timber) Expert consultants for the 2004 edition: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Hausladen, Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Heeß, Dr.-Ing. M. Sc. Reiner Letsch, Dr. Volker Wittwer

Expert consultant: Dr. Tilmann E. Kuhn

Research assistants (Chair of Building Technology) for the 2004 edition under the guidance of Prof. Thomas Herzog: Peter Bonfig (Surfaces – structural principles), Jan Cremers (External and internal conditions; Metal), András Reith (Natural stone; Clay), Annegret Rieger (Timber), Daniel Westenberger (Edges, openings; Manipulators)

Research assistant: Andreas Kacinari (Organisational support)

Student research assistants for the 2004 edition: Tina Baierl, Sebastian Fiedler, Elisabeth Walch, Xaver Wankerl

Editorial services Editing, copy-editing (German edition): Steffi Lenzen (Project Manager), Daniel Reisch Editorial assistants (German edition): Heike Messemer, Carola Jacob-Ritz, Eva Schönbrunner, Melanie Zumbansen Editors of the 2004 edition: Steffi Lenzen, Christine Fritzenwallner; Susanne Bender-Grotzeck, Christos Chantzaras, Carola Jacob-Ritz, Christina Reinhard, Friedemann Zeitler, Manuel Zoller

Reproduction: ludwig:media, Zell am See Printing and binding: Kessler Druck + Medien, Bobingen Publisher: DETAIL Business Information GmbH, Munich www.detail-online.com © 2017, English translation of the second, revised and expanded German edition (2016) 2004, first German and first English edition

Drawings: Ralph Donhauser, Simon Kramer; Alexander Araj, Marion Griese, Martin Hämmel, Emese Köszegi, Dejanira Ornelas Bitterer

ISBN: 978-3-95553-369-4 (Print) ISBN: 978-3-95553-370-0 (E-Book) ISBN: 978-3-95553-371-7 (Bundle)

Drawings for the 2004 edition: Marion Griese, Elisabeth Krammer; Bettina Brecht, Norbert Graeser, Christiane Haslberger, Oliver Klein, Emese Köszegi, Andrea Saiko, Beate Stingl, Claudia Toepsch

Bibliographic information published by the German National Library. The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie (German National Bibliography); detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Translation into English: Christina McKenna for keiki communication, Berlin

This work is subject to copyright. All rights reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, recitation, reuse of illustrations and tables, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways and storage in data processing systems. Reproduction of any part of this work in individual cases, too, is only permitted within the limits of the provisions of the valid edition of the copyright law. A charge will be levied. Infringements will be subject to the penalty clauses of the copyright law.

Copy-editing (English edition): Matthew Griffon, Meriel Clemett for keiki communication, Berlin Proofreading (English edition): Stefan Widdess, Berlin Production & layout: Roswitha Siegler, Simone Soesters

This textbook uses terms applicable at the time of writing and is based on the current state of art, to the best of the authors' and editors' knowledge and belief. All drawings in this book were made specifically by the publisher. No legal claims can be derived from the contents of this book. This book is also available in a German-language edition (ISBN 978-3-95553-328-1)

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Contents

Imprint Table of contents Foreword

4 5 6

Shell, wall, facade – an essay

8

Part A

The fundamentals

16

1 External and internal conditions 2 General basics of construction 2.1 Surfaces – structural principles 2.2 Edges, openings 2.3 Modular coordination 3 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

18 26 26 38 46 52

Part B

62

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Structures built with specific materials

Natural stone Clay Concrete Timber Metal Glass Plastics

Part C

64 86 106 130 158 188 216

Special topics

236

1 Multilayer glass facades 2 Manipulators 3 Solar energy 4 Integrated facades 5 Refurbishing existing facades 6 Green facades

238 266 294 322 328 336

Appendix Authors Image credits Literature Statutory regulations, directives and standards Index

342 343 346 348 350

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Foreword

30 years after the publication of our first construction handbook, this is the first in the series to deal with facades. Over the centuries, architects’ design services have often concentrated on developing impressive section drawings of buildings, which frequently became objects of heated controversy over questions of style chosen as well as a medium for conveying new artistic positions. There is now an increasing focus once more on facades due to the growing importance taken on by exterior walls in the context of energy consumption issues and options for making use of environmental energy. In addition to this focus, and usually contrasting with it, are efforts at self-promotion and “identification with the address” for those clients for whom the “packaging” of their buildings, which often have quite banal interiors, has long since become a substitute for quality architecture. The booming Asian megacities show this quite clearly. The sequence of this book’s chapters takes an expedient approach to designing and developing facade structures. Aspects that apply generally to the exterior walls of buildings, involving demands made on them, their principal functionality and structural design, have been separated from descriptions of the special features of individual cases. The book represents more than just a collection of different buildings in various locations and contexts, of different types and technologies. Rather, specific features have been classified and described based on the various materials used in their walls or cladding. The first part deals with demands made on facades from the inside, which derive from the building’s usage type. Buildings face very different local climatic conditions, depending on the region in which they are located. Out of this confrontation arise the functional demands on an exterior wall. These are formulated as a remit that is initially open to a range of possible solutions, so implementation details are not described in this section. The book’s most important statements are made in the form of

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images, diagrams and schematic illustrations showing the morphology of surfaces and openings. A building’s envelope interacts directly with its other subsystems: its support structure, the partitioning of rooms and technical building equipment. Various interdependencies exist or must be defined so that each structural system can be geometrically coordinated in the space. Dimensional and modular conditions and proportions must be defined for the building as a whole to be developed. Combining these aspects results in the parameters for material implementation based on the materials and construction methods to be chosen. If the materials and technologies used to manufacture them are important in defining further specific features, then certain physical, material, installation-related and aesthetic details must also be coordinated. The second part of this book’s structure is based on this context. Here the chapters have been kept separate from examples and precede them. Each begins with a brief summary of the history of civilisation’s use of the material and its specific features. Here we do not limit the area of materials applications to building construction, simply because as civilisation has developed, technology has often emerged in different ways and interactions with materials and initial applications have often emerged from very different areas. Stone, ceramics and metal, for example, are so significant that whole cultural eras have been named after them. Today too, much technical innovation comes from the construction industry, especially in modern facade construction, through a transfer of technologies from different sectors, such as forming technologies, surface treatments and robotics. These chapters are followed by a section showing a selection of built examples focusing on materials, which provides insights into the range of possibilities available and is designed to inspire readers to further develop their own ideas. This is done by way of drawings of main facade details with explanations provided in keys because this is the medium usually used for conveying information to architects.

We selected new projects with facades that interestingly embody the building as a whole, as well as “classics” that still set standards because of their architectural quality as well as a range of details that may be of practical value for architects and engineers working on older buildings. Projects are shown here not as whole buildings, rather our descriptions focus on their facades, which is why contributors other than architects, such as specialist engineers, are rarely mentioned in project descriptions, unless they played a major role in creating the facade. Readers will also notice that in describing construction details we have at times diverged from solutions or technical rules customary in Germany, as is justifiable in a book full of international examples. Those who would like more details on a project described are referred to the more detailed bibliographical references, which are indicated with a “º”. It may be regarded as valuable to depict a building as a large technical object, not as a complicated system, possibly unmanageable and consisting of many kinds of components, but succinctly, simply, equally powerfully and sensitively designed. Developments in recent decades and enormously increased demands on building envelopes however, have led to the emergence of multilayer structures, each layer of which has specific functions. This is now a frequent feature of modern structures made of almost all materials, so structures made of specific materials and special facade construction topics are dealt with in separate chapters. A centuries-old principle of modifying and individually influencing the permeability of facade openings, whether for reasons of the building’s energy balance, interior climate, lighting conditions or safety, is dealt with under the chapter heading of “Manipulators”, which takes on a new topicality and covers a wide range of different types. We also take the view that the prevalence of multilayer and double facades in recent

decades requires special mention and discussion because there is still great uncertainty regarding their design and planning. Planners often simply follow fashionable trends instead of making good use of the main advantages of such structures. Basic errors are often made because there is not enough awareness of structural and energy technology interconnections or of individual variants available for possible use in construction. The integration of directly and indirectly operating solar systems in building envelopes is still uncharted territory for many and successful combinations of practical value, technicalphysical function, design and construction solutions are still the exception rather than the rule, even though the first pioneering applications were implemented decades ago. Munich, spring 2004 Thomas Herzog

For this second edition, Part B on “Structures built with specific materials” and the “Special topics” chapter have been revised and expanded to include examples from the past decade. New to this edition are three sections that do not deal mainly with specific materials but cover issues that have become increasingly important and need to be examined separately. The main reason for this are bioclimatic factors requiring special architectural solutions for the structural subsystem “facade” involving design in accordance with functional, technical and aesthetic criteria: refurbishment, the integration of annexed technical structural systems and the greening of exterior walls. It was therefore natural to develop a separate third section of the book covering these six areas. After a general description of remit and operating principles, it depicts a range of different solutions and renderings and various examples of built structures that represent the current state-of-the-art. Further developments are bound to follow, if only for reasons of efficiency, profitability and a commitment to sophisticated design. It is to be hoped that architects enthusiastic about the design of structural systems and components, people whose profession relies on an ability to comprehend the “technical organism” of a building as a whole, right down to the smallest detail, will continue to make cogent contributions to a broad “culture of construction” as a social imperative. The authors would like to thank all the people, institutions, architects, photographers and companies that have supported our work with their skilful contributions and everyone who worked on the new edition. Munich, summer 2016 Thomas Herzog, Roland Krippner, Werner Lang

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Shell, wall, facade

Shell, wall, facade – an essay

This book on facades focuses on their functional and technical aspects. Some observations will, however, first be made that go beyond these aspects and embed this very complex and culturally specific topic, which also directly affects perceptions of architecture, in a broader context.

A protective shell Building envelopes offer protection from the weather and enemies and a place to store provisions, and were the first and most important reason for building. Unlike structures such as bridges, towers, dams or cranes, buildings contain rooms, whose creation and use are an essential element of human civilisation and one closely related to the exigencies of climate.

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This is demonstrated by the fact that the effort involved in construction is much less in regions where the outdoor climate conditions are generally those that people find comfortable. The more divergent the outdoor climate and indoor climatic requirements are, the greater the technical effort required to meet the requirements of people living inside structures. Over the course of human development, people have spent long periods searching for convenient pre-existing spaces for themselves and their animals, sites such as caves, grottoes in cliffs and rocks or very dense masses of vegetation, protected places that would offer suitable conditions for survival (Fig. 2). When people settled, they began to create such spaces artificially, using materials they found and various construction processes. They built roofs and exterior walls, and the exteriors of built spaces became important in providing protection from the weather and fulfilling various other functions (Fig. 3). The hollow spaces existing in nature, surrounded by masses of stone or earth, were now reduced to relatively thin-walled structures built by people. Buildings, with an inside and an outside. The term “exterior wall” designates in its constituents its position, namely “exterior”, and the character of this structural “subsystem”, that of a wall. During the history of construction – at least until and into the 20th century – walls have not only enclosed space, but also been an important part of the support structure that transfers its net load, own weight and the weight of roofs and wind forces imposed on them through the stiffening effect of the solid structure into the foundations. The word “wall”, especially the term “exterior wall”, is associated with a stable, robust, usually heavy, perhaps even forbidding element, which separates the private from the public and determines a building’s exterior character.

3 1 Sucevita Monastery (RO) 16th century 2 Cave dwelling 3 Exterior wall made of local natural stone, Auvergne (FR)

A building’s exterior surface was now also a counterpart to its inner surface, long used as an important communication medium (e.g. for cave paintings). From now on it would also be a medium for images reflecting profane and sacred social structures and conveying hierarchies of values and claims to power.

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Shell, wall, facade

Materials and construction The space created between exterior walls now had to meet all the demands and functions of use and comfort. To do this, local conditions and users’ requirements had to be precisely recorded, influenceable and achievable through appropriate construction methods. Technical solutions emerge in the context of materials, construction, joining, manufacturing processes, as well as result from demands that arise from gravity and other exterior and interior physical influences and factors. Building shells reflect the development of technologies in a region and with them a significant aspect of the local culture.

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A decision to use a specific material may be based not only on demands coming from inside or outside, but also on rules governing the process of constructing a building envelope that must be observed. It is not only individual user requirements that determine a facade’s formation; they must also be considered in the context of issues of joining, construction and of technical implementation within the overall structural system, material principles and geometric order (Fig. 4). Here the professional skill of architects in their role as “master builders” is essential because only they know all the connections and various interdependencies within and between an architectural composition and the logic of construction.

Form Exterior walls are often called “facades” in common speech, so apart from their basic functions of protection from the weather and shaping of the indoor climate, another aspect comes to the fore: our perception of a building based on its “face”, which is derived in a roundabout way from the French word “facade” and the Latin “facies”. What we mean here is something built, something that “looks out” into its environment, the first and most important semantic message we perceive [1].

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4 Farmhouse museum, Amerang (DE) 5 Majolica frieze on the “Ospedale del Ceppo”, Pistoia (IT) 6 Alhambra, Granada (ES) 7 Cathedral of San Martino, Lucca (IT) 12th –15th century 8 Casa Batlló, Barcelona (ES) 1906, Antoni Gaudí

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Surfaces created by people have always also been information media, showing images of things governing our social life, transcendent and religious projections, objectives and reports: the veneration of deities, the hunt or ritual, combat, nuptials, prey and death, long before writing became available as an abstract form of communication (Fig. 5). The pictorial qualities of exterior surfaces are like those of interior surfaces in terms of their graphic features, structures, colours, engravings and reliefs, mixtures of information from writing, image and material effect. The entire spectrum became visible in pictorial form over the course of history – “the frisson of creation and the horror of death” [2].

Shell, wall, facade

It was humankind that first created buildings with their own differentiated form, three-dimensional objects that can be perceived from outside as a whole or as a composite of various individual items. Compared with simple wall surfaces, these had other features such as spatial proportions and volume in relation to their surroundings. Built walls began to be differentiated as their construction became increasingly refined, with openings in them undergoing a similar process. Here too, the function and technical solution of framing them in a wall with a lintel and arch of the same or other material initially predominated. Requirements such as letting the maximum amount of light in through the smallest possible aperture by angling reveals at the sides inside and out, light refraction, screening those inside from view, regulating ventilation through external or set-in elements by varying their types and shapes, as well as artistic sophistication all became essential elements of architecture’s overall impact (Fig. 6). As for walls, local materials were also often used to equip openings with fixed or moveable elements. In some cases, veritable treasures with very elaborately designed faces and surfaces were created. The composition of multilayered front facades, such as those created for the cathedrals in Lucca and Ferrara, gives rise to a magnificent interplay of wall and opening by alternating spatial depth and a plastic moulding of all details (Fig. 7).

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Additional effects were created on and around the facade by overlapping or penetration and alternating displays of objects, resulting in varying or alternating brightness and light and shade effects across the structure’s overall volume and all its parts. Stereometric orders were abandoned in favour of a free development of forms, and there was a change from rounded surfaces curved in the same direction as or conversely to planar areas, which can be horizontal, vertical or tilted, folded or formed with other subdivisions (Fig. 8).

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Shell, wall, facade

The sociocultural environment Local conditions, the type of society living in a specific region, its history, ethnography and view of the world, the local climate, which can differ across short distances, and the availability of local resources have all had a central influence on the design of building exteriors.

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These issues influence regional or local cultures at the heart of what characterises societies, stabilises them, orients them and forms a basis for civic conventions. Coexistence requires cultural covenants. Buildings’ appearances position them as contemporary documents for the long term [3]. In this sense, it is clear that buildings’ exteriors have a special meaning that extends well beyond an individual building’s effect, when we think of the dimensions of street frontages, squares or quarters, where exterior walls taken together define the public space. The characteristics of facades’ material effects, colours, proportions, volumes and pictographic information signal both the function that these things have and the importance attributed to them. There is, however, a risk that through arbitrary applications or disassociation buildings can take on a new semantic significance, one that can alienate them from their essence and cause them to lose their “integrity” – whether due to excessive tolerance of arrogant self-promotion or as a result of setting the wrong goals.

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This does not rule out purely fashionable fittings in temporary situations, like those in art forms that rely on the passing of time or time limits, such as plays, opera, ballet or film. But if such features are allowed to define architecture, they can destabilise its aesthetic identity and any orientation towards wider cultural credentials can be lost. Nor can a building’s appearance be evaluated within the confines of a closed canon because that would mean that culture only prevails when it is frozen and no longer further developing. It is a feature of cultural processes that designers work creatively with existing traditions (Fig. 12). An awareness of the importance of a building’s exterior and its effect in public space should be seen as an essential aspect, relying on communication in a community. Having a building built involves communicating your views to those outside, signalling your own identity and how it defines a degree of intentional affiliation or classification in an existing spatial and structural context. An architect is usually involved in further developing this context [4]. Many examples show how much during the Renaissance, with humanism flourishing and an appreciation of the independently minded individual growing, the effect of exterior walls

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Shell, wall, facade

as “display walls” was emphasised (e.g. Fig. 10). This emphasis was further heightened in the baroque era, which created facades oriented towards streets or squares that, in contrast to buildings’ other exteriors, became huge sophisticated backdrops with elaborate designs, using costly materials and important artistic media, almost detached from the building as a whole. More than technical or utilitarian aspects, a facade played a central role in showcasing architectural effect. An exterior wall became an image medium incorporating reliefs, sculpture, painting, mosaic and text. Walls’ primarily functional parts became objects of the highest decorative moulding (Fig. 9). The integration of new design media and communications technologies have made “media facades” possible worldwide. Despite displaying new kinds of graphic and colour effects in transparent and translucent glass and membrane surfaces, these facades follow in the footsteps of earlier building envelopes as image media. An example in London (Fig. 11), where two originally similar structures face each other across the street, shows how this change can lead to contrasts, even denaturation. Once daylight’s competing brightness dims sufficiently and artificial light can dominate, electronically controlled LEDs and videos are the defining aesthetic factors of the information conveyed on these buildings’ exteriors and their architectural effects (Fig. 13). The materials used in these buildings’ historic forerunners and their graphic or sculptural design entirely determined a facade’s effect, intensifying our perception of the building itself. Its own, original elements were the reason for this. The situation is different when a non-representational semantic message is conveyed by a neutral medium like a computer

programme or projection technology that is not of the designer’s own making. Variable software allows for complete independence in terms of the content shown and largely also in terms of the form of presentation. Facades with a very intensive effect created by constant change are the main attraction of this kind of urban space. The kind of continuous change due to the constant integration of new forms of technology is apparent on Times Square in New York – just one of countless examples. It creates a completely new, intensive cultural reference that other media make more effective, causing the aesthetic significance of the building’s facade to fade into the background (Fig. 13).

Ageing If we assume that a building enters into architectural history once it is completed, the issue of its ageing immediately arises, especially as it affects its external appearance, the building envelope, the part most exposed to the weather. It is exposed for a long time to a range of encroachments which eventually cause not only technically and functionally relevant changes but also changes in its appearance. Some facades decay, deteriorate and become “shabby”, ageing badly because of their construction and materials. Others do not seem to age at all, which is due to the same technical criteria. Panes of glass, for example, some of which have been installed in buildings for centuries, may develop a slightly damaged surface, but their material and aesthetic characteristics may change little. Some materials age acceptably within a short time, even though

12 9 Painted facade, Trento (IT) 10 San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice (IT) 1610, Andrea Palladio 11 Piccadilly Circus, London (GB) 12 Old – new, transition in detail 13 Times Square, New York (US)

they can change greatly, and may even become more beautiful, which is referred to as patination (Fig. 19). They do not lose their serviceability or technical fitness (because parts decay or sections become too thin due to corrosion, for example). The creative and technical design and planning of facades therefore also involves ensuring that they will maintain their quality as they age and not lose value. Society’s willingness to accept such aesthetic changes and rate them highly for use in architectural monuments and valuable items is made clear when materials are known outside their natural context, as is the case for stone, copper and bronze. The most typical example may, however, be wood, which people know countless types of from

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Shell, wall, facade

childhood wherever it grows, and are aware that its appearance is never in a permanent state, as the example of an extension by Peter Zumthor in Versam shows convincingly (Fig. 20).

Outlook If we ask ourselves now in the second decade of the new century what further developments can be expected in the facades of existing and new buildings that define public space and attract attention to their relation to existing buildings in various ways, we will find plenty of examples indicating answers. 14

Surprising effects created by unusual dimensions and/or a high-contrast, intensive longdistance effect, for example, often testify to planners’ and builders’ ambitions for a building with an outstanding, dominant effect, compared with the moderate “volume” of the architecture of other buildings in the urban environment (Fig. 15).

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An expansion in design possibilities by breaking up building envelopes into polygonal instead of orthogonal elements of the usual kind has emerged where the choice of small structural elements, such as bricks, had hitherto allowed a high degree of freedom for ornamental design or where basic technical conditions made it inadvisable to divide surfaces using straight edges, in membrane structures, for example. It has become possible, however, to use CAD/CAM to divide surfaces in diverse, playfully individual ways, whose arrangement, interconnections and measurements are then precisely geometrically defined for manufacture and positioning. The buildings on Constitution Plaza in Melbourne were early precursors of this technique. Examples of buildings built after them, such as the Bergeron Center for Engineering Excellence at the York University campus in Toronto, illustrate use of these new options (Fig. 17). Self-regulating, polyvalent systems that can be specifically used with new daylight technologies to reflect, refract and direct light to give roofs and facades a varied shared “skin”, expand design options while dispensing with kinematics for regulation, for example, managing high levels of direct solar radiation in summer. At the same time, they allow diffuse light to penetrate and light rooms and enable users to see in and out (Fig. 16). Providing ventilation that is not flow-dependent in a building envelope can also expand the range of design possibilities. Hopefully, the ever increasing need for thermal insulation will someday cease to be responsible for technical and aesthetic impairment. The purpose of a dormer window was traditionally to let in light and air, yet adding insulation

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to this kind of small window with a 0.2 m2 glass surface, which for decades precisely fitted into a roof surface as a minor single element, has now turned it into an aesthetically absurd, disproportionate lump (Fig. 14). Photovoltaic systems products, which are becoming increasingly efficient, cost-effective, colourful and varied in structure, will spread worldwide on a large scale. What is uncertain is what other innovations will emerge out of the science and technology of opaque, semitransparent and fully transparent materials, whether in the area of generating and storing energy, providing shade by adapting a building’s geometry to the sun’s course, or in systems with modifiable properties or different conditions impacting the separating “building skin” in the form of outdoor or indoor climates. Highly efficient insulating materials built into light, slender, moving parts that are easy to handle, in the opening sections of facades, for example, and insulating vacuum glazing, long extensively produced in Asia, will reveal their structural and physical potential and range of applications in various structures. What is certain is that any construction or conversion of buildings that has to meet required comfort standards must do so simply and efficiently, based as far as possible on local climatic conditions. A building envelope can provide not only protective functions against unpleasant weather, but can also activate potential to create desirable bioclimatic effects inside the building in a way that allows for large-scale application in urban space. Only then can we expect a positive impact on the causes of climate change and new opportunities. If such basic elements do not remain the exception only for special customised buildings, but are instead applied worldwide in regional architecture and appropriate design and planning, they could become part of a solution for confronting potentially ominous, negative global developments.

Notes: [1] That this is not always seen as a positive effect is shown by expressions like “it’s all a facade”, meaning that a person or thing’s real quality is not what it seems on the outside. [2] Jochen Wagner, Evangelische Akademie Tutzing, TV broadcast 02/2004 [3] This psychologically stabilises both the individual and society. The built environment is an important “prospect” for feelings of belonging, a sense of home and of individual identity. [4] In his essay “Zukunft bauen” Manfred Sack wrote, “... every facade, and more, every structure, is a public issue and the Devil take the architect who takes it lightly. A facade belongs to everybody; only what’s behind it is the business of those who have to live with it. So it is clear that a facade cannot be allowed to be a cosmetic feature. A city that is regarded as beautiful is, contrary to the assumptions of some, a social, general and political remit”. From Sack, Manfred, “Verlockungen der Architektur”. Lucerne 2003

Shell, wall, facade

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14 Insulated dormer 15 Königsallee (Kö-Bogen) Düsseldorf (DE) 2013, Daniel Libeskind 16 Cité du design, Saint-Étienne (FR) 2009, LIN Finn Geipel and Giulia Andi 17 Bergeron Center for Engineering Excellence, Toronto (CA) 2015, ZAS Architects 18 Facade covered in climbing plants 19 Patinated bronze bay window, Boston (US) 20 Weathered wooden facade, Versam (CH) 1994, Peter Zumthor 20

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Part A

Sketch for the Schocken department store, Stuttgart (DE) 1929, Erich Mendelsohn

The fundamentals

Whatever specific and very different facade designs may result from particular technologies and materials, there are also general rules and interdependencies that arise out of a building’s basic functions, the type of loads and stresses imposed on it, the logic of its structure and the way it fits together, its geometric order, options for using prefabricated elements and physical effects. These rules and interdependencies are overarching principles of general and fundamental significance, so we present them here before describing some completed buildings in detail.

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Outside

Facade

Inside

Site-specific conditions

Requirements

Solar radiation levels

Comfortable temperature / humidity levels

Air temperature

Large fluctuations

Minimal fluctuations

Quantity and quality of light (lighting environment)

Humidity

in external climate

in internal climate

Exchange of air / inflow of fresh air and tolerable

conditions

conditions

air speeds

Precipitation Wind

Comfortable acoustic environment Provision of views of the outside

Local sources of noise

Separating the private from the public

Pollution from fumes and dust Mechanical loads

Mechanical protection

Electromagnetic radiation

Protection against fire Limiting the impact of toxic pollutants

Urban planning / design environment Local resources Sociocultural context

Functions offering protection from constant and changeable conditions (enhancing or reducing their impact) Insulating /dampening Sealing / blocking Filtering Storing (energy) Controlling Mechanical protection Control functions

Controlling / regulating Reacting /changing

Supplementary, direct-acting

Supplementary, direct-acting

measures

measures

Protection from glare

Thermal insulation

Screening from view (e.g. curtains)

Sun shading

Refraction and reflection of

(e.g. shutters, awnings,

daylight etc.

brise-soleils, louvres etc.)

Activation of interior structural elements

Measures influencing

(floors, walls, ceilings) for storing energy,

the microclimate such as

heating, cooling and time-delayed release

vegetation, bodies of water

of stored energy

Supplementary building technologies

Integrated facades

Projecting collectors

Integrated air and water collectors

Photovoltaic systems

Solar walls

Underground air ducts, geothermal probes etc.

Media cable routing /distribution Heat recovery

Supplementary building technologies

Convection heaters / radiators Artificial lighting Air-conditioning technologies (central/decentral) etc.

A 1.1

External and internal conditions

A 1 External and internal conditions

The facade forms a separating and filtering layer between inside and out, between nature and people’s dwelling spaces. Seen in a historical context, a desire for protection from an inimical outside world and the rigours of the weather was humanity’s primary reason for enclosing interior spaces against the outside. Various other demands were subsequently added to these protective functions: interior light, an adequate exchange of air and the ability to see out while demarcating the private sphere from public space etc. Special technologies make it possible to regulate openings, allowing control and regulating functions to be added to the list of protective functions. Based on the direction from which a facade is viewed, all these demands can be classified into two groups and can be subdivided into countless individual aspects: site-specific external conditions and demands on internal conditions. A comprehensive understanding of these fundamentals and of their interdependencies and interactions form a basis for decisions in planning and building a facade.

What are the prevailing site-specific external conditions? What are the requirements for internal conditions?

What are the resulting functions and tasks required of the facade?

Can these demands be met by supplementary, direct-acting measures?

Will additional building technology be required to meet these demands? Would the integration of elements into the facade optimise the overall system?

A 1.2

Demands on facades from inside and out Planners cannot usually influence external conditions, so they are essential criteria in finding and selecting land to build on. Every site offers specific, unique external conditions that require careful analysis because they vary in type and intensity depending on their district, region, country and continent. The immediate surroundings and microclimate can also have a significant influence. As well as the specific local climate with its specific statistically identified quantities and distributions of precipitation (rain, snow and hail), a nearby noisy industrial area that emits a strong smell, for example, may necessitate special measures for the planning and building of a facade. In contrast, demands on internal conditions are not predetermined, but are decided on in the planning phase, based on a catalogue of requirements, which is drawn up in the context of planned usage. Precise knowledge of these key criteria is critically important in successful planning as they have an immediate influence on structural solutions and determine the amounts of energy and materials required for construction and operation in the long term. As well as demands on the interior climate, which are largely defined under the heading of “comfort” (see Fig. 1.12, p. 22), extensive measures arising out of various other qualitative requirements, such as a desire for a highquality design or greater protection against break-ins, may have to be met. These conditions and demands, shown in graphic form in Fig. A 1.1, determine a facade’s protective and control functions. The former offer protection from the intensity of external influences, especially from the weather. The latter measure out their required and acceptable

A 1.1 Requirements on facades from inside and out; protective, control and communication functions; supplementary passive measures and building technologies A 1.2 Key questions /procedures for identifying marginal conditions and requirements

levels for the interior climate with the goal of achieving “thermal comfort”. If a facade is considered as a person’s “third skin” (after their bodily skin and clothing), the analogy of planning goals becomes clear. Each of these functional layers must reduce the range of fluctuations of external climate conditions impacting the inner body to ensure a constant body temperature of about 37 °C. Climatic conditions may also dictate requirements that cannot be assigned to one side or the other but result from differences between inside and out, such as those caused by differences in temperature, moisture and pressure, which impose mechanical stresses on facade materials and structural details. Such stresses must be able to be absorbed by suitable measures (e.g. expansion joints, flexible connections etc.).

19

External and internal conditions

Facades’ performance potential 12 h 11 h

A facade should be able to meet the requirements resulting from the climate as much 60° as possible. Adopting this approach can minimise or avoid the need for additional measures, such as further technical equipment, to control the interior climate. Know50° ledge of the relevant basic physical principles involved is indispensable in achieving this planning goal.

Ju

ne

13 h

ay M

ly

ril

Au

Ap

9h

7h

15 h

g.

ch Mar

8h

14 h

Ju

t.

Febr.

Nov.

5h

Dec. 45°

South-east

[Wh/m2d]

45°

South

South-west

[Wh/m2d]

South

5000

5000

30° 0°

4000

Hor

4000

90°

tal

East

0°

izon

90°

Supplementary direct-acting measures can support such functions on both sides of the 25° facade. Other structural elements inside the 18 h building can also be “activated” to do this, 19 h by storing energy in walls and ceilings, for 10° example. Open areas of water outside or in interstices 90° can be used for cooling (by evaporation) or dehumidification (if there is a sufficient difference between the temperature of the water and West of the air in the room), and appropriate measA 1.3 ures can make use of energy generated during peak periods. Solar radiation, from which buildings need protection, can be turned into electricity by means of photovoltaic modules or absorbed by collectors and used to heat water. High outdoor temperatures, wind and rain can also be made use of (see “Solar energy”, p. 294ff.). Remaining requirements that cannot be adequately met through structural measures must be met by technical systems providing temperature control, lighting, air purification, a sufficient exchange of air or humidification or N dehumidification. Such supplementary technical measures always require additional energy as well as costly and complex transport of media and maintenance. If technical equipment of this kind is directly integrated into a facade, F M A M J it is referred to as an “integrated facade” (see p. 322ff.). Equipment housed not in the buildA 1.5 ing’s technical centre but in the facade, at the point where it is required, is referred to as “facade-integrated decentralised building technology” [1]. 17 h

Oct.

Jan.

6h

16 h

Sep

60° 3000

3000 90°

2000

1000

1000

0

J

A

S

O

N

D

J

F

M

A

M

0

J

SE

/S

W S

2000

J

A

S

O

N

D

J

A 1.4

Total radiation [W/m2]

Summer

Spring/Autumn E

800

W

S

800 E

S 600

600

400

400

200

200

0

4

6

8

10

12

0

14 16 18 20 Hours of sunlight [h]

E/ NE W /N W

10 h

4

6

8

W

10

12

14 16 18 20 Hours of sunlight [h]

Apart from external factors, other conditions imposed by the overall structural context must be taken into account, including the coordination of dimensions (see “Modular coordination”, p. 46ff.), structural interdependencies, necessary tolerances and installation sequences – topics that will be dealt with in subsequent chapters.

A 1.3 Diagram of the sun’s course (50° N) A 1.4 Solar radiation hitting south-facing surfaces pitched at various angles A 1.5 Solar radiation hitting vertical surfaces facing various directions A 1.6 Total solar radiation hitting wall surfaces pitched at various angles on sunny days at different seasons

20

Total radiation [W/m2]

Winter S

800

External conditions: solar radiation

600 E

400

W

200 0

4

6

8

10

12

14 16 18 20 Hours of sunlight [h] A 1.6

The sun is one of the most central and essential of all site-specific external conditions. It is our greatest direct and indirect energy source and makes all life possible. The amount of energy that it sends to the Earth is about 10,000 times what humanity’s global energy requirements were in 2010 (an average

External and internal conditions

1,353 W of energy hits every square metre of the Earth’s outer atmosphere). For human purposes, this is an infinite, cost-free and environmentally friendly source of energy. To make use of solar energy in a building, it is essential to consider the intensity and duration of the radiation on its surface, depending on its facade’s orientation and inclination. In planning facades, the following related factors and interdependencies must also be taken into account if solar radiation is to be made use of: • The course of the sun, depending on the location and time of day and year • Solar radiation levels, depending on the surface’s orientation and inclination, location, time of day and year and weather • Various kinds of solar radiation (diffuse, direct and different wavelengths) and their quantitative ratio depending on the weather, direction, location and time of day and year • Interactions with surfaces and materials • Relation to heating requirements based on planned usage

kWh/m2 Global solar radiation/per annum (energy) 5 Available solar radiation 4

Direct solar radiation

3

2 Diffuse solar radiation

Heating requirements

J

F

Winter

M

A

J

M

J

1

A

S

O

N

Summer

D

Winter

J

F

A

M

J

J

A

Summer

A 1.7

S

O

N

D

Winter

A 1.8

70 °C 65 °

1

60 °

2

1 Black (high gloss) 2 Dark blue

55 ° 3

3 Brick red

50 ° 45 °

4 Ivory

4

5 Opaque white

40 °

Figures A 1.3 – A 1.11 show a selection of the main factors involved

M

Winter

5

35 °

6 Outside air

30 °

The following solar radiation figures can be used as a basis for Germany [2]:

25 °

1,300 –1,900 hours of sunlight / year 750 –1,250 hours of sunlight / heating limit 15 °C 500 – 950 hours of sunlight / heating limit 12 °C 400 – 775 hours of sunlight / heating limit 10 °C

15 °

6

20 °

10 °

Hours of exposure to sun of a southwest-facing facade

5°

Amount of heat = 330 cal/cm2 22.06.1963

0°

23.06.1963 A 1.9

The proportion of diffuse radiation of all radiation accruing over a year is approximately: South-facing facade 30 % East and west-facing facade 60 % North-facing facade 90 % (Difference from 100 %: direct solar radiation)

E

S

N

W

Solar radiation can also be hazardous for people (overheating, premature skin ageing, skin cancer), who may need suitable protection from it.

Thermal comfort The various demands on internal climatic conditions can be summed up by the term “thermal comfort”. Among the main factors influencing these demands that are connected with the facade, are (Fig. A 1.12): • Temperature of the air in the space (a) • Relative humidity in the space (b) • Surface temperature of structural components adjoining the space (c) • Air flows reaching the body (d)

A 1.11 A 1.7

A 1.10 over 1,175 1,150 –1,175 1,125 –1,150 1,100 –1,125 1,075 –1,100 1,050 –1,075

1,025 –1,050 1,000 –1,025 975 –1,000 950 – 975 under 950

Heating demands / duration of sunshine (schematic diagram) A 1.8 Daily average intensity of solar radiation in central Germany (50° N) A 1.9 Temperatures measured on a sunny day on the surfaces of south-facing facades of different colours A 1.10 Local distribution of annual global radiation [kWh/m2] in Germany A 1.11 Projection diagram principle of the sun’s course

21

External and internal conditions

Average temperature of surfaces enclosing the space [°C]

Comfortable

20 18

21

b

a

d

22

22

–

24

23

d

26

24

+

Uncomfortably warm Still comfortable

28

C 25

c c

30

16 20

d

A 1.12 Factors influencing thermal comfort a Interior air temperature b Interior relative humidity c Surface temperature d Flows of air around the body A 1.13 Interior /surface temperature Comfort zone, depending on interior air temperature and average (fairly constant) temperature of surfaces enclosing a space (based on Frank, 1975) A 1.14 Interior temperature /relative humidity Comfort zone, depending on interior temperature and relative humidity (based on Leusden / Freymark, 1951)

14

c

19

c

12 18

Uncomfortably cold

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Interior air temperature [°C] A 1.13

100 90

Movement of air around the body [cm/s]

Relative humidity [%]

A 1.12

Uncomfortably humid

80 70 60

Comfortable

50 40 30

Still comfortable

20 Uncomfortably dry

10 0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Interior air temperature [°C]

50

40 Uncomfortable

30

20

10 Comfortable

Uncomfortable 0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Interior air temperature [°C] A 1.15

A 1.14

Radiative transfer

Heat flow

–K

Vapour pressure

+K

+ Pascal

– Reflection

–

[kWh/m3K]

Heat transmission

Radiation

Water 1.0 Granite

0.8

Concrete

+ 0.6

Sand-lime brick Rubble fill

0.4

+

Aluminium Floor screed

Sand, dry

Aerated concrete

0.2

Heat transfer Thermal energy flows basically from a warmer (more energy-rich) side to a colder side. There are three basic principles of heat transfer (Fig. A 1.17): • Thermal conduction • Thermal radiation • Thermal convection

Lightweight brick

Convection

0 0

A 1.17

22

Knowledge of basic structural and physical principles, such as heat flow, water vapour pressure and radiation transport, is essential to an understanding of the functions of facades. (Fig. A 1.16).

1.2

Conduction

–

Psychological factors (e.g. materials, colours) and cultural aspects are also connected with these factors and should be taken into account.

Fundamental physical principles A 1.16

+

The idea of comfort is now increasingly being interpreted as involving more than just climatic requirements and has come to include • Lighting environment and visual comfort: quantity and quality of light and brightness contrasts (protection from glare), • Hygienic comfort (low levels of pollutants and smells), • Acoustic comfort (noise), and • Electromagnetic tolerability.

Transmission

Absorption

–

These measurable parameters, which can vary depending on region, habits, clothing, activity and individual perception, define thermal comfort. The ranges in which figures for individual influencing factors should be are called “comfort zones” (Fig. A 1.13 –15). There are no binding target figures for any of these factors, and they are all mutually interdependent. Perceived room temperature consists of approximately equal parts of the temperature of air in the room and the average radiation temperature of the surfaces enclosing the room.

1,000

2,000 3,000 Gross density [kg/m3] A 1.18

A thermal transmittance coefficient (U-value) [W/m2K] can be calculated for planar structural components.

External and internal conditions

A 1.19 Warm air is lighter and rises. A 1.20 Wind pressure and suction in flows around a building A 1.21 If a facade is permeable to radiation, the layer of air in its interstices can heat up, causing the air to rise (“chimney or stack effect”). A 1.22 Geometric solutions for modifying air flows A 1.23 Wind: annual average regional frequencies and directions in and around Munich Wind speed: a Up to 3 m/s b More than 3 m/s

+ –

+ –

A 1.19

Strong suction WINDWARD

-

Dynamic pressure +

Relative humidity Air can absorb water vapour until it reaches its saturation point. This depends on the temperature, which is why it is called “relative” humidity. Humid air is slightly lighter than dry air at the same temperature. Water vapour pressure Water vapour moves from a side with higher vapour pressure (partial pressure) to a side with lower pressure. If the temperature falls below the dew point, condensation can occur (with a risk of condensate accumulating and mould forming). Radiation transfer Radiation hitting a structural element is reflected, absorbed or transmitted (Fig. A 1.16, middle). A material’s thermal radiation properties depend mainly on its surface properties, especially its colour (Fig. A 1.9, p. 21).

Wind, thermals and natural ventilation: basic principles Streams of air in the atmosphere (wind), interacting openings outside and inside, and thermal effects in adjoining layers of air are phenomena at work in every building and are another external condition that must be taken into account. Wind situations can vary greatly in strength and direction depending on the weather and location (Fig. A 1.23), so only statistical values can be used as a basis in planning. Streams of air that occur due to geometric properties of bodies in special wind situations can be investigated in wind tunnel trials and dynamic, highly complex flow simulations. Fundamental thermal principles play an essen-

tial role in facade planning (Fig. A 1.19 – 22). In planning and building a facade, the goal should be to ventilate the building naturally as far as possible, thereby minimising the risk of “sick building syndrome” developing [3]. In doing so, the following problems that natural ventilation can cause must be avoided: • Increased heating requirements • Interior temperatures too high in summer • Draughts inside • Interior air too dry in winter • Inadequate ventilation in very calm weather

-

Suction Dynamic pressure

Thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity Thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity are properties of specific materials and generally increase with bulk density, although the heat storage capacity of water compared with other construction materials is a clear exception (Fig. A 1.18).

Strong suction

LEEWARD

-

+

-

Suction

A 1.15 Interior temperature / movement of air Comfort zone, depending on interior temperature and movement of air (based on Rietschel-Raiss) Scope of application for Figs. A 1.13 –15: • Relative humidity from 30 to 70 % • Movement of air from 0 to 20 cm/s • Largely constant temperature of all surfaces enclosing a space of 19.5 to 23 °C A 1.16 Fundamental structural and physical principles (selection) A 1.17 Basic principles of heat transmission A 1.18 Heat storage capacity of selected construction materials by volume

Strong suction

Strong suction

-

Strong suction

Dynamic pressure +

Strong suction

Pressure Suction

-

A 1.20

The more air heats up (absorbs energy), the more its gas molecules move (Fig. A 1.19); air pressure increases, air becomes less dense and lighter by volume and it rises. In a closed space this causes different air temperatures, with a layer of warmer air above and cooler air below. Bodies obstruct airflows, causing the airflow to divide and move around them (Fig. A 1.20). This causes vortices and increases atmospheric pressure in front of buildings and a relatively lower pressure behind them (suction). It should be noted that wind direction can fluctuate greatly (Fig. A 1.23) and that such effects can change very quickly. Close to the ground, interactions with (rough) surfaces and physical obstacles mean that wind speeds are generally lower, but they increase as buildings grow in height so wind pressure and suction are stronger at higher elevations. When radiation energy penetrates a transparent or translucent surface and hits a structural component that is separated from the surface by a layer of air, it absorbs the energy and heats up. Some of this thermal energy is released into the air in the cavity, causing the air to heat up, rise (Fig. A 1.21) and circulate. This effect is intensified if the air can escape above and flow in from below. Planners can use air flowing around a building to produce additional negative pressure (Fig. A 1.22) by creating and positioning bodies with appropriate geometries to intensify a chimney or stack effect or more quickly discharge warm air from spaces at lower levels.

A 1.21

A 1.22 N 20 15 10

a

5 0

W 20

15

10

0

5

5

10

15

E 20

5 10

b

15 20 S

A 1.23

23

External and internal conditions

Sound transmission: basic principles

A 1.24

A 1.25

A 1.26

A 1.27

A 1.28

A 1.29

Sound is another external condition impacting facades and a requirement for interiors (soundproofing) because noise can come from either side of a facade. Soundproofing requires particularly careful planning and construction as sound can be transmitted through the smallest acoustical bridge. Sound waves spread out roughly spherically from sources of sound through the medium of air (airborne sound, Fig. A 1.24) and are more or less reflected by all the space-enclosing surfaces and objects in the space. The smoother and harder a surface is, the less dampened and more complete the reflection of the sound will be. When a structural component made of solid material is made to vibrate, by mechanical influences (steps on a floor), for example, sound waves spread through its mass, which is referred to as structure-borne noise (Fig. A 1.25). If airborne sound causes a solid object to vibrate, structure-borne noise spreads through the object (Fig. A 1.26). This can also cause the layer of air on the other side to vibrate and transmit the sound waves in the form of airborne sound. Sound waves can travel very long distances by means of structure-borne noise transmission (Fig. A 1.27). Wherever a building’s “solid” structural components are connected, sound can be transmitted through them and right through the building by means of a phenomenon called “flanking transmission” or “flanking sound transfer”. One possible strategy for minimising airborne noise transmission is to increase an object’s mass (Fig. A 1.28), making it as heavy and inert as possible by using a very dense material that airborne sound waves can vibrate only slightly, for example. Another measure that can reduce airborne noise transmission is extremely efficient sealing (Fig. A 1.29), which can prevent airborne noise from spreading directly through gaps, joints, chinks and cracks. Airborne noise transmission can also be muffled by a double-layered structure with an insulated space between the layers (Fig. A 1.30). This is particularly efficient if the two layers are of different thickness and weight and so have different natural resonant frequencies. The effectiveness of such measures should not be compromised by using rigid connections between the two layers (mass – spring – mass principle). Further structural-physical aspects of soundproofing are dealt with in the chapter on “Aspects of building physics and planning advice” (p. 52ff.).

Constructional implementation

A 1.30

24

Interactions between structural components, which arise during constructional implementation from resulting functional requirements and

basic underlying structural-physical principles, are directly connected with the external and internal conditions outlined above. Energy can get into buildings through a structural component that is permeable to radiation by means of transmission (Fig. A 1.31). When energy hits the surfaces inside a space, some of it is transferred to the material through absorption and from there transported further by means of thermal conduction (Fig. A 1.32). Some of this energy is also “stored”, depending on the material’s heat storage capacity. This potential is called thermal storage mass. The energy is then more or less slowly returned into the space (depending on the material’s specific thermal conductivity and other factors) by means of thermal radiation (Fig. A 1.33). By choosing structural components with appropriate materials and dimensions, planners can make use of this effect to offset peaks in temperatures without requiring more energy input (for heating or cooling). Regulated or controlled ventilation can use convection to transport energy between inside and out (Fig. A 1.34), and it can work in both directions. The skilful use of thermal effects (Figs. A 1.19, 21 and 22, p. 23) may even mean that mechanical ventilation can be dispensed with entirely. The greenhouse effect When high-energy, short-wave solar radiation hits surfaces inside a space, a substantial share of its energy is released into the interior in the form of diffuse long-wave radiation in the infrared range (Fig. A 1.35, left), thereby heating the air and surfaces in the space. The very low permeability to long-wave radiation of transparent and translucent facade surfaces (e.g. glass, translucent insulating layers or insulating multi-pane glazing, perhaps with an inert gas filling and additional coatings that enhance their effectiveness) prevents the radiation from escaping and keeps it “enclosed” in the space. This is referred to as the "greenhouse effect". If this effect is desired, its intensity can be greatly influenced by modifying the orientation of surfaces permeable to radiation to the source of radiation (usually by orienting surfaces towards the sun) and thus also the radiation’s angle of entrance (Fig. A 1.36). The flatter the angle at which radiation strikes a surface is, the more the radiation is reflected and the more of it is kept outside (Fig. A 1.35). If radiation hits a surface at a 90° angle, the surface reflects only a minimal proportion of it. Like the proportion of absorption, the precise extent of reflection depends on the specific material and can be modified by additional measures, e.g. coatings (see “Glass”, p. 188ff.). Openings and angle of incidence The amount of radiation entering through an opening of the same size and with the same orientation can vary greatly depending on the radiation’s angle of entrance (Fig. A 1.36). This

External and internal conditions

effect can play a crucial role in the planning of openings and sun protection systems, depending on changes in the sun’s position through the different seasons (see “Edges, openings”, p. 38ff.). Consequences for floor plans / zoning Demands on a facade can be influenced by arranging spaces in the floor plan based on the principle of a “thermal onion”, which involves surrounding spaces that need higher temperatures with areas where lower temperatures are desirable (Fig. A 1.37). Such “buffer zones” can usually effectively reduce heating and cooling requirements. If the course of the sun is used to generate solar heat by means of the greenhouse effect, it can be useful to “capture” solar radiation in a projecting zone (Fig. A 1.38) and store the heat by designing interior surfaces accordingly. Very little solar energy will be gained from the northern side of a building in Central Europe, so this side must be insulated accordingly. Structures configured in this way can easily overheat in summer, so they will also require adequate shading and ventilation.

Notes: [1] Hartwig, Helge: Zentral – Dezentral. Fassadenintegrierte dezentrale Gebäudetechnik. In: gi – Gesundheits-Ingenieur, 125. Jg. 05/2004, p. 227– 234 [2] The number of hours of sunlight per year is for the reference period of 1981– 2010. From the German Meteorological Service’s (Deutscher Wetterdienst) Climate Data Center (CDC). Hours of sunlight / heating limit were calculated here using data records from the WESTE weather data portal of the German Meteorological Service (Deutscher Wetterdienst). [3] For more on the term “sick building syndrome” see also Dompke, Mario et al. (ed.): Sick Building Syndrome II. Documentation on a workshop in Holzkirchen, 1996, by the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics and Bundesindustrieverband Heizungs-, Klima-, Sanitärtechnik e. V. (German Industrial Association for Heating, Air conditioning and Sanitary Engineering) Bonn 1996

Transmission Heating – heat transfer Thermal storage mass – thermal radiation Convection – distribution – regulation Greenhouse effect – utilisation Angle of incidence of solar radiation / openings “Thermal onion” – division of a floor plan into zones according to temperature A 1.38 Building orientation – heat storage – thermal insulation

A 1.32

A 1.33

A 1.34

Effectiveness Greenhouse effect

Perpendicular

Flat

T R

A A 1.35

June

March / Sept.

A 1.24 Source of sound A 1.25 Excitation of mass by mechanical influences A 1.26 Excitation of mass by airborne sound, transmission through materials (structure-borne sound) A 1.27 Transmission of sound through structural components over long distances (also called “sound transfer”) A 1.28 Strategy 1 against airborne sound transmission: mass A 1.29 Strategy 2: efficient joint sealing A 1.30 Strategy 3: mass – spring – mass principle A 1.31 A 1.32 A 1.33 A 1.34 A 1.35 A 1.36 A 1.37

A 1.31

South

Dec.

South

South

A 1.36

Example: -10 °C outside E

+19 °C +14 to -10 °C + 22 °C

Heat storage Interim temperature zone A 1.37

A 1.38

25

Surfaces – structural principles

A 2.1 Surfaces – structural principles

Facades are usually vertical, planar structures positioned between interior and exterior environments. Regardless of the materials they are made of, facade surfaces share diverse general features and common technical solutions, which will be described below. A knowledge of these features and principles will be helpful during the design process. A design principle can imply fundamental solutions for carrying out a specific construction task for predefined functions [1], using physical, chemical and geometric effects and combining their interactions to create an effective structure [2].

A 2.1.3

The facade’s structure will be examined • In the plane of the facade (Fig. A 2.1.2) and • Perpendicular to the plane of the facade (Fig. A 2.1.3). Depending on the required functions and demands, specific performance profiles that can vary across the surface must be assigned to facades. The technical and material implementation of such profiles may require several functional and construction levels perpendicular to the plane of the facade. Additional structures that are not part of the spaceenclosing envelope (such as horizontal sun protection devices, light refraction systems, maintenance walkways etc.) may also be necessary. The overall goal should be a structure whose individual components work together efficiently.

A 2.1.2

A 2.1.1 Studio building, Munich (DE) 1993, Thomas Herzog with Peter Bonfig A 2.1.2 Structure within the plane of the facade A 2.1.3 Structure perpendicular to the plane of the facade A 2.1.4 Functional criteria for facades A 2.1.5 Structural criteria for facades

Permeability – air

Closed Partly permeable Open

Classification of design solutions [3]

Permeability – light

Functional criteria

Performance profiles as targets for facade surfaces are defined beyond general protective functions such as insulation and sealing; permeability to air, light and radiation (Fig. A 2.1.4) are also of particular importance. Their degree of permeability determines the character of the enveloping surface, its practical value and the quality of interiors. It also greatly influences a building’s energy balance. Among the important criteria to consider in making decisions are the extent to which facade surfaces can react to changing conditions and whether they are modifiable and can even be self-regulating. Permeability to air Natural ventilation strategies require modifiable and adjustable permeability to air. The need to discharge surplus heat, water vapour and hot, toxic gases in the event of fire can also make a certain level of permeability necessary.

Energy gains

None Heat Power

Modifiability

Not modifiable Mechanical Phys. structural Chem. substantial

Regulation

Part of the support structure Layered structure

Manual direct / indirect Self-regulating With control circuit A 2.1.4

Non-load-bearing Load-bearing Single-layer Multilayer

Shell structure

Permeability to light The quality and quantity of its permeability to light and radiation determine a space’s natural lighting and atmospheric character, allow people inside to see out and those outside to see in and thermal energy to enter or be emitted. It can be useful to take advantage of phenom

Opaque Translucent Semi-transparent Transparent Open

Single-shell Multi-shell

Rear ventilation

Not rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated

Prefabrication

Low High A 2.1.5

27

Surfaces – structural principles

ena specific to human perception when planning perforated, semi-transparent surfaces, such as sun and glare protection devices. Surfaces with a very low proportion of small perforations set close together enable an observer looking towards a brighter lighting environment to see through them because our brain “adds” what is missing to form an overall picture. To an observer looking towards a darker lighting environment, however, such surfaces appear opaque because the eye cannot adapt to the reduced luminance of the small holes.

flat, vertical

flat, angled

flat, vertical + horizontal

curved, vertical

curved, horizontal

doublecurved

Energy generation Surfaces permeable to solar radiation make it possible to directly generate energy by heating structural components, such as floors and walls, inside buildings. Using special technical equipment (e.g. a transparent thermal insulation absorbing wall, solar thermal or photovoltaic systems) heat or electricity for operating a building can also be produced in the facade structure (see “Solar energy”, p. 294ff.). Modifiability Modifying the position or properties of structural components can enable a facade surface to react to changing external conditions, e.g.: • By mechanically moving facade elements (positioning slats and louvres, opening shutters etc.) • By triggering electrical, thermosensitive or photosensitive processes or reversible modifications in materials’ properties that change their permeability to rays of light. These are either changes of a physical, structural nature – changes in aggregate state or a different orientation of crystal structures – or changes in chemical substances – changing chemical compounds [4]. Regulation Modifiability requires regulation. Changing conditions can be tracked: • By manual or mechanical activation, direct or indirect, e.g. the touch of a button • By self-regulating, e.g. thermosensitive processes that modify thermotropic glass’s permeability to light • Based on the principle of feedback control system technologies using sensors and microprocessor-controlled servomotors Fundamental design criteria

Resolving important fundamental design decisions is the best way to prepare for structural and material implementation (Fig. A 2.1.5, p. 27). Connection with the support structure Non-load-bearing facades do not bear loads or fulfil other functions of the support structure in ensuring the building’s structural stability. Layer and shell structures Layers made up of different materials, thicknesses and structures can be optimised to fulfil specific sub-tasks and, based on structural-

28

A 2.1.6

physical and constructive principles, put together to form a functional unit – the facade. Countless possible combinations with appropriate performance profiles are available. Individual functional layers can vary in thickness from tiny fractions of millimetres (Low-E coatings on thermal insulating glazing) up to a few metres (layers of air behind multilayer glass facades). The right sequence of layers is crucial for efficient functioning and preventing structural damage. Less significant or subordinate functional layers can be classified as layers or strata for the purposes of loadbearing. Shells, in contrast, can take on static loads and are freestanding (cf. p. 36) [5]. Rear ventilation Rear-ventilated facades have one or more layers of air that use thermal lift forces to effectively discharge condensation and /or heat. Such structural systems are by definition always multilayered. Prefabrication The planned degree of prefabrication significantly impacts construction principles, type of element management, the absolute size of individual structural components and conditions in which the facade can be assembled and perhaps dismantled.

Structure in the plane of the facade Types of surfaces

When establishing the exterior geometry of a building, the inherent principles of the envelope enclosing it must be taken into consideration. Every facade consists of several flat or curved surface elements that intersect or touch each

other or roof surfaces along specific lines (edges). How these surfaces are formed and arranged in space, whether vertical, inclined or almost horizontal, has a decisive influence on a facade’s design and construction details (Fig. A 2.1.6). Cut edges and especially corners at which the three surfaces meet require special treatment and care. The spatial planning of surfaces is determined by various factors that rarely arise alone, but are usually combined and have different weighting, such as: • The geometry of floor plans and elevations in the building • Usage aspects (e.g. the creation of niches for open spaces screened from view) • Planning of the shell support structure itself (e.g. folded structure) • Thermal insulation aspects (e.g. minimising the ratio of enveloping surface to volume) • Structural aspects (e.g. channelling of water) • Specific material aspects • Design intentions Evaluating different types of surfaces

Vertical surfaces Channelling water over vertical surfaces is unproblematic, while folds and projections increase the external surface and inside edges must be dealt with by means of construction methods and geometry. Surfaces that meet at sharp angles can cause problems in manufacture and usage. In constructing vertical edges, it can be advantageous if they follow the direction in which facade water flows. Folded surfaces can be built as folded structures that form part of the load-bearing structure. Figure A 2.1.7 shows 37 different geometric configurations in which facade surfaces

Surfaces – structural principles

Standing facade

Suspended facade

19 7

5 14

Wind suction

20 6

Wind pressures

8 36

15

(Other horizontal forces)

22 17 23 2 24

33

1

18

37 3

31 35

25

34 12

27

13

30 4

f2 f1

f2 f1 A 2.1.8

29 32 26

21

10

11 9

28 16

A 2.1.7

meet or intersect with floors or roofs at edges and in corners. Each of these marked points requires its own detailing in construction and implementation. Points at which more than three different surfaces meet (such as no. 29), are almost impossible to manage effectively in construction and design. If different slopes or curves also play a role, the number of geometric and construction examples increases significantly [6]. Inclined surfaces Every surface that tilts away from a vertical position, especially projections and recesses in steeply sloping surfaces, involves additional loads, stresses and aspects. They make it harder to channel water, while snow and ice formation causes further loads and stresses. Extensive horizontal surfaces must be treated like roofs and drained in a controlled manner, their surface is increased and sealing and insulating layers can project, resulting in structural weak points where they bend. Every window reveal, bay window and loggia involves vertical and horizontal projections and inside and outside edges and corners. Curved surfaces Water runs easily off curved surfaces that are not perpendicular. Curves cannot usually be built continuously but typically consist of a series of polygons due to the basic geometry of materials and semi-finished products. Double-curved surfaces Double-curved surfaces are not necessarily connected to shell support structures or membrane structures. Such geometric forms are often created as translation surfaces, which can be built with even, individual polygonal areas.

A 2.1.6 Typical types of surfaces that can be combined to form countless forms A 2.1.7 Examples of various joining details for perpendicular, orthogonal facade systems A 2.1.8 Schematic diagrams of standing/suspended facades

Principles of load bearing

Loads impacting facades A facade must safely withstand loads and transfer them to the support structure (primary support structure) (Fig. A 2.1.8). All facade structures, including non-load-bearing ones, must be planned and built to a scale that enables them to function as secondary support structures that can manage the following loads: • Vertical loads: the structure’s own weight, special loads (e.g. sun protection devices, plants, temporary scaffolding), traffic loads (e.g. live loads), snow and ice loads (these must be calculated for every planting or greening of a facade) • Horizontal loads: Wind loads (there is generally an 8:5 ratio of pressure to suction, suction loads may be higher around edge areas), traffic loads (e.g. impact loads) • Loads resulting from constraining forces caused by changes in volume due to variations in temperature or humidity Facade surface loads are usually transferred into the support structure’s floors, walls and supports. Vertical and horizontal loads can be borne and transferred separately into different structural components within the support structure. Standing and suspended facades A fundamental difference in load-bearing behaviour arises out of the question of whether a facade “hangs” or “stands”, whether planar or linear structural components have to be designed to cope with tensile forces and bending or with compressive forces and bending as well as buckling (stability problems). Suspended facades, where the dead weight imposed on the facade’s structural components is transferred into the support structure (e.g. into floor slabs), has become the estab-

lished method of building facades all over the world because of its basic advantages. • The structural component is in a stable position immediately after it is hung (in contrast to the less stable position of a standing structural component), which is of considerable importance for safety on the building site, especially in the construction of tall buildings. • A structural component’s own weight functions as a tensile force along its long axis and the prestressing that this produces has a “stabilising” effect (reduces buckling loads), avoiding an adverse superimposition of buckling forces resulting from compressive forces and bending. Suspended facades are more appropriate for surfaces with long spans, although they do not reduce deformations perpendicular to the plane of the facade to any significant extent. Anchor and sliding points If the facade and support structure are separate systems, they are subject to different temperature fluctuations and loads as well as the resulting changes in form, which makes it necessary to join them using unrestrained coupling with anchor and sliding points. Relative movements must be able to be absorbed in both directions (positive and negative tolerances). The interfaces between the two subsystems are sites where various trades, construction methods and structural tolerances usually meet, which is why fastenings must be adequately adjustable in all directions. Connections between structural components in facades that expand longitudinally to different extents (for loading, thermal and hygric reasons) must also be designed to be unconstrained so as to prevent damage.

29

Surfaces – structural principles

Principles Bending + normal forces

Slab only

Slab + bending beam

Support structures

It is an inherent feature of space-enclosing shells that planar structural components are the central elements of all facades. Depending on their support structure (Figs. A 2.1.9 and 2.1.10) facades are exposed to only normal forces (tensile and /or compressive forces) in their plane or to bending perpendicular to their plane. Planar elements can have linear load-bearing components such as truss systems, bending beams etc. attached to them, or these components can be integrated higher up in the structural hierarchy than the planar elements. Elements can be also combined to form hierarchically structured systems with primary and secondary load-bearing components. Planar and linear elements function either as structural units (e.g. T-beams, trussed slabs) or are separate, which can make planar structural components easier to remove and replace.

Slab + rear truss

Slab + edge reinforcement

Slab + threedimensional truss

Slab + cable ties

Slab + cable mesh

Slab + grid shell

Slabs A “slab” is a planar load-bearing element that transfers horizontal loads through bending loads (in one or two directions) perpendicular to its plane. Bending resistance and stability (with superimposed compressive forces) are determined mainly by the structural component’s depth (i.e. the component’s effective thickness perpendicular to plane of the facade). A component’s cross section, with materials concentrated at its edges, must be appropriately adapted to bear the loads imposed on it. Continuous spans can have the effect of reducing the bending moment. A simultaneous imposition of horizontal and vertical loads always causes a superimposition of bending moment and normal forces. Vertical forces can also be transferred through bending in the plane of a structural component, transferring forces horizontally to the sides.

The logic of such structures is based not only on an efficient use of materials for bearing loads in the completed structure; prefabrication and installation issues are also involved. Transport and installation processes can cause other loads and stresses, which must also be managed. It is often not permissible bending stresses, but restraining deflection and bending under loads – especially in glass structures – that is crucial in design.

Slabs + trussing Architects can use trussing to form a force-fit structural unit with slabs to increase components’ structural depth and also save materials. Trussing can be fixed to one or two sides. The slabs are additionally subjected to compressive forces in their planes. Connecting compression and tension members produces point loads, so potential problems caused by piercing have to be taken into account. Trussing does not cause any additional support forces that the primary support structure would have to absorb.

Gravity walls In walls whose structure cannot transfer tensile forces, the resulting vertical and horizontal forces must lie at the core of the wall’s base area to ensure that the structure remains stable and to prevent the formation of gaping joints. Horizontal forces neutralise the pressure from vertical loads. Here it can be advantageous for the structural component to bear not just its own weight but also vertical loads from roof and floor slabs, i.e. be part of the primary support structure (= load-bearing facade). Masonry exterior walls usually comply with this principle.

Slabs + bending beams Linear support structures subjected to bending, and possibly compressive forces as well, limit the spans of planar structural components. The beams accumulate the point and/or line loads of planar structural components (slabs) and transfer them as single loads by means of bending to structural components higher in the load-bearing hierarchy. If only wind loads are imposed, bending loads are uniaxial, but in both directions (wind suction and pressure). Superimposition of compressive forces and bending intensifies stability problems and there is a danger of buckling,

30

Folded plate

Shell made of polygonal surfaces

Rigid shell

Membrane, single layer

Pneumatic structure A 2.1.9

especially in the direction of a section’s weaker axis. Individual bending beams can be put together using links free of constraining forces to form extensive, curved or polygonal traverse support structures (e.g. post and beam facades). Manufacture, transport and installation considerations may limit the size of frame structures, although they can be combined with other structures or with each other to form prefabricated modular facades. Slabs + linear structures, exposed only to normal forces Linear support structures include: • Planar and three-dimensional trusses: structures made up of compression and tension members, suitable for broad spans • Cable trusses and nets: These prestressed structures can only absorb tensile forces and are only advisable if the building’s support structure can absorb the powerful tensile forces required for pretensioning without costly and complex additional measures. These delicate-looking structures are especially ideal for surfaces designed to look very transparent. • Grid shells Folded plate structures, shells, membranes Planar load-bearing structures that are only able to absorb tensile and/or compressive loads and stresses in their plane are especially suitable for absorbing evenly distributed planar loads. These systems are also designed to absorb bending loads when subjected to alternating planar loads and/or point loads. Appropriate prestressing ensures that membranes that can only absorb tensile loads and stresses will deform only slightly, even when they are subjected to alternating loads. Structures of planar facade components

Planar structural components can be classified into structures that can be built using different materials and are often combined. The variants shown in Figure A 2.1.11 do not represent an entire facade structure, but only the construction methods used to make layers or shells. A solid material slab designed to absorb bending

Surfaces – structural principles

Loads in the structural component

Load-bearing structure principles

Mainly only normal forces Compression only

Gravity (weight) principle

Compression + tension

Folded plate

Compression + perhaps tension

Shell

Tension only

Pneumatic structure Membrane structure

Bending and normal forces Bending + compressive forces

Standing slab

Bending + tensile forces

Suspended slab

A 2.1.9 Load-bearing structures for facades A 2.1.10 Loads in planar facade structural components subject to vertical and horizontal loads A 2.1.11 Overview of planar facade structural components

Continuous (solid material) a Basic material b Mix of materials, composite materials c Composite materials reinforced / fibre-reinforced

a

b

c

Structures containing a high proportion of air d Porous, foamed e Spherical structure f Three-dimensional grid/network

d

e

f

Structures with cavities g Cavities, chambers (point by point, linear) h Offset cavities i Multi-web double sheets

g

h

i

j

k

l

Layered structures, material-bonded m Linear units n Planar units o Linear and planar units

m

n

o

Sandwich structures p With a closed-cell core q Open, cellular core structure (honeycomb, webs etc.) r With a profiled core structure

p

q

r

Ribs / frames and slabs s Ribs with planks on both sides form a structural unit t Frames with planks on both sides form a structural unit u Frames and isolated infill

s

t

u

Profiled structures v Single profile w Trapezoidal profile x Corrugations

v

w

x

A 2.1.10

forces might be either the entire system of a storey-high, single-shell or single-layer structure or a small-scale element in exterior wall cladding. Among the criteria to be taken into account in selecting a suitable principle are: • Load-bearing capacity, depending on structural requirements (Fig. A 2.1.10) • The overall structural context: the component’s size, workability, connection options, joints, deformations, changes in length, degree of prefabrication, resistance to moisture and frost etc. • Structural physical properties: specific weight, thermal conductivity, thermal storage capacity, resistance to moisture vapour diffusion, translucence etc. • Visual effect Continuous structures In this context, a continuous structure is a solid section with an anisotropic or isotropic form. These planar structural components are prefabricated in factories or on site in formwork with joints between individual production steps. The structural components’ size and form depend on their materials and manufacture. They can be built to have specific loadbearing properties as reinforced (with metal rods, glass fibres, natural fibres, synthetic fibres etc.) composite materials designed to absorb tensile and/or compressive forces. This principle is also at work in solid material slabs designed to absorb bending forces and membranes made of composite material that can absorb only tensile forces. Structures containing large proportions of air or cavities Various manufacturing technologies can increase the amount of air in structural components with the following goals: • Reduction of weight and material • Decrease in thermal conductivity (= improving thermal insulation) • Creation of cavities for installations If the material can be concentrated at the components’ edges, their ability to absorb bending loads will probably only be slightly less than

Layered structures, friction-bonded and /or interlocking j Irregular units, friction-bonded (e.g. with mortar) k Regular units, friction-bonded and interlocking l Regular units, friction-bonded (e.g. with adhesive)

A 2.1.11

31

Surfaces – structural principles

that of solid sections. Substantially thinning out material in these areas will subject edge zones to tensile and compressive loads and expose webs to shear forces. Layered structures with frictional and/or positive form-fit bonding Layering small-format, irregular units without a binding agent is a traditional construction method which is still used in building facings. Enclosing units in metal mesh (gabions) section by section greatly increases their stability. Coordinated modular units of regular shape and size can be joined with frictional and / or positive form-fit bonds to form larger structural components. Building structures in small modular steps can make them easier to modify. Layered structures with fused bonding Rod-shaped, planar or three-dimensional structures (e.g. honeycombs, lattices) can be fused together (using mortar or adhesive, for example) to form larger planar components. One special form of this technique is sandwich construction. “Sandwich structures” Bonding thin-walled surface layers resistant to tensile and compressive forces together with a shear-resistant core (usually in a very open or porous structure) produces a structural unit that is highly resistant to bending and makes economical use of materials. Structures with well-insulated intermediate layers are generally suitable for producing light, opaque facade panels. Panels with ribs or frames Ribs/frames combined with planar panels and infill can mutually stabilise each other to produce planar structural components with very good load-bearing capacity that also make economical use of materials. Cavities can be filled with insulating materials. Profiled components This principle can be used to produce very rigid units with a minimal use of materials. A U-shaped or Z-shaped element is a profiled component, and they can be put together to form larger planar units. Profiled components can be made of various materials resistant to tensile and compressive forces by means of sheet metal and solid forming, extrusion or casting techniques (such as extrusion moulding). Joining facade components

Almost every facade is an assembly of individual structural components, and thereby creates a range of different joints that break through layers and shells (e.g. weatherproof envelope) and often form potential weak points, which have to be sealed as best as possible. In other cases, joints remain open so that

32

• Vapour pressure can be released • Air can flow in or escape (for rear ventilation) • Any accumulated facade water or condensation can run off • Relative movements are tolerated • Light can penetrate The very diverse “seams” between structural components require particular care and attention because many aspects relevant to construction can concentrate here (Fig. A 2.1.12). As well as functional and technical factors, joints can help to structure individual components and entire facades (inside and out) and emphasise geometric and structural orders. Joints in exterior facade surfaces are completely exposed to weather. The higher a building is, the greater the wind forces acting on it. At building edges, flows are concentrated and wind speeds higher. Rainfall can add to facade run-off water and accumulate as it flows down the building. The positioning of joints in the direction in which precipitation and facade water runs off, which is determined by gravity and wind, is an important factor in their loading. Joints parallel to the flow direction of facade water (vertical joints) are usually subject to lower loads than those that do not follow run-off direction. Changes in the volumes and lengths of adjoining structural components due to loads, temperature fluctuations and moisture absorption or release also impose loads on all kinds of joints. This is most evident in prefabricated modular facades, but weton-wet construction methods also do not form rigid structures. Principles of joint sealing

Joint sealing is designed to curb or prevent a mix of air and water (fluid) entering into a joint. Sealing elements at the edges of facade components are never completely seamless, so the sealing effect is always only relative. Only bonded materials create a complete seal. If a joint cannot be sufficiently closed with a sealing element in its plane, other strategies will be required. Seals that use several layers and various sealing elements (multilayer sealing systems) have proven their worth in this context. Joint sealing relies on a few basic principles that can be implemented in a wide range of ways (Fig. A 2.1.13). In choosing a sealing system, the extent to which and direction in which structural components will move or are expected to move is crucial [7]. Contactless sealing systems Structural components are deliberately kept at a specific distance from each other and their edges formed to impede flows due to turbulence in the joint. This principle allows for large relative movements and is appropriate for the first layer in a multilayer sealing system. The joint in a labyrinth seal is bent and folded in keeping with the overlapping principle.

Damp

Rain / facade water Capillary water Water vapour / condensation Ice formation, snow

Air /wind pressure

Airtightness / windtightness Reduction of wind pressure / suction Ventilation openings

Sound

Airborne sound Structure-borne sound

Light

Lighting UV-resistant joining material

Transfer of forces

Element – Element Substructure – Element

Compensation for tolerances

Manufacturing tolerances Installation tolerances Movement tolerances

Assembly

Adjustability, fixing Sequences Independence from weather

Maintenance

Necessity Options /access

Disassembly

Removability Recycling Reusability

Joint pattern

Overlapping Shadow gap Undercut Profiled Change of materials Colour A 2.1.12

Butt joints A butt joint between two structural components without any sealing element is the oldest form of contact seal (in Fig. A 2.1.13 not shown). The uneven surfaces mean that the gap can be reduced but not entirely closed, not even with elastic or plastic materials and the application of force. Overlapping Overlapping is the simplest, oldest and most effective sealing principle and is still used in many sealing systems. Overlapped elements must follow the flow direction of facade water. Figure A 2.1.14 shows examples of reliable facade water run-off over a horizontal joint without sealing elements based on overlapping principles. Some versions allow for horizontal movement between structural components (e.g. for opening sashes). Bonded material seals Bonded material seals are connections made with grouting or adhesive bonding or by welding, soldering, brazing or milling and can provide a complete seal in some cases. They can generally not withstand relative movements or can do so only to a limited extent.

Surfaces – structural principles

Basic principles

Examples (basic principles)

Open /contact-free

Gap sealing

Labyrinth seal

Labyrinth seal

Overlapping with or without contact pressure

Rebate

Tongue and groove

With contact pressure and cover profile

Material-bonded

Bond

Solder or braze

Weld

Sealing element without external contact pressure

Sealing compound

Porous profile

Chamber profile

Bellows membrane

Lipped profile

Brush seal

Flat seal

Profile gasket

Grooved gasket

Sealing element with external contact pressure

Sealing compounds Sealing compounds are suitable for uneven surfaces. Their sealing effect is based on an adhesive bond between the sealing element and sides of the joint. Rigid sealing compounds can produce load-bearing, friction-locking connections. Sealing compounds with plastic or elastic deformation properties can absorb slight relative movements. Mistakes made in using these compounds often only become apparent some time after completion. Porous and hollow-chamber profiles Porous and hollow-chamber profiles are larger than the joint’s maximum volume before they are installed and in a prestressed state when compressed. They can absorb slight relative movements across the joint axis, yet measures must be taken to prevent shifting if they are to withstand movements along the joint axis. The greater internal prestressing of hollowchamber profiles makes them more suitable for frequently alternating loads and larger movements in joint areas than porous profiles. Bellows membranes Bellows membranes can absorb large relative movements both across and along the joint axis. They can be inserted between adjoining structural components in various ways, such as a press-fit or adhesion.

Combinations

Examples

Contact-free + overlapping

Angled seal

Staggered labyrinth seal

Labyrinth seal

Material-bonded

Scarf

Finger joint

Sealing compound

Bellows membrane

H-profile

Sealing compound

Material-bonded + overlapping + sealing element

Overlapping + sealing element(s)

Other

Tongue and groove + Porous profile + sealing compound

+ Chamber profile

+ Sealing compound

+ Grooved gasket + Lipped profile

Joint tape

Fir tree gasket + seam sheet

Labyrinth seal as brush seal A 2.1.13

Lipped profile A lipped profile is an elastically deformable element with one or more sealing lips that internal spring forces press onto a structural component’s edges. They can absorb large translational movements parallel to a joint axis. Profiles with specific forms may also be able to absorb movement across a joint axis to a limited extent.

A 2.1.12 Aspects of joint formation A 2.1.13 Principles of joint sealing A 2.1.14 Examples of horizontal joints for draining off facade water, left: outside

Sealing elements that use contact pressure The application of external force can be used to tightly fit a sealing element’s surfaces to the edges of structural components. The contact pressure of profiled seals operates on small areas of the elements’ surfaces. Water is stopped from penetrating into cavities through capillary action, and wind pressure due to turbulence is reduced. Such joints can only barely withstand relative movements, and it is important that the sealing element stays in place. Combinations The basic principles outlined above can be combined to form more complex, very effective, usually multilayer sealing systems. A seal’s impermeability is always relative, so supplementary measures (e.g. glass rebate ventilation/drainage) should be taken to compensate for a possible complete or partial failure of sealing systems. A 2.1.14

33

Surfaces – structural principles

The principle of double sealing is that a first external seal prevents water on the surface from penetrating and a second seal, perhaps with a hollow-chamber profile, stops air from flowing through. Turbulence in the interstice (e.g. in labyrinth form) reduces wind pressure and any water that has penetrated can run off. Installation sequences

Two general principles govern the installation and dismantling of joints based on overlapping principles: • Individual elements can only be installed in a certain strict order and must be dismantled in precisely the opposite order. Individual elements in such a chain can only be exchanged with some restrictions and subsequent damage (e.g. of sealing elements or rebates). Special solutions may be required for joining and sealing reused or refitted structural components (e.g. in Fig. A 2.1.13, p. 33 “tongue and groove” and “grooved” components). • There is no fixed sequence for installing and dismantling individual structural components. Elements in the same system can be replaced (e.g. in Fig. A 2.1.13, p. 33 “gap ring”, “cover profile” and “sealing compound” joints). This is especially recommended if there is a risk of damage (e.g. in the plinth zone) and an element has to be replaced. From monolithic to multilayer / multi-shell

Homogeneous shell structures made primarily of just one material (often referred to as monolithic) are unlikely to meet the current increased thermal insulation demands made on building envelopes. Planners can precisely adapt a facade’s performance profile to meet certain requirements by creating differentiated structures that assign individual functions to different layers with a specific material and structure. Making layers or shells modifiable allows the building envelope’s properties to adapt to periodically changing external conditions. Individual layers and shells can be subsequently added or replaced, making it possible to adapt the building envelope to differing requirements during its use. This means that an outer weatherproof shell designed to be a “wearing course layer” can be renewed after a period of use without the underlying structure having to be changed. This principle can also be useful in subsequent retrofitting for renovating and optimising existing exterior wall structures. Assigning individual functions to layers and shells may, however, also have disadvantages depending on quality of the materials and construction methods chosen: • Creation of lots of interfaces between different materials and structural components with the risk of material incompatibilities • Increased number of joints and therefore of potential weak points

34

• Creation of uncontrolled cavities • Attachment problems: penetration of waterbearing or insulating layers, creation of bending moment in the anchoring of facing shells • Greater cost and effort involved in manufacture • Greater maintenance cost and effort • Building a wall may involve several trades and responsibilities, which can increase the cost and effort involved in coordinating them and result in overlapping liabilities • Problems in separating and thus disposing of individual layers The following tendencies are currently predominant: • Increasing performance of functional layers • Reducing the space required for layers (e.g. vacuum insulation) through to miniaturising of functional structures (e.g. prismatic light deflection systems less than 0.1 mm high) • Surface coatings using nanotechnology • Combination of several functions in a single polyvalent layer

Typical structures and how they work

Figure A 2.1.15 shows a selection of schematic representations of structures classified according to functional and structural criteria (see also “Classification of design solutions”, p. 27f.). The number and thickness of the layers and shells vary greatly. They can be divided into solid and lightweight structures and are suitable for temperate climate zones. Protection from driving rain Moisture-absorbing materials require protection from frost, and any moisture that may penetrate must be able to periodically completely evaporate. Facade water can be drained off through various layers. Some facade water will run off down the back of the cladding of ventilated weatherproof shells with open joints. This reduces the risk of soiling since less dirt is deposited on horizontal surfaces because it is regularly washed off. Windproofing Facades usually need to be windproof. The inner facade layer of a multilayer facade must be windproof, as must joints with other structural components.

The functions of layers and shells

The following functions (often also combined) can be allocated to individual layers or shells, e.g.: • Visual effects, information media • Mechanical protection • Protection from driving rain • Windproofing • Blocking /restricting of vapour permeability • Light refraction and diffusion • Reflection of light radiation and thermal radiation • Absorption of thermal radiation • Reflection of electromagnetic radiation • Absorption of sound • Reflection of sound • Heat storage • Reduction of heat transition • Transfer of loads • Discharge of heat • Absorption and release of water vapour • Conversion of solar energy into thermal or electrical energy Other layers may be formed based on structural requirements, e.g.: • Release of water vapour • Discharge of condensation or surface water • Balancing out unevenness • Layers for material-bonded joints (adhesive layers) • Measures for stabilising layers (e.g. preventing thermal insulation layers from swelling) • Substructures for connecting layers and shells • Separating layers that are required because of materials incompatibilities • Sliding layers allowing for unrestrained movement

Thermal insulation Material layers that trap a large proportion of stationary air guarantee good insulating properties. Open-pored insulating materials that can absorb moisture and water through capillary action, which greatly impairs their functioning, must be effectively protected from moisture. Water vapour diffusion The water vapour diffusion resistance of layers must generally diminish from the inside to the outside to prevent condensation from forming in a structural component (and avoid steam traps). Condensation that collects in wall structures during the heating period must be able to evaporate completely in warmer seasons. Rear ventilation Effective rear ventilation of a facing shell requires a distance of at least 20 mm between cladding and shell and adequate ventilation openings of at least 50 cm2 for every metre of wall length [8] to efficiently release moisture (infiltrated facade water and/or condensation) and heat (in summer). Layers of stationary air (no rear ventilation) have an additional insulation effect. Heat storage Inside layers with good heat storage capacity can be activated to help regulate the interior climate. Sun shading Sun shading devices that reduce the input of energy through layers that are permeable to solar radiation are most effective mounted outside. Their rear ventilation counteracts the

Surfaces – structural principles

Not permeable Not modifiable

Not permeable Not modifiable

Not permeable Not modifiable

Not permeable Not modifiable

Not permeable Energy producing Modifiable

Load-bearing or non-loadbearing Single-layer Single-shell Not rear-ventilated

Load-bearing or non-loadbearing Multilayer Single-shell Not rear-ventilated

Load-bearing or non-loadbearing Multilayer Double-layer Not rear-ventilated

Load-bearing or non-loadbearing Multilayer Double-shell Rear-ventilated

Load-bearing or non-loadbearing Multilayer Triple-shell Rear-ventilated (outermost shell)

Material structure determines performance; can only be adjusted by changing the wall thickness; any moisture that has penetrated must be able to periodically completely evaporate

Improved insulation due to the insulation layer; inner and outer wear and protective layer; heat storage capacity can be used to heat the interior

Robust external shell provides physical protection for the insulation layer and against driving rain; outer and inner shells may be partly connected, but do not form a structural unit

Facing shell can be exchanged; mounting may not be allowed to impede rising airflows; condensation and any penetrating moisture are safely extracted; ventilation openings required

Rear-ventilated shell made of light-deflecting louvres; translucent shell with transparent insulation in front of a solid absorber; overall structure opaque; energy production modifiable and can be regulated with control circuit technology

Not permeable Not modifiable

Not permeable Not modifiable

Permeable (light) Not modifiable

Permeable (light) Not modifiable

Permeable (light) Modifiable and regulated

Load-bearing or non-loadbearing Multilayer Single-shell Not rear-ventilated

Load-bearing or non-loadbearing Multilayer Double-layer Rear-ventilated

Non-load-bearing Single-layer Single-shell

Non-load-bearing Single-layer Double-shell Rear-ventilated or not rearventilated

Non-load-bearing Multilayer Single-shell

Lightweight structure; inner and outer layer usually joined to form a structural unit; vapour trap prevented by a barrier on the inside; as stud wall also part of the loadbearing structure; sandwich structures are a special case

External, rear-ventilated wear and protective layer; diffusion resistance declines towards the outside; separate wind protection layer; inner lining is a separate layer

The structure itself is not energyproducing, even though it is permeable to solar energy, which is absorbed by structural components in the interior; no insulation

Low level of insulation because air circulates in the cavity (heat losses due to convection); shells do not form structural unit; risk of condensation forming in the cavity

Functional unit made of several translucent or light-refracting layers, with reflecting layers if required; permeability to light can be modified

Permeable (to light) Modifiable

Permeable (light) Modifiable

Permeable (light and air) Modifiable

Permeable (light) Not modifiable

Permeable (light) Not modifiable

Non-load-bearing Multilayer Single-shell

Non-load-bearing Multilayer Double-shell Rear-ventilated

Non-load-bearing Multilayer Four-shell Rear-ventilated

Non-load-bearing Multilayer Single-shell

Non-load-bearing Single or multilayer Double-shell

Good thermal insulation due to two stationary layers of air / inert gas and possibly reflective coating (Low-E); adjustable or fixed louvres as rear-ventilated facing shell

Double facade, outer and inner glazing; openable, air cavity between shells has controlled ventilation, louvres and glare protection on the inside; separate shell for regulating permeability to light

Pneumatic structure with translucent layers that form a single structural unit, depending on the system, i.e. a single-shell structure

Membranes as two structurally separate shells; layer of air or controlled ventilation for extracting water vapour and heat; but there are heat losses due to convection

Functional unit made of several translucent layers; improved insulating due to thermal insulation; permeability to light can be modified and is self-regulating, with thermotropic glass, for example

Opaque material structure

Translucent material structure

Opaque thermal insulation

Translucent thermal insulation

Light-refracting system

Rear ventilation

Windproofing

Vapour barrier

Reflection of radiation

Light refraction, glare protection

A 2.1.15 Structures /assemblies of layers and shells perpendicular to the plane of the facade, left: outside

35

Surfaces – structural principles

a

b

c A 2.1.16

F Vertical loads C = T = M/h

h

T C

heating of surfaces that would otherwise radiate heat into the interior. Such functional layers have the characteristics of shells.

e M=Fxe

Connecting layers and shells A 2.1.17 Point-by-point Linear Planar

Geometry

Detachable

Detachability

Not detachable Method

Interlocking bond Friction-locked, load-bearing bond Material bond

Loads and stresses

Compression Tension Bending Shear Torsion Not sliding

Movability

Sliding in one direction Sliding in two directions Not adjustable

Adjustability

In one direction In two directions In three directions A 2.1.18

a

b

c

d

e

f

A facade’s functional layers are identified as layers or shells depending on the degree of their structural autonomy. Layers are not or only somewhat load-bearing and /or parts of a superordinate structural unit, such as structurally-irrelevant foils and coatings, layers of air, insulation, layers of plaster, individual panes in multi-pane insulating glazing and individual membranes in a pneumatic structure. Shells are largely load-bearing structures ranging from partly up to entirely three-dimensional and/or structurally autonomous. A shell can consist of several layers, such as the inner and outer skin of a double facade, structural components separated by air layers (e.g. rear ventilation) or non-load-bearing layers of insulation. A facade structure (e.g. post and beam) either joins several shells that are high up in the loadbearing structural hierarchy or joins them as the substructure (e.g. to brackets) of a structurally subordinate component (e.g. a facing shell) to a component higher up in the loadbearing structural hierarchy. In the latter case the vertical loads of the subordinate shell due to the distance e (= lever arm effect) cause a bending moment, which must be absorbed by the substructure or shell that is higher in the

A 2.1.19

36

Layers and shells must be put together to form a structural unit, the facade. Functional and structural physical aspects are more important in determining the sequence of their installation than construction issues are. A functional layer will be exposed to various loads depending on its position in the structure. Some planar structural components, due to their material properties and/or thicknesses, are not or only somewhat able to absorb and transfer forces (e.g. thin foils, soft fibrous insulation, fills, layers of air etc.). Clear load-bearing hierarchies that establish which structural components bear which planar structural element are therefore required.

load-bearing structural hierarchy. Figure A 2.1.17 shows that increasing the distance h between attachment points can greatly reduce the compressive and tensile forces that have to be transferred. This does not affect shear loads, although wind suction also subjects attachments to tensile forces. Anchorings or attachments for facing shells often penetrate thick layers of insulation, creating a powerful lever arm effect. Connecting elements made of materials like metals that conduct heat well can become “thermal bridges” on which condensation can accumulate, requiring the metals used to be rustproof. Not even galvanised zinc-coated steel connections are permissible here [9]. Insulating material must be tightly packed around connecting elements to ensure that such structural weak points are not further weakened. It is also advisable to minimise cross sections through which heat can escape. Another strategy is to use plastic spacers to create a thermal separation between the connecting element or connection. Drip edges over connecting elements perpendicular to the structure prevent facade water, melt water, dew or condensation from getting into insulating layers or other layers or shells by means of adhesion. Connecting layers is less problematic than connecting shells because layers are generally closer together. Attachments should impair or penetrate functional layers (e.g. weatherproof shells, sealing layers, windproofing, moisture barriers, thermal insulation) as little as possible so as not to impair their effectiveness and to keep the risk of structural-physical problems and resulting damage to the building to a minimum. Uncontrolled cavities and continuous penetrative joints should always be avoided (so joints should be staggered). Layers of air between shells should generally be ventilated and drained. Horizontal substructures must not be allowed to constrict necessary ventilation cavities. Air cavities must be permanently protected from small animals (insects, small rodents) by means of gratings, perforated sheets or nets.

Surfaces – structural principles

A 2.1.16 Spatial and structural aspects resulting from the addition of functional layers: a At a distance, not joined b At a distance, joined via a substructure c No gap, directly joined, no substructure A 2.1.17 Interplay of forces involved in attaching facing shells A 2.1.18 Criteria for attaching layers and shells A 2.1.19 Attachments of planar structural components a Planar b Linear, perpendicular c Linear, horizontal d Linear, circumferential e Point by point f Point by point A 2.1.20 Examples of substructures for facing shells (top: vertical section, bottom: horizontal section)

a

b

c

d

e

f A 2.1.20

Direct contact of functional layers with each other or between connecting elements must be prevented if there is a risk of material incompatibilities from corrosion (galvanic or contact corrosion). This type of corrosion can also occur in metals not in direct contact if there is a risk of water acting as a medium. Attachment strategies There are various ways of connecting layers to each other or shells to substructures (and vice versa). The following must be taken into account: • Secure transfer of all loads • Constraint-free supports for structural components with anchor and sliding points • Stipulation of installation sequences and possible subsequent replaceability • Identification of interfaces between different trades and firms • The adjustability of connecting structural components made by different trades and those manufactured with differing tolerances Attaching facing shells Facing shells and rear-ventilated cladding are attached by means of substructures (leaving space for insulation and /or rear ventilation) to planar structural components higher in the loadbearing structural hierarchy. For taller buildings, suspended (top-supported) installation is preferable to standing (bottom-supported) installation. Several types of substructures are available (see Fig. A 2.1.20): a Posts b Beams c and d Vertical and horizontal load-bearing elements, rear ventilation and draining must not be impaired by horizontal load-bearing elements; variant d is problematic in this respect e Substructure made of tension /compression members and diagonal suspension to absorb vertical loads, or combinations with other linear load-bearing elements (vertical or horizontal) f Brackets clamped into the load-bearing shell; combinations with other linear load-bearing elements (vertical or horizontal) are another possible solution

Which principle is appropriate in a particular case depends on the following factors: • Size and weight of individual planar structural components in the cladding • Options available for attaching facade cladding (e.g. transfer of forces that is linear or at points) • Requirements due to rear ventilation • Options for attachments to and loading of shells higher up in the structural hierarchy (Can large tensile forces be transferred and absorbed, for example?) • Structural and physical aspects (significance and risk of thermal bridges) Very heavy facing shells or other elements (balconies, trellises etc.) attached to the front of thermally separated envelopes should have their own structure and perhaps a foundation for transferring vertical forces. Shells only then have to be anchored to transfer horizontal forces and prevent buckling. Adjusting connections The following strategies can be used to make connections adjustable: • Underlay or lining • Spacer screws and bolts • Fasteners that can slide in long slots or on rails (e.g. Halfen channels) • Connections in oversized slots that are subsequently filled in • Available and sufficient options for positioning fasteners on surfaces offering a material bond (an adhesive surface or “welding embedment”), very precise setting of screws, bolts and dowels etc. in installation

Notes [1] VDI-Richtlinie 2221: Düsseldorf 1993. p. 39f. VDI-Richtlinie 2222: Düsseldorf 1997, p. 5f. [2] VDI-Richtlinie 2221: Düsseldorf 1993. p. 39f: “Effect: an invariable, predictable occurrence resulting from physical, chemical or biological natural laws.” [3] The revised classification builds on typological investigations carried out during a research projects on building envelopes: Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Gebäudehülle. Synoptische Darstellung maßgeblicher baulicher Subsysteme der Gebäudehülle mit Schutz- und Steuerungsfunktionen als Voraussetzung für die experimentelle Arbeit an ihrer energetischen und baukonstruktiven Optimierung. Abschlussbericht (unpublished). TU Munich 2000. Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Synoptical Description of Decisive Subsystems of the Building Skin. In: Pontenagel, Irm: Building a New Century. 5th Conference Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban Planning. Proceedings. Published by Eurosolar. Bonn 1999, p. 306 – 310 [4] Nitz, Peter; Wagner, Andreas: Schaltbare und regelbare Verglasungen. Published by Fachinformationszentrum Karlsruhe. BINE Themeninfo, I/02. Karlsruhe 2002 [5] The definition of shells in the literature is inconsistent and partly contradictory. The definition made here seems to be the most plausible. Confusion is caused when the classification refers only to a specific type of structure (e.g. a single-layer concrete wall) and not to the whole envelope system (e.g. a double-shelled structure with a concrete wall and an aluminium profiled sheet metal weatherproof shell). See “Connecting layers and shells”, p. 36f. [6] Herzog, Thomas; Nikolic, Vladimir: Petrocarbona Außenwandsystem. Bexbach 1972 [7] The description and to some extent classification of joint sealing systems is based on the following research report: Scharr, Roland; Sulzer, Peter: Beiträge zum methodischen Vorgehen in der Baukonstruktion. Außenwanddichtungen. Published by the VDI. Düsseldorf 1981. It used scientific methods to investigate and demonstrate “elements and structures of sealing systems in exterior walls with an analysis of built structures” in construction. [8] See DIN 18 516 Part 1: Berlin 1999. This does not apply to “small-format slabs” with a surface ≤ 0.4 m2 and dead weight ≤ 5 kg [9] See DIN EN ISO 8044: 2015-12 Corrosion of metals and alloys and DIN 18 516 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at the rear

37

Edges, openings

A 2.2 Edges, openings

Edges So far, we have dealt with building envelopes as continuous surfaces and their structure in terms of thickness. Surfaces in and around a building envelope are, however, finite, so every surface is also defined by its edges. When the structural, functional and design properties of a building envelope change, they can be described as different definable areas. Any change in their properties is usually one of permeability. Openings are the parts of a building envelope permeable to flows of energy and materials, which is generally the case when the parts can be opened entirely, e.g. the sashes of windows [1]. It therefore seems expedient to expand the word “opening” to include the link to the physical process. A skylight, for example, is an opening in a roof through which light can enter. A change in properties (performance) also involves a change in structure. The word “edges” as used in this chapter refers not to the edges of an individual structural component that is put together with many similar parts to form a whole (e.g. bricks in masonry), but rather to transitions from a planar surface to an opening.

ings should be modifiable because fluctuations in exterior conditions are pitted against a desire for stable conditions inside. Openings in the building envelope mediate between inside and out and control the exchange between the interior and exterior climate. Individual parameters such as heat, light, air, sound, moisture etc. can be summed up by the term “regulation of permeability”, for which elements that close openings are used [2]. The most familiar of these is the window, which through appropriate material lets light in, even when they are closed, although air can only be exchanged if the window sashes are open, through slot ventilation between the sash and the frame, or through adjustable slits in the frame. The functions of lighting and ventilation can of course be provided separately. The simplest form is fixed glazing with a separate (opaque) sash for ventilation [3]. The advent of extensively glazed facades (e.g. in greenhouses) in the 18th century and construction of buildings like the Crystal Palace in London (1851) and the Glaspalast in Munich (1854) represented a transformation. A window, once a transparent element in an opaque wall surface, was now an opening element in an entirely transparent facade. Analogous to windows in a solid wall, the openable elements of a (transparent) glass facade were also called windows.

The reveal

A reveal’s depth depends primarily on the surrounding wall structure (Fig. A 2.2.5, p. 41). Reveals can be increased in size by adding additional elements, but cannot be made smaller. The reveal’s geometric form has a direct influence on daylight entering the building and on views and lines of sight. Figure A 2.2.4, p. 40 illustrates some basic features. The design of reveal surfaces is connected with the (structural) terminations of structural components used in and around openings (e.g. windows). A reveal can also help to reflect daylight into the interior. As well as geometry, the properties of specific surfaces must be taken into account here. The depth of the reveal is always in proportion to the opening size, and it in turn in relation to the wall’s surface. A facade’s external threedimensional effect is largely created by the offsetting of individual areas of the facade and the resulting shadows. Structural aspects involved in building reveals include: • Transferring wind loads • Dissipating the structure’s own weight • Sealing against wind, precipitation etc.

Position and geometry

An opening’s arrangement and geometric shape are always related to the space behind it. Its position and geometric form affect daylight levels inside, ventilation and users’ views of the outside. An opening’s position is always related to its use in horizontal and vertical positions. A change of floor plan usage can modify the horizontal relationship to openings. In contrast, it is not usually possible to modify the relative vertical arrangements of openings because of the difficulty of raising or lowering a room’s floor. Vertical structuring of the facade surface The facade of a storey can generally be divided into three areas (Fig. A 2.2.2, p. 40): • Upper window area (a) • Eye-level area, from the interior looking out (b) • Floor to parapet area (c)

Openings

The following terms describe upper and lower areas around openings (areas around edges) in punctuated facades. • “Lintel area” describes the area above a window /door up to the roof • “Dado area” describes the area under a window /door down to the floor

Openings in the building envelope are indispensable for using the interior and supplying it with light and air. Their protective and supply functions mean that the permeability of open-

A 2.2.1 House, Paderborn (DE) 1995, Thomas Herzog and Andrea Heigl

39

Edges, openings

a

a

a

b

b

b

d

c

e

c

c A 2.2.2

Lines of sight A desire for fresh air is often accompanied by a desire to stand directly at an opening (an open window), so manual operation of moveable closures and contact with the outside must be taken into account in planning openings. The opening should allow for this as well as closing the inside off from the exterior. Here a distinction is made between visual and physical links. The figures below indicate a user’s average visual axis based on various positions in the room [4]: • ca. 175 cm standing • ca. 130 cm sitting down to work • ca. 80 cm sitting on the floor • ca. 70 cm lying down (at a height of 30 cm) An opening’s position and partitioning must be adapted to its type of use and position. Light

The amount of light entering a space through a facade diminishes in the space’s depths (Fig. A 2.2.3 [5]) and is measured in the form of the daylight factor (DF). It specifies ratios of illumination levels inside and out (only diffuse light) under standard conditions as a percentage [6]. The external factors influencing interior light are: • The structure’s orientation • Time of day • Local solar radiation conditions (climatic conditions, local shade from the surroundings, such as from vegetation and /or other buildings) The positioning and geometry of openings in the facade is of fundamental importance in this context. High window openings let more light into the depths of rooms. A room’s actual luminance is largely determined by the reflectivity of interior surfaces, which in turn depends heavily on the predominant colours [7].

40

A 2.2.3 Ventilation

Put simply, ventilation is “the exchange of air in a space for outside air” [8]. Enough air should be exchanged in a space to meet hygienic demands, taking structural physical aspects into account (removal of pollutants in the air, discharge of moisture). Based on their drive forces, a distinction is made between mechanical ventilation (which moves air mechanically) and free ventilation, also called natural ventilation. Natural ventilation moves air by using differences in pressure between the inside and outside. These pressure differentials result from the following forces that are produced by natural conditions [9]: • Wind forces: differences in pressure between inside and outside caused by wind impacting the facade result in the exchange of air • Thermal lift: forces that arise due to differences in density because of temperature differences (thermal stratification). When wind pressure increases, thermal lift adds to its force. Figure A 2.2.6 [10] shows the basic principle of air exchange through a facade opening due to thermal stratification without the influence of wind. There is no movement of air in the area of the imagined plane N (neutral zone). Changing the opening’s vertical position and the influence of wind forces can shift this plane vertically. As well as the formation and positioning of ventilation openings in a facade, their variability is a crucial factor in the context of the physical properties of the building’s envelope and mass [11]. Continuous ventilation requires small ventilation openings that are easy to regulate. Particular attention must be paid to interior airflows because this kind of ventilation continues for a long period. • Ventilation from one side: To make efficient use of thermal lift, two openings should be positioned at the greatest possible vertical distance from each other. Systems that are easy to regulate prevent undesirable cooling and draughts.

A 2.2.4

• Cross ventilation: To make use of thermal lift in this case, the vertical distance between the air intake and air outlet should be as large as possible. This distance is not important in systems that employ wind-induced pressure differences. Brief, intensive periods of ventilation require openings with the largest possible ventilation cross-sections: • Ventilation from one side: The neutral zone in the middle of the opening means that the surface can be divided into two parts by a vertical distance. • Cross ventilation: Air flows through in only one direction. The exchange of air as well as the movement of air are relevant considerations in ensuring comfort [12], including: • Air speeds at interior air intakes • Maximum air speeds occurring in the room • Average air speed in the room • Average air speed at occupant levels (1 metre above the floor) The upper limit value of air speed for comfort is regarded as 0.2 m/s. In office and administration buildings in particular, paper will be blown about at this air speed [13]. A draught is defined as the “undesirable local cooling of the human body” by a flow of air [14]. There are no absolute values governing draughts, which is why reference is often made to a “risk of draughts” [15]. To prevent draughts, it is preferable to distribute air entering the room through the space as much as possible. Problems in the “comfortable incoming air supply” arise in summer with the ingress of warm outside air and in winter with draughts resulting from the ingress of cold outside air (which cold air downdraughts at the facade adds to). Distributed building technology for preheating or cooling incoming air in and around facade openings can counteract this problem.

Edges, openings

a

A 2.2.3 Influence of the position and size of openings on incoming daylight levels a Middle b Low c High A 2.2.4 Influence of the shape of the reveal (in a wall of even thickness with the same form on all sides) a Parallel b Sloping outwards c Sloping inwards d Parallel, trapezoid, sloping inwards e Parallel, trapezoid, sloping outwards A 2.2.5 Influence of wall thickness on lighting levels from daylight and views a Thick wall b Thin wall A 2.2.6 Principle of the exchange of air through facade openings resulting from temperature stratification without the influence of wind forces, neutral zone N at 1/2 H

Exchange of air resulting from temperature stratification, with the influence of wind, neutral zone at 1/2 H Height (H)

A 2.2.2 Areas of a facade, based on usage a Upper window area b Eye-level area c Floor to parapet

Neutral zone (N)

Warm

Cold

b A 2.2.5

The effect of mechanical ventilation is more predictable than fluctuations in external conditions, so observations and investigations often only deal primarily with mechanical ventilation. Only in recent years have we seen an increase in approaches that take fluctuating conditions involving free ventilation into account in simulations and measurements. Increasing knowledge of natural ventilation and the growing importance of using environmental energy, especially solar energy, has resulted in more consideration being given to windows for ventilation. Aerodynamic factors affecting air intakes (gaps in partly opened windows, profile formation) must be defined for windows as they are for mechanical ventilation, for which precise figures are available on all components. Some effects familiar from air-conditioning technology can be applied to windows. Displacement ventilation, which uses relatively low air speeds, spatially separates incoming air from exhaust air in a displacement flow moving upwards. Air enters at a low temperature in a stratum near the floor (laminar stratification of incoming air near the floor), and internal heat sources use thermal lift to draw air out of the incoming air layer and extract exhaust air at ceiling height. Displacement ventilation is usually used together with mechanical ventilation and can also be used with natural ventilation if ventilation openings in the facade allow incoming air to enter the room at floor level. The Coandă effect can be used to make the ingress of incoming air as deep as possible into a space. When laminar jets of air are blown through slots not right under the ceiling but somewhat lower than it, the turbulence induced causes the jet to follow a surface, “sticking” to it in a sense. This effect, familiar from mechanical ventilation and sometimes called the turbulence boundary surface effect [16], can be applied to window ventilation under certain conditions. An exterior air flow is directed along smooth surfaces as tangential

A 2.2.6

ventilation. The very low levels of turbulence ensure that this system is also effective in the depths of the room. The surfaces must be very close to the air intake. The position and geometry of incoming air openings (window aperture positions) must also be taken into account. The lower the temperature of supply air compared with interior air, the greater the risk of draughts. Exterior air entering a room can be pre-warmed by positioning incoming air openings adjacent to heat sources. The incoming air should be able to warm up from structural components by means of convection. Window ventilation is only possible at a certain outdoor temperature, if the guidelines established to maintain comfort are to be complied with. Depending on the type of window, an outdoor temperature of 0 to 6 °C has been specified as the lowest limit [17]. When outside temperatures are close to the range required for comfort, incoming air should be able to reach users in the room as directly as possible without being heated by warm structural components. When outside temperatures are high, incoming air can be cooled (slightly) by cooler structural components by means of convection. Effective thermal masses can release the thermal energy absorbed during night time ventilation or as structural components cool. Window ventilation can only be of limited use on days when outside-air temperatures are high, if comfort is to be maintained. The positioning of ventilation openings in the facade and type of ventilation (ventilation from one side or cross ventilation) determine the depths of the room at which free ventilation through openings in the facade is effective. The type of ventilation can also make a major contribution to comfort. Without referring to specific details on the arrangement of the opening sash, the general rule of thumb is that rooms that can only be ventilated from one side are regarded as being able to be “naturally ventilated” up to a maximum room depth of 2.5 times the clear height (H). For

cross ventilation, the maximum possible room depth is up to 5 times the clear height [18]. If ventilation is on one side and an opening is set high up, ventilation is effective up to a room depth of up to 2 H. Adding a lower and an upper opening increases the effectiveness to up to 3 H [19]. These figures are not at all absolute and can only serve as rough guides. The type of opening has not been taken into account. Small window openings must be precisely positioned and formed because an airtight building envelope magnifies the effect of streams of air in the room like a jet effect. If ventilation cannot be regulated by means of window openings, additional elements (e.g. flaps) can be set into the facade. The tables in DIN 5034 specifying a minimum window size for dwellings refer to adequately supplying rooms with daylight and the size of ventilation openings cannot be deduced from them.

Changing permeability Structural devices can influence permeability. Rigid and modifiable, i.e. moveable elements can be used to do this. Rigid elements

Solar radiation and climatic conditions vary over the course of the day and year, so the effects of immoveable elements change with them (shading, reflection, light refraction) depending on the sun’s height. Various principles can be used to provide shade (Fig. A 2.2.8, p. 42): • Complete direct coverage of the facade surface • A projecting element • The addition of other, smaller elements (e.g. louvre or grid structures) Louvre structures can be divided into two categories based on their positioning, orientation and the related height of the sun:

41

Edges, openings

a

b A 2.2.7

• Horizontal louvres angled appropriately can prevent sunrays hitting a south-facing surface at a steep angle from penetrating inside a building. • Vertical louvres can keep sunlight striking an east or west-facing facade at a shallow angle out of the building. Both principles can provide shade while also allowing building occupants to see out (Fig. A 2.2.7). Moveable elements

The chapter on “Manipulators” (p. 266ff.) deals in detail with moveable and modifiable elements in and around openings and shows examples. The observations below deal with moveable windows. Windows are primarily characterised by the possibility of partially opening and closing the building envelope. Of all a window’s various possible features (material, type of movement, structure of the window frame, attachment to the wall) the type of opening (type of sashes), with its function of opening the facade, defines a window’s structural and design characteristics. The various kinds of window openings can be further classified as types by defining four considerations (Fig. A 2.2.9) [20]: • Movability • Degree of movability • Type of movement • Other distinguishing characteristics First consideration: movability of the facade surface Facade surfaces can be divided into fixed and openable based on their movability. Window openings are classified based on static (loadbearing) and structural aspects (elements for fixed glazing and moveable sashes). The size of individual transparent fields depends on the availability of materials (e.g. panes of glass) and defines the window’s partitioning.

42

a

b

c

d

e

f A 2.2.8

Second consideration: degree of movability A window’s degree of movability is determined by its freedom of movement, which is in turn governed by the window’s frame and sash structure and type of fittings. Third consideration: type of movement Windows can be further differentiated based on the way they move. This movement is often also reflected in the term used for the window. • Partial change of place, movement around a vertical axis (rotation): - Pivoting window - Side-hung window • Partial change of place, movement around a horizontal axis (rotation): - Hopper window - Top-hung window - Pivoting window • Movement involving a complete change of place without changing the element (translation): - Sliding window - Push-out window • Movement involving a complete change of place and element (transformation): - Folding window - Roller shutter • Combinations The folding windows usually used are in fact often windows with pivoting panes whose entire surface is not folded but consists of several individual frames, in contrast, for example, to the folding walls used as partitions, where the entire wall surface folds. A facade as part of the building envelope has the fundamental function of vertically separating two spaces. The types of window movements can therefore also be differentiated in a secondary consideration by their relationship to the facade plane – usually outside /inside and upper / lower, e.g.:

Edges, openings

Facade surfaces

Fixed surfaces

Opening surfaces

Partial change of place

Movement around a vertical axis (rotation)

Turning

Inside

Outside

Translucency

Pivoting

Complete change of place

Movement around a horizontal axis (rotation)

Tilting

Inside

Fold out

Outside

Materials

Inside

No change to the element (translation)

Swing out

Outside

Number of moveable sashes

Sliding

Horizontal

Structural principles

Vertical

Element changes (transformation)

Push out

Outside

Folding

Inside

Drive

Horizontal

Vertical

Position locking

Rolling

Horizontal

Vertical

Load-bearing A 2.2.9

• Turning: inwards /outwards • Folding: inwards /outwards • Sliding: horizontal (to the right / left) / vertical (upwards /downwards) Further distinguishing features Distinctions can also be made in this context based on construction principles and resulting features. As well as distinctions made for all moveable surfaces based on the number of sashes, specific features also define types of opening. The number of sashes (moveable sashes, those that lock in place or can be moved only for cleaning or maintenance, fixed surfaces) can indicate varieties of possible openings. One distinguishing feature that has gained in importance in the context of controlled natural ventilation is the way sashes are moved, which can be manual or mechanical. Specific construction principles involve various types of openings, so they can only be differentiated by the principles of their movement. Some features are based primarily on construction and only secondarily on the opening mechanism, regardless of the opening’s typological classification. Performance range of the type of movement

Movement mechanisms have various features that are of fundamental importance because of their influence on function, construction and design [21]. The performance range of an openable element in the building envelope is made up of functional properties (Fig. A 2.2.10, p. 44): Architects need a precise knowledge of types of movement and related performance profiles to make effective use of windows as components of the building envelope in terms of energy balance and user comfort. [22]. Possible combinations

The terms used highlight the diversity of the types of movements of windows resulting from

possible combinations: • Side-hung window with side-hung or sliding fittings • Side-hung hopper (turn and tilt) • Top-hung window: push-out, top-hung window • Folding (combination of pivoting and sliding movement) • Folding window: folding, sliding window • Pivot-hung window; pivoting /sliding window • Pivoting window • Sliding windows: upwards sliding, lift and slide, hanging, drop-sliding, drop, horizontal lift and slide • Parallel push out sash; tilt and parallel sash; turn and parallel sash Types of movement have developed through individual steps into a multitude of variations. Some types from the middle of the last century that are now largely no longer produced are still frequently found in existing buildings. Such windows are no longer used because of joint sealing problems, among others, and higher modern structural physical requirements that involve heavier panes and make much higher demands on fittings and frames. In tackling joint sealing problems, an adequate exchange of air has become less important than reduced heat losses (partial optimisation), instead of solving the problem in its context.

Building with facade elements A building envelope cannot usually be made in one piece, so it has to be worked on in individual pieces during construction. Some fundamental terms used in scientific systems have been expanded to stipulate five steps for architecture in this context, resulting in the following series of classifications (Fig. A 2.2.11, p. 45):

• • • • •

System Subsystem Structural element /component Element Material

The choice of scale or section considered can result in a shift in this system (e.g. in urban development: city = system, building = element). Assembly and installation sequences Construction processes involve the chronological progress of assembly, and until construction is complete, there are various intermediate states. Depending on the situation, external conditions can influence construction. In inner cities, in particular, materials for large construction projects can only be transported to a certain extent. Climatic conditions also directly influence construction processes. Changing weather conditions can result in delays that affect the entire further construction process. Erecting a facade as protection from the weather makes it possible to continue erecting the building largely independent of changes in the weather.

A 2.2.7 Shading from louvres: influence of orientation a South-facing facade: horizontal louvres b East / west-facing facade: vertical louvres A 2.2.8 Principles of sun shading: screening / filtering of direct sunlight a Projection: screening b Projection: shading due to the screen and reflection for use of daylight c Louvre structure: screening d Louvre structure: screening and reflection for use of daylight e Covering: screening f Filtering: perforation A 2.2.9 Typological classification of types of movement of windows

43

Edges, openings

Comparison of window movement types to determine their performance profile

Side-hung window opening inwards

Pivoting window

Hopper window

Top hung window

Horizontal pivot window

Horizontal sliding window

Vertical sliding window

Push-out window

Obstruction of usable floor space related to the depth of the room

opening width

1/2 opening width

minimal

none (if outward opening)

1/2 opening width

none

none (if outward opening)

none

Options for installation in high-traffic areas

yes (if outward opening)

no

yes

yes (if outward opening)

only if opening is limited

yes

yes (if outward opening)

yes

Views through: maximum clear aperture and partitioning

100 %

100 % with vertical partitioning

no clear aperture

no clear aperture

100 % with horizontal partitioning

50 % with vertical partitioning

50 % with horizontal partitioning

no clear aperture

Geometric description of the minimum /smallest opening area possible

1≈ gap at the side, top and bottom angled

2≈ gaps at sides top and bottom 2≈ angled

2≈ gaps at sides angled, top slot aperture

2≈ gaps at sides angled, bottom, slot aperture

4≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides top and angled, top slot aperture bottom and bottom, slot aperture

Geometric description of the maximum / largest opening area possible

complete opening area

complete opening area, perpendicular partitioning

2≈ gaps at sides angled, top slot aperture

2≈ gaps at sides angled, bottom, slot aperture

complete opening area, horizontal partitioning

50 % of opening area as perpendicular partitioning

50 % of opening circumferential area as gap horizontal partitioning

Suitability for slot ventilation

limited

limited

limited

limited

limited

good

good

good

Suitability for complete opening for brief, intensive airing

good

good

no

no

good

good

good

no

Adjustability of openings

only with extra fitting

only with extra fitting

only for maximum tilt position

with the fitting used for opening

no

good

good

good (mechanical drive)

Protection from weather (from precipitation) for slot ventilation

no

no

yes

yes

yes

no

above: yes below: limited

limited (with element added to upper opening)

Movement type against slamming in wind

no

no

no

with extra fitting

no

yes

yes

yes

Potential for combination with interior manipulators

no

no

limited

yes

no

yes

yes

yes

Potential for combination with exterior manipulators

yes

no

yes

no

no

yes

yes

limited

Outside can be cleaned from the inside

yes

yes

with detachable fitting

no

yes

no

with extra (detachable) fitting

no

Notes on sealing

also outward opening (in wind and rain)

horizontal seals offset

bottom rebate not always possible

for use in windy areas

vertical seals offset

bottom rebate possible, contact pressure requires additional feature

bottom rebate possible, contact pressure requires additional feature

no protection from weather, not even when minimally open

Notes on fittings

projecting sash produces moment

loads borne centrally

sash must be secured against falling

sash must be locked in position when window is open

sash can sag when window is open

high, narrow formats can jam

compensation scissor for sash's own must transfer weight required, wind forces can jam

circumferential gap

A 2.2.10

44

Edges, openings

Term

Example

System

Building

Subsystem

Envelope (roof, facade), load-bearing structure, supply and disposal, inner partitioning, access

Structural element /component

Window sash in window frame

Elements

Profile, insulated glazing, fittings, seals

Material

Metal sheeting, glass

A 2.2.10 Comparison of types of movement of windows for identifying different performance profiles A 2.2.11 Basic terms for an architectural systems analysis

A 2.2.11

Prefabricated components made of elements To enable construction to proceed largely independently of weather conditions, individual parts can be prefabricated under controlled conditions in factories almost anywhere, which can greatly reduce construction time on site and the associated risks. Prefabrication can also offer much greater precision and lower tolerances. Windows in punctuated facades are set into recesses in the facade structure. Methods based on two different principals are used to build non-load-bearing exterior walls for facades with large areas of glass construction, with the distinction in this case made based on their assembly. Element facades These are facades made up of individual prefabricated units that are put together to form a whole facade on site. The term refers not to the sequence in the systemic context above (see p. 43), but to their prefabrication and the assembly process. Prefabricated elements in glass facades usually consist of panes of glass held in frames, so this type of construction is also referred to as frame construction. Element facades are suitable for tall administrative buildings. The elements are lifted into place by a crane and installed without scaffolding. Post and beam facades In contrast to element facades, a post and beam facade consists of individual elements: vertical facade posts and horizontal facade beams that are put together on site. The term describes their structural principle. Post and beam facades are now used mainly for lowrise buildings.

Notes: [1] In this chapter the word “window” (as used in common speech) refers to a moveable, transparent closure of an opening in a wall. [2] Dietze, Lothar: Freie Lüftung von Industriegebäuden. Berlin 1987, p. 18 [3] Le Corbusier made this distinction in his work for the La Tourette cloister (1960). [4] Pracht, Klaus: Fenster – Planung, Gestaltung und Konstruktion. Stuttgart 1982, p. 102 [5] Graphic based on Müller, Helmut; Schuster, Heide: Tageslichtnutzung. In: Schittich, Christian (ed.): Solares Bauen. Munich / Basel 2003, p. 63 [6] VDI Guideline 6011. Dusseldorf 2016 [7] Miloni, Reto P.: Von Aperturfläche bis Zenitlicht. Kleines Tageslicht-ABC. In: Fassade / Façade 01/2001, p. 12 [8] Meyringer, Volker; Trepte, Lutz: Lüftung im Wohnungsbau. Published by the Federal Ministry for Research and Technology. Karlsruhe 1987, p. 11 [9] A distinction is made between drive forces depending on a building’s local situation because wind forces are created by climatic conditions due to solar radiation and differences in temperature. [10] Graphic based on Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas: Bauphysik. Vol. 2: Bau und Energie – Leitfaden für Planung und Praxis. Zurich / Stuttgart 1998, p. 80 [11] As for Note 7, p. 33 – 36 [12] Givoni, Baruchi: Passive and Low Energy Cooling of Buildings. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York / London / Bonn 1994, p. 42 [13] In specifying air speed figures, it should be noted that air speeds above 0.15 m/s can be subjectively (physically) perceived. Hanel, Bernd: Raumluftströmung. Heidelberg 1994, p. 6 [14] Fanger, Ole: Behagliche Innenwelt. In: Uhlig, Günther et al.: Fenster – Architektur und Technologie im Dialog. Braunschweig / Wiesbaden 1994, p. 217. For a design using very airtight windows, ventilation openings were installed above radiators to ensure a minimum supply of air. [15] Draughts as well as noise are the main reasons for dissatisfaction with air conditioning and ventilation systems. Recknagel, Hermann; Schramek, ErnstRudolf (eds.): Taschenbuch für Heizung und Klimatechnik einschließlich Warmwasser- und Kältetechnik. Munich 2001, p. 59 [16] Recknagel, Hermann; Sprenger, Eberhard; Schramek, Rudolf (eds.): Taschenbuch für Heizung + Klimatechnik. Munich 1999, p. 1207 [17] Zeidler, Olaf: Freie Lüftung in Bürogebäuden. In: HLH, Vol. 51, 07/2000 [18] Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik – ein Leitfaden für Architekten und Ingenieure. Zurich / Munich 1996, p. 260 [19] Baker, Nick; Steemers, Koen: Energy and environment in architecture. London 2000, p. 58

[20] Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikale Schiebefenster – Zur Typologie der Bewegungsarten von Fenstern als Öffnungselemente in der Fassade. In: Fassade / Façade 03/2002, p. 23 – 28 [21] Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikal verschoben – Eigenschaften und Leistungsspektrum von vertikalen Schiebemechanismen bei Fensteröffnungen. In: db 09/2003, p. 86 – 91 [22] This chapter contains sections from the dissertation of Daniel Westenberger. Westenberger, Daniel: Untersuchungen zu Vertikalschiebefenstern als Komponenten im Bereich von Fassadenöffnungen. Diss. TUM, Munich 2005

45

Modular coordination

A 2.3 Modular coordination

Buildings usually consist of a range of different individual parts (structural components or elements) that are generally produced by different manufacturers and built in and installed in varying chronological orders, so consistent geometric rules must be followed to produce a structure free of defects. This “grammar” applies to the overall structural and the technical context of (building-related) subsystems, such as the support structure, exterior walls, interior structure and supply and disposal (Fig. 2.3.4), and is generally referred to as modular order [1].

From column orders to modular coordination systems A 2.3.2

A 2.3.1 Eames House, Los Angeles (US) 1949, Charles and Ray Eames

The dimensional coordination of a building’s structure is not a new topic. Vitruvius described a “modulus” as calculated part, a basic measurement that was based on the lower (half of) a column’s radius, on which “symmetry … is based [as] an interrelation of individual separate parts for planning the building as a whole” [2]. In Antique and Renaissance architecture, fundamental dimensions (spacing and height of columns, entablature height and projection) were specified in “column moduli”. The structure and form of columns were based on the proportions of the human body, so there was a close relationship between the “module and the measure of man” [3]. These orders of columns and proportions and the related module (modulatio) theory are also connected to the square grids laid over building floor plans and facades, where the distance between individual lines is also referred to as the module. This invisible module is the abstract basic unit of a (theoretical) geometric system for organising spatial dimensions and structuring buildings. Geometric and modular orders are not only found in European architecture. Japanese dwellings are often measured using a tatami mat as the basic unit, which is unique in architectural history. Tatami, hard-pressed, rectangular straw mats with an aspect ratio of about 1:2, are laid out in homes and can serve as the fundamental module of their structure and dimensions. The tatami is however just one element in the modular system of a wooden Japanese house. Developed in an attempt to bring about standardised measurements for structural components, there is not just one ideal size, but depending on two specific distances between columns, one module for the city (approx. 95 ≈ 190 cm) and another for the country (approx. 90 ≈ 180 cm). Discrepancies in the tatami modular system are the result of manual work by skilled craftsmen (Fig. A 2.3.2) [4]. Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand’s work heralded a paradigm shift in the (modular) planning and design of buildings. Around 1800 he departed from anthropometric, hierarchically structured

A 2.3.3 A 2.3.2 Perspective view of the floor plan of a typical single-storey Japanese house A 2.3.3 Arcade system based on the work of JeanNicolas-Louis Durand A 2.3.4 “ARMILLA”, tools for computer-assisted technical installation route planning in high-tech buildings, layout of secondary lines, Fritz Haller

A 2.3.4

47

Modular coordination

100 mm 1M

1M

1M

a

3M

3M

b

6M

c

A 2.3.5 A 2.3.5 Modular order a Basic module The basic module is the unit size used in dimensional coordination. The basic module M agreed on EU-wide measures 100 mm. b Multiple module A multiple module is a standard multiple of a module with a whole-number multiplier. Multiple modules include 3 M, 6 M, 12 M. c Construction module A construction module is a multiple of multiple modules and the figure that defines the coordinating dimensions for the load-bearing structure. 1

4 8

2

5

3

10

6

15

9

20 12 30 18 45 27

16 40 24 60 36 90 54 135 81 32 80 48 120 72 180 108 270 162 405 243 A 2.3.6 A 2.3.6 Preferred increments Preferred increments are selected multiples of modules. Applied together with modules, preferred increment figures make up multi-modular or modular dimensions. For practical reasons they must be limited to specific multiples of modules. Coordinating dimensions should ideally be made up of preferred increments. Preferred increments are: 1, 2, 3 to 30 times M 1, 2, 3 to 20 times 3 M 1, 2, 3 to 20 times 6 M 1, 2, 3 etc. times 12 M

architecture and based all construction and architectural elements on a standard grid with rational dimensions (Fig. A 2.3.3, p. 47). His system’s starting point was the distance between columns, which as the “structural material-related size of a girder” also takes aspects of a design’s economy and practicality into account [5]. Durand’s work formed an important basis for developing the module system, which subsequently became the foundation of the development of industrial construction. Konrad Wachsmann also dealt with the industrial production and the coordination of standardised elements in his book “The Turning Point of Building” (1959). Modular coordination systems based on square grids or planar surfaces can influence floor plan and facade design as well as spatial organisation. Coordination systems of this kind are the result of precise theoretical and practical investigations of “measurements, measurement methods, the definition of dimensions and dimensioning, from the smallest component through to the complete building” [6]. The transition from manually crafted construction to (partly) industrialised construction processes made it necessary to define the possible leeway in the relative positions of individual parts in an increasingly precise way. Technical manufacturing processes can make parts with very precise dimensions, so defining and controlling tolerances are essential elements of geometric modular order. The Modulor, developed by Le Corbusier between 1945 and 1955, was a clear departure from this technological approach and uniform modular grids. His Modulor proportion system is based on a series of numerical values, although they are not based on the same initial dimension, so it is a method based more on a “directional, dynamic structure” [7].

12

8

Dimensional coordination and modular order

8

9 3 2 5

6

6

4 1

4 6

8

7 9

10

18 A 2.3.7

A 2.3.7 Numerical values for the length and width of frequently-used spatial dimensions, expressed in modules based on the scale of the human body: 1 Person standing 2 Person sitting 3 Person sitting in a chair 4 Person standing with legs apart 5 Person walking with baggage 6 Two people standing 7 Three people standing in a row 8 Person sitting on a sofa

48

Modular order is a system of coordinating dimensions made up of moduli and rules for coordinating the dimensions of technical parts whose position and function in a system must be compatible. It uses moduli to regulate “with the help of grids and coordination systems the position and size of and links between technical elements” [8]. Dimensional coordination establishes rules for the dimensions of structural components, forming the basis for planning, manufacture and installation, coordinating processes and those involved in them, and determining the degree of industrialisation of construction. This system enables the position of every structural component, dimensions important for connections and the dimensions coordinated

with other adjoining or associated structural components to be recorded. Modular order aims to ensure: • Overall geometric and dimensional coordination of the structure • Replaceability of products • A limit to the wide range of potentially applicable products • Prefabrication and controlled and consistent installation on site

Terminology and units Modules

Modules are ratios in technical dimensions. In Europe, the basic modular unit is M, which is 10 cm (Fig. A 2.3.5 a). To limit the wide range of possible dimensions of structural components and appropriately design modular dimensions and functions of structural components, preferred increments – multiples of modules –, i.e. a multiple of M (M = n ≈ M), are specified. Multiples of modules or planning modules define a design’s systematic construction (Fig. A 2.3.5 b). DIN 18 000 on “Modular coordination in building” proposes various planning modules, namely 3 M, 6 M, 12 M, which build on the basic module [9]. Multiples of planning modules are put together to form a construction module, which determines the structure and coordination of construction (Fig. A 2.3.5 c). Common construction modules such as 36 M, 54 M, 72 M etc. are classified according to their type of use. Construction modules can be added or subtracted to form parts or multiples of them, which DIN 18 000 refers to as preferred increments. Preferred increments should be limited to a certain number of multiples for practical reasons. Application-oriented preferred increments with multiple applications are characterised by several options for subdivision (Fig. A 2.3.6). Based on preferred increments or multiples of modules, functional modular dimensions can be defined to accommodate various human activities such as standing, sitting, lying or walking (Fig. A 2.3.7) [10]. Reference systems

Reference planes, lines and points are required to determine a modular structural component’s position and general dimensions as well as its relationship to adjoining components. Grids

A grid is a geometric spatial coordination system that has a regular sequence of constantly spaced reference lines, the grid dimension. They determine the spacing and position of lines in the system depending on the planning dimensions chosen. A grid’s spacing is built on a module or multiples of a module. In most cases the grid’s basic form is a rectangle or square. Grids can be used to plot every structural component in its position and coordinate

Modular coordination

it with other structural components. Reference is also sometimes made to axial dimensions, which determine the spacing of a structure’s grid lines and form a coordinating system based on construction modules. Types of references

Types of references are established rules for plotting modular and non-modular parts of coordination systems. There are two basic means of plotting structural components on a modular grid: • Axial control lines (grid reference /axial dimensions, centre-to-centre measurements) • Face control lines (planning grid /standard measurement)

A 2.3.8 Types of reference a Axial control line The structural component is positioned so that its central axis coincides with coordinating lines in at least one dimension, i.e. its position is shown. b Face control line The structural component is defined in at least one dimension between two parallel coordinating lines so that it is aligned with them, i.e. its dimensions, position and often its form are shown. c Combination A combination of axial control and face control Iines show a structural component's position in one dimension and its dimensions in a second dimension. A 2.3.9 Geometric definitions

a

b

c

n5 ≈ M

n4 ≈ M

n

1

≈

n3 ≈ M

M

n

2

≈

M

A 2.3.8

• Face control lines in all three dimensions (cubic elements /cubicles) • Face control lines in two dimensions, axial control lines in one dimension (planar parts / wall elements) • Face control lines in one dimension, axial control lines in two dimensions (linear elements /columns) • Axial control lines in all three dimensions (punctiform elements /nodes)

n

Fa

ce

on os iti lp

6

ntr

ol

≈M n

line

7

≈M

en

tra

≈ n2

M

co

e in ll

ial

Fa

Ax

ce

co

nt

ro

Pe

When arranging structural components that can have different sizes in one or two dimensions, a distinction is made between their central or inner position and peripheral or outer position. A centrally positioned structural component’s central axis coincides with the central axis of the modular zone, while a structural component in a peripheral position has a primary reference surface aligned with one of the

po rip si he tio ra n l

n

1

≈

M

C

Axial control lines establish a relationship between a structural component and the reference system by making a structural component’s axial line coincide with a reference line, i.e. the structural component is centred on the reference line. This shows the structural component’s position and centre-to-centre spacing of structural components, but does not define their cross-sectional form or their dimensions, so the dimensions of adjoining structural components cannot be deduced in this case (Fig. A 2.3.8 a). Face control lines or standard measurements use at least two lines in the reference system to plot a structural component, showing its position and general size (in two dimensions) (Fig. A 2.3.8 b). A combination of axial control lines and standard measurements defines a structural component’s position in one dimension and its size in a second dimension (Fig. A 2.3.8 c). Structural components are three-dimensional, so they can be clearly plotted using types of references in a coordination system in all three dimensions. The choice of a type of reference and their combination will depend on the individual case at hand. DIN 30 798/3 specifies the following “rules of thumb” for classifying technical parts:

co

ntr

ol

lin

e A 2.3.9

49

Modular coordination

Primary and secondary grid congruent Planning grid

Special connecting elements axial control lines

All wall elements identical face control lines

Primary and secondary grid offset Structural grid

Planning grid

Overlapping material zones

Structural grid

Special connecting elements axial control lines

All wall elements identical face control lines

Material zone positioned separately

Primary and secondary grids Cover face control lines

All bays identical axial control lines

All bays identical face control lines A 2.3.10

Primary and secondary grid congruent

Primary and secondary grid offset

Planning grid

Structural grid

Planning grid

Cross-wall junction

Exterior wall

Structural grid

Coordinating individual structural components requires superimposed planes of reference, so they have to be prioritised, i.e. a primary and a secondary grid must be defined. Usually the structural grid is identified as the primary grid and the fit-out grid as the secondary grid. The most common geometrical relationships between a facade and a structural grid are offset and congruent positions. When material zones overlap, as with axial control lines, the differing dimensions of adjoining fields make special element formats (shortening) necessary. Separating material zones enables the load-bearing structure and facade to be positioned independently of each other, so the same elements can be used (Fig. A 2.3.10). Junctions and corner joints

Exterior corner

Interior corner

Overlapping or independent positioning of modular zones (material zones for the loadbearing structure and facade / fitting out), combined with a congruent or offset positioning of the reference system, imposes various different structural conditions on the dimensions and connections of structural components and on connections between a load-bearing structure and a facade, especially in and around internal and external corners (Fig. A 2.3.11). Dimensional coordination

A 2.3.11

K

K

K

K

R=n≈M

R=n≈M

Structural component

Structural component

Manufacturer’s standard measure (H)

Manufacturer’s standard measure (H) b A 2.3.12

50

Geometric specifications

Modular systems are created by alternating the spacing of parallel coordination lines with one or more modules, so modular grids can be based on one or on different modules in each of the three spatial dimensions.

All wall elements identical axial control lines

a

coordination lines. Here structural components of different dimensions have the same reference plane. Central or inner position and peripheral or outer position are usually used in conjunction with axial and face control lines. If a structural component varies from the normal position, the dimensions for adjoining structural components will also vary, making special formats necessary (Fig. A 2.3.9, p. 49) [11].

The dimensions specified in modular orders are only general, so the production of special structural components requires coordinating or standard measurements (R), which regulate the spacing of reference planes defining the structural component’s position and dimensions and are usually a modular measurement (R = n ≈ M). The manufacturer’s standard measure (H) can be deduced from these measurements, taking the proportion of joints, the structural component’s connecting planes, and dimensional tolerances into account: H < R. Depending on the formation of connections, the manufacturer’s standard measure can also extend beyond the modular space: H > R. In this case a fitting dimension, which regulates the dimensions between structural components, must be taken into account (Fig. A 2.3.12) [12].

Modular coordination

1

Geometrical position relative to the load-bearing structure

The facade’s position relative to the load-bearing structural zone results in various connection requirements as well as structural physical consequences and can have a range of effects on a building’s appearance. For non-load-bearing exterior walls (viewed from the outside looking in), a facade plane can have the following positions (Fig. A 2.3.13) [13]: • In front of columns (1) • Attached to the front face of columns (2) • Between columns (3) • Attached to the rear face of columns (4) • Behind columns (5) These geometric spatial relationships determine factors such as the extent to which the load-bearing structure becomes a design element, the independence of partitions in the facade from its load-bearing structure, the formation of interior wall connections and the degree of penetration of exterior walls by columns and slabs. Further distinctions can be made in the way in which horizontal, load-bearing slabs are integrated into vertical, load-bearing elements such as columns. In the case of non-loadbearing exterior walls, elements can: • Be between columns and integrated into them (A) • Project from columns (B) • Be flush with the column face (C) The position and arrangement of load-bearing elements relative to the exterior wall can be characterised by highlighted vertical and /or horizontal elements, i.e. pilasters, columns or projecting slabs, or by a grid effect. From a construction standpoint, the position and orientation of columns is crucial to the facade’s formation and fixed superstructure, involving aspects such as connections between columns and beams and their spatial formation, interior wall joints and technical installation routings, right up to fire safety factors. Structural and physical aspects mean that the position of columns relative to the exterior wall can impose further requirements because of: • Deformations (changes to length due to variations in temperature) • Thermal bridges (heat conduction from adjoining structural components) • Acoustic bridges (transmission of sound between inside and out) • A need for protection from the weather (e.g. protection from corrosion for steel columns) The position and orientation of columns also influences facade partitioning. If columns are close together, the bays between them can be evenly spaced. Special elements may, however, be required for exterior columns set wide apart due to the varying dimensions and depending on their position and arrangement.

2

3

4

5

A

B

C

A 2.3.13 A 2.3.10 Primary and secondary grids (selection) A 2.3.11 Elements and corners A 2.3.12 Coordinating dimension – manufacturer’s standard measure: Different types of joints mean that

structural components may extend beyond the modular space. A 2.3.13 Geometrical positions of facades relative to the load-bearing structure

Tolerances

Notes: [1] Fundamental and additional observations in Herzog, Thomas: Zur Kunst des Fügens oder: Nachdenken über das Standbein. In: Der Architekt 02/1987, p. 86 – 89 [2] Naredi-Rainer, Paul von: Architektur und Harmonie. Zahl, Maß und Proportion in der abendländischen Baukunst. 2. ed., Cologne 1984, p. 17 [3] ibid. p. 130 [4] Nitschke, Günter: Architektur und Ästhetik eines Inselvolkes. In: Schittich, Christian (ed.): Japan. Munich / Basel 2002, p. 24ff. [5] Nerdinger, Winfried: “Das Hellenische mit dem Neuen verknüpft” – Der Architekt Leo von Klenze als neuer Palladio. In: Nerdinger, Winfried (ed.): Leo von Klenze. Architekt zwischen Kunst und Hof 1784 –1864. Munich / London / New York 2000, p. 11 [6] Wachsmann, Konrad: Wendepunkt im Bauen. Nachdruck der 1959 in Wiesbaden erschienenen Erstausgabe, Dresden 1989, p. 54 [7] As for Note 2, p. 133 [8] DIN 30 798 Part 2: 1982 [9] DIN 18 000: 1984 [10] Bussat, Pierre: Modulordnung im Hochbau. Stuttgart 1963, p. 30 – 33 [11] As for Note 9 [12] Rinninsland, Jutta: Projekt MOSS – OE 06/11. Part 1: Grundlagen der Modulordnung. Gesamthochschule Kassel, Prof. Thomas Herzog. Kassel 1974 [13] Trbuhovic, L.: Untersuchungen des Strukturschemas und der Fassadenentwicklung beim StahlbetonSkelettbau. In: Girsberger, Hans (ed.): ac panel. Asbestzement-Verbundplatten und -Elemente für Außenwände. Zurich 1967, p. 46 – 49 [14] DIN 18 201:1997 [15] As for Note 1

“Tolerances are designed to limit divergences from the standard sizes, shapes and positions of structural components and buildings” [14]. There are three main types: • Manufacturing tolerances • Assembly tolerances • Tolerances due to changes in the form of structural components Joints are spaces between two modular structural components resulting from dimensional discrepancies in manufacture and installation. In installing adjoining structural components, the joints require a certain margin for movement, resulting in permissible deviations in defining a structural component’s minimum and maximum size. Manufacturing tolerances are permissible deviations in dimensions in the manufacture of building and structural components and result from the difference between minimum and maximum sizes. Assembly tolerances define a range of permissible deviations in the position of structural components in assembly and can be linear, planar or three-dimensional. During construction, particularly in building work and detailed planning, it must be ensured that appropriate tolerances are allowed for in each case. Different types of tolerances can often overlap or be added at joints between adjoining structural components. Variations in dimensions and relative movement must be able to be accommodated, seals ensured for the long term and thermal bridges avoided (see also “Aspects of building physics and planning advice”, p. 52f.) [1].

51

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

A 3 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

A facade is a central element in managing and regulating users’ demands on a building’s interior and changing external conditions (see “External and internal conditions”, p. 19ff.). Prevailing weather conditions, such as solar radiation, outside temperature, humidity, precipitation and wind, vary in intensity depending on the time of day and year. Building users, however, expect stable conditions ranging within relatively narrow limits in terms of air quality, humidity, air speeds (Fig. A 1.12 –15, p. 22), acoustic environment, the amount of light and light quality, and the temperature of the inside air and surfaces (Fig. A 1.1, p. 18). The comfort requirements of a building’s users place direct and wide-ranging functional demands on its facade, involving factors such as thermal insulation, protection from sun and glare, a supply of daylight, protection from precipitation, damp and wind, and an adequate exchange of air. A facade must therefore be able to react flexibly to fast-changing weather conditions and respond to further demands, such as allowing for views of the outside and preventing fire and break-ins, which result in additional requirements such as resistance to fire and mechanical strength. As well as influential variables, such as weather conditions and demands for comfort, other parameters resulting from a building’s location and its type, usage and function must be taken into account. Wind loads on a facade on or near the coast will be much greater than those in an inner city in a lowland area. Another example of the influence of a building’s type on its facade is in the area of fire protection for high-rise buildings, where increased requirements are imposed below the high-rise limit to prevent fire from spreading to other storeys. The influence of a building’s usage is also clear in the planning of administrative buildings, for example, with regulations and guidelines applying to these kinds of buildings imposing more stringent sun and glare protection requirements [1].

Structural and physical aspects Criteria based on location, type and usage make it clear that it is not just structural and design aspects that are crucial in planning facades. Functional demands, including comfort, fitness for use, durability, low energy consumption and more, are also essential. Structural and physical aspects such as those outlined below are also of vital importance. Thermal insulation

A 3.1 Swiss Re company headquarters, London (GB) 2003, Foster and Partners

Providing adequate insulation and a comfortable interior climate is one of the main functions of facades in most of the Earth’s climatic zones. As well as protecting people from heat

and cold, interior wall and facade surface temperatures and inside air temperatures must be balanced to ensure users’ physical comfort. Architects designing and building facades should also try and prevent draughts, which can be caused by structural leaks, and cold downdraughts, which can occur when the temperatures of a space’s surfaces are very low. This in turn means that facades must have adequate insulation and thermal transmission resistance. National and international standards prescribe compliance with relevant threshold limits [2]. As well as maintaining comfortable conditions, thermal weak points must be avoided to prevent condensate from accumulating and the associated risk of mould formation. In view of efforts to reduce emissions of CO2 and other gases harmful to the climate, there has been a growing focus on the ecological significance of insulation in discussions of these issues in recent years. National standards and the EU’s Energy Efficiency Directive (EED), passed in 2012, have contributed to [3] much greater demands on improved insulation – especially in and around facades – because of the high proportion of heating energy requirements in buildings’ total energy requirements. Preventing heat losses through the facade can play a central role [4] in minimising the consumption of fossil fuels and related CO2 emissions. Another advantage of improved insulation is reduced operating costs. Maximum heating and cooling needs are usually lower in wellinsulated buildings than in badly insulated ones and can result in lower operating and investment costs for technical building equipment. As insulation requirements increase so do demands on the planning and construction of facades. Highly insulated, opaque exterior walls often now consist of various inseparable, interconnected materials and layers, which must meet structural, insulating and moisture resistance criteria equally. The resulting difficulties in recycling these building materials will have to be taken into account in choosing such hybrid structures and in positioning and joining them in future. Transparent facade structures and optimised thermal insulating glazing must also have very well-insulated frames to minimise heat losses. Window frame profiles with optimum insulation can have Uf-values of 1.0 W/m2K and lower, so a holistic approach is advisable for optimising a facade’s thermal insulation and can help to prevent thermal and hygric weak points in and around joints between precisely manufactured metal and glass facade elements and solid structural components made on site. While well-insulated exterior solid or wooden walls can fairly easily achieve U-values of

53

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

Thermal insulation functions

Structural functions

Physiological functions

Ecological functions

Economical functions

Hygienic functions

Comfort-related functions

Preventing damage from condensation

Preventing mould formation

Protection from excessive cooling and overheating

Minimising usagerelated energy consumption

Minimising energy costs (heating and cooling costs)

Preventing damage due to diffusion

Reducing dust formation and vortices

Reducing interior air speeds

Extending the building’s functional and service life

Extending the building’s service life

Preventing constraining stresses

Adapting and harmonising the temperatures of wall surfaces inside rooms with the rooms’ air temperature

Minimising the investment and operating costs of air-conditioning systems

A 3.2 Thermal insulation functions A 3.3 Facade with roller blinds (inside) and louvre system outside, Munich (DE) 2001, Peter C. von Seidlein

A 3.2

0.15 W/m2K, even good triple insulating glazing, inert gas-filled glazing or vacuum insulating glazing has U-values of around 0.6 W/m2K. In other words, nowhere near the thermal values of the well-insulated exterior walls made of opaque building materials mentioned above. Standard commercially available window frames may well have U-values of > 1.0 W/m2K, so thermal weak points can easily develop around them. In joining window frames or frame profiles in glass facades to solid walls, details should be appropriately constructed to ensure that thermal resistance is as consistently effective as possible at every point in the facade to prevent thermal bridges and the risk of condensation forming. Planners should consider factors such as heat transmission, convection and the exchange of long-wave radiation in choosing the properties of materials, structural components and connections. This is especially important in and around joints, at the bonded edges of glazing and panels, and in the area of fastening elements because linear or intermittent thermal bridges and leaks can increase the risk of heat losses, condensation and mould formation. Horizontal and vertical corners, inside and out, attics and footings, and projections and recesses in insulating and sealing layers are in practice particularly critical, especially at junctions between different types of facades and structures. Mistakes made in planning or construction

54

can greatly impair the function and durability of structural components, increase heating energy consumption, have negative ecological effects and be harmful to one’s health if mould forms. Protection from moisture

Exterior weather factors such as precipitation and fluctuating extremes of temperature make intensive demands on facades, which are also exposed to considerable loads from moisture hitting the splash water zone of the building’s plinth, damp from surrounding soil and humidity inside the building. Water must not be allowed to penetrate structures in and around closed facade surfaces (such as plastered masonry), punctuated facades and partitioned exterior wall structures (like glass facades). Any water that does penetrate must be extracted in a controlled manner. The moisture content of materials sensitive to damp, such as certain insulating materials and timber, must also be kept low. As well as choosing adequate materials, planners must make every effort to prevent thermal bridges in building facades because they are usually also weak points in terms of moisture and can pose an increased risk of condensate forming on interior surfaces and inside the facade. The permeability to vapour of individual components and the application of sealing measures in and around joints and fastening elem-

ents will determine the risk of condensate forming inside exterior walls. Effective prevention of condensation is a fundamental precondition for ensuring both a facade’s durability and a healthy interior climate. We now know that mould can form even in the absence of visible condensate, resulting in critical surface temperatures being redefined in DIN 4108-8. The basic rule of construction in Central Europe is that the inside of a building should be more vapour-proof than the outside. This basic rule is reversed for warm, damp climates, where the outside should be more vapour-proof than the inside. Condensate can form in multilayer glass facades when moist air inside cavities of the facade meets cold surfaces. The risk of this occurring can be reduced by improving the quality of insulation between exterior layers and ventilating the cavities [5]. The demands on a facade’s moisture protection depend largely on the building’s usage and technical equipment. Air in indoor swimming pools (and in winter in air-conditioned buildings generally), for example, is more humid, increasing the risk of condensate forming. One phenomenon often overlooked in planning is the formation of condensate or hoar frost on a facade’s exterior surface. This risk increases with the quality of insulation and is especially great with highly insulating panels and triple glazing, whose exterior surfaces barely warm up at all due to these units’ low heat transfer.

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

The result is that the steamed-up glass surface hardly dries under cold weather conditions. This phenomenon will become increasingly common in future. Sun protection

After thermal insulation, protection from overheating is one of a facade’s most important functions. This is crucial not only in tropical and subtropical climate zones but also in temperate climates like Central Europe’s because of changing climatic conditions and users’ increasing comfort requirements. Planners need to find a balanced relationship between the glazing percentage or type of glazing and the sun-shading system to provide a consistent overall solution. The intensity of solar radiation on “permeable” (or transparent) facade surfaces is more or less transient due to changing solar radiation levels and geometric variables in and around building openings. Relevant for an adequate and consistent supply of daylight is the building’s specific geometry, with its projections and recesses, and the dimensions, distribution, orientation and angles of transparent or translucent facade components. The illumination of interiors by daylight, thermal loads from solar radiation, and visual contact with the outside are influenced by the size, orientation and position of openings in the facade, by radiation’s physical characteristics and by the photometric properties of glazing. This also applies to added components such as sunshading devices and anti-glare screens and to deflected daylight (Fig. A 3.3). Sun protection systems The primary function of sun protection systems is to prevent overheating and ensure a comfortable interior climate. They also greatly influence the resulting energy consumption used in cooling, which accounts for a large proportion of power consumption in tropical and subtropical climate zones. Solutions are required that ensure an adequate supply of daylight in the interior without overheating it. This can be achieved by blocking out direct sunshine as far as possible, while diffuse daylight can be transmitted into an interior as necessary to illuminate it. Sun shading systems can be classified into fixed or moving systems. Fixed components are structural components that can project from an exterior wall, be freestanding or consist of fixed louvres (see Fig. A 2.2.8, p. 42). Moving systems, such as roller blinds and folding shutters, are dealt with in detail in the chapter on “Manipulators” (p. 266ff.). One advantage of fixed systems is that they require little maintenance. The sun’s position constantly changes over the course of the day and the year in a defined way, so fixed systems occasionally let some direct sunlight through. Some solar radiation may, however, be blocked out, which can reduce light in the interior.

Moving systems, in contrast, are almost ideal. They can immediately react to the weather, and with the use of appropriate components, incoming daylight can be reflected onto a room’s ceiling, where the reflected light can provide even illumination into the depths of the space. The sun protection and light refraction effect of adjustable louvre systems can be optimised if: • The pitch angle of louvres covering upper windows and areas of window users look through is adjustable • The topsides and underside of louvres have different degrees of reflectivity • Louvre surfaces have a geometric structure Common perforated louvre systems (e.g. blinds or shutters) generally transmit slightly more radiation and increase cooling loads marginally compared with non-perforated systems with similar structures and surfaces. Systems that do not completely block out direct sun may require appropriate anti-glare screens. What is essential for a facade’s sun protection effect is not just the type of sun protection used, but also its position. It is important to ensure that sun protection is attached outside the glazing. In windy locations in particular, stable construction of moveable sun protection systems is crucial in ensuring their protective function when there is both sunshine and wind. Glare protection

External interference should not be allowed to impair visual function and comfort. The distribution of luminance in a user’s field of vision and resulting contrasts are decisive in enabling them to recognise objects and for the occurrence of glare and absolute levels of luminance. A distinction is made between physiological glare, which directly impairs vision, and psychological glare, which can cause premature fatigue and adversely affect performance and well-being. Direct glare is directly caused by a light source, while reflected glare is the result of reflections from light surfaces onto shiny surfaces. The crucial variables for direct glare are the observer’s visual angle relative to their environment and the luminance perceptible in the viewing direction. The brighter the environment is, in a tolerable range, the lower the risk of glare is. The low luminance of computer monitors (10 –100 cd/m2) means that rooms with computer workstations are subject to increased requirements for glare-free interior illumination. For this reason, windows in such rooms must be able to be completely screened against direct sun-light and its associated heat radiation and glare. Appropriate measures should be taken to prevent glare from reflecting off surfaces the sun shines onto. These demands are constant, even in the face of strong wind, A 3.3

55

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

so anti-glare screens must be protected from wind and should be either inside or in the facade cavity.

radiation transmission and correspondingly greater cooling requirements are to be expected from perforated louvre structures.

Use of daylight

Blinds and shutters with louvres whose tilt angle can be adjusted to various extents at different heights have also been available for some years now. The upper louvres are less steeply angled than the lower ones so they can both refract light and provide shade against the sun. The degree of reflectivity of the louvres’ topsides and undersides can also be optimised to meet varying requirements. Light surfaces offer better light refraction characteristics, while dark colours reduce glare in interiors. Louvres with different colours and degrees of reflectivity on the louvres’ topsides and undersides are now commercially available.

Intelligent daylight systems make targeted use of daylight. Besides the use of appropriate sun protection systems to regulate levels of solar radiation transmitted into a room, a second illumination strategy can be employed that uses only the visible part of the overall spectrum of solar radiation to illuminate interiors. The infrared range of light in particular can overheat rooms, so this approach uses specially coated glazing that screens sunlight selectively, i.e. it only allows the transmission of solar radiation in the visible range. Fixed systems One special form of glazing that improves daylight usage is insulating glazing with components that refract daylight. These units use two and three-dimensional reflecting grids and aluminium honeycomb sheets made of specially formed and partly high-gloss coated metal or plastic structures that are placed in the space between the panes like a miniature form of a fixed sun shading system. Prism systems that refract light can also improve spaces’ illumination levels, refracting mainly light from the zone near the zenith into the room. Prism systems can, however, obstruct views of the outside, so their installation should be restricted to the parts of openings outside users’ fields of vision. Moveable systems A much simpler and more widely used form are moveable sun shading systems. The advantage of these compared with fixed systems is that their position and state can be changed, so incoming light and views are not impaired, even when the sky is completely overcast. A desire for visual contact with the outside world as well as effective sun protection and demands for highly transparent facades have resulted in the development of perforated shades (blinds and shutters) through which the surroundings remain visible, even when they are closed. Most commercially available products are about 9% perforated. The diameter of each hole depends on the thickness of the sheet metal and dimensions of the louvres. Holes often have a diameter of 0.6 to 1.1 mm. The degree of radiation transmission for individual louvres under perpendicular incoming radiation is 8 %. As well as the transmission of reflected radiation passing between louvres, there is also always direct transmission because the perforated louvre is not lightproof. On average, with surrounding reflectivity of 20 %, radiation transmission increases by 4 to 6 % due to perforation. This means that compared with a louvre system with a fairly closed structure and surface finish, a 1.6 increase in

56

Sound insulation

The sound insulation demands made on facades in keeping out outside noise are based on exterior noise levels and admissible and actual sound levels in the interior (Fig. A 3.4). DIN 4109 specifies the main sound insulation requirements for facades. If, compared to the partitions and joints between sections of a building and between partitions, a facade has a disproportionate level of soundproofing to protect against outside noise, or background noise levels inside are lower than expected, the subjective disruptive effect of interior noise from adjoining rooms, especially high-frequency sounds, can be problematic. Sound insulation between adjoining rooms is based not only from the sound insulation of separating ceilings and walls, but on their connections to the facade. There is also a risk of flanking sound transfer through facades, which is much more pronounced in post and beam facades than in element facades if joints between facade elements are in or around joints with separating ceilings and walls. DIN 52 210 classifies facades based on their evaluated sound reduction index in sound insulation classes 1– 6 in accordance with VDI Standard 2719. During the planning and construction process, a facade’s necessary sound insulation properties must be secured for the long term (Fig. A 3.5). The sound-insulating effect of facades and joints with partition walls and separating ceilings can be greatly increased by the following structural measures: • Increasing the weight of components, e.g. filled with sand or heavy gas or lead panels • Increasing the number of consecutive, decoupled shells, e.g. by using double shells, preferably with materials of different thicknesses and masses • Increasing the elasticity of components by laminating together several thin sheets of metal or glass, or appropriate acoustic decoupling for connections and mounts, by installing soft seals, for example

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

• Increasing the structure’s asymmetry in terms of the weight of successive layers • Increasing spaces between surfaces adjoining the layer of air • Increasing the absorption of surfaces adjoining the layer of air, e.g. by using porous materials or labyrinthine configurations If a facade is to meet the demands imposed by sound insulation classes 4– 6 based on VDI Standard 2719, very thick panes of insulating glass (especially outside) with large spaces between the panes filled with a heavy gas will have to be installed. Much thinner panes and more cost-effective facade structures can be built with laminated glass, with cast resin or PVB-foil lamination replacing single glazing. This can enable a single pane of glass in sound insulation class 4 to achieve sound insulation class 5 or 6, which ordinarily requires two panes. Expertly planned and constructed double-skin facades (depending on the size of ventilation openings in the exterior glazing and sound absorption in ventilation openings and the facade cavity) can reduce outside noise levels by 4 – 8 dB compared with a single-shell glass facade equivalent to an internal facade. Protection from fire and smoke

Ensuring that facades provide protection from fire and smoke mainly involves measures and provisions to: • Prevent fire • Inhibit or stop fire from developing • Impede or suppress the spread of fire • Ensure fire alarm and warning measures • Enable fire fighting • Secure the rescue and safety of users and the fire brigade • Extract smoke and heat A facades’ fire and smoke protection properties are crucial in preventing fire and protecting the lives and health of people and assets. A multiplicity of regulations that can be different in specific states (Länder) within Germany must be observed. In Germany, state building regulations and rules laid down by trade supervisory boards (Gewerbeaufsichtsämter), building inspection authorities (Bauaufsicht), the Technical Inspectorate (Technischer Überwachungsverein – TÜV) and general DIN and VDE standards and guidelines all exercise an influence on fire protection. Guidelines and standards laid down by the regional fire brigade, the German authority for approving non-regulated construction products and types of construction (Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik – DIBt) and the German association of non-life insurers (Verband der Sachversicherer – VdS) must also be taken into account in this context. Basic preconditions for preventative fire protection include ensuring fire alarm options and structures that are accessible to the fire brigade. As well as

these, building law regulations regulate the requirements imposed on buildings’ smoke extraction openings. Classifications / load classes Fire-resistant glazing is usually installed in transparent structural units consisting of a frame, one or more transparent elements, brackets, seals and mounting materials. Depending on their classification, they can resist fire for 30, 60, 90 or 120 minutes.

Noise level dB [A] Jet engine (at a distance of 25 metres)

Jet engine starting (at a distance of 100 metres)

130 120 110

Pop group

Jackhammer

100

DIN 4102/13 divides fire-resistant glazing into F and G classes (Fig. 3.6). These are transparent vertical, slanting or horizontal structural units that prevent fire and smoke from spreading depending on their fire resistance rating.

Heavy traffic

Unlike G-glazing, F-glazing also prevents high-temperature heat radiation from passing through it. F-glazing becomes opaque when exposed to fire and forms a heat shield. These units behave like walls in terms of their fire protection properties, so according to the specifications of building inspection authority approvals, F-glazing can be used without restriction as space-enclosing walls or for partial areas in them.

Conversation

90 Average traffic

80 70

Office

60 50

Library

Dwelling

40 30

Bedroom

20

Forest

10

In contrast, fire-resistant glazing in fire resistance class G (G-glazing) remains transparent in fire and reduces the temperature of heat radiation passing through it to the outside, so these are special structural components for fire protection purposes. G-glazing may only be installed where there are no technical fire protection concerns, e.g. as window openings in the walls of corridors that serve as emergency escape routes. The bottom edge of the glass must be at least 1.80 m above the floor so that the corridor will be shielded from heat radiation and offer people protection in case of fire. A local building supervisory authority will decide on other potential applications of G-glazing in individual cases, taking into account heat radiation and the risk of rollover or flashover if flammable materials are stored, built or attached within the range of such radiation. G-glazing must remain effective as a physical barrier enclosing a space. No flames can be allowed to develop on the side away from the fire.

140

0 A 3.4

Noise level range

Exterior noise level dB [A]

Required Of the exterior R'W, res structural component dB [A] Recreation Offices 2) Bed rooms1) rooms etc.

II

56 – 60

35

30

III

61– 65

40

35

30 30

IV

66 –70

45

40

35

V

71–75

50

45

40

VI

76 – 80

3)

50

45

VII

> 80

3)

3)

50

1)

Wards in hospitals and sanatoria 2) No requirements are imposed on the exterior structural components of rooms in which noise penetrating from outside makes only a minor contribution to interior noise levels due to the activities carried out in those rooms. 3) Here requirements must be determined based on local conditions. A 3.5

The responsible building authority usually decides for each building individually which fire resistance class applies in a facade, taking the building type, storey height, nature and extent of fire loads, as well as other measures in the building’s specific fire protection concept, into account (Fig. A 3.7, p. 58). General regulations, such as the German model building code (Musterbauordnung), prescribe methods to stop fire from spreading from one storey to the one above it in high-rise buildings (top edge of the FFL of the top storey > 22 m), which can be achieved by partitions made of

A 3.4 Noise levels from various causes A 3.5 Noise level ranges and prescribed sound reduction index R’ based on DIN 4109, table 8

57

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

Fire resist- Building inspection authority ance class description based on DIN 41021)

Fire resistance duration in an ISO standard fire

F 30 – B F 30 – A

Fire resistance class for structural components based on DIN EN 13 501-2 with spatial enclosure no spatial enclosure load-bearing non-load-bearing load-bearing REI 30 EI 30 R 30

Fire-resistant ≥ 30 min Fire-resistant, made of non≥ 30 min flammable building materials ≥ 60 min REI 60 EI 60 R 60 F 60 – AB 2) Highly fire-resistant F 60 – A Highly fire-resistant, made of ≥ 60 min non-flammable building materials F 90 – AB Fire-proof ≥ 90 min REI 90 EI 90 R 90 F 90 – A Fire-proof, made of non-flammable ≥ 90 min building materials (F120) (Highly fire-proof) (≥ 120 min) (F180) (Fireproof to the highest degree) (≥ 180 min) Firewall – REI – M 90 EI – M 90 I = Insulation. The time it takes to produce an increase in temperature on the cold side of the structural element, usually 140 °C. E = Integrity. The length of time that the structural element retains its integrity against flames or hot gases in a standard fire. R = Load carrying capacity. The length of time that the relevant structural element is able to carry the current load in a normal fire development phase. M = Mechanical effect. The ability of the structural element to cope with the mechanical impact in a standard fire. 1) based on DIN 4102-2 for walls, columns, ceilings, beams and stairs 2) AB: made largely of non-flammable materials A 3.6 Building material Non-flammable building material (e.g. steel truss girder) Non-flammable building material with flammable parts Building material not very flammable (e.g. oak parquetry on floor screed) Slight contribution to fire Normally flammable building material (e.g. glued laminated timber beam) Acceptable behaviour in fire Easily flammable building material (e.g. untreated coconut fibre matting) 1) not permitted in construction

non-flammable material F 90 (or W 90) that must extend either 1 metre in a vertical direction or 1.50 metres in a horizontal direction (e.g. fireresistant projections). Parapet cover plates also require mechanical fixing in this case. A series of facades of this kind, including some not backed by masonry or concrete parapets, have been approved and built in recent years. The same applies to the interior corners of multistorey office and administrative buildings. Building fire-resistant glazing into such areas serves to extend a firewall and prevents fire from spreading horizontally to the facade of a part of the building that is separate in terms of fire safety. If a low-rise extension is added to a multistorey building, the wall separating the building’s two parts must be a firewall up to the higher building’s roof. Staircases required as emergency and escape routes in case of fire are also areas where glass can be used to ensure fire safety for facades. If parapets, lintels or projections cannot meet standards required to prevent fire from spreading, fire safety authorities must determine the extent to which a sprinkler system could meet these demands. For fire safety reasons, it should be ensured that joints between a building’s facade and its shell are properly built and impervious to

58

Building material class as defined in DIN 4102-1 A1 A2 B1

Euro class A1 A 2 (e.g. plasterboard interior panelling in a wooden building) B C

B2

D E

B 31)

F A 3.7

smoke. If fire does break out, smoke and toxic gases can spread very quickly through joints throughout the building and pose risks for building users that could otherwise be avoided based on the fire incident. Structural measures In the event of fire, smoke extraction openings are either automatically activated or are manually operated by emergency responders. As well as typical smoke and heat extraction systems, the size of which DIN 18 230 defines depending on the risk group, openings in the facade (side-hung or bottom-hung sashes) can provide the necessary cross-sectional sizes in individual cases, after consultation with fire safety experts. The prerequisite is that the openings open directly outside. Effective smoke extraction depends largely on the right dimensioning of systems and adequate calculations of amounts of incoming air. In determining the cross section required for smoke extraction, regulatory bodies distinguish between aerodynamic smoke extraction and the size of a geometrically calculated opening. Sashes must open in the right way, and a sufficiently large incoming air vent cross section is necessary – normally one with 1.5 times the surface of the ventilation opening. If appropriate building automation ensures

A 3.6 Behaviour of building materials in fire based on the European DIN EN 13 501 standard A 3.7 Examples of building materials and their flammability and building material / Euro class classifications

a simultaneous opening of incoming and exhaust air vents, the cross sections of both openings can be the same size. Door openings can also be taken into account for this purpose. There are currently no rules on smoke extraction through vertical facade elements, a separate technical approval in each individual case is required for them. Fire and smoke protection at weak points in facades As well as the typical thermal bridges in a facade (such as those due to gaps between frames and sash frames and structural connections and between the frames holding infill panels and their edge bonds) any irregularities in a facade pose particular fire safety risks. Slender, undivided posts and beams in the area of partition walls and their connections with the structure can also be weak points in terms of the spread of fire in curtain wall facades. Structural compensations must be made for a facade’s movements and deformations, which can be far greater than normal in the event of fire due to the higher temperatures in and around the connections and joints between the facade and the structure and interior partition walls. Special measures for improving fire safety properties in this context could include:

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

• Materials that foam up when exposed to heat, forming a seal and improving fire resistance and mechanical integrity • Materials that vaporise when exposed to heat and compensate for the heat’s effects Facades exposed to particular risks When installed in double-skin facades on multistorey buildings, fire-resistant glazing mainly has a protective function of preventing fire from spreading to the storey above. Vertical paths along which fire can spread must be equipped with F 30 glazing. The W 90 fire resistance class required for high-rise building parapets must be integrated into the inner layers of double facades. Designs in which the facade is ventilated by multistorey cavities like shafts, where smoke cannot be prevented from spreading to adjoining storeys if windows are open due to the pressure ratios caused by fire, require special testing.

the section on “Principles of joint sealing” in “Surfaces – structural principles”, p. 32f.), especially in the form of and in and around fastening elements and cable routing (e.g. for sun protection or photovoltaic systems). In these cases, and to form structural connections, various groups of tradespeople often work together on critical structural and physical interfaces. The same applies to connections between interior structures (mainly partition walls) and facades, where flexible new partitioning of spaces to accommodate changing conditions can play a crucial role. Particular attention must be paid to special areas of facades such as the building’s bottom and top edges (at the base and rooftop) and vertical and horizontal exterior and interior corners (especially in and around offset insulating and sealing layers) in planning (see Fig. A 2.1.7, p. 29).

General planning advice In planning facades, all the functional and resulting structural and physical requirements must be met by appropriate materials and structural components, with the components subsequently coordinated and properly and durably joined. In terms of a facade's structural type, the issue of whether the load-bearing system chosen is a solid structure with load-bearing exterior walls and intermittent window openings or a concrete, steel or timber frame with a separate, usually non-load-bearing facade, is crucial in planning. Which facade type or structure should be chosen for different facade zones must be decided in the planning process, taking these general conditions into account. As described in the chapter on “Surfaces – structural principles” (p. 26ff.), the following options are available for managing a facade’s load-bearing behaviour, structure, permeability to radiation and construction principles: • Load-bearing or not • Single or multi-shell • Single or multilayer • Opaque, translucent, transparent • Rear-ventilated curtain wall facade, post and beam facade or element facade Among the conditions governing a facade’s design are the type of structure and choice of materials as well as technical building equipment planning (e.g. whether a building is airconditioned or not). Any irregularities or leaks in a facade pose particular structural physical risks and increase the likelihood of damage. These include all types of penetrating joints between structural components in and through the facade (see

Issues such as air- and watertightness, thermal insulation, protection from damp, sun, glare, noise, fire and smoke and the use of solar energy and daylight have to be dealt with holistically while taking framework conditions into account as such measures often affect each other. Facade types

From a structural point of view, facades can be basically classified into load-bearing and nonload-bearing. In the former, windows are set or integrated into a load-bearing exterior wall (Fig. A 3.8, p. 60). These can be individual windows or be combined into horizontal (also storey-high) or continuous vertical bands of windows (over several storeys). Structural connections around window frames require especially careful planning to ensure appropriate thermal insulation and protection from environmental moisture and noise. The exteriors of facade bays between windows can be clad with sheet metal or opaque glass. This can often make them look like non-load-bearing facades, but they are built in a completely different way (Fig. A 3.9, p. 60). Non-load-bearing facades completely cover the building shell and form an extra closed weather protection cover into which elements such as glazing, individual windows and bands of windows are integrated. Experience has shown that there are often structural and physical weak points in and around slab and wall connections. Soundproofing and fire and smoke protection problems often arise in construction practice, especially between adjoining rooms, if joints are not properly planned and built to ensure adequate insulating and sealing functions. This is especially the case if the following aspects have not been sufficiently taken into account and compensated for in the structure:

• Deformations in the building, e.g. resulting from the structure’s own weight and traffic loads • Manufacturers’ specified tolerances • Dynamic, horizontal movements in slabs caused by wind pressure, wind suction or earthquakes • Changes in length within structural components and between adjoining structural elements due to differing materials and temperatures Facade structures

The static, structural and physical properties of single-layer (monolithic) exterior walls are determined entirely by their material and thickness, so the wall’s material and joints must meet multifunctional requirements in this case. In multilayer or multi-shell facades, however, the materials of individual layers or shells can be optimised to secure various functions. As described in detail in the chapter on “Surfaces – structural principles” (p. 26ff.), a layer of air can be enclosed between shells in a multi-shell facade and be either enclosed, inward and/or open to the outside. Depending on the desired functional or design characteristics, the external weather protection layer can be transparent, translucent or opaque. In planning such facades, architects must ensure that insulating and moisture protection layers remain airtight, and suitable sealing systems must be used, especially to close up joints. If these layers are on the inside, they must be more vapour-tight than the outer weather protection layer. In practice, a weather protection layer with vapour pressure equalisation openings through which moisture can escape from a structure unimpeded has been shown to have proven benefits (Fig. A 3.12, p. 61). Water can get into air cavities through the openings in unfavourable conditions such as driving rain, so it must be directly discharged outside through appropriate openings in a controlled way. Creating two coordinated sealing layers can effectively secure a watertight facade. If such facades are properly planned and built, they offer better protection not only from rain, but also from damp, wind and noise. For this reason, multilayer or multi-shell facades are preferred for buildings exposed to high noise levels or wind loads and from which a high standard of comfort is expected. Joint formation

Regardless of a building’s construction method, junctions and connections between different structural components and the resulting joints must be especially carefully planned in all facades to ensure central functions such as sealing the building against moisture and damp, ensuring adequate thermal insulation and airtightness across the entire facade surface in the long term.

59

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

A 3.8

In planning joints in buildings, it should be noted that different trades, e.g. concrete, masonry, timber and steel construction etc., allow for different dimensional variations. These are prescribed in the relevant standards, although the dimensional tolerances they specify usually refer only to the planning and construction of buildings or structural components. They do not take time-dependent deformations that result in divergences from prescribed nominal dimensions into account, so particular attention must be paid to these. These include plastic deformations because of material creep or changes in form due to swelling or shrinkage, changes in temperature or the effects of temporary or ongoing loads (e.g. structures’ own weight, traffic loads, wind loads, snow loads etc.). Architects must take any discrepancies from nominal dimensions resulting from these factors into account in planning by ensuring the appropriate arrangement, dimensioning and formation of joints and connections between structural components (see also p. 32ff.). Compliance with this stipulation will prevent problems during the construction process and ensure that facade structures retain their functionality in the long term. Construction methods

Rear-ventilated curtain wall facades are the most widespread form of opaque facades due to their wide range of functional features and design options. They are non-load-bearing facades attached to a load-bearing exterior wall by means of an appropriate substructure. (see p. 34ff.) In structural terms, an exterior curtain wall facade shell or facade cladding is designed to absorb only wind loads, which are directly transferred to the exterior wall through the substructure. Its outer layer protects the structure from the weather, while insulation, usually directly adjoining the exterior wall, ensures appropriate protection from extreme temperatures. A gap between this weather protection and thermal insulation ensures that any rainwater that gets in through leaks in the outer skin can escape though the exterior layer’s A 3.9

60

continuous air cavity. Moisture moving from the inside to the outside by means of vapour diffusion can also escape in this way. Correctly built, rear-ventilated curtain wall facades are effective, durable systems. They are available in a wide range of colours and materials so they also offer designers extensive creative freedom [6]. Light, non-load-bearing facades can be classified in terms of their construction into post and beam and element facades. Whether individual components (post and beam) or structural components (elements) ready to use are delivered and assembled on a building site is the essential factor here. The post and beam facade type is very widespread among curtain wall facades (Fig. A 3.10). The longitudinal and intersecting connections between the posts and beams are built to be able to slide. Infill panels, such as windows, glazing or panels, sit in a glass rebate, whose depth must be able to accommodate the expected tolerances, expansions and deformations. In contrast, facade elements that are ready for use in element facades, including glass, panels, metal sheeting and insulation through to the integration of external cladding with natural stone or installation of sun protection systems (including sensors and drive technology) and distributed ventilation technology, can be mechanically processed and prefabricated in a factory (Fig. A 3.11). One major advantage of this is that in contrast to the situation on a building site, a high degree of automation and precision can be achieved in a factory’s controlled, industrial conditions, ensuring consistently high product quality and reliable quality assurance. Finished prefabricated elements are transported to the building site for assembly, attached to brackets that have already been attached to the building’s shell and adjusted. Element facades, where facade profiles form frames with material-specific connections, are one example of this kind of facade type. The rubber-sealed edge profiles of adjoining

Aspects of building physics and planning advice

A 3.10

A 3.11

A 3.8 Vertical section of a load-bearing exterior wall with windows A 3.9 Vertical section of a non-load-bearing, curtain wall post and beam facade (top – parapet, middle – ceiling slab joint, bottom – base)

A 3.10 Post and beam facade A 3.11 Element facade A 3.12 Vapour pressure equalisation in post and beam facades

facade elements are interlocked during assembly on the building site in a labyrinthine configuration. This enables them to absorb tolerances, expansions and deformations and ensures that joints between elements meet the standards of insulation, soundproofing and air and watertightness required of them. Inadequately built intersections between facade elements are typical weak points in this kind of structure.

of an effective facade is an essential element in creating a comfortable, durable, energyefficient and valuable building.

Building element facades involves more material and a greater effort in manufacture and requires experienced designers and builders. Mistakes in planning cannot easily be corrected by subsequent supplementary work by tradespeople. Element facades are more complex to plan, so they require appropriate (planning) lead times, which is one factor that must be taken into account when tendering for contracts. These kinds of facades are suitable for high-rise buildings and other largevolume buildings, particularly those with regular structures.

Concluding remarks The choice of a facade’s materials and structure plays a decisive role in its design, functional and structural-physical characteristics. Skilled professional planning and construction

In creating such buildings, the structure’s specific requirements and framework conditions must be coordinated in an integrated planning process involving all planners. Especially in the context of users’ comfort requirements and the insulation required to meet them, there is great potential for optimising the costs and benefits and the design and functional properties of a building. As well as qualified planning, construction work on the building site must be closely coordinated with the companies carrying it out and supervised. Particularly when sophisticated facade structures that are equipped with moveable, adjustable components are involved, it must be ensured that building services control systems are coordinated with the facade’s mechanical systems to ensure that building’s automated systems work effectively with the facade. Correct initial operating of the systems built by workers from all trades – including the facade construction – as soon as the building is completed, is required to ensure the productive interaction of building technologies, facade and users.

A 3.12

Notes: [1] See also German workplace regulations (Arbeitsstättenverordnung ArbStättV), section 9 (2); German screen display work regulations (Bildschirmarbeitsverordnung – BildscharbV), p. 7; German workplace safety regulations involving screen display work (Unfallverhütungsvorschrift Arbeit an Bildschirmgeräten) VBG 104, sections 9, 16 and 25 and the EU Display screen equipment Directive, 90/270/EWG [2] See also DIN 4108 and European standards DIN EN 13 162 to 13 171 [3] See also the Energy Efficiency Directive: http:// ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-efficiency/ energy-efficiency-directive. As of 05.03.2016. The EED aims to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels by 20 % by 2020, compared with 2005 consumption levels. [4] Energy for space heating makes up 69 % of household energy consumption. German Environment Agency (Bundesumweltamt) (2012): https://www. umweltbundesamt.de/daten/private-haushaltekonsum /energieverbrauch-der-privaten-haushalte. As of 06.02.2016 [5] DIN 18 516 “Cladding for external walls” must be complied with. [6] See also DIN 18 516-1: Cladding for external walls, ventilated at rear, part 1: requirements, principles of testing

61

Part B

Structures built with specific materials

Anyone involved in planning and building facades in compliance with generally accepted rules will at some point need to make decisions on materials. This entails making targeted use of the properties of existing construction materials and of those that may need to be developed as well as taking them into account in planning and construction. Architects face a series of guidelines, considerations, recommendations and ideas with a local or regional or sometimes even a global background that are of a functional, economic, ecological and/or cultural nature and arise out of planning and approvals law constraints, rules, standards and regulations. A facade is one subsystem in the wider system of the “building”, a large and complex technical object whose use of materials determines phases in its production in a workshop or factory, its composition of elements into structural components, and its transport, assembly and installation in both intermediate and final states. This means that a building's subsequent maintenance and upkeep, operation and options for exchanging parts must all be well thought out in terms of the spaces, organisation and effects on structural details involved.

Wrapped Reichstag, Berlin (DE) 1995, Christo & Jeanne-Claude

A knowledge of the structural, physical and technical features of the building materials involved and of the construction, technology and manufacture of structural elements and components, taking the structure’s special characteristics and technical context into account, are among the essential skills required of architects responsible for designing buildings. The following examples are designed to provide them with guidance and orientation in their work.

63

Natural stone

B 1 Natural stone

The Stone Age is regarded as the first major cultural epoch because it was when people began using a naturally occurring material to make various tools. In the past stone was used to make artefacts ranging from simple tools and weapons through to graves and walls and up to precisely worked treasures such as jewellery. Stone directly extracted from the Earth’s crust is called “natural stone”. Natural stone can be divided into three main groups based on its genesis: • Igneous rock (magmatites) • Sedimentary rock (sedimentites) • Metamorphic rock (metamorphites)

B 1.2

These three stone “families” are subdivided into around 30 types of stone, including granite, sandstone and marble. All the types of stone found in the Earth (4,500 – 5,000) belong to one of these groups. Natural stone can be used in various ways on the outsides of buildings (see Fig. B 1.10, p. 67). Granite, for example, is suitable for use in applications ranging from the construction of solid structures to facade cladding. Ashlar

Before natural stone can be used in construction, it must be worked and shaped into a specific form by splitting, sawing or milling. The resulting product is also called “ashlar”. Stone is classified as hard or soft depending on its compressive strength (hard stone: e.g. granite, diorite – soft stone: e.g. limestone, tuff or tufa). Ashlar to be used in masonry must have certain physical prerequisites such as minimum compressive and tensile strength, frost resistance etc. [1]. Figure B 1.11 (p. 67) shows the most important material properties of ashlar, such as bulk density, thermal conductivity and compressive and tensile strength. Artificially produced stone (e.g. brick, concrete) is called artificial stone and produced in the form of modular, prefabricated elements.

B 1.3

B 1.4

Natural stone in facades

B 1.1 German Pavilion, Barcelona (ES) 1929 /1986, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

The historic development of stone facades is closely connected with that of masonry structures. Stone is one of the oldest construction materials. In early cultures, such as those of Mesopotamia and Egypt, stone was used to build load-bearing walls and is still used for that purpose today, as well as to make rearventilated, non-load-bearing facade cladding. Humanity’s first stone buildings were developed out of local conditions and were initially often only piles of stone added to pre-existing natural spaces such as caves and similar structures. Ancient forms of exterior stone walls served mainly to create permanent sites and places of safety, while later cultures show

B 1.5 B 1.2 Graves, Petra (JO) 4th century BC B 1.3 Stairs, retaining wall, architecture and sculpture, Temple of Athena Nike, Athens (GR) 5th century BC B 1.4 Mountain village in Tessin (CH) B 1.5 Panel under a display window decorated with petrified ammonites

65

Natural stone

Natural stone

Onyx

Dolomite

Solnhofen limestone

Calcareous tufa

Travertine

Shell limestone

Limestone

Shale

Greywacke

Sandstone

Breccia

Conglomerate

Granulite

Sedimentary rock

Phyllite

Migmatite

Marble

Serpentinite

Chlorite schist

Mica slate

Quartzite

Orthogneiss / Paragneiss

Volcanic tuff or tufa

Lava stone

Metamorphic rock

Diabase

Basalt

Trachyte

Rhyolite

Gabbro

Diorite

Syenite

Granite

Igneous rock

B 1.7 B 1.6

examples of stone facades cut from stone with the highest precision and aesthetic standards (Fig. B 1.2). The extraction of natural stone for construction purposes began around 5,000 BC. When bronze and hard tools were developed (approx. 2,500 BC) it became possible to shape stone precisely into ashlar. As Greek building culture flourished, techniques for grinding and cutting hard stone, which the Egyptians practised with great precision to make hieroglyphs and reliefs, were refined. The Greeks’ development of entasis and the curvature of the plinth zone bears witness to their efforts to transform the appearance of facades and perfect them (Fig. B 1.2, B 1.3, p. 65). The Romans further developed stone-cutting techniques. Vitruvius was the first to record practical knowledge of natural stone in writing in his “De architectura libri decem” (Ten Books on Architecture). Around 2,000 years ago this work was the basis for generally accepted technical building rules across the European continent within the boundaries of the Roman Empire. The Romans’ systematic separation of load-bearing elements from cladding established clear principles for designing a structure and organising a building site.

The appearance of large secular buildings played an increasingly important role in their construction, as the “Palazzo dei Diamanti” in Ferrara by Biagio Rossetti strikingly illustrates (Fig. B 1.6). In many cases the facade was for the first time completely detached from the rest of the structure, becoming an independent architectural element in the overall building. In Italy in particular, facades whose form and materials clearly distinguish them from loadbearing walls were built at enormous expense and effort. In one particular technical version, an outer layer of thinly cut and worked stone panels was laid in mortar on a load-bearing exterior wall, which is referred to as “incrustation”. In Tuscany and Umbria especially, outstandingly highly crafted incrusted facades made of different stone panels were built (Fig. B 1.8).

Before windows with transparent panes of glass were developed, thin, polished stone often provided translucent protection from the weather (Fig. B 1.23, p. 69). One modern example of the use of natural stone’s translucent properties is the St. Pius Church in Meggen by Franz Füeg (1966, p. 74f.). Some architects have developed novel and unusual ways of using natural stone in specific projects. For a vineyard in Yountville, California, Herzog & de Meuron (1998) used wire mesh baskets of stones, which are used in landscaping, as facade material. Light passing through them produces fascinating effects in the interior. The facade’s large masses of stone enable it to regulate temperatures, and its coarse structure makes the facade very permeable (and a haven for reptiles), an effect that can be compensated for by structural measures (see the example of the Mortensrud Church by Jensen & Skodvin, p. 77).

Modular prefabrication using stone made of clay has been practised for centuries, but the use of natural stone was only re-established in the early Middle Ages. Increasing demands resulting from the building of large cathedrals resulted in the further development of techniques for constructing natural stone facades, making the prefabrication of ashlar in large quantities possible. The development of frame and horizontal construction using continuous horizontal bed joints also shortened construction times. These processing methods, developed during the Romanesque period, were further refined, leading up to their maximum expression in the construction of Gothic facades from the 13th century on [2]. At the beginning of the Renaissance, the desire to express secular power in architecture grew. B 1.8

66

Raw density

Sculptural work

Facade cladding

Steps

Floor covering

Solid structure

Natural stone

[kg/m2] Basalt

Basalt

°

°

°

Granite

•

•

•

Marble

-

°

°

-

-

Slate Sandstone

°

Limestone

•

• Suitable ° Limited suitability - Somewhat suitable

•

•

° °

°

-

°

Thermal ComBending conduct- pressive tensile ivity strength strength [W/mk] [N/mm2] [N/mm2]

2,700 – 3,000 1.2 – 3.0

250 – 400

Granite

2,500 – 2,700 1.6 – 3.4

130 – 270

5 –18

Marble

2,600 – 2,900 2.0 – 2.6

80 – 240

3 –19

Slate

200 – 2,600 1.2 – 2.1

15 – 25

50 – 80

Sandstone 2,000 – 2,700 1.2 – 3.4

30 – 200

3 – 20

Limestone 2,600 – 2,900 2.0 – 3.4

75 – 240

3 –19

B 1.10

B 1.11

B 1.9

Natural stone extraction Various methods are used to extract blocks of raw stone in quarries depending on the stone’s type, stratification and commonness (Fig. B 1.14 –16, p. 68), but what they all have in common is the goal of producing the largest and most perfect blocks without wasting material. Roughly-worked raw stone blocks are sawed or gang-sawed into the desired forms to make ashlar. Computerised cutting technologies can now be used to make almost any form, including round forms.

Construction and design There is a wide range of construction options available for creating stone facades and their individual appearances. The first precursors of suspended stone facades were built in the early 20th century: buildings such as the Postal Savings Bank building by Otto Wagner in Vienna (1912). From the second half of that century, this became one of the most common and most economical forms of stone facade construction. The "Finlandia" concert and congress hall in Helsinki by Alvar Aalto (1975) shows the aesthetic potential inherent in this technical solution [5]. Today’s architects are becoming increasingly aware of the centuries-old construction principle of the facing wall. They have clear advantages over thin, suspended stone facades in terms of their mechanical resistance to horizontal forces. A facing wall is also the simplest structural solution for creating the distinct impression of horizontally stratified stone facades.

wall) – but with incised stone – in his facade design for the spa building in Vals (Fig. B 1.13). In the 20th century, modernism returned to this technique in the form of suspended, rearventilated facades, which are usually attached by corrosion-proof metal load-bearing and restraining anchors to absorb vertical and horizontal forces. The technical approach of treating layers of masonry differently based on their function is now again being used in facades in which natural stone is used solely as cladding material, detached from the load-bearing wall (see Fig. 1.27– 30, p. 70f.). Economical and structural physical advantages mean that this type of construction is now almost exclusively used to build natural stone facades.

• Thermal insulation layer (if the exterior wall does not have the necessary insulation) • Attachment and anchoring of cladding panels on various substrata

B 1.6 B 1.7 B 1.8

B 1.9 B 1.10

Natural stone exterior wall cladding is often structured as follows: • Natural stone panels • Rear ventilation zone

B 1.11 B 1.12 B 1.13

Palazzo dei Diamanti, Ferrara (IT) after 1493, Biagio Rossetti Stone types and “families” Cathedral of S. Maria del Fiore, Florence (IT) 1296 (–1887), Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo Brunelleschi et al. German Pavilion, Barcelona (ES) 1929 /1986, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Use of various kinds of natural stone for exteriors [3] Material-specific properties of natural ashlar [4] “Fallingwater”, Mill Run (US) 1937, Frank Lloyd Wright Thermal spa, Vals (CH) 1996, Peter Zumthor

One outstanding example of a building with a natural stone facing wall is the Kaufmann residence ("Fallingwater") by Frank Lloyd Wright. Its outer walls’ rough, stratified structure is analogous with the stratified structure of the bed of the river the house was built above (Fig. B 1.12). A good six decades later, Peter Zumthor used the same construction technique (a facing B 1.12

B 1.13

67

Natural stone

B 1.14

B 1.15

B 1.16

Sizes of natural stone panels The static bending strengths and breaking loads for dowel holes holding natural stone panels must be verified. DIN 18 516, Part 3 prescribes the following minimum thicknesses: • Angle of inclination greater than 60° relative to the horizontal: 30 mm • Angle of inclination up to a maximum of 60° relative to the horizontal: 40 mm

B 1.17

In deciding on the thickness of natural stone panels with greater bending strengths, architects should normally adhere to the minimum thicknesses prescribed in the DIN standard. The dead weight of panels with an angle of inclination of 0 to 15 °C is increased by a factor of 2.5 due to the reduced bending strength and breaking load for dowel holes caused by permanent loads, vibrations, shocks and dynamic loads.

B 1.18

Retaining anchor Dowel hole

Sliding sleeve

Dowel

Load-bearing anchor

2

Anchoring Loads are transferred through stone slabs into a substructure or anchor base individually, i.e. through each slab. Substructures (e.g. rail systems) of facing masonry structures that do not have sufficient load-bearing strength must be able to transfer forces from the structure’s dead weight load and wind loads into load-bearing structural components. Each panel is normally held by three to four anchors whose geometric positioning ensures that the panels are kept in place free of restraining stresses (Fig. B 1.17). Appropriate structural measures must ensure that large panels that need more than four anchor points are installed free of restraint stresses for structural reasons. Fastening elements can be divided into four main groups: • Dowels • Screw anchors • Profiled webs • Other (e.g. adhesive)

Joint spacer in joint width

Sliding sleeve

B 1.19 B 1.20

a

b

g

h

c

d

i

j

e

f

k

l B 1.21

68

B 1.22

Natural stone

mm

2–3

2–5

3–7

Mica-free quartzite

Limestone

Coarsegrained marble

5 –10

8 –15

Finegrained marble

Onyx without pigment

12 – 30

Candle in a dark room

Alabaster without bitumen

B 1.23

B 1.24

Joints Joints absorb movements that can occur due to temperature variations or structural and dynamic effects. Joints in natural stone facade cladding generally measure 8 –10 mm and can be left open. If joints are closed, permanently elastic filling material must be able to withstand calculated maximum movements. In most cases panels are attached along joints, so it must be ensured that attachments are matched with the load-bearing structure’s joints and that adjoining slabs have an allowance for movement on only one side of the anchoring.

a

a

bb

Colours and surfaces A stone’s colour and texture result from the mixture of the minerals and pigments found in it. Limestones also often contain fossils, which add to their optical effect (Fig. B 1.5, p. 65). Stone can lose its natural colour due to physical, chemical or biological soiling, although soft, porous types of stone tend to fade even without such influences, especially when used on exteriors. Water on the surface of natural stone often intensifies its colour. Depending on a natural stone’s hardness and individual characteristics, its surface can be further worked by machine or by a stonemason.

b

b aa B 1.25

B 1.14 Havixbeck quarry, Münsterland (DE), 1952 B 1.15 Sectioning a block of stone with an iron bar B 1.16 Using a special wedge technique to split a block of stone B 1.17 Geometrical conditions for positioning attachments B 1.18 Cross-sectional forms of dowel pins B 1.19 Grouted dowel in a sliding sleeve, horizontal cross-section B 1.20 Axonometric view of load-bearing and retaining dowels B 1.21 Load-bearing (a – h) and retaining dowels (i – l) B 1.22 Dowel that can be finely adjusted B 1.23 Marble windows of the Arsenale in Venice (IT) B 1.24 Translucent light stone (translucency in equivalent material thicknesses) [6] B 1.25 Slots and grooves used to fit load-bearing and retaining dowels B 1.26 Undercut anchors for flush and spaced mounting

Dowel length = constant

Reference plane of the substructure

Dowel sleeve mounted flush with the panel

Gap width varies depending on panel thickness tolerances

B 1.26

69

Natural stone

B 1.27 Hotel, Berlin (DE) 1996, Josef Paul Kleihues The facade of the Four Seasons hotel is made of prefabricated storey-high panels hung on storey slabs. Each panel is made of polished Roman Travertine slabs 30 mm thick. The panels overlap and are attached with stainless steel pins. An aluminium frame supports the rear-ventilated, insulated natural stone cladding and window surrounds separated by a thermal break.

B 1.28 Office building, Berlin (DE) 1996, Jürgen Sawade This elegant, very flat facade is made of polished, black, shiny African granite. Its window elements are set flush into the stone. The basic grid measures 1.20 ≈ 1.20 metres and the panels are 30 mm thick. The use of a temporary facade hoist meant that the facade could be assembled without scaffolding, greatly accelerating construction.

B 1.27

B 1.28

70

Natural stone

B 1.29 Office building, Berlin (DE) 1997, Klaus Theo Brenner This strictly structured stone facade is made of green dolomite with striking stainless steel attachment elements that prevent its upright stone slabs from falling out of the facade. Shadows cast by the stainless steel elements vary depending on the time of day and year, lending the building an individual character.

B 1.30 Residential and commercial building, Berlin (DE) 1996, Josef Paul Kleihues A traditional punctuated facade with aluminiumframe windows in the middle of the wall and windows' projecting stone frames that reinforce the effect of the openings. The frames are made of polished green serpentinite, with polished, open-pored, yellow travertine wall and parapet elements.

B 1.1.29

B 1.30

71

Natural stone

B 1.31

B 1.33

72

B 1.32

B 1.34

B 1.35

B 1.36

B 1.37

B 1.38

Natural stone from German quarries: B 1.31 Fürstenstein diorite (igneous) B 1.32 Greifenstein basalt (igneous) B 1.33 Dorfprozelten sandstone (sedimentary) B 1.34 Mosel slate (sedimentary) B 1.35 Aachen bluestone (sedimentary) B 1.36 Odenwald quartz (metamorphic) B 1.37 Zöblitz garnetiferous serpentinite (metamorphic) B 1.38 Jura marble (metamorphic) B 1.39 Colour of natural stone [7] B 1.40 Techniques for working stone with machines [8] B 1.41 Stonemasonry techniques for working stone by hand [9] Surface treatments for natural stone: B 1.42 Coarsely pointed The surface is chipped off with a tapering pyramid-shaped pointed chisel and must be completely worked. The type of blows make the difference between a roughly and finely pointed surface. B 1.43 Toothed The end of a toothed or claw chisel, applied in various ways (straight, arched or criss-cross), can be used to produce a wide variety of surfaces. B 1.44 Drove-chiselled in a herringbone pattern Drove chisels with alternating widths (8 –15 cm) and various blows can be used to produce different surface effects. B 1.45 Pointed, bush-hammered, axed and ground These four different kinds of working create different surfaces. B 1.46 Bush-hammered The surface is worked with a bush hammer, finely or roughly depending on the hammer head. A 7 ≈ 7 hammer head is used for fine textures, while for coarse textures a 4 ≈ 4 hammer head with pyramid-shaped teeth is used. B 1.47 Bush-hammered, brushed and waxed The wax protects the surface and makes colour more intense. B 1.48 Polished Polishing creates a smooth, intensely shiny surface. Any holes are filled to optimise the polishing’s effect. B 1.49 Flame-treated This technique makes use of the various thermal expansion properties of particles found in natural stone. Brief flame treatment of a stone surface causes parts to flake off evenly, creating a rough surface. The reduction in material must be taken into account in determining the thickness of panels.

Natural stone

Notes: [1] DIN 18 516-1: 2010-06; DIN 18 516-3: 2001-11 [2] Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Basel / Munich 2001, p. 17f. [3] Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 196f. [4] Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 72 [5] A + U 05/1983, Alvar Aalto, p. 160 –167 [6] ibid., p. 171 [7] As for Note 3, p. 169 [8] As for Note 4, p. 74 [9] ibid.

B 1.43

B 1.44

B 1.45

B 1.46

B 1.47

B 1.48

B 1.49

Black Dark grey Pale grey White Cream Yellow Reddish Red Brown Olive Dark green Grey-green Light green Light blue

B 1.42

Basalt

•

-

° -

Granite

°

°

• • -

• • -

-

°

Marble

-

Slate

• -

°

Sandstone

-

- • • • • •

Limestone

° ° °

° -

-

- •

°

°

° °

-

• ° ° °

-

-

°

• • • -

- Some sorts A few sorts • Many sorts

°

Polished

Sandblasted

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Marble

•

•

•

Slate

•

•

•

Sandstone

•

Limestone

•

• •

Polished

Milled

•

Granite

Flame-treated

Ground and slightly roughened

Basalt

Rubbed

Sawn

B 1.39

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Slate

•

Sandstone

•

•

•

Limestone

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Rubbing

•

Marble

Scabbling

•

•

Grooving

•

•

Batting

Bush hammering

•

•

Tooth chiselling

Pointing

•

Granite

Crandalling

Bossage

Basalt

Axed

Roughening

B 1.40

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

B 1.41

73

Natural stone

St. Pius Church 14

Meggen, CH 1966 Architect: Franz Füeg, Solothurn with Peter Rudolph and Gérard Staub º

A+U 11/2003 Bauen + Wohnen 05/1966 and 12/1966 Casabella 677, 2000 Detail 03/1967 Stock, Wolfgang Jean (ed.): Europäischer Kirchenbau 1950 – 2000. Munich, 2002

17 18

16

• Steel frame structure with a 1.68 m basic grid • Roof support structure made of steel piping Ø 63.5 mm; spanning 25.50 m • Translucent marble panel facade (h ≈ w = 1,020 ≈ 1,500 mm) • Unusually festive atmosphere inside

Isometric view not to scale Ground floor layout • Section Scale 1:750 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 Details of panel mounting, vertical and horizontal Scale 1:5

21

10

4

7

20

cc

aa 4

1 2 3 a b

a b

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

74

Circumferential wooden batten Flat steel, ¡ 550/10 mm Marble panel, 150/102/21 mm, sanded smooth on the outside Facade column Å IPB 240 Steel truss rafter made of hollow steel tubing, Ø 63.5 mm Flat steel, ¡ 260/10 mm Marble panel, 150/102/28 mm, sanded smooth on the outside Flat steel, 240/10 mm Steel sheeting condensate channel, edged Fresh air inlet Fresh air duct

4

12 13 14 15 16 17

18 19 20

21

Angle, 35/35/4 mm Angle, 40/25/4 mm Spacer, 25/25/4 mm Spacer, 30/30/3 mm with sealing M8 with hexagon socket Flat steel panel support, ¡ 20/20/15 mm, covered with rigid foam Angle, 40/40/4 mm Rigid foam strip to prevent contact between marble and steel Insulated steel sheeting box, with rainwater downpipe, Ø 125 mm Condensate channel drain

Natural stone

6 17

12

1

18

13 19 14

2

5 7 15 17

12

16

4

13

17 8 4

3

5

6

c

c 7

8

9

10

11

bb

75

Natural stone

House Sarzeau, FR 1999 Architect: Eric Gouesnard, Nantes º

A+U 06/1999 L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 320, 1999 LOTUS 105, 2000. Special issue: Aperto over all

a

a

• Use of the same material to clad the facade and roof gives the building’s exterior a monolithic look • 50 ≈ 50 cm dark grey shale slate panels • Concealed rainwater gutters

2

1 Ground floor layout Scale 1:200 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 1

2 3

Slate panels, 20 mm Substructure made of steel Z-profile sections Cement render, 20 mm Masonry, 200 mm Closed-pore thermal insulation Vapour barrier Plasterboard composite panel, 100 mm Aluminium sheeting rain downpipe, concealed Rainwater downpipe

3

b 3

1

bb

76

aa

b

Natural stone

Mortensrud Church Oslo, NO 2002 Architects: Jensen & Skodvin, Oslo º

Architectural Review 12/2002 Architektur Aktuell 01– 02/2003 A+U 08/2002 Byggekunst 04/2002 Detail 11/2003 Living Architecture 19, 2004

Section • Floor plan Scale 1:1,000 Vertical cross section of the western facade Scale 1:20

• Inside the church the bedrock has been left exposed in places • External glass facade with interior oiled steel frame • Broken slate slabs laid dry without mortar • Broken stone fill is stabilised by large steel plates between columns 1 metre apart • Price per square metre is similar to that of public housing prices in Oslo

a

b

aa

1 1

2 2

7

3

4

6

5

3 4 5

Steel profile section, fi 80/40/4 mm Insulating glazing Toughened safety glass 6 + space between the panes 16 + laminated safety glass 8 mm Tubular steel, ¡ 80/80/4 mm Steel tubing, Ø 38/5 mm as central glass pane support Steel plate, 360/80/15 mm Steel profile section, fi 80/40/5 mm Insulating glazing Toughened safety glass 6 + space

a

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

b

between the panes 15 + laminated safety glass 7 mm Tubular steel facade posts, ¡ 160/80/8 mm Steel profile section column, IPE 300 Slate, laid dry Flat steel stone fill support, ¡ 250/5 mm Lintel made of steel profile sections 2≈ fi 300/100 and 2≈ flat steel, ¡ 100/10 mm Flat steel, 2≈ ¡ 100/10 mm Steel profile section, fi 80/40/5 mm Steel grating, 30 mm Tubular steel handrail, Ø 30 mm

8 14

13 12 9 11

10

bb

77

Natural stone

Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte / Archaeological Museum Frankfurt am Main, DE 1989 Architect: Josef Paul Kleihues, Berlin / Dülmen with Mirko Baum (Project Manager) º

Arkitektur 08/1989 Baumeister 06/1989 Casabella 481, 1982 Feldmeyer, Gerhard: The New German Architecture. New York 1993

• Rear-ventilated natural stone curtain wall facade in materials and colours that harmonise with the church building • Exposed fastenings function as technically necessary ornamentation

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:1,000 Axonometry Vertical cross section Scale 1:5

4 1

1

2 2 5 3 4 6 5

7 aa

3

b

a

b

a

bb

78

6 7

Red sandstone, no veining, and yellow-green sandstone from the Würzburg region Spacer with special screw, visible from the outside Support anchor, not visible on the outside Bracket for exposed screw fastening of retaining spacer Mounting rail with standard perforation Wall anchor Steel-reinforced concrete

Natural stone

Office of the Federal President Berlin, DE 1998 Architects: Gruber + Kleine-Kraneburg, Frankfurt am Main º

Detail 06/1999 Burg, Annegret; Redecke, Sebastian: Kanzleramt und Bundespräsidialamt der Bundesrepublik. Boston / Berlin / Basel 1995

• Dark, polished natural stone (Nero Impala) • The (elliptical) cut of the stone emphasises the building's form • Windows flush with the exterior stone cladding 2

1

3

a a

4

bb 7

Floor plan Scale 1:3,000 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 Natural stone, 40 mm Air cavity, 85 mm Insulation, 100 mm Steel-reinforced concrete 300 mm Gypsum plaster, 25 mm 2 Window structure: Aluminium bracket on three sides with plastic chock wedges providing thermal separation 3 Anthracite stove-enamelled aluminium window, Glazing: Ground floor 16 mm laminated safety glass made of 2≈ toughened safety glass 1st – 3rd floors 10 mm toughened safety glass 4 Timber-frame window, dark stained oak, Insulating glazing - laminated safety glass 6 mm + space between the panes 14 mm + toughened safety glass 4 mm 5 Aluminium profile section safety barrier, 20/20 mm 6 Aluminium cover plate, 3 mm Aluminium ribbed profile fastener with integrated rubber seal, both sides of the butt joint Aluminium profile section substructure fi 50/3 mm, screwed into aluminium profile section fi 40/3 mm, screwed onto wooden plank 7 Aluminium angle, 50/50/2 mm 8 Retaining anchor 9 Supporting anchor 10 Ventilation grille 11 Sunshade – can be lowered to 100 mm above the window sill (for air circulation)

5

6

8 9

1

4 3 10

11

b

b

5

2 1 aa

79

Natural stone

Museum of Modern Art Vienna, AT 2001 Architects: Ortner & Ortner Baukunst, Vienna with Christian Lichtenwagner Structural engineers: Fritsch Chiari & Partner, Vienna º

A+U 01/2002 Materia 39, 2002 Dernie, David: Neue Steinarchitektur. Stuttgart 2003 aa

bb

• Rear-ventilated curtain wall facade of basaltic lava stone • Panel formats increase in size with the height of the building • Curved roof clad with basalt panels • Diamond-sawn stone with a porous but smooth surface

b 1 2 3 4 5 a

a

c

c

6 7

b

80

Heated stainless steel gutter Overflow gutter Retaining anchor Supporting anchor Natural stone - Mendig basaltic lava 100 mm, hung in elements with grouted anchors, Bed joints filled with permanently elastic material Ventilation cavity, 50 mm Mineral wool, 80 mm Steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm Wooden battens, 50 mm Three-ply plywood, 25 mm Plasterboard, 2≈ 12.5 mm Insect screen Limestone, 250 mm

8 9 10 11

12

13

Steel angle profile, 100/100/10 mm with thermally separate wall connection Tubular steel door frame, | 100/100/6 mm Tubular steel frame, | 60/60/4 mm with steel lugs to attach the natural stone panels Door leaf: natural Mendig basaltic lava stone, 40 mm, attached with undercut anchor dowels Mineral wool, 60 mm Rigid polystyrene foam, 20 mm Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm Double window glazing: inside – laminated safety glass made of 2≈ toughened safety glass + space between the panes + toughened safety glass outside – toughened safety glass + space between the panes + toughened safety glass Stainless steel cover plate, 2 mm

Natural stone

1

e

2

12 13

12 5

8

9

10

11

5

e

dd

3

4

5

d

d

7

Cross sections • Entrance floor plan Scale 1:1,000 Facade – vertical cross section Scale 1:50 Horizontal cross sections of fire door and slit window Scale 1:20 Vertical cross section of slit window Scale 1:20

5

12 6 13

cc

ee

81

Natural stone

Jewish Center

a

Munich, DE 2006/2007 Architects: Wandel Hoefer Lorch, Saarbrücken Structural engineers: Sailer Stepan Partner, Munich Facade consultants: Schiller und Partner, Kornwestheim º

Archithese 02/2009 Naturstein 09/2007 Fleckenstein, Jutta; Purin Bernhard (ed.): Jüdisches Museum München. Munich, 2007

• A building complex consisting of the main synagogue, a cultural and community centre and the Jewish Museum • Circumferential storey-high, roughly textured natural stone (travertine) slab plinth • Transparent roof lantern with a filigree steel structure • Glass facade encased in bronze metal mesh

aa

82

b

b

a

Natural stone

10 9

11

12

8

7

6

2

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:500 Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 1

3

1

4

5

5

2 3 4 5 6

7 8

9 10 11 12 bb

Rough travertine slabs, 80 –120 mm Air cavity, 50 mm Thermal insulation, 120 mm Steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm Battens, 80/100 mm Cedar wood plywood, 19 mm Cedar wood three-ply plywood, 22 mm Steel profile angle, 120/80/8 mm Timber beams with felt strips, 160/40 mm Steel profile, IPE 120 Travertine slab, 50 mm Steel grating on a height-adjustable steel frame, 50 mm Stainless steel turnbuckle Post and beam facade: Bronze profile covering strip with insulating solar protection glazing Laminated safety glass 8 + space between the panes 16 + float glass 8 mm Stainless steel suspension cable, Ø 6 mm Steel tubing, Ø 50.4/4 mm Bronze spacer, ¡ 35/10 mm Triangular truss Steel sheeting, 20 mm

83

Natural stone

Arts Centre Würzburg, DE 2001 Architects: Brückner & Brückner, Tirschenreuth with Norbert Ritzer º

AV Monografías / Monographs 98, 2002 Bauwelt 14/2002 Detail 10/2002

• Burenbruch shell limestone used in the ground floor and plinth • Udelfang sandstone • Cogent dialogue between the old and new buildings • Converted building has been integrated into the new function

Cross section • Floor plan of the upper floor Scale 1:1500 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:1500 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

84

Udelfang sandstone louvres, 100/225 mm Air cavity Insulating rendering Thermal insulation, 40 mm Sealing sheeting Steel-reinforced concrete parapet, 250 mm Steel columns, HEB 300 Insulating glazing - toughened safety glass 8 mm + space between the panes 16 mm + float glass 10 mm Aluminium pipe, | 50/50 mm Heating pipes, copper piping, Ø 24 mm Ground floor and plinth: Burenbruch shell limestone, 100/225 mm Flat steel with lugs, 250 mm Flat steel, 500/10 mm, welded to 250/10 mm flat steel Exterior wall (pre-existing): whitewashed brick inside, untreated natural stone outside

aa

a b

a b

Natural stone

cc

3

6

4

8 7

2

9

1

2

3

4 5

c

c

6

bb

85

Clay

B 2 Clay

Fired clay, the main component in ceramic building materials, has been used in construction for many thousands of years. Although the basic principles of its production are largely unchanged, new production methods and applications mean that ceramic materials are still among the most “modern” of building materials.

Artificial stone In recent decades, the range of artificially produced stone, including clay brick, has expanded greatly. One main reason for this is the development of different additives that can greatly influence artificial stone’s properties (thermal conductivity, compressive strength, colour etc.). The great diversity of products available notwithstanding, three groups can be differentiated based on the method used to produce them: • Dried (the oldest form of artificial stone) • Hardened • Fired

B 2.2

Additives

Clay

Water

Feeding Milling / mixing Pressing Cutting Drying

Dried types of artificial stone include various kinds of mud brick, which have undergone extensive further development recently due to their ecologically relevant qualities. Sand-lime, concrete and lightweight concrete blocks are masonry units that are hardened by means of steam and pressure. Bricks are fired and are available in many formats, hardnesses and colours. Figure B 2.4 summarises the material properties of some types of artificial stone.

Firing Quality control Packing Storage Transport B 2.3

Clay brick in facades In the Nile Valley there are traces of buildings made of hand-formed mud bricks that are estimated to date from around 14,000 BC These kinds of clay structures can disintegrate if they are exposed to the weather without protection from other construction measures. Its specific properties make clay (a mix of clay and quartz sands) sensitive to moisture. Clay and mud does not set hard when it dries out, it only hardens. If it is again exposed to water (e.g. in the form of rain or soil moisture etc.), it softens and loses strength. For this reason, similar structural solutions designed to protect mud-brick buildings from erosion are found all over the world (e.g. building them under overhanging rock walls, on natural stone bases or cladding them with fired brick or natural stone etc.). To make mud-brick walls more durable, people began firing bricks from around 5,000 BC. If bricks are fired at a temperature of 1,000 °C, they sinter, producing a building material that offers good protection from weathering. At this time people were also already able to glaze surfaces and make artificial stone with coloured additives (Fig. B 2.5, p. 88). Artificial stone has been a common building material for millennia. It has been used

Bulk density [kg/m2] Mud brick

Thermal Com- Bending conduct- pressive tensile ivity strength strength [W/mk]

1,800 – 2,000 0.64 – 0.93

[N/mm2] [N/mm2] 2.40

0.52

Sand-lime brick

600 – 2,200

0.23 – 0.98

4 –6

**

Aeratedconcrete blocks

350 –1,000

0.07– 0.21*

2– 8

**

Concrete blocks

500 – 2,400

0.24 – 0.83

2– 48

**

Granulated slag brick 1,000 – 2,000

6 –28

**

Brick

1,000 – 2,000 0.18 – 0.56*

**

4 – 60

**

Ceramic building materials

1,600 – 2,000

36 – 66

7– 20

**

* Dry values, 50 % fractile ** No figures available B 2.4

B 2.1 Apartment house, Rue de Meaux, Paris (FR) 1991, Renzo Piano Building Workshop B 2.2 Traditional mud-brick buildings, Yemen B 2.3 Diagram outlining the production of clay bricks [1] B 2.4 Material-specific properties of artificial stone [2]

87

Clay

Horizontal expansion joint

B 2.5

B 2.6

B 2.7

B 2.9

in a wide range of very different buildings in various local, climatic and geological conditions, aesthetic styles and social contexts. Crucial progress towards the mass production of fired bricks was made in Roman antiquity. There were brickworks supplying all kinds of building projects with their materials all over the Roman Empire [3]. In England and Germany fired clay materials became important in the Middle Ages, as is manifest in the term “brick Gothic” (Fig. B 2.6). The invention of the extrusion press, ring or Hoffman kiln, and shortly after it the continuous or tunnel kiln in the 18th century made it possible to mass produce bricks. Clay dissolves easily in water but becomes highly physically and chemically stable when fired. Its high resistance to soiling, flue gas, algal growth and frost made this building material very suitable for exteriors [4]. At the end of the 19th century, clinker masonry cladding was the standard weatherproof material for facades in many places; almost always with a wide range of historicising decorations, at least facing the street, which could be ordered from catalogues. “Stony Berlin”, with its huge tenements, was built largely of brick. Modernist architects, such as Alvar Aalto and Mies van der Rohe et al., also often used brick. From the mid 20th century others, such as Eladio Dieste, continuing an Iberian tradition, created wonderfully inventive architecture using fired clay brick as an essential element in load-bearing structures, as in his church in Atlántida. Here the material conveys the character of a light, undulating shell (Fig. B 2.14). Today’s ceramic cladding can be just a few centimetres thick, and its resistance to weathering makes it especially suitable for protecting insulation panels or mats.

Ceramic facades When brickwork is used for buildings’ exterior walls, load-bearing walls also take on the functions of building shells. A wide range of alternatives and design variants that were developed over centuries in different cultural regions are available. Many publications B 2.8

88

describe the relevant construction methods for walls and openings in detail [5]. The following examples document mainly nonload-bearing exterior walls that serve mainly as exterior protective shells for the buildings behind them. Some buildings also show how brick elements can be used to create walls that are permeable to light and air as well as functioning as screens and sunshades. The structure of clinker brick facades Their similar external appearance can lead people to confuse facing brickwork with exposed brickwork, leading to misunderstandings of their structure in the planning of a brick-faced wall, which now usually has non-load-bearing, rear-ventilated facade cladding. This type of exterior shell must be permanently attached to the building’s frame. In contrast to other facade cladding, individual elements (clinker bricks) in a masonry shell can be quickly joined using mortar to form an overall system. It must meet various requirements depending on the facade’s orientation, height and colour. As well as transferring loads, it is essential that it can absorb the movements caused by hygric and thermal influences. Anchoring Facade cladding serves primarily to bear loads from the structure’s own weight and wind suction and pressure. The relatively heavy weight of brick-faced walls means that this is of primary importance in their construction. Building elements with structural functions, such as columns, slabs and load-bearing walls, are suitable for bearing loads. In practice, loads from the structure’s own weight are usually transferred into the slabs of each storey. Around facade openings, structurally effective anchoring transfers loads from the structure’s own weight on the section of facade above the lintel into a load-bearing structural component. A range of different prefabricated lintels are now commercially available. Anchor pins extending into the brick backing (cavity wall ties) ensure the stability required to withstand wind loads. They must be flexible enough to absorb the different movements of the outer and inner shells. The required number of anchor pins

Clay

> _ar

B 2.5 B 2.6 B 2.7 B 2.8

y

x

B 2.9 B 2.10 B 2.11

B 2.12 B 2.13 B 2.14

Ishtar Gate, Babylon 562 BC Town Hall, Tangermünde (DE) 1430 Decoration, Berlin (DE) 1891, Franz Schwechten Industrially-produced, coloured brick, around 1880 Brackets for supporting facing masonry Brick production, Pakistan 1999 Support brackets for facing brickwork in a plain facade wall surface, at an opening and with a thermally separated cantilever slab Chile House, Hamburg (DE) 1924, Fritz Höger School, Hamburg (DE) 1927, Fritz Schumacher Church, Atlántida (RO) 1959, Eladio Dieste

B 2.10

per metre can range from five (middle) to nine (corner, opening) depending on their position in the facade [6].

B 2.12

y

x

> _ ar

Cladding shell

Joints with durable elastic sealants

bv

x2

Joints Expansion joints can be horizontal or vertical. They range in width from 10 to 20 mm and normally have a permanently elastic seal. The space between vertical joints should be 15 metres in a continental climate and 25 metres in a maritime climate [7]. Eurocode 6 stipulates that the distance between movement joints may not exceed 12 metres, although the facade’s colour and orientation play a crucial role here. The spacing of horizontal joints depends on the building’s height. Movement joints can be dispensed within buildings up to 12 metres high, while a horizontal movement joint at least every 9 metres is prescribed for higher buildings. In practice, one movement joint is usually

B 2.11

B 2.13

B 2.14

89

Clay

Horizontal expansion joint

Expansion joint l < 0.5 · expansion joint spacing

40 – 50 mm 12 – 20 mm

Vertical expansion joint

1

Expansion joint

2 l < 0.5 · expansion joint spacing

3 3

20 mm

2

1

(min. 15 mm) 1 Closed-cell foam profile 2 Bonding coat

3 4

Layer of air and insulation [m]

Core insulation [m]

Concrete blocks

6

5–6

Sand-lime brick

6–8

6–8

12

8 –12

4

Elastoplastic joint sealing mass Support bracket

Brick Expansion joint

B 2.15

Expansion joint B 2.16

B 2.17

built for each storey or every two storeys directly behind the structural anchoring layer. Window sills, corners, changes in facade cladding or any expected dilation in the overall building system are special cases requiring extra movement joints. The facade is ventilated at the back through open, vertical joints (butt joints) between single elements.

B 2.18

B 2.19

B 2.20

B 2.21

Appearance Many components make up a brick facade’s aesthetic impression. One of the most important is the bond, which depends heavily on the basic module of stones, bricks or blocks. Its material (basic material, firing, added colour /glaze) and structure (mix of different stones and their arrangement) shape a facade’s appearance. Joints are a technical necessity but also greatly influence the look of a building. The colour, width and depth of joints can determine a facade’s appearance, as can various formats and colours of stone or brick (Fig. B 2.18 –23). Reliefs are now rarely used as a way of differentiating designs, although bricks’ small dimensions allow elements made of them to be varied. To enliven an otherwise monotonous facade surface it is often enough to have single bricks or stones protrude slightly out of the facade plane. Small-scale openings in exterior ceramic walls let through air and light, offer protection from sun and glare and allow for views. They also shape the appearance of many historical buildings.

Ceramic panel facades Newer ceramic panel systems are available only in the form of suspended, rear-ventilated facades that have clear structural and physical advantages. Small, medium and largeformat systems are available. Small-format systems have the great benefit that they can be adjusted to buildings’ geometries and structures in finely graduated increments. DIN 18 516 states that panels can be used without separate structural planning verification if they are less than a maximum of 0.4 m2 in size and 5 kg in weight. B 2.22

90

B 2.23

Clay

30 8 14 8

B 2.24

8 7 15

B 2.25

Frames The frames of ceramic panel facades must transfer the static loads of the structure’s own weight, wind suction and pressure, and thermal changes in mass without any restraining stresses to the load-bearing structure. Connections with load-bearing structures are usually made of rust-resistant steel or aluminium [8], so they often also create a thermal bridge, which can be alleviated by installing plastic isolators. In some limited cases the frame can be made of appropriately treated timber depending on the building’s height. Facade panels Various methods can be used to make facade panels. If they are incrementally pressed into negative moulds, the side walls of moulds must be conical. This process does not allow for any undercutting. The form of an extrusion press’s mouthpiece determines the cross section of the panels it produces (Figs. B 2.25 and B 2.30). Installing individual panels separately gives them a limited freedom of movement and only a few joints that must be harmonised with the building shell are necessary.

B 2.26

B 2.27

B 2.28

B 2.29

B 2.30

B 2.31

Water can be drained off facades in a variety of ways: • In horizontal joints by arranging panels like scales (or shingles) or using shiplaps • In a vertical direction along water-draining joint profiles

B 2.15 Joint formation, proposed by the German Masonry Construction Association (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mauerwerksbau) B 2.16 Arrangement of vertical expansion joints around a corner B 2.17 Standard spacing of expansion joints (LDF) B 2.18 –23 Bond patterns for vertical format facades B 2.24 Facade structure, axonometry, ceramic panels on an aluminium frame held in place by clips and no other fasteners B 2.25 Modular height increments for upright rectangular panels B 2.26 Structure of a vertical format facade B 2.27 Vertical standard section B 2.28 Structure of a horizontal format facade B 2.29 Horizontal standard section B 2.30 Drying kiln B 2.31 Printing works, Munich (DE) 1993, Walter Kluska

91

Clay

B 2.32

If joints are open, as is often the case when fine ceramic stoneware is used, appropriate dimensioning of the air cavity must be carefully calculated. Ventilation cross-sections must comply with those prescribed in DIN 18 516, Part 1. One important aspect in planning ceramic panel facades is the option of replacing single damaged panels, for which the frame and form of facade panels must allow (Fig. B 2.46).

B 2.33

B 2.34

B 2.35

B 2.36

Colour and surface Most ceramic panels are the inherent colour of their materials. Firing temperature, oxygen content of air in the kiln, type and amount of iron content, and raw and additional materials can all influence the colour of ceramic building materials. In the ordinary production of ceramic panels, surfaces can only be provided with designs before they are fired. If panels are produced by extrusion presses, a profiled screw press mouthpiece can influence their surface design. The higher cost and effort involved means that added colours (glazes) are now rarely used. One current example of a non-load-bearing ceramic brick exterior wall is a car park built by the Renzo Piano Building Workshop firm in 1992 in Genoa, where brick panels are held in steel frames, each attached to two round steel bars, with metal disks as spacers (Figs. B 2.40 and B 2.41). Another innovative structure is the BP Studio in Florence showroom (2001) designed by Claudio Nardi, where long extruded panel strips were slid onto metal profiles (Figs. B 2.44 – 46).

Notes: [1] Ramcke, Rolf: Mauerwerk in der Architektur. In Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich /Basel 2001, p. 15 [2] ibid., p. 15, 122 –159, p. 204 – 234; DIN 1053 [3] As for Note 1 [4] ibid., p. 22 [5] ibid., p. 122 –159, p. 204 – 234. Acocella, Alfonso: L’architettura del mattone faccia a vista. Rome 1990 [6] DIN 1053 -1:1996 -11 [7] ibid. [8] See also the guidelines on choosing materials in DIN 18 516, Part 3 B 2.37

92

B 2.38

Clay

B 2.32 Colour palette (selection) B 2.33 –38 Openings in walls B 2.39 Large-format system B 2.40 – 41 Car park, Genoa (IT) 1992, Renzo Piano Building Workshop B 2.42 Fine ceramic facade panel with bonded, concealed fasteners B 2.43 Fine ceramic facade panel with mechanical, visible fasteners B 2.44 Section of the showroom facade, Florence (IT) 2001, Claudio Nardi B 2.45 Extruded linear structural elements for partially permeable facade structures: detail B 2.46 Assembled state

B 2.40

10 5 5

20 50

B 2.42

B 2.39

B 2.41

B 2.43

B 2.44

B 2.45

B 2.46

93

Clay

Funerary chapel Batschuns, AT 2001 Architects: Marte.Marte, Weiler Structural engineers: M+G, Feldkirch º

Detail 06/2003 L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 346, 2003 Waechter-Böhm, Liesbeth (ed.): Austria West Tirol Vorarlberg. Neue Architektur. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2003

• Compacted clay with no chemical additives • Clay was laid between shuttering in layers with no joints about 12 cm high • Compacted using handheld machines • Slight weathering of the surface due to rain is not a problem as the earthen structural components were built slightly oversized

1 1 2 3

3

4

2

5

2 4

6

7

8 7 9

5 Floor plan Scale 1:500 Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

10 8 11

b a

a

b

12

13

14

Steel sheeting, 3 mm Light Compacted clay external wall, 450 mm Steel-reinforced concrete rail, 205/120 mm Squared oak timber, 80/80 mm, represents a cross as set into the horizontal lines of the layers of clay Tamped concrete, coloured like the earth Steel-reinforced concrete beam, 300/200 mm Oak door leaf, 2≈ 24 mm Solid oak threshold on a hollow steel section, ¡ 200/100/7 mm Stainless steel sheeting, 240/10 mm Steel beam made of flat steel, ¡ 380/15 mm and 2≈ ¡ 180/20 mm, welded Float glass, 8 mm bonded in a steel sheeting frame Steel angle, ∑ 220/150/10 mm Sealing layer Infill capillary barrier to prevent rising damp

11

11

13

9

12

10

6

14 aa

94

bb

Clay

1

Rauch House

2

Schlins, AT 2008 Architects: Boltshauser Architekten, Zurich and Martin Rauch, Schlins Structural engineer: Josef Tomaselli, Bludesch º

Arquitectura 363/2011 Baumeister 07/2009 Werk, Bauen und Wohnen 03/2008 Kapfinger, Otto; Sauer, Marko (eds.): Martin Rauch – Gebaute Erde. Munich, 2015

• Exterior walls made of compacted clay sourced on site (construction pit) • The compacted clay structural components not stabilised (no cement or limestone added) and the facade surfaces left untreated • Horizontal brick strips project 2 cm to protect against erosion (calculated erosion) • Fired mud-brick slabs for terrace and roof • The walls and ceilings of the living room and bedrooms are loam-rendered • Compacted clay floors, with fired tiles (Raku technique) in wet rooms

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Isometry, no scale Floor plan, first floor Scale 1: 400 Vertical cross section, facade Scale 1:20

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Fired mud brick, 40 mm, infill Lava gravel; bitumen sealing sheeting, 3≈ 4 mm; three-ply spruce panel, 27 mm; reed insulation matting, 4≈ 50 mm; bitumen sealing sheeting, 4 mm; cork-loam mixture, sloping Dippelbaum timber beam ceiling, approx. 180 mm, filler timber, loam panels, 25 mm, loam render 5 mm Rammed earth, 450 mm; reed insulation matting, 2≈ 50 mm; loam render, 30 mm with wall heating (Fine marble powder plaster base) Oak window, untreated on the outside, oiled on the inside, insulating glazing Three-ply spruce panel, 27 mm with several layers of casein coating, sanded and waxed Erosion protection, fired mud brick, 280/120/30 mm Trass lime ring beam with reinforcement, 300/150 mm Splash guard, fired mud brick, 400 – 600/300/40 mm Bitumen sealing sheeting, 2≈ 4 mm, foam glass, 100 mm, bitumen sealing sheeting, 4 mm

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Trade fair administration building Hanover, DE 1999 Architects: Herzog + Partner, Munich º

Architectural Review 01/2001 modulo 10/2002 Gissen, David (ed.): Big & Green. Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. Washington 2003 Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Nachhaltige Höhe – Sustainable Height. Munich / London / New York 2000

• Rear-ventilated, curtain wall brick facade system on an aluminium frame • The ceramic material has a natural light pearl grey colour (no surface colour added) • Facade panels with horizontal grooves (grooved ceramic panels) to prevent facade run-off water from being driven upwards when it rains and reduce stress peaks in the manufacturing process

Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 Floor plan Ground floor • Standard upper floor Scale 1:1,000 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:5

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Aluminium capping sheeting, 3 mm with sound-insulating coating Extruded aluminium section Grooved clay-brick panels, 200/400 mm Aluminium end profile Thermal insulation, 60 mm Steel-reinforced concrete. 300 and 400 mm Stainless steel sheeting; positioned in coordination with the glass and steel facade

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Museum Brandhorst Munich, DE 2009

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Architects: Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin Structural engineers: Ingenieurbüro Fink, Berlin º

Architectural Review 1349/2009 Architektur Aktuell 03/2009 Baumeister 04/2009 Brandhorst, Annette (ed.): Museum Brandhorst. Die Architektur. Ostfildern 2011

• Facade cladding made of multicoloured glazed ceramic rods mounted vertically in front of horizontal, folded aluminium sheet elements • Horizontal strip window with light-deflecting elements that fold outwards • A grid above the ground floor's glass roof, which can be walked on, lets in natural daylight

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Oak timber grid above ventilation duct Plasterboard acoustic panel, 10 mm Mineral fibre insulation, 30 mm Aluminium profile, fi 60/30 mm Motorised adjustable anti-glare blind Motorised adjustable sunshade blinds Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 6 + space between the panes 10 + float glass 4 + space between the panes 8 + laminated safety glass 12 mm Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 4 + acrylic glass light-deflecting prisms in space between the panes 10 + laminated safety glass 8 mm Tubular steel louvre support, ¡ 100/60/6.3 mm PMMA pipe profile, Ø 50 mm Light diffusing film for luminous ceiling Polycarbonate panel, 6 mm Steel bracket Hollow ceramic cladding profile, 40/40/9 mm Perforated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm, acoustic fleece Aluminium frame, mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm, steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm Wall heating system with facing brick layer, 150 mm Internal plastering, 20 mm

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House a

Brühl, DE 1997 Architect: Heinz Bienefeld, Swisttal-Ollheim º A+U 10/2001 Baumeister 11/1997 Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich / Basel 2001

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• The solidity of the house’s cubic form is emphasised by the choice of materials and the way in which the roof seems almost to float above it • Clinker brick-facing facade • Wild bond • Wall almost 50 cm thick with multilevel lintels

Floor plan • Cross section, ground floor Scale 1:250 Horizontal cross section • View with glazed door Scale 1:20 Vertical cross section, facade Scale 1:20 1 2 3

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Rainwater gutter, fi 140 mm Steel purlin, 2≈ ∑ 80/80/10 mm Steel-frame window, galvanised frames, micaceous iron oxide finish, insulating glazing Steel profile, fi 40/35 mm, in front of steel piping, ¡ 50/25 mm Sheet metal windowsill covering, bent up at the ends and set into the masonry joint

6 Taunusstein clinker brick, NF 115 mm wild bond, bed joints, 20 mm Poroton lightweight brick Lime plaster, 25 mm Lime slurry render with marble powder 7 Jack arch lintel, 15 mm rise 8 Steel-framed glass door, galvanised frames, micaceous iron oxide finish, insulating glazing 9 Steel profile, galvanised, micaceous iron oxide finish, fi 120/40/8 mm 10 Prefabricated concrete step

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Art museum a

Ravensburg, DE 2013

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Architects: LRO Lederer Ragnarsdóttir Oei, Stuttgart Structural engineers: Ingenieurbüro Schneider & Partner, Ravensburg º

Arquitectura viva 158/2013 Baumeister 01/2013 Conarquitectura 10/2015 DBZ 08/2014 Detail 06/2013 wettbewerbe aktuell 01/2013

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• Multilayered external walls with facing brickwork made of roughly jointed recycled bricks • Load-bearing, insulated steel-reinforced concrete wall • Multilayered arching roof with untreated recycled bricks on the inside • Triple-glazed, timber-frame windows

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Two-ply bitumen sheet roof sealing, slate top layer Thermal insulation, 300 mm Vapour barrier, undercoat Steel-reinforced concrete to distribute loads, 200 mm Stainless steel anchor, Ø 4 mm, in the mortar joint Recycled brick, 115 mm Arc radius, evenly conical, 1.50 – 5.50 m Top parapet cover, copper sheeting, 0.7 mm, gradient 6 % Facing brickwork Recycled brick, 115 mm “Finger gap”, 10 mm Stainless steel cavity wall anchor, Ø 4 mm, in the mortar joint Thermal insulation, 240 mm Steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm Gypsum plaster smoothed with emulsion paint

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Duplex steel support bracket, to minimise thermal bridge effect, material cross section minimised Thermal insulation, 300 mm Copper sheeting, 0.7 mm Two-ply bitumen sheet roof sealing, slate top layer Thermal insulation, 280 mm Emergency seal / vapour barrier undercoat, Sloping screed, 2 %, 40 – 95 mm Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm plastered Fixed glazing: timber frame with triple glazing, U = 0.84 W/m2K Peripheral LED light strip Copper sheeting windowsill, 1.5 mm Thermal insulation, 240 mm Cast steel manhole cover Cement-bonded waterproofing slurry

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Israel Museum extension Jerusalem, IL 2010 Design: James Carpenter Design Associates, New York º

DETAIL 06/2011 Element + Bau 04/2011 Intelligente Architektur 75/2011

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• Renovation and expansion of one of Israel’s most important museums • The design respects the existing building and surrounding garden designed by Isamu Noguchi • Smooth transition between inside and outside • Extruded clay ceramic louvres specially developed for this site and facade orientation provide high quality daylight illumination • The louvres on each side are of different widths • The louvres thus screen the interior from direct sunlight on all sides

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Floor plan Scale 1:1,000 Diagram of daylight, light deflection No scale a 1 pm b 5 pm Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 Vertical cross section of louvres, no scale Axonometry brackets

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In-situ poured concrete beam, 120 ≈ 25 cm Eaves, 110 ≈ 16 cm, prefabricated steel-reinforced concrete Roof parapet, 50 ≈ 4.5 cm, prefabricated concrete Steel columns, Ø 20 cm, painted Low-iron, laminated safety glass, 2 ≈ 8 mm, facade posts, painted Ceramic louvre Window grid Mechanical ventilation

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Concrete

B 3 Concrete

Concrete, the first artificially-produced heterogeneous building material, was an important developmental step in the history of construction. It is extremely durable, easy to work, readily available and structurally robust in combination with steel. Steel-reinforced concrete is widely used in load-bearing structures, and its plastic malleability is continuously leading to novel construction methods. In facades concrete has a range of applications, although these are often ignored in favour of simplistic pragmatism. As a monolithic building material worked in a single piece, it can be used to make seamless transitions between elements. As well as exposed concrete facades made of concrete poured on site, an extensive range of structural and design options is available in forms ranging from large panels to small blocks. The term “concrete facade” usually refers to general applications for cement-bonded and cementbased building materials. This section focuses on the effective use of concrete in building design, which can be divided into five main areas: • Exposed concrete facades • Precast elements • Concrete panels • Exposed concrete blocks • Cement-bonded panels These various applications involve different production, manufacturing technology and normative requirements. Various materialspecific adjustments can also be made, with a diverse range of colours and structural options available for designing surfaces to make them • Heavy/ light • Insulating /storing • Densely-structured /open-pored

From opus caementicium to (steel-reinforced) concrete

B 3.1 Art and Architecture Building, Yale University, New Haven (US) 1964, Paul Rudolph

Despite being a very old material, concrete has had a lasting influence on the development of modern architectural forms [1]. Lime mortar was in use as a building material around 12,000 BC, and based on experience with it, opus caementicium was made from the 2nd century BC Using this concrete the Romans created masterly architectural achievements such as the Pantheon in Rome (118 AD). At the end of the Roman Empire, opus caementicium’s importance as a building material was lost for almost 1,500 years. The development of Portland cement (around 1824) marked the beginning of the development of modern concrete. In the mid 19th century efforts were made in France and England to reinforce concrete. Experiments were carried out in an attempt to find a substitute for wood and natural stone because it was hoped that a new material would offer better protection from encroaching damp. A patent was issued for an iron and

concrete composite slab in England in 1854. At around the same time, François Coignet developed the tamped concrete, or “Béton aggloméré” process, adapted from rammed earth techniques and used it to build a threestorey house. Pioneering construction projects around 1900 were accompanied by a range of experimental investigations into concrete’s material behaviour and the further development of calculation methods for a general theory of steel-reinforced concrete construction. This led to new applications, especially for load-bearing structures with long spans.

Concrete in facades Use of this new material became established around 1900, especially in industrial and commercial buildings such as wholesale markets and factory halls. These buildings were usually built around linear skeleton structures made of columns and beams. One pioneer in this area was Auguste Perret, whose townhouse in the Rue Franklin in Paris (1903) highlighted concrete in a house’s facade for the first time. From around 1910, steel-reinforced concrete construction was influenced by more formal approaches. Designs such as those by Tony Garnier (“Une Cité Industrielle”, 1901–1917), Le Corbusier’s design for the reinforced concrete structure “Dom-Ino” (1914) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s design for an office building (1922) and a steel-reinforced concrete country house (1923) all worked with panels and continuous parapets. In-situ concrete

At this time concrete was regarded as a modern building material. Around 1900 architects and entrepreneurs hoped that poured and cast concreting techniques would have various advantages, although the degree of mechanisation of work processes and formwork systems required had a major influence on the economic success of their ventures. Exterior walls were still often built as conventional punctuated facades and their surfaces rendered in the same way as masonry walls. Three sacred buildings and one “amateur” project marked concrete’s early years and gave expression to the material’s specific qualities. Frank Lloyd Wright worked on the Unity Church in Oak Park in Illinois (1906) with various plastic forms and added special aggregates to concrete to extend both his design freedom and the range of colours in exposed concrete surfaces. In 1922 Auguste Perret left the surfaces of a skeleton structure in the Notre-Dame church in Raincy near Paris visible and made the largely separate outer walls a light, tracerylike concrete grid. For the St. Antonius church in Basel (1927), Karl Moser chose a strict, cubic formal language, designing exposed concrete surfaces that bear the marks of the

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Concrete

B 3.2

formwork and powerfully highlight the material of the facade and interior. One building in which concrete was expertly used in the facade’s modelling is the Goetheanum in Dornach (1928) by Rudolf Steiner, although building such plastic, organic designs involves a great deal of work and sophisticated artisanal formwork techniques.

B 3.3

B 3.4

B 3.5

108

In the 1950s concrete became a mass-market building material, used in all kinds of construction tasks. One main driving force was Le Corbusier, who sought to highlight concrete’s immediate, “raw” materiality – “Béton brut”. He used it skilfully as a design medium in relief and /or plastic facade surfaces, such as the Sainte-Marie-de-la-Tourette priory (1960) in Éveux near Lyon (Fig. B 3.2). While Swiss firm Atelier 5 used raw exposed concrete for (small) residential buildings in building the Halen housing estate near Bern (1961), Louis Kahn chose very smooth surfaces for the Jonas Salk Institute in La Jolla (1965). Kahn was also the first to structure concrete facades along orthogonal lines by using shadow joints and carefully positioning formwork ties, making the facades’ production process legible. In the 1960s and 1970s many architects increasingly used the options concrete offered for moulding exterior walls and buildings and the various design possibilities of its surfaces. Unique buildings from this period include the Pilgrimage Cathedral in Neviges (1968) and the Town Hall (Rathaus) in Bensberg (1969) by Gottfried Böhm. These buildings – especially the church – model a plastic, rugged structure with powerful, opaque surfaces whose fine texture of formwork structures prevents them from appearing monotonous (Fig. B 3.3). Another very plastic use of concrete as a material is evident in an office building by Barbosa & Guimarães Arquitectos in Porto (2009) (Fig. B 3.5). Here polygonal facade surfaces determine not only the building’s outside appearance but also its interior spaces. While Carlo Scarpa explored concrete’s mouldable qualities in an almost (skilled) craftsmanly manner, especially in the Brion family monument in San Vito d’Altivole near Asolo (1975), Paul Rudolph

used industrial textured formwork for the Art and Architecture Building at Yale University in New Haven (1958 – 64) (Fig. B 3.1, p. 107). The fluted profiling of its coloured surfaces, alternating smooth grooves with rough, broken piers, creates a sophisticated play of light and shade. Adding locally available materials to concrete and/or structuring damp surfaces can open up further design options, as Auer + Weber demonstrate in their ESO Hotel at Cerro Paranal (2001) (see p. 123) and Herzog & de Meuron at the “Schaulager” art storage facility in Basel (2003) (Fig. B 3.8). More recently architects have often sought to express the impression of a monolithic construction method, down to the last detail. The avoidance of any construction joints, dispensing with visible formwork ties, and structural components with extremely pared-down cross sections and novel appearances has subjected this high-performance material to enormous technical challenges. Prefabrication

Producing concrete on a building site has structural and technical disadvantages, so efforts have been made to break structures down into similar, transportable elements that can be serially produced in prefabrication plants. These make it possible to work in any weather and ensure higher quality and greater precision in production and higher standards in surface finishes. The first field factory for precasting concrete elements opened in France in the early 1890s. In 1896 French stonemason François Hennebique made the first building prefabricated in a series, using a transportable cubicle made of 5 cm thick, reinforced concrete slabs. From 1920 assembly-based construction methods using steel-reinforced concrete became increasingly important. Architects like Ernst May, who applied a system of wall blocks of various sizes that he developed in a series of housing estates in Frankfurt am Main (Praunheim, 1927), and Walter Gropius, who used a small-format construction method and hollow slag concrete blocks for the Dessau-Törten estate (1927), worked on con-

Concrete

B 3.6

cepts involving extensive prefabrication. Although these systematic approaches did not become established in construction technology or economy, these experiments were an important (first) step on the path to industrialising building [2]. In the 1950s and 1960s large panel construction – building with large format, load-bearing walls – became widespread. While prefabricated system construction resulted in the building of very schematic facades on a massive scale, postmodern architecture almost reversed this approach, using prefabrication and the plastic malleability of concrete elements to create arbitrary interplays of colours and forms. Architects like Angelo Mangiarotti (see p. 116), Bernhard Hermkes (Architecture faculty building at the Technische Universität Berlin, 1968, Fig. B 3.4), Gottfried Böhm and Eckhard Gerber formulated architectural responses. Böhm’s administration building for Züblin AG in Stuttgart (1984) shows a sophisticated treatment of the forms and colours of precast elements. Gerber used orthogonal planar steel-reinforced facade elements in a structurally clear way to clad the columns and spandrel panels of an office building in Dortmund (1994). “Heavy-duty prefabrication” is once again an option from a technical and design point of view. Architects such as Thomas von Ballmoos, Bruno Krucker (Stöckenacker housing estate in Zurich, 2002) and Léon Wohlhage Wernik (Sozialverband headquarters in Berlin, 2003) have planned buildings with storey-high, multilayered precast elements that vary slightly in size and create a harmonious result.

One form of unreinforced facade cladding is small-format, concrete artificial stone panels. Panels fixed with mortar are a robust, easilyworked building material that has been used in construction for more than 100 years, especially at the bases of buildings. One of the earliest examples of this in Germany was the Town Hall (Rathaus) in Trossingen (1904), where concrete panels clad the plinth and splayed door jambs. The wide range of ways that concrete can be worked and shaped and the combinations of different aggregates possible have been used to create ornamental structural elements such as (demi-) columns, balusters, gables, rosettes and the like. Concrete panels are now widely used as a suspended, rear-ventilated, small-format cladding material, as in the red facade of the German School in Beijing (2001) by Gerkan Marg + Partner. Concrete blocks

Concrete blocks offer the advantages of enabling small-format, light construction with a wide range of colours and surface treatments. From 1914 Frank Lloyd Wright explored various ways of using them. With his “Textile Block”

B 3.7

system, he was seeking an alternative to largeformat panel construction. Starting from a square basic module, he worked with variously shaped bricks and stones. Buildings like his John Storer house in Hollywood (1923) feature richly ornamented facade surfaces with alternating patterns of smooth and structured stones (Fig. B 3.6) [3]. Egon Eiermann focused on the motif of a translucent wall, using concrete grid blocks with (coloured) glass infills in the St Matthew Church in Pforzheim (1956), and the Kaiser-Wilhelm Memorial Church in Berlin (1963). Another application for exposed masonry blocks is as opaque surface filling in a steelreinforced concrete structure, a technique frequently found in Herman Hertzberger’s work. In buildings such as the Centraal Beheer office building in Apeldoorn (1972, Fig. B 3.7), the Vredenburg music centre in Utrecht (1978) and the Apollo Schools in Amsterdam (1983), untreated exposed masonry, visible inside and out, with its the slightly porous surfaces and variously coloured textures, contrasts strikingly with smooth exposed concrete and glass (brick) surfaces [4].

B 3.2 Priory of Sainte-Marie-de-la-Tourette, Éveux (FR) 1960, Le Corbusier B 3.3 Pilgrimage Cathedral, Neviges (DE) 1968, Gottfried Böhm B 3.4 Architecture faculty TU Berlin (DE) 1967, Bernhard Hermkes B 3.5 Vodafone Headquarters, Porto (PT) 2009, Barbosa & Guimarães B 3.6 John Storer House, Hollywood (US) 1924, Frank Lloyd Wright B 3.7 Office building, Centraal Beheer, Apeldoorn (NL) 1972, Herman Hertzberger B 3.8 Schaulager, Basel (CH) 2003, Herzog & de Meuron B 3.8

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Concrete

Ticino architect Mario Botta has also used concrete blocks, whose small format and colour are a deliberate reference to the region’s tradition of building with granite quarry stone, to build a series of detached houses. Cement-bonded panel materials

Fibre cement panels offer a range of different applications for mineral-based bonded building materials. A patent for asbestos cement, a composite of asbestos fibres and cement, was registered in Austria around 1900. The Eternit company produced panels of the same name from 1903 [5]. In the 1970s asbestos fibres were found to be carcinogenic. Sprayed asbestos was banned in 1979 and the use of asbestos-cement panels (with a fibre content of approx. 10 %) was phased out in the late 1990s. After asbestos had to be replaced as a material, cementbonded panels with new fibre material aggregates that pose no risk to health, such as wood shavings, became commercially available. This material has a high level of mechanical strength, even at low thicknesses, is fireproof, and can be made in various sizes and formats. Initially developed as light roofing material, small-format shingles and large-format panels were soon also used as facade cladding. From 1912 small-corrugation panels and from 1923 large-corrugation panels expanded the range of these products. As well as having positive material properties and being easy to work with, composite panels were industrially massproduced from the outset, making them a costeffective building material. One pioneer in the deliberate use of this material in facade design was Marcel Breuer. In the early 1930s he used corrugated fibre cement panels for a shopfront in Basel. In Germany millions of asbestos cement panels were built into facades, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. Renowned architects like Ernst Neufert, who published a Well-Eternit Handbook in 1955, and Egon Eiermann used fibre cement panels in industrial, residential and administration buildings, as did Rolf Gutbrod in his design for an office and commercial building in Stuttgart (1952). More recent examples show that fibre cement panels are still often used as light and robust facade cladding material, in buildings such as the Lagerhaus Ricola in Laufen (1987) by Herzog & de Meuron, where they are arranged in stepped bands of varying sizes (Fig. B 3.9) or the Technology Centre in Zurich (1992), by architects Itten and Brechbühl, with its extensive planes and visible fastenings [6].

Concrete technology Concrete is artificial stone made by hardening a mixture of cement and water (cement paste) to form cement stone and bonding aggregate to form a solid matrix. EN 206-1 is the most

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important standard governing its design and construction. Concrete’s main constituents are • A binding agent • Aggregate • Additives • Admixtures Cement, made by burning then grinding lime and clay or marl, is the binding agent used. The main cement now in use is Portland cement, which contains 3 to 5 % gypsum or anhydrite. Cement hardens when water is added to it. The resulting cement stone is a strong, water-resistant material. EN 197-1 classifies normal cements into five main types (CEM I–V), covering 27 products with varying main constituents. The most common kind of cement now in use is CEM II, a Portland composite cement containing at least 65% Portland cement clinker by mass and at least one other main constituent. Concrete consists of about 70 % aggregate by volume. Limestone, quartz, granite or porphyry in a round, rounded-sand or gravel form is extracted from rivers or gravel pits, while crushed sand, stone chippings or doublecrushed chips, crushed stone, comes from quarries. Additives such as concrete plasticiser and superplasticiser, air-entraining agents and stabilisers have chemical or physical effects that modify concrete’s material properties. Additives such as pigments, or more rarely powdered rock, can be used to dye concrete almost any colour. Concrete quickly achieves high compressive strength and good durability, although it has a fairly low tensile strength. This is compensated for by adding reinforcement to it, usually steel reinforcement, making concrete an outstanding composite material with properties that can be very precisely adapted. These properties govern its uses, functions and potential applications. Requirements such as strength, corrosion and frost resistance etc. are generally defined, and the exposure classes distinguish between impacts on the concrete and on its reinforcement. Concrete exterior elements that freeze and thaw if they become even moderately damp and whose reinforcement must be protected from carbonation caused by alternating exposure to moisture are classified in exposure classes XC 4 and XF 1. This concrete must be in strength class ≥ C 25/30 and have a water-cement ratio (w/c ratio) of ≤ 0.60 and cement content of ≥ 280 kg/m3. Fresh concrete for use in exposed concrete surfaces should be easy to work, i.e. it should be stable and not bleed and separate, as specified in consistency class F 3. To ensure uniform content and consistent granulometry, i.e. particle size and form, sufficient quantities of fine particles of cement and aggregates are important parameters in ensuring this concrete’s workability.

B 3.9 B 3.9

High-rack storage warehouse, Laufen (CH) 1987, Herzog & de Meuron B 3.10 Classification of types of “concrete in facades”

Types of concrete

Hardened concrete’s two most essential properties are its bulk density and compressive strength. Concrete can be mixed to have specific properties depending on its manufacture and aggregates. A dense concrete offers good load-bearing capacity and sound insulation, while porous aggregates improve concrete’s thermal insulation function. Various types of concrete are classified by their dry bulk density as follows: • Heavy concrete: > 2,600 kg/m3 Aggregates e.g. iron ore, iron granulate, barytes Applications include concrete offering radiation protection • Normal concrete: > 2,000 –2,600 kg/m3 Aggregates e.g. sand, gravel, stone chippings, blast furnace slag This type of concrete is used in most construction applications. If there is no risk of confusion, normal concrete is also just called “concrete”. • Lightweight concrete: 800 –2,000 kg/m3 Its features are primarily determined by - Properties of lightweight aggregates such as expanded shale and clay etc. - Type of concrete texture, with a porous lightweight aggregate or dense - Porosity, porous, foam or aerated concrete Porous lightweight concrete is used mainly for thermal insulation applications. It has a lower load-bearing capacity than normal concrete but is adequate for general building. Concrete is also classified in compressive strength classes. Double figures after the C (Concrete) result from standardisation with DIN EN 206-1 and indicate cylinder and cube compressive strengths in N/mm2: • Normal-strength concretes (C 8/10 to C 50/60)

Concrete

Concrete in facades

Type of reinforcement

Reinforced

Mats Reinforcement material

Concrete

Steel

Normal concrete

Unreinforced

Textile

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Fibres

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Plastic

Porous concrete Glass fibre concrete

Single-layer curtain wall panel

Wood

Lightweight concrete

Applications Concrete cast in situ

Glass

Translucent concrete

Large-format panels

Sandwich panel

Normal concrete

Artificial concrete stone

Fibre cement panel

Precast elements (1–14 m2) Multilayer curtain wall panel

Lightweight concrete

Small-format panels

Non-load-bearing, rearventilated (0.2 –1 m3)

Facing masonry units

Fixed with mortar (≤ 0.12 m2) B 3.10

• High-strength concretes (C 55/67 to C 100/115) • Lightweight concretes (LC 8/9 to LC 50/55) Lightweight concretes are divided into six bulk density classes from D 1.0 to D 2.0, which planners must select depending on the application. High-performance and textile-reinforced concretes

Wide-ranging research is continuing into concrete manufacture to improve the material’s performance. Self-compacting and very strong concretes are one focus of this work. The goal is to add chemical materials to produce high flowability concretes with precisely adjusted viscosity that can deaerate without mechanical intervention and (self) compact. These would make it much easier to make very slender structural components with close-meshed reinforcement and sophisticated geometric forms with high-quality, dense exposed concrete surfaces. Other developments are focusing on improving concrete’s strength and protecting it from penetrating moisture. Very strong concretes with cylinder compressive strengths > 125 N/mm2 are now being used in construction. These concretes have a low water /cement ratio and, due to the use of ultra-fine fillers such as microsilica or microfine cement, a much denser texture and produce extremely low-porosity surfaces. As well as these constructional “superlatives”, combining concrete with corrosion-resistant textile fibres for use as reinforcement material is becoming increasingly important. “Textilereinforced concrete” is a composite material that uses textile AR-glass or carbon fibre fabric to produce relatively thin-walled concrete structural components that need only a thin, structurally-necessary concrete covering of their reinforcement. Results available to date confirm that beyond the substitution of conventional composite materials and existing construction,

this material can open up new concrete and lightweight construction applications. It has been shown that cement-bonded materials can achieve exceptionally high strengths and be used to produce extremely dense exposed concrete surfaces. These developments are providing new impetus, especially in construction with precast components [7]. Another area undergoing further development is self-compacting concrete, which is greatly expanding the range of potential applications, in the context of sophisticated formwork geometries, for example. DIN EN 206, Part 9 contains more information on this area.

Construction aspects Despite the wide range of concretes available, most base mixtures used in practice are based on normal concrete. In the 1970s an enormous quantitative and qualitative expansion in the use of concrete was expected from the development of various forms of lightweight concrete. These expectations were not met and (structural) lightweight concrete for external walls is used almost exclusively in detached or semi-detached housing or commercial building construction and, apart from a few exceptions, rendered or used in the form of masonry blocks or precast components joined with mortar or adhesive. The diverse possibilities of working concrete give rise to very different facade construction conditions. On the one hand, there are purely material-specific demands. On the other hand, there are forms of construction that are subject to standards and guidelines that also apply to the use of other building materials (Fig. B 3.10). Exposed concrete

When we speak of concrete facades, we are usually referring to concrete poured on site, meaning in this context exposed concrete

facades. The production and appearance of such concrete surfaces is subject to particular requirements. It has been shown in practice that designing special features requires architects to have expert knowledge of these particular requirements. A concrete wall’s surface can be given a range of different design effects through • Special use of formwork • Specific composition of the concrete Surface treatments

One essential precondition for a concrete surface is the formwork system. A concrete surface consists of a layer of mortar made of cement stone and the finest aggregate constituents, so it reproduces the surface of the formwork used. The formwork influences the surface depending on whether it is • Absorbent (e.g. rough-sawn, unplaned planks; uncoated particle board) • Slightly absorbent (e.g. multi-ply boards with special surface finishes) • Not at all or very slightly absorbent (e.g. steel sheeting, plastic matrices, particle board) How often formwork has been used and its cleanliness influence the development of pores, marbling, blushing and differences in colour. A major role in a concrete surface’s look is also played by the position and arrangement of: • Joints • Formwork joints • Formwork ties Trapezoidal or triangular fillets (e.g. 7 mm, 10 mm) can be used to accentuate construction and dummy joints or conceal them by putting them in shaded areas. It must be ensured that these areas have a sufficient concrete cover. It is impossible to make formwork joints completely watertight, and the water /cement ratio

111

Concrete

Joint spacing

Guidelines for joint width w1) in conditions +10 °C [mm]

Required minimum joint width min w [mm]

tF2) [mm]

Up to 2

15

10

8

±2

More than 2 – 3.5

20

15

10

±2

More than 3.5 – 5

25

20

12

±2

More than 5 – 6.5

30

25

15

±3

More than 6.5 – 8

35

30

15

±3

L [m]

1) 2)

Joint sealing mass thickness

permissible divergence [mm]

Permissible divergence: ± 5 mm Figures provided refer to the end state, so shrinkage in the volume of the joint sealant's mass must be taken into account. B 3.11

around joints also changes (which can cause discolouration), so particular attention should be paid to joints. Regularly arranged formwork ties and the shape of the anchor cones also influences the overall effect of a facade surface. It has been shown in practice that filling indentations by trowelling them level with the surface often leads to unsatisfactory results. Sharp edges require special measures to protect them from damage, which should be taken into account in planning. Spalled areas must be repaired, which, however, usually produces varying colours. Another important parameter is the thickness of external walls, which depends on the positioning of reinforcement and proper technical placing and compacting of the concrete. Given the usual diameter of a poker or immersion vibrator (about 40 mm) and required minimum spacing of reinforcement bars, thicknesses of ≥ 16 cm for facing shells, or better ≥ 24 cm, have been proven to be most effective. Exposed concrete facades require detailed preplanning to ensure construction quality, assessment and guaranteeing of the surface’s

quality and structural element costs, so it is advisable to draw up a formwork sample plan that establishes special design features such as structuring of the space, surface textures and structural details. Test surfaces that are similar in terms of scale, position and production conditions are an important control medium in ensuring the desired quality. Exposed in-situ concrete facades have a unique appearance and production that cannot be reproduced exactly because they are the result of many influential factors. Making concrete on the building site also limits options for treating its surface [8]. Precast components

Producing precast concrete components [9] offers a wide range of advantages compared with using in-situ concrete because its production and processing will be of a piece. Horizontal production can produce very dense concretes with a less porous surface, although the transport and installation options available make it difficult to use large, heavy, precast components economically. In terms of the thicknesses of structural components, similar

conditions as for in-situ concrete apply. Much more slender reinforced structural components ranging from ≥ 7 cm to 14 or 16 cm thick can be made in precasting factories. Precast elements can have surfaces ranging up to 14 m2 in size, although the maximum length of 5 metres for facing shells should not be exceeded. Precasting factories can offer a range of economical ways of processing concrete surfaces. Surfaces can be given a more plastic form with projections and indentations and divided up with dummy joints. Veneer layers with (frostresistant) undressed stone and rubble, facing brick and natural stone and ceramic panels can also be fabricated. This involves positioning the materials with the facing side on the bottom of the formwork then bonding them to the precast component with several layers of concrete. Normal concrete is most commonly used in precasting factories, although self-compacting concretes with very soft consistencies that are therefore very easy to work, making them especially suitable for making exposed concrete surfaces, are increasingly being used. The positioning and formation of joints is an essential detail in working with precast concrete elements, and their minimum width of 10 mm depends on the length of the panel. Joint widths in dark surfaces that are especially sensitive to temperature must be increased by 10 – 30 % (Fig. B 3.13). A wide range of strips, permanently elastic sealants and concreted-in plastic profile sections are available for forming joints. Vertical

B 3.11 Guidelines for planning joint widths and permissible minimum joint widths in construction pursuant to DIN 18 540-1–3 B 3.12 Formwork tie holes: a Plug flush with shadow gap surface b Fibre-reinforced concrete plug B 3.13 Minimum thicknesses and lengths of precast concrete elements B 3.14 Fastenings of large-format precast concrete elements: a On cast-in elements b On dowels c On anchor rails a

112

b

B 3.12

Concrete

Element minimum thickness [cm] Facade panel fastener

16

14 Pressure screw 12

10 Connecting pin 8 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Element lengths [m] B 3.13

joints at the corners of buildings require special care. It is generally regarded as more economical to reduce the number of joints by using larger formats. Building with precast concrete components requires more detailed advance planning and despite improved production techniques, usually larger numbers of components if they are to be economical. Three main types of precast concrete components can be used to build facades: • Single-layer suspended wall panels • Double-layer suspended wall panels • Sandwich elements Large-format, single and double-layer precast concrete elements are hung free of constraining forces on a load-bearing structure with facade plate anchors. Depending on the system, elements are hung in load-bearing brackets cast in concrete or screwed or bolted on with dowels or anchor rails. Anchor rails offer more options for subsequently adjusting installation and joint patterns. Adjustable horizontal anchors with pressure screws or bolts or wind-load anchors absorb pressure and suction forces, define their position in respect of the load-bearing layer, while their pins ensure precise integration in the facade plane, including during installation. All fasteners must be made of rust-resistant steel (Fig. B 3.14 –16). Normally sandwich elements combine a loadbearing and insulating layer in a single component with a concreted facing surface. Facing layers should be at least 7 cm thick to cover reinforcement and to prevent greater cyclic deformations but should be no more than 10 cm thick. Elements, like wall panels, should not be more than 5 metres long (Fig. B 3.13). Individual elements are joined with load-bearing anchors (vertical forces) and horizontal anchors (horizontal forces). Binders and connecting pins absorb wind loads and warping caused by temperature fluctuations. The number of thermal bridges increases with the number of fasteners and binders. Sandwich elements can be installed as loadbearing components or without a load-bearing function.

a

b

c B 3.14

Concrete stone panels

One form of non-reinforced facade cladding is small-format, suspended concrete stone panels [10] measuring 0.2 –1 m2. They are usually rear-ventilated and mounted on a substructure. One advantage of small-format panels is that they can be attached to masonry. Panels can be fastened with (Fig. B 3.15): • Single ties set in mortar • Single ties fastened with dowels • Support rail substructures Panel thickness depends on the concrete’s strength and is usually 4 cm, although depending on the panel dimensions, they can also be ≥ 2 cm thick. The same requirements specified in DIN 18 516 for natural stone panels apply to their sizes and fastening. A greater proportion of metal elements in the substructure increases costs of such facades proportionately. There are not usually any economic advantages compared with natural stone facades. Concrete stone panels can be produced with a wide variety of surface treatments and colours depending on the aggregate used.

and surface treatments. External walls in Central European climates are usually double layered with a non-load-bearing facing shell. Depending on the building’s height and structural requirements, bricks 9 or 11.5 cm thick are used. There are two masonry unit systems: • Modular formats (M 10 specified in DIN 18 000) • Octametric formats (M 8 specified in DIN 4172) Octametric formats are based on 1/8 M (= 125 mm) like ordinary brick formats. Modular formats are based on 1/10 M (= 100 mm) and allow for a wider variety of formats. Walls that are 90, 115, 140, 190 and 240 mm thick can be built with the different brick sizes, and the two formats can be combined. As well as various colours, there are four main design options for surfaces: smooth, porous, sandblasted and rough-split. White cement is usually used, which intensifies the effect of the bricks’ colours. This colour palette can be expanded or individually adjusted for specific project solutions. Fibre cement board

Facing masonry units

Facing masonry units are in the tradition of masonry construction. Normal concrete (with porous aggregates) can be combined with different aggregates (e.g. double-crushed fine grade chippings) and coloured pigments, offering a range of ways to optimise the material’s properties to improve durability and design. A distinction is made between facing bricks and facing blocks, the difference being the height of a course (up to 125 mm = bricks, up to 250 mm = blocks). This distinction is not consistently maintained, not even in DIN 18 153, so in practice the term “facing bricks” has become established. Their bulk density, which ranges from 1,800 to 2,200 kg/m3, means that they offer a high degree of dimensional accuracy and good soundproofing and fire protection properties. A wide range of coordinated brick formats are available and can be used to structure a facade with different masonry bonds, colours

Cement-bonded board is now usually made of a combination of wood fibres (52 %), a Portland cement binding agent (38 %), water (9 %) and wood mineralising materials. These construction materials have a range of advantages, such as substantial moisture resistance, frost resistance and a low level of swelling, that make them suitable for rearventilated curtain wall facades. Depending on the material’s composition, fire protection requirements can also be met. Cement-bonded board [11] is available in a wide range of different formats. Maximum standard sheet sizes are 3,100 ≈ 1,250 mm (L x W), and their thicknesses generally range from 12 to 18 mm. One advantage of these light facade elements is that they are fairly easily cut to fit and can be readily used in even complex geometric formats. The material is easy to saw, drill and mill, although the usually unfinished edges require careful handling during installation.

113

Concrete

a

B 3.15

b

Panels are screwed onto a load-bearing batten and counter-batten substructure or combined with metallic spacers. These types of structures can be used in buildings up to a height of 22 metres. Joints can be covered with strips, left open, or concealed behind plastic or metal joint bands or profiles. 10 mm has proven the best width for open joints in large-format sheets in practice. Joint spacings ≤ 8 mm are not permitted and those > 12 mm are not advisable (Fig. B 3.17). Fibre cement panels have a coloured primer and are available with industrial colour coatings that do not need any additional surface treatment.

Surfaces

> _ 80

B 3.16

> _ 25

> _ 30

> _ 15 _5 >

> _ 25 8 –10

114

Joint band

Facade fastening screw B 3.17

As well as the design options for concrete that formwork offers, surfaces can be worked or treated to further modify them. A distinction is made between the two processes. A fresh or hardened concrete surface is mechanically, thermally and/or chemically “worked”, while the waterproofing, coating or sealing of a finished surface is referred to as “treatment”. Various colour options are also available [12]. Working

Working concrete surfaces can specifically highlight the colour of aggregates and make the surface colour more even. DIN 18 500 describes the various techniques that can be used, including in combination. The most frequent processes used are washing (≥ 2 mm) and fine washing (≤ 2 mm), which remove the top layer of fine mortar. This can be done by applying retardant to the formwork so that the aggregate and its inherent colour predominate in the surface’s design. Acid treatments, sandblasting or flame blasting techniques can be used to abrade and roughen concrete, evenly exposing the cement stone and aggregate surfaces and giving them a slightly matt look. Stone masonry working methods (bush-hammering, pointing, grooving and chiselling), carried out by machine or by hand, can also

produce new surfaces. Removing the top layer partly exposes the cement stone matrix and aggregate. White cement, coloured aggregates and colour pigments can be used here to create special effects (Fig. B 3.20). Other mechanical surface treatment methods are used in the production of precast elements, and a distinction can be made between textures created during production (by grinding or sanding, sawing or splitting blocks) without further measures, and fine working (fine grinding, polishing) to create very smooth or shiny surfaces. The colours of aggregates determine the appearance of treated concrete surfaces by up to 80 %. The rest of the cement stone is influenced by the colour of the cement, the finest particles or by any pigments mixed into it. Treatments

Various silane, siloxane or acrylate coatings can be applied to a concrete surface for the purposes of • Waterproofing • Coating • Sealing • Repelling dirt and oil A “wet effect” surface treatment can change concrete’s colour. Products must resist yellowing, which makes preliminary tests on sample areas necessary. Surface treatments usually have only a limited durability. Colour

Apart from coloured seals and coatings, which can be glazes or opaque, there are various ways of accentuating concrete’s colour during its production, such as by using • Cements with special colour (white or Portland oil shale cement) • Aggregates with special colour (red granite, Carrara marble etc.) • Pigments (e.g. iron oxide yellow, chrome oxide green) A concrete surface’s appearance is influenced mainly by the colour of its cement. A relatively high iron content gives Portland cement its

Concrete

B 3.18

dark grey colour. Low-iron raw materials (limestone and kaolin) make cement whiter. Portland oil shale cement contains cement clinker and burnt oil shale, which creates a reddish shade. Grey cement produces more muted, darker colours, while white cement makes colours look lighter and purer. Surface treatment highlights the colours of aggregates. Depending on the treatment, particle sizes can produce varying intensities, so consistent proportions of powder and finest sand must be used for a smooth surface. Concrete can be easily dyed by adding colour pigments to it. For red, yellow, brown and black shades, mainly iron oxide pigments are

Notes: [1] Merkblatt Sichtbeton. Regelwerke, Sichtbetonklassen, Planung und Aussschreibung, Ausführung, Beurteilung. Published by the Deutschen Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein e. V. (DBV) / Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie e.V. (BDZ). 3rd revised edition, Berlin / Düsseldorf 2015 [2] Junghanns, Kurt: Das Haus für alle Fälle. Berlin 1994, p. 113, 116 –145 [3] Ford, Edward R.: Die Pionierzeit des Betonsteins. “Textile-Block”-Häuser von Frank Lloyd Wright. In Detail 04/2003, p. 310 –315 [4] modul. Schriftenreihe zur Verwendung von ModulBetonsteinen in der neuen Architektur. RheinauFreistett 05/1992 [5] Eternit Schweiz. Architektur und Firmenkultur seit 1903. Zurich 2003 [6] Grimm, Friedrich; Richarz, Clemens: Hinterlüftete Fassaden. Konstruktionen vorgehängter hinterlüfteter Fassaden aus Faserzement. Stuttgart /Zurich 1994 [7] Hegger, Josef; Will, Norbert: Bauteile aus textilbewehrtem Beton. In DBZ 04/2003, p. 68 –71 [8] Kling, Bernhard; Peck, Martin: Sichtbeton im Kontext der neuen Betonnormen. In Beton 04/2003, p. 170 –176 [9] Döring, Wolfgang et al.: Fassaden. Architektur und Konstruktion mit Betonfertigteilen. Düsseldorf 2000 [10] Fassaden aus Stein. Published by the Dyckerhoff Weiss Marketing und Vertriebs-Gesellschaft. Wiesbaden 2004 [11] Eternit Dach- und Fassadenplatten. Planung und Anwendung. Heidelberg 2014 [12] Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.: Beton Atlas. Munich / Düsseldorf 2001, p. 65 –77; see also [10]

B 3.19

used, green colours are obtained by adding chromium oxide and chromium oxide hydrate pigments, while mixed crystal pigments (e.g. cobalt-aluminium-chromium oxide pigments) produce blues. Small amounts (2 – 3 % of cement content by mass) are usually enough to produce the desired colour. Slight surface profiling enhances the effects of colours. Concrete pigmentation is durable and weatherresistant (Fig. B 3.18). One new form of (coloured) surface design is photo concrete, which is produced by applying a photographic template to a surface with a screen. The effect’s intensity depends on the various degrees of the concrete’s hardening and curing (Fig. B 3.19).

Ageing / soiling

B 3.15 Fastenings of small-format artificial concrete stone panels: a Single ties set in mortar b Dowel attachment B 3.16 Can be anchored in a horizontal or a vertical joint. B 3.17 Minimum edge distances for fastening fibre cement panels on timber substructures

B 3.18 Atelier Bardill, Scharans (CH) 2007, Valerio Olgiati B 3.19 Library, Eberswalde (DE) 1999, Herzog & de Meuron B 3.20 Various surface treatments using the same concrete mix: above: smooth formwork finish from left to right: sand-blasted, fine-washed, acid-treated, finely ground, chiselled, pointed

The ageing of facades from weathering depends on the material used and is often due to defects in structural details. Environmental soiling and the type of rainwater channelling on a facade can change its appearance, with wind direction and lee or windward sides determining the amount of water accruing. A facade’s location and position play an important role in levels of self-cleaning and soiling effects. Deep surface textures and their direction (horizontal, vertical) and cross-section geometry (ribs, grooves) in particular can have a negative impact on dirt deposits and water run-off.

B 3.20

115

Concrete

Apartment blocks Monza, IT 1972 Architect: Angelo Mangiarotti, Milan º

A+U 12/1978 Bona, Enrico D.: Angelo Mangiarotti. Il Processo del Construire. Milan, 1980 Finessi, Beppe (ed.): Su Mangiarotti: Architettura, design, scultura. Milan, 2002 Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Bausysteme von Angelo Mangiarotti. Darmstadt, 1998

• Storey-high precast concrete facade sandwich elements • Used in two different housing blocks in Monza and Arioso /Como (1977, a five-storey building that is even more structured by projections and recesses in its facade) • Flexible floor plan leaves open spaces for residents to use as they wish

Isometry, no scale Floor plan 1st, 2nd and 4th floors Scale 1:500 Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 1

2 3 4

5

1

5

4

Storey-high precast steel-reinforced concrete wall panel, with integrated rigid polystyrene thermal insulation, 120 mm Precast steel-reinforced concrete roof edge element Fir wood window element Fir wood-frame window with insulating glazing, 4 mm toughened safety glass + 9 mm space between the panes + 4 mm toughened safety glass Wooden folding shutter 1 3

3

2

2

1

116

a

b

Concrete

Apartment blocks Zurich, CH 2002 Architects: von Ballmoos Krucker Architekten, Zurich º

Archithese 01/2003 Werk Bauen + Wohnen 7– 8/2003 Nerdinger, Winfried et al. (ed.): Wendepunkt /e im Bauen. Von der seriellen zur digitalen Architektur. Munich, 2010 Von Ballmoos Krucker Architekten: Register, Kommentare. Zurich, 2007

• Housing complex of three slightly different buildings with 51 apartments based on a functional living room-kitchen-balcony spatial group arrangement • A reinterpretation of heavy prefabrication and high-rise “Plattenbau” (with the advantages of durability and quality ageing, among others) • Storey-high, triple-layer, slightly-washed concrete sandwich elements of different widths • Facade openings not positioned in the panels but created by wall element spacings

d 1

2 3

c

c

3

4

10

d

cc

5 8

aa 9 10 dd 1 2 b

b

3

a 6 a

7

Floor plan, first floor Cross section Scale 1:500 Vertical cross section Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 bb

Powder-coated, folded aluminium sheeting top parapet cover Precast steel-reinforced concrete parapet element, washed surface Storey-high precast steel-reinforced concrete wall panel Steel-reinforced concrete outer layer, 80 mm, washed surface, Rigid polystyrene thermal insulation, 180 mm Steel-reinforced concrete inner layer, 140 mm Lime-cement interior render, 15 mm Mortar joint on elastomer Precast steel-reinforced concrete plinth element Two-ply bitumen sheet plinth sealing Precast steel-reinforced concrete sunscreen cover Aluminium sunscreen blind Timber-aluminium window with insulating glazing laminates safety glass + space between the panes + toughened safety glass

117

Concrete

Production and office building

a

Munich, DE 2013 Architects: tillicharchitektur, Munich Structural engineers: Hemmerlein Ingenieurbau, Bodenwöhr º

b

Detail 07– 08/2014 Industriebau 01/2015 Opus C 06/2013

b a

• Four different, geometrically folded wall modules (measuring 6.60 ≈ 3.90 m, max. depth 62 cm) built with prefabricated sandwich elements that are offset, storey by storey • (Anthracite) dyed concrete with a semi-matt surface • Clearly accentuated joint pattern • Polyester textile sunscreen roller blinds stay stable in windy conditions (5.20 m wide, 2.10 m high)

aa

118

Concrete

1

Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section Scale 1:400 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

2

c

3

c 1

3 4

2 5

Extensive green roof, 90 mm, approx. 94 kg/m2 saturated protective layer, 30 mm drainage layer Two-ply polymer bitumen sealing sheeting Sloping rigid foam insulation, max. 300 mm Bitumen sealing sheeting, vapour barrier Steel-reinforced concrete, 340 mm, of which precast truss slab 50 mm render Triple thermal insulating glazing Uf = max. 0.7 W/m2K toughened safety glass 8 + space between the panes 12 + float glass 4 + space between the panes 12 + toughened safety glass 8 mm in larch post and beam facade with

4 5

6

aluminium pressure bar Precast concrete sandwich element, 6.60 ≈ 3.90 m: Facing shell 80 – 240 mm dyed anthracite with iron oxide pigment Thermal insulation, 180 mm Load-bearing steel-reinforced concrete shell, 200 mm with adhesive gypsum plaster, grouted joint, water-repelling surface Permanently elastic joint sealing tape, 20 mm recessed Screed sealing, 76 mm with underfloor heating (using process heating) Separating layer EPS footfall sound insulation, 20 mm EPS thermal insulation, 30 mm Separating layer Steel-reinforced concrete slab, 340 mm, of which precast truss slab 50 mm render Hollow steel door frame, clad with steel sheeting, painted Insulation, 60 mm

6

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119

Concrete

Pinakothek der Moderne Munich, DE 2002 Architect: Stephan Braunfels, Berlin / Munich Structural engineers: Seeberger Friedl + Partner, Munich Walther Mory Maier, Münchenstein, CH Facade planning: R+R Fuchs, Munich º

8

domus 853, 2002 Braunfels, Stephan: Pinakothek der Moderne. Basel / Boston / Berlin 2002 Herwig, Oliver: Sechs neue Museen in Bayern. Tübingen / Berlin 2002

9

cc 1

10

• New gallery building for four collections (modern art, drawings, architecture and design) • Up to 16-metre-high jointless, exposed concrete facades with core insulation, largeformat 5-metre (formwork) grid • Flexible connection ties designed to absorb movements between the outer and inner shells, outer shell prestressed with horizontal steel strands • Construction joints just under horizontal triangular fillets, the shadows cast conceal any imprecisions

Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section Scale 1:2,000 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Southern facade Scale 1:20

aa

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120

Concrete

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Glazed exposed concrete, 160 mm, sliding foil Styrodur thermal insulation, 60 mm Steel-reinforced concrete, 280 mm Interior render, 15 mm Rubber granulate sheet on a separating layer with gutter heating Glued waterproof plywood Light-diffusing ceiling, matt laminated safety glass Steel hollow box girder

6

7 8 9 10

115 mm masonry facing shell: with integrated retaining system Interior render, 15 mm Plasterboard suspended ceiling Blind with plain-edge louvres Blackout blind Double casement window: steel frame outside: 12 mm toughened white safety glass, inside: B 1-I insulating glazing, white laminated safety glass

5

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121

Concrete

Extension to the Leibniz Supercomputing Centre at the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities Garching, DE 2012 aa

Architects: Thomas Herzog Architekten, Munich Project Manager: Roland Schneider a

a

1

• Large-format precast, self-compacting concrete elements used; length 12 m, height 2.40 m, each weighs approx. 45 t • Horizontal-format precast elements with dummy joints in the plane spaced 30 cm apart • Solid concrete cube as compositional counterweight to the metallic mesh screen of the large “computer cube” opposite • Concrete surface with small-format structure made up of offset prisms; specially developed formwork was used

2

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122

Concrete

ESO Hotel Cerro Paranal, CL 2001 Architects: Auer + Weber, Munich º

Architectural Review 06/2003 Bauwelt 25/2002 Casabella 704, 2002 Intelligente Architektur 09 –10/2003 L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 343, 2002

• Hotel for ESO (European Southern Observatory) staff at Cerro Paranal, located 2,600 m above sea level • The concrete facade in front of the hotel rooms provides effective protection from the sun and overheating • Steel-reinforced concrete is a thermally inert mass that buffers the effects of daily temperature fluctuations (approx. 20 K) • Window ventilation with small extra radiators for extremely low temperatures • Exposed concrete surface dyed with ironoxide pigments alludes to the colours of the Atacama Desert

1

1 2 3

2 4 5 3 6 7 8

Cross section Scale 1:500 Floor plan 1st floor Scale 1:1,500 Vertical cross section Scale 1:50

Rust-coloured exposed concrete parapet, 200 mm Aluminium-frame window with fixed glazing Rust-coloured exposed concrete, 100 mm Insulation, 75 mm Veneered particle board built-in furniture Painted tubular steel safety rail, ¡ 50/20 mm, attached at the sides Painted tubular steel barrier posts, ¡ 50/20 mm, set into steel sections embedded in the concrete slab Sealed steel-reinforced concrete Anti-glare screen Aluminium glass door with insulating glazing

4 5

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b b a

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123

Concrete

Contemporary Arts Centre Córdoba, ES 2013 Architects: Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, Madrid Media facade design: Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, Madrid in cooperation with realities:united, Berlin º

AV Monographs 159/160, 2013 Best of Detail: Fassaden, 2015 Detail 06/2013 Licht + Raum 04/2013 World architecture 269, 2012

a a

1

• Arts centre with exhibition spaces and workshop area at the edge of Córdoba’s historic centre • Representing Córdoba’s architectural history, irregular hexagons are a clearly legible central design motif in the floor plan and facade. • White, glass-fibre-reinforced concrete panels in three different sizes • Even surfaces alternate with varying plastic recesses • LED lighting integrated into the facade

2

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Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:1,500 Facade – vertical cross section Scale 1:20 1

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12 13 14

124

Glass-fibre-reinforced white concrete panel, 100 mm, Top layer, 20 mm, PS insulation, 60 mm Hollow steel roof beam ¡ 100/80/4 mm Steel profile, Å 320 mm Glass-fibre-reinforced white concrete panel, 200 mm Cover layer, 20 mm, PS insulation, 160 mm Fixed by means of integrated steel rails and brackets to a substructure Facade substructure, steel section vertical frame ¡ 120/80/4 mm and horizontal steel section | 100/80/4 mm Grating crosspiece 30 ≈ 300 ≈ 30 mm Steel profile, ∑ 90/9 mm LED light Sloping concrete, Geotextile separating layer Insulation, 40 mm, sealing Steel-reinforced concrete composite slab, 200 mm Brick masonry, 115 mm Rainwater guttering connected to downpipe Steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm, Exposed concrete surface, plank shuttering Insulation, 40 mm Float glass, 4 mm Translucent plastic panel, 4 mm Concrete layer, 200 mm; steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm

6 5

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aa

Concrete

Student accommodation

1

Coimbra, PT 1999 2

Architects: Aires Mateus e Associados, Lisbon º

Architectural Review 12/2000 Casabella 691, 2001 Detail 07– 08/2003

cc Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:1,000 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

• Closed concrete facade with masonry facing made of precast, matt white hollow blocks • Autonomous reference to other concrete facades on campus • Narrow slit windows let light into common rooms • Small-format blocks, network of joints and surface finish similar to undressed stone give the surfaces a lively, structured look.

1

2 3

White concrete hollow blocks, 390/140/190 mm Rear ventilation cavity, 15 mm Insulation, 20 mm Masonry, 110 mm Smooth-surface plaster, 15 mm Reveal block Lintel block, 390/140/190 mm

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3 aa

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125

Concrete

Office and residential building Kassel, DE 1999 Architect: Alexander Reichel, Kassel Structural engineers: Hochtief, Kassel º

Byggekunst 06/2001 Detail 04/2001 Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.: Beton Atlas. Munich / Düsseldorf 2001 aa

• Townhouse featuring a 3.00 ≈ 3.50-metre support grid • Steel-reinforced concrete frame, large areas of the facade clad with suspended, nonload-bearing precast glass-fibre-reinforced concrete elements • Fine-grained concrete with aggregates >> Incoming air ¡ Exhaust air shaft

Multilayer glass facades

Floor plans • Cross section Scale 1:1,000 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

1

2 1

2 2

13 25

19

3 4

d 12

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Clear insulating glazing 8 + 16 space between the panes + 8 mm Aluminium ventilation element with louvres to protect against weather Cover strip serves as a guide rail for the service lift Insulating glazing 8 + space between the panes 16 + 8 mm, outer pane printed white Aluminium section with opening for drainage Cast aluminium bracket Galvanised steel section 100/100/10 mm painted and bolted in place Smoke-proof hardwood facade connection, 20 mm Steel T-section edge trim 40/40/4 mm, flush moulded Reinforced concrete ceiling, 300 mm, with a coated surface Facade post with mounting slot Solar protection: Aluminium blind Cable conduit with aluminium flashing Reinforced concrete column, Ø 500 mm Veneer plywood panel covering plasterboard stud wall (on service floor only) Hemlock supply air duct with inspection hatch and air outlet on inside Glass louvres for corridor ventilation Insulating glazing 8 + space between the panes 16 + 8 mm Hemlock facade panel coated with a thick varnish Fixed glazing 4 + space between the panes 16 + 6 mm Hemlock veneer plywood inspection hatch, 35 mm Hemlock veneer plywood cladding, 35 mm Skirting board channel with air outlet for mechanical ventilation Sliding window for natural ventilation Textile glare protection

a

257

Multilayer glass facades

RWE headquarters Essen, DE 1997 1

Architects: Ingenhoven Overdiek Kahlen und Partner, Düsseldorf º

db 04/1997 Fassadentechnik 05/1997, 06/1997, 01/1998 Briegleb, Till (ed.): Hochhaus RWE AG Essen. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2000 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 1998

• Building 127 metres high, diameter 32 m • Reinforced concrete frame • Floor-to-ceiling glazing allows for optimal use of daylight • Ground floor – 8.40-metre high facade made from clear glass, point-fixed: insulating glazing with toughened safety glass on exterior and laminated safety glass on interior • Supply air enters through tubular aluminium facade posts • Centrally-controlled solar and glare protection Glare protection: room-side Solar protection: in facade cavity • Standard floor with modular casement window facade for natural ventilation, 197 ≈ 359.1 cm • Alternating areas of fixed glazing and sliding, manually operated door panels • Multifunctional ventilation element at ceiling height with laterally offset air inlets and outlets

2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10

Safety barrier, clamped white toughened safety glass, 12 mm with tubular aluminium handrail, Ø 100 mm Grating over drainage channel Cover plate Tubular aluminium posts for double-storey terrace glazing, 50/280 mm, stove-enamelled Metal grating Heated metal gutter 4 mm, drainage outlets in facade grid lines in the suspended ceiling Facade cavity ventilated through perforated aluminium sheeting in alternating bays (adjoining bay closed), 4 mm, anodised, natural colour Solar protection: aluminium louvre blinds Textile glare protection roller blind Multifunctional ceiling panel, stove-enamelled sheet 29

11

21

30 31

18

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a a

Floor plan, standard storey Scale 1:1,000 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 Horizontal cross section through partition wall connection Horizontal cross section, ground floor Vertical cross section through ground floor entry hall and upper facade connection

258

Multilayer glass facades

aa 2

11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

metal, partly perforated Floor convector Closed aluminium sheeting (adjoining bay perforated) 4 mm, anodised, natural colour, upward opening via hinge Cleaning and inspection walkway Butt joint for construction purposes Fastener for service lift Horizontal ventilation slit with aluminium airflow guide louvres, anodised, natural colour EPDM sealing gasket External facade, clear toughened safety glass, 10 mm Stainless steel point mounting Aluminium facade post, 50/120 mm Inner facade, floor-to-ceiling thermal insulation

22 23

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

1 3

glazing, clear glass in an aluminium frame Silicone joint sealing on backer rod Insulating toughened safety glass 10 mm + space between the panes 14 + laminated safety glass 12 mm Stainless steel point mounting for insulating glazing Aluminium facade post Metal grating Adjustable column base Aluminium glazing bar Modular office partition wall, 175 mm, perforated beech panels, matt finish Sliding door panel with crank handle (in alternating bays) Facade divider, clear toughened safety glass

4

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259

Multilayer glass facades

Office block facade renovation Stuttgart, DE 1996 Architects: Behnisch Sabatke Behnisch, Stuttgart Project architect: Carmen Lenz º

Bauwelt 43 – 44/1996 GLAS Sonderheft 02/1997 Knaack, Ulrich: Konstruktiver Glasbau. Cologne, 1998 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 1998

• Complete refurbishing of a prefabricated steel-reinforced concrete building built in 1969 • Unsegmented double-skin facade with external glass skin with glass slats that can be adjusted storey by storey • Maximum airflow through the facade cavity when glass slats are open ensures good protection from overheating • Cross ventilation through openings in corridor walls that can also be used to cool the building at night in summer

Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:250 Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

260

a

a

Multilayer glass facades

1 7

6

4

5

3 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

8

6 mm toughened safety glass Glass clamp connected to support structure Aluminium blind Wood soffit Vertically pivoting window in timber frame Aluminium fins, 10/140 mm Suspended plasterboard ceiling Toughened safety glass divider, 14 mm Veneered plywood panel, 200 mm Aluminium sheeting

11 12 13 14 15

16

windowsill Dado duct, covered Wooden grating Plasterboard cladding Services duct Timber cladding 20/60 mm, on a frame Ventilation cavity, 30 mm Closed-cell insulation, 80 mm Precast concrete spandrel Precast reinforced concrete ceiling

10 9

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261

Multilayer glass facades

Event and congress centre San Sebastián, ES 1999 Architect: Rafael Moneo, Madrid º

Detail 03/2000 domus 722, 1990 El Croquis 98, 2000: Special issue Rafael Moneo 1995 – 2000

• Buffer facade with internal steel frame • Two facade layers 250 cm apart • Glass protects the spaces behind it from the salty air • Windows with insulating glazing integrated into the buffer facade provide specific views into the surrounding landscape

Elevation Scale 1:1,500 Vertical cross section, facade Scale 1:20 Details Scale 1:5

262

Multilayer glass facades

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13

7

21

16

Curved glass panels, laminated safety glass, 2,500 ≈ 600 mm made from translucent profiled glass 4 – 5 mm and sandblasted float glass, 19 mm, vertical joints sealed with silicone Extruded aluminium glazing bar, glass bonded with silicone adhesive Hole for drainage and pressure equalisation, outside opening shielded from the wind Cast aluminium section Translucent silicone sealing White silicone sealing Extruded aluminium rail Stainless steel bolts Aluminium connection element, adjustable in three directions Facade posts Extruded aluminium section, 50/140 mm Sandblasted laminated safety glass, consisting of 2≈ float glass 6 mm, pane size 2,500 ≈ 600 mm Aluminium glazing bar cap with cedarwood cover strip Facade posts Extruded aluminium section, 50/100 mm Steel sheeting frame, welded, with fire-resistant coating Aluminium sheeting roof edge trim, folded, insulated Aluminium profile cladding, 20/40/500/5 mm Cladding cut to fit the curved glass Aluminium plinth trim, 30/250/330/10 mm Cedar soffit Insulating glazing consisting of 2≈ laminated safety glass, 16 mm Exposed concrete plinth

19 20 17

21

18

263

Multilayer glass facades

Renovation of the Tour Bois le Prêtre Paris, FR 2011 Architects: Frédéric Druot and Lacaton & Vassal, Paris º

Archplus 203/2011 Arquitectura viva 139/2011 Metamorphose Bauen im Bestand 01/2012 Moniteur architecture AMC 209/2011 Ruby, Ilka and Andreas (eds.): Druot, Lacaton & Vassal. Tour Bois le Prêtre. Berlin 2012

• Renovation and extension of a 17-storey high-rise residential building, built in 1961, with the involvement of its residents • Existing facade replaced by prefabricated extension modules faced with multilayer, transparent and translucent panes of glass and polycarbonate panels • Living space extended by weather-protected intermediate temperature zones and balconies • Inner glass facade comprises sliding elements with insulating glazing • Outer glass facade comprises sliding elements with single glazing and corrugated polycarbonate panels

Cross section Scale 1:750 Floor plan Scale 1:500 Isometries Not to scale Vertical cross section Scale 1:50

a

b aa a

264

b

Multilayer glass facades

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Laminated safety glass safety barrier Steel cantilever Main beam, IPE 220 mm Secondary beam, IPE 100 mm Corrugated sheet, 60 mm Sliding door with single glazing Solar protection Sliding door with insulating glazing Thermal insulation curtain: reflective material on glass side Thermal insulation decorative material on inside

6

8 7 9

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Manipulators

C 2 Manipulators

Every building has components designed to influence the type and extent of outer and inner factors and their interactions. Solid areas of an exterior wall separate the interior from the outside. Yet its colour, materials, dimensioning and proportions can also enable the same wall to temporarily store energy flows between inside and out. Walls also contain openings that let in light, heat and air and allow for views, all criteria that determine the quality of the interior climate. Interactions between the outdoor climate (weather, day-and-night rhythm, seasons of the year, etc.) and interior variables (heat sources, constant or changing moisture levels etc.) in the building create conditions that are usually very different from the extremes of the outdoor climate and approximate the comfort criteria usually desired in interiors. Depending on demands and requirements, the openings through which air, light, heat and moisture are preferably exchanged can be designed to have specifically variable qualities. Increasing and reducing permeability then becomes a control measure so a building’s users can manipulate its interior climate by means of variable structural components. The simplest and best-known manipulators [1] are windows and doors. Their changing states of openness and closure and outfitting with specific materials have for a long time fundamentally influenced the interior climates of buildings and the appearance of their facades. It seems plausible therefore, that effects such as the greenhouse effect (heating of rooms by solar energy through transparent surfaces in the building envelope using natural solar radiation in temperature ranges well above the outdoor air temperature) are as achievable as they are preventable. An unwelcome influx of heat due to this effect can be prevented by an appropriate use of solar protection devices. At the same time, temporary thermal insulation and shading devices allow users to directly influence interior thermal and lighting conditions and give them the option of regulating any changes at any time and as required. Manipulators have therefore become increasingly important in the context of a targeted use of environmentally friendly energy, especially solar energy. Users can now modify interior climates in response to inner requirements and outside climate conditions by manually regulating the building envelope without any notable external energy input, just as we are used to doing with our clothing. If such systems are used correctly, the logical and desirable outcome will be a drastic reduction in the need for other interventions in interior climates from the building’s heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting systems.

C 2.1 Apartment building on Mozart Square, Paris (FR) 1954, Jean Prouvé

Their interaction with the building’s energy balance as a whole means that the further devel-

opment of systems available in the building envelope is an urgent task. Ideally architects should be involved in this development because they have long been responsible for the overall composition and optimisation of buildings and for the effective integration of important subsystems in them. Translucent components (windows)

Besides glass, other materials such as alabaster, marble, horn, animal skins, canvas and paper have been used for translucent window surfaces. Window openings first became a technologically-developed part of the building with the use of glass in Roman times, although glazed window openings were the exception rather than the rule until well into the 12th century. Early translucent or transparent windows were usually fixed. Although side-hung sashes were known in the ancient world, they are widely regarded as a medieval invention. Sliding sash windows, where the sashes move in parallel and horizontally to the plane of the window, date back to the 13th century. Opaque components

The simplest form of closing window openings with opaque elements is the shutter. Wood, stone and iron have been used throughout history to make shutters to close off window openings and provide additional protection (Fig. C 2.3, p. 268). Architectural and art historians differentiate the different types according to the way they are hung and move [2]: • Loose shutters: wooden panels wedged in as required • Hinged shutters (can be folded and tilted): attached by hinges above or below windows, date back to the 12th century • Folding shutters (moved by pivoting): attached by hinges at the sides, traced back to the ancient world • Sliding shutters (sliding horizontally): attached at the sides, mainly for smaller window openings, inside or out, set into a frame, were used in Ancient Greece • Sliding shutters (sliding vertically): above or below windows, usually set into the facade cladding, appear between the 15th and 18th centuries, particularly in eastern Switzerland [3]. Shutters have been used as additional elements to cover glazing since the 15th century. From the 18th century on, they usually supplemented transparent window closures [4]. As well as sliding and folding shutters (commonly called folding shutters) there are: • Roller shutters or shades, made of slender slats strung on cords or chains, in use since the 18th century • Venetian blinds: folding blinds made of sloping (possibly moveable), horizontal wooden louvres for regulating incident light and airflows; used from the early 18th century, especially in France.

267

Manipulators

Permeability properties (air, radiation)

Wall surface

Not permeable

Permeable (openings)

Non-variable properties

Element’s manoeuvrability

Variable properties

Immoveable element (rigid)

Manoeuvrable element (manipulators)

Permanently manoeuvrable

Segmenting of element / size when stowed

One piece

Size when stowed unchanged

Temporarily manoeuvrable (fixed)

More than one piece

Size when stowed reduced

Size when stowed greatly reduced C 2.2

Just as general technological development has altered the performance profile of buildings, the functions of the window and elements in front of openings in building envelopes have increasingly become more sophisticated and complex. In recent years, the diversity of movement mechanisms available for manipulators has grown considerably.

C 2.3

In this context, window manufacturers also seem to be offering more diverse movement mechanisms as alternatives to the turn-and-tilt windows common in Germany, which are also problematic with respect to heating energy consumption criteria.

Classification of manipulators

C 2.4

268

Elements with variable properties can be divided into: • stationary elements • moveable elements Stationary elements include thermotropic coatings and gasochromic or electrochromic glass. Elements that allow for movement can be characterised by two adjectives [5]: • temporarily/seasonally manoeuvrable, i.e. can be moved – e.g. storm windows • permanently manoeuvrable, i.e. made to move The word manipulator refers to facade components with variable properties, with permeability to air, light, heat and moisture which can be varied by movement.

The wide range of well-known varieties of manipulators is classified below and may serve as inspiration for new functional, geometric and technical combinations. Three factors can be considered when classifying manipulators: • Permeability properties • Manoeuvrability of the element • Segmenting and stowing of the element (changes in volume and /or size)

Segmenting of elements / size when stowed

Permeability

A manipulator usually consists of one or more parts that can be further subdivided into various parts. Together with the type of movement, this results in different states and a range of features of surfaces with modifiable properties. Differences in the size of elements when they are extended or retracted directly influence operation and may determine functional properties as well as construction and design characteristics.

Surfaces permeable to air, light, heat and moisture are distinguished from those that are impermeable (or almost so). Permeability may or may not be variable. The type and extent of permeability largely determines a surface’s function. If the functional performance profile of a surface is designed to be able to assume different states, the surface’s permeability must be variable. C 2.5

C 2.6 Manoeuvrability

Changes in the size of manipulators (their size when stowed) are crucial to various construction, functional and design aspects of moveable elements in facades. Possible changes in the size of manipulators can be defined as: • unchanged • reduced • greatly reduced

Sliding

unchanged

perpendicular to the plane of the facade

vertical

unchanged

around an axis perpendicular around a to the plane horizontal axis of the element horizontal

unchanged

unchanged

unchanged

unchanged

unchanged

unchanged

unchanged unchanged

unchanged

unchanged

unchanged

unchanged

reduced

reduced

reduced

reduced

reduced

reduced

reduced

unchanged

reduced

reduced

circular

greatly reduced

horizontal vertical

Gathering

greatly reduced greatly reduced

greatly reduced

horizontal

greatly reduced greatly reduced greatly reduced

greatly reduced greatly reduced greatly reduced vertical

Rolling

circular

The types of movement of manipulators used often combine various movement principles. Figure C 2.7 shows an overview of the wide range of movement options and directions for manipulators [6]. The overview covers types of movement used in practice but does not claim to be exhaustive. If a system consists of a combination of various manoeuvrable elements, the movement mechanisms used become fundamentally important. Elements can only move independently if they do not have a mutually adverse effect on each other [7]. Various aspects can

unchanged

greatly reduced greatly reduced greatly reduced

Types and directions of movement

The fundamental types of movement for elements in the facade are classified in a list in the chapter on “Edges, openings” (p. 38) based on the movement mechanisms used for windows.

unchanged

vertical

Turning

The way components are arranged can directly influence functional factors. Installing a blind to prevent glare in an opening’s upper area can reduce the amount of light reaching deep into an interior. Installing interior solar protection may result in an unwelcome input of heat energy.

Folding (turning – sliding)

Further distinguishing features

Further aspects of manoeuvrable elements can be differentiated by taking a fourth factor into account, e. g.: • Position relative to the climatic border: outside (at a distance from the opening), outside, integrated into the plane of the window, inside • Position relative to the opening: above, in the middle of, below, at the side of, on one or several sides

unchanged

unchanged

around a vertical axis

Push-out

C 2.2 Classification of the word “manipulator” C 2.3 Stone shutters, Torcello (IT) C 2.4 Facade opening with folding shutters and permeable arches for refracting light and regulating ventilation, Montagnana (IT) C 2.5 Translucent panels, traditional house, Takayama (JP) C 2.6 Combination of several manipulators at Palazzo Pitti, Florence (IT) C 2.7 Classification of common manipulators Figures above the drawings refer to changes in the size of moveable elements when expanded or retracted.

horizontal

Manipulators

C 2.7

269

Manipulators

C 2.8

make high demands on facade systems in terms of the integration of elements. Interior conditions can only be efficiently regulated if components regulating levels of lighting, sound and heating can be separately controlled – as was the case with their historic forerunners. Operating manipulators Manipulators can be manually or mechanically operated. Building users can operate them manually as required. Depending on the movement mechanism and effort needed to produce movement, it may be possible to operate several manipulators simultaneously. A mechanical drive can be used to automatically control manipulators and such systems can be integrated into the building’s energy concept. Users can make individual adjustments within certain limits. Combining various elements to regulate the permeability of building envelopes can help to optimise user comfort and energy consumption. States of manipulators As well as open and closed states, manipulators can assume intermediate states and depending on the type of movement, permeability can be regulated in this way. Hinged shutters and venetian blinds can be mentioned in this context: both are used to regulate incident light. Exterior contact through hinged shutters can be adjusted only to a certain extent, while with louvred blinds in contrast, incident light and consequently views can be varied by changing the angle of the louvres. The situation is similar when using a window for ventilation. Sliding windows allow users to vary the opening gap and adjust it to provide slot ventilation. This can only be done with windows with turning or pivoting sashes if they have appropriate fixing and adjustment fittings (see also “Edges, openings”, p. 38 ff.). Applications

Almost all materials commonly used in construction are used to make manipulators. Their surfaces can be solid in the form of boards,

270

panels, fabrics or foils. Manipulators may also be perforated or allow for ventilation through integrated fixed or adjustable louvres. As shown in figure C 2.7, a wealth of combinations of individual manipulators are possible, with different possible positions in the plane of the facade relevant to heating issues: • Horizontal sliding shutters • Vertical sliding shutters • External side-hung shutters • Internal side-hung shutters • Shutters pivoting around a horizontal axis • Shutters folding horizontally to one side (turning and sliding) • Shutters folding vertically to one side (with / without ventilation openings) • Shutters folding horizontally in the middle • Blinds, gathered horizontally • Push-out windows • Windows with pivoting sashes • Horizontal sliding windows • Vertical sliding windows • Folding windows (turning, sliding) • Venetian blinds (blinds with horizontal louvres) • Gathered awnings • Roller awnings The use of manipulators offers a wide range of design options and can heavily influence a facade’s appearance by changing the size of its surfaces and varying their positions.

Notes: [1] Use of the word “manipulator” for manoeuvrable elements in a building envelope is based on a dissertation by Waldemar Jaensch supervised by Thomas Herzog. “Verfahren zur Beurteilung kinetischer Manipulatoren an der Gebäudeoberfläche als Maßnahme zur Regulierung des Gebäudeklimas. Untersuchung mit Hilfe von Simulationsmodellen” (Procedure for evaluating kinetic manipulators on building surfaces as a means of regulating the building’s climate. Investigation using simulation models). Kassel 1981, p. 28. The word “manipulator” contains the Latin words “manus”, meaning “hand”, and “manipulation” meaning, "intervention, to use something to your own advantage"; borrowed in the 18th century from the French word, “manipulation”, derived from “manipuler”, meaning "to influence something to your own advantage" (according to Kluge, Friedrich: Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Berlin / New York 1989, p. 459). In the field of technology, the word means a "device for handling objects" (dtv-Lexikon. Vol. 11. Munich, 1997, p. 240). [2] Reallexikon zur Deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Vol. 7 and 8. Munich 1981 [3] Herzog, Thomas; Natterer, Julius et al. (eds.): Gebäudehüllen aus Glas und Holz. Lausanne 1984, p. 20f. [4] Gerner, Manfred; Gärtner, Dieter: Historische Fenster. Stuttgart 1996, p. 68 [5] Krippner, Roland: Entwicklung beweglicher Manipulatoren im Bereich der Außenwände mit wärmedämmenden und weiteren Funktionen. In Abschlussbericht ISOTEG. TU Munich, Chair of Building Technology, 2001 (unpublished), p. 88 – 89 [6] Building on graphics in ibid. [7] This chapter includes parts of the dissertation “Untersuchungen von Vertikalschiebefenstern als Komponenten im Bereich von Fassadenöffnungen” (Studies and trials of vertical sliding windows as facade opening components) (2005) by Daniel Westenberger, written at the Faculty of Building Technology at TU Munich.

Manipulators

C 2.8 Procuratie Vecchie, St. Mark's Square, Venice (IT) C 2.9 –16 Examples of building envelopes that can be changed functionally and aesthetically by manipulators

C 2.9

C 2.10

C 2.11

C 2.12

C 2.13

C 2.14

C 2.15

C 2.16

271

Manipulators

272

C 2.17

C 2.18

C 2.19

C 2.20

C 2.21

C 2.22

C 2.23

C 2.24

Manipulators

C 2.17–32 Examples of facades that can be changed functionally and aesthetically by manipulators

C 2.25

C 2.26

C 2.27

C 2.28

C 2.29

C 2.30

C 2.31

C 2.32

273

Manipulators

Dial-Norm factory Kirchberg, CH 1972 Architect: Fritz Haller, Solothurn Facade planning: Hans Diehl, Neuenhof Baden º

Werk 10/1974

• Round, rotating all-glass sashes in circular window openings • Built using the USM HALLER “MAXI” steel building system • Large facade panels minimise the number of joints per unit of area • Prefabricated panels meant shortened assembly times • Facade built without any direct metallic connections between interior and exterior (so no thermal bridges)

Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:500 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:5

1

2

3

A B C

Fixed glazing Butt joint between elements Moveable element

4 1 5

2 3 4

6

8 c aa

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15

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a

a

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10

b

11 12 13 14 15 16 17

12 13

Aluminium sheeting 2 mm r = 150 mm Thermal insulation, 40 mm Folded steel sheeting 3 mm “USM Haller MAXI” steel frame, IPE 400 and IPE 220 (on the short side) Load-bearing sandwich panel, 1 mm aluminium sheeting, stove-enamelled on both sides, plastic core PU-foam thermal insulation Stove-enamelled aluminium sheeting 3 mm EPDM rebate profile EPDM filler profile Reflecting hardened solar protection glass, 8 mm Central glass bracket, special chromium-plated steel section Chromium-plated steel disk, Ø 60 mm Chromium-plated steel handle Rectangular hollow steel section, 25/20/2 mm Steel angle, 50/20/3 mm Aluminium sheeting Column, IPE 120 Aluminium clip EPDM cover

14 bb 8

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6

6

11

15

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274

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10

8

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Manipulators

Nakagin Capsule Tower Tokyo, JP 1972 Architects: Kisho Kurokawa & Associates, Tokyo º

Detail/jpn 33, 1972 L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 06/2000 Kurokawa, Kisho: From Metabolism to Symbiosis. London / New York 1992 Detail /jpn 33, 1972

1

• Fan-shaped window blinds control internal and external views • Industrially prefabricated room modules (2.30 ≈ 3.80 ≈ 2.10 m) suspended from two concrete towers • Windows 1.30 metres in diameter

Floor plan Scale 1:500 Detail • Vertical cross section

2 3 9

4 5

8

6 7 8 9

Scale 1:5

10 11 a 12 13

Round base plate, Ø 140 mm, adhered to glass Two-piece inner guide ring, polished brass, screwed onto metal divider Round inner cover plate, Ø 120/5 mm, bolted onto fixed glazing Metal divider 1.2 mm Frame for plastic-coated paper: angled aluminium sheeting, 2 mm Plastic-coated paper Aluminium bracket with clip for frames Outer guide rail Guide rail bracket, attached to the window reveal Threaded sleeve, Ø 20 mm Fixed toughened safety glass glazing, 6 mm, Ø 1300 mm Rubber seal Aluminium profile section screwed onto aluminium sheeting, 40/40/4 mm

open state

3

4 10

2

1

10

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6 11

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9

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5 bb

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275

Manipulators

Institut du Monde Arabe a

Paris, FR 1987 Architect: Jean Nouvel, Paris with Gilbert Lezenes, Piere Soria, Architecture Studio º

Architectural Review 1088, 1987 and 1113, 1989 El Croquis 65 – 66, 1994: Jean Nouvel l’ARCA 15, 1988 L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 12/1998 Progressive Architecture 09/1995

b

b

• Multiple opening elements based on the principle of a camera shutter control the amount of daylight entering the building • Mechanisms and control elements visible • Repetitive ornamental geometric design reflects a traditional Arabic architectural motif (“Mashrabiya”: decorative window lattice) • Mechanism is delicate and requires extensive maintenance

aa

Floor plan, 4th floor • Cross section Scale 1:1,000 Vertical cross section through the facade screen Horizontal cross section through the facade screen Scale 1:5

276

a

Manipulators

8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10

EPDM joint Breaks in the seals to ventilate the cavity Perforated infill panel Toughened safety glass, 6 mm Ventilation opening Polyurethane thermal break “Camera shutter” mechanism Insulating glazing 4 + space between the panes 12 + 4 mm Toughened safety glass, 8 mm Facade mounting bracket

10

9

1

4 cc

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Manipulators

Residential and commercial building Munich, DE 1996 Architect: Von Seidlein, Munich Peter C. von Seidlein, Horst Fischer, Egon Konrad, Stephan Röhrl Facade planning: Stephan Röhrl º

1

2

Detail 03/1998 Seidlein, Peter C. von: Zehn Bauten 1957– 97. Exhibition catalogue for the Architekturgalerie München, 1997 3

4

cc 1

• External louvre blinds (blinds with horizontal louvres) • Large, opening sliding elements open up apartments on the south side to the outside • Large vertical sliding windows in the pitched roof • Metal facade attached to a timber frame in front of a steel-reinforced concrete structure to avoid thermal bridges

2 3 4

5 5 6 7

3

Cross section • Floor plan, 1st floor scale 1:750 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

All steel elements spray-galvanised and powder-coated 1

6

2

c

c

4 7

aa

b a

b a

bb

278

Horizontal sliding windows: laminated niangon wood frames and sashes Insulating glazing: laminated safety glass 10 + space between the panes 15 + float glass 4 mm Internal glazed spandrel panel, toughened safety glass, 10 mm Flat steel, 10/55 mm Flat steel bracket, 10/120 mm, connected with the steel-reinforced concrete frame at floor level by glulam posts, 100/100 mm, Aluminium louvre blind, cord guides, not flanged at the sides, operated by electrical motor aluminium sheeting housing, 2 mm Tubular steel handrail, Ø 31/2,25 mm Aluminium sheeting, 3 mm

Manipulators

Development centre Ingolstadt, DE 1999 Architects: Fink + Jocher, Munich Structural engineers: Schittig, Ingolstadt º

Bauwelt 08/1999 Detail 03/1999 Intelligente Architektur 11–12/2000 L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 07/2000 World architecture 07– 08/2000

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• Louvre blind in the facade cavity (southfacing facade) • Hall's southerly orientation is part of the building's energy concept • Facade extends over all four storeys

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Cross section Scale 1:750 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 Details Scale 1:5

Folded aluminium sheeting, 2 mm, hard foam thermal insulation Insulating glazing 6 + space between the panes 22 + 5 mm, light-refracting louvres in the space between the panes, stove-enamelled aluminium b = 16 mm, white on the outside, silver-grey on the inside Aluminium glazing bar Square hollow steel section post-and-rail structure, | 90/90 mm and ¡ 180/100 mm with metallic grey coating Vierendeel strut, square hollow steel sections, 120/120 mm Aluminium grating Steel grating on angled frame Air intake flap: Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm Hard foam thermal insulation, 40 mm Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm

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Manipulators

University building Brixen, IT 2004 Architects: Kohlmayer Oberst, Stuttgart Shade profile developed in conjunction with the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE), Freiburg º

Intelligente Architektur 07– 09/2005 Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 02/2005 db 02/2005

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• Exterior highly reflective rolling sun blinds made from specially-shaped stainless steel louvres • Sunblinds provide complete shade when position of the sun is greater than 20° • The facade’s special geometry also allows for external views (surrounding landscape) • Modular facade with recesses and projections and push-out ventilation elements in the recesses Cross section • Floor plan of the ground floor and 2nd floor Scale 1:1,500 Sunshade louvres Scale 2.5:1 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 Detail Scale 1:5 1 2

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Aluminium flashing, chamfered 3 mm Aluminium sheeting, 3 mm Sealing Extruded rigid foam insulation, 80 mm Insulating glazing, laminated safety glass 8 + 6 + space between the panes 16 + toughened safety glass 10 mm Push-out ventilation flap, 3,200 ≈ 250 mm Double aluminium sheeting, 3 mm, slits in top cover Solar protection: 6 mm-wide stainless steel bands, 150 mm apart, with stainless steel louvres riveted to them, operated by an integrated tubular motor Steel fin partition connection Aluminium sheeting, 4 mm, can be walked on Steel sheeting lighting unit, 350 ≈ 180 ≈ 1,280 mm, with dichroic reflectors Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 10 + space between the panes 16 + laminated safety glass 6 + 8 mm Mineral wool insulation, 100 mm Flat steel, 20 mm Sealing Mineral wool insulation 80 mm Folded aluminium sheeting 3 mm Stainless steel inlet pipe, Ø 50/2 mm, with lateral inlet guides Detachable rail for installing and removing solar protection

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Manipulators

Retirement complex Neuenbürg, DE 1995 Architects: Mahler Günster Fuchs, Stuttgart Structural engineer: Wolfgang Beck, Neuenbürg º

Architectural Review 06/1997 Bauwelt 05/1997 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 2003 Schunk, Eberhard et al.: Dach Atlas. Munich / Basel 2002

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• Buildings feature sliding timber shutters • Four identical separate buildings • Reinforced concrete dividers with thermally insulated, rear-ventilated timber cladding • Timber is untreated • Solar collectors on roof areas under corrugated acrylic glass panels • The roof’s transparent exterior skin leaves its timber frame visible Vertical cross sections • Horizontal cross sections Scale 1:5 A Large sliding shutter B Small sliding shutter 1

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Facade structure around floor / ceiling slabs: Weatherboard, 100/21 mm, divided by vertical battens Ventilated cavity, 22 mm Water-repelling wind paper Thermal insulation, 80 mm Reinforced concrete Steel T-section, 95/80/5 mm fastened at points to vertical battens Aluminium guide rail Embedded guide rail Sliding three-ply panel element, 25 mm Plastic rollers Safety barrier Steel section, 95/40/5 mm fastened at points to vertical battens

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Manipulators

Housing complex Hanover, DE 1999 Architects: Fink + Jocher, Munich Structural engineers: Bergmann + Partner, Hanover º

A+U 10/2001 db 07/2000 Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich / Basel 2001

• Folding wooden shutters • Shutters fold back into a niche in the masonry • Floor-to-ceiling French windows • Low-energy building standard • Top-hung folding windows opening outwards in staircases

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Floor plan Scale 1:2,000 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

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Peat-fired clinker bricks in a stretcher bond, NF 115 mm Cavity ventilation 10 mm Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm Aerated concrete, 175 mm Rigid foam thermal insulation, 60 mm Quadripartite folding three-ply plywood sheet shutters 15 mm edge beading in weatherproof glue, guide rails top and bottom, painted pale grey, attached at the sides by galvanised bands to double-thickness panels Ventilation element Timber-frame windows with two sashes and insulating glazing Galvanised flat steel safety barrier, painted metallic grey, 35/8 mm Precast reinforced concrete window sill 50 mm overhang with drip lip Steel section to support window sill Peat-fired clinker bricks NF 115 mm Cavity ventilation 10 mm Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm Reinforced concrete, 180 mm

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Manipulators

Housing complex Innsbruck, AT 2000 Architects: Baumschlager & Eberle, Lochau º

Architectural Record 02/2002 Architectural Review 06/2001 Bauwelt 16/2001 Casabella 698, 2002 Detail 03/2002 Techniques + architecture 454, 2001

• Folding shutters mounted on frames • Copper patination to prevent glare (neighbouring airport) • Six compact tower blocks (favourable A/V ratio) with the same floor plans • Buildings stepped as they rise to fit in with the site's slope (and let more light in) • Although huddled together, the buildings have a close relationship with the surrounding landscape • Unusually high standard of construction for subsidised public housing due to simplification and standardisation • Passive building system with controlled ventilation of apartments

Floor plan Scale 1:750 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 1

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Pine cladding 18 mm, glazed red-brown Mineral wool thermal insulation, 80 mm Mineral wool thermal insulation, 200 mm Vapour barrier Reinforced concrete 180 mm Interior plaster, 15 mm Quadripartite folding and sliding shutter: pre-oxidised copper sheeting 0.6 mm adhered and riveted to frames Stainless steel hollow square section, 30/20/2 mm Clip to lock shutters in position Stainless steel handrail Laminated safety glass parapet, 12 mm, matt PVB film Balcony partition wall, matt, 8 mm toughened safety glass French door with triple glazing V 100 veneered chipboard Precast reinforced concrete element, 6,000 mm long, Insulated rebar connection

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Manipulators

Office building Berlin, DE 1999 Architects: Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin Facade consultants: Emmer Pfenniger + Partner, Münchenstein º

A+U 09/2002 Architectural Review 12/2000 Intelligente Architektur 21, 2000 Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen. Munich / Basel 2001

• Sliding, folding perforated sheet metal shutters, painted different colours on the outside • Unsegmented, prefabricated, modular westfacing facade (exhaust-air facade) • Narrow footprint • “Wind roof” (aerodynamic wing, Venturi effect) to strengthen the lift effect on the exhaust-air facade

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Partial vertical cross section Scale 1:20 Detail Scale 1:5

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Outer facade western side: extruded aluminium section, toughened safety glass infill panels, 10 mm, 1,800/3,300 mm Steel cantilever arm Solar protection shutters, 600/2,900 mm, perforated aluminium sheeting 1.5 mm, pivoting and sliding Inner facade, western side: suspended extruded aluminium elements 1,800/3,250 mm,

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Insulating glazing 6 + space between the panes 14 + 8 mm Parapet: perforated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm, fleece-laminated mineral insulation, 20 mm 18 mm fire-resistant panel on a steel frame with integrated thermal insulation, 100 mm Grating

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Manipulators

House Amsterdam, NL 2000 Architects: Heren 5, Amsterdam with Ed Bijman, Jan Klomp, Bas Liesker, Dirk van Gestel Steel facade: Limelight, Breda º

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Architectural Review 06/2001 Werk Bauen + Wohnen 01– 02/1999 Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen. Munich / Basel 2001

• Vertical folding and pivoting shutters (fold around a horizontal axis) • Weatherproof steel on the north and south facades is a reference to historic industrial buildings

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Floor plans of ground floor and first floor Scale 1:400 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section south facade Scale 1:20 4 5

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Pre-oxidised steel sheeting chamfered and perforated 485/30 mm Steel T-section, 70/70/8 mm Prefabricated facade element: fibre cement plate 5 mm Insulation 90 mm Vapour barrier Plasterboard, 12.5 mm

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Veneered plywood, 18 mm Insulation 50 mm Aluminium grating, 100/5 mm Drive for rotating /sliding shutters Insulating glazing Galvanised steel channel Galvanised steel section, 50/70/5 mm Sand-lime brick 115 mm

Manipulators

Office building Unterschleißheim, DE 2002 Architects: Baader + Schmid, Munich with Maurice Mayne º

Baudokumentation. Hameln 2003

• Elements covered with a membrane form a second skin that screens out sun and glare • Horizontal pivoting louvres covered with a membrane on both sides • Louvres in front of spandrel panels covered with an open-pore membrane on one side to allow for views from inside out

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Floor plan Scale 1:1,000 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

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Parapet panel with closed-pore 1 membrane covering both sides Fixed louvres consisting of an aluminium frame covered with a membrane on one side: material is open-pored in front of spandrel 2 panels to allow for views and otherwise close-pored to screen out sun and glare Moveable louvre consisting of an aluminium frame covered with a PTFE-coated membrane on both sides, glass fibre fabric, 13 % translucency, electrical motor integrated into post, louvres can be centrally and individually regulated Folded aluminium sheeting Hot-dip galvanised grid flooring, 30/11 mm Flat steel, 200 mm 3 Insulated aluminium panel thermal insulation, 120 mm Fixed insulating glazing Aluminium post, 120/55 mm Openable insulating glazing b Convector with displacement air diffuser Thermal insulation, 100 mm Rectangular hollow steel section, 130/50 Square hollow steel section, 120/120 mm

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Manipulators

Paper Museum Shizuoka, JP 2002 Architects: Shigeru Ban Architects, Tokyo Folding facade elements: Bunka Shutter, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo º

Detail 07– 08/2003 domus 03/2003 aa

• 10-metre-high roller shutter doors at the western and eastern ends • Solar protection elements folding out up to 90° on the museum’s south side are an element of traditional Japanese architecture (“shitomido”) • Storey-high facade segments on cantilevered guide rails on the gallery building’s southern side can be pushed out as a roof over the terrace in front of the building • Translucent GFRP multi-wall sheets used in a range of different ways

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Cross sections • Floor plans Scale 1:750 Vertical cross section of the museum Scale 1:20 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Gallery building Scale 1:20 5

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Pivot for awning-type facade element Facade element 4 GFRP multi-wall sheeting 100/300/40 mm, in aluminium frames 100/50/2 mm and 84/32/2 mm Steel beam, 600/400 mm Drive gear rim Actuator, 100/50/3.2 mm Guide pulley Guide rail for actuator Hollow square aluminium section 50/50/1.6 mm Toughened safety glass glazed sliding door in aluminium frames Steel stanchion,

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340/250 mm Steel beam, 250/125 mm Coil Steel cable, Ø 8 mm Round steel bar, Ø 20 mm Steel angle frame, 45/70 –180 mm Steel angle, 50/50/4 mm Tubular steel section, Ø 114/3.6 mm Square steel hollow section 150/150/9 mm Guide rail Castor GFRP panel 50 mm Pull cord Steel post, 150/150/7/10 mm Steel channel, 150/75/6.5 mm

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Manipulators

Office building Wiesbaden, DE 2001 Architects: Herzog + Partner, Munich Lighting technology and design: Bartenbach Lichtlabor, Aldrans Structural engineers of outer facade: Ludwig & Weiler, Augsburg º

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Floor plan 1st floor Scale 1:4,000 System cross sections Not to scale Horizontal cross section through ventilation openings Scale 1:5 Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

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Detail 07/2001 Dialogue Taiwan 68, 2003 THE PLAN 003/2003 Nikkei Architecture 04/2003

• Combination of two sunshading elements, each of which pivots around a horizontal axis on the southern facade: upper element with light-refracting louvres for regulating incident daylight, lower element can be pushed out to allow for exterior views • Southern side: sunshading elements with light-refracting fins let in (diffuse) daylight, even when skies are overcast • Northern side with fixed light-refracting elements that let in zenith light, similar to the system on the southern facade • Opaque ventilation flaps with integrated air inlets combine controlled natural ventilation with free ventilation • Technical building services for offices integrated into the facade

Daylight refraction on the south side on a sunny day 1

1 Daylight refraction on the south side on a cloudy day

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2 Controlled, centrally regulated, natural ventilation

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Manipulators

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Aluminium cable duct Tsuga frame, five glued sheets, 50/15 mm Plastic ventilation element Baffle plate behind ventilation element, toughened safety glass Ventilation flap: Makore veneer plywood, removeable 15 mm air cavity, 9 mm Makore veneer plywood, 6 mm Spruce frame, several sheets glued together, 60 mm or PU rigid foam insulation Makore veneer plywood, 10 mm

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Fibre cement facing panel, 12 mm 160 mm polyurethanecoated precast steel-reinforced concrete cantilever element Aluminium light reflector Facade seal, extruded aluminium section with EPDM seal Triple insulating glazing with powder-coated aluminium glazing bars Light with aluminium

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reflector, lightdiffusing glass and integrated anti-glare screen Highly reflective extruded section for refracting direct light Highly reflective extruded section for shading and indirect lighting Spindle lifting motor Flat steel, 100/12 mm, bead-blasted Powder-coated aluminium frame

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Manipulators

Training academy A

Unterschleißheim, DE 2004 Architects: Ackermann and Partner, Munich Structural engineer: Christoph Ackermann, Munich º

Detail 04/2005

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• Training academy in a heterogeneouslydeveloped commercial and industrial zone to the north of Munich • Post-and-rail glass facade with solar protection glazing • Entrance facade oriented towards the southeast faced with pivoting aluminium solar protection elements the same height as the building • Workshops extending over the entire height of the building positioned behind the long facades

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Cross section Scale 1:750 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Extruded aluminium section Anodised aluminium sheeting, riveted on 3 mm Aluminium T-section, 100/60/5 mm Aluminium sheeting frame 5 mm Steel Å-beam, IPE 500 Solar protection louvres, Anodised aluminium sheeting 3 mm Aluminium sheeting panel, 2 mm Aluminium flashing, 3 mm Steel section purlin edge, HEB 180 Awning panelled with aluminium sheeting Connecting rods Post-and-rail facade aluminium section with insulating glazing Steel beam, IPE 500 Column, HEB 180 Hollow aluminium section, Ø 140/10 mm Accessible grating in steel section frame

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Manipulators

Apartment building Madrid, ES 2007

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Arca 248/2009 Arquitectura 356/2009 Arquitectura Viva 114/2007

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• Six-storey social housing comprising 100 apartments • 1.50-metre wide balcony extends along the entire length of each facade • Facade consists of glazed sliding doors • Exterior folding and sliding shutters clad with vertical bamboo louvres screen interiors from view and shade them from the sun

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Insulated fascia with sheet metal covering Solar protection louvred shutter element with bamboo lattice Aluminium louvre blind Timber plank balcony floor 30 mm with protective surface coating Hollow square steel section support structure, 50 ≈ 50 mm Steel section HEB 160 Aluminium sliding window with insulating glazing 4 + space between the panes 6 + 4 mm Iron railing safety barrier

3 aa c Floor plan Scale 1:1,000 Cross section Scale 1:750 Vertical cross section Horizontal cross section of folding shutter Scale 1:20 a open b closed

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Solar energy

C 3 Solar energy

The envelope is the most important structural subsystem in a building’s energy balance. Technical systems used to produce solar energy are usually visibly integrated into a roof or exterior wall so the building envelope is the main visible reference in the integration of solar energy systems as the interface between architecture and solar energy technology. These systems have various protective functions and must be coordinated to fit in with the building’s construction and appearance. Since the early 1990s, facades incorporating solar thermal systems have increasingly been used to expand the range of walls’ general climate protection and buffering functions and actively supply heat. This approach can be applied to all forms of building-related use of solar energy in the facade and includes structures ranging from glazed annexes in front of facades through to photovoltaic modules.

Direct and indirect usage Solar energy takes a range of different forms, with solar radiation the major source of energy for buildings. A distinction is made between direct “passive” and indirect “active” use. Direct use refers to a targeted use of structural measures for collecting, storing and distributing solar energy that largely dispenses with technical equipment. Specific measures for regulating interior climates and energy balances for buildings and especially building envelopes include the fundamental principles of solar heating and cooling and the use of daylight. This energy can also be used indirectly by deploying additional technical measures to collect, distribute and store solar energy, especially collector technology to enhance heating and cooling, and photovoltaics for power generation. Both types of application can be classified within a variety of systems, so a wide range of instruments are available for utilising solar energy in specific buildings [2].

Energy yields (orientation and inclination)

Two important parameters determine whether the use of solar energy in buildings is advisable. One is the exposure of relevant surfaces, i.e. their orientation, and the other is their angle of inclination and freedom from shade. Solar radiation as a whole (global radiation) is made up of the sun’s direct rays and diffuse, i.e. indirect, radiation dispersed through clouds or fog and reflected through the environment (sky radiation) (see Fig. A 1.8, p. 21). In Central Europe, more than 50 % of total radiation over the year is diffuse radiation. Energy radiated onto horizontal surfaces varies from country to country and even within Germany, depending on geographical location (within Germany it is an annual average of up to 300 kWh/m2a).

From shaded lobby to energy-generating facade

Available solar radiation

The main directly effective principles of solar energy use such as compact buildings, southern orientation, offset interiors and structural solar protection (in summer) can be traced back to Ancient Greece. For centuries the facade, intentionally or unintentionally, has been an important subsystem in the use of solar energy during the heating period. The (window) opening and the room behind it is a first “collector”. Steps towards optimising the exterior wall to change the interior climate have led to its breakdown into and differentiation between different zones. Open intermediate or transitional zones such as shaded lobbies, arcades etc. offer protection from the weather and the sun (Fig. C 3.4, p. 297). In Central European climates, such spaces can have a wide range of potential uses.

The amounts of solar radiation available fluctuate greatly over the course of a day and year and are heavily influenced by prevailing local weather conditions. While solar radiation energy levels can vary by a factor of 10 on two consecutive days, levels on a clear summer’s day can be 50 times greater than they are on a cloudy winter day. In Central Europe, seasonal and daily solar radiation is not always available as the same time as the need for heat. Short-term variations can be compensated for by heat accumulators but seasonal fluctuations are a problem. In Germany, around three quarters of the annual solar radiation

To directly use solar energy more effectively and minimise the flow of heat out from heated spaces, it can be advisable to create a separate spatial and thermal zone. Various usually transparent, multilayered structures (ranging from casement, bay and oriel windows through to glazed loggias and lean-to conservatories) have been specifically developed to make use of solar energy. As increasingly large panes of glass have been produced, these zones of intermediate temperatures have become increasingly important in heating buildings. Research into more efficient sys

Climatic parameters and classification principles

C 3.1 Residential complex, Munich (DE) 1982, Thomas Herzog and Bernhard Schilling [1]

energy is available in the summer – energy that can currently only be stored in costly and complex storage units. This restricted availability can restrict the use of solar energy. At the same time, recent studies (“extreme scenario”, not including transport and industrial processes) have shown that it is technically and economically feasible to have 100 % of the energy required for heating and electricity in Germany supplied by renewable energies by 2050 [3].

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Solar energy

Type of use

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Application

C 3.2

tems and entirely new usage concepts intensified in the middle of the second half of the 20th century. This direct form of solar energy use has also been supplemented by the development of technical systems that use solar energy indirectly. Collectors for heating water and interiors and PV generators for generating electricity are now integrated almost as a matter of course into building envelopes. The expanded basic structural strategies and technical systems for using solar energy now available have enormously increased the range of facade design options.

Direct “passive” systems The best-known form of direct solar energy use is through glazed window openings, which function as simple collector and storage systems in association with the spaces directly behind them. Their functioning and energy yields depend largely on climatic and local conditions and on their compass orientation and the inclination and size of openings. A building’s equipment and the construction of its walls, ceilings and floors also greatly influence its interior climate and with it the extent and type of solar energy usage. Large areas of glazing without additional solar protection measures may overheat in the summer months. This must usually be considered when planning facades facing east and west, i.e. planners need to try and optimise solar radiation, opening sizes, heating requirements, shade, technical equipment and thermal storage mass in each individual case [4].

Zones with intermediate temperatures Various overlapping functional requirements on a building envelope and general structural properties can lead planners to enclose heated spaces with various (spatial) zones. A staggered configuration of functional spaces can help to reduce heat losses and make better use of solar gains. These zones of intermediate temperatures offer additional possibilities for

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seasonal use and can recirculate heat from the building, preheat outside air, and accommodate solar protection or temporary thermal insulation systems. There are three basic types of such thermally effective structures, which in practice take various forms: airlocks, air-heating solar collectors and heat buffers. The structural principle at work ranges from the formation of narrow layers of air in front of an exterior wall through to temporary extensions to living areas (Figs. C 3.5 and C 3.6), including: • Entrances, vestibules and porches • Glazed loggias and balconies • Conservatories and lean-to conservatories • Functional spaces that beyond their primary use also act as heat buffers and airlocks [5] Glazed annexes

Glazed annexes are usually unheated spaces that are heated directly by solar radiation. This heat can be enough to make them suitable for use even in windy and cold outdoor weather or they can be used like a large air-heater solar collector to heat rooms further inside the building, as long as the temperatures reached make this possible. Such zones of intermediate temperatures come in a wide range of structural forms and can be positioned around windows on each storey, extend over multiple storeys or enclose a whole building. Central European climate conditions mean that such spaces, even if unheated and single glazed, can be used to extend the use of living space for up to two thirds of the year. Solar gains are influenced by exposure, the area of glazed surfaces and any shade cast by the building, adjoining buildings and /or plants. As with windows, solar protection and effective ventilation systems must usually be added to prevent overheating in summer. Further special structural and technical measures are required to make use of superfluous solar heat. A wall between a glazed area and adjoining living area can for example store heat and then release it later into the living area. Various “storage wall” concepts are based on this principle.

Storage walls

One of the first storage or solar wall concepts to passively use solar energy was developed by Félix Trombe and Jacques Michel in the 1950s (Fig. C 3.3) [6]. It worked on the principle of a combination of a south-facing area of glazing with a solid wall coated matt black behind it that functions as an absorber, and a layer of air between the wall and the glass that stores thermal energy. During the day, solar radiation heats the storage wall and in the evening and at night it releases the heat into the room behind it. To better control the release of heated air in the cavity which functions as a collector zone, adjustable ventilation flaps at the top and bottom of the storage wall are connected with the interior, so heat and thermal radiation on the inside of the storage wall is released by convection. If the absorber temperature rises above room temperature (and it can rise up to 70 °C if exposed directly to solar radiation), air will start to circulate. Thermal lift means that the rising heat can be relatively easily used to directly supply heat to an interior. Protective measures are essential to avoid overheating in summer. Temporary thermal insulation can be installed between glazing and the storage wall to reduce heat losses at night [7]. The solar gains of a storage wall depend heavily on the heat capacity of the materials involved. Water has a heat capacity that is a factor of 2– 4 by volume greater than that of solid wall materials. To make use of this effect, trials with water tanks installed or stacked in the facade were carried out for the first time in the 1970s and 1980s (Fig. C 3.7). Translucent thermal insulation

Another form of direct solar energy use is the principle of translucent thermal insulation. Polycarbonate or fine glass tubes oriented perpendicular to the plane of the facade transport rays of sun striking it through inner reflection to a dark solid wall or inside of the building. This principle was developed and tested by physicists from the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE) and first used in a new building in Europe in 1986 –1989 (Fig. C 3.12, p. 298). Independently of this development,

Solar energy

C 3.3

biologists discovered in the 1980s that the sun’s rays are transmitted through individual hairs in polar bears’ fur to their black skin, where they are absorbed as thermal radiation – another example of analogous effects at work in biology and technology [8]. Combining appropriate thermal insulation and direct solar energy production with this system can further reduce heating energy consumption. Translucent thermal insulation is permeable to radiation [9] and functions based on a principle that not only further reduces transmission heat losses, but can also increase solar gains. A distinction is made between solid-wall systems and directgain systems. Solid wall systems (opaque) Solid wall systems use a radiation-permeable material covered with exterior panes of glass positioned in front of a solid, matt black wall with a large thermal storage mass. Solar radiation passing through the light-conducting insulating material heats the wall surfaces based on the greenhouse effect principle. The wall functions as an absorber and heats up gradually. Insulating material prevents heat from escaping outwards during the night so most of the heat (up to 95 %) flows inwards, where it is released into the room in the form of long-wave radiation and convection from the wall surface. The wall’s material and thickness determine its storage effect, heat absorption capacity and the time delay of the release to the inside (about 6 – 8 hours). Such systems can effectively bridge the difference between available radiation and heating requirements (for a short time) over the course of the day [10]. Translucent thermal insulation surfaces must be protected from overheating by solar protection. Passive structural measures such as overhanging roofs, balconies, plantings or the like are usually sufficient for a translucent thermal insulation area of 5 to 15 % of floor space. Manipulators must usually be installed in large-scale systems (Fig. C 3.9, p. 298). Translucent thermal insulation systems are comparable only to a limited extent in terms of the basic materials used and different struc-

C 3.4

tures. Their main parameters are UV resistance, mechanical stability and temperature stability. Typical translucent thermal insulation materials include polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polycarbonate (PC) and glass. Cardboard honeycombs and specially-milled timber profiles have also been used in such systems more recently. Direct gain systems (translucent) Direct gain systems use special forms of glazing. Translucent thermal insulation material is laid between the inner and outer panes of glass, which provides good thermal insulation and allows for natural lighting but greatly limits views. Thermal storage surfaces in the interior use solar radiation so these systems may also require measures to protect against overheating in the summer months. As well as the plastics and glass mentioned above, silica aerogels are also used. Translucent thermal insulation currently mainly takes the form of glass fabrics laid in single and multilayer profiled glass systems.

C 3.5

Latent heat storage or phase change materials

Initial trials of latent heat storage materials (also called Phase Change Materials or PCMs) were carried out in the 1940s at an early stage of the development and construction of storage walls. PCMs (e.g. paraffin and salt hydrates) open up new heat storage options for lightweight structures lacking thermally “heavy” structural component masses. By changing phase – from solid to liquid for example – latent heat storage materials can store large amounts of heat within a relatively small range of tem

C 3.6

C 3.2 Classification of thermal energy systems C 3.3 Diagram of the Trombe wall principle C 3.4 Cloister at San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice (IT) 1566 (design), Andrea Palladio C 3.5 Glazed balcony, Barcelona (ES) around 1900 C 3.6 “The growing house”, prototype development, Berlin (DE) 1932, Martin Wagner C 3.7 House with a stack of cylindrical metal drums filled with water behind slightly reflective fold-out temporary insulation panels. New Mexico (US) 1972, Steve Baer C 3.7

297

Solar energy

Global radiation figures relative to exposure (figures for April to September)

Solar radiation

Surface inclination

Heat release and loss Opaque thermal insulation

0°

20°

40°

60°

Global radiation figures relative to exposure (figures for October to March) 90°

Orientation

Surface inclination

0°

20°

40°

60°

90°

Orientation

Heat gains

East

> 95 %

93 %

86 %

72 %

46 %

East

58 %

57 %

53 %

45 %

32 %

Southeast

> 95 %

> 95 %

93 %

81 %

50 %

Southeast

58 %

75 %

83 %

83 %

69 %

South

> 95 %

100 %

95 %

82 %

49 %

South

58 %

82 %

96 %

100 %

88 %

Southwest

> 95 %

> 95 %

93 %

81 %

50 %

Southwest

58 %

75 %

83 %

83 %

69 %

West

> 95 %

93 %

86 %

72 %

46 %

West

58 %

57 %

53 %

45 %

32 %

C 3.8 Solar radiation

Heat release and loss

Heat gains

Absorption layer Translucent thermal insulation

C 3.9

C 3.12

C 3.10

peratures. In the temperature range around the melting point, their ability to store heat is many times that of conventional perceptible (i.e. palpable) heat accumulators such as concrete or sand-lime brick. The energy absorption does not initially increase the temperature and is not perceptible, so it is described as “latent”. Only when the storage material is completely melted does the structural element’s temperature increase and it releases stored heat into the space as it cools. The melting point should be (well) below 26 °C in order to minimise the number of temperature peaks for better thermal comfort. For good heat-storing performance, it must be ensured that accumulators can release heat by means of effective ventilation at night. PCM systems still usually need external protection from the sun. In the 1970s, a concept was developed that involved filling glass bricks with Glauber’s salt (melting temperature 32 °C) [11]. Latent heat storage materials have been used to increase the thermal storage capacity of structural components in lightweight structures for some years. This involves adding mainly encapsulated PCMs (e.g. powdered paraffin in a polymer shell to prevent the material from escaping when it heats up and becomes liquid) to plasterboard, composite engineered wood materials, screed or plaster. Like translucent thermal insulation materials, PCMs are used mainly in direct gain systems. Encased in protective shells of translucent plastic materials (e.g. salt hydrates in multiskin polycarbonate sheeting), they function as effective heat accumulators while allowing for natural lighting and partial views. Integrating prism glass into insulating glazing provides effective solar protection in summer, while solar radiation can heat the storage material unimpeded in winter (C 3.18).

Indirect “active” systems The frequent integration of solar collectors and photovoltaic modules in the design and planning of energy-efficient buildings is proof of an increasing trend towards solar-activated

298

C 3.11

building envelopes. This is the result of the goal of decentralised energy supply and imminent implementation of EU Directive EPBD 2010 on the energy performance of buildings, which will apply to public buildings from 2019 and from 2021 to all planned new buildings. The Directive has already set a new standard for the construction of all new buildings as zero-energy and plus-energy buildings. The result is that as well as roofs, facades are now being completely and partly used as surfaces for generating heat and electricity. But this is not a new topic. In 1982, tube collectors and PV modules were for the first time integrated into the envelopes of buildings in a Munich housing estate as a constituent part of the architectural concept (Fig. C 3.1, p. 294). In 1991, crystalline PV cells were used for the first time in a renovation of the stairwell of the city of Aachen’s municipal utility offices in the facade’s insulating glazing. Thermal solar collectors

Thermal solar collectors are technical systems that absorb solar radiation and convert it into heat. In contrast, structural elements that convert solar radiation into electrical power are called photovoltaic systems. Thermal solar collectors are classified into different types of constructions (not covered, covered) and heat transfer medium (air, water and anti-freeze agents) and are usually used to heat water and to supplement space heating. There are also special types for producing process heat (for commercial applications) and cooling. The collector forms the core of a solar thermal system and together with classic building services components (pipes, heat exchangers, pumps, storage units) forms the complete system. Different system configurations can be chosen to fit in with various types of usage. Conventional, covered collectors are classified into flat plate collectors (air and water) and evacuated tube collectors. Collector systems The collector systems available on the market can be divided into the following subgroups:

Solar energy

Absorber

C 3.13

Solar absorbers The simplest form of collector is an exposed, uncovered absorber, mainly black tubes or plastic mats. Solar absorbers are inexpensive systems, but relatively inefficient. They are usually used to heat water for outdoor pools, where the amount of solar radiation available and heating requirements largely coincide. Unglazed, metallic surfaces have been used as solar absorbers to generate energy since the 1990s. Their advantages are inexpensive, rapid and large-scale assembly, their highly weather-resistant metals, and their potential for adapting to complex building envelope geometries (Fig. C 3.17). Flat plate collectors (air) Air can be used as a carrier medium to directly heat and dry rooms. Air collectors usually have a metal absorber covered by a transparent plate at some distance and facing the sun. The absorber directly heats outdoor air entering from below which then flows through the unit to an outlet opening into the interior. Air collectors are unlikely to face problems resulting from stagnation, frost or corrosion and structural components do not have to be as tightly sealed as they do in systems using water as a heat transfer medium. Air’s specific heating capacity is however four times lower than water’s so these systems require relatively large amounts of air, larger duct cross sections and powerful ventilators. Flat plate collectors (water) Water collectors are the most common type of collectors. Unlike solar absorbers, flat plate collector absorbers are made of metal, usually copper, and covered with transparent, hailresistant safety glass (Figs. C 3.13 and C 3.16). Selective coatings are now usually used instead of matt black paint to coat absorbers. They almost completely absorb solar radiation (up to 98 %), convert it into heat and also lose much less heat radiation (emissivity ≤ 4 %). Evacuated tube collectors Removing the air between a collector’s absorber and the cover greatly reduces convection and heat radiation losses. A collector

Mirror

C 3.14

module consists of up to 30 vacuum tubes positioned next to each other in an insulated connection box (manifold) and connected to the solar circuit. Evacuated tube collectors function based on two main principles: direct connection with a coaxial double tube in the absorber for separate flow and return of the heat medium, and an indirect, dry connection with a heat pipe with the carrier medium and solar circuit separate. In other systems, the absorber is a glass tube so these systems can have more slender cross sections and appear almost transparent (Figs. C 3.14 and C 3.15). This modular configuration has the advantage that tubes can be replaced while a system is in operation. Evacuated tube collectors also lose much less heat than flat plate collectors, which is an advantage especially if operating temperatures are high (process heat).

C 3.15

C 3.16

Applications These systems are used in various areas and for a variety of purposes. Heating water Solar collectors are especially suitable for heating water in the geographical and climatic conditions prevailing in Central Europe. Operating temperatures range from 30 up to 60 °C. Ordinary flat plate collectors work very efficiently in

C 3.8 Principle of opaque insulation C 3.9 Principle of translucent insulation C 3.10 Energy yields for collectors with various orientations and inclinations (located in Berlin) C 3.11 Energy yields for collectors with various orientations and inclinations (located in Berlin) C 3.12 Semi-detached house, Pullach (DE) 1989, Thomas Herzog, Michael Volz with Michael Streib C 3.13 Flat plate collector C 3.14 40 mm-thick evacuated tube collectors with glass absorber tubes, went into production in 2003 C 3.15 First installation of the evacuated tube collectors shown in Fig. C 3.14, Zentrum für Umweltkommunikation, Osnabrück (DE) 2002, Herzog + Partner C 3.16 Apartment building “Kraftwerk B”, Bennau (CH) 2009, Grab Architekten C 3.17 CeRN highway maintenance building, Bursins (CH) 2007, Atelier NiVo C 3.18 Eulachhof housing development, Winterthur (CH) 2007, Dietrich Schwarz Architekten

C 3.17

C 3.18

299

Solar energy

Thin-film cell types

Crystalline cell types

Monocrystalline silicon

Polycrystalline silicon

Amorphous silicon

Copper indium selenide (CIS)

Multilayered

Single-layer

Glass / PV / film

Glass / PV / film glass toughened safety glass

Opaque

Cadmium telluride (CdTe)

Glass / PV / film / insulating glazing

Glass / PV / film / toughened safety glass insulating glazing

Translucent (semi-transparent)

Transparent

Cell types

Organic photovoltaics (solar dye cells) Module structure

Permeability C 3.19

this range. The amount of energy required to heat water remains fairly constant over the year, so such systems can make optimum use of the high amounts of solar radiation available in summer. Collector systems must be comprehensively coordinated with actual heating requirements (number of people, consumption, equipment features etc.) and the extent to which the system should meet these requirements. A collector with optimum southern orientation and an area up to 8 m2 (and 300-litre storage unit) in the facade can supply hot water for a 4-person household. Such a system would largely meet normal hot water requirements during the warm half of the year and could meet an annual average of 40 to 60 % of requirements.

heating period from November to February, a south-facing surface can only produce 12 to 15 % solar energy during this period. This fact can limit the options for using solar space heating systems. To be able to release useable heat to a storage unit, the absorber’s operating temperatures must range from at least 40 up to 60 °C. Flat plate collectors with selective coatings and evacuated tube collectors are suitable for this purpose. A collector with an area of about a quarter of the heated living space can meet between 15 and 30 % of the annual heating requirements of a very well-insulated detached house. For a very well-insulated house this would entail a 10 m2 (evacuated tube collectors) to 20 m2 (flat plate collector) collector.

Space heating In Central Europe, the amount of solar radiation available over the course of a year does not match heating requirements. While around 60 % of annual space heating is needed in the

Photovoltaic systems

a

b

c

d

300

Photovoltaic (PV) systems directly convert solar radiation into electricity. The core of such systems are solar cells combined into modules. They produce direct current voltage so they

C 3.20

need a power inverter to convert it into 230 V alternating current voltage with a frequency of 50 Hz for use in ordinary household appliances. Such solar power plants are usually operated as grid-connected systems, connected to the supply grid, which stores the energy. Stand-alone power systems that store superfluous power in rechargeable batteries are rarer. Following changes to remuneration for energy fed into the grid in Germany, users’ own consumption of the solar power they generate is becoming increasingly important there. Such systems can be improved further by intelligent power consumption management and storage solutions in the house (e.g. lithium-ion batteries to span chronological disparities between the amount of solar radiation available and need for electricity) and there is additional potential for integrating electrically-powered vehicles into such systems. Depending on the amount of solar radiation available, the exposure and inclination of module surfaces also determine a photovoltaic system’s annual yields. Unlike thermal collectors, these systems can continue to produce solar power when solar radiation levels are below 200 W/m2. In Central Europe, southfacing fixed systems with an inclination of 30° relative to the horizontal plane can yield the greatest annual amount of radiation. Yields from vertical facade surfaces are generally much lower. Photovoltaic system output is usually specified in Wp or kWp, with “p” standing for “peak”. This refers to the peak output that can be released to an electricity circuit connected to the system. This figure is usually based on 1,000 W/m2 incident radiation energy and a cell temperature of 25 °C. Averaged out over the year, (summer / winter, day / night), this is about one tenth of peak output. Photovoltaic system surfaces must be kept free of shading from vegetation, masts, surrounding buildings or the building itself because even small shadows (e.g. from antennas, frame profiles etc.) can greatly reduce yields. Because all the units in a system that are connected in series are reduced

Solar energy

Global radiation figures relative to exposure Surface inclination

0°

30°

60°

90°

East

93 %

90 %

78 %

< 60 %

South-east

93 %

96 %

88 %

66 %

South

93 % 100 %

91 %

68 %

South-west

93 %

96 %

88 %

66 %

West

93 %

90 %

78 %

< 60 %

Orientation

C 3.21

to the system’s lowest output, even small areas of shade can incapacitate larger modules. Parallel connections can limit such falls in output (with the disadvantage of lower voltages and higher currents). Solar cells The basic material for most solar cells on the market is the semiconductor material silicon. Cells made of monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon wafers 200 to 300 μm thick are manufactured and further processed by means of various processes. There are also thin-film cells, usually made of amorphous silicon or other semiconductor materials such as copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or organic dyes. Solar cells can have relatively low efficiency, depending on the material of which the cells are made. The maximum achievable efficiency of conventional (silicon) cells is currently about 25 % (as of spring 2016). Put simply, commercially available solar cells can be classified as follows: • Monocrystalline silicon cells with a very pure, completely consistent crystal lattice structure, complex to manufacture, achieve efficiency in industrial production ranging from 18 up to 21 % (highly efficient, Fig. C 3.23) • Polycrystalline silicon cells, characterised by a less pure material and partially consistent crystal lattice structure, easier to manufacture and so less expensive, achieve efficiency up to 16 % (Fig. C 3.24) Thin-film technology offers great technical and design potential. These types of cells use less material because layers just a few micrometres thin (1– 6 μm) are enough to absorb light. Their manufacture can also be largely automated, which can result in enormous cost savings. Thin-film cells have a range of advantages in terms of dependence on incident energy levels and specific temperatures and they tolerate shade better. They make (somewhat) better use of diffuse, weak light and falls in output are much lower if temperatures increase. The long, narrow bands of cells also mean that individual cells are less likely to be completely overshadowed. A distinction is made between

C 3.22

• Amorphous silicon cells: Thin-film cells with wafer-thin silicon steamed into a backing material, relatively inexpensive and materialssaving manufacture, efficiency rate between 5 and 7 %, especially suitable for covering large areas • CIS and CIGS thin-film cells: Solar cells mainly made of copper, indium and selenium or copper, indium, gallium and selenide use less material, can also be extensively steamed onto almost any surface in any form. Efficiency rate up to 12 % (Fig. C 3.22) • Organic photovoltaics (OPV): Solar cells based on electrically conducive polymers, very thin, light and flexible, semi-transparent, low-energy manufacture • Dye solar cells (DSC): A variety of organic photovoltaics that use organic dyes, developed by Michael Graetzel (EPFL, 1992), efficiency rate in the laboratory up to 14 %, in production up to 5 % Another advantage of thin-film technology is relatively free formability. Unlike crystalline cells, thin-film cells are not limited to standardised wafer sizes, so modules can have varying geometric shapes and be attached to curved and flexible backing material. This type of cell is especially suitable for integration into areas of buildings with possible insufficient rear ventilation or (partial) shading. The appearance of these modules is characterised by homogeneous surfaces structured by very thin, transparent cuts resulting from the modules’ manufac

C 3.23

C 3.19 Classification of photovoltaic systems C 3.20 PV cells: a Monocrystalline silicon cells b Amorphous silicon cells, semi-transparent c Polycrystalline silicon cells d CIS thin-film cells C 3.21 Energy yields for photovoltaic surfaces with various orientations and inclinations (100 % = 1,055 kWh/m2a) C 3.22 “Solar Decathlon Europe”, Versailles 2014, team rooftop, UdK Berlin & TU Berlin C 3.23 Cité du Design, Saint-Étienne (FR) 2009, LIN Finn Geipel + Giulia Andi C 3.24 Technology and Future Centre, Herten (DE) 1995, Kramm + Strigl C 3.24

301

Solar energy

C 3.25

ture, i.e. the electrical separation and circuitry of layers. Solar cells can be specifically used as design elements if, for example, their widths are varied or more horizontal dividing lines are added. While reflective layers can expand the range of crystalline cell colours available, dark shades predominate in semiconductorbased thin-film technology. Dye solar cells are available in various shades of yellow, green and red. Photovoltaic modules Around 30 to 60 crystalline cells usually form larger, prefabricated units 0.5 to 1 m2 in size. These PV modules are multilayered, i.e. cells are either inserted between panes of glass, embedded in synthetic resin or encapsulated between ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) / polyvinyl butyral (PVB) films, set in casting resin or laid between glass and a plastic laminate. Depending on requirements, their rear sides can be opaque, translucent (matt glass / light-diffusing films) or transparent (clear glass / transparent films). Thin-film cells can also be applied on soft materials such as membranes. “Sawn”, semi-transparent monocrystalline cells are now available on the market. Thin-film cells can also be printed in a wide variety of ways. Manufacturers offer modules in various standard sizes, although custom-made systems are usually used in facades.

Integrating solar energy systems

In integrating solar collectors and photovoltaic modules, planners must first consider whether they are intended for a cold or a warm facade. Existing approaches have positioned solar energy systems before surfaces that channel water or used them instead of conventional opaque cladding materials or insulating glazing. Additional savings can be made by replacing a structural component with a solar energy system. Whether added onto or integrated flush into the plane of a facade, what is essential for a harmonious design solution are the modules’ dimensions, the proportions of the whole element and its internal form, especially its positioning in the plane. Photovoltaic modules are also used in (balcony) parapets and as fixed or moveable solar protection systems. Uniaxial and biaxial tracking systems are one alternative to fixed units. Depending on their orientation and installation situation, their axis of rotation can be horizontal or vertical. Biaxial tracking photovoltaic modules can theoretically use about twice as much solar radiation per year as optimally-oriented fixed systems. The energy yields of biaxial tracking systems are only slightly higher than those of uniaxial systems because of the energy the system uses, so biaxial systems’ more complex mechanism and additional demands due to integration must be considered when planning them. The

C 3.26

302

cost-benefit ratios of tracking systems must be carefully reviewed because less than 50 % of the radiation available on an annual average is direct radiation. The construction sector is of great relevance for the success of Germany’s transition to renewable energy use. Fewer new buildings are being built so the focus is on existing buildings. Although the potential uses of facades are often limited for various reasons and the energy yields may be less than those from optimally oriented south-facing roofs, collectors and PV modules can be integrated into almost every facade, although they are particularly effective used as rear-ventilated cladding material or as fixed components in a glass facade system. Considering the construction aspects of integrating solar power systems, it becomes clear that manufacturers are constantly refining and improving installation conditions – especially fastenings and seals at the sides. New types of frame sections make assembly easier and shorten construction times as well as reducing section heights and visible widths. There are now many ways to flexibly integrate solar energy systems into building envelopes and increasing numbers of complete solutions that better combine solarthermal and photovoltaic systems within a type of construction technique with each other and with other elements in the envelope. A wide range of tried and tested systems for common types of facades is available on the market [12]. Collectors and PV modules must be integrated into the building’s technical services and, depending on the type of use, cable routing and additional technical apparatus may also be required. The relatively slender structures and flexible, thin electricity cables of photovoltaic systems make them especially suitable for integration into facades. Water collectors, in contrast, have pipes with a much larger diameter that must not leak and the system must usually be filled with antifreeze agent.

Solar energy

C 3.27

In terms of formal aesthetic criteria, there is a wide range of design options for integrating solar power systems into building envelopes. The range of colours of absorber surfaces and formal diversity of profiles influence the look of systems, as do elements connecting sides and facade surfaces. Architects will often hear that the wide range of colours available is a special bonus of photovoltaic systems (Fig. C 3.27). Adding colours and forms to a building envelope is an especially sensitive design task that impacts a building’s appearance and requires careful and thorough consideration. In the context of colour, there is currently often a demand for very consistent surface designs that use crystalline PV modules. Colouring conductors (bus bars) and rear-side contacts can make cells fit in and look like homogeneous surfaces so that films or glass coatings of the same colour connected with modules are almost no longer identifiable as such (Figs. C 3.25 and C 3.26). Architecturally integrating solar power systems into a building envelope is a momentous undertaking. It involves incorporating systems into roofs and walls in a structurally and functionally cogent manner and in an aesthetically consistent form that takes the building’s specific characteristics into account and combines them to form a single architectural entity comprising the building’s features and (compositional) lines of solar energy systems. The quality of this integration is influenced by the construction, material, colour, surface, size, proportion and arrangement of components and the structural system as a whole must always be borne in mind [13].

Notes: [1] PV modules and tube collectors were used for the first time in 1982 in a Munich housing estate designed by Thomas Herzog and Bernhard Schilling, working with the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems in Freiburg. [2] Krippner, Roland: Die Gebäudehülle als Wärmeerzeuger und Stromgenerator. In: Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen. Konzepte, Schichten, Material. 2nd ed., Munich 2006, p. 48 [3] Henning, Hans-Martin; Palzer, Andreas: 100 % Erneuerbare Energien für Strom und Wärme in Deutschland. Im Rahmen von Eigenforschung erstellte Studie. Freiburg 2012, p. 4f. [4] Koblin, Wolfram et al.: Handbuch Passive Nutzung der Sonnenenergie. Schriftenreihe des BMI für Raumordnung, Bauwesen und Städtebau 04, Bau- und Wohnforschung. Bonn 1984, p. 93 – 99 [5] Herzog, Thomas et al.: Gebäudehüllen aus Glas und Holz. Maßnahmen zur energiebewussten Erweiterung von Wohnhäusern. Lausanne 1986, p. 8, 15 [6] As for Note 4, p. 118, 135ff. [7] Goetzberger, Adolf; Wittwer, Volker: Sonnenenergie. Thermische Nutzung. Stuttgart 1993, p. 146f. [8] Nachtigall, Werner; Pohl, Göran: Bau-Bionik. Natur – Analogien – Technik. 2nd edition, Berlin / Heidelberg 2013, p. 41– 46 [9] Also sometimes referred to as “transparent” thermal insulation. The adjective “transparent” is confusing here because these materials are permeable to radiation but not necessarily transparent. A clear distinction must be made for construction purposes between “diaphanous / translucent” and “clear / transparent”, so it is referred to as “translucent” thermal insulation. [10] Herzog, Thomas: Transluzente Bauteile. Anmerkungen zu ihrer Wirkung. In: Almanach 90/92. FB Architektur der TH Darmstadt. Darmstadt 1992, p. 94ff. [11] Krippner, Roland: Architektonische Aspekte solarer Energietechnik. In: 9th Symposium on Thermal Solar Energy. Conference transcript. Regensburg 1999, p. 237 [12] Krippner, Roland (ed.): Gebäudeintegrierte Solartechnik. Detail green books. Munich 2016 [13] Krippner, Roland: Solartechnik in Gebäudehüllen. In: Detail Green, 01/2012, p. 53 – 57

C 3.25 Aktiv-Stadthaus apartment building in Frankfurt (DE) 2015, HHS Planer und Architekten C 3.26 Children’s daycare centre, Marburg / Lahn (DE) 2014, opus Architekten C 3.27 Paul-Horn-Arena, Tübingen (DE) 2004, Allman Sattler Wappner

303

Solar energy

House and studio Gleißenberg, DE 2001 Architect: Florian Nagler, Munich º

Archicrée 309, 2003 Architekturjahrbuch Bayern. Published by the Bayerische Architektenkammer, Munich 2002 db 01/2003

1

2 3 4 cc 5

• “Solar wall” (multi-skin sheeting / simple timber panel construction method) • Set-back basement positioned across the slope supports the rest of the two-storey building • Transparent weather skin made of an inexpensive, weatherproof plastic material • Gable ends translucent, eaves sides form a temperature buffer and protect the timber wall behind from the weather • Red cedar shingle roof covering

1

6 2 13 3

3 14

4

4 5

7 2

6 7 15 8 9

8 9

15

10 16

a

a

11

10 12 d c

d 13 14

b 11

c

15 16

b aa

Floor plan Scale 1:400 Vertical ventilation opening Scale 1:20 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

bb

17

18 19 20

12 20

11

4

Weather and insect screen, screwed down, perforated lower edge for draining off condensation Galvanised steel drainpipe, Ø 40/2 mm Timber batten, 60/80 mm, screwed and with a lap joint Flat suction tie, screwed down Aluminium sheeting, folded to fit, joint covered with aluminium film Verge board, 60/240 mm OSB panel for clamping polycarbonate sheets at the building corners OSB panel, 18 mm Polycarbonate triple-skin panel Ventilated cavity, 220 mm Polycarbonate panel Timber window frame with insulating glazing Chamfered aluminium sheeting for clamping polycarbonate sheeting and allowing it to expand longitudinally Wooden plank 60/240 mm with ventilation inlets Insect screen Titanium/zinc sheeting box gutter on dividing layer Timber battens, 30/50 mm Timber door with insulating glazing Polycarbonate triple-skin panel Ventilated cavity, 220 mm OSB panel, 22 mm Thermal insulation, 120 mm OSB panel, 22 mm Galvanised steel bracket Squared timber facade posts 60/100 mm Partition wall connection

9

18 19

11

10

17

dd

304

Solar energy

Pharma Service Center Binzen, DE 2003 Architects: Pfeifer Roser Kuhn, Freiburg Project manager: Wolfgang Stocker Structural engineer – facade: Silke Gauthier, Radebeul º

8

DBZ 01/2003 Der Architekt 11/2002

• Production, logistics and office building • Regulation of abundant waste heat from the production process through high thermal storage masses in exterior walls and floor slabs and division of the building into various zones • Wall functions as air collector • Controlled cavity ventilation uses a natural thermal effect to help cool the concrete wall in summer; air heated by solar energy reduces heat losses in winter

10

11

bb

1 2 3

4

5

a

6

a

7

8

9 10

Cross section Scale 1:2,000 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

1 2 b

b

3 4 5

11

3 12 13 14 6 15 aa

16

7 8

Aluminium flashing, 15 mm Load-bearing steel angle, 100/65/7 mm Aluminium channel, 50/80/3 mm Ventilation device with grating to protect it from the weather Patterned glass Ventilation cavity, 135 mm Double-skin, edge-glued timber wall, filled with mineral wool, breathable underlay 80 + 40 + 80 mm Separating layer Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm Vapour barrier Rigid PUR foam, 60 mm Plastic sealing sheeting Galvanised steel angle, 60/60/8 mm Aluminium tube, 32/25 mm Larch wood window frame with

9

10 11

12 13 14 15 16

insulating glazing Larch 13 mm Sound insulation, 50 mm Continuous steel bracket Plywood, 13 mm Aluminium flashing Patterned glass Ventilation cavity, 150 mm Double-skin, edge-glued timber wall, filled with mineral wool with breathable underlay, 80 + 40 + 100 mm Interior vertical acoustic profiling Fly screen Aluminium tube, 60/34/3 mm Load-bearing steel angle, 100/100/10 mm Perimeter insulation, 80 mm Sealing

305

Solar energy

House Herisau, CH 1998 Architect: Peter Dransfeld, Ermatingen º

Detail 03/1999

a a

Floor plan ground floor Scale 1:200 Cross section through south-facing facade • Horizontal cross section through south-east corner Scale 1:20

• Energy concept based around a compact, highly insulated building with transparent thermal insulation in front of a south-facing masonry wall. • Central, wood-burning, night-storage stove to meet heating requirements • Evacuated tube collectors independent of the building • Protection against overheating provided by shading louvres in the upper section of the transparent thermal insulation and integrated plastic prisms in the lower section

1

1

2 3 4

2

5

3

6

4

7

5

6 8 9 10

7

b

b

Three-ply spruce panel, horizontal grooves to absorb stresses Timber window frame with aluminium facing Triple insulating glazing Solid wood sunshading louvres to shade the upper section of the transparent thermal insulation Transparent thermal insulation element in aluminium frame: Low-iron solar protection glass, 5 mm Cavity, 12 mm Plastic tube insulation 140 mm Glass panel, 5 mm Cavity Reinforced concrete, 250 mm, painted black on the outside Interior render 15 mm Extruded aluminium section, powder-coated with a thermal break Transparent thermal insulation element in aluminium frame: Low-iron solar protection glass, 5 mm Plastic prism panel in the cavity to reflect sun in summer Plastic tube insulation, 100 mm Glass panel, 5 mm Cavity Sand-lime masonry, 250 mm, painted black on the outside Interior render 15 mm Transparent thermal insulation element (as for 5) but without shading Fibre-cement panels Vertical weatherboard, rough-sawn spruce with a triple-coat, high-build red stain finish Ventilation cavity Thermal insulation, 140 mm

8

10

9

aa

306

8

Solar energy

Factory Eimbeckhausen, DE 1992 Architects: Herzog + Partner, Munich with Bernd Steigerwald and Holger Gestering º

Arch+ 126, 1995 Architectural Review 01/1994 Flagge, Ingeborg et al. (ed.): Thomas Herzog. Architektur + Technologie. Munich / London / New York 2001

• Design of factory building based on ecological aspects; functionally differentiated building concept, timber load-bearing frame and facades • Production halls naturally lit and ventilated; transparent thermal insulation panels also direct incoming daylight • PV canopy with frameless, semi-transparent ASI modules (4 kWp) to supply the electric fork lifts with electricity • Roofs extensively planted to prevent overheating in summer, reduce noise emissions and slow down rain run-off

a a

1

2 3 7 4

5 bb

b

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500 Vertical cross section Scale 1:50 Details Scale 1:5

6 8

1 1

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Panel with translucent thermal insulation Float glass 5 mm Glass fibre fleece Capillary fill, 24 mm Glass fibre fleece Float glass 5 mm Glulam posts, 60/100 mm 2 x steel channels, 160 mm 2 x steel T-sections, 50 mm Facade posts to absorb wind loads, welded to flat steel sections Flat steel section, 50/40/10 mm Glulam rail, 60/100 mm Extruded aluminium section, vertical Extruded aluminium section, horizontal

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Office building Zurich, CH 2007 Architects: Beat Kämpfen, Büro für Architektur, Zurich Energy consultants: naef energietechnik, Zurich º

Detail Green 01/2009 Holzbulletin 90, 2009

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• First zero-energy office building in Switzerland • Three-storey timber-frame building with custom-made wood composite boards • Around 50 % PCMs (salt hydrate) were installed in the south-facing facade cavity to store solar heat; the roof overhang, fulllength balconies and textile blinds prevent the building from overheating • The monopitch roof with a 12° slope is completely covered with small photovoltaic panels which form an anthracite “scaled” roof skin

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Thin-film cell photovoltaic panels Horizontal timber cladding, 100/25 mm Vertical awning PCM panel to act as storage mass Larch sill Wood composite board, 20 mm, on battens 30/30 mm Vapour-permeable wind paper Breathable MDF board, 15 mm Thermal insulation, 80 mm, between battens

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Housing development Batschuns, AT 1997 Architect: Walter Unterrainer, Feldkirch º

db 10/2000; 05/2007 Detail 03/1999

Cross section Scale 1:250 Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

• Active solar technology integrated into the building envelope • Complex comprising four two-storey and two three-storey, low-energy residential units • Compact building structure; high insulating standard and airtightness make an additional heating system unnecessary • Heating requirements met by controlled ventilation and a heat pump • Water collectors in the facade and on the flat roof with a 750-litre solar boiler provide hot water for each unit

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South-facing facade: Insulating glazing Hot water collector / absorber Mineral wool insulation, 120 mm Brick masonry 90 mm Flax insulation 30 mm Three-ply plywood 19 mm Aluminium clamping strip Chamfered aluminium sheeting Foam insulating panel, 20 mm Three-ply plywood 2≈ 19 mm Thermal insulation 40 + 30 mm Larch frame window with aluminium facing Timber batten 4/14 mm Triple thermal insulating glazing with a thermal bond Foundation: Fibre cement panels on a frame Perimeter insulation 60 mm Reinforced concrete 250 mm 240 mm reinforced concrete ceiling with ventilation pipes, Ø 80 mm Vertical larch boarding, 24 mm Battens 30/50 mm Foam insulation 60 mm Three-ply plywood 18 mm Foam insulation 2≈ 60 mm Porous brick masonry 180 mm Interior render 8 mm Aluminium louvre blind

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Technical college Bitterfeld, DE 2000 Architects: scholl, Stuttgart Building services technology: ARGE HLSE, Leipzig / Bitterfeld Facade consultants: PBI, Wiesbaden º

AIT 05/2001 Bauwelt 26/2001 Beton Prisma 81, 2002 Intelligente Architektur 30, 2001 L’ARCA 178, 2003

• New building (three wings) complements the existing arts centre (1953) and swimming pool • Low-energy building • Opaque surfaces in exposed concrete • 70-metre-long multistorey collector wall on the south side integrated in exposed concrete • Ecologically safe materials used, rainwater seepage system on site

Cross section Scale 1:500 Floor plan, ground floor Scale approx. 1:3,000 Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 Vertical and horizontal cross sections Scale 1:5

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Precast exposed concrete facing shell, 170 mm Mineral fibre thermal insulation 80 mm Reinforced concrete 350 mm exposed concrete surfaces inside Solar glass collector toughened safety glass 4 mm Water collectors – copper absorber with a selective coating Pine plywood backing panel Vertical squared timber frame in rear ventilation level 80 mm, Horizontal squared timber frame between 120 mm thermal insulation Reinforced concrete 350 mm, exposed concrete surfaces inside Horizontal glazing cap, anodised aluminium (conical glazing caps to better drain rainwater would be preferred nowadays) Fresh air inlet: aluminium grating on steel brackets Drainage gap Chamfered aluminium sheeting Grooved splice plate Sheet metal side cladding Insect screen Water run-off membrane Butt joint on collector element Permanently elastic seal

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Business start-up centre Hamm, DE 1998 Architects: Hegger Hegger Schleiff, Kassel General contractor: Hering Bau, Burbach Technical building services: Gerhard Hausladen, Munich Rempe + Polzer, Gießen º

DBZ 10/1998 Hausladen, Gerhard (ed.): Innovative Gebäude-, Technik- und Energiekonzepte. Munich 2001

• Business start-up centre on site of a former coal mine • Complex consists of a four-storey office building and single-storey, multi-bayed halls. • Office building as solid construction with bonded glulam floor slabs • Halls heated via an underground channel (geothermal heating and cooling) or via fourstorey collector facade (120 m2)

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Parapet coping with zinc sheeting cover Steel frame, hollow square steel sections, 100/80/4 mm, to support collectors / ventilation grille Rear ventilation 110 mm Airtight membrane Thermal insulation 80 mm Sand-lime brick masonry 240 mm Interior plaster render 15 mm only at parapet: Sealing

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Thermal insulation, 80 mm Exterior plaster render 20 mm Steel section IPE 120 with end plate, EPDM underlay serves as thermal break and compensates for tolerances Recycled brick, 217/100/66 mm Rear ventilation 50 mm Airtight membrane Thermal insulation 90 mm Sand-lime brick masonry 240 mm Interior plaster render 15 mm

Solar energy

Library Mataró, ES 1995 Architect: Miquel Brullet i Tenas, Barcelona º

Detail 03/1999 Werk, Bauen + Wohnen 09/1998 Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Solar Energy in Architecture and Urban Planning. Munich / London / New York 1996

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• Multilayered, south-facing glass facade • Polycrystalline solar cells in dual glass modules (thermally toughened 2-m2 glass panels glued to frames) on exterior, insulating glazing on interior • 15 cm cavity effectively ventilates photovoltaic modules in summer and preheats incoming air in winter • Semi-transparent solar cells installed at a distance from the facade generate electricity, provide protection from direct sunlight and allow daylight into the building • When it was completed it was one of the largest photovoltaic systems to be installed in a building in Europe

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Ventilation opening with filter Planar facade element: insulated metal panel 40 mm Ventilation cavity 60 mm insulated metal panel 40 mm Exhaust air flap Photovoltaic module, south facade 6,495 ≈ 1,050 mm: Laminated safety glass with integrated solar cells adhered to framework Cavity 150 mm Insulating glazing Horizontal facade support beam

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Training academy Herne, DE 1999 2

Architects: Jourda et Perraudin, Paris Hegger Schleiff, Kassel Structural engineers: Ove Arup and Partner, Düsseldorf Schlaich Bergermann and Partner, Stuttgart º

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Architectural Record 12/1999 Architectural Review 10/1999 Detail 03/1999 Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte Photovoltaik. Cologne, 2002

• Glazed building acts as a microclimatic envelope for the passive use of solar energy • Around half of the roof and the facade surface are covered with photovoltaic glass modules with a total output of up to 1 MWp • 30 % of the facade glazing has been replaced with monocrystalline photovoltaic cells • Shading provided for interior building elements • Various types of photovoltaic modules and a modular power inverter concept ensure efficient energy conversion

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Laminated safety glass roof glazing heat-treated, extra-clear glass 6 mm Photovoltaic cells in casting resin 2 mm Heat-treated laminated glass 8 mm Power inverter Galvanised steel gutter Rainwater quick draining system Facade structural sealant single glazing on glulam facade posts 160/60 mm; photovoltaic modules replace glass panels in some areas Glulam edge beam 300/400 mm Opening sash Timber roof girder Timber frame for absorbing wind loads Glulam facade rail

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Stadtwerke Energiewürfel (Municipal utility company “energy cube”) Constance, DE 2011 Architect: Arnold Wild Stadtwerke Konstanz Facade design: Gerhard Weber and Partner IFP – Integrale Fassadenplanung º

Glaswelt 04/2013 1

• Customer service centre for Stadtwerke Konstanz (municipal utility company) • Cube-shaped, plus-energy building with an edge length of 15 metres • Double facade, exterior triple glazing, 3 ≈ 4-metre grids, the surface is 60 % transparent and 40 % opaque • South facade with semi-transparent crystalline PV modules, 22 % transparent, element weight 1 t; the first photovoltaic module installation on this scale 1

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South facade: Photovoltaic modules in triple glazing set in post-and-rail elements Facade cavity as thermal buffer 200 mm Solar and glare protection provided by flat, reflective aluminium louvres 60 mm 2≈ single glazing, slides on rollers, Low-E-coating Ventilation plate for mechanical extraction of air from facade cavity LED facade lighting Insulated facade structure: PV modules with crystalline, semi-transparent cells Cavity 48 mm Stone wool thermal insulation 2≈ 100 mm Aluminium sheeting 3 mm Mineral wool thermal insulation 40 mm, fleece Timber acoustic panels 16 mm

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Office building at Central Station Freiburg, DE 2001 Architects: Harter + Kanzler, Freiburg

• South-west facade almost 60 metres high and virtually shade-free • Frameless toughened safety glass / film standard modules (190 ≈ 70 cm) with monocrystalline solar cells • Film colour matches the cell colour, creating a homogeneous look • Modules clamped to an underlying frame at six points • 20 cm cavity ensures good ventilation, which is further enhanced by the stack effect

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Special bracket 260/300 mm Precast concrete panel 100/600 mm Black aluminium section 25/50 mm Frameless solar panel 9 mm Ventilated cavity 186 mm Black fleece-laminated thermal insulation 100 mm Reinforced concrete 300 mm Interior render, 15 mm Support structure: Bracket 220/200 mm Aluminium tube 110/40 mm, with clamping profiles Sealing

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Children’s day-care centre Marburg / Lahn, DE 2014 Architects: opus Architekten, Darmstadt Energy consultants: ee concept, Darmstadt º

AIT 05/2015 Bauwelt 09/2016 db 09/2015 DBZ 09/2015 Detail Green 02/2015

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• Day-care centre for children set in a park landscape surrounded by historical buildings • Plus-energy building standard • Saw-tooth roof and pleated west facade optimise use of solar energy and daylight • 354 custom-made monocrystalline dual-glass photovoltaic modules in the roof and facade • Homogeneous, monochrome appearance due to black coating on conductor strips and opaque film on back of photovoltaic modules

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Black monocrystalline PV modules (laminated safety glass) Bitumen sealing, battens 80/80 mm Bitumen sealing Cladding 21 mm Rafters / cellulose thermal insulation 360 mm Vapour barrier, OSB panel 18 mm Suspended ceiling: Battens 28/60 mm Acoustic felt, fleece overlay Pine battens 35/20 mm Black monocrystalline PV modules (laminated safety glass) Aluminium vertical + horizontal frame PE foil sealing OSB panel 15 mm Timber studs / mineral fibre insulation 320 mm Vapour barrier, OSB panel 15 mm Battens 28/60 mm Acoustic felt, fleece overlay Pine battens 35/20 mm

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Oskar von Miller Forum Munich, DE 2009 Architects: Herzog + Partner, Munich Facade designed in cooperation with FKN Fassaden, Neuenstein º

Baumeister 06/2010 UED 06/2016 World architecture 245, 2010 Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Oskar von Miller Forum. Munich 2010 aa

• International meeting centre for the support of trainee construction engineers with a multifunctional hall, library and bistro on the ground floor, offices and apartments on the upper storeys • 400 m2 of vacuum tube collectors provide stationary shade for the top floor and supply 20 % of the heating energy required in the building and 16 % of cooling energy requirements • Slender photovoltaic louvres in front of glazed entry area on the south-east facade provide additional solar protection • Silver-grey glossy polycrystalline cells fixed along longitudinal sides

Cross section Scale 1:750 Vertical cross section Scale 1:5

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Dual-glass photovoltaic module 12 mm Aluminium U-profile frame 40 ≈ 3 mm Frame attachment, flat aluminium section 60 ≈ 5 mm, cable routing in OL 90 cover Square hollow aluminium spacer 20 ≈ 2 mm System attachment to posts, triple-screwed Double insulating glazing 39 mm Cavity for cable routing 80 ≈ 18 mm Post attachments, fixed bearing Post attachments, loose bearing Floor structure: Natural stone in an adhesive mortar bed 30 mm Screed 90 mm Reinforced concrete ceiling 150 mm

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SwissTech Convention Center Lausanne, CH 2012 Architects: Richter Dahl Rocha & Associés, Lausanne º

DBZ 04/2015 Fassade, Facade 03/2014 Haustech 06/2014 Tec 21 49 – 50, 2013

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• Main building for an extension to the École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) campus • A convention centre designed to accommodate 3,000 people, central foyer with a glass facade covers the full height of the building • Angled, full-storey, dual-glass modules in narrow strips cover 300 m2 of the west facade; angles range from 7.5° to 45° in increments of 7.5° • Dye-sensitised solar cell modules in various shades of yellow, green and red • First use of Grätzel cells on this scale

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Steel facade support Double glazing 14 mm + space between the panes 17 mm + 8 mm, fixed along sides in glazing bars Anodised aluminium cover Hollow square steel section 50/50/5 mm Dual glass solar panels in anodised aluminium frames Four modules (2,100 ≈ 410 mm) in each panel at 350 ≈ 500 mm, each with a 13 ≈ 2 cm-wide strip of Grätzel cells A

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Centre for Photovoltaics and Renewable Energy Berlin, DE 2013 A

Architects: HENN, Berlin

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• New building with 8,000 m² of production, laboratory and office space that can be combined and rented in various configurations • Ground floor with a central foyer, adjoining workshops, divisible production halls, a canteen and physics and chemical laboratories, offices and meeting rooms on the upper floors • Horizontal dual-glass photovoltaic louvres with monocrystalline solar cells shade the building-height foyer facade

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Precast concrete facade cladding panel Stainless steel pressure screw, 200 mm, M16 Facade panel anchor Hollow square steel section, 150/150/6.3 mm, with head and foot plates Steel H-beam, HEA 140, connected to the main beam with head plates Steel beam, HEA 260, rigidly connected to facade supports Sharp-edged flat steel hollow section support, 300/30 + 100/15 mm Steel H-beam HEA 240 Steel sheeting sandwich panel 40 mm Thermal insulation 2≈ 140 mm Double glazing 8 mm + 6 mm, aluminium frame, motorised ventilation flap Aluminium post-and-rail facade with tubular steel insert Double glazing 12 mm + 8 mm Photovoltaic module (heat-treated, laminated glass 4 mm + EVA film 2 mm + heat-treated, laminated glass 6 mm), format 710 ≈ 1,870 mm, rigidly mounted on a hollow steel section Sharp-edged flat steel hollow section support, 300/30 + 60/15 mm

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Technical equipment building for a solar residential development

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Emmerthal, DE 2000

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db 10/2000 Fassade / Facade 04/2001 Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte Photovoltaik. Cologne 2002

• Energy supplied by combination of heat pump and photovoltaic system • Photovoltaic modules with film-backed single panes with various photovoltaic cells, uniaxial tracking along the front of the tower’s facade, the solar vanes can rotate 180° and have biaxial tracking • Analyses indicate solar energy yields up to 38 % greater than for a facade-integrated system • The energy tower was a registered Expo 2000 project

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Fixed aluminium louvres, 100 mm protect against UV and weather Underlay Veneered plywood panel, 27 mm, colourless impregnation Black stained squared timber 50/80 mm Thermal insulation 50 mm Hot-dip galvanised steel sections, HEB 220 Hot-dip galvanised installation grid 30/30 mm with steel section edge angle 150/100/10 mm Coated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm Hot-dip galvanised steel beam, HEB 220 HEB 220 steel section as the main support bracket for the PV system, angled and tapered towards vane bearings Hot-dip galvanised flat steel 2≈ 150/15 mm, as vertical support bracket, connected to the main support bracket with hot-dip galvanised flat steel 100/10 mm PV module, 1730/480 mm, heat-treated glass, supported at six points, PVB laminate film PV substructure: two-point steel / EPDM clamp bracket, 6 mm steel ribs, torque tube Ø 42.4/2.6 mm, hydraulic variable altitude angle tracking via pressure rod and blade Flat steel bracket, 50/10 mm, with plastic bearing for variable altitude angle tracking Hot-dip galvanised grating 30/30/3 mm Steel frame 40/40/5 mm Tubular steel spacers Ø 20/4 mm Steel section frame 140 mm Solar vane structure: Flat steel diagonal bracket 50/10 mm, with plastic bearing for variable altitude angle tracking Steel section 100/60 mm Diagonal tubular steel strut Ø 60,3 mm Connected to torque tube Ø 168.3 mm with steel sections, 2≈ 100/50/6 mm, screwed through

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C 4 Integrated facades

As well as being surfaces on and in which solar collectors and photovoltaic modules can be installed, facades are increasingly becoming a space for accommodating (supplementary) building services technologies. Good interior air quality and natural ventilation have a positive effect on users’ well-being and can stimulate productivity and minimise absenteeism due to illness, so decentralised ventilation systems (with heat recovery to preheat outside air) have been more frequently installed in the interface between the outdoor climate and the interior since the end of the 1990s [1]. Facades can incorporate integrated decentralised building technology and be single or multilayered. Buildings’ technical systems are deeply anchored in the European construction tradition as functionally important elements and integrated into exterior walls using a range of different methods, e.g. as fireplaces for heating. In Wells in southern England, in an early European example of terraced housing (circa 1363), very high smoke-extracting chimneys in the exterior stone walls are a distinctive feature of the streetscape (Fig. C 4.2, p. 324). Installing radiators or convectors in interiors under windows or decentralised air conditioners on the outsides of buildings in hot climates is now commonplace. The example of the semiconductor assembly plant in Wasserburg am Inn shows how the bearing brackets of such technical devices can be elegantly integrated into modular facades in modern postwar architecture (see p. 172).

C 4.1 i-modul facade, Capricornhaus, Düsseldorf (DE) 2008, Gatermann + Schossig

To make interiors largely open spaces, which is essential for factory and exhibition halls, for example, large ventilation ducts are arranged in the facade. Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers made ventilation ducts an expressive technical motif and, in large dimensions, an essential means of architectural expression in their Centre Pompidou in Paris (1977) (Fig. C 4.3). Similarly, the air-conditioning devices at the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts by Norman Foster & Associates (1978) are installed in the building’ periphery, where they are partly visible from the outside through glazing but permanently and effectively protected from the weather (see p. 176). The use of such elements, drawn mainly from the field of mechanical engineering as a major structural subsystem and as almost a matter of course on the front facades of buildings, was a paradigm shift at the end of the 20th century [2], but the application of highly technical building equipment with its high energy consumption (and dependency) now needs to be reviewed. Such (large-scale) technical installations may still be advisable if they are able to conserve resources, by using renewable energy, for example. It can be expedient to separate them from the building’s framework and protective building envelope for reasons

of easy access, maintenance and renovation. If cavities integrated into ceilings and floors are dispensed with in favour of thermally activated masses of load-bearing structural components and interior walls are to be moveable in the long term, especially in office buildings, they must be largely free of pipes and cables. This means that exterior walls must make suitable provision for distributing and accessing electrical cabling, be able to supply a building with air conditioning and heat, and ensure the exchange of air. Smaller, decentralised counter-current system units have been developed more recently to ventilate facades while reducing ventilation heat losses and ensuring efficient heat recovery during the heating period.

Facade-integrated decentralised ventilation systems Unlike “passive” ventilation concepts such as windows, which make use of differences in pressure between the interior and exterior and wind speed and temperature differences, facade-integrated decentralised building ventilation systems use additional components for ventilation, heating and cooling. Outside air is fed in directly through special openings in a facade or exterior wall that are connected to technical modules. The key component of these devices is a fan unit that filters air. They can also be combined with heating and cooling coils, heat exchangers or storage units. Devices are delivered ready for installation, so only an installation location, air intake and outlet openings and any supply lines required for heating and cooling must be provided on site. All structural elements connected with outside air have thermal and acoustic insulation and low-noise ventilators to prevent sound passing through them. Their modular structure and compact form makes decentralised ventilation systems especially suitable when renovating buildings to improve their energy use. Ordinary ventilation systems centrally regulate outsideair intake, treatment, preconditioning and the discharge of exhaust air, but decentralised systems make use of two different hybrid and stand-alone concepts: • hybrid: air conditioning can be supported by central system technology such as heating elements and activated ceilings, outside air flows in through the facade, while exhaust air is centrally extracted inside the building. • stand-alone: outside-air intake, exhaust air extraction and air conditioning (e.g. heating and cooling) take place via the facade. Operating principle Outside air flows in through facade openings and a technical module filters out pollutants, pollen and particulate matter. If the system uses heat recovery through a heat exchanger, thermal energy is transferred from exhaust air to incoming air before the fresh air enters

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the room. Constant-volume ventilators or volume flow limiters prevent draughts. In controlling the intake of fresh air, air quality sensors react to CO2 concentrations and pollutants. After passing through a heat exchanger, exhaust air is extracted through facade openings. The openings are equipped with flaps to prevent an uncontrolled system shutdown due to changing weather or wind pressure conditions [3].

C 4.2

Advantages and disadvantages of decentralised ventilation technology [4] Advantages: • Lower storey heights, no ventilation ducts are required, so suspended ceilings are not necessary • Small plant rooms • Low energy costs • Flexible use of space • Systems only operate when individual users are in the room • Users can individually influence the interior climate Disadvantages: • The various devices involved require more maintenance • Maintenance must be carried out inside the room (which may be rented) • Depending on weather conditions, it may be difficult to dry or humidify interior air • Negative influence of wind pressure and fluctuating temperatures on the facade’s exterior The available systems vary in terms of their structure, dimensions and installation site, depending on the type of building. Some are installed in solid exterior walls (often in residential buildings), others in post-and-rail and modular facades (mainly offices / school buildings). Residential buildings

Installing compact ventilation units in very well-insulated exterior walls in tightly-sealed residential buildings allows users to control the exchange of air in each room individually and could also save energy, improve the C 4.3

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interior climate, precisely regulate moisture and prevent mould growth. Buildings equipped with heat recovery units can reuse up to 90 % of the heat in rooms and units can be combined with a central exhaust air system. Decentralised units provide a constant supply of fresh air in noisy locations where windows stay closed and increase protection from burglary. The filtering of outside air reduces incidences of allergic reactions to particulate matter and pollen (Fig. C 4.4). The installation situation is the key feature in choosing ventilation systems for residential buildings. Systems can be installed in • Exterior wall surfaces • Opening edges: reveals / lintels /parapets • Window frames Exterior wall surfaces Decentralised ventilation systems for opaque exterior walls are set into a recessed housing in a gap between masonry blocks (new buildings) or in a cylindrical outside-air intake opening (> 160 mm for walls less than 30 cm thick) core drilled into an existing wall (Fig. C 4.8, p. 327). Ventilation concepts with central air intake can also be installed during renovations, with risers and horizontal air inlet ducts set into the insulation layer (Fig. C 4.9, p. 327). A duct system distributes air across the facade surface and releases it indirectly into rooms through openings in the wall or opening edge [5]. Opening edges: reveals/lintels/parapets Various manufacturers make decentralised ventilation systems for installation in and around opening edges. Installing such a system in a reveal, lintel or parapet affects direct operability and the accessibility of units for maintenance, e.g. filter replacement. Any reduction in aperture (permeable) surfaces due to the installation of system components must be considered when renovating existing buildings (15 –20 cm on each side, depending on the system). Window frames Even more compact are units with a ventilation system with heat exchanger, filter and controls

Integrated facades

C 4.4

directly integrated into a window frame (e.g. made of composite fibre materials). Separate ventilation grilles for two ducts for preheated outside air and exhaust air are installed in the sides of frames or for exhaust air in the tops of frames, making additional structures and adjustments in and around the opening unnecessary. Special forms are systems that combine a prefabricated window element with a slender technical module (with heat exchanger, ventilators and filter) at the bottom of the frame to form a complete system for use in renovations of existing multistorey residential buildings [6]. Office and school buildings

Flexible, space-saving technology is increasingly used in the planning of office and school buildings. Here the goal is to avoid cable routing in ceilings, which usually requires a suspended ceiling, so the thermal storage mass of a solid ceiling cannot be used to modify the interior climate. Facade-integrated decentralised ventilation systems are therefore becoming increasingly important in these types of buildings. For multistorey office buildings in particular, facade technology has developed positively to provide options allowing for extensive use of natural ventilation since the mid 1990s. As well as standard single-layer facades (Fig. C 4.14), multilayered facades are increasingly being installed on tall buildings (see also “Multilayer glass facades”, p. 238ff., “Trade fair administration building Hanover”, p. 96, and Fig. C 4.12). Completed buildings and a comparative study completed in 2008 [7] prove that decentralised ventilation systems can be integrated into all common facade types. Office buildings with decentralised ventilation systems have been shown to consume much less heating energy and power than buildings with centralised systems. Users also positively rate the thermal comfort and individual, roomby-room operation offered by decentralised systems. A greater “spatial efficiency of 5 to 15%” [8] due to the reduced space required

for technical equipment has been demonstrated in buildings with decentralised ventilation systems. The option of dispensing with suspended ceilings in multistorey buildings and the resulting lower clear room heights and added space can allow planners to add extra storeys, although the potential for using decentralised ventilation systems to reduce storey height has not (yet) generally been exploited [9]. Buildings’ technical components are much less durable than facade elements so it is important that the units and components in decentralised ventilation systems are easy to replace. Facade openings with technical modules can be installed in various areas: • Ceilings (facing side)/floors (horizontal) • Parapets (horizontal) • Facade surfaces (vertical) For special solutions, technical modules can also be combined with opaque facade panels and skylights to make use of daylight (Fig. C 4.1, p. 322) [10].

C 4.5

Ceiling (facing surface) /underfloor ventilation systems (horizontal) Air intake and exhaust openings are installed in the ceiling’s facing surface and a ventilation unit, some with steam humidification, is installed in the raw ceiling in front of the (inner) facade so is not visible in the room. Air flows in and out through a grating in the floor (Fig. C 4.5). In buildings with a hybrid ventilation concept such as the Post Tower in Bonn (Fig. C 4.13, p. 327) exhaust air is extracted through adjacent spaces or zones of intermediate temperatures (“sky gardens”) and centrally extracted. Underfloor ventilation units variably regulate heating

C 4.2 Vicar's Close, Wells (GB) circa 1363 C 4.3 Centre Pompidou, Paris (FR) 1997, Renzo Piano / Richard Rogers C 4.4 Exterior wall surface / Top-Air – Air DuoPlus compact fan C 4.5 Underfloor system (horizontal) C 4.6 Fraunhofer in-Haus Center, Duisburg (DE) 2008, Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and Systems C 4.6

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and cooling room-by-room and are supported by concrete core activation (base load). Such decentralised natural ventilation systems can also be effectively combined with more recent facade developments such as the Closed-Cavity Facade (CCF) [11]. Compact, flat technical modules make it possible to build storey-high facades with glazing that optimises the use of daylight (Fig. C 4.12).

C 4.7

Parapets (horizontal) Ventilation units with heat recovery installed in opaque parapets are installed in the floor inside or attached to a solid parapet. These are usually 2-pipe or 4-pipe systems with air-waterheat transmission for heating and cooling. As well as providing free cooling using incoming air, cooling and air-conditioning functions can be expanded by connection to the cold-water network (Fig. C 4.10, C 4.15). Facade surfaces (vertical) If ventilation units cannot be installed in a parapet, special slender vertical technical modules can be integrated, storey-high or on a parapet next to a window or area of glazing (Fig. C 4.6, p. 325, C 4.11). The building services technology in these office buildings in Wiesbaden uses a dado duct, integrated evolvent lights and installation cabinets with small convectors on their outsides in all offices. Manually-operated, insulated wooden ventilation flaps with integrated revolving cylinders are now exclusively used to individually regulate outside-air intake when temperatures are low. Mechanical incoming and exhaust air ventilation systems have been dispensed with for all offices (Fig. C 4.7). What all these systems have in common is that units are not visibly integrated into the facade on the outside, so they can be relatively easily adapted to design requirements. Air intake and outlet openings can have covers specifically designed for the building that are reduced to being very inconspicuous or alternatively used as contrasting design elements. Various individual solutions for air outlets and covers in rooms are also available.

326

Notes: [1] cf. Concept-Fassade. Müller, Helmut F. O.; Nolte, Christoph; Pasquay, Till: Die Mittel, aktiv zu sein. Von der Aufgabenstellung zur Lösung. In: Danner, Dietmar; Dassler, Friedrich H. (ed.): Die klima-aktive Fassade. Leinfelden-Echterdingen 1999, p. 43f. [2] Although “paradigm shift” has become a trendy expression in recent years, it should be noted in this case that the classical Greek word παρα′δειγμα (paradigma) originally referred to an architectural model specially made for competition. [3] Röben, Jürgen: Fassadenintegrierte Lüftungstechnik. Ästhetisch und energieeffizient. In: DBZ 09/2013, p. 77 [4] Mahler, Boris et al.: DeAL – Evaluierung dezentraler außenwandintegrierter Lüftungssysteme. Abschlussbericht. Stuttgart 2008, p. 6 [5] cf. Giebeler, Georg et al.: Atlas Sanierung. Munich, 2008, p. 258 – 261 [6] cf. Stiegel, Horst; Krause, Michael: Minimalinvasives Sanierungssystem mit vorgefertigtem, multifunktionalem WDVS-Fassadenmodul. In: gi – Gesundheitsingenieur 06/2012, p. 290 – 302 [7] As for Note 4 [8] Mahler, Boris; Caspary-Weber, Monique: Flexibel und flächeneffizient lüften. Evaluierung dezentraler außenwandintegrierter Lüftungssysteme. In: Transfer. Das Steinbeis Magazin 01/2009, p. 7 [9] As for Note 4 [10] cf. Gatermann, Dörte; Schossig, Elmar: Capricornhaus Düsseldorf. i-modul-Fassade. In: Weiß, Klaus D. (ed.): Gatermann + Schossig. Raum Kunst Technik / Space Art Technology. Basel 2010, p. 221– 223. [11] Rudolf, Bernhard: Atmende Fassaden: Fassadentechnologien zur dezentralen und natürlichen Lüftung. In: Detail 07– 08/2012, p. 811f.

C 4.7 C 4.8 C 4.9

C 4.10 C 4.11

C 4.12 C 4.13 C 4.14 C 4.15

Office building, Wiesbaden (DE) 2003, Herzog + Partner Activated apartment block, Kassel (DE) 2015, HHS Planer + Architekten Heumatt housing estate / complete refurbishment, Zurich (CH) 2005, Urs Primas with Proplaning AG Neues Gymnasium school, Bochum (DE) 2012, Hascher Jehle Fraunhofer in-Haus Centre, Duisburg (DE) 2008, Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and Systems Roche Diagnostic, Rotkreuz (CH) 2011, Burckhardt + Partner Post Tower, Bonn (DE) 2002, Murphy /Jahn ADAC headquarters, Munich (DE) 2012, Sauerbruch + Hutton Laimer Würfel, Munich (DE) 2008, Plan2 Architekten

Integrated facades

C 4.8

C 4.9

C 4.10

C 4.11

C 4.12

C 4.13

C 4.14

C 4.15

327

Refurbishing existing facades

C 5 Refurbishing existing facades

Construction, operation, maintenance and dismantling or recycling are among the main phases in a building’s life cycle. A building’s support structure, interior fittings, envelope and technology often have differing “lifespans”, as do its facade and the components that make it up. Insulating glazing units have an average lifespan of 20 to 35 years, window frames 25 to 40 years, and exterior rendering 30 to 60 years, although such average figures can vary considerably in some cases, depending on construction quality, external effects and the effort put into maintaining a building. Regardless of the demands users make on it, the facade is one of the areas of a building most subject to weathering caused by outdoor temperatures, which fluctuate markedly over the course of days and years, as a result of radiation conditions as well as high winds and rains. Decisions made during the planning process on materials and construction and execution on the building site play a central role in determining the durability of facades. Deficits in these areas may cause individual components to fail prematurely and, if this leads to damage, elements may have to be repaired or replaced. A change in cultural, economic or functional requirements may also initiate or require the refurbishment of a facade. This is particularly so where renovations are intended to improve a building’s energy use, the urgency of which has greatly increased in Germany due to current energy efficiency demands imposed on existing buildings in recent years as a result of the country’s transition to an energy supply based heavily on renewable energies (Energiewende) (Fig. C 5.2) [1]. In the final decades of the 20th century, economic factors in particular, such as reducing operating costs and the pursuit of independence from oil imports, contributed to increasing demands made on the energy efficiency of facades. Since the turn of the new millennium, efforts have focused more on the environmental policy goal of drastically reducing CO2 emissions.

Renovating – Repairing – Refurbishing Words such as “renovate”, “repair” and “refurbish” are often wrongly used as synonyms to describe the restoring of facades and exterior walls. Returning to the original Latin meanings of the three words, it becomes clear that there are distinct differences in the definitions.

C 5.1 House, Soglio (CH) 2009, Ruinelli Associati

“Renovare” (renew) meaning “renovating” is understood as eliminating damage caused by wear and tear. For a facade, this could be a new coat of paint, for instance.

The word “reparare” (restore) means “repair” in the sense of returning something to its original, functioning condition. One example of this is the replacement of sections of exterior wall cladding damaged in a storm, for example. “Sanare” (improve, remedy, stabilise) refers to the restoration of functional capacity, such as adding insulation and protection from the sun, glare and weather, which are described in detail in the chapters on “External and internal conditions” (p. 18ff.) and “Aspects of building physics and planning advice” (p. 52ff.). Over the life of a facade, these functions may become impaired or break down completely due to external influences (e.g. heat, cold, rain and wind) and interior effects (e.g. damp), requiring partial or complete refurbishment of the facade. Other reasons for refurbishing can include maintaining a building’s value by eliminating wear and tear and structural damage, and preventing the premature failure of individual structural components. Reducing energy requirements by improving the building envelope’s thermal properties is currently the primary reason for refurbishing facades. Buildings built in Germany prior to the passing of the 2nd Thermal Insulation Regulation in 1984 are currently one focus of refurbishing activities. The U-values common at the time, at worst 2.2 W/m2K for a quarried stone wall and at best 0.5 W/m2K for a studded timber wall with 8 cm of thermal insulation, make refurbishing urgently necessary for these buildings in order that heat losses through their facades can be drastically reduced.

Refurbishing facades to improve energy use Refurbishing facades to improve energy use usually involves a wide range of measures aimed at greatly improving the facade’s technical and functional quality and the building’s energy balance as well as meeting current energy efficiency goals. Here the focus is on reducing thermal losses through structural elements that transmit heat (e.g. opaque exterior walls or transparent or translucent structural elements such as windows and glass facades). Heat losses resulting from radiation or ventilation must also be reduced. Various insulating materials, reflective coatings and films, multipane insulating glazing units and vacuum glazing units, which can greatly reduce heat transmittance from inside to out, are used to reduce such losses. In this context, it is also often necessary to greatly improve the seals around windows, doors and structural joints to minimise undesirable heat losses due to draughts. A refurbishing strategy designed to fit in with existing buildings and optimum planning and

329

Annual primary energy requirements for heating [kWh/(m2·a)]

Refurbishing existing facades

450 400 Minimum regulatory requirements (WSchV / EnEv) depending on building geometry

350 300 250 200 150

Building practice

Solar-powered buildings

100

Low-energy buildings

50 Passive / “3-litre” buildings 0

Zero heating energy buildings Plus-energy buildings

-50 1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

construction can usually improve insulation and can even allow a building to meet the current demands made on new buildings. In this context, studies have shown that EU Directive 2012/27/EU, which aims to establish an almost entirely CO2-neutral building stock, can be implemented with an assumed annual renovation rate of 2 % [2]. Here the focus is on facades because, compared with other areas of the building envelope such as the roof, cellar ceiling and foundation plate, they represent by far the largest area in contact with the outside air or ground (with the exception of large halls). This is especially the case with multistorey buildings, which have a much higher proportion of facade area compared with roof area than one or two-storey buildings. Measurements of average multistorey 1950s apartment buildings have shown that the rate of transmission heat loss through their opaque exterior walls is about 16 % and 12 % through windows. To this are added ventilation heat losses of around 20 %, so with a total of 48 % they lose almost half of all their heat through exterior walls or facades. The remaining heat is lost due to transmission heat losses through the roof (17 %) and cellar ceiling (7 %) and power lost by heating systems (28 %). By comparison, a typical 1960s apartment building loses far more heat through its facade – around 63 %. Here heat losses are generally broken down as follows: windows 19 %, walls 22 %, ventilation 22 %, roof 4%, cellar ceiling 4 % and unused heating energy 29 % [3]. These heat loss rates make it clear that refurbishing measures to improve energy use must include facades. For a holistic solution that makes use of all energy-saving potential, the insulation of roofs and cellars and optimisation of heating systems must be equally considered and coordinated in measures. Depending on the building’s age, various measures may focus on different areas, although the facade always plays a central role ensuring adequate thermal insulation [4].

330

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Influencing factors and measures Measures to improve a facade’s energy balance can be carried out in a wide range of different ways. Factors that may influence the choice of renovation concept include: • Building’s actual condition in terms of measured energy consumption • Actual state of a structure’s existing substance and energy consumption and the structural and functional quality of the facade and exterior walls • Actual condition of current building technologies • Architectural quality of existing structural substance • Legally-binding historic building and area conservation regulations and possibly copyright laws • Any planned changes in usage that may impact future comfort requirements • Future energy supply options for the building to be refurbished • Relation between investment costs and any future reductions in operating costs The analysis and prioritisation of these factors greatly influences the development of any overall concept for refurbishing a facade in order to improve its energy use. A refurbishing strategy for a historic building listed as protected will usually be very different from the refurbishing of an average building that is not subject to such protection to modify its energy consumption. When a building is converted (e.g. from commercial to residential use), the changed comfort requirements will mean that refurbishing its facade will involve measures different from those that would be required if its use were to remain the same. What all these measures have in common is the aim of improving the facade’s thermal performance. This can be done by partly or completely replacing or supplementing individual structural elements, windows, glass facades, glazing and/or frames. The thermal performance of facades and exterior walls can also be optimised by adding extra layers (e.g. of insulation) or shells (e.g. glass skins

C 5.2

or opaque facing shells of rear-ventilated facade structures) [5]. Taking these aspects into account, a distinction can be made between the following possibilities: • Interior insulation attached at a distance to a preexisting facade or exterior wall (housein-a-house concept, Fig. C 5.3) • Interior insulation attached without any gap to a preexisting facade or exterior wall (Figs. C 5.4, C 5.11, p. 335) • Partial replacement, supplementation or complete replacement of preexisting facade or window (Figs. C 5.12, C 5.13 and C 5.14, p. 335) • Exterior insulation attached without any gap to a preexisting facade or exterior wall (Figs. C 5.15, C 5.16, p. 335) • Exterior facing shell attached at a distance to a preexisting facade or exterior wall (Fig. C 5.17, p. 335) Various options for refurbishing and improving energy use are presented and explained below. It should be noted that in practice these possibilities are often combined to achieve an optimum result, depending on the specific conditions and requirements.

Interior insulation Refurbishing of the inside of a facade or external walls to improve their energy use is usually carried out if insulation cannot be added to the outside of existing exterior walls because they are part of an especially elaborate plaster, halftimbered or clinker facade, or for design and / or historic building conservation reasons [6]. The advantages of this refurbishing method are that it maintains the building’s external appearance and does not require official approval. It is also usually less expensive to add insulating layers (e.g. mineral foam or calcium silicate boards) to an interior than to install thermal insulation composite systems or rear-ventilated systems on the outside. A loss of floor space is however one disadvantage of this approach for a structure’s physical

Refurbishing existing facades

C 5.3

properties. Interior thermal insulation also means that an exterior wall’s thermal mass can no longer compensate for the interior climate. Interior thermal insulation also means that during cold times of year the exterior wall is no longer warmed, so it cools markedly and temperatures may fall below freezing much more often. Thermal bridge effects, especially around connecting walls and ceilings, also have a major effect on temperatures. Steel Å-beams and timber beams penetrate the insulating layer at support points and project into the cold exterior wall. Balconies are directly connected to the outside, so are at risk from condensation. Water, drainage and heating pipes laid in the exterior wall are also at greater risk of freezing due to more extreme cooling. To prevent damp from damaging an exterior wall insulated on the inside, a vapour barrier should be mounted on the inside to prevent condensation from accumulating, although a vapour barrier may be dispensed with if vapourproof insulating material is used. Another alternative is the use of calcium silicate boards because they are porous and can absorb moisture and release it in into dry interior air. Their high pH levels also prevent the growth of mould. Structural surveys to resolve such issues must always be carried out before such measures are initiated to prevent any subsequent damage [7].

Replacing windows and facades The relatively high heat transmission coefficients of glazing installed in buildings decades ago means that the thermal performance of their windows and glass facades must be carefully considered. Solar radiation can easily pass through windows or glass facades into a building and cause it to overheat in summer. In hot climates in particular, solar radiation can intensely heat up glass and frame surfaces. This heat can be transferred to the interior by means of heat transfer, radiation and convection, creating an uncomfortable indoor climate and usually increasing the energy consumption required for cooling. Heat losses through windows and glass facades can cool down interiors during cold times of year. The interior surfaces of windows and glass facades can cause cold downdraughts and draughts near glazing, and radiative cooling

can make the interior climate uncomfortable. If there are also leaks in and around a window frame or glass facade, draughts and ventilation heat losses can result in excessive energy consumption, further undermining users’ wellbeing. A range of overlapping factors (glazing and /or frames with inadequate U-values, leaky and defective window frames) means that windows and facades are often completely replaced with thermally separate window or facade sections and multilayer insulating glazing (possibly with an inert gas filling) to greatly improve the U-values of windows or facades. While a single-glazed timber window frame of the kind common until well into the 1950s may have a UW-value of 5 W/m2K, a thermally separate window frame combined with triple insulating glazing can currently achieve a UW-value of 0.9 W/m2K [9].

As well as insulation systems directly attached to the inside of an external wall, there are other refurbishing concepts that attach an additional insulating layer at some distance from the exterior wall. This additional zone of intermediate temperature can serve as a thermal buffer or weather-protected useable space [8].

C 5.2 Trends in energy-saving construction in Germany since the passing of the 1st Thermal Insulation Regulation in 1977 C 5.3 Two-ply film membrane interior insulation forms a ventilated zone of intermediate temperature, Siemens factory hall, Munich (DE) 1997, Thomas Herzog with José-Luis Moro C 5.4 Interior insulation, “Birg mich, Cilli!”, Viechtach (DE) 2008, Peter Haimerl Architektur C 5.4

331

Refurbishing existing facades

a

Such frames, combined with lower energy transmittance glazing, can represent a good compromise that ensures effective summer and winter insulation and can achieve energy performance qualities similar to those of a new building standard.

b

C 5.5

C 5.5 Olympic Village, Munich (DE) 2012, Knerer und Lang, detail of the facade: a before refurbishing b after refurbishing C 5.6 Olympic Village, Munich (DE) 2012. Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20 C 5.7 Typical U-values [W/m2K] for structural components in existing buildings

Solutions that retain existing design and material qualities while greatly reducing heat losses and improving the comfort of interiors are ideal for listed historic buildings. Refurbishing windows to improve their energy use usually involves installing sealing profiles, which can greatly reduce heat losses. Replacing single glazing or technically obsolete 1970s insulating glazing with modern gas-filled and /or appropriately coated double, triple or vacuum glazing can also greatly reduce energy consumption. Historic windows, the frames of which often have delicate material cross sections and low load-bearing capacity, can also be greatly optimised to improve thermal performance and comfort by adding an extra window sash with insulating glazing on the inside. In each case, planners must investigate how making windows the focus of thermal insulation might affect the dew point. The possible effects of a more airtight facade on hygienic indoor air quality, relative humidity and the risk of mould formation must also be examined.

External insulation Transparent and translucent facades and older, opaque exterior walls are often unsatisfactory in terms of their thermal insulation performance. Typical U-values of opaque exterior walls in old buildings are 1.4 W/m2K for singlelayer masonry 38 to 51 cm thick (buildings built from 1880 –1948) and for lightweight hollow-block, honeycomb brick or aerated concrete masonry (buildings built from 1949 –1968) (Fig. C 5.7). Although these U-values are much better than those for windows in buildings of the same age, such exterior walls cause major energy losses because they make up a large proportion of the facade’s entire surface. C 5.6

332

Two fundamentally different alternatives are available for refurbishing solid exterior walls in buildings not listed for protection as historic as a means of improving their energy use. One is the use of multilayer, composite thermal insulation systems, where the exterior wall is covered with thermal insulation panels attached with dowels and /or adhesive. The outermost surface is covered with a multilayer system made up of reinforced render, finishing plaster and a final coating to protect it from the weather. Such systems are regarded as relatively inexpensive, although potential problems with impact resistance, fire safety, algae growth and damage by birds (woodpeckers) must be reviewed in detail before deciding on their use (Figs. C 5.8, p. 334, C 5.15, p. 335). A curtain wall facade with thermal insulation panels attached directly to the outside on a (lightweight metal, wood) batten and counterbatten frame, can also greatly improve an external wall’s insulating properties. Counterbattens leave a gap of at least 30 mm, which allows for ventilation and moisture evaporation. The facade’s outermost layer is usually made of a mechanically durable material such as wood, natural stone, terracotta, metal, glass / PV or composite materials. Separating the functions of thermal insulation and weather protection – often with open joints protected from driving rain – allows planners to precisely adapt materials to requirements and offers a high level of design freedom (see also “Aspects of building physics and planning advice”, p. 52ff.).

Facing shells Analogous to interior insulation attached at a distance to an interior wall surface (see p. 330f.), attaching an additional transparent glass or plastic facade on the outside of and at a distance from an existing facade or exterior wall can further prevent heat transmission through the facade. The resulting rear-ventilated facade cavity can also be used as a thermal buffer or to preheat fresh air (Fig. C 5.17). There is a detailed description of the functional,

Refurbishing existing facades

Typical U-values [W/m2K] for structural components in existing buildings

1984 –1994

1979 –1983

1969 –1978

1949 –1968

1880 –1948

Prior to 1918

Exterior wall

Top storey ceiling / flat roof Timber beam ceiling with cob cladding

Pitched roof

Brick or drystone wall

D A

2.2*

Timber frame with wattle and daub

D A

2.0*

Brick wall 25 – 38 cm

D A L

1.7*

Single-skin masonry 38 – 51 cm D or double-skin masonry A

1.4*

Lightweight hollow-block, honeycomb block or aerated concrete masonry

D A

1.4*

Concrete ceiling, ribbed slab, reinforced concrete ceiling

D A L

Solid pumice masonry

D A

0.9

Timber beam ceiling with a raised floor

D A

Timber beam ceiling with a raised floor and puddle clay

D A

D A

1

Cellar ceiling / ground floor flooring

No insulation, plaster on rush matting or wooden slats

D A

2.6*

Timber beam ceiling with cob cladding

D A

1

Cob between rafters, plastered on the underside

D A

1.3*

Stone floor on the earth or vaulted cellar

D A

2.9*

No insulation, plaster on rush matting or wooden slats

D A

2.6*

Timber beam ceiling with a raised floor and puddle clay

D A

0.8

Cob between rafters, plastered on the underside

D A

1.3*

Solid, cylindrical vaulted ceiling

D A L

1.2

2.1*

Cement-bonded, wood wool panels 3.5 cm, plastered

D A

1.4*

Concrete ceiling, ribbed slab, reinforced concrete ceiling with minimal footfall sound insulation

D A L

1.5*

0.8

Solid pumice blocks between rafters

D A

1.4*

Timber beam ceiling with a raised floor

D A

0.8

Insulation between rafters 5 cm

D A L

0.8

Concrete ceiling with 2 cm footfall sound insulation

D A L

1

0.8

Lightweight porous brick masonry with normal mortar

D A

1

Concrete ceiling with 5 cm insulation on upper side

D A L

0.6

Cement-bonded, wood wool panels, 3.5 cm, plastered

D A

1.4*

Precast concrete slab with core insulation or made from lightweight concrete

A L

1.1

Flat roof: concrete ceiling with 6 cm insulation on upper side (cold roof)

D A L

0.5

Solid pumice blocks between rafters

D A

1.4*

Timber stud wall with 6 cm insulation

D

0.6

Timber beam ceiling with 4 cm insulation (timber / prefab. building)

D

0.8

Insulation between rafters, 5 cm

D A L

0.8

Lightweight / vertically perforated brick masonry with light mortar

D A

0.8

Concrete ceiling with 8 cm insulation on upper side

D A

0.5

Insulation between rafters, 8 cm

D A

0.5

Concrete ceiling with 4 cm footfall sound insulation

D A L

0.8

Aerated concrete masonry

D A

0.6

Flat roof: concrete ceiling with 8 cm insulation (warm roof)

A L

0.5

Precast concrete slab with core insulation or made from lightweight concrete

A L

0.9

Timber beam ceiling with 8 cm insulation (timber / prefab. building)

D

0.5

Timber stud wall with 8 cm insulation

D

0.5

Lightweight / vertically perforated brick masonry with light mortar

D A

0.6

Concrete ceiling with 12 cm insulation on upper side

D A L

0.3

Insulation between rafters, 12 cm

D A L

0.4

Concrete ceiling with 5 cm footfall sound insulation

D A L

0.6

Aerated concrete masonry

D

0.5

Timber beam ceiling with 12 cm insulation (timber / prefab. building)

D

0.3

D = Detached house, A = Apartment house, L = Large apartment block / high-rise building * A general overall U-value of 1.0 W/m2K can be applied if insulating panels at least 2 cm thick are retrofitted.

Source: dena (The German Energy Agency) C 5.7

333

Refurbishing existing facades

structural and design properties of such systems in the chapters on “Multilayer glass facades” (p. 238ff.) and “Solar energy” (p. 294ff.).

Concluding remarks

C 5.8

As noted at the outset, refurbishing existing buildings to improve their energy use is a central task in achieving Germany’s transition to an energy supply based heavily on renewable energies and meeting the European Union’s energy efficiency goals, which set nearly zeroenergy standards for new and renovated buildings [10]. The refurbishing of buildings’ technical services and existing building envelopes will play a central role in reaching these goals. Refurbishing measures will especially focus on facades because of their large area. A wealth of strategies and construction options are available for refurbishing facades that make it possible to greatly improve their energy use while retaining their functional and design qualities. Planners should seek solutions that take not just a facade’s energy properties into account but also involve other qualities such as comfort, qualities of light and space, and architectural/cultural aspects. Sensitive solutions must be developed, especially for historically, artistically and architecturally valuable buildings which will preserve cultural heritage and the building’s identity for the future. At the same time, the refurbishing of buildings to improve their energy use represents an enormous opportunity to give buildings with less cogent designs a new, more appealing functional and aesthetic face and, beyond focusing on energy consumption requirements, to upgrade buildings, and with them, perhaps whole neighbourhoods in an architectural / cultural sense. As well as implementing Germany’s transition to an energy supply based heavily on renewable energies, such refurbishing efforts could yield a fear greater overall potential, one that must be utilised in order to achieve an overall upgrade of our built environment.

C 5.9

334

C 5.8 Abgeordnetenhaus [House of Representatives building] Ismaninger Straße, Munich (DE) 2013, Hild und K Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 C 5.9 Holiday house, Scaiano (CH) 2004, Markus Wespi, Jérôme de Meuron Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 C 5.10 Renovation of an old barn, Bilka (CZ) 2012, A2F Architekten C 5.11 Holiday house, Scaiano (CH) 2004, Markus Wespi, Jérôme de Meuron C 5.12 Conversion of Astley Castle, Nuneaton (GB) 2012, Witherford Watson Mann Architects C 5.13 Office building, Milan (IT) 2012, Park Associati C 5.14 Office building, Düsseldorf (DE) 1998, Petzinka Pink Architekten C 5.15 Abgeordnetenhaus [House of Representatives building], Ismaninger Straße, Munich (DE) 2013, Hild und K C 5.16 Renovation of a school, Buchloe (DE) 2011, müllerschurr.architekten C 5.17 Redevelopment of a block of baroque houses, Ljubljana (SI) 2012, Ofis Arhiteki

Notes: [1] cf. Richarz, Clemens et al.: Energetische Sanierung – Grundlagen, Details, Beispiele. Munich 2006, p. 8 [2] Nemeth, Isabell et al.: Energetische Gebäudesanierung in Bayern. Study by the Center for Sustainable Building at the Technical University of Munich commissioned by the Bavarian Industry Association and the Bavarian Employers’ Associations for the Metalworking and Electrical Industries, Munich 2012 [3] Energiegerechtes Bauen und Modernisieren. Published by the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy. Basel 1996, p. 143 –150 [4] ibid., p. 129 –162 [5] A detailed description of the various combinations of layers and shells that can be used in facade construction can be found in the chapter on “Surfaces – structural principles”, p. 26ff. [6] Fachverband Wärmedämmverbundsysteme e. V.: Leitfaden Innendämmung 2013. Baden-Baden 2013 [7] For detailed descriptions of the use of interior insulation see also Richarz, Clemens et al., Energetische Sanierung – Grundlagen, Details, Beispiele. Munich p. 38 –40 [8] cf. Balkowski, Michael: Nachträgliche Innendämmung von Außenwänden. In Detail 05/2011, p. 616ff. [9] As for Note 1, p. 40 [10] Article 2, Paragraph 2 of the new Issue of EU Directive 2010/31/EU of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings defines a “nearly zeroenergy building” as one that has a very high energy performance as determined in accordance with Annex I.

Refurbishing existing facades

C 5.10

C 5.11

C 5.12

C 5.13

C 5.14

C 5.15

C 5.16

C 5.17

335

Green facades

C 6 Green facades

One special topic in the context of innovative facade solutions for (energy-efficient) buildings is green facades (also known as vertical gardens or living walls). Inspired by current discussions on ecology and sustainability in construction, facade landscapes including (kitchen) gardens (“skyfarming”) and “vertical forests” are now being incorporated into many construction projects (Fig. C 6.8, p. 341). While the green roof has been trialled and become established in recent decades, green facades seem to be a newer field. Green building surfaces have many ecological advantages, especially in densely-populated inner cities. They improve the (micro) climate and plants are essential elements in an environmentally-friendly, humane living and working environment. In Central Europe, the first effects of expected climate change are already making themselves felt. Air heats up much more quickly in urban areas than it does on a national average. Green facade surfaces naturally modulate the climate in buildings and urban areas through adiabatic cooling processes and can greatly reduce the effect of urban “heat islands”, especially at hot times of year and in southern regions. The city of Nuremberg’s Department of Environment and Health has emphasised roof and facade greening measures as “climatically significant design elements” in improving urban climates in polluted and largely paved and sealed areas [1] and as satisfyingly combining functionality with aesthetic concerns [2]. Together with green spaces and tree plantings, green building surfaces have far-reaching significance for wider urban green spaces because they directly influence local environmental conditions: • Improving air quality • Reducing noise levels • Cooling and humidifying the air • Enriching the air with oxygen • Providing shade • Having a positive effect on human psychology • Providing habitats for small animals and insects

C 6.1 Historic example of a green facade

Despite their general popularity and a certain “trendiness”, not all types of plants can be arbitrarily grown in any climatic condition or structural situation, although a wide range of botanical and technical solutions is available, ranging from plantings of self-climbing and climbing plants through to completely green surfaces with textile substrata on special backing material and modular systems ranging in size from small-scale through to storey height. Facades extensively planted with plants such as Virginia creeper, ivy, clematis or wisteria require regular care to manage the plants’ growth. This is often underestimated in planning and creating such plantings. As well as climbing plants, perennials, smaller shrubs and mosses are suitable for green facades.

Planting in and on facades People have made targeted use of climbing plants since antiquity. In regions with winegrowing traditions such as Egypt, pergola structures (arbours) covered with vines were described as providing shade in around 2600 BC. The people in these regions identified with their vines and developed a strong affinity with green facades over the centuries. The first references to climbing plants such as ivy grown in “troughs” (tubs of earth) for this purpose date back to the mid 2nd century BC in Greece. The Romans also wrote in detail of their “pergolas covered in roses, vine-shaded arbours and ivy-entwined grottos” [3] in public and private spaces. Pliny the Younger was the first to mention a green facade in one of his descriptions of buildings. “An abundant vine grows over the entire building up to the roof ridge and climbs all over it. You lie here just as if you were in a forest, only you do not feel the rain as you do in a forest” [4]. Roman gardening culture was rediscovered in Central Europe in the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, gardens were established outside city walls and arbours, pergolas and espaliers with climbing plants (especially honeysuckle and roses) became more common. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the range of plant varieties planted was expanded. New discoveries, especially from North America and East Asia, extended the range of climbing plant species. Systematic plant breeding also began at around this time. In the second half of the 19th century, the first articles on “cladding plants” for covering buildings with greenery were published. The Lebensreform (life reform) movement, which criticised humanity’s alienation from nature due to industrialisation and urbanisation, furthered this development in the years before World War I. Renowned (landscape) architects began to use climbing plants as design elements (“Decorative plants […] for the horticultural ornamentation of residential streets” [5]), connecting nature with architecture. Specialist books and magazines described types of climbing plants and their potential uses in detail and discussed the influence of plants on buildings, the urban landscape and the “summer climate”. In the 1920s, housing cooperatives in particular embraced this “flourishing” use of climbing plants, but after 1945 the topic gradually faded into the background. New formal languages and construction methods in architecture, growing building heights, and hurdles to gaining building permits increasingly detached construction from the local (urban) climate and building greening largely disappeared. With criticism of “inhospitable” cities (Alexander Mitscherlich) growing from the mid 1960s and

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the environmental movement beginning in the 1970s came a renewed focus on the importance of plants in buildings and life. The green roofs of suburban “eco-housing” estates in particular became spaces for planting designs. Facades have increasingly been used for this purpose since around 1980.

The structural significance of plantings

C 6.2

C 6.3

A functional use of vegetation can have natural, organic effects that positively influence the microclimate around a facade. Plants can, for example, be used as natural sunshades in front of transparent openings. Depending on their type and position, growth habit and degree of leaf coverage, shade plantings can help regulate the temperatures of layers of air near facades. The botanical features of the type of plants used play a vital role in the effects that can be achieved [6]. Plantings on opaque walls can reduce their surface temperatures and positively affect the microclimate. Some types, such as evergreen climbing plants (e.g. ivy or honeysuckle) can form cushions of air with their dense foliage across large areas, reducing the cooling of wall surfaces in winter and so functioning as extra insulation. In contrast to conventional insulation materials, the effects that can be achieved vary with different plants and natural seasonal changes and depend on the plants’ development and, in the case of wallmounted systems, on soil moisture. Studies have shown that even well-insulated walls can benefit from the additional insulating effects of plants [7]. Decreasing facade surface temperatures can also reduce the need to use compact, decentralised ventilation units (see the chapter on “Integrated facades”, p. 322ff.) while ensuring that growing demands for fresh-air quality are met with greater energy efficiency.

Classifications

C 6.4

Green facades can be classified into soilbased types using climbing plants and wallmounted types with special planting systems (Fig. C 6.6). Soil-based green facades

Plants used in soil-based green facades can generally be classified based on their climbing behaviour as self-clinging climbing and climbing plants requiring support: • Self-clinging climbing plants can cling directly to a wall surface and spread out in a fan shape. Direct planting with ivy or Virginia creeper is inexpensive and requires relatively little maintenance but not every exterior wall is suitable for this purpose. To avoid damage to buildings, such plants should only be planted against solid walls (masonry, concrete) (Figs. C 6.2 and C 6.4). C 6.5

338

• Climbing plants requiring support need a trellis or similar and based on their climbing behaviours can be classified into twining climbers (e.g. wisteria, honeysuckle) and creepers (e.g. grapevines, clematis). These plants grow autonomously upwards along trellises / espaliers (Fig. C 6.3) – particularly mesh or grid structures, but linear structures with rods, tubes or cables can also be used. Their spread is largely limited by the trellis. Climbing plants need regular pruning. It must be ensured that the plants are accessible and the cost and effort involved in maintaining them should be taken into consideration in planning appropriate systems. The speed of growth and climbing behaviour of plants as well as the building’s height must be considered when designing soil-based green facades. Such plantings can last for 5 to 20 years (self-clinging climbing plants) or 3 to 12 years (climbing plants). Around 150 types and species of climbing plants are suitable for green facades in Germany. Such plantings use a technique that has been developed and refined for centuries and can be applied with relatively little additional effort to a wide range of exterior wall surfaces [8]. Construction technology Soil-based green facades need a certain amount of space in front of the plinth of the exterior wall where plants can be planted and develop roots. Planting substrata must be carefully positioned to ensure that water can run off and roots can grow away from the building. The construction and anchoring of trellises is of vital importance. Fasteners (hanger bolts, bolt and wall anchors, spacers) anchor planar or linear structures in the load-bearing layer of the external wall. Possible thermal bridges must be considered and mounting and fastening components can be complex and costly if layers of insulation are very thick. Added structural loads must be considered if plants such as wisteria are used in multistorey plantings, although facade plantings usually take many years to grow into huge, heavy masses of vegetation. Structures must be able to easily bear such loads from the outset. Sufficient distance from sunshading systems and openings is important because plants can quickly grow into cavities and /or moving parts and block them (Fig. C 6.1, p. 336). Structures added to the fronts of facades (Fig. C 6.10, p. 341) such as balconies and access and maintenance walkways are also suitable for (subsequent) greening. C 6.2 Castello Sforzesco, Milan, (IT) 1450ff. C 6.3 Goethe's garden house, Weimar (DE) 16th / 18th century C 6.4 Villa Bonnier, Stockholm (SE) 1927 C 6.5 Magistratsabteilung 48 office building, Vienna (AT) 2010 C 6.6 Construction and vegetation parameters of decisions on green facades [9]

Green facades

Soil-based greening Planar growth directly on the facade

Facade greening

Climbing plants that can be trained (depending on climbing strategy)

Plants in horizontal plantings, plant containers on support structures

Plants in vertical plantings – “vertical gardens”

Self-climbing plants: Root climbers, holdfast climbers

Climbing and twining plants, shrubs on espaliers

Perennials (e.g. grasses, ferns, bulbs and tubers to some extent), small shrubs, climbing and twining plants, spreading climbing plants to some extent

Perennials (e.g. grasses, ferns), small shrubs, mosses; root climbers to some extent, spreading climbing plants

Perennials (e.g. grasses, ferns), small shrubs, mosses; root climbers to some extent, spreading climbing plants

• No trellis necessary

• Trellises / espaliers required (rods, tubes, cables, grids, nets)

• Substrata in containers (individual and linear containers)

• Substrata in elements consisting of baskets /gabions, mats, tubs • Substrate-bearing trough system • Directly planted artificial or natural stone panels with rough surfaces conducive to plant growth

• Textile systems • Textile substrata systems • Sheet metal systems with openings for plantings (textile or substrate carrier) • Direct greening on nutrientbearing wall shells

modular systems

planar structures

Design criteria Surface effect in 5 –20 years*

Surface effect in 3 –12 years*

Scope for creative design: low to medium

Scope for creative design: medium

Surface effect with pre-culture: short-term

Surface effect with pre-culture: immediate Scope for creative design: large

Structural and technical requirements Rooting in soil /connected to topsoil and soil moisture

Rooting in substratum system / no connection with soil and soil moisture required, no contact with subsoil

Water supply depends on location, as required

Water and nutrient supply system required Building authority approval may be relevant, certification of structural soundness necessary, load-bearing structural elements must be protected from corrosion or made of a rustproof material Facade must be protected from moisture and root penetration

Suitable for following walls • Solid walls (ensure joints are closed and exterior skin is intact Check that surface is suitable for the plant physiology*)

• Solid walls • Timber structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Metal structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Facing shells (limited*) • Curtain wall facade (limited*) • Composite thermal insulation systems • Air collector facades

• Solid walls • Timber structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Metal structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Facing shells (limited*) • Curtain wall facade (limited*) • Composite thermal insulation systems • Air collector facades

• Solid walls • Timber structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Metal structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Facing shells (limited*) • Curtain wall facade (instead*) • Composite thermal insulation systems (limited*)

• Solid walls • Timber structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Metal structures, completely covered or filled in (limited*) • Facing shells (limited*) • Curtain wall facade (instead*) • Composite thermal insulation systems

Economic criteria Investment costs: low

Investment costs: low to high

Investment costs: medium to high

Investment costs: high

Potential savings in facade design depending on plant growth

Immediate potential savings in facade design

Maintenance requirements: medium, increasing*

Ecological potential

Care and maintenance cost and effort: low*

Maintenance requirements: medium to high / horticultural* Care and maintenance cost and effort: medium to high*

Care and maintenance cost and effort: high

Shading – relevant over the course of the year deciduous plants

Possible species variety (flora / fauna) at the site: low to high* Microclimatic relevance: medium to long-term*

Microclimatic relevance: medium-term*

Possible species variety (flora / fauna) at the site: medium*

Possible species variety (flora / fauna) at the site: great*

Immediate microclimatic relevance with pre-culture*

* Figures supplied by the FBB (green buildings industry association), Projektgruppe Fassadenbegrünung (facade greening project group), FLL (Research society for landscape development and landscaping), Regelwerk-Ausschuss Fassadenbegrünung Grundlage (facade greening regulations committee – sources): diagrams and content 1), additions by the author, ©Nicole Pfoser, 07/2011 1) FLL, 2000; Kaltenbach, 2008; Pfoser, 2009, 2010 a, 2010 b, 2011 a, 2011 b, 2011 c C 6.6

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Green facades

As well as the plants themselves, trellises, espaliers, grids, nets (Fig. C 6.14) and cables and their materials, formal structures and colours can influence the look of facades. These can be directly attached to solid walls or at a distance from them. The materials’ very varied long-term durability (timber battens, metal gratings or meshes, stainless steel cables) and the possibility of having to replace trellises under masses of vegetation must be considered when choosing them. Re-tensioning options must be planned for meshes and cable systems because the weight of plants and wind, rain and snow loads can exert substantial forces on trellises. It must be ensured at an early stage of planning that green facades will be accessible for regular maintenance. Wall-mounted green facades

Wall-mounted systems represent a new approach to green facades, with plants in pots and planters in front of windows as the “prototype”. Since the mid 1990s, a wide range of support systems for green facades have been developed. French botanist Patrick Blanc has worked with renowned architects and an artistic and conceptional approach to raise awareness of this topic (Fig. C 6.12). Wall-mounted systems offer a much greater range of design options in the individual configuration of surfaces and combination of different forms of plants than traditional soilbased ones. Wall-mounted green facades are however much more expensive because their initial costs are significantly higher and they require regular investment in maintenance and upkeep. There are few limitations on the type of plants that can be used in wall-mounted green facades because their (artificial) site conditions can be specifically influenced by the use of water and fertiliser [10] although interdisciplinary planning at an early stage is essential to coordinate the requirements imposed by botany, construction and building services technologies. The following systems and techniques are among those that can be applied.

340

• Horizontal areas of vegetation Wall-mounted plantings in pots, tubs (Figs. C 6.7 and C 6.13) or gabion-type containers. These systems are available in various sizes and different materials and can be fixed in various ways directly to a substructure on an exterior wall or in structures in front of the facade. They require automated watering and regular maintenance. • Vertical areas of vegetation Wall-mounted vertical areas of vegetation can be further subdivided into: - Modular systems Small prefabricated modules that can be assembled to form larger, floor-to-ceiling units and range from smaller areas through to completely covered facades. They require automated watering. Modular systems usually entail a greater technical and construction cost and effort. - Water-retaining geo-fleece and porous surfaces (Fig. C 6.11) Planar systems can be used to create freer designs ranging from smaller areas up to completely covered facades. Their watering systems must be checked daily and such systems are susceptible to frost. Combinations can also be used, e.g. climbing plants with trellises and tubs on each storey, to more quickly create a green space for a multistorey building, for example (Fig. C 6.9). Structural technology issues Vertical areas of vegetation are an unusual place for plants to grow and if they are to thrive in the long term they must have a continuously functioning watering system. Planners must also consider the load-bearing, wind load, technical thermal insulation issues and fire safety regulation aspects concerning large areas of wall-mounted greenery. Pipe and cable routing and the electricity required for watering must be coordinated and a separate utility room, which will also have to be easily accessible to allow for regular upkeep and maintenance, may have to be added in planning.

As with solar facades, interfaces between various trades are a major challenge for wallmounted green facade designers. The plants’ requirements, the demands of construction (e.g. construction methods and design rules) and watering and drainage specifications must all be coordinated with electrical installations and occupational safety. Apart from smaller and larger tubs (plant pots and planters), systems often differ greatly in their structures (functional layers), measurements, surface weight, watering management and the materials used for plant containers and fasteners. Many products currently on the market are also company-specific solutions[11]. Wall-mounted facade plantings are usually fixed, i.e. it is the plants, with their various varieties and growth habits (flowering and seasonal greenery) that constantly change the look of the facade. Systems using plant troughs that can follow the sun along a horizontal axis are now also available on the market. Facades of existing buildings can be planted retrospectively, as demonstrated by the Vienna municipal authority with its office building at Margaretengürtel 48 (Fig. C 6.5). Here a modular approach was chosen, using evenly-spaced horizontal plant troughs on a special frame. These types of solutions prove that the evaporation of water in such systems can make a major contribution to cooling in summer, reducing the number of air-conditioning units needed and significantly lowering facade surface temperatures. Plants on a facade open up new functional and design possibilities in construction and urban planning. They improve microclimates and the quality of housing in the long term and are very popular in private and commercial environments. The varied potential of green facades on individual buildings, plots of land and urban spaces has been scientifically demonstrated and some practice-oriented guidelines are now available [12]. Newer areas such as combinations with rainwater use, evaporative cooling, decentralised ventilation and solar technology (photovoltaic systems) are currently being explored in more detail in ongoing research projects.

Green facades

Notes: [1] See also Klimafahrplan Nürnberg (Road map for climate protection) 2010 – 2050. Published by the City of Nuremberg / Department of Environment and Health. Nuremberg 2014, p. 116, 126, 130 [2] One of the first to carry out a fundamental scientific survey of options for greening facades is Rudi Baumann, who showed in his dissertation how much potential there is for regulating local climates by making appropriate use of vegetation, especially twining plants, in temperate zones. Baumann, Rudi: Pflanzliche Verschattungselemente an der Gebäudeoberfläche als Massnahme zur Reduzierung der Strahlungsbelastung unter sommerlichen Bedingungen [Plantings for shading building surfaces and reducing solar radiation exposure in summer]. Kassel 1980 [3] Baumann, Rudi: Begrünte Architektur. Bauen und Gestalten mit Kletterpflanzen. Munich 1983, p. 20 [4] Quoted by Fischer, Sören, in Paolo Veronese, Andrea Palladio und die Stanza di Bacco in der Villa Barbaro als Pavillon Plinius des Jüngeren. In Kunstgeschichte. Open Peer Reviewed Journal, 2013, p. 19 [5] Gerlach, Hans: Pflanzenschmuckkunst. Beispiele für die gärtnerische Ausschmückung der Wohnstraßen. In: Die Gartenwelt 15/1918, p. 113 [6] As for Note 3, p. 25 – 38 [7] Köhler, Manfred; Ottelè, Marc: Fassadenbegrünung. In Köhler, Manfred (ed.) Handbuch Bauwerksbegrünung. Cologne 2012, p. 116 [8] As for Note 7, p. 104 [9] As for Note 7, p. 105 [10] ibid., p. 105 [11] ibid., p. 126 –148; Kaltenbach, Frank, Lebende Wände, vertikale Gärten – vom Blumentopf zur grünen Systemfassade. In Detail, 12/2008, p. 1,454 –1,466 [12] Pfoser, Nicole et al.: Gebäude Begrünung Energie. Potenziale und Wechselwirkungen. Forschungsbericht. Darmstadt 08/2013

C 6.7 C 6.8 C 6.9 C 6.10 C 6.11 C 6.12 C 6.13 C 6.14

C 6.7

C 6.8

C 6.9

C 6.10

C 6.11

C 6.12

C 6.13

C 6.14

Tower Flower, Paris (FR) 2004, Maison Edouard François Bosco Verticale, Milan, (IT) 2006–12, Steffano Boeri Department of Physics at Humboldt University, Berlin (DE) 2003, Augustin and Frank Student accommodation, Sant Cugat del Vallès (ES) 2011, dataAE Sportplaza Mercator, Amsterdam (NL) 2006 CS Architects Caixa Forum, Madrid (ES) 2008, Herzog & de Meuron z58, Shanghai (CN) 2006, Kengo Kuma and associates Student residence, Garching (DE) 2005, Fink + Jocher

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Authors

Thomas Herzog

Roland Krippner

Werner Lang

1941 Born in Munich 1960 –1965 Studied architecture at the Technical University of Munich and in parallel completed training in metalworking and ceramics trades 1965 –1969 Employed in the architects’ firm of Prof. Peter C. von Seidlein, Munich 1969 –1973 Research assistant to the Chair of Building Construction and Design at the University of Stuttgart 1971–1972 Studied at Deutsche Akademie Villa Massimo in Rome 1972 Doctorate from Rome’s La Sapienza University since 1971 he has worked with partners at his own firm in Stuttgart / Munich 1973 – 2006 university professor - at University of Kassel, for Design and Product Development - at the Technical University of Darmstadt for Design and Building Technologies - at the Technical University of Munich (TUM), Institute for “Design and Building Technology”, full professor for “Building Technology” and Dean of the Faculty of Architecture since 2007 “Emeritus of Excellence” at the Technical University of Munich Visiting professor in Lausanne, Copenhagen, Philadelphia and Beijing

1960 Born in Frankfurt / Main 1976 –1980 Trained as a mechanic 1982 –1987/1989 –1993 Studied architecture at the University of Kassel 1993 Awarded his degree (II) and an award from the Deutscher Stahlbau-Verband (German Steel Construction Federation), 3rd prize 1996 1988 –1989 Civilian service year at Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Hessen (Hessen State Office for Historic Buildings Conservation) in Marburg Since 1989 publishing work 1993 –1995 Worked at the Büro für Architektur und Stadtplanung (BAS), Kassel since 1995 Freelance architect (R&D projects), author, lecturer 1995 – 2006 Research assistant / assistant to the Chair for Building Technologies, Prof. Dr. (Rome University) Thomas Herzog, Faculty of Architecture, TUM 2004 Doctorate (Dr.-Ing.) at TUM on “Untersuchungen zu Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Holzleichtbeton im Bereich von Gebäudefassaden” (Investigations into applications for lightweight wood chip concrete in building facades) (Deutscher Holzbaupreis 2005; shortlisted in the “Innovative building products” category) 2005 – 2006 Lectureship at Salzburg University of Applied Sciences 2006 – 2007 Research assistant to the Chair for Industrial Design, Prof. Dipl.-Des. Fritz Frenkler, TUM 2006 – 2007 Deputy professorship for Environmentally Conscious Design and Construction at the University of Kassel 2008 Lectureship at Munich University of Applied Sciences Since 2008 Professor for Construction and Technology at Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm

1961 Born in Marktoberdorf 1982 –1988 Studied architecture at Technical University of Munich (TUM) 1985 / 86 Further studies at the Architectural Association, London 1988 Awarded his degree (recipient of the Hans Döllgast Prize) from TUM 1988 –1990 Fulbright Scholarship to study at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) 1990 Master of Architecture II (UCLA), Award for Best Thesis from the UCLA School of Architecture and Urban Planning 1990 –1994 Employed at Kurt Ackermann + Partner firm of architects, Munich Since 1994 publishing work 1994 – 2001 Research assistant to the Chair for Building Technologies, Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rom) Thomas Herzog, Faculty of Architecture, TUM 2000 Awarded his doctorate (Dr.-Ing.) by TUM and recipient of the doctoral prize from Bund der Freunde der TUM (the Friends of TUM) 2001– 2006 Employed at Werner Lang firm of architects, Munich 2001– 2007 Lecturer on “Special facade construction topics” and “Building materials” at the Faculty of Architecture, TUM 2006 Co-founder of Lang Hugger Rampp GmbH Architekten architects’ firm, Munich 2008 – 2010 Associate Professor for Sustainable Planning and Construction at the University of Texas at Austin School of Architecture (UTSoA) 2009 – 2010 Director of the Center for Sustainable Development at UTSoA Since 2010 University professor for Energy-efficient and Sustainable Design and Building at TUM; Head of the Centre for Sustainable Building at TUM; spokesman for the Centre for Urban Ecology and Climate Adaptation (ZSK) at TUM Director of the Oskar von Miller Forum, Munich

Member of Akademie der Künste (Academy of the Arts, Berlin), Académie d’Architecture (Paris), the Bavarian Academy of Fine Arts (Munich), the St Petersburg State Academic Institute of Fine Arts, Sculpture and Architecture, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft (Munich) and the International Academy of Architecture (Sofia). Awards (Selection): 1981 Mies-van-der-Rohe Prize 1993 Gold medal /Grand prize from the Bund Deutscher Architekten (Association of German Architects) 1994 Balthasar-Neumann Prize 1996 Auguste-Perret Prize from the International Union of Architects (UIA) for applied technology in architecture 1998 Den grønne Nål from the Association of Danish Architects 1998 Leo-von-Klenze Medal 1998 “Grande médaille d’or d’architecture” from the French Academy of Architecture 1999 Fritz-Schumacher Architecture Prize 2005 Heinz-Maier-Leibnitz Medal 2006 European Award for Architecture and Technology 2007 Honorary doctorate from Ferrara University in Italy 2009 Global Award for Sustainable Architecture He has exhibited his work in numerous international group and solo exhibitions and published books and monographs in many languages. www.thomasherzogarchitekten.de

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Awards: 2008 International Building Skin Tech Award, in collaboration with T. Herzog and K. Stepan, ZAE Bavaria 2000 Bavarian Energy Prize from the Bavarian Ministry of Economic Affairs and Media, Energy and Technology 2000 Holzkreativ Prize from Friends of the Earth, Germany (Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz), honourable mention in the timber construction category www.langhuggerrampp.de www.oskarvonmillerforum.de

Image credits

The authors and publisher would like to sincerely thank everyone who contributed to this book’s production by providing images, granting permission to reproduce their work, and supplying other information. All the diagrams in this book were created especially for it. The authors and their staff created those graphics and tables for which no other source is credited. Photos for which no photographer is credited are architectural or work photos or come from the archive of DETAIL magazine. Despite intensive efforts, we have been unable to identify the copyright holders of some images, but their entitlement to claim copyright remains unaffected. In these cases, we would ask you to contact us. Figures refer to illustration numbers. Shell, wall, facade 1 Stefan Cremers, Karlsruhe 2 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich 3 Jan Cremers, Munich 4 Christian Schittich, Munich 5 Pepi Merisio, Bergamo, from Merisio, Pepi; Barzanti, Roberto: Italy. Zurich 1975, p. 216 6 Achim Bednorz, Cologne 7 Pepi Merisio, Bergamo, from Merisio, Pepi; Barzanti, Roberto: Italy. Zurich 1975, p. 218 9 –11 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich 13 Pictor International 14 Thomas, Herzog, Munich 15 Thomas Robbin, Herten 16 Jan-Oliver Kunze / LIN, Paris / Berlin 17 doublespace photography, Toronto 19 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich 20 Ogawa, Shigeo / Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo

Part A p. 16 From Lampugnani, Vittorio Magnago, Architektur unseres Jahrhunderts in Zeichnungen. Utopie und Realität. Stuttgart 1982 External and internal conditions A 1.3 – 5 Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning (Bundesministerium für Raumordnung, Bauwesen und Städtebau) (pub.): Handbuch Passive Nutzung der Sonnenenergie. Heft 04.097. 1984, p. 78 /52 A 1.6 DIN 4710 A 1.9 Kunzel und Gertis, 1969 A 1.10 Deutscher Wetterdienst, Klima- und Umweltberatung. Hamburg A 1.11 Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning Bundesministerium für Raumordnung, Bauwesen und Städtebau (pub.): Handbuch Passive Nutzung der Sonnenenergie. Heft 04.097. 1984, p. 14 A 1.13 –15 Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.: Beton Atlas. Munich /Düsseldorf 2001, p. 79 A 1.20 From Pültz, Gunter, Bauklimatischer Entwurf für moderne Glasarchitektur. Passive Maßnahmen der Energieeinsparung. Berlin 2002, p. 89 A 1.23 European Wind Atlas Surfaces – structural principles A 2.1.1 Peter Bonfig, Munich A 2.1.7 Herzog, Thomas; Nikolic Vladimir: Petrocarbona Außenwandsystem. Bexbach 1972 Edges, openings A 2.2.1 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES A 2.2.3 Schittich, Christian (pub.): Solares Bauen. Munich / Basel 2003, p. 63 A 2.2.6 Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas: Bauphysik. Bd. 2 Bau und Energie – Leitfaden für Planung und Praxis. Zurich / Stuttgart 1998, p. 80 A 2.2.9 –10 Fassade /Façade 03/2002, p. 24f. db 09/2003, p. 87f.

Modular coordination A 2.3.1 Andrew Neuhart, El Segundo A 2.3.2 Yoshida, Tetsuro: Das japanische Wohnhaus. Berlin 1954, p. 69 A 2.3.3 Durand, Jean-Nicolas-Louis: Précis des leçons II. Paris 1819 A 2.3.4 Kunstverein Solothurn (pub.): Fritz Haller. Bauen und Forschen. Solothurn 1988, p. 3.1.4 A 2.3.7 Bussat, Pierre: Die Modulordung im Hochbau. Stuttgart 1963, p. 31 A 2.3.9 DIN 18 000. 1984 A 2.3.13 Girsberger, Hans (pub.): ac panel. Asbestzement-Verbundplatten und Elemente für Außenwände. Zurich 1967, p. 46 – 49 Aspects of building physics and planning advice A 3.1 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich A 3.2 Cremers, Jan (pub.): Atlas Gebäudeöffnungen. Munich 2015, p. 50 A 3.3 Detail 9/2002, p. 1,070 A 3.4 – 5 Pfeifer, Günter et al., Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich / Basel 2001, p. 186, p. 190 A 3.6 Bollinger, Klaus et al.: Atlas Moderner Stahlbau. Munich 2011, p. 119 A 3.7 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas. Munich 2003, p. 71 A 3.8 – 9 Schüco International A 3.10 –11 Hart, Franz et al.: Stahlbau Atlas. Brussels, 1982, p. 338f. A 3.12 Schüco International

Part B p. 62

Wimmershoff, Heiner; Aachen

Natural stone B 1.1 Eloi Bonjoch, Barcelona B 1.2 – 3 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 1.4 Christian Schittich, Munich B 1.5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 1.6 Luciano Chiappini, Ferrara und seine Kunstdenkmäler. Bologna 1979, p. 39 B 1.7 Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 72 B 1.8 Pepi Merisio, Bergamo, from Merisio, Pepi; Barzanti, Roberto: Italy. Zurich 1975, p. 247 B 1.9 Eloi Bonjoch, Barcelona B 1.10 Müller, Friedrich, Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 196 –197 B 1.11 Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 72 B 1.12 Thomas A. Heinz, Illinois B 1.13 Zooey Braun/ ARTUR IMAGES B 1.14 –16 Sandsteinmuseum Havixbeck B 1.17 Stein, Alfred, Fassaden aus Natur- und Betonwerkstein. Munich 2000, p. 58 B 1.18 – 22 Detail 06/1999, p. 1026 B 1.23 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 1.24 Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 171 B 1.25 – 26 Detail 06/1999, p. 1032 B 1.27– 30 Christian Gahl, Berlin B 1.31– 37 From Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 51ff. B 1.38 Gundelsheimeer Marmorwerk, Treuchtlingen B 1.39 Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 196 –197 B 1.40 – 49 Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 74ff. p. 74 Doris Fanconi, Zurich p. 75 Gregor Peda, Passau p. 76 Philippe Ruault, Nantes p. 78 Thomas Lenzen, Munich p. 79 Stefan Müller, Berlin p. 80 Rupert Steiner, Vienna p. 81 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich p. 82, 83 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart p. 84 André Mühling, Munich p. 85 top: Victor S. Brigola, Stuttgart p. 85 bottom: André Mühling, Munich

Clay B 2.2 B 2.3

Ulrike Enders, Hanover Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich / Basel 2001, p. 57 B 2.5 Hirmer Fotoarchiv; Munich B 2.6 Budeit, Hans Joachim; Kuenheim, Haug von, Backstein, die schönsten Ziegelbauten zwischen Elbe und Oder. Munich 2001, p. 33 B 2.7 Manfred Klinkott, Karlsruhe B 2.8 Chabat, Pierre (pub.): Victorian Brick and Terra-Cotta Architecture. New York 1989, p. 18 B 2.9 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG B 2.10 Ulrike Enders, Hanover B 2.11 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG Pfeifer, Günter et al., Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich / Basel 2001, p. 125 B 2.12 Kunstbibliothek Berlin B 2.13 Fischer-Daber, from l’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 205, 1979, p. 8 B 2.14 Alessandra Chemollo, from Acocella, Alfonso, An architecture of place. Rome 1992, p. 96 B 2.15–17 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG B 2.18 – 20 Jaume Avellaneda, Barcelona B 2.21– 22 Alfonso Acocella, Florence B 2.23 Roland Krippner, Munich B 2.24 – 29 Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH, Marklkofen B 2.30 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 2.31 Peter Bonfig, Munich B 2.32 Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH, Marklkofen B 2.33 Roland Krippner, Munich B 2.34 Alfonso Acocella, Florence B 2.35 Werner Lang, Munich B 2.36 Decorated walls of modern architecture. Tokyo 1983, p. 30 B 2.37– 38 Alfonso Acocella, Florence B 2.39 Tectónica 15/2003, p. 21 B 2.40 – 41 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 2.42 – 43 Tectónica 15/2003, p. 18 B 2.44 Alessandro Ciampi, Florence, from: Acocella, Alfonso, Involucri in cotto. Florence 2002, p. 96 B 2.45 Acocella, Alfonso. Involucri in cotto. Florence 2002, p. 98 B 2.46 Alessandro Ciampi, Florence, from: Acocella, Alfonso, Involucri in cotto. Florence 2002, p. 98f. p. 94 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna p. 95 Beat Bühler, Zurich p. 96, 97 Dieter Leistner / ARTUR IMAGES p. 98 Annette Kisling, Berlin / Leipzig p. 99 Andreas Lechtape, Münster p. 100 Klaus Kinold, Munich p. 102, 103 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart p. 104, 105 Timothy Hursley / Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH, Marklkofen Concrete B 3.1 Thomas Herzog, Munich B 3.2 Klaus Kinold, Munich B 3.3 Verlag Bau + Technik, Düsseldorf B 3.4 BTU Cottbus, Lehrstuhl Entwerfen – Bauen im Bestand (pub.): Architekt Bernhard Hermkes. Cottbus 2003 B 3.6 MIT Press, Cambridge B 3.7 Klaus Kinold, Munich B 3.8 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 3.9 Grimm, Friedrich, Richarz, Clemens, Hinterlüftete Fassaden. Stuttgart /Zurich 1994, p. 161 B 3.11 DIN 18 500 Parts 1– 3. 1991 B 3.12 InformationsZentrum Beton, Erkrath B 3.13 –16 Heeß, Stefan: Mehr als nur Fassade. Konstruktion von Betonfertigteil- und Betonwerkstein-Fassaden. Wiesbaden B 3.17 Großformatige Fassaden. Fassaden mit Holzzement. Published by Eternit AG. Berlin 2001, p. 12 B 3.18 Archive Olgiati B 3.19 –20 Dyckerhoff Weiss Marketing und Vertriebsgesellschaft p. 117 Georg Aerni, Zurich p. 118, 119 Michael Compensis, Munich p. 120 © Jens Weber, Munich

343

p. 121 Ulrich Schwarz, Berlin p. 122 Roland Schneider p. 123 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES p. 124 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart p. 125 Daniel Malhão, Lisbon p. 126, 127 Christian Richters, Münster p. 128 Brigida González, Stuttgart p. 129 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna Timber B 4.1 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo B 4.2 Sawyer, Peter: The Oxford illustrated history of the Vikings. Oxford 1997, p. 191 B 4.3 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas. Munich 2003, p. 26 B 4.4 Edoardo Gellner, Cortina d’Ampezzo B 4.5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 4.6 –7 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas. Munich 2003, p. 31– 33 B 4.8 Baus, Ursula, Siegele, Klaus, Holzfassaden. Stuttgart / Munich 2001, p. 19 B 4.9 –10 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas. Munich 2003, p. 34 – 46 B 4.11 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werkstatt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 4.12 Friedemann Zeitler, Penzberg B 4.13 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werkstatt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 4.14 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas. Munich, 2003, p. 43 B 4.15 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werkstatt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 4.16 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas. Munich, 2003, p. 40 B 4.17 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werkstatt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart B 4.18 Strandex Europe, Walmley B 4.19 Christian Cerliani, Zurich B 4.20 Ruedi Walti, Basel B 4.21 Jonathan Levi, Boston B 4.22 – 23 Christian Richters, Münster B 4.24 Eduard Hueber, New York B 4.25 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES B 4.26 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 4.27 Annegret Rieger, Munich B 4.28 Heike Werner, Munich B 4.29 Friedrich Busam /architekturphoto, Düsseldorf B 4.30 Reto Führer, Felsberg B 4.31 Christian Richters, Münster B 4.32 – 34 Sampo Widmann, Munich B 4.35 – 41 Informationsdienst Holz, Düsseldorf 1992 B 4.42 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 4.43 Werner Huthmacher /ARTUR IMAGES B 4.44 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 4.45 Roland Schweitzer, Paris B 4.46 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart B 4.47 Roland Schweitzer, Paris B 4.48 – 49 Theo Ott Holzschindeln GmbH, Ainring B 4.50 Gerhard Hagen, Bamberg B 4.51 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich B 4.52 Satoshi Asakawa, Tokyo B 4.53 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef p. 142 top: Michael Freeman, London p. 142 bottom: Sampo Widmann, Munich p. 144, 145 Christian Richters, Münster p. 146 Heinrich Helfenstein, Adliswil p. 147 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo p. 148 Peter Bonfig, Munich p. 149 Henning Koepke, Munich p. 150 Christian Richters, Münster p. 151 Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim p. 152 Marko Huttunen, Helsinki p. 153 Daniel Malhão, Lisbon p. 154 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES p. 157 Büro Kaufmann, Dornbirn Metal B 5.1 B 5.2 B 5.3

344

Jo Reid & John Peck, Newport N. P. Goulandris Foundation, Museum of Cycladic Art, Athens Münchener Stadtmuseum, Munich

B 5.4

John Gay, London, from, Murray, John (pub.): Cast Iron. London 1985, p. 28 B 5.5 The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller, Santa Barbara B 5.6 Erika Sulzer-Kleinemeier, Gleisweiler B 5.7 Ardean Miller, New York, from Airstream – The history of the land yacht. San Francisco, p. 69 B 5.9 –10 Jo Reid & John Peck, Newport B 5.11 Jan Cremers, Munich B 5.12 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 5.13 Jan Cremers, Munich B 5.14 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 5.15 Jan Cremers, Munich B 5.16 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES B 5.17 Jan Cremers, Munich B 5.21 Hoesch Siegerlandwerke GmbH; Siegen B 5.22 Alcan Singen GmbH; Singen B 5.24 Photos: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 5.25 Peter Cook / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES B 5.27 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG; Regensburg B 5.28 – 32 Mevaco GmbH; Schlierbach B 5.33 – 34 Alcan Singen GmbH; Singen B 5.35 Heike Werner, Munich B 5.36 – 37 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG; Regensburg B 1.5.38 – 39 Heike Werner, Munich B 1.5.40 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 1.5.41 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG; Regensburg B 1.5.42 AIM; Nürtingen B 1.5.44, 46 From Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente Materialien. Glas, Kunststoff, Metall. Detail Praxis. Munich, 2003, p. 98 B 1.5.47 Heike Werner, Munich B 1.5.48 V. Carl Schröter, Hamburg B 1.5.49 – 50 Heike Werner, Munich B 1.5.51 Hauer und Boecker; Oelde B 1.5.52 Heike Werner, Munich B 1.5.53 – 54 Gebr. Kufferath GmbH & Co. KG; Düren p. 172, 173 Dieter Lechner, Munich p. 174, 175 Bernhard Moosbrugger, Zurich p. 176 John Donat, London p. 177 left: Werner Lang, Munich p. 177 right: Ken Kirkwood, Desborough p. 178, 179 Stefan Müller, Berlin p. 180 Werner Huthmacher, Berlin p. 181 Cree GmbH p. 182 Paul Warchol, New York p. 183 Christian Richters, Münster p. 184 Heinrich Helfenstein, Zurich p. 185 Klemens Ortmeyer /architekturphoto, Düsseldorf p. 186, 187 Hélène Binet, London Glass B 6.1 B 6.2 B 6.3 B 6.5 B 6.6 B 6.7– 9

Dennis Gilbert / VIEW/ARTUR IMAGES Achim Bednorz, Cologne Daidalos 66/1997, p. 85 Georges Fessy, Paris Werner Lang, Munich Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 1998 B 6.11 Roderick Coyne, London B 6.12 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef B 6.13 Georges Fessy, Paris B 6.14 Christian Schittich, Munich B 6.15 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 1998, p. 90 B 6.16 –17 Herzog, Thomas: Sonderthemen Baukonstruktion. Materialspezifische Technologie und Konstruktion – Gläser, Häute und Membranen. Munich 1998, p. 11 (unpublished) B 6.18 – 20 Schittich, Christian et al., Glasbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 1998 B 6.21 Klaus Littmann, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Gro%C3%9Fer_Garten_(Hannover)#/media/ File:Glasfoyer_im_Gro%C3%9Fen_Garten.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0 B 6.22 Herzog, Thomas: Sonderthemen Baukonstruktion. Materialspezifische Technologie

und Konstruktion – Gläser, Häute und Membranen. Munich 1998, p. 36 (unpublished) B 6.23 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 1998, p. 120 B 6.24 – 25 Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente Materialien. Munich 2003 B 6.26 – 28 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. Munich / Basel 1998 B 6.29 David Sundberg, New York p. 198 Nigel Young, Surrey p. 199 Duccio Malagamba, Barcelona p. 200, 201 top: Florian Holzherr, Munich p. 201 bottom: Christian Richters, Münster p. 202 top left: Kim Yong Kwan, Seoul p. 202 top right, bottom: Timothy Hursley, Little Rock p. 203 Kim Yong Kwan, Seoul p. 204 top: Christian Schittich, Munich p. 204 middle: Herzog & de Meuron, Basel p. 204 bottom: Maxim Schulz, Hamburg p. 205 Herzog & de Meuron, Basel p. 206 top: Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES p. 206 bottom: John Linden, Woodland Hills p. 207 Jörg Hempel, Aachen p. 208 Michel Denancé, Paris p. 209 Christian Schittich, Munich p. 210 Hans Ege, Waggis p. 211 John Linden, Woodland Hills p. 212, 213 Jocelyne van den Bossche, London p. 214, 215 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES Plastics B 7.1 Simon Burt /APEX, Exminster B 7.2 Hans Hansen / Vitra, Hamburg B 7.3 The MIT Museum, from Hess, Alan, Googie: Fifties Coffee Shop Architecture. San Francisco 1986, p. 50 B 7.4 – 5 Centraal Museum, Utrecht B 7.6 Buckminster Fuller Institute, Los Angeles B 7.7 Frei Otto, Warmbronn B 7.8 Richard Einzig /Arcaid, Kingston upon Thames B 7.10 Christian Kandzia, Stuttgart B 7.12 Werner Lang, Munich B 7.13 Tohru Waki / Shokokusha, Tokyo B 7.14 –16 Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente Materialien. Munich, 2003 B 7.17 Hufton + Grow, Hertford B 7.18 – 21 Detail 06/2000, p. 1,048 –1,054 B 7.22 Ingmar Kurth, Frankfurt p. 224 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich p. 225 Wolfram Janzer /ARTUR IMAGES p. 226 Christian Richter, Münster p. 227 Bleda + Rosa, Valencia ps. 228, 229 Philippe Ruault, Nantes p. 230 Adam Mork, Copenhagen p. 231 Werner Lang, Munich p. 232 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 233 Allianz Arena, Munich ps. 234, 235 Skyspan (Europe) GmbH, Rimsting

Part C p. 236

Thomas Herzog, Munich

Multilayer glass facades C 1.1 Zooey Braun /ARTUR IMAGES C 1.2 Werner Lang, Munich C 1.5 Werner Lang, Munich C 1.7 Waltraud Krase, Frankfurt C 1.8 Richard Schenkirz, Leonberg C 1.11 Rudi Graf, Munich C 1.15 Richard Bryant, Kingston upon Thames C 1.18 –19 Werner Lang, Munich C 1.22 – 23 Werner Lang, Munich C 1.26 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef C 1.27 Jürgen Schmidt, Cologne p. 247 top: Achim Bednorz, Cologne p. 247 bottom: Werner Lang, Munich p. 248, 249 unten: Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES p. 250 Christian Richters, Münster p. 251 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich ps. 252, 253 Jörg Hempel, Aachen p. 254 top: Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES

p. 254 bottom: Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES p. 255 Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES ps. 256, 257 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES p. 258, 259 Holger Knauf, Düsseldorf p. 260 Ralf Richter, Düsseldorf p. 261 top: Christian Kandzia, Esslingen p. 261 middle: Ralf Richter, Düsseldorf p. 261 bottom: Martin Schodder, Stuttgart p. 262 Duccio Malagamba, Barcelona p. 263 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES p. 264 Frédéric Druot, Paris p. 265 Torben Eskerod, Copenhagen Manipulators C 2.1 Jean-Marie Hellwig / Prouvé-Archiv Peter Sulzer, Gleisweiler C 2.3 – 4 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 2.5 Klaus Zwerger, Vienna C 2.6 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 2.7 ISOTEG Final report. TU Munich, Chair for Building Technologies. Munich 2001 (unpublished) C 2.8 Werner Lang, Munich C 2.9 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna C 2.10 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 2.11 Hans Werlemann, Rotterdam C 2.12 Michael Heinrich, Munich C 2.13 Christian Gahl, Berlin C 2.14 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES C 2.15 Eduard Hueber, New York C 2.16 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna C 2.17 Christian Richters, Münster C 2.18 Moritz Korn C 2.19 Dominic Büttner, Zurich C 2.20 Klaus Kinold, Munich C 2.21 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo C 2.23 Satoshi Asakawa, Tokyo C 2.24 Constantin Beyer, Weimar C 2.25 Ralph Feiner, Malans C 2.26 Hans-Peter Wörndl, Vienna C 2.27 Ritchie Müller, Munich C 2.28 Daniel Westenberger, Munich C 2.29 Andreas Gabriel, Munich C 2.30 René Furer, Benglen C 2.31 Thomas Lenzen, Munich C 2.32 Earl Carter, St. Kilda p. 274 Therese Beyeler, Bern p. 275 Tomio Ohashi, Tokyo ps. 276, 277 bottom: Hisao Suzuki, Barcelona p. 277 top: Georges Fessy, Paris p. 278 Ingrid Voth-Amslinger, Munich p. 279 Michael Heinrich, Munich ps. 280, 281 Günter Wett, Innsbruck p. 282 Christian Richters, Münster p. 283 Lukas Roth, Cologne p. 284 Eduard Hueber, New York p. 285 top: Jan Bitter, Berlin p. 285 bottom: Annette Kisling, Berlin p. 286 Kees Hummel, Amsterdam p. 287 top Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim p. 288 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo p. 289 Hiroyuki Hirai, Tokyo p. 290 Robertino Nikolic, Wiesbaden p. 291 top: Robertino Nikolic, Wiesbaden p. 291 bottom: Thomas Ott, Mühltal p. 292 Richie Müller, Munich p. 293 top: Sergio Padura, Hecho p. 293 bottom: Paul Riddle / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES Solar energy C 3.1 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 3.4 – 5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 3.6 Arthur Köster / Stiftung Archiv der Akademie der Künste, Berlin C 3.7 Robert Krier C 3.8 – 9 TWD Eigenschaften und Funktionen. Info-Mappe 2 des Fachverbands TWD. Gundelfingen 2000, p. 5 C 3.10 –11 Roland Krippner, Munich C 3.12 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES C 3.13 Viessmannwerke, Allendorf C 3.14 Viessmannwerke, Allendorf

C 3.15 C 3.17

Schott Glas, Mainz Bernd Thissen / Energie Solaire S.A., Sierre C 3.18 Heiko Hellwig, Stuttgart C 3.20 Schittich, Christian (pub.): Gebäudehüllen. Munich, 2001, p. 53 C 3.21 Roland Krippner, Munich C 3.22 Team Rooftop, Berlin C 3.23 Jan-Oliver Kunze, Berlin C 3.24 Jochen Helle, Dortmund C 3.25 – 26 Jakob Schoof, Munich C 3.27 Jens Passoth, Berlin p. 304 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich p. 305 Ruedi Walti, Basel p. 306 Nick Brändli, Zurich p. 307 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES p. 308 Willi Kracher, Zurich p. 309 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna ps. 310, 311 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES p. 312 Jens Willebrand, Cologne p. 313 Jordi Miralles, Barcelona p. 314 top: Christian Richters, Münster p. 314 bottom: Entwicklungsgesellschaft Akademie Mont-Cenis mbH, Herne p. 316 Arnold Brunner, Freiburg p. 317 Eibe Sönnecken, Darmstadt p. 318 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 319 top: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich bottom: FG+SG fotografia de arquitectura, Lisbon p. 320 top: Holger Groß, Berlin bottom: Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef p. 321 Christian Richters, Münster

The authors and publisher would like to thank the following people, manufacturers and companies for providing information and / or drawings: Barbara Finke, Berlin (DE) Böhmer Natursteinbau GmbH, Leutenbach (DE) Cordelia Denks, Munich (DE) Dach + Wand Wolf GmbH & Co. KG, Dornbirn (AT) Delzer Kybernetik GmbH, Lörrach (DE) F. Brüderlin Söhne GmbH, Schopfheim (DE) Götz GmbH, Würzburg (DE) Halfen GmbH & Co. KG, Langenfeld (DE) Hightex Group, Rimsting (DE) Jörg Eschwey, ESO Chile (CL) Josef Gartner GmbH, Gundelfingen (DE) Lavis Stahlbau GmbH, Offenbach (DE) Magnus Müller GmbH, Butzbach (DE) Metallbau A. Sauritschnig GmbH, St. Veit / Glan (AT) MEW Manfroni Engineering Workshop, Bologna (IT) Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH, Marklkofen (DE) nbk Keramik GmbH & Co., Emmerich (DE) NMP Naturstein Montage GmbH & Co. KG, Vienna (AT) Serge Lochu, Cosylva Paris-Ouest (FR) Stahlbau Wörsching GmbH & Co. KG, Starnberg (DE) Wortmann Projektbau GmbH, Wenden (DE)

Integrated facades C 4.1 Reiner Rehfeld, Düsseldorf C 4.2 Jan Cremers, Munich C 4.3 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 4.4 www.top-air.it C 4.5 www.trox.de C 4.6 Fraunhofer-in-Haus-Zentrum, Duisburg C 4.7 Thomas Ott, Mühltal C 4.8 Constantin Meyer, Cologne C 4.9 Andrea Helbing, Zurich C 4.10 Maximilian Meisse, Berlin C 4.11 Fraunhofer-inHaus-Zentrum, Duisburg C 4.12 Thomas Jantscher, Colombier C 4.13 Rainer Viertlböck, Gauting C 4.14 Daniel Reisch, Augsburg C 4.15 Daniel Reisch, Augsburg Refurbishing existing facades C 5.1 Archiv Ruinelli Associati, Soglio C 5.2 Fraunhofer IBP C 5.3 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich C 5.4 Elias Hassos, Munich C 5.5 © Jens Weber, Munich C 5.10 Ester Havlová, Prague C 5.11 Hannes Henz, Zurich C 5.12 Phillip Vile, London C 5.13 Andrea Martiradonna, Milan C 5.14 Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES C 5.15 Jakob Schoof, Munich C 5.16 Michael Kiechle-Pausch / IMAGE FOR YOU, Mauerstetten C 5.17 Tomaz Greoric, Ljubljana Green facades C 6.3 Roland Krippner, Munich C 6.4 Roland Krippner, Munich C 6.5 Roland Krippner, Munich C 6.6 Nicole Pfoser, Darmstadt, from Köhler, Manfred (pub.): Handbuch Bauwerksbegrünung. Cologne 2012, p.109 C 6.7 Paul Raftery C 6.8 Werner Lang, Munich C 6.9 Roland Krippner, Munich C 6.10 Adria Goula, Barcelona C 6.11 Luuk Kramer, Amsterdam C 6.12 Christian Richters, Münster C 6.14 Fink + Jocher, Munich

345

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Statutory regulations, directives and standards The EU has passed directives on a number of products to ensure the safety and health of their users. These directives must be incorporated into binding laws and statutory regulations in member states. The directives themselves do not contain any technical details, only fundamental binding specifications. The relevant technical values are specified in related technical rules and in harmonised European standards (EN standards). Technical rules provide practical guidance and auxiliary tools for everyday work. They are not legal regulations but offer help in making decisions, form guidelines for correct technical procedure and /or render the contents of directives concrete. Anyone can apply technical rules in their work. They only become legally binding (e.g. in building law) when they are incorporated into laws, statutory regulations or codes or when the binding character of specific standards between the parties is stipulated in a contract. Technical rules include DIN standards, VDI directives and works referred to as codes of practice (e.g. Technical rules for Hazardous Substances – TRGS). Standards are divided into product, application and testing standards and often deal only with a specific group of materials or products. Standards are based on appropriate methods for testing and researching individual materials. The newest version of a standard, which should reflect the technological state-of-the-art, is always the applicable one. A new or revised standard is made available for public discussion in the form of a draft standard before being adopted as standard. A standard’s title reveals its origins and scope. DIN plus a number (e.g. DIN 4108) is a standard of mainly national significance (drafts are prefixed with an E and pre-standards with a V). DIN EN plus a number (e.g. DIN EN 335) identifies the German edition of a European standard that has been adopted unchanged from the European standards organisation CEN. DIN EN ISO (e.g. DIN EN ISO 13 786) designates a national, European and worldwide scope. A European standard is drafted based on an ISO (international standards organisation standard) and then adopted as a DIN standard. DIN ISO (e.g. DIN ISO 2424) indicates the adoption of a ISO standard unchanged as a national standard. The list below is a selection of ordinances, guidelines and standards representing current state-of-the-art technology (November 2014). Only standards specification sheets with the most recent issue date from the DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung e. V.) are binding. Voluntary agreements on strict compliance with standards that are not required in building law and additional features and requirements must be agreed on individual contracts. Statements made in contracts that all standards must be complied with are meaningless and can no longer be made in future contracts. To avoid inconsistencies parties must definitively stipulate which standards must be complied with and which details of standards should apply in each requirements category.

Part A

Fundamentals

1 Exterior and interior conditions DIN 1341 Heat transfer: concepts, dimensionless parameters. October 1986 DIN 18 073 Roller shutters, solar shading and black-out equipment in building construction: concepts and requirements. May 2008 DIN 18 351 Contract procedures for building works. Part C: General technical specification for building works: facade works. August 2015 DIN EN 13 363 -1 Solar protection devices combined with glazing: calculation of solar and light transmittance. September 2007 DIN EN ISO 12 569 Thermal performance of buildings: Determination of air exchange in buildings. February 2016

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2.1 Surfaces – structural principles DIN 18 351 Contract procedures for building works. Part C: General technical specification for building works: facade works. August 2015 DIN 18 516-1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing. June 2010 DIN 18 540 Sealing of exterior wall joints in building using joint sealants. September 2014 DIN 18 545-1 Glazing with sealants: rebates, requirements. July 2015 DIN EN 12 365-1 Building hardware – gaskets and weatherstripping for windows, doors and other joints and curtain wall facades, performance requirements and classification. December 2003 VDI 2221 Systematic approach to the development and design of technical systems and products. May 1993 VDI 2222 Part 1 Methodic development of solution principles. June 1997 2.2 Edges, openings ASR 7/1 Visual contact with the outside. April 1976 DIN 107 Building construction: identification of right and left side. April 1974 DIN 1946-6 Ventilation and air conditioning: Part 6: Ventilation for residential buildings: requirements, performance, acceptance (VDI ventilation code of practice). May 2009 DIN 33 417 Description of position, orientation and direction of movement of objects. August 1987 DIN EN 12 464 -1 Light and lighting: lighting of workplaces. Part 1: Indoor workplaces. August 2011 DIN EN 12 519 Windows and pedestrian doors: Terminology. January 2015 DIN EN 13 829 Thermal performance of buildings: Determining air permeability of buildings. January 2002 DIN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment. Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria. May 2006 German Energy Saving Ordinance (Energieeinsparverordnung – EnEV). January 2016 VDI guideline 6011 Part 1 (Lighting technology) Düsseldorf 2016 2.3 Modular coordination DIN 18 000 Modular coordination in building. August 1986 DIN 18 202 Tolerances in building: buildings. April 2013 3 Structural physical aspects and planning information DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components. May 1998 DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings. July 2001 DIN V 4108 -4 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings. Part 4: Characteristic values relating to thermal insulation and protection against moisture. February 2013 DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings. Part 1: Minimum requirements. July 2016 DIN 5034 Daylight in interiors DIN 18 073 Roller shutters, awnings, rolling doors and other blinds and shutters in buildings – Terms and requirements. May 2008 DIN 5036-3 Radiometric and photometric properties of materials. November 1979 DIN 52 619-3 Testing of thermal insulation: determination of the thermal resistance and thermal transmission coefficient of windows: measurements at frames. February 1985 DIN EN 673 Glass in building: Determination of thermal transmittance (U-value): Calculation method. April 2011 DIN EN 1279 -1 Glass in building – Insulating glass units. Part 1: Generalities, dimensional tolerances and rules for system descriptions. August 2015 DIN EN 12 865 Hygrothermal performance of building components and building elements: determination of the resistance of external wall systems to driving rain under pulsating air pressure. July 2001

DIN EN 13 125 Shutters and blinds: Additional thermal resistance: Allocation of a class of air permability to a product. October 2001 DIN EN 13 363 Solar protection devices combined with glazing: Calculation of solar and light transmittance. September 2007 DIN EN ISO 10 211 Thermal bridges in building construction: Heat flows and surface temperatures – detailed calculations. June 2015 DIN EN ISO 12 631 Thermal performance of curtain walling – Calculation of thermal transmittance. January 2013 VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary equipment. August 1987

Part B Structures built with specific materials 1 Natural stone DIN 18 516-3 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at the rear. Part 3: Natural stone; Requirements, design. September 2013 DIN 18 332 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Natural stone work. September 2012 DIN EN 771-6 Specifications for masonry units: Part 6: Natural stone masonry units. November 2015 DIN EN 1341-3 Slabs of natural stone for external paving. Part 3: Requirements and test methods. March 2013 DIN EN 1469 Natural stone products – Slabs for cladding – Requirements. May 2015 DIN EN 12 059 Natural stone products: Dimensional stone work. Specifications. March 2012 DIN EN 12 326-1 Slate and stone for discontinuous roof and external cladding. Part 1: Specifications for slate and carbonate slate. November 2014 2 Clay DIN 105 Clay masonry units DIN 1053 Masonry DIN 18 516-1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing. June 2010 DIN EN 1996-1-1 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures. Part 1-1: General rules: Rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry structures. February 2013 3 Concrete DIN V 18 151-100 Lightweight concrete hollow blocks. Part 100: Hollow blocks with specific properties. October 2005 DIN V 18 152 -100 Lightweight concrete solid bricks and blocks. Part 100: Solid bricks and blocks with specific properties. October 2005 DIN V 18 153 -100 Normal weight concrete masonry units. Part 100: Masonry units with specific properties. October 2005 DIN 18 333 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Cast stone works. September 2012 DIN V 18 500 Cast stone: Terminology, requirements, testing, inspection. December 2012 DIN 18 515 -1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at the rear. Part 1: Principles of design and application: Tiles fixed with mortar. May 2015 DIN 18 516 -5 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at the rear. Part 5: Manufactured stone. Requirements, design. September 2013 DIN EN 197-1 Cement: Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for normal cement. July 2014 DIN EN 206 Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity. July 2014 DIN EN 12 878 Pigments for the colouring of building materials based on cement and / or lime: Specifications and test methods. July 2014 FDB Codes of practice Nos. 1 –10. Published by the Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau e. V. (FDB). Bonn, 2009 –2016 Code of practice 1 Fair-faced concrete. Published by the Deutscher Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein e. V. (DBV)

(German Concrete and Construction Technology E.V.) / Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie e. V. (BDZ). Berlin / Düsseldorf 2015. 4 Timber DIN 18 334 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Carpentry and timber construction works. September 2012 DIN 68 364 Properties of wood species: Density, modulus of elasticity and strength. May 2003 DIN 68 800 Wood preservation. Part 1: General. October 2011. Part 2: Preventive constructional measures in buildings. February 2012. Part 3: Preventive protection of wood with wood preservatives. February 2012. Part 4: Curative treatment of wood-destroying fungi and insects and refurbishment. February 2012 5 Metal DIN 18 335 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Steel construction works. August 2015 DIN 18 339 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Plumbing works. September 2012 DIN 18 360 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Metalwork. September 2012 DIN 18 364 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Corrosion protection of steel and aluminium structures. September 2012 DIN 18 516 -1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing. June 2010 DIN EN ISO 12 944 Paints and varnishes: Corrosion protection of steel structures by protection coating systems. Parts 1–7. March 2000 6 Glass DIN EN 1051-1 Glass in building: Glass blocks and glass pavers. Part 1: Definitions and description. April 2003 Part 2: Evaluation of conformity. December 2012 DIN 1249 -11 Flat glass for building construction; Glass edges; Concept, Characteristics of edge types and finishes. September 1986 DIN 1259 Glass. Part 1: Terminology for glass types and groups. September 2001 Part 2: Terminology of glass products. September 2001 DIN 4242 Glass block walls: Construction and dimensioning. January 1979 DIN 12 116 Testing of glass: Resistance to attack by a boiling acqueous solution of hydrochloric acid: Method of test and classification. March 2001 DIN 18 545-1 Sealing of glazing with sealants. Part 1: Requirements on window rebates. July 2015 DIN EN 356 Glass in building: Security glazing: Testing and classification of resistance against manual attack. Draft, February 2000 DIN EN 572 Glass in building: Basic soda lime-silicate products. June 2016 DIN EN 1063 Glass in building: Security glazing: Testing and classification of resistance against bullet attack. January 2000 DIN EN 1279 Glass in building – Insulating glass units. Part 1: Generalities, dimensional tolerances and rules for system descriptions. August 2004 Part 2: Long-term test method and requirements for moisture penetration. August 2008 Part 3: Long-term test method and requirements for gas leakage rate and gas concentration tolerances. August 2015 Part 4: Methods of test for the physical attributes of edge seal components and inserts. August 2015 Part 5: Evaluation and conformity. November 2010 Part 6: Factory production control and periodic tests. August 2015 DIN EN 1863 Glass in building – Heat-strengthened soda-lime silicate glass. Part 1: Definition and description. February 2012

7 Plastics / membranes DIN 53 350 Testing of plastics films and coated textile fabrics: determination of stiffness in bending: method according to Ohlsen. January 1980 DIN 53 362 Testing of plastics films and textile fabrics (excluding non-wovens), coated or not coated fabrics: method according to Cantilever. October 2003 DIN 53 363 Testing of plastics films: Testing of plastics films: Tear test using trapezoidal test specimen with incision. October 2003 DIN 53 370 Testing of plastics films: Determination of thickness by mechanical scanning. Nov. 2006 DIN EN ISO 305 Plastics: Determination of the thermal stability of polyvinylchloride (PVC), related chlorinecontaining homopolymers and copolymers and their compounds. October 1999 DIN EN ISO 527 Plastics: Determination of tensile properties DIN EN ISO 2578 Plastics: Determination of timetemperature limits after prolonged exposure to heat. October 1998

Part C

Special topics

1 Multilayer glass facades Soundproofing DIN EN ISO 717-1 Acoustic field measurement of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements. Part 1: Airborne sound insulation: Impact: requirements and testing. June 2013 VDI 2058 Part 3: Assessment of noise in the working area with regard to specific operations. August 2014 VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary equipment. August 1987 Aerophysics DIN 1946-6 Ventilation and air conditioning. Part 6: Ventilation for residential buildings: General requirements, requirements for measuring, performance and labeling, delivery / acceptance (certification) and maintenance. DIN 33 403-3 Climate at the workplace and its environments. Part 3: Assessment of the climate in warm and hot working areas based on selected climate indices. July 2011 VDI 2083 Clean-room technology 2 Manipulators AGI F 20 Sonnen- und Blendschutzsysteme: Leitfaden zur Auswahl. (Guidelines on choosing sunscreening and blind systems) September 2004 DIN 18 055 Criteria for the use of windows and exterior doors in accordance with DIN EN 14 351-1. November 2014 DIN 18 357 German construction contract procedures. Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts: Mounting of door and window hardware. September 2012 DIN EN 12 207 Windows and doors. Air permeability: Classification. January 2015 DIN EN 12 208 Windows and doors. Watertightness: Classification. June 2000 DIN EN 12 210 Windows and doors. Resistance to wind load: Classification. May 2013 DIN EN 12 216 Shutters, external blinds, internal blinds. Terminology, glossary and definitions. November 2002 DIN EN 12 400 Windows and pedestrian doors. Mechanical durability: Requirements and classification. January 2003 DIN EN 13 115 Windows. Classification of mechanical properties: Racking, torsion and operating forces. November 2012 DIN EN 13 120 Internal blinds: Performance requirements including safety. September 2014 DIN EN 13 125 Shutters and blinds. Additional thermal resistance: Allocation of a class of air permeability to a product. October 2001 DIN EN 13 126 Building hardware. Hardware for windows and door-height windows: Requirements and test methods: Parts 1–17. February 2012 DIN EN 13 561 External blinds and awnings. Performance requirements including safety. August 2015

DIN EN 13 659 Shutters and external Venetian blinds. Requirements and classification. October 1999 DIN EN 14 501 Blinds and shutters. Thermal and visual comfort: Performance characteristics and classification. February 2006 GUV-R 1/494 Richtlinien für kraftbetätigte Fenster, Türen und Tore. (Insurers’ guidelines for power-operated windows, doors and gates) July 1990 VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary equipment. August 1987 3 Solar energy DIN 18 015-1 Electrical installations in residential buildings. Part 1: Planuning principles. September 2013 Part 2: Nature and extent of minimum equipment. November 2010 Part 3: Wiring and disposition of electrical equipment. September 2016 DIN 18 516-4 Back-ventilated, non-load-bearing external enclosures of buildings made from tempered safety glass panels: Requirements and testing. February 1990. DIN EN 410 Glass in building. Determination of luminous and solar characteristics of glazing. April 2011 DIN EN 674 Glass in building. Determination of thermal transmittance (U-value): Guarded hot plate method. September 2011 DIN EN 12 975 -1 Thermal solar systems and components. Solar collectors. Part 1: General requirements. January 2011 DIN EN ISO 10 077-1 Thermal performance of windows, doors and shutters. Calculation of thermal transmittance. Part 1: General. May 2010 Part 2: Numerical method for frames. August 2015 BS EN 50 583 Photovoltaics in buildings. Part 1: BIPV modules. January 2016. Part 2: BIPV systems. January 2016 4 Integrated facades DIN 1946 - 6 Ventilation and air conditioning. Part 6: Ventilation for residential buildings – General requirements. May 2009 DIN Fachbericht 4108 -8 Thermal insulation and energy economy in buildings. Part 8: Avoidance of mould growth in residential buildings. September 2010 DIN 4719 Ventilation and air conditioning – Requirements, performance, testing and labelling. July 2009 VDI 6035 Ventilation and air conditioning technology – Decentralized ventilation systems – Wall-mounted air conditioners (VDI ventilation rules). September 2009 EU Commission Regulation 1253/2014 on eco-design requirements for ventilation units of the 7th of July 2014. Official Journal of the European Union, L 337/8. Brussels 25.11.2014. 5 Refurbishing existing facades DIN V 18 599 Energy efficiency of buildings. Calculation of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting. June 2013 German Energy saving ordinance. May 2014 6 Green facades DIN EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 1-1 General actions – Densities, self-weight and imposed loads for buildings. December 2010 DIN 1986 -100/A1 Drainage systems for private ground. Part 100: Specifications in relation to DIN EN 752 and DIN EN 12056. November 2013 DIN 18 195 Waterproofing of buildings: Principles, definitions, attribution of waterproofing types. June 2015 DIN 18 916 Vegetation technology in landscaping: Plants and plant care. June 2016 FLL Green-roofing guidelines. Guidelines for the planning, construction and maintenance of green roofing. Bonn: Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau e. V., 2000.

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Index A Absorber ∫ 296f., 299ff., 309, 310f. Solid absorber ∫ 35, 296 Acrylic glass ∫ 197, 217 Adhesive bonding ∫ 32, 164, 196 Aggregates ∫ 110ff., 113f. Air-conditioning technologies ∫ 18 Air speeds ∫ 18, 40f. Air temperature ∫ 18, 22ff., 41ff., 53, 243 Airlock ∫ 241, 296 Alloys ∫ 159, 161 Aluminium ∫ 70f., 91, 160ff., 196 Anchor ∫ 69ff., 80 Anchoring ∫ 34, 36f., 68f., 90ff., 113, 115 Angle of incidence ∫ 24 Aramid fibre fabric ∫ 221f. Ashlar ∫ 65ff., 67 Assembly ∫ 32f., 43ff. Construction time ∫ 45, 166, 302 Installation tolerances ∫ 32, 51, 166 Attachments ∫ 166, 183, 220 Axial dimensions /grid reference ∫ 49 B Backing material ∫ 301, 337 Basalt panel ∫ 80 Basic grid ∫ 70 Basic module ∫ 48f. Bay window ∫ 239, 241f. Bending beams ∫ 30 Bending stresses ∫ 30 Bending tensile strength ∫ 87 Binding agent ∫ 32, 110, 113 Blinds and shutters ∫ 56, 194, 248, 258, 348 Brick ∫ 22, 39, 65, 87ff., 90, 92, 109, 159, 182 Brick formats ∫ 113 Broken stone ∫ 77 Buffer facade ∫ 239ff. Building physics ∫ 22f., 53ff. Building with facade elements ∫ 43 Building-within-a-building principle ∫ 242f., 245 Bulk density ∫ 23, 65, 110, 113 C Cable mesh structure ∫ 30, 338 Casement window facades ∫ 242, 244f. Cast iron ∫ 131, 159f. Casting resin ∫ 57, 195f., 302 Cement Cement-bonded materials ∫ 107ff. Cement fibreboard ∫ 135 Cement render ∫ 76 Cement stone ∫ 110, 114 White cement ∫ 113 Ceramic panel ∫ 91f., 96, 112 Chamfer ∫ 133 Chimney or stack effect ∫ 23 Clamps ∫ 135, 195, 220, 261, 316 Clapboard or weatherboard siding ∫ 138, 154 Clay ∫ 87ff., 333 Clinker ∫ 88, 100, 110, 115, 283, 330 Coatings ∫ 24f., 35f., 114, 131, 135, 137f., 162f., 192ff., 197, 300 Absorber coating ∫ 299 Anti-reflection coatings ∫ 192 Ceramic coating ∫ 193, 214 Coatings applied during glass manufacture ∫ 192 Colour coatings ∫ 114 Low-E coatings ∫ 28, 35, 206, 248

350

PTFE-coated ∫ 234, 287 Sound insulating coating /anti-drum coating ∫ 97, 248 Coefficient of thermal expansion ∫ 190 Collector ∫ 20 Air collector ∫ 299, 305, 339 Flat plate collector ∫ 296 Solar collectors ∫ 296f. Tube collectors ∫ 298 Vacuum tube collectors ∫ 299, 318 Water collector ∫ 18, 299, 302 Column orders ∫ 47 Comfort ∫ 19, 40, 267, 270, 298, 332ff. Visual comfort ∫ 22 Composite material ∫ 31, 110, 162, 164, 332 Compressive force ∫ 30ff., 132 Compressive strength ∫ 65, 110f., 190, 218 Concrete ∫ 107ff. Exposed concrete ∫ 107f., 110f. Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete ∫ 126 Heavy concrete ∫ 110 High-performance concretes ∫ 111 In-situ concrete ∫ 107 Lightweight concretes ∫ 110, 333 Opus caementicium ∫ 107 Self-compacting concretes ∫ 111f. Textile-reinforced concretes ∫ 111 Concrete blocks ∫ 90, 108ff. Concrete stone panels ∫ 113, 115 Concrete technology ∫ 110f. Condensate ∫ 23, 53ff., 74 Convection ∫ 22, 24, 25, 35, 41, 54, 194ff., 296, 299, 331 Coordinating measurement ∫ 50 Coordination of dimensions ∫ 20, 48 Corridor facade ∫ 242 Corrosion ∫ 13, 37, 51, 67, 110, 162, 186, 299, 339 Protect against corrosion ∫ 51, 135, 162f., 339 Corrugated panels ∫ 110, 219, 221 Curtain wall ∫ 160 D Daylight factor (DF) ∫ 40 Decorations ∫ 88 Dimensional tolerances ∫ 51 Diorite – soft stone ∫ 65, 72 Discolouration ∫ 112, 132, 135, 191 Dispersion paints ∫ 137 Double corrugated polycarbonate panel ∫ 219 Double facade ∫ 7, 35, 226, 239, 241, 256 Double-skin facade ∫ 57f., 240ff. Dowels ∫ 112f., 115 Draining of water ∫ 91, 314 Draughts ∫ 45, 53, 324 Drill holes ∫ 197 E Edge distance ∫ 135 Energy can get into buildings ∫ 24 Energy consumption ∫ 330 Epdm ∫ 196, 219 ETFE ∫ 219ff. ETFE film ∫ 230ff. Exchange of air ∫ 18f., 40f., 43, 53, 240ff., 323f. Exhaust air facade ∫ 242, 285 Expand longitudinally ∫ 29, 196 Expanded metal ∫ 169 Exterior shell ∫ 88 External conditions ∫ 19ff. F Facade Corridor facade ∫ 244 Suspended ∫ 29, 37, 67, 90, 109,

113, 324 Facade type ∫ 59 Face control line ∫ 49f. Facing bricks ∫ 113 Facing shells ∫ 34ff., 112, 330, 339 Facing wall ∫ 67 Fastening at points ∫ 197f. Fastening elements ∫ 54, 135 Fibre cement ∫ 110ff., 113ff. Fire protection ∫ 57ff., 193 Fire-resistant glazing ∫ 57, 193 Fire resistance class ∫ 57 Fire spreading ∫ 53, 58, 245f. Fit-out grid ∫ 50 Fixed glazing ∫ 39, 42 Flanking transmission ∫ 24 Foil roller blinds ∫ 194 Folded plate ∫ 30ff. Forming ∫ 161, 164, 167, 191 Formwork joints ∫ 111 Formwork ties ∫ 108, 111 Frost resistance ∫ 65, 110, 113 G Gathered awnings ∫ 270 GFRP panel ∫ 219 Glass ∫ 189ff., 239ff. Antique glass ∫ 190, 195 Armoured or bulletproof glass ∫ 192 Bent glass ∫ 192ff. Cast glass ∫ 190, 239 Colourless glass ∫ 191 Dichroic glass ∫ 192, 197 Electrochromic glass ∫ 194, 268 Etched glass ∫ 193, 195 F-glazing ∫ 57f. Fire-polished glass ∫ 192 Fire-resistant glazing ∫ 57, 193 Flat glass ∫ 190ff. Float glass ∫ 190ff. G-glazing ∫ 57f. Laminated glass ∫ 192f. Laminated safety glass ∫ 185ff., 192f., 195, 197 Matt glass ∫ 302 Patterned glass ∫ 191, 195 Plate glass ∫ 190ff., 195 Profiled glass ∫ 191, 195, 297 Screen-printing ∫ 192, 199f. Solar protection glazing ∫ 214 Solid-coloured glass ∫ 191 Sound insulation glazing ∫ 193f. Structural sealant glazing ∫ 197ff. Thermotropic glass ∫ 28, 193ff. Toughened safety glass ∫ 191ff., 195 Wired glass ∫ 190f., 195 Glass blocks ∫ 189, 208, 349 Hollow glass blocks ∫ 191f. Solid glass blocks ∫ 191, 195 Glass fibres ∫ 31, 126, 222 Glass infills ∫ 109 Glass rebate ∫ 33, 60 Glaze ∫ 90 Glazed annexes ∫ 296 Glazes ∫ 92, 136ff. Glazing bar ∫ 196f. Glazing bead ∫ 196 Green facades ∫ 337ff. Greenhouse effect ∫ 24f., 190, 267 Grid ∫ 48ff. Grid shells ∫ 30 H Heat gains ∫ 192, 298 Heat losses ∫ 35, 43, 53ff., 241ff., 296, 305, 329, 332 Heat recovery ∫ 18, 251, 323ff. Heat storage capacity ∫ 23, 34ff. Heat transmission ∫ 22ff., 54, 331 Heavy gas ∫ 56, 190, 193 Horizontal forces ∫ 29, 37, 67, 113

I Impact load ∫ 29, 195 Impregnation ∫ 136 Incoming air ∫ 40f., 58, 201, 241, 323, 326 Incoming air openings ∫ 41 Incrusted facade ∫ 66 Inner shell ∫ 35, 38, 200 Inspection opening ∫ 206 Installation sequences ∫ 43 Insulating glazing, double glazing ∫ 28, 36, 45, 54, 77, 174, 306, 313, 319, 329, 331 Thiokol polymer ∫ 197 Insulating properties ∫ 132 Integrated atria ∫ 239 Interior illumination ∫ 55f. Interior insulation ∫ 330f. Internal conditions ∫ 19ff. J Joining ∫ 10, 53, 161 Joint ∫ 24, 30ff., 51, 54, 58ff., 69, 108, 111ff., 135, 166f., 196f., 348 Bed joint ∫ 66, 80, 100 Construction joints ∫ 108, 166 Joint sealing ∫ 32f., 37, 43, 112 Joint width ∫ 68, 112, 196 Movement joints ∫ 89 Open joint ∫ 34, 135, 332 Shadow gap ∫ 32, 112 L Layers ∫ 27ff., 34ff., 193f., 330 Leadlight glazing ∫ 196 Light ∫ 18, 21, 40, 55, 296, 348f. Incident light ∫ 199, 267, 270 Lighting ∫ 32, 39, 41 Light diffusion ∫ 34, 195 Light refraction ∫ 11, 18, 35, 41, 55 Translucence ∫ 27f., 31, 35 Light metals ∫ 162 Lightweight structures ∫ 35, 111, 155, 161, 180, 297 Lime mortar ∫ 107 Limestone ∫ 67, 73, 110, 115 Load-bearing anchor ∫ 68, 113 Loggia ∫ 29, 204, 239, 241f., 296 M Maintenance ∫ 20, 43, 55, 63, 142, 179, 245f., 323f. Manipulators ∫ 42, 44, 267ff., 297 Manufacturing tolerances ∫ 32 Marble ∫ 65f., 67, 69f., 72f., 114, 267 Masonry ∫ 39, 54, 60, 65, 67, 87ff., 107, 109, 111, 113, 196, 332f., 338 Exposed brickwork ∫ 88 Facing brickwork ∫ 88 Masonry wall ∫ 107, 306 Masonry bonds ∫ 113 Material properties ∫ 65, 87 Media facade ∫ 13 Membrane ∫ 29ff., 35f., 195, 220f., 233, 235, 287, 302 Membrane cushion ∫ 233 Membrane materials ∫ 162, 170, 223 Metal ∫ 159ff., 163 Metal facade ∫ 160f., 166f. Metal foam ∫ 162 Metal materials ∫ 162ff., 170 Metallic textiles (meshing) ∫ 170f. Metamorphites ∫ 65 Modular facade ∫ 30, 32 Module ∫ 47ff. Modular formats ∫ 113 Moisture penetration ∫ 110, 135, 196 Moisture protection ∫ 54 Moisture resistance ∫ 113 Mortar ∫ 31, 66, 88, 113f. Moulded parts ∫ 220f. Mud ∫ 87, 95

Multi-layer ∫ 59, 102, 109, 111, 133f., 191ff., 239ff., 332 Multi-ply board ∫ 111 Multi-shell ∫ 27f., 34, 59 Multi-skin polycarbonate sheeting ∫ 224, 304 Multi-web double sheets ∫ 31 N Natural stone

∫ 65ff., 107, 112f., 339

O Opening mechanism ∫ 43, 268f. Opening sash ∫ 39, 41, 199, 241 P Paints ∫ 136ff., 164 Panel ∫ 32, 54f., 68f., 161, 166, 325 Patination ∫ 13, 162, 164 Perforated sheet ∫ 36, 165, 285 Photovoltaic ∫ 14, 18, 20, 28, 53, 59, 194, 300ff. PV glazing ∫ 194 PV modules ∫ 295, 298ff., 302f. Pig iron ∫ 159 Pigments ∫ 69, 110, 113f., 136f., 192 Pitting ∫ 162 Planning grid ∫ 49 Plants ∫ 29, 337ff. Plastics ∫ 217ff. Fibre-reinforced plastic ∫ 217 Plastic foil ∫ 193 Plastic prism ∫ 56, 194, 306 Synthetic fabrics ∫ 217f. Plastics reinforced with glass fibre (GFRP) ∫ 219 GFRP panel ∫ 219 Plinth ∫ 54, 66f., 84, 109, 338 Pneumatic structure ∫ 30f., 35f., 217f., 221 Polyester fabrics ∫ 221ff. Post and beam facades ∫ 30, 45, 56 Precast concrete components ∫ 112ff. Prefabricated system construction ∫ 109 Prefabrication ∫ 27ff., 45f., 65f., 70, 108, 160f., 166, 302, 325, 340 Pressure rod ∫ 230, 321 Prestressing ∫ 29f., 33, 170, 191f., 221 Chemical prestressing ∫ 192 Mechanic prestressing ∫ 221f. Prism systems ∫ 56 Production technologies ∫ 162f. Profiled webs ∫ 68 Protection against break-ins ∫ 19 Protection against overheating ∫ 297 Protection from glare ∫ 18, 22, 53, 90, 98, 191, 194f., 269 Protection from insects ∫ 36, 135 Protection from weather ∫ 9f., 44, 51, 87, 194 PTFE ∫ 219ff. Punctuated facade ∫ 39, 45, 54, 71, 107 Purposes of load bearing ∫ 28ff., 36 Putty ∫ 196 PVC ∫ 217f., 220ff. R Radiation ∫ 20, 21ff., 27, ∫ 34, 41, 55f., 162, 190, 194, 295f., 298ff. Radiation transport ∫ 22f. Rail system ∫ 68 Rainwater channelling ∫ 115 Rate of air exchange ∫ 241, 243 Rear ventilation ∫ 27f., 37f., 67, 135, 301, 312 Rear-ventilated curtain wall ∫ 35, 78 Rebate ∫ 196f., 221, 274 Reflection ∫ 18, 24, 40, 42, 55f., 192, 295f. Reinforcement ∫ 30, 110ff. Relative humidity ∫ 23

Replacing facades ∫ 332 Replacing windows ∫ 331 Resistance to ageing ∫ 218 Resistance to changing temperatures ∫ 191f. Resistance to impact ∫ 219 Resistance to weather ∫ 219 Retaining anchor ∫ 68f., 78f., 80 Roller blinds ∫ 54f. Roller shutter ∫ 42, 267 Room temperature ∫ 22f., 296 Round timber ∫ 133 S Sandstone ∫ 65ff., 72f. Sandwich construction ∫ 32, 35, 161f. Sandwich elements ∫ 112f., 164ff., 217 Sawn construction timber ∫ 133 Screening from view ∫ 11, 18 Sealing ∫ 32, 43, 54, 59, 94f., 114, 167, 196 Adhesive seals ∫ 196 Contact seals ∫ 196 Joint sealing ∫ 32f., 43, 112 Lipped profile ∫ 33 Permanently elastic ∫ 112, 196f. Rubber-sealed ∫ 60 Sedimentites ∫ 65 Semi-finished products ∫ 162, 218ff. Semi-transparent ∫ 27f., 129, 300ff. Separating ∫ 50 Acoustic decoupling ∫ 190 Shade ∫ 14, 40, 42, 295f., 301f., 338f. Shading system ∫ 194 Shaft facade ∫ 240, 244f. Shaped bricks and stones ∫ 109 Sheet metal embossed with lozenges ∫ 168 Sheets ∫ 32ff., 56ff., 220, 240ff. Shell structures ∫ 34, 217 Shingles ∫ 91, 110, 133, 135, 138 Shiplap ∫ 91 Shutter ∫ 267f., 270 Bi-fold shutter ∫ 126 Folding shutter ∫ 116, 270, 283f. Folding shutter (moved by pivoting) ∫ 267, 270 Hinged shutter ∫ 267, 270 Side-hung shutter ∫ 270 Sliding shutter ∫ 267 Sliding shutter (sliding horizontally) ∫ 267, 270, 286 Sick building syndrome ∫ 23, 25, 240 Side-hung or sliding fittings ∫ 43 Side-hung sashes ∫ 42, 267 Single glazing ∫ 192, 239, 264, 314, 332 Single-shell ∫ 27, 31, 35 Skeleton structure ∫ 107 Slats ∫ 28, 133, 267, 333 Glass slats ∫ 260 Light-refracting louvres ∫ 279, 290 Sandstone louvres ∫ 84f. Venetian blinds ∫ 270 Smoke extraction ∫ 58 Snow loads ∫ 29, 60, 221, 340 Solar cells ∫ 194, 301f. Monocrystalline solar cells ∫ 316 Polycrystalline solar cells ∫ 313 Thin-film cells ∫ 300f. Solar energy ∫ 239f., 243, 267, 295ff. Solar radiation ∫ 18, 20f., 24f., 45, 53f., 162f., 190, 241, 267, 295ff., 299ff., 331 Solar technologies ∫ 248 Solid structure ∫ 59, 65, 67, Sound ∫ 24, 32, 34, 39, 51, 56ff., 61, 119, 145, 190ff., 242f., 323 Sound-insulating glazing ∫ 193f. Sound reduction index ∫ 56, 193 Sound transmission ∫ 24ff., 190, 243f. Soundproofing ∫ 24, 56f., 113, 241ff., 349

Stainless steel ∫ 71, 160f., 163f., 167ff., 171 Standard measurement ∫ 49 States of openness and closure ∫ 267 Steel ∫ 91, 103, 111, 159ff., 167ff., 184, 190, 195, 286 Rust-resistant steel ∫ 91, 113 Weathering steel ∫ 163ff., 184 Storage mass ∫ 24f., 244, 296f., 305, 325 Storage walls ∫ 296 Stowing ∫ 268ff. Structural sealant glazing SSG ∫ 197ff., 314 Suction forces ∫ 113 Sun’s position ∫ 25, 55 Sunshading ∫ 18, 43, 55ff., 161, 194, 267, 290, 306 Support structures ∫ 30, 339 Surface finishes ∫ 108 Surface tensions ∫ 138, 192 Surface treatments ∫ 72, 109, 111ff., 192 Swelling and shrinking rates ∫ 132 T Tensile force ∫ 29f., 36f., 126, 132, Tensile strength ∫ 65, 87, 110, 218, Tensile stresses ∫ 30, 217f. Tension, stress Compressive stress ∫ 191 Permissible stresses ∫ 30 Tent structures ∫ 218 Thermal bridge ∫ 36f., 51, 54, 58, 91, 103, 113, 191, 274, 331, 348 Thermal buffer ∫ 123, 241, 331f. Thermal changes in mass ∫ 91 Thermal conductivity ∫ 23f., 31, 65, 87, 163, 190, 218 Thermal expansion ∫ 72, 162 Thermal insulation ∫ 28, 34ff., 53ff., 59f. Temporary thermal insulation ∫ 296 Thermal insulating glazing ∫ 28 Thermal radiation ∫ 22ff., 34, 296 Long-wave ∫ 24, 54, 190, 241 Thermal storage mass ∫ 296f. Thermal transmission resistance ∫ 53 Thermal transmittance coefficient ∫ 22, 219 Timber ∫ 131ff. Cement fibreboard ∫ 135 Chipboard ∫ 133, 135 OSB board ∫ 133, 135 Solid wood ∫ 131, 133, 135 SVL (structural veneer lumber) ∫ 134f. Wood fibreboard ∫ 133, 135 WPCs (Wood Plastic Composites) ∫ 135 Timber frame structure ∫ 59, 140 Timber preservatives ∫ 135f. Timber siding ∫ 138f. Tolerances ∫ 20, 29, 32, 37, 45, 48, 50f., 59f. Tongue-and-groove ∫ 34, 133, 135 Translucency ∫ 31, 43, 69, 170, 194, 222, 287 Translucent thermal insulation ∫ 35, 194f., 296f., 303 Transmission heat loss ∫ 241ff., 330 Transparency ∫ 27ff., 66f., 189ff., 217ff., 267f. Truss ∫ 30, 58 Three-dimensional truss ∫ 30 Trussing ∫ 30 Types of concrete ∫ 110 Types of surfaces ∫ 29

UV radiation ∫ 220 UV-permeable ∫ 195, 221 UV-resistant ∫ 32, 197, 227, 235 V Vapour diffusion ∫ 34, 60, 137 Ventilation ∫ 23f., 35, 39ff., 54, 240ff. Brief, intensive ventilation ∫ 40, 44 Cross-ventilation ∫ 40ff. Natural ventilation ∫ 41, 230, 241ff., 323 Regulated or controlled ventilation ∫ 24, 41, 244, 284, 309 Slot ventilation ∫ 39, 44, 270 Tangential ventilation ∫ 41 Ventilation openings ∫ 32, 34, 40, 57, 135, 244, 246, 270 Ventilation heat losses ∫ 243, 323, 330, 332 Ventilation technology ∫ 60, 324ff. Vertical forces ∫ 30, 36, 113 Views and lines of sight ∫ 39, 40 Volume change ∫ 162 W Water absorption ∫ 218 Water vapour ∫ 23, 27, 32, 34f., 138, 193 Waterproofing ∫ 114 Waxes ∫ 137 Weather conditions ∫ 14, 53ff., 115, 196 Weather resistance ∫ 218 Weathering ∫ 87, 115, 142, 166 Weatherproof envelope / shell ∫ 32, 34, 36 Wind forces ∫ 9, 40f. Wind loads ∫ 29f., 39, 53, 60, 68, 88, 113 Wind pressure ∫ 23f., 30, 32ff., 40, 59, 324 Wind protection ∫ 35, 170, 183 Wind speeds ∫ 23, 32, 242f., 323 Wind suction anchor ∫ 224, 226 Window ∫ 39ff., 54, 56, 59f., 240, 267f., 270, 330 Coupled window ∫ 239ff. Double casement windows ∫ 121, 239ff., 241 Double windows ∫ 239ff. Exhaust air windows ∫ 239ff. Folding, sliding window ∫ 43 Folding window ∫ 42, 270, 283 French windows ∫ 283 Hopper window ∫ 42ff. Horizontal pivot window ∫ 42ff. Pivot-hung window ∫ 43 Pivoting /sliding window ∫ 43 Pivoting window ∫ 43 Push-out window ∫ 42ff., 270 Side-hung hopper (turn and tilt) ∫ 43 Sliding window ∫ 42ff., 270 Storm window ∫ 239f. Top-hung window ∫ 44 Windows with pivoting panes ∫ 42 Window frames ∫ 324 Window reveal ∫ 29, 275 Windproofing ∫ 34, 35, 36 Wood-based materials ∫ 133ff. Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based materials ∫ 134

U U-values ∫ 329, 331ff. Use of daylight ∫ 43, 56, 199, 206, 239 UV protection ∫ 136, 137

351

Facade Construction MANUAL In recent years, facades have become more important in architectural practice and in public perception. As well as functioning as a protective shell and visible “face” and supplying heat and electricity, a building’s exterior interacts directly with the surrounding public space. This revised and expanded new edition of the Facade Construction Manual offers readers technical and design planning fundamentals in a compact reference work. A section describing a comprehensive selection of built structures shows general and unique, tried and tested, and innovative approaches to facade planning – down to the last detail.

• Over 100 examples of built structures • Material-specific approaches for use in planning facades • More than 250 detailed drawings and sketches and around 400 illustrations • Technical planning fundamentals • Special issues involving modern facade concepts

Authors: Thomas Herzog Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rome) Dr. h.c. Dipl.-Ing. Architect BDA Roland Krippner Prof. Dr.-Ing. Architect BDA Werner Lang Prof. Dr.-Ing., M. Arch. II (UCLA) Architect

ISBN 978-3-95553-369-4

DETAIL Business Information GmbH, Munich www.detail-online.com

9 783955 533694