Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography 151063939X, 9781510639393

Table of contents :
Title Page
Copyright ©
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Sources of EUV Light
Chapter 3 EUV Exposure Systems
Chapter 4 EUV Masks
Chapter 5 EUV Resists
Chapter 6 Computational Lithography for EUV
Chapter 7 Process Control for EUV Lithography
Chapter 8 Metrology for EUV Lithography
Chapter 9 EUV Lithography Costs
Chapter 10 Extending EUV Lithography
Index

Citation preview

Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography

Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography Harry J. Levinson

SPIE PRESS

Bellingham, Washington USA

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020944342

Published by SPIE P.O. Box 10 Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA Phone: +1 360.676.3290 Fax: +1 360.647.1445 Email: [email protected] Web: http://spie.org Copyright © 2020 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher. The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author. Every effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance thereon. Printed in the United States of America. First Printing. For updates to this book, visit http://spie.org and type “PM326” in the search field. Cover foreground image by MS Mikal, courtesy of Shutterstock.

Table of Contents Preface

ix

1 Introduction

1

1.1 Historical Background 1.2 Components of Lithographic Technology 1.3 Material Considerations and Multilayer Reflectors 1.4 General Issues Problems References 2 Sources of EUV Light

17

2.1 2.2

Laser-Produced Plasma Light Sources Discharge-Produced Plasma Sources 2.2.1 Z-pinch light sources 2.2.2 Electrode-based DPP sources 2.3 Free-Electron Lasers Problems References 3 EUV Exposure Systems

17 32 33 34 36 40 41 45

3.1 Lithography in Vacuum 3.2 Illumination Systems 3.3 Projection Optics 3.4 Alignment Systems 3.5 Stages in EUV Lithography Systems 3.6 Focus Systems Problems References 4 EUV Masks 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

1 3 4 12 13 13

45 50 54 60 61 61 63 63 71

Structure of EUV Masks Multilayer and Mask Substrate Defects Mask Flatness and Roughness EUV Mask Fabrication EUV Pellicles

v

71 77 83 86 87

vi

Table of Contents

4.6 Reticle Pods for EUV Masks 4.7 Alternative EUV Absorbers and Mask Architectures Problems References 5 EUV Resists 5.1 Exposure Mechanisms of Chemically Amplified EUV Resists 5.2 Stochastic Effects in EUV Lithography 5.3 New Concepts for Chemically Amplified Resists 5.4 Metal-Oxide EUV Resists 5.5 Scissioning Resists 5.6 Vacuum-Deposited Resists 5.7 Underlayers Problems References 6 Computational Lithography for EUV 6.1 Conventional OPC Considerations 6.2 The 3D Aspects of EUV Masks 6.3 Resist Physics 6.4 Imaging Optimization for EUV Lithography Problems References 7 Process Control for EUV Lithography

97 98 102 102 111 111 115 126 129 130 130 131 134 134 141 142 147 156 159 162 162 169

7.1 Overlay 7.2 Critical Dimension Control 7.3 Yield Problems References

170 176 178 183 183

8 Metrology for EUV Lithography

187

8.1 Mask Blank Defect Inspection 8.2 EUV Mask Qualification Tools 8.3 Tools for Qualifying Fabricated Masks 8.4 Tools for Material Testing Problems References 9 EUV Lithography Costs 9.1

Wafer 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4

Costs Capital costs Maintenance costs Operating costs Metrology costs

188 191 193 196 198 198 203 203 203 208 209 210

Table of Contents

9.1.5 Wafer cost summary 9.2 Mask Costs Problems References 10 Extending EUV Lithography 10.1 How Low k1 Can Go 10.2 Higher NA 10.3 Shorter EUV Wavelengths 10.4 EUV Multiple Patterning 10.5 The Future of EUV Lithography Problems References Index

vii

211 212 213 213 215 215 217 225 226 227 228 228 231

Preface While writing the chapter on EUV lithography for Principles of Lithography, I found myself challenged with covering many key topics while limiting the length of the chapter to something appropriate for a book that surveyed all major aspects of lithography. It seemed that a book fully dedicated to EUV lithography might be useful. Although there are already a number of fine books that survey the various aspects of EUV lithography, these books are generally compilations of chapters written by multiple experts in individual subjects. I thought that it might be useful to have a book where every chapter is written from a single perspective: that of the practicing lithographer in a wafer fab. To bring EUV lithography to full readiness for high-volume manufacturing, considerable development (and a fair amount of research) was needed in nearly facet of lithographic technology—equipment, resists, masks, metrology, and computational methods. Each of these topics is discussed in this book, with an emphasis on those aspects that are unique to EUV lithography. It is assumed that the reader has familiarity with optical lithography, since many of the concepts relevant to EUV lithography were developed and brought to maturity in the context of lithography at optical wavelengths. For many years, it has been my privilege and a pleasure to have worked with numerous outstanding and inspiring engineers and scientists on EUV lithography. Many of these people were co-workers at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), the Advanced Mask Technology Center (AMTC), and GLOBALFOUNDRIES, while I engaged with others through consortia, such as Sematech, the EUV LLC, INVENT, and Imec. I also benefitted from interactions with engineers, managers, and executives from companies who supply equipment or materials for lithography. Much of the material in this book originated with colleagues and co-workers whose names appear in the references. I hope that this book does justice to their work. Numerous people provided material for this book, many through their publications, while others were kind enough to provide figures specifically for this book. I would like to thank the following people who provided figures and gave permission for their use: Dr. Bruno La Fontaine of ASML (Figs. 1.1 and 1.3); Mr. Kevin Nguyen and Ms. Shannon Austin of SEMI (Fig. 1.7);

ix

x

Preface

Mr. Athanassios Kaliudis and Mr. Florian Heinig of Trumpf GmbH (Fig. 2.4); Dr. Torsten Feigl of optiX fab GmbH (Fig. 2.6); Dr. Hakaru Mizoguchi of Gigaphoton, Inc. (Fig. 2.8); Dr. Igor Fomenkov of ASML (Fig. 2.12); Dr. Anthony Yen of ASML (Figs. 2.13, 4.25, and 4.26); Dr. Patrick Naulleau of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Figs. 2.14 and 4.18); Mr. Toru Fujinami and Mr. Sam Gunnell of Energetiq (Fig. 2.18); Dr. Erik Hosler (Figs. 2.25 and 2.28); Dr. Winfried Kaiser of Carl Zeiss (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5); Dr. Yulu Chen of Synopsys, Inc. (Fig. 3.7); Dr. Sudhar Raghunathan (Fig. 3.9); Dr. Carlos A. Duran of Corning, Inc. (Figs. 3.11 and 3.12); Dr. David Trumper of MIT and Dr. Won-Jon Kim of Texas A&M University (Fig. 3.17); Dr. Obert Wood (Fig. 4.6); Dr. Uzodinma Okoroanyanwu of Univ. of Massachusetts (Fig. 4.22); Mr. Preston Williamson of Entegris (Fig. 4.31); Prof. Takahiro Kozawa of Osaka University (Fig. 5.1); Prof. Takeo Watanabe of Hyogo University (Fig. 5.11); Dr. Timothy Weidman of Lam Research, Inc. (Fig. 5.23); Dr. Lieve Van Look of Imec (Fig. 6.13); Dr. Peter De Bisschop of Imec (Fig. 6.18); Dr. Jan Van Schoot of ASML (Fig. 7.5); Dr. Yuya Kamei of Tokyo Electron Ltd. (Fig. 7.7); Mr. Masashi Sunako of Lasertec USA, Inc. (Fig. 8.4); Ms. Anna Tchikoulaeva of Lasertec USA, Inc. (Fig. 8.5); Dr. Klaus Zahlten of Carl Zeiss SMT GmbH (Fig. 10.7); and Dr. Vadim Vanine of ASML (Fig. 10.12). Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Laurie, for her enduring patience. Harry J. Levinson August 2020

Chapter 1

Introduction 1.1 Historical Background For several decades, the resolution capability of optical lithography was extended by a succession of transitions to shorter imaging wavelengths. The first commercially available wafer stepper operated at a visible wavelength (436 nm), while later generations of exposure tools imaged at mid-ultraviolet and deep-ultraviolet wavelengths (Table 1.1). During efforts to continue this process of improving resolution by using a wavelength of 157 nm, with F2 excimer lasers as the light sources, a number of difficulties were encountered, and optical lithography was eventually extended not by using light with a wavelength of 157 nm but by adapting ArF lithography to an immersion configuration that enabled the numerical aperture (NA) to be increased to 1.35. There were some additional efforts to increase the numerical aperture of ArF immersion lithography further, but development activities were eventually suspended because progress was slow.1 The shortest wavelength used in optical lithography continues to be 193 nm. In spite of the lack of success in developing HVM-capable lithographic technologies at 157 nm (or shorter optical wavelengths), lithographers were not ready to discontinue the pursuit of extending lithographic capability. Considerable amounts of money and engineering effort were invested in developing x-ray lithography, with a very short wavelength of ~1 nm. Table 1.1

The wavelengths used for lithography.

Wavelength

Light source

436 nm 365 nm 248 nm 193 nm 13.5 nm

Mercury arc lamp (g-line) Mercury arc lamp (i-line) KrF excimer laser ArF excimer laser Laser-produced plasma

1

Year of first use in high-volume manufacturing (HVM) 1982 1990 1994 2001 2019

2

Chapter 1

Unfortunately, projection optics at this wavelength could not be fabricated, principally because there are no materials that are sufficiently transparent at l
1 nm to form refractive optics, or have sufficient reflectivity for nearnormal incident light, thus precluding reflective optics. This meant that x-ray lithography involved proximity printing, resulting in two significant problems. First, the patterns on wafers are replicated 1:1 from the mask, so mask quality, in terms of registration, dimensional control and defects, had to be exceedingly good. Second, fundamentally and ultimately more consequential, were the diffraction effects that became insurmountable for printing features with dimensions 98% transmission through a 1-cm path length of (molecular) hydrogen gas at 10 Torr, while the transmission through xenon at the same pressure will be