Exploring the Limits: Frontiers and Boundaries in Prehistory 9780860542896, 9781407337944

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Abstracts of Papers
Chapter 1: Exploring the Limits: Introduction
Chapter 2: The Casas Grandes Frontiers as a Boundary: A Case Study from Northern Mexico
Chapter 3: Boundary Maintenance Strategies and Archaeological Indicators
Chapter 4: Organizational Variability on the Frontier: Historic Mormon Settlement in Arizona, 1876-1900
Chapter 5: Defining Prehistoric Frontiers: A Methodological Approach
Chapter 6: The Western Anasazi Frontier: Cultural Processes Along a Prehistoric Boundary
Chapter 7: The Expansion of Exogenous-Based Economies Across Europe: The Balkans and Central Europe
Chapter 8: Hunter-Gatherer Social Group Identification: A Case Study from Middle Woodland Southern Ontario
Chapter 9: Boundaries, Alliance and Exchange in California
Chapter 10: Obsidian and Prehistoric Sociocultural Systems in California
Chapter 11: Boundary Effects and The Analysis of Prehistoric Exchange Systems

Citation preview

Exploring the Limi.ts Frontiers and Boundaries in Prehistory

edited by

· Suzanne P. De Adey and

Frank J. ·Findlow

BAR International Series 223 1984

B.AR.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS

A.R Hands, B. Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S22J, ·1984: 'Exploring the Limits'

©

The Individual Authors, 1984

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542896 paperback ISBN 9781407337944 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542896 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P age L ist o f Cont r ibutors Ab stracts o f P apers 1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

E xp lor ing t he L im its : I n troduct ion S uzanne P . D eAt ley a nd F rank J . F ind low

1

T he F ront ier a s aB ounda ry : S uzanne P . D eAt ley

5

A Ca se S tudy f rom N o rthern Mex ico

B ounda ry Ma intenance S t rateg ies a nd A rchaeo log ica l I nd icators Ka thryn Mau rer T r inkaus

3 5

O rgan izat iona l V a r iab i l ity o n t he F ront ier : S e tt lement i n A r izona , 1 876-1900 J e ffrey L . H antman

5 1

H i stor ic Mo rmon

D e f in ing P reh i stor ic F ront iers : S hereen L e rner

A Me thodo log ica l A pproach

T he We stern A nasaz i F ront ier : P reh istor ic B ounda ry Ma rga ret L yne is

Cu l tura l P rocesses A long A

6 7

T he E xpans ion o f E xogenous-Ba sed E conom ies Ac ross E u rope : T he B a lkans a nd Centra l E u rope Rob in W . D enne l l

8 1

9 3

8 .

H unter-Ga therer S oc ia l G roup I dent if icat ion : A Ca se S tudy f rom M idd le Wood land S outhern On ta r io 17 M ichae l W . S pence , Robe rt H . P ih l , a nd J .E . Mo lto

9 .

B ounda r ies , A l iance a nd E xchange i n Ca l iforn ia l J onathon E . E r icson a nd C lement W . Me ighan

1 43

Ob s id ian a nd P reh istor ic S oc iocu l tura l S y stems i n Ca l iforn ia R icha rd E . H ughes a nd Robert L . B e tt inger

1 53

1 0.

1.

B ounda ry E fects a nd t he A na lys is o f P reh istor ic E xchange f S y stems F rank J . F ind low a nd Ma r isa B o lognese

1 73

L IST OF CONTR IBUTORS

Robert L . B e tt inger D epartment o f A nthropo logy U n ivers ity o f Ca l iforn ia , D av i s , Ca l iforn ia , U .S .A . Ma r isa B o lognese D epartment o f Anthropo logy Co lumb ia U n ivers ity , N ew Y o rk , N ew Y o rk , U .S .A . S uzanne P . D eAt ley Anthropo logy-Archaeo logy P rogram Ma ssachusetts I n st itute o f T echno logy , Camb r idge , Ma ssachusetts , U .S .A . Rob in W . D ennel l D epartment o f P reh istory a nd A rchaeo logy U n ivers ity o f S heff ie ld , E ng land J onathon E . E r icson P rogram i n S oc ia l E co logy U n ivers ity o f Ca l iforn ia , I r v ine , Ca l iforn ia , U .S .A . F rank J . F ind low L ockheed Co rporat ion L os Ange les , Ca l iforn ia , U .S .A . J effrey L . H antman D epa rtment o f Anthropo logy U n ivers ity o f V i rg in ia , Char lottesv i le , V i rg in ia , U .S .A . l R ichard E . H ughes D epartment o f A nthropo logy U n ivers ity o f Ca l iforn ia , D av i s , Ca l iforn ia , U .S .A . S hereen L e rner D epartment o f Anthropo logy A r izona S tate U n ivers ity , T empe , A r izona , U .S .A . Ma rga ret L yne is D epartment o f Anthropo logy U n ivers ity o f N evada , L a s V ega s , N evada , U .S .A . C lement W . Me ighan D epartment o f Anthropo logy U n ivers ity o f Ca l iforn ia , L o s Ange les , Ca l iforn ia , U .S .A . J . E . Mo lto D epartment o f A nthropo logy L akehead U n ivers ity , T hunder B ay , O ntar io P 7B5E 1 , C anada

Robe rt H . P ih l Museum o f I nd ian A rchaeo logy L ondon , Canada M ichae l W . S pence D epa rtment o f A n thropo logy U n ive rs ity o f We stern O ntar io , L ondon, Canada Ka thryn Maurer T r inkaus D epa rtment o f A nthropo logy U n ivers ity o f N ew Mex ico , A lbuque rque , N ew Mex ico , U .S .A .

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS

1 .

E xp lor ing t he L im its :

I n troduct ion

S uzanne P . D eAt ley a nd F rank J . F ind low A s t he i n t roduct ion t o t he v o lume , t he p aper d i scus s es t he i mport ance o f b ounda ry s tud ies i n a rchaeo logy . I t p laces t he f o l low ing c ontr ibut i ons w ith in a n i n tegra ted c ontext o f i nvest iga t ion . T he p apers f ocus o n t he c urrent m ethodo log ica l l im its t o r ecogn iz ing p reh istor ic b ounda r ies , a nd o n i mportant c u ltura l p rocesses t hat o ccur a t t he l im its o f a c u l ture g roup , n a rrow ly o r b road ly d ef ined . 2 .

T he F ront ier a s aB oundary :

A Case S tudy f rom N orthern Mex ico

S uzanne P . D eAt ley F ront iers a re v i ewed a s d ynam ic z ones w h ich p rov ide i mportant i n s i ghts i n to t he n ature o f t he c u l ture f r om w h ich t hey e merge . T hey a re f ormed t hrough t he i n terre lated o perat ion o f s uch f actors a s c ompet it ion f or t err itory , t he r ate o f f r ont ier s et tlement , l oca l f ront ier a dapt ive s t rateg ies , t he p urpose o f c o lon izat ion , a nd t he i n tegrat ive m echan ism s o perat ive o n t he f ront ier . A s as pec ia l c lass o f b ounda r ies , f ront iers a re p a rt icu la r ly u sef u l f or i nvest igat ing w hy c u l tures d i ffer i n t he w ays a nd e xtent t o w h ich t hey i s o late t hemse lves f rom o ther g roups . T he p rocesses i nvo lved i n f ronlum t i er f ormat ion a l so i inate h ow c erta in t ypes o f b ounda r ies f ac i l itate i n ter-group i n teract ion w h i le o thers d o n ot . T he d eve lopment o f t he n orthe rn f ront ier o f t he c l imax p er iod Ch ihuahua Cu l ture i n n orthern Mex ico s erves a s a n e xamp le f o r t h is s tudy .

3 .

B oundary Ma intenance S trateg ies a nd A rchaeo log ica l I nd icators Ka thryn Mau rer T r inkaus

T he p o l it ica l s t ructure o f e mp ires i s s uch t hat t hey e xp lo it w ide t e rr i tor ies w h ich i nc lude o ther e x ist ing p o l it ica l o rgan izat ions o f v a ry ing c omp lex ity . A ccord ing ly , t he s t rateg ies a nd m echan isms f or b i nd ing t hese d i v erse l oca l a dm in istra t ions t o t he c entra l p ower a nd f o r b ounda ry m a inten ance mu st b e f l ex ib le . H owever , t h is f l ex ib i l ity c an p resent p rob lems i n emp loy ing t rad it iona l a rchaeo log ica l i nd icators o f s tate b ounda r ies . T h is p aper d i scusses a l ternat ive m eans o f r ecogn iz ing b ounda ry m a intenance s t rateg ies u s ing a s a n e xamp le t he i ncorporat ion o f N o rthea st I r an i n to t he S a ssan ian e mp ire .

4 .

O rgan izat iona l V ar iab i l ity o n t he F ront ier : i n A r izona , 1 876-1900

H i stor ic Mormon S ett lement

J e ffrey L . H antman T h is p aper e xam ines t he h i stor ic r ecord a nd o rgan iza t iona l a spect s o f t he c o lon izat ion o f E a st-Centra l A r izona b y Mo rmon f armers m igrat ing p r ima r i ly f rom U tah ( 1876-1900) . T he r e lat ive s uccess o r f a i lu re o f t he o r ig ina l f ront ier c ommun it ies i s c ons ide red a nd r easons f o r t he d i fferent ia l s urv iva l a re e xp lored . T he s tudy p rov ides a s pec if ica ly a nthropo log ica l p erspect ive l o n h i stor ica l f ront ier b ehav ior . I t f ocuses o n v a r iat ion i n a dapt ive s t rateg ies a nd r evea ls s ome n ew p erspect ives o n c ommon ly h e ld a ssumpt ions . S econda ri l y , s uggest ions a re m ade a s t o h ow t he m ethods w h ich a rchaeo log ists u se t o r ecogn ize a nd i n terpret f ront ier a daptat ions i n p reh istory m ay b e i mproved .

5 .

D ef in ing P reh istor ic F ront iers :

A Methodo log ica l Approach

S hereen L e rner A r t ifactua l a nd s ett lement p attern d a ta f r om t he l ower V e rde V a ley l a rea i n c entra l A r izona a re a na lyzed i n a n e ffo rt t o i s o late t he b ounda r ies b etween p reh isto r ic s ett lement s ystems . T he i s o lat ion o f p reh istor ic c u l tura l s ystems w ith in t he s tudy a rea w as a ccomp l ished t hrough t he s equent ia l u se o f av a r iety o f s tat ist ica l m ethods . T he r esu l ts o f t hese a na lyses s uggest t hat i t i s p oss ib le , b oth t o a ccura te ly i s o late t he b ounda r ies o f e xt inct c u lt ura l s ystems , a nd t o a na lyze t he c u l tura l p rocesses u nder ly ing t he m a inten ance o f s uch f ront iers .

6 .

T he Western Anasaz i F ront ier : B oundary

Cu ltura l P rocesses A long a P reh istor ic

Ma rga ret L yne is T he i n terface o f t he A nasaz i w ith t he h unters a nd g atherers o f t he Mohave D e sert c a . A .D . 5 00 t o 150 i s e xam ined i n a n e ffort t o i s o late t he e conom ic f actors r espons ib le f or t he m a intenance o f t he c u l tura l f ron t iers b etween t he t wo p eop les . I n it ia l r esu l ts o f t h is e xam inat ion s uggest t ha t t he f ront ier b etween t he t wo p opu lat ions w as m a inta ined , i n p art , t hrough t he e x istence o f a n e xtens ive t rade n etwork i nvo lv ing b oth p rest ige a nd s ubs ist ence p roducts . T he n ature o f t h is e xchange p attern a nd i t s e ventua l c o ll apse a re d i scussed .

7 .

T he E xpans ion o f E xogenous-Based B a lkans a nd Centra l E urope

E conom ies

A cross

E urope :

T he

Rob in W . D ennel l T he f ront ier b etween m eso l ith ic a nd n eo l ith ic p opu lat ions d ur ing t he e ar ly n eo l ith ic o f s outheast a nd c entra l E u rope t rad it iona ly h as b een v i ewl e d a s aw avel ike b ounda ry w ith t he m eso l ith ic p opu lat ions i nexorab ly p ushe d b ack b y n ew n eo l ith ic g roups f rom A s ia M ino r. A s c urrent ly a va i lab le d a ta d o n ot s upport s uch a m ode l , a n a l ternate m ode l i s p roposed . I n t h is n ew m ode l t he f ront ier b etween t he t wo p opu la t ions i s s een a s a n " open" o r " porous" o ne i nvo lv ing b i-d i rect iona l c u l tura l e xchanges a nd d eve lopment .

8 .

H unter-Gatherer S oc ia l G roup I dent if icat ion : Wood land S outhern Ontar io

A Case S tudy f rom M idd le

M ichae l W . S pence , Robert H . P ih l , a nd 3 .E . Mo lto Most i nvest igators h ave c ha racter ized h unter-gatherer s oc iet ies a s l b s mal ands w ith f l u id m embersh ip , n o c lear ly d ef ined s oc ia l i dent ity , a nd a n e ga l itar ian s t ructure . H owever , o steo log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l d ata i nd icate l t hat a more c omp lex f orm o f o rgan izat ion d eve loped a mong t he H opewe l iani n f luenced b ands o f t he R ice L ake r eg ion i n Canada . B ur ia l m ounds a nd h abi t at ion s i tes f orm d i screte c lusters a long t he l akeshore , e ach r epresent ing a l oca l b and o f s ome 1 00 i nd iv idua ls w ith i t s own t err itory . V a r iat ions i n m ort ua ry t reatment a nd n on-metr ic s ke leta l t ra its s how a n e l ite s et b a sed t o s ome d egree o n d escent. I n s ome c ases t wo o r t hree s uch b ands s hared t he s ame s et o f r esources a nd h ad c lose ly i n terre lated e l ites , y et s t il a inl m t a ined s epa rate h ab itat ion s i tes a nd c emeter ies . T hese t e rr itor ia l b ands w ere t he l a rgest f orma l s oc ia l u n its o f t he r eg ion . D e sp ite e xtens ive i n tera ct ion a nd i n termarr iage , r ef lected i n t he d i str ibut ion o f H opewe l i a n g o ods l a nd i n t he i nc lus ion o f t he r eg ion 's i nhab itants i n as i ng le b io log ica l p opu lat i on, t he v a r ious l oca l a nd t err itor ia l b ands d o n ot s eem t o h ave f ormed p art o f al a rger r eg iona l b and w ith i t s own i dent ity a nd s t ructure .

9 .

B oundar ies , A l iance a nd E xchange i n Ca l iforn ia l J onathon E . E r icson a nd C lement W . Me ighan

T he p aper e xam ines t he i n terre lat ionsh ips o f b ounda r ies, a l iance, l a nd e xchange s ystems i n Ca l iforn ia u s ing a rchaeo log ica l a nd e thnograph ic d ata . T he t ypes o f a rchaeo log ica l c r iter ia n ecessary t o d ef ine a rchaeo log ic a l b oundar ies a re c ons idered , a nd o ne e xcel xamp le a mong t he Yumans l ent e a nd S hoshone i s c ited . K roeber a nd o ther e thnographers r ecorded t he l ocat i on o f e thno l ingu i st ic b ounda r ies a nd a l iance s ystems . Whereas a l iance l l s ystems c rosscut m any c u ltura l a nd p hys ica l p atterns , e xchange s ystems , b ased o n t he e xchange o f o bs id ian , d o n ot . T he a uthors d i scuss t he n ature o f t hese o bserva t ions .

1 0.

Obs id ian a nd P reh istor ic S oc iocu ltura l S ystems i n Ca l iforn ia R ichard E . H ughes a nd Robert L . B e tt inger

Recent a rchaeo log ica l t heor ies o f c u lture p rocess h ave p laced i n c reas ing s t ress o n t he r o le o f s oc iopo l it ica l o rgan izat ion , b ut i t w ou ld a pp ear t hat o ur a b i l ity t o t heor ize a bout s uch p henomena f ar e xceed o ur a b i li t y t o d ea l w ith t hem i n s pec if ic a rchaeo log ica l s i tua t ions . T h is i s p art icul a r ly t rue w ith r ega rd t o t he d ef in it ion a nd r ecogn it ion o f i nd iv idua l s oc iop o l it ica l s ystems t hat a re t he o perat iona l u n its f or m ost o f t hese t heor ies . U s ing e xamp les f rom n orthern , c entra l, a nd e astern Ca l iforn ia , d i scuss ion f ocuses o n t he u se o f o bs id ian s ource a na lys is a s ab a s is f or d e l im it ing p reh i stor ic s oc iopo l it ica l s ystems a nd t he ir t err itor ia l b oundar ies a nd e xp lores t he p rob lems s urround ing t h is a pproach t o t he p rob lem .

1.

B oundary E ffects a nd t he Ana lys is o f P reh istor ic E xchange S ystems F rank 3 . F ind low a nd Ma r isa B o lognese

Wh i le t he r ecent a rchaeo log ica l l i terature c onta ins m any s tud ies o f p reh istor ic e xchange , v ery f ew o f t hese s tud ies h ave f ocused o n t he c u ltura l d ynam ics r espons ib le f or t he d eve lopment o f e xchange s ystem b oundar ies . A s ac onsequence v ery l i tt le i s k nown a bout t he n ature o f p reh istor ic e xchange i n a nd a round t he f ront iers t hat s epa rate a d jacent e xchange s ystems . I n t h is s tudy a p re l im ina ry s er ies o f a na lyses a re u ndertaken i n a n e ffort t o s hed l i ght o n t he c haracter ist ics o f e xchange i n a rea s c onta in ing c ompet ing e xc hange n etworks . T he p r imary o b ject ives o f t h is s tudy a re t wofo ld . T he f i rst i s t o p rov ide s ome s imp le m ode ls o f p oss ib le e dge e ffects t hat m ight e x ist a long e xchange s ystem b ounda r ies . T he s econd i s t o e va lua te t he u t i l ity o f t rad it iona l c urve-f itt ing t echn iques , l i ke t hose p roposed b y Refrew ( 1977) . T he d a ta u sed i n t h is s tudy w ere o bta ined f rom a n e xam inat ion o f o bs id ian u se o n s evera l t housand a rchaeo log ica l s i tes l ocated i n A r izona a nd N ew Mex ico . P re l im ina ry r esu l ts o f t he a na lyses r eported o n h ere s uggest m ost c urve-f itt ing t echn iques w il roduce s pur ious r esu lts i f t he d ata u sed i n l p c lude m ater ia l o bta ined f rom t he v ic in ity o f b ounda r ies s eparat ing a d jacent e xchange s ystems .

1 .

EXPLOR ING T HE L IMITS : I NTRODUCT ION

S uzanne P . D e A t ley F rank J . F ind low

A s i n te l lectua l t r ends i n a rchaeo logy s h ift w ith t he d ecades , t he n a t ure o f t he r esearch q uest ions a l so c hanges ; y et o ne a spect t hat r ema ins c onstant i s t hat much o f t he a rchaeo log ist 's w ork i s d ependent u pon t he a b i l ity t o i s o late p reh istor ic c u l tura l u n its . Whether t he a im o f t he r esea rch i s h i stor ica l i dent if ica t ion a nd r econstruct ion o f e thn ic g roups o r t he s tudy o f p rocesses t hat m o ld h uman b ehav ior a nd i n teract ion , t he b ehav ior t ha t i s t he f ocus o f o ur s tudy i sp resumed t o t ake p lace i n t he c ontext o f ad ef ine a b le s oc ia l u n it , n arrow ly o r b road ly c once ived . A ccord ing ly , t he d oma in o f i nvest igat ion mu st b e l im ited i n s ome w ay - The a rchaeo log ist , o f c ourse , h opes t hat t he u n it s egregated f or a na lys is r epresents s ome c u l tura l r ea l ity . O f ten , h owever , c ond it ions d ictate t ha t d ef in it ion o f t he b ounda r ies b e d one i n a n a d h oc f ash ion . F o r e xamp le , t he s tudy u n it m ay b e d i st ingu i shed b y l im its w h ich r ef lect o n ly p art ia l ly t he c ompos it ion o f p reh istor ic g roups o f i n terest . A c ommon s i tua t ion i s t he u se o f a ppa rent g eograph ica l b a rr iers o r d i screte a rch itectura l u n its t o b ound a s oc ia l g roup . Wh i le p resent ing c onv en ient p arameters f o r i nvest igat ion , t hey m ay c onta in o n ly a s egment o f a g roup l i nked i n a b roader n etwork . O ther c ommon c onstra int s w h ich i n f l uence t he m eans o f d e l im it ing p reh istor ic g roups i n c lude t he a va i lab i l ity l a nd r epresentat ive n a ture o f c o lect ions a nd l im itat ions i n f und ing w h ich d icta te t he e xtent o f i nvest iga t ion o f a n a rea . On t he o ther h and , p redeterm ined d egrees o f s im i lar ity i n t he m ate ri a l c u lture a s semb lages o f s i tes i n a n a rea m ay s erve a s t he b a s is f or d i ffere nt ia t ing s oc ia l u n its . T he r esu l t ing g roups a re t hen i n terpreted t o b e e thn ic , t r iba l , o r l anguage g roup ings . Wh i le t h is a pproach c an b e u sed t o i denl t i fy m oda l d i fferences , i t p rov ides n o m eans f o r r ecogn iz ing t he c u l tura ly m ean ingfu l b ounda r ies o f t he g roups i n q uest ion , s i nce t he d i st ingu i sh ing l t ra its u sua ly a re f ound t o m erge i n to o ne a nother a t t he m a rg ins o f t he f s oc ia l u n its . T he d i f icu l ty e ncountered i n m ov ing f rom h eur ist ic a b stract ion t o p hys ica l r ea l ity i s n ot l im ited t o t he r ea lm o f a rchaeo log ica l i nvest igat i on . Among m odern p opu lat ions m erg ing o f c u l tura l t ra its i s c ommon ly o bs erved , a nd t he e xtent o f c ha racter ist ics s uch a s l i ngu i st ic a ff i l iat ion , p o l itl i ca l a leg ience , e conom ic i n teract ion , a nd m ater ia l c u l ture d i st r ibut ions o ften d o n ot c o inc ide t o f o rm a s i ng le u n if ied l i ne o f d emarcat ion . s o P reva i l ing p rocedures o ften b eg t he q uest ion o f t he d i scretenes f c u l tura l s ystems . Consequent ly t hey m ay o bscure i mportant a spects o f t he s v ery i sues w e c hoose t o i nvest igate . T h is i s n ot t o s ay t hat s oc ia l g roups a re n ot i mportant . I n deed , m embers o f h uman p opu lat ions s pend a g reat d ea l

1

o f t he ir e nerg ies o n d i fferent iat ing t hemse lves f r om o ther g roups , i n c onsc ious w ays o r u nawa res , a nd b e ing a b le t o i dent ify o nese lf a s am ember o f a p a rt icu lar g roup i s o ften o f p a ramount i mportance t o t he i nd iv idua l 's s urv iv a l . F u rthermore , t he g roups w ith w h ich p eop le i d ent ify c an o ften b e c ha ra cter ized b y a m oda l c lu ster o f m ater ia l c u l ture a nd b ehav iora l t ra its a s w el l a s b y a n a rea w ith a c entra l g eograph ica l , a nd o ften a n o rgan iza t iona l f ocus . T he d i ff icu lty l i es i n t he e xpectat ion t hat h uman g roups h ave m arg ins l i ke o rgan isms d o ; t hat i s , t hat t here i s al im it , a n e nve lope o f s ome s ort , t hat c onta ins a nd e mbod ies t he e nt ire s et o f p rocesses t ha t c ha racter ize t he c u l tura l u n it . T hus i s o lated , t he i dea l c u l tura l u n it e x ists a s as epa rate e ni ty w hose c ompos ite e lements a re n on-cont inuou s w ith r espect t o o ther c u l t t ura l u n its i n t he u n iverse . G iven s hort e nough p er iods o f t ime , i t m ay b e p oss ib le t o s ee h uman p opu lat ions a s s epa rate o r n on-cont inuous e nt it ies ; b ut e ven g roups s et a pa rt b y g eograph ica l b a rr ie rs h ave h i stor ica l c ont inu i ty w ith p arent p opu lat ions . F u rthermore , t hey s e ldom r ema in v iab le i n i s o lat i on , a nd w ith t ime a nd o pportun ity t here i s s ome t endency t o a ttach t o a nother g roup a nd t o b eg in a n a ssoc iat ive p rocess w hereby t he t wo c an n o l o nger t ru ly b e c ons idered d i st inct . I n f act , m ost p opu lat ions m erge o r o verl ap , a nd t herefore t hey a re n ot t ru ly s epa rated o r u nb lended ; a s s uch , t hey a re n ot d i screte . Y e t i t i s a m atter o f r ecord t hat v i rtua ly a l h uman l l g roups m ake d i st inct ions b etween s egments o f ap opu lat ion . T h is r a ises t he q uest ion o f t he s i gn if icance o f b ounda ry f o rmat ion i n g enera l , a nd h ow i t o perates i n d i fferent c ontexts . B ounda r ies a re n ot s ta t ic p henomena , b ut a re a n i n tegra l p a rt o f t he i n teract iona l p rocesses d ef in ing a nd i n tegrat ing c u l tura l u n its . T h is c ha ract er ist ic o f b ounda r ies i s p a rt icu lar ly i mportant w hen t he i n teract ions s tud ied i nvo lve v a r iab le d i str ibut ions o f d i fferent t ypes o f m ater ia l c u lture , o r w hen t hey s e lect ive ly i nvo lve s ome b ehav iors a nd n ot o thers , f o r e xamp le e conomi c d ec is ions b ut n ot l i ngu i st ic a ff i l iat ion . T hus t he w ay i n w h ich c u l tura l l im its m ed iate i n t he i n teract ions b ecomes i n terest ing . A s t he l oc i f or m any k inds o f i n tergroup i n teract ion , t hey a re c r it ica l i n u nderstand ing h ow a nd w hy s e lect ive t ransm iss ion o f g oods a nd i deas o ccur b etween g roups o r b et ween a g roup a nd i t s e nv i ronment . T he p urpose o f t h is b ook i s t o e xp lore t he l im its d i scussed a bove . S ince s oc ia l u n its p rov ide t he c ontext f o r h uman b ehav ior , t he d oma in i n w h ich i to ccurs mu st b e c lear i n o rder t o u nderstand t hese b ehav iors . O ne q uest ion a ddressed i s h ow t o i dent ify o r l ocate b ounda r ies . T h is i s p a rt icul a r ly a t i s sue f o r l oose ly o rgan ized g roups , s uch a s s ome h unters a nd g athere rs w hose s oc ia l l im its c an b e e lu s ive . A s econd q uest ion p ursued i n t he c ontr ibut ions p resented h ere i s w hy b ounda r ies a re f o rmed . A r e lated a spect i s w hat p rocesses d ictate t he ir f o rm a nd t he ir r e lat ion t o t he ir o wn g roup a s w el l a s t o o thers . T he t h ird f ocus o f t he p apers i s w hat c onst itutes t he m ethodo log ica l l im its t o d ef in ing p reh istor ic s oc ia l u n its a nd t o u nderstandi n g p rocesses a t t he ir e dges . P reva i l ing a ssumpt ions a re q uest ioned a nd a l t erna t ive s t ra teg ies f or i nvest iga t ion a re p roposed . T he p apers i n t h is v o lume c omb ine t hese a spects a s t hey t reat a v a ri e ty o f g eograph ica l a reas a nd d egrees o f s oc ia l c omp lex ity i n t he s oc iet ies i nvo lved .The o rgan izat ion o f t he c ontr ibut ions i n p a rt i s b a sed o n b road c ate gor ies o f s oc ia l o rgan izat ion . I ti s o ften e as ies t t o d ef ine s ome l im its f o r h igh ly s t ructured s oc ia l g roups , s o t he q uest ions f ocus m ore d i rect ly o n h ow t he b ounda r ies a re f ormed a nd w hy t hey v a ry . T he f i rst t h ree p apers i nvest i gate b ounda ry p rocesses f or a gr icu l tura l s oc iet ies w ith v a ry ing d egrees o f c entra l ized p o l it ica l c ontro l a nd o rgan izat ion . Wh i le t hey r ange w ide ly i n t ime a nd g eograph ic e xtent , t hey f o rm a u sefu l s u i te t o e xam ine t he e xtent

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t o w h ich t he v a r ious c entra l ized p ower g roups s hape t he c ha racter o f t he b ounda ry a round t hemse lves . T hey a re s im i lar i n t hat t hey a l a ct t o c ontro l l t err itory i n s ome w ay i n t he p rocess o f t he ir e xp lo itat ion o f d i stant r eg ions . F rom h ere w e m ove t o l e ss c entra l ized s oc iet ies w here t here a re s ha red t rad i t ions a nd s ty les , b ut c ommun i t ies a re m ore a utonomous . T he p apers b y L yne is a nd L e rner p rov ide a c ontra st t o t he p reced ing w orks . T hey d i scuss t he p rocesses o f b ounda ry f ormat ion a nd m a intenance i n c ases w here e xpans ion d oes n ot a ppear t o b e d i rected f r om a c ore a rea a s s uch . Ra ther, i t s eems t o b e t he r esu l t o f p opu lat ion e xpans ion w ith a p r imary d es ire o n t he p art o f t he c o lon ists t o s ecure m eans o f s ubs istence . I n t he p rocess , h owever , c ommun it ies m ay b ecome s i tua ted i n d es irab le l o cat ions f or t rade o r a ccess t o v a lued r e sources . B y t h is m eans t hey m ay b ecome i n tegrated i n to n etworks l a rger t han t hose i n w h ich t hey w ou ld n orma ly l p a rt ic ipate . T he c ontr ibut ion b y D enne l l i s ap ivota l o ne i n t he s er ies i n t hat i t d escr ibes t he i n teract ion b etween a gr icu l tura l ists a nd h unters a nd g atherers . I t p roposes a m ode l t o e xp la in t he a ppa rent " d i sappea rance" o f t he l a tter . I t i s ag enera l a pp l icat ion o f ac oncept o f b ounda ry p rocesses r ather t han a s pec if ic c ase s tudy , b ut i t p rov ides a n i n terest ing s cena r io f or t he i n teract ion b etween t wo d i st inct ly d i fferent t ypes o f s oc ia l g roups . T he n ext t hree p apers t ake a s t he ir s ub jects h unters a nd g atherers . S pence e t a l . c oncentrate o n m eans o f i dent ify ing s oc ia l g roups a mong t h is l oose ly o rgan ized t ype o f p opu lat ion . I t i s a n i mportant f ocus b ecause i t s ets t he s tage f or p oss ib le b ounda ry s tud ies . Obv ious ly , b ounda ry p rocesses d epend o n t he i n tegra t ive a nd o rgan izat iona l a spects o f t he c entra l g roup . I n o rder t o o bserve t hose p rocesses f or a p art icu la r g roup , i t mu st b e p osl s ib le t o d ef ine i t i n s ome w ay . T he f o low ing p apers d i scuss t he p rob lems i nvo lved i n b ounda ry i d ent if icat ion f o r h unters a nd g atherers . I n f act , i n t hese c ases i t i s o ften m ore u sefu l t o f ocus o n t he b ounda ry o f ap a rt icu lar t ype o f s oc ia l n etwork , s uch a s a n e xchange s ystem . N o t o n ly i s i t a rchaeol l og ica ly m ore r ead i ly i dent if iab le , b ut t he a uthors a rgue t hat i t h as g reater b ehav iora l s i gn if icance t han e thno l ingu i st ic g roups , f o r e xamp le . T he f i na l p aper b y F ind low a nd B o lognese h a s b een i nc luded i n t h is s ect ion b ecause s o m uch o f t he b ounda ry w ork a mong h unters a nd g atherers h as f ocused o n o bs id ian e xchange . I ti sp r ima r i ly a m ethodo log ica l p aper, a nd i tp o ints o ut t he c omp lex it ies o f r econstruct ing t he l im its o f e ven o ne " s ub-system" i n c u l tura l i n teract ions . I n f act , a l l t he p apers h ave m ethodo log ica l f oc i a s w e l l . T hus t he a uthors e xp lore t he l i m its o f b ounda r ies a nd f r ont iers i n p reh isto ry i n t wo s enses . On t he o ne h and , t hey i nvest igate t he p er ipher ies o f p a rt icu la r c u lt ures t o s ee h ow t hey a re f ormed a nd m a inta ined . O n t he o ther h and , t hey e xam ine t he c urrent m ethodo log ica l l im its t o s tudy ing b ounda ry p henomena i n a rchaeo logy . A s w ith m ost f ront iers , t he e xp lorat ion p rocess p ushes b ack t he u ncha rted t err itory ; t he a im o f t h is v o lume i s t o e xpand t he l i m its i n p reh istor ic b ounda ry s tud ies .

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2 .

T HE CASAS GRANDES FRONT IER AS A BOUNDARY : A CASE S TUDY FROM NORTHERN MEX ICO

S uzanne P . D eAt ley

I NTRODUCT ION

T he i mportance o f b oundary r ecogn it ion i n m ost a rchaeo log ica l w ork l i es e i ther i n t he d es ire t o i dent ify d i st inct e thn ic o r s oc ia l g roups , o r t o d ef ine t he l im its f or t he o perat ion o f p a rt icu lar e conom ic o r p o l it ica l o rgani zat ions . A s s uch, t he m eans o f c haracter iz ing b ounda r ies t end t o b e o f s eco ndary i mportance . H ere , h owever , t he i n terest i s i n t he b oundary f ormat ion p rocess i t se lf . B y m ak ing t he b oundary t he f ocus o f i nvest igat ion i n stead o f t reat ing i t a s as tat ic p arameter , i t s hou ld b e p oss ib le t o d i scover t he ways t hat a c u lture g roup e xpands , m a inta ins , a nd i n as ense , d ef ines i t se lf i n i t s s oc ia l a nd p hys ica l e nv i ronment . T h is i s i mportant , f or a l though a b oundary i s p art o f t hat c u l tura l e nt ity , i t i s d i fferent f rom i t . I t i s n ot s imp ly a s ubs et o f t ra its t hat c haracter ize t he c entra l a rea ; r ather , i t e x ists i n as pec ia l r e lat ionsh ip t o t he c ore t hat r ef lects b oth t he i n terna l o rgan izat ion o f t he c u ltura l g roup a nd t he i n teract ion w ith g roups o uts ide i t se lf . T he b oundary d e l im it ing t he s pat ia l e xtent o f ac omp lex c u l ture i s o ften c haracter ized a s af ront ier , y et t here i s n o s i ng le a ccepted d ef in it ion o f t he p henomenon. N onethe less , much i n tu it ive a greement e x ists a s t o w hat c onst itutes a f ront ier . F i rst , i t i s a n a rea t hat i n s ome r espect i s m arg ina l . I t i s u sua ly a f r inge o r a n o uter b ounda ry , b ut i t a l so m ay b e n on-cont igul o us w ith t he c entra l a rea . I t i s e xp lo ited b y ac ore g roup t hrough c o lon ies e stab l ished t here , a nd t he p urpose o f t he e xp lo itat ion v a r ies . I t m ay p rov ide ag rowth a rea f or a n e xpand ing p opu lat ion ; i t m ay b e c reated a s a b uffer z one b etween t wo g roups v y ing f or t err itory a nd p ower ; o r i t m ay b e a s ource o f l abor , s tap les , s tatus g oods , o r t echno log ica l r esources . I t i s a l so a ccepted t hat a f ront ier p opu lat ion r epresents a u n ique t ype o f t rans it iona l s oc ia l g roup w h ich b ecomes i n tegrated i n to t he c ore g roup o rgan izat ion t hrough t he e xp lo itat ion o f t he a rea ( W i lems 1 977 ; L ew is 1 977 ; Cooter l 1 977) . T hus , f ront iers d o n ot s imp ly d ema rcate t he l im its o f ac u l ture . T hey h ave a d ynam ic a spect : t he p rocesses i nvo lved i n t he f ormat ion a nd m a int enance o f f ront iers a ct i n s uch a w ay t hat n ot o n ly d o t he c haracter ist ics o f p art icular b oundar ies c hange t hrough t ime , b ut f ront iers d i ffer i n c haract er ist ics f rom o ne s i tuat ion t o a nother. N o t o n ly m ay d i fferent c u l tures d ev e lop d ifferent t ypes o f f ront iers , b ut i t i s a l so p oss ib le t hat t he b ounda ry a round a s i ng le c omp lex c u ltura l e nt ity m ay b e m an ifested a s m ore t han o ne f ront ier t ype . Most f ront ier s tud ies h ave c oncentrated o n c omp lex s tate s oc iet ies . S ince b oundary f ormat ion c an b e s o v a r iab le , i t w ou ld b e o f i n ter-

5

e st t o k now w hether t he s ame p rocesses p redom inate g roups w ith a n emerg ing c entra l ized o rgan izat ion .

i n

n onindustr ia l

I t i s i n t h is r ega rd t hat t he c l imax Ch ihuahua Cu l ture i n n orthern Mex ico i s p art icu lar ly r e levant . T he g eograph ica l e xtent h as b een d e l ineated l t f a ir ly wel hrough s urvey w ork ( F igure 2 . 1) , a nd d i st inct ive r eg ions c haract er ized b y v a r iat ion i n c eram ic a nd a rch itectura l s ty les a ppear t o h ave b een i n tegrated a t l east l oose ly u nder a c entra l a uthor ity ( c f . K idder 1 916 ; S ay les 1 936 ; B rand 1 943 ; H aury 1 945) . T he s i te o f Ca sas G randes h as b een a ccepted a s t he p o l it ica l c enter o f t h is ma jor a rchaeo log ica l a rea , a nd e xc avat ions b y t he J o int Ca sas G randes P ro ject ( D iPe so 1 974) p rov ided d ata f or i n ferr ing t he s oc ia l c omp lex ity o f t he Ch ihuahua Cu lture . T he l a rge u rb an p opu lat ion l ocated t here h ad m arked s oc ia l s t rat if icat ion , a d eve loped p o l it ica l o r r e l ig ious h ierarchy , s pec ia l ized c raf ts , a nd l a rge s ca le p ub l ic works , a mong o ther t h ings . T here i s e v idence o f e xtens ive u se o f r aw m at er ia ls n ot l ocal va i lab le a t t he u rban c enter, s uch a s t urquo ise , o bs id ian, ly a c lay , s hel nd p igments ( We igand e t a l . 1 977 ; D iPe so 1 974) , a nd o f i mportal a t i on o f c eram ics f rom g roups i n t he U .S . S outhwest a nd Mesoamer ica ( Brand 1 943 ; D iPeso 1 974) . Ca sas G randes a pparent ly r e l ied h eav i ly u pon w ide ly s cattered a reas w ith in a nd o uts ide t he Ch ihuahua Cu lture b oundar ies f or a n umber o f g oods e ssent ia l t o t he m a intenance o f i t s s oc io-econom ic o rgan iz at ion , a nd t h is may h ave b een a m a jor i mpetus f or t he e xpans ion o f i t s s phere o f i n f luence . I t h as b een p ostu lated t hat i n t he p rocess o f o bta in ing t rade g oods , t he l eaders a t Ca sas G randes h ad s i gn if icant i mpact o n t he d eve lopment o f m a jor S outhwestern c enters a s w el s o n a reas w ith in t he ir l a i mmed iate g eograph ica l s cope . T he r ap id e mergence o f c entra l ized c ontro l a nd t he r i se o f t he u rban c enter t ook p lace d ur ing t he Med io P e r iod a t Ca sas G randes . T he f i rst p hase , c a led B uena F e , was s i gna led b y m a jor d eve lopments i n t echno logy l l a nd s oc ia l o rgan izat ion i n t he b as ic c u lture a t Ca sas G randes. D i fferent iat i on a l so o ccurred i n t he c eram ic i ndustry t hroughout t he Ca sas G randes d ra inage ( Kidder 1 916 ; B rand 1 935 ; S ay les 1 936 ; D iPe so 1 966) . I n a dd it ion t o t he o r ig ina l b rown wares , r ed a nd b lack wares w ere m anufactured a nd t he u n ique Ca sas G randes P o lychrome s er ies a ppeared a nd b ecame w idespread . T h is c eram ic d ivers ity was a ugmented b y a v a r iety o f t rade wares f rom t he n orth ( Brand 1 943 ; D iPeso 1 966) . F o low ing t he i n it ia l c hanges t here was a l p opu lat ion i ncrease a l o ver t he Ch ihuahua Cu lture a rea ( Brand 1 943 ; D iPe so l 1 974) wh ich s eems t o r epresent t he m ax imum c lass ic p er iod e xpans ion . T h is i s c a led t he P aqu i r ne p hase . A t Ca sas G randes i t was marked b y a rch itecl t ura l m od if icat ions w h ich s erved a d iverse a nd s t rat if ied s oc iety . T he e ar l ie r s imp le h ouse c lusters w ere r ep laced b y m ass ive a gg lomerated h ouse g roups made o f p udd led a dobe , a nd t he c i ty w as d iv ided i n to a reas o f r es id ence , c raft g u i lds , a nd c eremon ia l a rch itecture. P ub l ic w orks f or water c ontro l b ecame p reva lent , a nd a n etwork o f t ra i ls a nd c ommun icat ion t owers w as m a inta ined ( DiPe so 1 966 , 1 974) . D iPeso b e l ieved t he u rban izat ion p roc ess was p lanned a nd q u i te r ap id , a nd t hat t he c hanges i n l oca l o rgan iza t ion a nd i n tegrat ion a t Ca sas t rad ing c enter.

G randes

w ere d ue t o i t s d eve lopment a s a m a jor

E v idence f rom s i tes a long t he Ca sas G randes d ra inage i nd icates t hat t he d eve lopment o f s t rat if icat ion a nd c entra l izat ion o bserved a t t he u rban c enter was w idespread ( Brand 1 943 ; D iPeso 1 974) . T he r eg iona l s ett lement s ystem i s h ierarch ica l w ith t i ers o f i n terconnected s ett lements s pread t hroughout d i fferent r esource z ones . I t h as b een p roposed t hat Ca sas G randes a l so was l i nked b y e conom ic t i es , a t l east , t o s uch s atel i tes lite s e stab l ished

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6

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i mportant r esources w ere l ocated . T he c ommod it ies s ought i nc luded u t i l itari a n i t ems s uch a s o bs id ian a nd s a lt , l uxury m ater ia ls s uch a s t urquo ise a nd c opper, a nd u ndoubted ly s upp lementary s ubs istence r esources . T here i s d i sagreement a s t o w hether t h is e xpans ion was d ue t o Me soa mer ican m erchant a dventurers ' a ct iv it ies , o r w hether i t c an b e e xp la ined a s a n i nd igenous d eve lopment ( LeB lanc a nd N e lson 1 976) . D iPe so ( 1966 , 1 974) c ontended t hat a p ochteca g roup f rom c entra l Mex ico g radua ly g a inl e d c ontro l o ver a nd f i na l ly i mposed i t s l eadersh ip o n t he o r ig ina l v i l lagef a rm ing p eop le who w ere w idespread t hroughout t he N o rthern S ierra a nd w hose l i festy le p rov ided t he f oundat ion f or t he Ch ihuahua Cu lture ( D iPe so 1 966 ; Ke ley 1 956 , 1 966) . N onethe less , i t i s a ccepted t hat Ca sas G randes l b ecame t he m a jor p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic c enter o f t he Ch ihuahua Cu lture , a t l east i nto t he l a te 1 3th c entury A .D . , a nd p oss ib ly l onger. T he Ca sas G randes r eorgan izat ion i s t hought t o u nder l ie c hanges i n n orthern Mex ico a nd i n t he U .S . S outhwest , a nd t he m ode l o f Ca sas G randes p o l it ica l d eve lopment r e l ies o n t he v a l id ity o f t he p roposed r eg iona l i n terdep endenc ies . T he c u lm inat ion o f D iPeso 's ( 1974) work a t Ca sas G randes c ont r ibuted s ubstant ia ly t o i inat ing a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins t here , b ut h e l lum e xp l ic it ly s tated t hat h i s f i nd ings o n ly c ou ld b e c ons idered s pec if ic t o t he c entra l a rea . T he d ata a re s uggest ive , b ut t he p rec ise n ature o f t he r e lat i onsh ip b etween Ca sas G randes a nd i t s s upport ing p opu lat ions r ema ins c onj ectura l , a s d oes t he i mpact o f e vents a t t he u rban c enter o n o ther r eg ions . A l though p ara le l e vents c an b e s een i n a d jacent a reas t o t he s outh a nd l w est ( Gladw in 1 934 ; K idder 1 939) , a nd i n t he p ro l iferat ion o f r e lated s ett lem ents t hroughout most o f n orthwestern Ch ihuahua , t he c ontemporane ity o f t he s i tes a nd t he r e lat ionsh ips b etween a reas e xpress ing Ch ihuahua Cu lture t ra its h ave n ot b een r e so lved . I t i s o bv ious t hat i t i s n ecessary t o l ook d ir ect ly a t t hese r eg ions t o s ee h ow t hey w ere d eve loped a nd i ncorporated i n to t he Ca sas G randes e conom ic s ystem , a nd t o d eterm ine t he e xtent t o w h ich t he u rban c enter c ontrol he ir l oca l o rgan izat ion. l ed t T he p art icu lar q uest ion t o b e a ddressed h ere i s w hether o r n ot t he C h ihuahua Cu lture b ounda ry f ormat ion w as d i rect ly c ontrol nd m an ipul ed a l a ted b y a c entra l g roup i n Ca sas G randes . N ot o n ly i s t he q uest ion i mport ant f or u nderstand ing t he t he d eve lopment a nd m a intenance o f t he o rgan iz at ion a t Ca sas G randes , b ut i t i s a l so r e levant f or i nd icat ing h ow t he Ca sas G randes l eaders b rought a bout t he ir i mpact o n S outhwestern g roups . T he n orthern b ounda ry i s e spec ia ly i n terest ing . L ocated j u st b eyond t he l n orthern l im its o f t he S ierra Madre Occ identa l ( Brand 1 937 ; K idder a nd Co sgrove 1 949 ; L ambert a nd Amb ler 1 961; McC luney 1 965) , i t i s w el i tul s a ted t o c ontro l a ccess t o v a luab le m inera l r esources , n otab ly t urquo ise . H e re t he Ch ihuahua Cu l ture was a l so c losest t o t he t err itor ies a nd t rade r outes o f s evera l S outhwestern g roups ( Ca rey 1 951; B rand 1 938) , a nd i t i s t he p o int a t w h ich t rade-based c ontact w ith S outhwestern c u ltures m ight h ave b een m ost d i rect . V iewed f rom t h is p erspect ive , f urther s tudy o f t he n o rthern f ront ier i s v ery i mportant . T he p resent i nvest igat ion e xam ines t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he f ormat ion a nd o perat ion o f n orthern f ront ier c omm un it ies a nd t he d eve lopment o f a c entra l ized o rgan izat ion a t Ca sas G randes .

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T he E xtent o f t he Ch ihuahua Cu l ture

8

DYNAMICS OF FRONT IER D EVELOPMENT

T o p ursue t he i n vest igat ion i t i s n ecessary t o i dent ify t he c r it ica l f actors w h ich d ef ine t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he c ore a nd f r ont ier , a nd t hereby d eterm ine t he n ature o f t he b ounda ry . T he t r ad i t iona l f ramework f o r e xp la in ing t he f ound ing o f af ront ier i s b a sed o n s pa t ia l t heor ies i nvo lv i n g t he c ent ra l p lace c oncept ( No rton 1 977 ; O sbo rne a nd Rogerson 1 978 ) . T he f ront ier i ss een a s p a rt o f as ystem w ith a d om inant c ore a nd a d epend ent p er iphery . T hese a re r e lated b y p rocesses i nvo lv ing t he c entra l ized c ontro l o f d ec is ion m ak ing b y t he c ore a rea a nd t he f l ow o f g oods a nd p eop le b etween t he t wo a reas . T he p er iphery i s e xpected t o m ove t h rough a s e r ies o f s tages u nt i l i t i s f u l ly i n tegrated w ith t he c ent ra l a rea . S ubs ist ence e conomy i s t he f i rst s tep , f o l lowed b y e conom ic o r f unct iona l s pec ia li z at ion , a nd t hen e conom ic d ivers if icat ion . I n t he p rocess , t here w i l l b e c hanges i n s ett lement c haracter ist ics , a nd d eve lopment o f t he s ett lement h i erarchy i s a ssumed t o o ccur a s p opu lat ion a nd p urchase p ower i ncrease ( No rton 1 977 ; O sborne a nd Rogerson 1 978 ; Swann 1 979 ) . T he a ppa rent u n if o rm ity o f t he o utcome i s m is lead ing , t hough . F ront iers a re k nown t o b e m ore v a r ied t han t h is m ode l p red icts , a nd s evera l m od if icat ions s eem t o b e i n o rder . Recent s tud ies i n d eve lop ing c ountr ies i nd icate t hat t he p art icu lar r easons f or c o lon iz ing t he f ront ier c an b e i mportant b ecause t hey a ffect t he w ay t he d eve lopment o f t he f ront ier i s s t ructured ( M i tche l 1 979 ; O sborne l a nd Rogerson 1 978) . E ven i n t he c ase o f n atura l r esource e xp lo ita t ion , e xt r act ion a nd t ranspo rta t ion r equ i rements f o r v a r ious m ater ia ls m ay i nvo lve d i fferent o rgan izat iona l r equ i rements . When t he m ot ives f o r d eve lopment a re s t r ict ly e conom ic , p roduct ive a reas i n t he f r ont ier r eg ion m ay b e c ont r o l led b y g roups i n t he c ore w h ich h ave a l im ited i n terest i n t he l ong-term f o rtunes o f t he d i stant a rea . I n o rder t o m ax im ize t he ir p rof its , t he g roups i n c ontro l m ay p romote u nequa l e xchange b etween t he c ore a nd t he f ront ier l ss i s o t hat c o lon ists g enera ly m ust e xpend m ore l abo r a nd r ece ive l e n r et u rn . I n s uch c ases e conom ic d ivers if icat ion i n t he s ett lement h ierarchy m ay b e r etarded b y l ack o f p urchase p ower . A l ternat ive ly , t here m ay b e ac onf l ict o f i n terest a mong t he v a r ious s ectors o f t he c o lon iz ing s oc iety s o t hat c ompet it ion a nd s uccess ion o f c ontro l c ha racter ize s t he f r ont ier ( F r ied l f en 1 1 952 ; M i ler a nd S tef 977 ; O sborne a nd Rogerson 1 978 ) . I n t he s pat ia l m ode l d escr ibed a bove , i ti s a ssumed t hat m od if icat ions l l i n t ransport t echno logy w i l a utomat ica ly o vercome d i stance c osts , b r ing ing t he f ront ier c loser t o t he c ore a rea a nd a l ter ing t he i mportance o f d i stance . T hese a dvances a ppa rent ly w ere a bsent i n p reh istor ic N o rth Amer ica . I n s uch c ases , d i stance b etween t he c ore a nd t he p er iphery c onstra ins t he e ff ect iveness o f t he c ore g roup 's c ontro l o ver t he e conom ic e xp lo itat ion o f f r ont ier r esources b ecause i t a ffects t he c ommun icat ion a nd f l ow o f g oods b etween t he t wo a reas . I t a l so d eterm ines t he e xtent t o w h ich t he f ront ier c an d epend o n t he c ent ra l a rea f or t he n ecess it ies o f l i fe . When d i stance i s g reat a nd t ransport t echno logy i sl im ited , f ront ier g roups m u st b e s e lf-suff ic i ent . I f t hese c ommun it ies a re l ocated i n a n e nv ironment w ith d i fferent s ets o f l im itat ions t han t hose f ound i n t he c ore a rea , au n ique f ront ier o rl g an izat ion m ay d eve lop t o d ea l w ith t he p rob lems o f e veryday l i fe ( M i ler a nd S teffen 1 977) . T he d emands m ay b e a t o dds w ith t he w ay t he c ore a rea c hooses t o e xp lo it t he d es ired c ommod it ies , b ut u n less t he d i stance f actor c an b e o vercome , t he c entra l a rea mu st o perate a s m uch a s p oss ib le w ith in t he e merg ing o rgan izat ion . A s ar esu l t t he p otent ia l f or o rgan iza t iona l s pe -

9

c ia l izat ion i n f unct ion o r p roduce m ay b e r estr icted. T he e xtent t o w h ich t he c entra l a rea m ay t ry t o c ontro l t he l oca l o rgan izat ion d epends o n t he n ature a nd t he q uant ity o f t he r esources e xp lo ited , a s w el s o n t he n eed l a f or s pec ia l ized t ra in ing o r t echno logy f or e xtract ion o r p reparat ion f or s h ipm ent f rom t he f ront ier . T he d eve lopment o f a s ett lement h ierarchy o n t he f ront ier a nd t he e xtent t o w h ich t he l oca l o rgan izat ion i nvo lves a f o rma l o r i n st itut iona l ized i n tegrat ive m echan ism i s f ac i l itated b y t he n ecess ity f or l oca l s pec ia l iza t ion i n f ood r esources . Where t h is i s a bsent , f ront ier v i lages h ave c omp lemenl t ary c atchment a reas a nd t end t o b e b a s ical utonomous ( Fr ied 1 967 :75) . ly a I n s uch c ases s upra-v i lage a ggregates a re r are o r t emporary , b ut s ome f o rm l o f i n ter-commun ity i n tegrat ion i n t he f ront ier r eg ion may o ccur . F o r e xamp le , i t i s o ften n ecessary t o m a inta in i n ter-v i lage t i es i n o rder t o c ompenl s ate f or o ccas iona l c rop f a i lure ( Longacre 1 966 , 1 970 ; H i l 1 966 , 1 968) . l T he s im i lar ity i n a daptat ion , s ett lement p attern , a nd o rgan iza t ion b etween t he f ront ier a nd c ore c an d eterm ine t he e ase w ith w h ich t he f r ont i er t akes o n t he c haracter ist ics o f t he c entra l a rea , e spec ial hen t he ly w d i stance b etween t he t wo i s g reat . A ttempts t o f u ly i n tegrate f r ont ier l a reas w ith d i fferent o rgan izat iona l c haracter ist ics c ou ld c reate c onf l icts w h ich w ou ld i n terfere w ith t he f l ow o f g oods t o t he u rban c enter. When f ront ier c enters a re a utonomous , c ore g roups o f ten i n teract p r imar i ly w ith t he c ommun it ies n earest t he p roduct ion a reas b ecause t hey a re b est s i tua ted f or s end ing t he r esources b ack t o o ther t owns i n t he c entra l a rea ( B louet 1 972) . T here i s n o n eed t o a ssoc iate d i rect ly w ith t he o ther f ront ier s ett lem ents . A t t he s ame t ime , t he p oss ib i l ity o f l a rge p opu lat ion a ggregates a nd c oncentrat ion o f w ea lth s uff ic ient t o s upport d eve loped s erv ice c enters i n t he r eg ion a re r educed b y f actors s uch a s t he d i stance f rom t he c entra l a rea , t he i ndependence o f t he f ront ier, m arg ina l a gr icu l tura l p otent ia l , a nd l ow r eturns t o c o lon ists f or g oods . T hen n e ither a n i n terna l n or a n e xterna l i mpetus e x ists f or t he f urther e xpans ion o f t he s ett lement h ierarchy i n to t he f ront ier , a nd t he s pat ia l i n tegrat ion o f t he h inter land i s l i ke ly t o r ema in l im ited . T h is i s c ontrary t o t he g enera ly emp loyed a ssumpt ion t hat t he l o l c at iona l a dvantage o f as ett lement n ear t he s ource o f t he t rade g oods w il l a utomat ica ly p romote i t s g rowth a s a h igher o rder c enter w ith a l a rger l s phere o f i n f luence t han i t m ight o therw ise h ave ( B louet 1 972 ; Conk l ing a nd Yeates 1 976) . H udson 's ( 1977) m ode l o f f ront ier d ynam ics i ncorporates many o f t he i sues m ent ioned a bove . H e s uggests t hat f our d i fferent c lasses o f f ront ier s s i tuat ions a re g enerated b y t he i n teract ion o f l and u se c ompet it ion a nd w hether s t rateg ies f or a daptat ion t o t he f ront ier e nv ironment o r ig inate i n t he c ore a rea o r o n t he f ront ier . L and u se c ompet it ion i s b a sed o n t he n umb er o f g roups i nvo lved a nd w hether t he ir g oa ls a re c omp lementary . T h is mode l i nd irect ly c ons iders t he i n terp lay among f actors o f d i stance a nd c ommun icat ion , t he p urpose o f t he e xp lo itat ion o f t he f ront ier , t he s im i lar ity o f t he f ront ier e nv ironment t o t he c ore a rea , a nd t he a b i l ity o f t he f ront ier t o s upport p opu lat ion g rowth . A lthough H udson emphas izes i nnovat ion i n m ateri a l c u l ture a s a n a dapt ive s t rategy , h e a l so r ecogn izes t hat o rgan izat iona l c hanges a re e ffect ive m echan isms a s w el herefore , i t f o lows t hat o rgan il. T l z at ion o f f ront ier c ommun it ies a nd t he ir i n tegrat ion w ith t he c ore a rea w il l d i ffer w ith e ach c lass o ut l ined b y h i s m ode l . B ecause s uch o rgan izat ion a nd i n tegrat ion a ffect t he n ature o f t he b oundary a nd t he m echan isms o f i n tera ct ion a cross i t , H udson 's m ode l m ay h ave p red ict ive v a lue f or s tud ies o f t rade , e conom ic d eve lopment a nd p o l it ica l e xpans ion , t o m ent ion a f ew a reas .

I tc erta in ly a ppears u sefu l f or e xp la in ing d i fferences w h ich e x ist b e-

1 0

t ween f ront iers , a nd f o r e xp la in ing t he ir f ormat ion a nd m a intenance . H i s f i rst c ategory i s a dapted s pread . I t o ccurs w ith a s i ng le g roup o r w ith c omp lementa ry g roups w ith n o t err itor ia l c onf l ict w hen t hey m ove i n to as i tua t ion a lmost i dent ica l t o t he c ore a rea . P rob lems e ncountered c an b e s o lved w ith e x ist ing s t rateg ies d eve loped f or t he c entra l a rea . T he s econd c lass o ccurs w hen a s i ng le g roup m oves i n to a s i tua t ion w here t he p hys ica l e nv ironment d i ffers f rom t he c ore a rea . S ubs istence a nd o ther t ypes o f p rob lems a re u n ique t o t hat a rea , a nd t hey u sua ly r equ i re l oca l s o lut ions . l Ef o c ontro l o rgan izat ion s t r ict ly t o m eet t he d emands o f e xp lo itat ion f orts t a re u sua ly u nsuccessfu l . When s evera l g roups f rom t he c ore a rea c ompete l f or t he s ame l and ( a s w ith a gr icu l ture v ersus s tock r a is ing) , g roups i n t he c ore a rea o ften d ev ise s o lut ions t o p rob lems t hrough c ompet it ion , a nd t hey may a l ternate i n c ontro l o ver t he a rea . T h is p attern r esu lts i n " s tages o f o ccupance ." T he f i na l c lass o ccurs w hen t wo d i fferent g roups e xpand i n t he s ame d i rect ion a nd t he ir f ront iers b eg in t o o ver lap. T he r esu lt ing s oc ia l e nv ironment i s u n ique i f o ne g roup i s n ot s uff ic ient ly p owerfu l t o r ep lace t he o ther. T o t he e xtent t hat b oth g roups c ompete f o r t he s ame r esources, t he f ront ier a daptat ion may b e b a sed o n c onf l ict b etween t he g roups . Where e xp lo itat ion i s c omp lementa ry , t he mutua l f ront ier m ay p eacefu ly i n tegrate l members o f b oth g roups i n to a s i ng le , s omewhat i ndependent o rgan izat ion . I t i s o bv ious t hat s pat ia l i n tegrat ion o f t he f ront ier i s n ot s imp ly a f unct ion o f t he l ength o f o ccupat ion o f t he a rea a nd i ncreased c ompet it ion f or l and u se ( Norton 1 977) . F ront ier c ommun it ies p art ic ipate i n u n ique s ets o f e nv i ronmenta l a nd s oc ia l i n teract ions w h ich s te rn f rom t he f unct iona l r o le o f t he f ront ier i n t he l a rger s oc iety . S ome i mportant f actors t hat d ef ine t hose r e lat ionsh ips h ave emerged i n t he p reced ing d i scuss ion , a nd t hey w il l g u ide t he f o low ing e xam inat ion o f t he n orthern f ront ier a s w e e xp lore i t s l r o le i n t he Ca sas G randes o rgan izat ion .

T HE NORTHERN CASAS GRANDES FRONT IER

T he n orthern f i ngers o f t he S ierra Madre O cc identa l w h ich r each i n to s outhwestern N ew Mex ico f rom Ch ihuahua a re a ctua ly a n e xtens ion o f l t he b as in a nd r ange p rov ince c ross ing s outhern A r izona ( Sauer 1 930) . T hese f ormat ions p resent a s er ies o f n orth-south o r iented v a leys w h ich s t radd le l t he i n ternat iona l b order, a nd t hey h ave l ong b een u sefu l a s a venues f or a bor i g ina l c ommun icat ion b etween n orthern Mex ico a nd t he s outhwestern U n ited S tates ( Hammond a nd R ey 1 928 ; K e ley 1 966 ; D iPe so 1 974) . F our a d jacent l i n terna l d ra inage s ystems , t he A n imas , S an L u i s , P layas, a nd H ach ita V a ll eys , l i e o n t he n ortheastern f l anks o f t he S ierra Madres a nd a re r ead i ly a ccess ib le f rom t he Ca sas G randes a rea . I t i s h ere t hat t he n orthwestern f ront ier o f t he Ch ihuahua Cu lture r eached i t s max imum e xtent . A rchaeo log ica l w ork c onducted i n t h is a rea o ver t he p ast f ew d eca des ( c f . S ay les 1 936 ; K idder a nd Co sgrove 1 949 ; McC luney 1 965 ; F ind low a nd D eAt ley 1 976 ; D eAt ley 1 980) h as d ocumented c ont inua l , i f n ot a lways i n tens ive o ccupat ion f rom P a leo ind ian t imes . S cattered o ver t he a rea a re a n umber o f p reh istor ic s ett lements r epresent ing t he Ch ihuahua Cu lture o cc upat ion o f t he a rea . T he s i tes s hare c haracter ist ics o f l ocat ion, a rch it ecture, c eram ics , a nd o ther a rt ifacts , a nd t hey h ave b een d es ignated t he An imas P hase ( Gladw in 1 934) . B a sed o n e xcavat ion a nd s urveys ( Say les 1 936 ; K idder a nd Cosgroves 1 949 ; S auer a nd B rand 1 930 ; B rand 1 943 ; Mc C luney 1 965) , t he p hase i s c haracter ized a s a p er iod o f p opu lat ion g rowth

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a nd s ett lement e laborat ion w h ich s eems t o h ave c o inc ided w ith t he e me rg ence o f Ca sas G randes a s t he m a jor p o l it ica l c enter o f t he C h ihuahua Cu l ture . S i tes o f t he A n ima s P hase h ave a r e lat ive ly r e str icted d i str ibut i on . T hey a re m ost s t rong ly r epresented i n s outhwestern N ew Mex ico , i n t he A n imas , S an L u i s , a nd P laya s V a ley s . T hey h ave a l so b een r eported l f rom t he S an B e rna rd ino , S an S imon , a nd S u lphur S p r ing v a l leys i n s outhe astern A r izona ( Sauer a nd B rand 1 930 ; J ohnson a nd T hompson 1 963 ; L eks on a nd K l inger 1 973) . I n Mex ico t hey h ave b een r ecorded i n t he n orthe asternmost c orner o f S onora , a nd i n t he n orthwestern c orner o f C h ihuahua ( Say les 1 936 ; B rand 1 943) .

Chrono logy o f F ront ier S ett lement T he c hrono logy o f t he f ound ing o f t he f r ont ier w il l b e a ddressed f i rst b ecause i t h a s ab ea r ing o n m any o f t he o ther f actors t o b e c ons ide re d . O ther c u l tura l m an ifestat ions h ave b een i dent if ied i n t he a rea , a nd i ti s i mportant t o k now w hether i t w as a l ready o ccup ied w hen t he A n imas P ha se p opu lat ions m oved i n . T he m ost c r it ica l t empora l d i st inct ions a re n ecessa ry b etween t he A n imas P ha se s i tes a nd t hose s how ing M imbres a ff i l iat ions ( ca led S an L u i s b y F ind low 1 978 ) b ecause t hey m ight o ver lap i n t ime . S evl e ra l a pproaches w ere u sed t o d ate t he s equence o f e vents i nvo lved i n t he e xpans ion o f t he C a sa s G randes f ront ier t o i t s m ax imum l im its . T hey i nc lude c eram ic c ross d a tes , r ad iocarbon d at ing , a nd o bs id ian h ydrat ion d et e rm ina t ions . T hese c omb ined s teps p rov ided d i rect a bso lute d ates f or t he s i tes a na lyzed a nd a m easure o f t he c ontemporane ity o f t he s i tes ( DeAt ley 1 980 ; D eAt ley a nd F ind low 1 980) . T he r esu l ts o f t he c hrono log ica l a ssessment i nd icated t hat M imb res p opu lat ions m oved i n to t he a rea s omet ime a round 1 000 A .D . a nd l e ft b efo re 1 200 A .D . L eB lanc ( 1976 , 1 977) a nd D anson ( 1957 ) p roposed t hat t he a band onment w as p robab ly n o l a ter t han 150 A .D . D a tes f rom s i tes i n t he a rea a re i n k eep ing w ith e st imates b a sed o n M imb res c eram ic t ypes p resent i n t he r eg ion , a nd o n t ree r i ng d ates f rom m ore n o rther ly s i tes ( LeB lanc 1 976 , 1 977 ) . Compa r ison o f d ates w ith t he Ca sa s G randes c hrono logy i s b a sed o n e xtens ive r e-eva lua t ion o f t he d ata f rom t he u rban c enter r ather t han o n D iPe so 's p ub l ished d ates . A d i scuss ion o f t he d a t ing o f Ca sas G randes i s b eyond t he s cope o f t h is p aper , a nd t he r eader i s r eferred t o D eAt ley ( 1980) f o r d eta i ls . D a tes f o r t he M imb res s i tes i n t he b order r eg ion a re c ontempo ra neous w ith r ev i sed e st ima tes o f t he e ar ly B uena F e P hase o f t he Med io P e r iod a t Ca sas G randes ( DeAt ley 1 980) , w h i le t he d ate o f M imb res a band onment c orresponds t o t he B uena F e P aqu ime P hase t rans it ion a t t he u rban c enter . T he c ause o f t he a bandonment o f t he b order a rea b y M imb res p opu lat ions i s n ot c lea r . I t m ay h ave b een r e lated t o e vents i n t he c ent ra l M imbres a rea r a ther t han t o c ompet it ion w ith Ca sas G randes p opu lat ions ( Danson 1 957 ) . H owever , s i nce t here i s e v idence o f i mportant o rgan izat iona l c hange a nd p opu lat ion e xpans ion t ak ing p lace i n Ca sa s G randes a t t h is t ime , i t m ay b e t hat t he t wo r eg iona l e vents a re r e lated . Ch ihuahua Cu l ture s ett lements o f t he B uena F e P hase a re r ecogn ized i n p a rt b y t he p redom inance o f a n e ar ly f o rm o f Ca sas G randes p ottery , B ab icora P o lychrome . Wh i le t hese s i tes a re f ound i n n orthern Ch ihuahua a nd n orthern S onora ( Sauer a nd B rand 1 930) , t here a re n one i n t he n orthernmo st b ounda ry a rea a mong t he M imbres s i tes . N everthe less , s ome f orm o f c ontact b etween t he t wo g roups p robab ly o ccurred . F o r e xamp le , r ema ins f rom a l r ockshe lter l ocated i n t he n orthern p a rt o f t he A n imas V a ley c onta ined a l a te M imb res c eram ic a ssemb lage a nd a f ew B ab icora P o lychrome s herds .

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S i tes s uch a s t h is a re r a re , h owever , a nd i t a ppea rs t hat m ix ing o f t he p opu lat ions was m in ima l . T o t he e xtent t ha t i to ccurred , i t w ou ld h ave p rov ided B uena F e g roups o n t he b o rder w ith i mportant i n format ion o n t he c ha racter o f t he t err itory b eyond t he ir i mmed iate b ounda ry . T hese B uena F e v i lages l w ere u ndoubted ly t he b a se f rom w h ich t he Ch ihuahua Cu l ture e xpanded , a nd t here i s e v idence o f p re l im ina ry f o rays i n to t he A n imas a rea . A n umber o f t he A n imas P hase s i tes c onta in s ma l a mounts o f B ab icora P o lychrome l s herds , s omet imes r epresent ing a s much a s 2 % o f t he t ota l c eram ic a ssemb lage . B y a nd l a rge , s i tes i n t he a rea s how a r ap id s uccess ion o f M imb res a nd A n imas P hase c omponents , a nd i t a ppears t hat t he C h ihuahua C u l ture q u ick ly f i led t he v o id c reated b y t he a bandonment o f t he a rea b y M imb res l g roups . Rad iocarbon d ates h e lp t o d ocument t he t rans it ion f rom M imb res t o A n imas P hase o ccupa t ion o f t he A n imas V a ley . A t s i te H S-1 i n t he s outhern l p a rt o f t he v a ley , t he e ar ly A n imas P ha se c omponent y i e lded a d ate o f l A .D . 1 200 ( UCLA 2 122C , 8 20 + 6 0 B .P . ) . T owa rd t he n orth , Maddox Ru in ( HS-32) was w e l e stab l ished b y A .D . 1 230 ( UCLA 1 948A , 7 20 + 6 0 B .P . ) . l Ob s id ian h ydrat ion d ates a re a va i lab le f o r t he m a jor h ab i tat ion s i tes l ocated o n t he f ront ier , a nd t hey t oo i nd icate t hat t he A n imas P hase o ccupa t ion o f t he f ront ier w as e stab l i shed b y 1 200 A .D . a t t he l a test ( DeAt ley 1 980) . T h is r a ises t wo i mportant p o ints w ith r ega rd t o t he f ront ier d eve lopm ent . F i rst , f o r a l i n tents a nd p urposes , t he Ch ihuahua a nd M imb re s c u l ture l g roups w ere n ot c o-expand ing i n to t he s ame a rea . Ra ther , i t s eems o ne g roup s ucceeded t he o ther . A t t h is p o int i t i s d i ff icu l t t o s ay t hat t he M imb res a bandonment w as n ot d ue t o c ompet it ion b etween t he t wo g roups , b ut t he r esu lt w as r ep lacement r ather t han m ix ing o f p opu lat ions . S econd , t he a ctua l o ccupa t ion o f t he n orthernmost f ront ier c orresponded t o t he e xpans i on a t Ca sa s G randes w hen t he u rban c enter w as r each ing i t s z en ith ( De A t ley 1 980 , D iPeso 1 974) . A s m ent ioned a bove , t he f i rst s i gn if icant c hange a t Ca sas G randes m ark ing t he r i se o f t he u rban c enter i s t hought t o h ave t aken p lace w ith t he a ppearance o f t he B uena F e P hase . T h is o ccurred a round t he l a te 1 000 's , p erhaps 1 060 A .D . a s D iPe so ( 1974) s uggested , a nd l a sted t o a bout t he m id-1100 's . T he f ront ier h ad n ot r eached i t s m ax imum l im its , a nd M imbres g roups o ccup ied t he n orthern a rea . Ma jor u rban r enewa l a t Ca sas G randes i n it iated t he P aqu ime P hase a nd t he f l orescence o f t he c i ty a s ap o l it ica l c enter . Ob s id ian h ydrat ion a nd C -14 d ates f o r s i tes o n t he f ront ier ( DeAt ley 1 980) s how t hat b u i ld ing o f v i lages o ccurred r e lat ivel l y r ap id ly a round t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 3th c entury A .D . , s hort ly a f ter t he B uena F e P aqu ime t rans it ion a t Ca sa s G randes . A t t he f ew s i tes t hat h ave b een e xcava ted , e v idence s uggests t hat t he m a jor p art o f t he s i te w as b u i lt a l l a t o nce , t hough c hanges d id o ccur t h rough t ime ( Kidder a nd C o sgroves 1 949 ; McC luney 1 965) . T herefore , t he f ound ing o f t he n orthernmost f ront ier s i tes s eems d i rect ly l i nked t o t he f o rce t hat l ed t o t he r enova t ion o f Ca sas G randes d ur ing t he P aqu ime P hase . S ome s i tes m ay h ave b een e stab l ished s l ight ly e ar l ier t han t he r est . I n g enera l , t hough , t he d i str ibut ions o f h ydrat i on v a lues s eem r ema rkab ly s im i lar . Mo st o f t he s i tes w ere o ccup ied c ont i nuous ly f or 1 00 t o 1 50 y ears w ith p eak d ates o f a bout 1 300 + 4 0 A .D . Mot s wr ee i nhabt i ed t h rough t he ed n o f t he 1 4th cn e tury A .D . , ad n af ew l a sted f or p erhaps a no ther 2 5 y ears . T hey a re t hus c ontempora ry w ith t he P aqu ime P hase , b ut t he ir p eak d a tes c orrespond t o t he t ime t hat Ca sa s G randes b egan i t s a ppa rent d ec l ine . A t t he u rban c enter D iPe so c a l ls t h is e vent t he D iab lo P hase . T he f ront ier w as s usta ined e ven d ur ing t he d egenera t ion , b ut p robab ly n ot i n i t s f u l l f orm . T he f requency o f o bs id ian w ith h yd rat ion v a lues r epresent ing t h is p er iod s uggests t hat t he u se o f t he f ront ier l c ommun it ies w as l e ss i n tense , a nd t hat t he a rea w as g radua ly a bandoned a s

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t he c i ty f e l l a t t he e nd o f t he 1 300 's .

T he F ront ier E nv ironment a nd A daptat ion T he n ext f actors t o c ons ider a re t he n ature o f t he f ront ier e nv i ronm ent a nd w hether a daptat ion t o t he a rea r equ i red l oca l s o lut ions o r c ou ld e mp loy s t rateg ies f rom t he c ent ra l a rea . I n g ene ra l , t he n orthern f ront ier i s m ore s im i lar t o t he i mportant v a l leys i n t he c ore a rea t han a re a ny o f t he o ther b orders . A l l o f t he o ther t hree b ounda r ies a re m a rked b y s ome f o rm o f p hys ica l b a rr ier : t he s outhern a nd w estern l i m its a re s et b y h igh m ount a ins , w h i le o n t he e astern e dge t here i s ad ramat ic s h ift i n b iot ic z one s a s t he l and b ecomes d eso late a nd d ry ( D iPe so 1 974 ) . On t he o ther h and , t he n orthern b ounda ry p rov ides a n a venue f o r t he e xtens ion o f t he r a infa l lb a sed v i l lage f a rm ing p attern w h ich w as t he f oundat ion o f t he Ch ihuahua Cu l ture . T he s peed w ith w h ich t he n orthernmost f ront ier w as e stab l i shed l ends c redence t o t he i dea t hat t he a dapt ive s t rateg ies h ad b een s ucces sfu ll y w orked o ut p r ior t o a rr iv ing o n t he f r ont ier . A s i nd icated a bove , t he f ront ier e xpans ion o ccurred v i rtua l ly a l l a t o nce , w ith a lmost e very m a jor v i l lage i n p lace b y AM . 1 200. T he d urat ion o f t hose s i tes t hroughout t he o ccupat ion o f t he f ront ier a ttests t o t he s uccess o f t he p a ttern . T here i sn o e v idence o f e xper imenta l p lacement o f s ett lements w h ich f a i led , o r ap rog ress ive m ovement i n to n ew a reas . F u rthermore , t he s ett lement p attern a pp ears t o h ave b een i n troduced i n i t s f i na l f orm a t t he o ut set o f t he c o lon iz at ion . D e sp ite t he s im i lar it ies , t here a re a f ew u n ique a spects t o t he f r ont i er e nv i ronment t hat m ay h ave h ad a s i gn if icant i mpact o n i t s s ubsequent r e lat ionsh ip t o t he c entra l a rea . N one o f t he n orthern v a l leys w as e qua l t o t he l a rger c entra l v a l leys i n p otent ia l s ubs istence p roduct iv i ty . A nnua l p rec ip itat ion i s r ough ly t he s ame i n b oth a reas , r ang ing f rom a bout 2 5 t o 4 0 o r 5 0 cm . p er y ear ( Schwennessen 1 918 ; S auer 1 930) , b ut s uf f ic ient w ate r f or a gr icu l ture i s a lways m ore o f ap rob lem o n t he f ront ier . R ad ica l y ea r t o l y ea r f l uctua t ion i n r a infa l i sc ommon ( Sauer 1 930) , a nd t he s urface a va i lal b i l ity o f w ater v a r ies w ide ly a s w e l , s i nce t here a re n o p ermanent r i ve rs a s l s uch . I n t he c entra l r eg ion t he r i ver v a leys d ra in m uch l a rger a reas , a nd r t he v o lume o f w ater i s s uff ic ient f or i r igat ion . I n a dd it ion , t he a mount o f a rab le l and i s much g reater i n t he c entra l a rea t han o n t he f ront ier ( D iPe so 1 974 ; F ind low a nd D eAt ley 1 976 , 1 978 ; D eAt ley 1 980) . T he e nv i ronmenta l c onstra ints c lose ly l i m ited p opu lat ion d ens ity o n t he f ront ier , a nd t hey p layed a l a rge p a rt i n t he f o rm t he s ett lement p atl t ern t ook . S ince t he f ront ier v a leys a re s im i lar t o o ne a nother p hys iographl l i ca ly a nd b iot ica ly , t he u n iform ity o f s ubs istence r esources r estr icted t he l d eve lopment o f r esource s pec ia l izat ion . E ven w i th in v a leys r esource d i str il b ut ion f ostered v i lage a utonomy : v egetat ion a nd a gr icu l tura l z ones g enera ll l l l y r un p a ra le l t o t he l ong a x is o f t he v a leys , a nd a l s ett lements p laced l l s t rateg ica ly o n t he v a ley b ottoms h ad e qua l a ccess t o t he m a jor c lasse s o f fs r f oodstuf . B ecause i r iga t ion w as n ot a v iab le o pt ion , s i te p lacement w as l r estr icted t o a reas t hat w ou ld m ax im ize c u lt iva t ion i n t he v a leys . T he r e su l t ing p attern w as o ne o f s ett lement " un its" c ons ist ing o f l l l a rge v i lages r egu lar ly s paced a long t he v a ley b ottoms a nd u p t he s i de l c anyons . E very v i lage w as a ssoc iated w ith a n umber o f l im ited a ct iv ity l s i tes a nd s ma ler h ab i tat ion s i tes , e ach p laced i n s uch a w ay a s t o e xp lo it

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l l t he r esources i n t he s t r ip o f v a ley a va i lab le t o t he l a rge v i lage ( F ind low a nd D eAt ley 1 976 ) . T he l ack o f d i fferent iat ion a mong t he m a jor s ett lement u n its c ou ld h ave b een d eva stat ing t o t he r eg ion i n t imes o f i nadequate l r a infa l . H owever , c atchment a na lys is o f A n imas s i tes ( F ind low 1 980) l l r evea led t hree t ypes o f a reas w ith in t he v a leys t hat a re s u ited t o r a infa l a gr icu l ture u nder d i ffe r ing c ond i t ions o f p rec ip itat ion a nd w ater r unoff . I n l g ood y ears , a l w ou ld p roduce , b ut b ad y ea rs w ou ld a ffect e ach t ype d i fferent ly . T herefore , i n a ny g iven y ea r i t w ou ld b e l i ke ly t hat a t l east o ne t ype o f c atchment w ou ld h ave s uccessfu l c rops o r h ave a dequa te w i ld l r esources w here o thers f a i led . B ecause o f t he g eomorpho logy o f t he v a leys , al a rge h ab i tat ion s i te s omet imes w as a ssoc iated w ith o n ly o ne o f t he t ypes o f a gr icu ltura l a reas . I n s uch c ases t here w ere n o c omp lementa ry l oca les i n i t s t err itory i n w h ich t o p lace a s econda ry s i te , a nd t hereby m ax im ize l a gr icu l tura l p otent ia l r ega rd less o f t he r a infa l p attern i n ag iven y ea r . F o r t h is r eason , a l though l a rge ly i ndependent i n t e rms o f s ubs istence , e ach c ommun ity w ou ld b enef it b y a ssoc iat ion w ith a n a d jacent c ommun ity w hose m a in h ab itat ion s ett lement w as p laced i n a c omp lementary a gr icu l tura l l l l l oca le . F u rthermore , b ecause r a infa l c ond it ions v a ry f rom v a ley t o v a ley i n a g iven y ea r i n t h is a rea , c ommun it ies m ay h ave b een l i nked a cross l l v a leys a s w e l . S uch r e lat ionsh ips p robab ly f ormed t he b a s is f o r t he i n tegrat ion o f f ront ier c ommun it ies . T o o bta in a g enera l m ea sure o f t he a mount o f d i rect a nd i nd irect c ontact b etween g roups , ap rev ious s tudy i nvest igated s im i lar it ery ( t i es i n d es ign s ty les o n R amos P o lychrome p ot DeAt ley 1 980 , D eAt ley a nd F ind low 1 982 ) . O ther f actors k nown t o a ffect s ty le i n c eram ics w ere l c ontro led s o t hat c o rre lat ion c oeff ic ients f o r d es ign s im i lar it ies b etween s i tes c ou ld b e i n ferred t o r ef lect t he a mount o f c ommun icat ion b etween g roups . T ab le 2 . 1 r eproduces t he c orre lat ion c oeff ic ients f o r t he m a jor s ett lements i n s i x o f t he f ront ier c ommun it ies . T hey a re a rranged a ccord ing t o c atchment t ype . N one o f t he a ssoc iat ions w as v ery s t rong ; t he h ighest v a lue f or a ny p a ir o f f ront ier s ett lements w as . 5 12 a nd m ost w ere c ons iderab ly l ower . Among t he s i tes a na lyzed , e ach h ad o ne f a ir ly c lose l n e ighbor i n t he s ame v a ley a nd w a s q u ite d i stant f rom t he o thers . H owever , n one o f t he n e ighbor ing p a irs h ad c oeff ic ients h igher t han . 3 . W i th in t he l f ront ier t he s t rongest t i e f o r e ach s i te w as w ith a v i lage o f d i fferent l l c atchment t ype i n ad i fferent v a ley , e ven w hen n earby v i lages i n t he s ame l v a ley h ad a d i fferent c atchment t ype . T he c ho ice o f c ommun ity f o r l i n ter-va ley i n teract ion w as d eterm ined b y d i stance . W i th s uch t enuous b onds o n t he f r ont ier , i t i s u n l ike ly t hat f o rma l i n st itut ions f rom t he c ore a rea w ou ld b e s upported e as i ly . Ce rta in ly t here w as n o l oca l b a s is f o r ad eve loped c entra l ized o rgan izat ion , n or w as t he s ubs istence b ase a dequa te t o s upport a l a rge a nd s t rat if ied p opu lat ion . T he l a tter a spect m ay h ave b een t he m a jor c onst ra int , f o r w ith a s uf f ic ient r es ources t o s upport a l a rge p opu lat ion a c erta in a mount o f c entra l izat ion c ou ld h ave b een i mposed o ver t he l oose l oca l i n tegrat ive n etwork . I n t hat c ase , as econd c onstra int w ou ld b e w hether t he l abor a nd c ap ita l e xpense i nvo lved i n c reat ing a nd m a inta in ing a s epa rate o rgan izat ion w as w orthw h i le . I t w ou ld d epend o n t he c ore g roup 's p urpose f o r e xp lo it ing t he f ront i er .

1 5

TABLE 2 .1

I n teract ion B etween V i lages A ccord ing t o Ca tchment T ype l

1

2

3

. 161 ( 75 :P )

. 429 ( 80 :P ) . 2 06 ( 72 :A )

A l l O thers

A n imas V a ley l H S 3 2

H S 7 2

. 096

. 341 ( 10 :C) . 2 06 ( 32 :A )

. 164 ( 75 :P )

. 082

. 276 ( 10 :C)

. 5 12 ( 75 :P )

. 081

C loverda le V a ley l H S 9

H S 1 0

. 392 ( 75 :P )

. 194 ( 80 :P ) . 341 ( 72 :A ) . 2 76 (9 :C)

. 078

P layas V a l I n H S 7 5 H S 8 0

. 392 ( 10 :C) . 429 ( 32 :A )

* . 164 ( 75 :P )

. 5 12 (9 :C) *

. 163 . 102

. 194 (9 :C) Casas G randes 99 9

. 590 ( 32 :A )

. 3 28 ( 75 :P )

. 394 ( 80 :P )

. 059

F o r e ach s i te , t he t ab le s hows t he 3 s t rongest r e lat ionsh ips w ith o ther A n imas s i tes , a rranged b y c atchment t ype . Whether s i tes a re i n t he s ame o r d i fferent v a leys i s i nd icated b y : A A n imas , C =C loverda le , P l P layas . T he a ster isk i nd icates t he c atchment t ype f or t he s i te u nde r c ons i derat ion .

1 6

P urpose o f F ront ier E xp lo itat ion On t he s urface , t he m ovement i n to t he n orthern f ront ier a rea a pp ears t o h ave b een a s imp le c ase o f e xpans ion w ith p opu lat ion p ressure f rom t he c ore . T he s ource o f t he c o lon ize rs s eems t o h ave b een t he p rev ious f ront ier , a nd t he m a in b us iness o f t he f ront ier o utposts , s ubs istence . Y et t he s equence o f e vents o n t he f ront ier s hows t hat t he c o lon izat ion a nd f i na l a bandonment o f t he a rea c orresponded c lose ly t o t he e ar ly o rgan izat iona l c hanges a nd e ventua l d em ise o f Ca sa s G randes , a nd t h is m akes m ore s ense i n t erms o f ad i rect l i nk b etween t he c enter a nd t he p er iphery . I n h i s r econstruct ion o f t he s oc ia l o rgan izat ion o f Ca sas G randes , D iPe so ( 1974) p ostu lated t hat t he c i ty w as d eve loped t o s erve a s at rade c enter . T he n atura l r e sources o f t he g reater S outhwest w ere p resumab ly f unne l led t o Me soamer ica a fter l oca l a rt isans f ash ioned t hem i n to b lanks o r o b jects . T he a rt ifacts f r om t he s i te c erta in ly s eem t o s upport t he i dea o f a t rade c enter , a l though i ti s n ot c lea r t hat t he m ater ia l d ef in ite ly w as s h ipp ed o ut o f t he Ch ihuahua Cu l ture a rea . O f c lose t o 4m il lion c ata logued a rt ifacts f rom t he s ma l p ort ion o f t he s i te t hat w as e xcavated , 3 ,916 ,605 l a re m ade o f m ater ia l n ot a va i lab le w ith in t he c ent ra l C h ihuahua Cu l ture a rea . T he b u lk o f t he f o re ign i mported m ater ia l i s s he l f rom t he w est c oast l o f n orthern Mex ico ( 99 .8% , o r 9 1.6% b y w e ight) . T he r ema in ing m ater ia ls a re m inera l r e sources , i nc lud ing t urquo i se , s erpent ine , o bs id ian , a sbestos , a nd s ep io l ite . T he r e lat ive i mpo rtance o f e ach i s i lu strated i n T ab le 2 .2 . Rema ins f rom w orkshops i n t he c i ty i nd icate t hat a l l t hese m ater ia ls w ere i mported i n t he ir r aw f o rm . T u rquo ise a nd s erpent ine w ere u sed c h ief ly t o make o rnaments , t he p r ima ry c lass o f a rt ifacts f ound a t Ca sas G randes ( 96 .6% o f t he t ota l w ere f unct iona l ly c lassed a s o rnaments) ( D iPe so 1 974 3 :689 ) . S e rpent ine w as m ore a bundant b y w e ight t han t urquo ise , b ut b ecause i t w as u sed d i fferent ly , i tr epresents a s ma l ler p ercentage o f f ore ign m inera l m ater ia ls . T urquo ise w as " s tretched" b y m ak ing t esserae , t hereby g iv ing m ore c overage p er u n i t o f m ater ia l t han s erpent ine w h ich w as c h ief ly u sed f or o b jects s uch a s f i gur ines . A sbestos a nd s ep io l ite w ere o f m inor i mport ance , a nd a sbestos w as a lways f ound i n i t s r aw f o rm , w h i le s ep io l ite w as u sua l ly worked . Ob s id ian w as u n ique a mong i mpo rted m inera ls i n t hat i t s erved u t i l ita r ian p urposes ( s crapers , d r i l ls , g ravers , k n ives , a nd p ro ject i le p o ints ) .

TABLE 2 .2 I mported M inera l R e sources F ound a t Ca sa s G randes

1N o .

M inera l Resources T urquo ise S e rpent ine Ob s id ian A sbestos S ep io l ite

'D a ta

o f Ob jects 5 895 2 312 7 09 7 5 1 7

P e rcent o f A l l F o re ign M inera l Ma ter ia ls N o . W t .

1T o ta l

We ight 1 . 22 .74 14 2 .06 2 .03 1 . 29

k g k g k g k g k g

a fter D iPe so ( 1974 2 :748-9 ; 8 : 187-189 ) .

1 7

6 5 .4% 2 5.7% 7 .9% . 8% . 2%

1 . 0% 9 4 .6% 1 . 7% 1 . 7% . 1% 1

N O

1 0

t o r o;

re l g. . 10

1.91 1 .9 . 1 .

. Rä r ech ' do lt

* 4. 7 ,

5 e

J v

t h UN

D

K e y

T URQUO ISE ( a ft e r N o r thrup 1 959 ) : 1 .R ed H i l l D i str ict 2 .S y lvan ite D i str ic t 3 .E u reka D i str ict O BS ID IAN : 4 .A nte lope W el ls S ource

F igure 2 .2 :

N a tura l R e sources o n t he Ca sas G randes F ront ier

1 8

Two o f t hese m inera l r esources w ere a va i lab le o n t he n orthern f ront i er ( F igure 2 .2 ) . T u rquo ise s ources a re s cattered t hroughout s outhwestern N ew Mex ico , a nd s eve ra l w h ich m ay h ave b een e xp lo ited a bor ig ina l ly a re p resent i n t he A n imas a rea . S tone h ammers a nd o ther t oo ls p rov ide s ome e v idence o f p reh istor ic m in ing a t t he o ld H ach ita a nd T urquo ise Mounta in s ource , a bout 3 1 /2 m i les w est o f H ach ita i n t he E ureka d i str ict o f G rant County ( Jones 1 904 ; S terrett 1 911; D iPe so 1 974 ) . Two o ther s ources a re p resent i n H ida lgo County : t he R ed H i l l d i str ict i s l ocated o n t he e astern s i de o f t he A n imas Mounta ins a round M i l ls C reek , a pprox imate ly 2 0 m i les s outhwest o f t he E u reka d i str ict , a nd t he S y lvan ite d i str ict i si n t he L i tt le H a tchet Mounta ins , s outh o f E ureka . A l though t here i sn o d ef in ite e v idence o f p reh istor ic m in ing a t e i ther o f t hese s ources ( No rthrup 1 959 ) , D iPe so ( 1974) r eported t hat L i tt le H ach ita w as t he m in ing c enter f o r m uch o f t he t urquo ise f ound a t Ca sas G randes a fter A .D . 1 000. T h is i s b a sed o n v i sua l e xam inat ion o f t he t u rquo ise , s i nce t o d ate a s uf f ic ient ly l a rge s amp le h as n ot b een s ubm itted t o n eut ron a ct ivat ion a na lys is t o a dequa te ly c ha racteri ze t he p atterns o f e xchange a nd a cqu i s it ion a t Ca sa s G randes ( We igand , p ersona l c ommun icat ion ) . Ob s id ian w as a l so r ead i ly a ccess ib le . T he o n ly s ource o f o bs id ian t o b e f ound b etween t he Mogo l lon R im a nd s outhern C h ihuahua i s A nte lope We l ls , l ocated o n t he i n ternat iona l b order ( F ind low e t a l . 1 975) . N o t o n ly was i t w ide ly u sed b y t he f ront ier p opu lat ion , b ut i t w as a l so t ransported t o Ca sa s G randes . A n umber o f p ieces f rom t he L umho ltz c o lect ion a t t he l Amer ican Mu seum o f N atura l H i story c an b e i dent if ied a s b e ing f rom t h is s ource ( F . F ind low , p ersona l c ommun icat ion) . F u rthermore , t he n odu le f orm r eported b y D iPe so i sc ons istent w ith t he A nte lope We ls o bs id ian . H owever , l t here i s s ome v a r iety i n t he p hys ica l c ha racter ist ics d escr ibed , s o m ore t han o ne s ource m ay b e r epresented ( D iPe so 1 974 , 7 :337) . An a dd it iona l t urquo ise s ource i s l ocated t o t he n orth , b eyond t he l ower r eaches o f t he f r ont ier v a leys . Wh ite S i gna l Mounta in i n t he B u rro l Mounta ins i s 7 0 km . n o rth o f H ach ita , a nd S i g leo h as i dent if ied s ome o f t he Casas G randes t urquo ise a s b e ing f rom t h is a rea ( D iPe so 1 974 3 :748-749) . T o t he w est , a bout 8 5 k m . n orth o f A n imas , i st he Red R ock d i str ict . T h is i s t he a pparent s ource o f t he s erpent ine a nd a sbestos f ound a t Ca sas G randes . S ep io l ite , t he r arest o f t he i mported m ater ia ls , a l so c omes f rom s outhwest N ew Mex ico , a round t he S ap i lo C reek d i str ict o f G rant County ( D iPe so l 1 974 3 :630 ; 8 : 187-189 ) . T he Med io P e r iod c eram ic i nventory a t Ca sas G randes r evea ls t hat t here w as a t l east o ne a dd it iona l i mportant r e source t o b e t apped o n t he n orthern b ounda ry . Over 6 % o f t he t ota l s herd c ount a t C asa s G randes r epr esented t raded v esse ls , o f w h ich 9 9 .9% o r ig inated i n t he S outhwest . I n f act , 9 4 .8% o f t he i dent if ied i mported c eram ics w ere l a rge , t h in-wa l led j a rs o f E l P a so P o lychrome f rom t he R io G rande d ra inage . D iPe so s uggested t hat t he p ottery m ay h ave b een u sed t o t ransport a b u lky b ut l i ghtwe ight c omm od ity s uch a s s pume s a lt , w h ich o ccurs i n t he l ower R io G rande v a ley ( D i l P e so 1 974 6 :77 ; 8 : 141) . B ecause t he m ost d i rect r oute b etween t he R io G rande a nd Ca sas G randes i sl a rge ly c overed b y e xtens ive m 6danos , o r d ry , d esert s and c ountry , E l P a so P o lychrome p robab ly w as b rought i n to t he u rb an c enter b y a n a l ternate r oute . Ca rey ( 1951) a nd Me ra ( 1943 ) i n d icated t he p resence o f at rade r oute t o t he w est f rom E l P a so t hat c o inc ided w ith t he n orthern f ront ier l im its . T herefore , t he n orthern f ront ier s ett lements were w el l s i tua ted t o e ngage i n t he t rade o pportun it ies r epresented b y t he c eram ics a nd a l l t he A n imas s i tes d o c onta in E l P a so P o lychrome ( Brand 1 937 , S ay les 1 936 ) . T he Mogo l lon d i str ict c ontr ibuted t he s econd m ost p rey -

1 9

a lent t rade c eram ics ( D iPe so 1 974 8 : 141) a nd a ga in , f ront ier s ett lement s w ere i n t he d i rect l i ne o f m ovement o f t he p ot t ery f rom t he n orth t o t he s outh . T here w as c lea r ly a d emand f o r t he r esou rces i n t he c ore a rea , s i nce t hese v a lued m ater ia ls a ppeared i n t he p roducts m anufactured a t Ca sa s G randes . Ce rta in ly t he d emands o f t he u rban e ntrepeneurs f i gured i n s ome w ay i n t he e xpans ion a nd m a intenance o f t he n or thern f ront ier . H oweve r , i t i sd i ff icu l t t o d eterm ine i f t he e xp lo ita t ion w as a p r ima ry o r s econdary f act or a nd t o r econstruct h ow t he g roups a t t he c enter p a rt ic ipated i n t he a cqu i s it ion o f t he g oods . D iPe so b e l ieved c entra l ized c ontro l o f b o th c raft p roduct ion a nd t he r esource e xtract ion i ndustr ies e x isted a t Ca sa s G randes . A g ood c a se c an b e m ade f o r as oc ia l h iera rchy a t t he c i ty , b ut t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he r u lers a nd m erchants a nd/o r c raftspeop le i s a mb iguous . T he m ost c oncrete i n format ion a bout t he o rgan izat ion o f c raft p roduct ion c omes f r om t he w orkshops f ound i n t he c i ty . H e re w ere c oncent rated a ssorted r aw m ater ia ls o f l oca l a nd f ore ign o r ig in , h undreds o f o b jects i n v a r ious s tages o f m anuf acture , a nd q uant it ies o f f i n ished g oods . F rom t he e xcava ted p ort ion o f t he c i ty , D iPe so ( 1974) r eported a t l east t h ree Med i c ) P e r iod w orkshops d i str ibu ted t hroughout t he s i te . E ach o ne w as l ocated i n ad i fferent e xcava ted u n it . S uch a d i str ibut ion a rgues a ga inst c entra l ized c ontro l o f w orkshops o r t he p resence o f c raft b a rr ios ; h owever , i t m ay b e t hat w orkshops w ere r es t r icted t o t he a rea o f t he s i te e xcava ted , s o t h is c an o n ly b e p ut f orth w ith r eservat ions . T he c haracter ist ics o f t he w orkshops a l so p rov ide c lues t o t he o rgan izat ion o f c ra ft p roduct ion i n C a sa s G randes . E ach a ppa rent ly c onta ined i t s o wn s to rage a reas f o r r aw m ater ia l a nd f i n ished g oods , a s w e l l a s a ctua l w ork s pace . T herefore , a l though m ore t han o ne w orkshop w as e ng aged i n as im i lar i ndustry , p a rt icu la r ly j ewe lry m anufacture , r esources a nd w ork s paces w ere n ot s ha red . F u rthermore , n o s epa rate c entra l ized s to rage w as f ound f or e i ther r aw m ater ia ls o r f i n ished g oods , a nd t herefore e v id ence i sl ack ing f or a t r ibute s ystem a s s een a mong t he A z tec p ochteca a nd t he ir r u lers . B o th p roduct s pec ia l izat ion a nd d ivers if icat ion w ere p ract iced . F o r e xamp le , i n o ne w orkshop t he p r imary p roduct w as s imp le " mass p rol ed s l d uced" d r il he ls f o r s t r ing ing , w hereas a nother w orkshop m a in ly p rol d uced m ore r ef ined a nd a rt ist ic e xamp les o f s he lwork . L eve ls o f c raftsmanl s h ip w ere d i st inct ly d i fferent a s w e l . A t h ird w orkshop p roduced b oth s tone l e ff ig ies a nd j ewe lry o f s he l . I n o rder t o u nderstand t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he a rt isans a nd t he r esource s upp l iers , i t i s f i rst n ecessa ry t o d ete rm ine i f u se o f ap art icu la r m ater ia l w as r estr icted t o o ne p roducer o r w orkshop i n t he c i ty . T ab le 2 . 3 s hows t he c i ty-w ide d i str ibut ion o f c atego r ies o f m ater ia ls r e lat ing t o t he m anufactur ing i ndustr ies . M ined d epos it m ater ia l r efers t o u nworked m ine ra l s a nd o res u sed i n l ap ida ry w ork , c opper s m ith ing , a nd s o f orth , s o i t p rob ab ly i nd icates i n -s ite p rocess ing o f m ater ia l . T h is m ater ia l , a nd p resumab ly t he r e lated m anufacture , w as l a rge ly r estr icted t o s evera l u n its . I n t erms o f t he t ota l m ined d epos it m ater ia l , U n its 1 4 a nd 8 a re t he m ost i mportan t , h av ing 5 9 .2% a nd 3 2 .5% r e spect ive ly o f t he t o ta l m ined d epos it m ater ia l . U n its 1 6 a nd 1 3 a ccount f or m inor m anufactur ing a ct iv ity ( 5 .6% a nd 1 . 2% , r espect ive ly ) . l W i th in t he o vera l m anufactur ing i ndustry t here i sad i fferent d i st r ib ut ion p attern f or f ore ign m ined m ater ia l . A l though i mported m ater ia ls w ere l u sed i n a l o f t he u n its w here m ined m ater ia ls a ppear , m ost o f t he i mported r esources w ere c onsumed b y U n its 8 ( 5 3 .8% ) a nd 1 6 ( 2 4 .2% ) . M inor a mounts

2 0

— 4 t e \

— 4 • 1 C )

a 2 rq (N I

, 1 •

C I\ L e1

0 0

D

C • 4 0 0

0 0

r e N

C2 4

.

o.

4 C r % 0 0

re ,

— 4

c r 1

•

N r e l

e r N L e N

1 1 1

2 -

c i l N

c 3

— 4

0 4 -

,4 .

c 2 .

0

N

E F.

7 0 .' . . C -

2 :

• ( r i C

•.

LI°

8

oc z

[ L i — 1

. 3 ) E z

-0

0

r l ,

I .

0 I .

*

27 ,

,

( .

• , — _ ,2 * , 3 ) _ . , 4 . n i C

1 -2 )1 2 0 t . L .

2 1

T r i I o

( 1974 7 :474-475 ) .

D i str ibut ion o f Manufactur ing

TABLE 2 .3

W i th in Ca sas G randes

0

1 w ere i mportant i n U n its 1 3 ( 1.3% ) a nd 1 4 ( 8 .2% ) . T o s ee w hether t he q uant i t ies r ef lected o n ly t he s i ze o f t he w orkshop o r e mphas is o n e xot ic m ater ia l s , t he r e lat ive i mportance o f f o re ign m ined m a ter ia ls w as c ons idered w ith l r espect t o t he o vera l a mount o f m anufactur ing m ater ia ls i n e ach u n it . I t c an b e s een t hat i n m ost u n its , t he f o re ign m a ter ia l w as f a ir ly e ven ly d i st r ibuted b ut r e lat ive ly i n s ign if icant . I n g enera l , i ta ccounted f or 5 % o r l e ss o f t he c raft r e sources . T he p roport ion f or U n it 1 4 i s e xtreme ly l ow d esp ite l t he f act t hat t he t ota l a mount o f m ined m ater ia l i s t he h ighest f or a l u n its . l F o re ign m ater ia l i s o f s ubstant ia ly g reater i mpo rtance i n U n its 1 2 , 1 3 , a nd 1 6 . O f t he t hree , o n ly U n its 1 3 a nd 1 6 h ave e nough m ater ia l t o a ccount f o r c oncentrated m anufactur ing a ct iv ity . l T he i mported s he l d i str ibut ion d a ta f rom T ab le 2 .4 c lar if ies t he p a tl l t erns s een a bove . Wh i le s he l i s i mportant i n a l f our u n its ( 8 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 6 ) , i n U n it 1 4 t here i s ad i fferent p attern : t he m ined r e sources a re m ore i mportant l l t han s he l. I n U n it 8 s he l i s am a jo r c omponent o f t he i ndustry , w h i le b oth l l oca l a nd f o re ign m ined r esources a re s upp lementary . U n it 1 6 m ay b e as ma l l l s ca le v ers ion o f u n it 8 . I t r anks t h ird i n i t s o ve ra l a bundance o f s he l a nd l m ined m ater ia l , a nd s econd i n f o re ign m ined m ate r ia l . A l though s ma l-sca le , l U n it 1 3 u ses a pprec iab ly l e ss s he l t han t he o ther m anufactur ing s i tes , a nd p ercentage-w ise , m ore f o re ign m ined m ater ia l . I ts eems t o r epresent a t h ird m anufactur ing p attern . T hus t he p oss ib i l ity e x ists t hat t here w e re s evera l d i fferent g roups r e ly ing o n m ater ia l f rom t he f ront ier , w ith d i fferent s pec ia l iza t ions a nd n eeds . T he t entat ive p icture w h ich e merges i s t he o perat ion o f b oth l a rge l a nd s ma l s ca le c raft p roduct ion . L a rge s ca le m anufacturers ( e .g . t hose i n U n its 8 a nd 1 4 ) t ended t o s pec ia l ize i n p roducts m ade o f o ne m ater ia l ( e .g . l l l s tone o r s he l ) , b ut e mp loyed a f u l r ange o f r esources . Sma l s ca le m anufacl t urers r e l ied m ore o n f o re ign m ater ia ls , b ut t he t o ta l amount was s ma l .

TABLE 2 .4 l D i str ibut ion o f S he l A r t ifacts W i th in Ca sas G randes

• 6

8

1 2

l S hel N umber

5 346

3 ,675 ,712

2 660

% o f T o ta l

. 1

9 6 .2

. 1

l Ra t io o f S he l t o M ined Ma ter ia l

4 09 .7

U n its A l

1 4

1 6

O ther

4 881

1 0 ,848

10,051

1 0 ,054

. 1

. 3

2 .9

. 3

1 4 .1

6 . 6

7 1.4

l A T o ta l N umber o f S hel r t ifacts = 3 ,819 ,552 l A l o ther u n its c omb ined .

I n e very u n it , % o f t o ta l i s l e ss t han 0 . 1%

D a ta f rom D iPe so ( 1974 , 6 :404-407)

2 2

o

D i str ibut ion o f F o re ign M ine ra l Ma ter ia l W i th in Ca sas G randes

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D ISC U SS ION

An e xam inat ion o f t he t wo s ets o f a na lyses j u st o ut l ined a l low a n umber o f c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn . H owever , w h i le i t i s p oss ib le t o r e late m any o f t he r e su l ts o bta ined t o s pec if ic c u l tura l/h i stor ica l e vents w ith in t he S outhwestern s tudy a rea , i n t h is d i scuss ion w e a re c onf in ing o ur c omments t o t hose r esu l ts t ha t h ave g enera l r e levance t o t he u nderstand ing o f p reh ist o r ic e xchange . P robab ly t he s i ng le m ost i mportant c onc lu s ion t hat c an b e d rawn f rom t he s et o f a na lyses j u st p resented i s t he r ecogn it ion t hat t rad it iona l c urve-f itt ing m ethods u sed i n t he s tudy o f p reh istor ic e xchange a lmost a l w ays p roduce f au l ty r epresentat ions o f e xchange w hen t hey a re a pp l ied t o d a ta d rawn f rom a rea s a ssoc iated w ith t he b ounda r ies o f e xchange s ystems . A s T ab le 1 .1 s hows , t he a ccuracy o f a ny s uch a na lys is mu st b e c ons idered l s uspect . T h is f i nd ing i s e spec ia ly i mportant i n t he l i ght o f p rev ious e xc hange s tud ies , a lmost n one o f w h ich e ven a ddressed t he p rob lem o f h ow t o r ecogn ize e xchange s y stem b ounda r ies w ith in t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . I f i t i s a ssumed t hat a t l ea st s ome o f t hese s tud ies i ncorporated b ounda ry a rea d a ta , i ts eems q u i te l i ke ly t hat t he r esu l ts o f m any o f t hem a re e i ther f a lse , o r a t l east h igh ly d i storted . F u rther , a s t he a na lyses r eported o n h ere i nd ic ate s h ifts i n t he r e lat ive g oodness-o f-f it o f t he v a r ious e xchange m ode ls o f a s much a s 5 5% w ith in s i ng le e xchange s ystems , t he w ho le i dea o f u s ing l p art icu lar c urves t o r epresent c erta in f o rms o f e xchange i s c a led i n to d oubt . I t s eems , a t l east i n sofa r a s t he p reh istor ic u se o f o bs id ian i n t he S outhwest i sc oncerned , t hat t he v a r iab i l ity w ith in s i ng le e xchange n etworks o f ten e xceeded t he v a r iab i l ity b etween t hem . Consequent ly , i t i s h ard t o l p lace much f a ith i n t he u se o f f a l-o ff r eg imes a s r epresentat ions o f e xs as l c hange s ystems u n les i ng le f a l-o ff p attern c an b e s hown t o h ave o pera ted c ont inuous ly t hroughout t he e xchange s ystem i n q uest ion . I n am ore p art icu lar s ense t he r e su l ts o bta ined i n t h is r esea rch s ugg est t hat m uch o f t he a noma lous u se t hat c ha racter ize s e xchange b ehav ior n ea r t he f ront iers o f p rocurement s ystems o ccurs a s ar e su l t o f t he e x ist ence o f a bnorma l t ransport a nd p rocurement c osts i n s uch a rea . Wh i le t hese r esu l ts must b e c ons idered p re l im ina ry , i t a ppea rs t hat t he o pt ion o f p a rt ic ipat ion i n m o re t han o ne e xchange s ystem g ives t he o ccupants o f b order a rea s t he c hance t o o pt im ize t he ir u sage o f e xchanged m ater ia ls t hrough s t rateg ies b a sed o n t he s imu l taneous o r s h ift ing u se o f t he t wo e xchange s ystems i nvo lved . I n t h is w ay t hey c an , i n e ffect , t reat t he a d jac ent e xchange s ystems a s f i xed p o int r e sources , w ith t he s ource o f e ach r epresented b y g roups l ocated n ear , b ut o ut s ide t he b ounda ry z one . U nde r s uch a n a rrangement t he t ransport c osts f o r t he o ccupants o f af ront ier a rea r e late n ot t o t he i r d i stance f rom t he s ource o f t he e xchanged m ateri a ls b ut t o t he ir d i stance f rom t he c losest p art ic ipants i n t he a l ternate e xchange s ystems w ho d o n ot h ave t he o pt ion o f j o int o r s h ift ing e xchange b ehav ior . O ne b y-p roduct o f t h is k ind o f s i tua t ion t ends t o b e h igher t han n orma l c onsumpt ion o f e xchanged g oods i n b o rder a rea s t han c ou ld b e e xp ected f rom t he ir g eograph ic p lacement a lone . I n s hort , p opu lat ions l oca ted i n b order a reas c an , t h rough j o int p art ic ipat ion i n m ore t han o ne e xchange s ystem , a cqu i re m ore g oods t han p opu lat ions i mmed iate ly n ext t o t hem b ut o ut s ide t he f r ont ier a rea s imp ly b ecause t hey h ave e xchange o pt ions t hat a re u nava i lab le t o s uch n on-f ront ier p opu lat ions . T he i mp l icat ions o f s uch i ncreased u se n ea r t he e dge o f e xchange s ystems , i n sofa r a s t he u se o f a ny c urve-f itt ing m ethodo logy i s c oncerned ( Renfrew 1 977) , s hou ld b e o bv ious .

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CONCLUS IONS

Two s ets o f a na lyses w ere u ndertaken i n a n e ffort t o i s o late t he r e la t ive e ffects o f e xchange b ehav ior i n f r ont ier a reas o n t he s tudy o f p reh i stor ic e xchange u s ing t he c urve-f itt ing m ethodo logy t hat h as r ecent ly b een m ade p opu lar b y t he w ork o f R enf rew ( 1 977) . A s ar esu l t o f t hese e xam inat ions i t i s n ow a ppa rent t hat s uch m ethods c an o n ly b e e ffect ive w hen a pp l ied t o a reas a way f rom t he b ounda r ies o f e xchange s ytems . T he i mp l icat ions o f t h is s tudy f o r t he g enera l a na lys is o f p reh istor ic e xchange a re i mmed iate ly a ppa rent a nd m ake i tc lear t ha t e xchange a na lyses t ha t d o n ot t ake i n to a ccount t he u n ique n a ture o f t he e xchange b ehav ior t hat c ha racter ize b ounda ry r eg ions c an n o l onger b e g iven s er ious c ons ide ra t ion. L ikew ise , c u l tura l c ons iderat ions d rawn f rom s uch s tud ies mu st b e c ons ide red f l awed .

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