Experiencing Food: Designing Dialogues: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Food Design and Food Studies (EFOOD 2017), October 19-21, 2017, Lisbon, Portugal [First edition] 9781351271936, 1351271938, 9781351271943, 1351271946, 9781351271950, 1351271954, 978-1-351-27196-7, 1351271962, 978-1-138-57538-7

Table of contents :
Content: Educating people about foodPlaying with food: Reconfiguring the gastronomic experience through play F.A. Bertran & D. WildeAn interdisciplinary design led investigation into change-a design led experiment with cuisine T. Lynch & M. NiimiInvestigation of Chinese enclave in Milan to encourage the openness: Food business as a breakthrough point M. Pillan & S. HeInnovation design for food C.L. Remondino, B. Stabellini, P. Tamborrini & A. GaiardoDesigning the integration of familiar agriculture in the supply chain for the gastronomic sector in Rio de Janeiro I. Bursztyn & L.C. MartinsUsing design methodologies to problematise the dominant logic of current culinary pedagogy A. Woodhouse & R. MitchellDesign as pedagogy: Giving culinary arts students agency over their learning R. Mitchell & A. WoodhouseIntegrated food studies education and research: Challenges and potentials for integration and reflection M.W. Hansen & S.R. HansenExperiencing foodEffect of nostalgia triggered by sound on flavor perception F. Leonor, J. Lake & M. Guerra"A Saudade Portuguesa". Designing a dialogical food narrative R. Bonacho, M. Pires & C. ViegasDesigning for the senses through food design and psychophysiology R. Mota, P. Mata, H. Vilaseca, R. Bonacho & M. CarvalhoThreading tradition-a path for innovation with methylcellulose threads M. Santos, P. Gabriel, P. Mata, P. Fradinho & A. RaymundoEdible affinities: How memories shape our food P. Gabriel & P. MataLX design with food T. Marat-MendesIntegrating design and food studies: Learning by design or getting a sense of different contexts? M.H. LarsenWhat is sedimented in the cup: Perceptions of Turkish coffee drinking experience H. Nihal Bursa & Z.M. Galip KocaCarved offerings: Butter sculpture as a valuable centerpiece of American dairy culture A. Sophie SlesingerTourism experience through food design: Case of the city of Phuket A. Krasae-in & N. RodjanathumDesigning for/with foodDesign and development of a lunchbox to carry healthy meals V. DuarteTableware design as a method for weight reduction N. CinovicsThe importance of the multidisciplinary approach in sustainable food packaging design A. Pallaro & C.L. RemondinoEating while walking: Social facilitation as agent A. StephenPlace setting: Restaurant serviceware design to reconnect the diner with the food system N. Bender & Y.S. TanExperimental dialogue between food design and brand creation: The example of EUROPARQUE rebranding P. MarceloUnderstanding rice consumption and encouraging consumer empathy through design thinking A. Castanho, L.M. Cunha, J.C. Oliveira, M. Guerra & C. BritesDesigning of new system for presenting nutritional information on foods A. Pires, C. Viegas & R. BonachoA new trend in food preservation: Antimicrobial packaging K.N. TurhanFood for thoughtThe Heterotopias of food: Spaces and (other) places in food practices D.J. Virgen Castro, T.D. Olsen Tvedebrink & I. Martinez de AlbenizThe cooking space: Dialogues between house and food M. Sanchez SalvadorArchitecture and gastronomy: Crossing disciplinary fields M. Sanchez SalvadorAngela Carter: Receiving literature through food & design R. Bonacho, M. Pires, C. Viegas, A. Coelho & A. SousaThe ethical question of animal rights and its narrative representation in two Portuguese literary utopias J.E. ReisDeconstructing situated cultural differences: A case study of traditional food retail systems in India T. DhadphaleDesigning sustainable productive chains: The case of community oyster from Alagoas - Brazil M.C.C. Pimenta, I. Bursztyn & I.B.A. TorreThe presence of authenticity in the second season of the reality show MasterChef Brazil J. Falchetti

Citation preview

EXPERIENCING FOOD, DESIGNING DIALOGUES

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1ST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FOOD DESIGN AND FOOD STUDIES (EFOOD 2017), LISBON, PORTUGAL, 19–21 OCTOBER 2017

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues

Editors

Ricardo Bonacho CIAUD—Research Center for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

Alcinda Pinheiro de Sousa Centre for English Studies (ULICES), Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

Cláudia Viegas Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Estoril, Portugal

João Paulo Martins CIAUD—Research Center for Architecture, Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

Maria José Pires Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Estoril, Portugal

Sara Velez Estêvão LABCOM.IFP, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal

CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK Typeset by V Publishing Solutions Pvt Ltd., Chennai, India All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher. Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein. Published by: CRC Press/Balkema Schipholweg 107C, 2316 XC Leiden, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com ISBN: 978-1-138-57538-7 (Hbk + CD-Rom) ISBN: 978-1-351-27196-7 (eBook)

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Table of contents

Preface

ix

Committee members and keynote speakers

xi

Educating people about food Playing with food: Reconfiguring the gastronomic experience through play F.A. Bertran & D. Wilde

3

An interdisciplinary design led investigation into change—a design led experiment with cuisine T. Lynch & M. Niimi

7

Investigation of Chinese enclave in Milan to encourage the openness: Food business as a breakthrough point M. Pillan & S. He Innovation design for food C.L. Remondino, B. Stabellini, P. Tamborrini & A. Gaiardo Designing the integration of familiar agriculture in the supply chain for the gastronomic sector in Rio de Janeiro I. Bursztyn & L.C. Martins

11 15

19

Using design methodologies to problematise the dominant logic of current culinary pedagogy A. Woodhouse & R. Mitchell

23

Design as pedagogy: Giving culinary arts students agency over their learning R. Mitchell & A. Woodhouse

27

Integrated food studies education and research: Challenges and potentials for integration and reflection M.W. Hansen & S.R. Hansen

31

Experiencing food Effect of nostalgia triggered by sound on flavor perception F. Leonor, J. Lake & M. Guerra

37

“A Saudade Portuguesa”. Designing a dialogical food narrative R. Bonacho, M. Pires & C. Viegas

41

Designing for the senses through food design and psychophysiology R. Mota, P. Mata, H. Vilaseca, R. Bonacho & M. Carvalho

47

Threading tradition—a path for innovation with methylcellulose threads M. Santos, P. Gabriel, P. Mata, P. Fradinho & A. Raymundo

53

Edible affinities: How memories shape our food P. Gabriel & P. Mata

57

LX design with food T. Marat-Mendes

61

v

Integrating design and food studies: Learning by design or getting a sense of different contexts? M.H. Larsen What is sedimented in the cup: Perceptions of Turkish coffee drinking experience H. Nihal Bursa & Z.M. Galip Koca Carved offerings: Butter sculpture as a valuable centerpiece of American dairy culture A. Sophie Slesinger Tourism experience through food design: Case of the city of Phuket A. Krasae-in & N. Rodjanathum

65 69

73 77

Designing for/with food Design and development of a lunchbox to carry healthy meals V. Duarte

83

Tableware design as a method for weight reduction N. Cinovics

87

The importance of the multidisciplinary approach in sustainable food packaging design A. Pallaro & C.L. Remondino Eating while walking: Social facilitation as agent A. Stephen

93 97

Place setting: Restaurant serviceware design to reconnect the diner with the food system N. Bender & Y.S. Tan

101

Experimental dialogue between food design and brand creation: The example of EUROPARQUE rebranding P. Marcelo

105

Understanding rice consumption and encouraging consumer empathy through design thinking A. Castanho, L.M. Cunha, J.C. Oliveira, M. Guerra & C. Brites

109

Designing of new system for presenting nutritional information on foods A. Pires, C. Viegas & R. Bonacho

117

A new trend in food preservation: Antimicrobial packaging K.N. Turhan

123

Food for thought The Heterotopias of food: Spaces and (other) places in food practices D.J. Virgen Castro, T.D. Olsen Tvedebrink & I. Martínez de Albeniz

129

The cooking space: Dialogues between house and food M. Sanchez Salvador

135

Architecture and gastronomy: Crossing disciplinary fields M. Sanchez Salvador

141

Angela Carter: Receiving literature through food & design R. Bonacho, M. Pires, C. Viegas, A. Coelho & A. Sousa

147

The ethical question of animal rights and its narrative representation in two Portuguese literary utopias J.E. Reis

vi

153

Deconstructing situated cultural differences: A case study of traditional food retail systems in India T. Dhadphale

161

Designing sustainable productive chains: The case of community oyster from Alagoas – Brazil M.C.C. Pimenta, I. Bursztyn & I.B.A. Torre

165

The presence of authenticity in the second season of the reality show MasterChef Brazil J. Falchetti

169

Author index

173

vii

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Preface

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues was the theme of the 1st International Conference on Food Design and Food Studies held in Portugal. It was organized by four institutions: Estoril Higher Institute for Hotel and Tourism Studies, CIAUD—Research Center in Architecture, Urbanism and Design of the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon, LABCOM.IFP—Research Unit of the University of Beira Interior and ULICES—University of Lisbon Center for English Studies of the School of Arts and Humanities of the University of Lisbon. The conference took place at the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon on 19, 20 and 21 October 2017. As a member of the organizing and executive committee establishing a liaison between the four institutions, I am pleased to present the book Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues, which brings together the state of the art and the result of numerous researches by the authors who attended the 1st International Conference on Food Design and Food Studies in Portugal. This book comprises four sections. In the first one, “Educating people about food”, the authors present research projects that explore our relationship with food and what we know about it—an approach to how Design can contribute to a pedagogy of both the consumer and the culinary arts professionals who are increasingly interested in Design as a tool and methodology. In the second section, “Experiencing food”, the intermediation of gastronomy is approached through sensoriality. The authors dwell on the sense of experimentation with food, how we relate to and experience it from a variety of perspectives of Food Design and Food Studies. As for the following section, “Designing for/with food”, we can find several studies about products, services and food experiences that reflect the importance of design as methodology in the construction of new objects and products. In the final section, “Food for thought”, the interdisciplinarity of Design and Gastronomy through new relationships and influences are explored, from architecture to literature we can find approaches that allow us to reflect on food beyond the simple act of nourishing ourselves and its relation to other disciplinary areas. We hope that this book becomes useful for researchers in the field of Food Design and Food Studies, as it contributes to a greater consolidation of the interdisciplinarity of food matters through Design and Food Studies. Ricardo Bonacho Member of the Organizing and Executive Committees EFOOD 2017 Associate Researcher CIAUD, Universidade de Lisboa

ix

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Committee members and keynote speakers

CONFERENCE CHAIRS Ricardo Manuel Carrilho Bonacho, CIAUD, Faculty of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Alcinda Pinheiro de Sousa, CEAUL, School of Arts and Humanities, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Cláudia Viegas, ESHTE, Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Portugal Maria José Pires, ESHTE, Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Portugal João Paulo Martins, CIAUD, Faculty of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Sara Velez Estêvão, LABCOM.IFP, University of Beira Interior, Portugal ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Alcinda Pinheiro de Sousa, CEAUL, School of Arts and Humanities, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Ana Daniela Coelho, CEAUL, School of Arts and Humanities, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Cláudia Viegas, Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Portugal Elisabete Rolo, CIAUD, Faculty of Architeture, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Filipa Nogueira Pires, CIAUD, Faculty of Architeture, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal João Paulo Martins, CIAUD, Faculty of Architeture, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Maria José Pires, CEAUL, Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Portugal Ricardo Bonacho, CIAUD, Faculty of Architeture, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Sara Velez Estêvão, LABCOM.IFP, University of Beira Interior, Portugal KEYNOTE SPEAKERS Alison J. Clarke, University of Applied Arts, Vienna, Austria Charles Spence, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, UK Fabio Parasecoli, The New School, NYC, USA Héloïse Vilaseca, La Masia, El Celler de Can Roca, Gerona, Spain Pedro Pena Bastos, Reguengos de Monsaraz, Portugal Sonia Massari, Gustolab International, Scuola Politecnica di Design, ISIA Design School, Rome, Italy Sonja Stummerer & Martin Hablesreiter, Honey & Bunny, Vienna, Austria INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Catarina Moura (LABCOM.IFP - UBI) Carlos Brandão (ESHTE) Charles Spence (Oxford University) Cláudia Viegas (ESHTE) Daniel Raposo (ESART - Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco) Elisabete Rôlo (FA.UL - CIAUD) Erik Jan Hultink (TUDelft) Fabio Parasecoli (New School, New York) Fernando Moreira da Silva (FA.UL - CIAUD)

Ana Gaspar (C3i - IPP) Ana Inácio (Territur - ESHTE) Anna Cerrocchi (Polytechnic University of Turin) Afonso Borges (LABCOM.IFP - UBI) Alcinda Pinheiro de Sousa (FL.UL - CEAUL) António Lacerda (Universidade do Algarve) António Modesto (FBA-UP) Barry Kudrowitz (University of Minnesota) Bernhard E. Bürdek (Offenbach University of Art and Design)

xi

Richard Mitchel (Otago Polytechnic Food Design Institute) Rita Filipe (FA.UL - CIAUD) Ronald Tobin (University of California) Sancho Silva (ESHTE) Sara Velez Estêvão (LABCOM.IFP - UBI) Sonia Massari (Gustolab International, Scuola Politecnica di Design, ISIA Design School) Suzana Parreira (FBAUL) Teresa Malafaia (CEAUL - FL.UL) Pedro Reissig (The New School, NYC and Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina) Vanda Correia (C3i - IPP) Vera Barradas (C3i - IPP)

Francesca Zampollo (Online School of Food Design) Isabel Drumond Braga (FL.UL) João Nuno Pernão (FA.UL - CIAUD) João Paulo do Rosário Martins (FA.UL - CIAUD) Jorge Umbelino (ESHTE) José Vicente (UBI) Josélia Pedro (C3i - IPP) Manuela Guerra (ESHTE) Maria José Pires (ESHTE - CEAUL) Maria Teresa Nunes (FL.UL) Niels Heine Kristensen (Aalborg University) Rachel Edwards-Stuart (Westminster Kingsway College)

xii

Educating people about food

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Playing with food: Reconfiguring the gastronomic experience through play Ferran Altarriba Bertran & Danielle Wilde University of Southern Denmark, Kolding, Denmark

ABSTRACT: Research suggests that play is an influential factor in the eating experience. Yet, playing with food remains a common taboo. We explore ways that eating and play might unfold in gastronomic restaurants. We review current practices and conduct mixed-method interviews with a range of stakeholders, using the PLEX framework for playful interactions to identify limitations of current approaches, as well as opportunities to take the convergence of gastronomy and play further. Our findings point to four design opportunities to extend playfulness in gastronomy: (1) eliciting play beyond surprise and make-believe; (2) facilitating socialization through emergent forms of play; (3) using common eating rituals as inspiration for gastronomy; and (4) using play to enhance degustation. Our contribution extends understanding of the potential of playful gastronomy for chefs and restauranteurs, by positing new experiences for diners. 1

INTRODUCTION

narrative or aesthetic significance. French gastronomy critic, Philippe Regol (2009), suggests that avant-garde cuisine cannot be understood without taking into account the chef’s willingness to “put a smile on the diner’s face”. He coined the term playfood to describe instances of playful gastronomy. Play-food is focused on a very particular understanding of play, one in which the diners sit and contemplate, while the restaurant amuses them through captivating, mysterious, or surprising experiences (Regol, 2009). While this model is clearly successful, it is also increasingly challenged (c.f. Figure 1): elBulli’s Las especias, for example, allows diners to guess the names of 12 different spices positioned around the plate; Alinea’s Balloon is a floating, helium-filled sugar bubble that you eat by sucking any point on its surface; and El Celler de Can Roca’s Tocaplats transforms the colours of the food in the plate into musical tones. These dishes provide compelling examples of interactive forms of engaging diners through food. It should be noted, however, that they are exceptions to the dominant idea of playful gastronomy.

Eating is a key ritual in the lives of human beings, as is play (Caillois, 1961). Significantly, similarities have been drawn between the rituals of play and feast (Huizinga, 1950). Different types of play have been shown to have a positive impact on the dining experience, although the use of play within gastronomy has unexplored potential (Wang, 2013). Gastronomy is not simply eating. It is a reconceptualization of how food is conceived, and eating enacted. Experiences that transgress taboos around food and eating can thus be easily incorporated into gastronomy. Yet, steps in this direction remain limited. We explore how gastronomic chefs currently encourage diners to play with their food. Using theories of playfulness, we demonstrate how this notion might be taken further to facilitate other kinds of play. Through a series of mixedmethod interviews, we interrogate understandings of playfulness in relation to gastronomy from the perspective of six stakeholders: a chef, a maître d’, a gastronomist, two food enthusiasts, and a nonexpert. Our findings extend understanding of how gastronomy and play might be better intertwined. Our intention is not to deny the success of current gastronomic practices, but rather to—quite literally—enlarge the playing field. Our research to date demonstrates that doing so can add value. 2

GASTRONOMIC FOOD-PLAY

Gastronomic food—arguably the pinnacle of fine dining—is often characterised by play: dishes that look one way, but taste another; feasting as a theatrical event; elaborations imbued with strong

Figure  1. (l-r): elBulli’s Las especias; Mugaritz’s Kaolin Potatoes; Alinea’s Balloon; El Celler de Can Roca’s Tocaplats.

3

4

Few gastronomic dishes challenge the idea of a passive diner who reacts, rather than interacts with the food or other diners, even though interacting is a key characteristic of play. 3

4.1

THE LANGUAGE OF GASTRONOMY The unidirectional model

According to elBulli Foundation (2017) the gastronomic experience is a unidirectional transmitterreceiver communication process (Shannon, 1948). In this model (c.f. Figure  3) a restaurant designs and elaborates dishes using a particular culinary language; a diner receives and eats those dishes. The entire experience is controlled down to the smallest detail; the focus held tightly on the food, and the social aspect left to the side. As per Regol (2009), the role of the diner is to “sit and contemplate.” To understand if this model is representative of broad understandings of gastronomy, we interviewed: a chef, a maître d’, a gastronomist, two food enthusiasts, and a non-expert, using a 5-step mixed participatory method, as described below.

THE DIVERSITY OF PLAY

Play is ambiguous (Sutton-Smith, 1997) and difficult to measure (McGonigal, 2011). Play can be liberty and invention, fantasy and discipline (Caillois, 1961). Whatever its form, it is ultimately fun (Huizinga, 1950). Crucially, the perception of fun is highly subjective, so play can be extremely diverse. The PLEX framework (Arrasvuori, Boberg, & Korhonen, 2010; Figure  2) proposes 22 types of playful experience. Using that framework, we find that Regol’s idea of play-food covers only three forms of play: captivation, discovery, and sensation (Figure 2, in green). Other gastronomic dishes (c.f. Figure 1) elicit another seven forms of play: Challenge, Competition, Expression, Fantasy, Fellowship, Humour and Thrill (Figure 2, in yellow). There is clearly more to play than currently on offer in gastronomic restaurants. Outside the context of gastronomy, culturally framed eating rituals often leverages play to support social interaction and active participation, neither of which appears in the PLEX framework. The Tortell de Reis, for example—a traditional Catalan dish eaten at Epiphany (January 6)— contains two ceramic figures: a king and a bean. The person who finds the king in their slice is “king” for the day; the person who finds the bean must pay for the cake. Pimientos del Padrón—a variety of green peppers that may or may not be extremely spicy—are also a source of mirth ingroup situations, where the thrill of not knowing whether the chosen pepper will be spicy is enhanced through social interaction. Both of these popular dishes afford social play.

4.2

Stakeholder interview structure

1. The participant was invited to a meal, in a setting chosen to raise tensions. For example, the non-expert was invited to a Michelin-starred restaurant, and the maître d’ to a random cafeteria for a sandwich. We thus used destabilisation (Shklovsky, [1917] 1965), to open our guests to exchange un-filtered views (Wilde, 2011). 2. We presented the guest-interviewee with four empty jam jars and a packet of M&Ms. Their task was to distribute the M&Ms between the jars to represent their understanding of gastronomy. Three jars were labelled with key motivations to eat: degustation, socialization, and nutrition (Douglas, 1972; Warde & Martens, 2000; Ochs & Shohet, 2006). The fourth jar’s label was blank, to enable our guest-interviewee to add a value of their own (Figure 4). 3. We proceeded with the meal. 4. We offered the M&M-filled jars as petit-fours, to accompany coffee, thus facilitating a smooth transition from open conversation to a more focused reflection. We then used tangible interviewing tools (Clatworthy et. al., 2014) to discover how our guest-interviewees perceived the idea of playful gastronomy. For example, we asked them to use pre-filled cards to create the sequence of actions that happen at a gastronomic restaurant,

Figure  2. The PLEX framework (Arrasvuori et. al., 2010). GREEN highlights: experiences embraced by Regol’s play-food; YELLOW: those embraced by current gastronomic dishes; RED: those not represented in gastronomic restaurants.

Figure  3. model.

4

El Bulli’s restaurant–diner communication

our findings show that playful eating might benefit from being active, social and free. Embracing a richer idea of what play means might be a step towards enhancing the playful qualities of a gastronomic meal. We thus posit that diversifying the forms of play that gastronomic chefs draw from can afford new forms of gastronomy that may appeal to a broader range of diners. Figure 4. Jam jars with M&Ms, the container to the right, labelled by the guest-interviewee as “reflective interaction”.

5.2

As a step towards active, social, and free playful eating experiences, we propose emergent play (Juul, 2002) as a tactic to leverage diners’ participation throughout a meal. One example could be plates that include three-dimensional models of objects that support the development of scenarios (c.f. 5.5 design studio, 2015). Such plates can provide multiple opportunities for play that are intrinsically related to eating. Unlike the make-believe proposals often found in gastronomic restaurants, this approach does not impose a predetermined story. Rather, it provides players with a relatively open canvas, with minimal elements to provide opportunities for imaginative free-play (Sproedt, 2012).

then to place playful interactions drawn from the PLEX framework where they might be desirable. 5. To conclude the interview, our interviewee filled in a recipe template with their personal idea of a “playful gastronomic experience.” 4.3 Findings Rather than following a single model, we learnt that the gastronomic experience had different meanings for each of our interviewees, and in all cases included socialisation. Some diners enjoyed focusing on degustation, with socialisation as an accessory; others claimed socialisation to be as important as the tasting of the food. Yet, gastronomic chefs rarely consider socialisation. We also learnt that people might be open to an increasingly playful approach to gastronomy. Of the forms of play represented in the PLEX framework, most guest-interviewees found the majority interesting. However, they could hardly recognize play in restaurants beyond surprise and makebelieve. As discussed, there are exceptions that harness challenge, creative expression and risk. Nonetheless, playful gastronomy is mostly articulated through passive forms of play. A key conclusion is that restaurants might be playful, but in a very narrow way. They may even be perceived as less playful than they believe themselves to be. The interviews allowed us to identify four design opportunities towards increasingly playful gastronomy: (1) eliciting play beyond surprise and make-believe; (2) facilitating socialization through emergent forms of play; (3) using common eating rituals as inspiration for gastronomy; and (4) using play to enhance degustation. We unpack these opportunities in the following section.

5

Socialization through emergent play

5.3

Gleaning inspiration from eating rituals

Chefs often look for inspiration for their food in “real-life eating” (Gelb, 2015). Yet, they rarely take inspiration from the accompanying interactions. Eating rituals—such as those around the Tortell de Reis, or the Pimientos del Padrón—gain their cultural currency from the qualities of interactions that they afford. Such rituals could thus serve as valuable inspiration for new forms of playful eating. To succeed, this approach would require a renegotiation of the chef’s role from designer-expert (Bürdek, 2005, and Blomberg et. al., 2009), to a more open role that engages with diners’ desires, dining habits, and understandings of gastronomy. It may, thus, challenge the current, dominant, chefcentric view, though it does not have to. Instead of designing for play based on their personal intentions and expertise, in this scenario the chefs become facilitators that set the conditions for diners to find their own means for playing (Sproedt, 2012). The chefs, can thus leverage their expertise in new ways. Placing diners’ interactions at the centre of the dining experience can uncover novel ways to transition from the progressive, unidirectional model that dominates today’s gastronomic dining experience, towards more emergent and playful experiences.

PLAYFUL GASTRONOMY

5.1 Beyond surprise and make-believe 5.4

In earlier interviews of chefs (Altarriba Bertran, 2017), open-ended play was perceived as a disruption. Chefs strive to be in control. The dominant forms of play they offer are thus passive. However,

Playful enhancement of degustation

Finally, for a playful eating experience to be successful, the play should enhance the degustation, not distract from it. Playful gastronomy thus

5

REFERENCES

requires elements of play to be intrinsically bound to the act of eating. 6

5.5 designstudio. 2015. United for Healthier Kids: Storyplate. Published on May 12th, 2015 on http://www.5– 5designstudio.com/fr/projet/2015-u4hk. Retrieved on March 1st, 2017. Altarriba Bertran, F. 2017. Playing with food: enriching and diversifying the gastronomic experience through play. MSc Diss., University of Southern Denmark. Arrasvuori, J., Boberg, M., & Korhonen, H. 2010. Understanding Playfulness-An Overview of the Revised Playful Experience (PLEX) Framework. Proc. of Design & Emotion 2010 Conference, Design and Emotion Society. Blomberg, J., Burrell, M., & Guest, G. 2009. An ethnographic approach to design. Human-Computer Interaction: 71–94. Bürdek, B. E. 2005. Design: History, theory and practice of product design. Walter de Gruyter. Caillois, R. 1961. Man, Play and Games. University of Illinois Press. Clatworthy, S., Oorschot, R., & Lindquister, B. 2014. How to Get a Leader to Talk: Tangible Objects for Strategic Conversations in Service Design. In Proc. Service Design and Service Innovation. Linköping University Electronic Press 2014: 270–280. Douglas, M. 1972. Deciphering a meal. Daedalus: 61–81. elBulliFoundation Research Archive. Retrieved Feb. 2017. Gelb, D. 2015. Chef’s Table [Television Series]. Netflix, Boardwalk Pictures, and City Room Creative. Huizinga, J. 1950. Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture. Beacon Press. Juul, J. 2002. The Open and the Closed: Games of Emergence and Games of Progression. Proceedings of Computer Games and Digital Cultures Conference: 323–329. Tampere: Tampere University Press. McGonigal, J. 2011. Reality is broken: Why games make us better and how they can change the world. Penguin. Ochs, E., & Shohet, M. 2006. The cultural structuring of mealtime socialization. New directions for child and adolescent development: 35–49. Regol, P. 2009. La play-food. Published July 9th, 2009 on http://observaciongastronomica.blogspot.com.es. Retrieved February 28th, 2017. Translated by author A. Shannon, C. E. 1948. A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27: 379–423. Shklovsky, V. [1917] 1965. Art as Technique. Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays. U. Nebraska Press. Sproedt, H. 2012. Play. Learn. Innovate. Sutton-Smith, B. 1997. The ambiguity of play. Harvard University Press. Wang, Q. Q. J. 2013. Music, Mind, and Mouth: Exploring the interaction between music and flavour perception. MSc Diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Warde, A. & Martens, L. 2000. Eating out: Social differentiation, consumption and pleasure. Cambridge Univ. Press. Wilde, D. 2011. Swing that thing: moving to move. The poetics of embodied engagement. PhD. Diss., Monash University and CSIRO, Australia.

CONCLUSION

Play, as currently represented in gastronomic restaurants, is limited. While this may not be a problem, per se, our interviews with stakeholders uncovered a desire for a more playful approach in the design of gastronomic experiences. Our research points to four design opportunities to support such a shift: (1) embracing forms of play that go beyond surprise and make-believe; (2) facilitating socialization through emergent forms of play; (3) using common eating rituals as inspiration for gastronomy; and (4) using play to enhance degustation. While there exist many bridges between play and eating, there is space to strengthen the connections between the two, particularly in the context of gastronomy. Current unidirectional experiences preferred by gastronomic chefs leave little space for diners to interact actively and freely, or to alter the unfolding of events. Our findings suggest that opening gastronomy towards active, social, and free playful eating experiences might open up the gastronomic experience to a broader range of diners. In any case, doing so would certainly be welcomed by the chef, maître d’, gastronomist, and two food enthusiasts we interviewed, as well as by the non-expert. In addition to the forms of play identified in the PLEX framework, social and active play were identified as key sources of knowledge that could be harnessed in the design of gastronomic experiences. These forms of play empower diners to find their own means for participating. A richer and broader understanding of the role of the chef, as well as the role of play might therefore be helpful in diversifying the gastronomic scene, making it appealing to a broader spectrum of diners. In future research, we will deepen our exploration of how such playful gastronomic experiences might play out. We will broaden our consideration of the context of gastronomy to include gastronomic experiences created by the home “chef ”, as well as by professionals in contemporary rituals and feasts that take place outside of the restaurant. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The first author was based in elBulliLab, Barcelona, while undertaking this research. We would like to acknowledge the support, guidance and feedback provided by Ferran Adrià and Yaiza Bocos.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

An interdisciplinary design led investigation into change—a design led experiment with cuisine T. Lynch & M. Niimi Food Design Institute and School of Design, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand

ABSTRACT: In contemporary New Zealand society, there has been a rise in the popularity of casual cafés with New Zealand coffee consumption now being in the top 20 in the world (Lee-Woolf 2015). This popularity has been driven by consumers’ need for approachable and convenient food and beverage offerings and a newfound love affair with quality coffee (Tourism New Zealand 2017). This coupled with the relatively low cost of setting up cafés has meant a proliferation in their establishment, generating a comprehensive and competitive market place. Within this competitive free market an understanding of consumer motivators has proven to be a key part in the success or otherwise for many cafés (Burge 2013). Amongst these motivators, sustainability is now considered to be a priority, but the definition of sustainability is broad; for the purposes of this paper it will be defined as the relationship between people and planet (University of Canterbury 2015). Within the café context this simply means taking ownership for or acknowledging the ecological footprints created by the sale of commodities. This paper outlines changes undertaken at the Eden Café at Otago Polytechnic to imbed sustainable practice into its operating model. This transition was achieved by assembling an interdisciplinary working group who adopted the methods of Vijay Kumar. Kumar’s user-centric model sets out a series of seven organising principles, or modes of thinking, these placed in the order of sense intent, know context, know people, frame insights, explore concepts, frame solutions and realise offerings. They are oriented around gathering primary research data through fieldwork and organising supporting secondary research. Around each of these seven modes Kumar identifies additional tools and methods that create an organising framework in which to gather and analyse data, generate insights, and utilise insights to create innovative products or services. What follows is an example of how this model was utilised. 1

SENSE INTENT (KUMAR 2013, P. 21)

of the café: food waste, accumulated food miles, the carbon footprint of food production, the disposable culture of the food and beverage offering at the café. The change of focus was how we could turn these problems into opportunities.

Invoking this principle, Kumar advises to look at the wider landscape of change in the operational area. For the team this included local, regional and international food and food service providers as well as educational facilities providing catering and catering education. Also adopted were two tools: “reframing problems” and creating an “intent statement”. The intent statement was framed as three explicit statements that outlined the scope of the project: firstly, the group would reposition the café to become a market leader in the café industry with respect to environmental and financial sustainability; secondly, to enable repositioning the café customers and the Otago Polytechnic community would have to be engaged; and finally, this change would be recorded to create a sustainable catering template that could then be implemented in the wider catering services at Otago Polytechnic and beyond. Implicit in this statement was the question of how to tackle the existing sustainability problems

2

KNOW CONTEXT (KUMAR 2013, P. 51)

This phase was about gaining a full understanding of the surrounding conditions in which change can happen (Kumar 2013); thus, the group looked to understand and identify the different stakeholders in the café and their motivators and how possible change would affect them. This forced the initial exploration to be both internal—and external— for wider patterns of change within Hospitality. In doing this, it was identified that nationally very few cafés had imbedded the notion of sustainability into their practice, and those that had were still making concessions to what they considered commercial imperatives, the nature of these imperatives rang-

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included all the stakeholders and covered the entire production and consumption of the coffee. The map showed that the Huhtamaki Group, which distributes most disposable cups in New Zealand, sources its raw timber materials from Russia. The timber is transported to Sweden to be pulped and transported to Auckland, New Zealand to be manufactured into disposable cups. The cups are then transported for use in Dunedin, another 1,500  km. And despite the vast embodied energy, the cups are typically used for only a few minutes within the campus (Niimi 2017). This insight into the complexity of the paper cup problem (Raghavan 2009) and its ecological footprint meant the group was able to begin looking at ways the café could remedy it to answer the questions outlined in first section of this paper.

ing from use of non-free-range eggs and poultry to ensure adequate profit margin to using cheaper, nonethically sourced coffee. However, the group noted that internationally there were cafés that had become market leaders within the field of sustainability, and this had maintained or enhanced their commercial integrity. A key difference identified by the group was that a successful business had support from its customers, which had the effect of not only placing the business at the centre of a community of likeminded individuals but also as a market leader. This insight led to a survey of Eden Café customers and a heightened concern was noted surrounding the production and consumption of coffee, as compared to food, the latter generally perceived as healthy within the Otago Polytechnic (Lane 2016). After establishing there was greater concern about coffee production and consumption, the group focused solely on coffee. During research, the stakeholders were identified and classified into six groups: purchasers, coffee suppliers, coffee producers, those in the logistics of the coffee delivery, those in the supply of the nonconsumable components of the coffee (such as cups, filters), and finally, the baristas. To gain a deeper understanding of the pressures within each of those groups, it was required that the group stop looking at them as homogenous groups but rather as individuals with commonality to each other (Markman 2014). This study matched Kumar’s next phase, know people (Kumar 2013, p. 87); further analysis was by the human-centred methodology, the “five human factors” (Kumar 2013, p. 103). 3

5 EXPLORE CONCEPTS (KUMAR 2013, P. 195) The process so far had highlighted that the first issue to address in the café—in relation to sustainability— was the use of the disposable coffee cups. The study had shown that the cups’ high level of imbedded energy, their non-recyclable nature and the eventual time they were used, made them far from sustainable as per the definition outlined at the beginning of this paper (University of Canterbury 2015) and not matching consumer values of the café. It was decided the best way to achieve consumer buy-in to change would be to highlight the issue to the customers by way of a series of visual demonstrations (Stauffer 2008). The first of these was to display a month’s worth of empty takeaway coffee cups adjacent to the coffee counter, this acting as a visual demonstration of the volume of cups the café was using. Unfortunately, a representative of the company contracted to supply not only the cups but also the coffee beans and the coffee machines soon visited the café. It was asked the display to be removed, stating that the brand was not to be shown in that light, and that the display could damage the relationship between the Otago Polytechnic and the supplier. From then the working group decided on a subtler approach to highlighting the situation and a communication design student was enlisted to create visualisations outlining various aspects of the coffee cup problem. The dialogue between the working group and customers was now about changing or removing the disposable coffee cups.

KNOW PEOPLE (KUMAR 2013, P. 87)

The five human factors required looking at how individuals physically, cognitively, socially, culturally and emotionally interacted with both the environment and the coffee they purchased. Research was undertaken by combining quantitative and qualitative data and gave the group several insights. First, it showed on a social, cultural and emotional level our customers placed community needs over individual, and valued ethics over convenience. It also showed that physically less that 10% of all the coffee being purchased was being consumed outside the campus and that all the coffee was sold in disposable coffee cups. Last, there was a financial trade-off between the frequency of visits and the value of the purchases.

6 4

FRAME INSIGHTS (KUMAR 2013, P. 129)

FRAME SOLUTIONS (KUMAR 2013, P. 247)

There were concerns surrounding the café staff having to manage angry customers who no longer

To frame the information, the group produced a user journey map (Kumar 2013, p. 183) that

8

financial forecasting in environments that are in flux is problematic (Robet 2003). An initial loss in revenue was predicted because of lost custom, but that over time the café would recover and potentially improve on earlier figures.

would be able to purchase their regular coffee. To counter this, one of the Kumar mindsets was adopted—communicating a vision (Kumar 2013, p 291). In this he discusses the importance of communicating the vision to the stakeholders and crafting supportive messages. The vision in this case was a more sustainable café. To bring the vision to fruition, a strategy was formulated where the customers were asked to vote on three possible options for the replacement of the disposable cups. The first option was to replace the cups with random cups from second-hand stores—it was communicated to the customers that as the cups are used and second-hand they are in effect carbon neutral, (Keepcup.com 2017) and the revenue from the purchasing would be going to a charity. Also, as the cups were cheaper to purchase than the paper disposable cups theft would not be a problem. The second option was to buy new, imported ceramic cups, which are the industry standard in cafés in New Zealand. The third was to maintain the status quo but to give a discount to those who chose to bring their own cups. After the consultation the customers indicated their preferred choice was the complete removal of disposable coffee cups to be replaced with pre-used cups from the charity shop. 7

8

CONCLUSION

Coffee purchase does not occur in isolation to other activities or without meaning. Rather, a coffee purchase is intertwined in routine and habits of everyday life (Shove 2012). This statement is accurate for coffee consumption in Eden Café. The challenge facing the working group was the change of everyday life habits, or the inertia of the status quo, especially true when convenience and ease of use is core to the consumption pattern (as it was with disposable coffee cups). Outside of challenging consumer patterns, the group also sought to remove the commoditised value of the coffee and instead replace it with the Lancaster model of value where the consumers see their own values reflected, (Lancaster 1966) in this case, of sustainability, which were extracted using the Kumar design model. This would seem at odds with the image of the on-campus café being a place for affordable convenient food and coffee. However, it supports the idea of a third communal space where there is a reflected ideology in the values of what is served and consumed (Mahzarin 1994) In the case of Eden Café, these beliefs are now reflected in the coffee offerings. It could be easy to be cynical and say the bulk of coffee consumption was by the wealthy, white faculty—the target audience of contemporary food movements (Gordon 2016); nonetheless, the removal of the disposable coffee cups was not triggered by a specific food movement but rather to mirror a broader understanding of sustainability. After the removal of the disposable cups, sales in the café bucked the predicted trend and increased. Sales then reverted to the long-term trend with no noticeable deviation. Additionally, a substantial amount of publicity both internationally and nationally has surrounded the removal of the cups, creating goodwill between the customers and the café. This favourable reaction has encouraged the café to further change its practice to reorganise the supply lines for all its products including food and the coffee beans themselves. In answer to the scoping questions outlined at the start of the paper, the change has acted in shifting the market position of the café to becoming a market leader—this can be validated through the level of interest and publicity change has generated,

REALISE OFFERINGS (KUMAR 2013, P. 285)

To enable the removal of the disposable coffee cups a Matrix, or an Implementation Plan as Kumar names it, (Kumar 2013, p. 307) was drawn. Within this matrix the group outlined the challenges and solutions and those who would be responsible for auctioning those solutions. The initial challenges outlined earlier in this section were overcome firstly through communicating with the customers the issues associated with using the disposable cups, and now it was communicating that the transition away from those cups would be gradual. To reinforce this message the staff at the café had rehearsed explanations for any questions from customers who may have been unhappy with the transition. Two further operational considerations had been identified by the group, the first of which was renegotiating the relationship with the coffee cup and coffee supplier. This required a re-tendering of the contract with an understanding that any suppliers would now have to operate within the Otago Polytechnic sustainability framework. The second challenge was looking at the financial forecasting for the café and how this would be affected by the transition away from disposable coffee cups. This consideration was made more difficult as

9

change that has been strongly embraced by the wider Polytechnic community, as shown by sales. It has created a template for change that can be used throughout the catering departments, as can be shown by other initiatives being adopted. And finally, 38,000 cups have been saved from landfill, so far.

Mahzarin, B.D. 1994. The self in social contexts. Department of Psychology. Yale University. Markman, A. 2014. February 10. Harvard Business Review Retrieved June 1 2017, from hbr.org: https:// hbr/2014/02/dont-persuade-customers-just-changethere [sic.]-behaviour. Niimi, M.L.T. 2017. July Monday. Sustainable coffee cup drive—unpacking an initiative towards eliminating disposable coffee cups. Scope Magazine.Otago Polytechnic. Raghavan, R.N.M. 2009. Our World. Retrieved June Tuesday, 2017, from United Nations University: https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/storm-in-a-paper-cup. Robet, M. 2003. Strategic planning in a turbulent environment. Strategic Management Journal, 24, 491–517. Shove, E.P.M. 2012. The dynamics of social practice. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Stauffer, D. (2008, Febuary). Harvard Business Review. Retrieved June 1, 2017, from hbr.org: https://hbr. org/2008/02/how-to-win-the-buyin-setting. Tourism New Zealand, 2017. New Zealand’s dedicated coffee culture. Retrieved June Monday, 2017, from Tourism New Zealand media: http://media.newzealand.com/en/story-ideas/newzealands-dedicated-coffee-culture/. University of Canterbury, 2015. What is sustainability? Retrieved June 1, 2017, from Canterbury.ac.nz: http:// www.sustain.canterbury.ac.nz/sustainability/whatis_ sustain.shtml.

REFERENCES Burge, S. 2013. The motivational reasons behind consumer choice in branded coffee shops. Reinvention: an International Journal of Undergraduate Research. Gordon, J. 2016. Food rebellion: contemporary food movements as a reflection of our agrarian past. Claremont College, 4. Keepcup.com 2017. Reuse HQ. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://reusehq.keepcup.com/. Kumar, V. 2013. 101 Design Methods. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. Lancaster, K. 1966. A new approach to consumer theory. The Journal of political economy. Lane, M. 2016. January Monday. Executive Chef Otago Polytechnic. (Lynch T. Interviewer). Lee-Woolf, Y. 2015. Febuary 10. How did New Zealand become a coffee-mad nation? Retrieved June 1, 2017, from www.Idealog.co.nz: http://idealog.co.nz/ venture/2015/02/how-did-new-zealand-become-socoffee-mad.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Investigation of Chinese enclave in Milan to encourage the openness: Food business as a breakthrough point Margherita Pillan & Shushu He Department of Design, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy

ABSTRACT: The Chinese community is the fourth largest foreign group in Milan; in it, a large number of Chinese people work in the food business, but the offered services and products often follow stereo types. The improvement of the paradigms of the Chinese food business in Milan can contribute to the intercultural communication between the Chinese community and Italian locals. The paper investigates, as a case study, four Chinese restaurants and analyzes the difference of perceived values between Chinese and Italian customers. The here reported experience map illustrates the online reviews on Trip Advisor. By comparing the feedbacks from both Chinese and Italian customers through the experience map, the investigation shows some findings. The Chinese food is well-accepted by the locals; the creation of various types of social interactions can contribute to the customers’ impressions on the restaurants and to the restaurants’ reputation; the training of the service people about communication skills is the key to improve the service quality. The paper points out the significance of arousing the Chinese restaurateurs’ awareness of the importance of communication of cultural value in the food business, beyond stereotypes. The paper outlines the potential role of design in the aim of improving the customers’ experience in the Chinese food business so to better support the intercultural communication. Keywords: Chinese migrants; cross-cultural communication; food culture; co-design of communication medium 1

INTRODUCTION

and Chinese customers, but the behaviors and preferences of the two groups are different. Furthermore, it appears that Italian customers, in most cases, focus on a restrict number of products and typical dishes, possibly due to scarce knowledge and communication. The Chinese food business seems to have potentials of growth in Milan, and our research aims to investigate the cultural and practical obstacles that today reduce a full appreciation of Chinese food products and services, in order to outline some design strategies. In our research, more than on the growth of the economic business, we focus on the promotion and diffusion of a deeper knowledge of the Chinese food culture, as a mean for a better reciprocal understanding and acceptance of the two communities living in town. In this research, we carry on our investigation within a UX design approach. We take food products and services not just as a business opportunity, but as a rich and complex domain of experience (Forlizzi, J., & Ford, S., 2000), where knowledge, understanding and appreciation are not only related to the intrinsic value of goods, but also depend on culture and social influence. In this paper we present the results of an investigation conducted on four Chinese restaurants

Milan is the city in Italy hosting the highest number of foreigners, and the Chinese community is the fourth largest foreign group (ISTAT, 2015). Chinese people have reached a considerable business scale in Milan and developed a socioeconomic enclave (Cologna, D., & Mauri, L., 2004); at the same time, the situation calls for more intercultural communication between the Chinese community and the Italian locals. The traditional strengths of Chinese business in Milan are retail, wholesale, catering and light industry, of which catering accounted more than 1/4 of the Chinese enterprises (Milan Chamber of Commerce, 2017). During the last two years, we developed a research aimed to investigate the situation of the Chinese food business in Milan (He, S., 2017). The research revealed that most players of catering services and food retail aim to improve their business, and our research investigates the limits and potentials of the present situation, so to define design strategies to this respect. By performing preliminary qualitative interviews with stakeholders and observations in local contexts, we observed that Chinese food products and services are appreciated by Italian

11

Milan, with often a long queue of customers waiting to be helped. This takeaway restaurant has a high reputation among Italian customers, and it won the award ‘Gambero Rosso’ in 2015. Restaurant 4 (R4) is a sample of the biggest Chinese restaurant chain in Italy, which has seven branches in different cities. We choose the oldest branch located in the northeast of Milan as a case study. This restaurant opened in 2005, and it was the first serving Chinese regional cuisine. Many Italian customers regard it as the only typical and qualified Chinese restaurant in Milan.

taken as reference contexts to investigate the different perspective and perception that characterize Italian and Chines customers. To summarize the results of this analysis, we developed a dining experience map reporting the customers’ attitudes about the same Chinese food products and services. The discussion of the results reveals the different attitudes and needs of the two groups, and it is a contribution to the definition of a research strategy. 2 2.1

EXPERIENCE MAP 2.2

Introduction of the cases

An experience map is a strategic tool for capturing and presenting key insights into the complex customer interactions that occur across experiences with a product, service, or ecosystem (Akwera, G., 2013). The experience map enables a better understanding of how products, service and people are connected in a given context, so to identify the opportunities and weakness from a holistic point of view (Kalbach, J., 2016). This paper adopts the experience map to capture the process of dining in the above-mentioned Chinese restaurants and to demonstrate the different values perceived by Chinese and Italian customers. The research extracts the customers’ feedbacks of the four restaurants on TripAdvisor in order to understand the significant phases of the dining experience and the customers’ perceived values. The data are chosen from three time periods: May 2017, October 2016 and February 2016, as the quality of the service and dishes might vary over the time period. The Chinese customers do not have a habit of leaving recommendations as much as the Italians do on Trip Advisor; thereafter, the research selects 17 feedbacks from the Chinese and 45 from the Italians. The map sorts the keywords from each feedback and pins them on the eight key phases associated with the customers’ experiences (Figure 1):

In the Province of Milan, there are 494 restaurants owned by Chinese people (Milan Chamber of Commerce, 2017). However, most of them are serving Japanese cuisine and Asian fusion instead of typical Chinese dishes. In our research, we focus on contemporary Chinese food culture; therefore, the typicalness of the food offered is one of the key criteria for the case study selection. Besides, we consider the range of the average costs, the number of Italian customers and the availability of online ranking. Table 1 positions the four selected Chinese restaurants in Milan according to the criteria mentioned above. Restaurant 1 (R1) was founded by a well-known Chinese family in 1980, and it is one of the oldest Chinese restaurants in Milan. It is located in the heart of the business and shopping district, a few steps from the Cathedral. The restaurant provides dishes from different Chinese cuisines and the range of price is upscale. Restaurant 2 (R2) has the highest ranking on TripAdvisor, and it is one of the most welcomed restaurants by Chinese people in Milan. Different from the others, this restaurant serves the typical cuisine from the Hunan Province, famous for spicy food in China. Restaurant 3 (R3) is a dumplings-take-away located in the center of Chinatown. At the beginning, it was a cross-cultural project of a Chinese graduated and an Italian butcher, and it aimed to broadcast the Chinese cuisine culture while providing food. Now it is the most famous Chinese street-food retailer in

1. Collect information: it shows how customers are motivated. Both Chinese and Italian customers gained the influence from friends’ suggestions. 2. Outer environment: it includes the neighborhood where the restaurants are located, and the observations from outside of the restaurants. Customers didn’t leave many recommendations on this aspect. 3. Dining environment: it influences customers’ first impressions on the restaurants. Both Chinese and Italians paid attention to the fundamental aspects such as cleanness, space of seat, noise, waiting time, etc. However, Italian customers also consider the number of Asian customers as the reference of quality and authenticity. 4. Ask for information: it is an essential activity that customers and service people interact with

Table 1. Characteristics of the four Chinese restaurants selected for the case study.

Typicalness Average costs Number of Italian customers Online ranking

R1

R2

R3

R4

• •••• • •

•••• • •• ••••

••• •• •••• •••

•• ••• ••• ••

The experience map

12

5.

6.

7. 8.

each other, and it is one of the most significant phases for perceiving the service quality. Customers shared similar opinions that the service attitudes were not very satisfying. Order dishes: it refers to the experience of reading the menu and the speed of delivering dishes. The comments of Chinese and Italians are divergent: Chinese people thought the menu was confusing, while Italians regarded it as various. Besides, the service speed was perceived as slow by Chinese, but it was fast in Italians’ points of view. Eating: it is a significant phase which triggers most experiences. In general, customers thought the food was tasty/delicious. However, Chinese did not judge the typicalness of the food, while many Italian people made comments as ‘original/typical/traditional/authentic’. They held different opinions also on the portions of dishes: Chinese thought they were small, while Italians considered them as plentiful. Another difference: only Italian customers were concerned about the ingredients. Pay: it refers to the judgment of the quality and the price of service and food. Customers had similar comments of the range of prices. Reflect: it shows customers’ overall comments of the restaurants. The Chinese customers compared the restaurants with their experience in China. However, Italian customers compared them with the experience of other Chinese restaurants in Milan. Furthermore, the Italians gave their opinions about the cultural values of the overall dining experience, whereas the Chinese customers did not mention it.

Figure 1.

3 3.1

FINDINGS AND DESIGN GOALS Findings

To sum up, the most significant phases of a dining experience are ‘eating’, ‘dining environment’ and ‘reflect’, which trigger most of customer feedbacks. Thus, strengthening the experience of these three phases can largely benefit the improvement of the customers’ overall experience in the Chinese restaurant. Table 2 compares Chinese and Italian customers’ perceptions of value in five aspects: environment, food, service, social interactions and dining experience. The “+” represents the positive attitude, “−” means the negative attitude, and “/” indicates not-mentioned. The results show: 1. Italian customers generally hold more positive views than the Chinese, in particular on the aspect of food quality, which indicates that Chinese food has been well-accepted by the locals. 2. The attitude of service personnel is not very satisfying and the two clusters have divergent viewpoints on the service speed and effectiveness. An enhancing of the service quality is needed, and it emerges as a priority—a better training of the service personnel in terms of communication skills. 3. We observed a significant difference in the perception manifested by the two groups with respect to the social interactions. Restauranteurs could possibly create, as a source of attraction, various types of social interactions on multiple channels. A topic that would require further investigation.

The dining experience map in the four Chinese restaurants used for the case study.

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4. Social interactions: design can enrich the forms of social interactions encouraging people to interact and have conversations through different channels. 5. The overall dining experience: cultural value refers to all the phases of the dining experience and experience design can provide the culturally relevant solution with a focus on the holistic quality of the customers’ experience.

Table 2. Comparison of Chinese and Italian customers’ perceptions of value.

Environment

Location Cleanness Noisy Seat space Interior décor Exotic atmosphere Food Taste Portion Quality Typicalness Ingredients Menu Service Attitude Speed Effectiveness Price Social interaction Inter personal relationship Social network Customers Service personnel Dining experience Overall quality Cultural value

CN

IT

− + − − / / + − / − / − − − + + + / / + + /

+ + − + − + + + + + + + − + − + + + + − + +

The future steps of our research will aim at the design for coordinating customers’ perceptions of value and improving the dining experience. Three clusters of participants, namely the Chinese restauranteurs, Chinese customers, and Italian customers, will be involved in a co-design workshop. The workshop, firstly, can verify the findings of the experience map by a round-table discussion. Then, designers and participants will collaborate to develop a toolkit based on the Chinese food product and service. The toolkit will be a collection of service innovation tools, such as customer insights cards, scenario box, customer journey map, service blueprint, and roadmap. The co-design workshop will enable the communication of different perspectives of value among the three clusters of participants. The Chinese community can improve the food business through the co-design sessions by gaining know-how to attach the cultural value. Moreover, the toolkit can help the restauranteurs and Italian customers to communicate better in respect of Chinese food, and empower them to adopt design to innovate and enhance their business.

4. From data analysis, it emerges that Italians quite care about the cultural values and consider a dinner in a restaurant as a cultural experience. The cultural value is embedded in each phase of the dining experience. This is also an important point requiring further investigation. Chinese restaurateursseem to have a limited awareness of the importance of culture as a leverage of better interaction with Italian customers. 5.1

REFERENCES

Design goals

Akwera, G. (2013). The anatomy of an experience map adaptive path. Information Design Journal. Camera di Commercio di Milano. (2011). Indicistatistici. [online] Available at: http://www.mi.camcom.it/indicistatistici [Accessed 30 Jun. 2017]. Cologna, D., & Mauri, L. (2004). Oltre l’ethnic business. Nuovi scenari d’integrazione nell ’area milanese. La Rivista delle Politiche Sociali, 3, 93. Forlizzi, J., & Ford, S. (2000). The building blocks of experience: an early framework for interaction designers. In Proceedings of the 3rd conference on Designing interactive systems: processes, practices, methods, and techniques (pp. 419–423). ACM. He, S. (2017). Chinese Migrant Food Business in Italy and Design Researches for Intercultural Dialogue. In: 9th International Conference on Cross-Cultural Design (CCD 2017). Vancouver: Springer, pp. 334–344. Kalbach, J. (2016).  Mapping experiences: A complete guide to creating value through journeys, blueprints, and diagrams. “O’Reilly Media, Inc.”. The Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT). (2015). Statistichedemografiche ISTAT. [online] Available at: http://demo.istat.it/str2015/index.html [Accessed 30 Jun. 2017].

The experience map illustrates the different perceptions of value for the Chinese and Italian customers, and it indicates the design insights which can contribute to the customers’ experience: 1. Environment: design can help to foster the atmosphere by upgrading the interior décor, furniture, decorations, and tableware, making them part of a cultural experience. 2. Food: communication design should be employed to provide customers the knowledge of the ‘authentic taste’ and suitable information about food traditions beyond stereotypes, since most of the Italian customers lack the experience and knowledge of the traditional Chinese dishes. 3. Service: service design is a feasible way to improve the service quality. For instance, most service personnel of these restaurants are not native speakers and that leads to obstacles in communication with Italian customers; service design can contribute to this aspect.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Innovation design for food C.L. Remondino, B. Stabellini & P. Tamborrini Department of Architecture and Design, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy

A. Gaiardo ISMB—Istituto Superiore Mario Boella, Innovation Development Area, Turin, Italy

ABSTRACT: What is the relation between design, food, and Innovation? How these elements influence and interact with each other? Finally, what kind of opportunity they offer in our society? The answers to these questions are the challenge of the Innovation Design for Food project developed during the last three years in the Innovation Laboratory. The purpose of the research and the educational path, linked to it, was to understand changes and evolutions, that can take place in the context of the Turin city to develop innovative projects, spreading and enabling social, sustainable and economic value through the food topic. As a source of well-being, a symbolic element of identity and a vehicle for interaction between different cultures, the food topic was the carrier innovation source that has allowed the development of about 27 innovative projects. 1

INTRODUCTION

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The history and the culture of every country shape and influence the interactions of its urban areas and the food sectors (Peter, 1980). Besides every city frame, with its creativity, the savoir-faire of its citizens, and the culture and influences of immigrant communities, a special relationship with the food in different fields from the economic one to the social one (Belloni, 2014). The city of Turin, in the same way, maintains a deep side of peasant and historical roots with his food. The distinctive strongholds such as cafes, bakeries, production workshops of chocolate and coffee roasters are just a little example of the culinary offer present into his territory. This offer is in continuous evolution, and it is changing and expanding with the absorption of the new cultural gastronomy influences of the migratory waves and globalization, and on the other hand by the new technological, social and business opportunity (Dansero, 2105). Moreover, it is in this favorable and multidisciplinary context that the importance of design arises (Guixé, 2010). The design practices work as a mediator through the food sector, the territory, and the people to not only as an opportunity to create “new recipes” but rather to use food to generate new sustainable value in different sectors within the territory of action.

2.1

INNOVATION DESIGN FOR FOOD The project

On this basis was born the Innovation Design for Food project. This research and teaching pathway was conducted within the Innovation Laboratory of the Master Degree Course in Systemic Design “Aurelio Peccei” of the Politecnico di Torino, with the collaboration of the Innovation Design Lab. The project started during the academic year 2014/2015 and it is still in progress. The aims of the project are to develop and experiment a design framework able to introduce sustainable innovations in a well-defined territory, the city neighborhood of Turin, and the food sector, as a source of well-being, a symbolic element of identity, a vehicle for meeting different cultures, a source of innovation and attraction (Bottiglieri, 2016). Through the project outcomes, the Innovation Design for Food aimed to improve and connect the contextual social, economic and environmental aspects and resource to create, or remix, new value proposition able to raise the quality of life of his inhabitants (Bistagnino, 2016) with the food vector. 2.2

Research framework evolution

The research focused on a multidisciplinary approach and sought the analysis and the identification of the potentialities of different neighborhoods

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of the city, with the aim of highlighting the resource and the system in which they are exploited. To accomplish that, the first step of research has seen an intense analysis work in the neighborhoods with an economic, social and environmental perspective. The research beginning with the analysis of the first belt of Turin, those closest to the city center, easily reachable from the center itself with public transport and well-integrated with the rest of the city. Secondly, the analysis extended to marginal and peripheral neighborhoods, less easily accessible by public transport and with more features like isolated towns, rather than, in some respects, performed by the city of Turin. Finally, in the last year of research, the administrative division has been eliminated for focusing into thematic areas (like green areas, health and care facilities, sports areas, worship, entertainment and culture places, commercial spaces, work and educational location) to better underwent transversal issues to the city linked to food and territory. 2.3

RESULTS

3.1 Users and territories The meeting point of all the projects was the theme of food, and although all of them developed on a commonly shared background such as the Turin area, the results obtained 27  innovative projects, very different to each other from users and actors involved, themes and kind of outcome. This result is addressable to the distinct cultural heritage of each neighborhood that goes far beyond the city and presents a population that lives and represents it. For these reasons, each project outcome must necessarily be linked to the territory for which it was designed to understand the impact that it brings with them. Some projects were ranging from multicultural and social integration, from the requalification of abandoned area to the improvement of existing services, from the activation of projects that aim to facilitate the social inclusion to the enhancement of traditions and cultures in the area. The 27 projects also have developed innovative proposals for different users ranging from children to seniors, from students to workers, up to proposals involving tourists specifically. In doing so, institutions and actors involved in the area from time to time are always different, offering a project specifically conceived and designed for the district or territory in question.

Multidisciplinary approach and methodology

The laboratory adopted an interdisciplinary approach with the contribution of three leading fields to blend better, and take more advantage, of know-how, cultures, and techniques related to innovation: – Design for Innovation: whose action is focused on driving the innovation process of development as a mix of creativity with attention to environmental, economic and social sustainability themes; – Sociology of Innovation: where the aims are to learn and apply the appropriate tools and data for the study and the evaluation of the territorial potentiality, in the more general outline of urban sustainability, with the social implications of innovation; – Innovation Management: a discipline that can help to understand the influence of the organizational models and processes of technological advancement in the innovation field.

3.2 27 innovative projects Following our methodology and considering the potentiality of the territories take the research and the Innovation Laboratory, with the participation of more than one hundred students over the years, to develop outcomes of different nature and purpose. The range of the projects varies from communication projects to product and service (digital and not) ones. This difference depends on the characteristics of the area, users, and actors involved and the way in which every team decides to use food as the vector. During the analysis, some interesting cross topics revealed. An interesting one is a multicultural aspect that gave designers the possibility to develop different projects. One of these projects is Cibogramma which aims to relate ethnic groups that live in the Aurora Rossini neighborhood. The ethnic and linguistic offers from the area defined a change of mind in the communication mode, bringing in the research and development of an iconic form of language to allow interaction to each one, independently from the cultural identity. With the same

All these domains are essential to outline how the territorial system works, which are the principal players involved and to manage transformation in the actual system. These topics interact with each other through the Systemic Innovation Design Methodology (Gaiardo, 2015) a methodology studied and developed inside our department able to drive the designer, from an idea to the development stage in a consciously way, by considering the relations between people, the activities and the resources of an area in his innovative action.

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Another project for tourists is Le Vie del Cioccolato, that is a pathway included in the ecomuseum network with the aim of enhancing the local food, foster the selling and know the handmade production of this food. More specifically, the project work in the San Donato district, a district with an identity strictly connected with the chocolate production. The research pushed the project development also for resident people like workers or students. These projects considered specific characteristic and issues in the food consumption: the time and the food offered in the daily life. One project of example is MensSana (Figure 3) which aims to promote the healthy and local food consumption in the employment market, through a Packet Lunch service, a Food Delivery one and the offer of recreational activity, connected to food or healthy life and sport. A different approach to workers is the approach of Orabuona. The aim of this project is to offer a system to facilitate the choice of the lunch break for the workers, providing the possibility to see all the activity in the area around the job place. The menu proposed and the time to reach the store, using a different kind of transport (by foot, by personal bike or using bike sharing). An interesting reality of the Turin panorama is the market: every neighborhood has its weekly or daily market. Different projects were developed around the market theme. Cibamenti is one of the best examples developed to put in contact two different reality that lives the Vanchiglia district, the students and the market seller. Cibamenti designs an online system offering three different shopping bag still ready, that students have only to collect at the market. The aim is to inform and educate the students on the food value and to have healthy habits by enhancing the interaction and the profit of local and Km0 open market. Another example is Mercato Borromini, which aims to redefine the actual market, trying to offer more local products and using innovative service supporting inhabitants to frequent the market with

principles, the project Insegna aims to develop a new way to design the markets’ signs in Borgo Dora district, to communicate to everyone and every ethnic group what this shop is selling. Instead, a different concept of the multicultural topic, we can find it in the project Religious (Figure  1), where we can see the multicultural aspect in a more accurate part, the religion. The goal of the project is to create social value in the Barriera di Milano district, weaving a relations network between old and new inhabitants. Religious is composed of an online platform with the aims to spread the knowledge about all the food aspects of the different religion (from cultures, habits to recipes) and a series of events and workshops where it is possible to see and know people and new things. Another interesting topic to cross with the food and emerging from the areas in question, the city of Turin, was the tourism theme. These projects, for example, are designed crossing specific area, tourism potentialities, and vector food. Walkeat (Figure  2) has the goal to know what the Barriera di Milano district offers; the project designed different the matics tours series, like architectural or street art tour, to carry people in the cultural and culinary discovery of the neighborhood.

Figure 1.

Religious.

Figure 2.

Walkeat.

Figure 3.

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MensSana.

Figure 4.

heritage and the society of a territory starting from his assets and innovatively redesigning them to gain new values. Within the Innovation Design for Food research experience we develop many concepts ready to be launch following with vision. Through our project, we showed the deep relation from neighbourhoods existing resources culture and local identity with new value generation process that could create new innovative possibilities able to produce new growth and well-being for individual and society involved in the innovation initiative. The results of the project contributed to the creation of the food policy of the city of Turin (Torino Food System Policy). The outcomes were presented in several exhibitions and events (Food Innovation Design Days and Innovation Design for Food event) contributing to the open a continuous discussion on the necessity to valorize the food system in the city with public and private institutions. Some of our projects were awarded (as Cibamenti—Think4Social national call), and other ones are in the start up phase (as Religious). Although we received positive feedback from the stakeholder involved in the project and from all the institution and enterprise we ever met, there is still some difficulty in overcoming the initial ignition step to concretize the project in association, start up or new co. The difficulties we are encountering come from political financial and human capital issues. A challenge that is pushing the new focus on our project by deepening the study of the creative and innovative solution to overcome these problems, transforming thus a research project into an ongoing activity.

Touret.

an infotainment communication campaign and an Innovative Market Drive service. The last one introduces a new market feature that allows people to order at the market in an online way and collect at a specific market stall. Strictly connected to the market theme, but working in a more suburban district, we can find the Mirafiori project, that operates on the recycle of food surplus daily rejected from CAAT. The goal of the project is to create a new value chain starting from the food surplus, involving disadvantaged actors that live on the territory, thus acting as a new social enabler. Starting from the market, but also enlarging to the retail stores, the project Cibo Vicino aims to give users the information about the origin of the unpackaged food. The goal of this communication project is to highlight the importance of the short supply chain, giving the possibility to users to choose more consciously. Other projects are thought of the commercial area and for the seller of the retail stores, for example like Touret (Figure 4), helping in the right consumption of drinking water through a service of refill of the water bottle. Instead, other ones are designed for the sporting people, starting from Team Up, an application for mobile devices designed to connect nonresident students and organize sports match, followed by food activity. Another project, EatFit, an application tool that helps people to track the sports activity and suggest the right food after, based on the location. 4

REFERENCES Belloni, A. 2014. Food Economy. L’Italia e le strade infinite del cibo tra società e consumi, Marsilio. Bistagnino, L., 2016. microMACRO: micro relazioni come rete vitale del sistema economico e produttivo. Edizione Ambiente. Bottiglieri, M., Pettenati, G. & Toldo, A., 2016. Toward the Turin food policy. Best practices and visions, Franco Angeli. Dansero, E., Pettenati, G., & Toldo, A. (2015). The Atlas of Food. A space of representation, a place for policies, a methodology of territorial analysis. Gaiardo, A., & Tamborrini, P., 2015. Systemic Innovation design methodology: the comparison of two cases studies. The Value of Design Research, 11th European Academy of Design Research, Paris. Guixé, M., & Knolke, I., 2010. Food designing. Corraini Edizioni. Peter, F., & George, A., 1980. Consuming passions, the anthropology of eating.

CONCLUSIONS

The research outcomes highlight how the relationship between design and food could be useful and generate mottled values from general contextual assets. If the food sector confirms to be a strategic vector for the socio-economic development of an area, this research shows how we could use the food topic to influence and improve the cultural

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Designing the integration of familiar agriculture in the supply chain for the gastronomic sector in Rio de Janeiro I. Bursztyn & L.C. Martins Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

ABSTRACT: Today we feel the need to make the sustainability paradigm viable. In the domain of food this is no different. In this paper, we present the first results of the research project “Insertion of agroecological and organic family farming products in the gastronomic production chain”, whose purpose is building means to facilitate the commercialization of family agriculture’s products to Rio de Janeiro city restaurants. This is an ongoing project and here we present the results of the first stage of the research, concerning the mapping of agroecological and organic family farmers in the state of Rio de Janeiro. 1

INTRODUCTION

family farming products in the gastronomic production chain”, whose purpose is building means to facilitate the commercialization of family agriculture’s products to Rio de Janeiro city restaurants. This is an ongoing project; here we present the results of the first stage of the research which concerns the mapping of agroecological and organic family farmers in the state of Rio de Janeiro.

Today we feel the need to make the sustainability paradigm viable. Global society has never been as unsustainable as it is today (Bursztyn 2001; Manzini 2008). Our models of production and consumption have led to un sustainability on the most different aspects: economic, environmental, social, cultural, institutional, just to name a few. The domain of food is no different. Over the last century, the growing demand for food has promoted the industrial capitalism’s logic in the food sector, generating what we know today as agroindustry. Arguing on the need to increase food productivity to alleviate poverty and put an end to hunger, agroindustry started to use large quantities of agrochemicals combined with the intensive use of genetically modified seeds (Petrini 2009; Azevedo 2012). This movement, known as the Green Revolution and intensified in the second half of the 20th century, resulted in an effective increase in food production, using high yielding varieties developed by scientists. Even with high environmental and worker health costs, it has not been able to reverse hunger, proving that in addition to technological advances, the problem of hunger involves ethical, political and economic interests (FAO 2012). To break the influence of big capital and global agro-industry is a challenge that needs to be addressed in order to promote healthier food that respects seasonality and to reduce the distances traveled from farm to table (Pollan 2013). In emerging countries, such as Brazil, the model of family agriculture combined with agroecological production which is capable of equating the responsible use of natural resources through sustainable and innovative solutions for local economic development (Altieri 2004). In this paper, we present the first results of the project “Insertion of agroecological and organic

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THE CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH: THE CHALLENGE OF MARKET ACCESS AND COMMERCIALIZATION

In Brazil, family farming is responsible for most of the food sold in the domestic market. A significant part of gross domestic product (GDP) is due to family agriculture’s contribution, which is a major supplier of typical and regional products, organic products, socio-biodiversity products, origin or geographical indication products and fair trade products, as considered by Paul Singer in his book Introduction to Solidarity Economy (Singer 2004). The organization, processing, agroindustrialization and commercialization of production are some challenges faced by producers. Data from 2016 show that family farming has become increasingly important in the state of Rio de Janeiro. There are 44,145 establishments which represent 75% of total rural properties, being responsible for 58% of the state’s rural jobs. According to the Special Secretariat for Family Agriculture and Agrarian Development, Rio’s family farms are responsible for most of the state’s agricultural output producing 68% of beans, 75% of cassava, 67% of corn, 55% of rice and 52% of coffee (MDA 2016). In the last decade, the Landless Rural Workers Movement (Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra – MST), which fights for agrarian reform

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(Petrini 2009; Azevedo 2012; Barber 2015). New patterns of food production and consumption have been the object of projects and research aiming greater benefits for producers and a higher quality food supply for consumers. In this sense, the role of the gastronomer has been transformed from mere consumer to coproducer. For Petrini (2009), the gastronomer should not be a stranger to the process of food production, because having the knowledge of his whole cycle, he must participate, accompany and influence it, contrary to the agroindustry. The losses in the gastronomic field are pointed out by Petrini (2009) as irreparable, when an industrial model is implemented that only aims the profit and despises the impacts with the environment. Local quality products, unique, both as an autochthonous species and the characteristics of the terroir; traditional knowledge, cultural and regarding land management, old techniques of food preparation and small productions, all of this disappears in the face of the power of the large agribusiness corporations (Petrini 2009). Petrini’s invitation is for the gastronomer to unite in defense of the singular characteristics of the local or traditional gastronomy, via communities of support to family agriculture producers. Respect for the seasonality of food and the appreciation of local products by the gastronomer is fundamental to promote a radical change in the modus operandi of the restaurants and to allow a greater interaction with the local producers, through the construction of short circuits of commercialization. It is in this scenario that the research project “Insertion of agroecological and organic family agriculture products in the gastronomy production chain” was conceived during the bachelor’s course in Gastronomy of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. Our objective is to build means to facilitate the commercialization of family agriculture products to the restaurants of Rio de Janeiro city. To this end, we propose actions in four axes:

in Brazil, has been radically changing its discourse towards a proposal that is more coherent with agroecology guidelines (Barcellos 2010; Borges 2010). Still in the mid-1990s, with crisis and questioning of the collectivization proposal carried out until then by the MST, space was opened for debate and evaluation, culminating in the elaboration of new political orientations. In that new context, the debate on agroecology (although it was still unclear what this term meant) began to gain relevance inside the Movement (Barcellos 2010; Borges 2010). Agroecology emerges in the Movement not only as a less harmful agricultural practice to the environment, but inside a context of intense political questioning of the agricultural policies adopted by the Brazilian State, which fomented a large scale agriculture, highly mechanized, focused on commodity exports and dependent on oligopolized agroindustrial complexes (Costa Neto & Canavesi 2003). MST has been working for the settlements to transition from conventional agriculture to agroecology, aiming at food security and the health of farmers and consumers. The consumption of agroecological products, with indication of origin, regional or typical, from small producers, contribute to a healthier diet, besides promoting sustainable rural development. To encourage family farmers to invest in sustainable farming practices, which often have higher costs and longer repayment periods, authorities must create a favorable environment for innovation. The Ministry of Agrarian Development (Ministério do Desenvolvimento Agrário – MDA) has developed and participated in policies, programs and actions, many of them interinstitutional and interministerial, in order to strengthen the singular products and markets of family agriculture and to promote the increase of high quality food supply in institutional markets: the policy and the national plan of agroecology and organic production; actions to promote sociobiodiversity product chains; the national school feeding policy; the food acquisition program; commercial promotion through participation in trade fairs and events; in addition to promoting a family farming brand to consumers, the Sipaf—Family Agriculture Certificate (MDA, 2016). Such policies are fundamental to expand the possibilities of market access for family agriculture. However, we do not observe any policy that favors the purchase of agroecological and organic products from family agriculture through the production chain of gastronomy, especially by restaurants. 3

1. Understanding the supply – In this context, we seek to immerse ourselves in the universe of the family farmer whose production is based on agroecology or organic so as to know: the main obstacles faced in terms of cultivation, production and processing; how they are organized and productive capacity; barriers to selling to restaurants; what institutional relations they already establish; among other issues. This mapping helps us to empathize with family farmers in the state of RJ and empowers us to think and design solutions appropriate to their reality. 2. Understanding demand – In this area, we seek to investigate why even restaurants sensitive to the theme of sustainability cannot make effective purchases of inputs from suppliers of family

THE PROJECT

At present, there is an intense debate in the fields related to food on the need to promote more sustainable relations throughout its production chain

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ernment. From an academic perspective, this is an extension project, since it proposes to carry out actions with social actors directly involved in this theme, among which: family farmers, rural youth, technicians and other beneficiaries of civil society. The main objective of this project is to make feasible alternatives and construct ways that ensure the social reproduction of family agriculture, through the empowerment of its actors, aiming at social transformation and socioeconomic inclusion. The mapping of family farmers, agroecological or organic, started on the internet, where we identified their main actors, creating lists of associations, cooperatives, supporters, fairs and cultural events. Then, we established contact through e-mail and telephone, and finally, we held meetings that generated recorded reports in an interview format, thus filling out forms used to create a database of producers, containing the address, description of their community, their methods of cultivation, the scope of their production and forms of commercialization. Between June 2016 and March 2017, it was possible to register 644 agroecological family farmers distributed in 61 municipalities in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Among the 61 municipalities, we can highlight Petrópolis as the main region in number of producers, responsible for 13.3% of agroecological producers, followed by Teresópolis, with 12.8% and Rio de Janeiro, 11.1%. We also identified a large concentration of producers in the Metropolitan and Montainous regions, followed by the Norte Fluminense and Costa Verde, which will allow us to design value chains in a more strategic way from a logistic point of view. Each of these four regions could have strategic hubs for the flow of production linked to medium-sized cities in the state of Rio de Janeiro, thus not needing to be transported to the capital. In this way, the carbon emission caused by transport is reduced, as well as the final purchasing price, making the product more accessible. Among the products mapped by the research, we can notice a great variety of foods, typical of agroecology. Very different from the regular Supply Centers (large structures on the outskirts of cities intended for storage for resale of agricultural products), with food coming from all over the world, agroecological diversity has no impact on the environment because it is a local plant or animal, belonging to that biome. We map more than 340 products, where the highest percentage of production meets a demand for food that is part of the daily diet of the population, such as fruits and vegetables. However, it is worth mentioning the variety of non-conventional foods (with no commercial value) produced, even on a small scale, by most of the producers that may be of relevant interest to the state’s gastronomy, as they represent the diversity of flavors and textures of local cuisine and are often ignored by restaurants. In qualitative terms, we also carried out a survey in 15 groups of producers using the form for mapping

agriculture. What are the obstacles to this commerce? What management tools can be built to facilitate this dialogue? How can the university support the process of building sustainable production chains? These are some guide questions to empathize with the restaurants. 3. Use of new information and communication technologies as a marketing support strategy – In this context, we seek to know and explore the technological resources that can support and facilitate the dialogue between producers and consumers, with restaurants being considered as one of the possible profiles of interested consumers in this approach. It is not only about mediating or making financial transactions viable, or facilitating the logistics of deliveries. We believe that the combination of existing technologies, such as mobile applications or platforms on the internet, can contribute to a better understanding of the demands of both parties in order to promote the relationship between them. 4. Awareness of the final consumer – We believe that the main driver of the transformation of the relationship between producers and consumers is the increase of consumer awareness. The use of purchasing power as an instrument of pressure for business to be more aligned with the sustainability imperative can represent a fertile path. Thus, we intend to develop actions that seek to sensitize the consumer market and, once again, the use of new technologies can contribute to promote this greater engagement. Next, we present the first results of the axis related to the understanding of the supply of products from family, agroecological or organic farmers in the state of Rio de Janeiro.

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KNOWING THE OFFER: THE MAPPING OF FAMILY FARMERS OF RIO DE JANEIRO STATE

This research has addressed two challenges present in the process of family farms’ food production insertion in the productive chain of restaurants that make up the gastronomic scene of Rio de Janeiro: the identification of the origin of products and the establishment of fair trade made possible by the approximation of interested parties. To this end, the research maps producers and their products as a strategy to insert family agriculture, agroecological or organic, in the gastronomic chain through the restaurants that comprise it, taking advantage of the actors and partners that orbit around this business. This action was carried out in partnership with a project of Slow Food Brazil Network, financed by the Special Secretariat of Family Agriculture and Agrarian Development of the Federal Gov-

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affirmation of the local cultural identity that adds immaterial value to the product and, therefore, is a great commercial appeal for gastronomy. A more didactic approach is needed among the actors involved in this equation. The relationship between consumer and agroecological producer is not merely commercial. The exchange of knowledge, the strengthening of the local culture, the awareness of the actors involved in this complex process is the most valuable legacy of this activity. Closeness is a key tool for sustainability. Sustainability is not possible from a distance. The next steps of the research develop in order to broaden our knowledge about the restaurant sector specific difficulties and demands for the purchase of inputs from family agriculture. In this sense, we have begun the mapping of restaurants in Rio de Janeiro city that are aligned with the discourse of sustainability to try to understand the difficulties in their relationship with small producers.

“food communities” made available by the Slow Food Movement. In this way, it was possible to know in more depth the organization of these groups, as well as their main commercialization strategies. Regarding the forms of organization, the groups interviewed are formalized in cooperatives or in associations of producers. This demonstrates a greater capacity for the supply of inputs, especially for restaurants, because if a producer cannot meet a demand, he can count on the support of the group to comply with the request. Regarding the main strategies of production outflow, the interviewed groups have producers’ fairs as main platform to market their products, both regional fairs and those located in the capital. Some of these groups are also supplier for collective purchase groups in the capital. Others are experimenting with partnerships in the CSA (Community Supported Agriculture) format, where consumers contribute monthly and receive baskets of products in their homes. Finally, an important question that emerges in the research deserves a reflection. For producers, even if their production is clean, free of agrochemicals and the result of an agroecological process, the market generally identifies a loss of value, since the products are not certified as organic. The lack of knowledge on the part of the market agents about the difference between organic and agroecological products generates distrust and prevents the entry of these products in some markets. In this sense, the groups interviewed begin to think about strategies that can overcome the lack of organic certification (a process that is very expensive and unrealistic for most of these groups) and can generate confidence for the consumer market. Among these strategies, we can mention simple traceability systems, with the use of QR Code, or promotion of community-based rural tourism, as a way of opening properties to receive visitors interested in knowing their production processes.

REFERENCES Altieri, M. Agroecologia: a dinâmica produtiva da agricultura sustentável. Porto Alegre: Editora da UFRGS, 2004. Azevedo, E. Alimentos Orgânicos—Ampliando Os Conceitos de Saúde Humana, Ambiental e Social. São Paulo: Editora Senac, 2012. Barber, D. O terceiro prato: notas de campo sobre o futuro da comida. Tradução Ana Deiró. Rio de Janeiro: Bicicleta Amarela, 2015. Barcellos, S.B. A formação do discurso da agroecologia no MST. Seropédica, 2010. Dissertação (Mestrado em Ciências Sociais do Desenvolvimento, Agricultura e Sociedade) Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro. Borges, J.L. Bases históricas do cooperativismo no MST. Revista Fato & Versões, v. 2, n. 3, p. 157–173, 2010. Bursztyn, M. (org). Ética, ciência e sustentabilidade: desafios ao novo século. Rio de Janeiro: Cortez Editora, 2001. Costa Neto, C. & Canavesi, F. Sustentabilidade em assentamentos rurais: o MST rumo à “reforma agrária agroecológica” no Brasil? In: Alimonda, H. Ecología política: naturaleza, sociedad y utopía. Buenos Aires: Clacso, 2003. FAO, WFP & IFAD. 2012. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012. Economic growth is necessary but not sufficient to accelerate reduction of hunger and malnutrition. Rome, FAO. Manzini, E. Design para a Inovação Social e sustentabilidade: Comunidades criativas, organizações colaborativas e novas redes projetuais. Rio de Janeiro: Editora e-papers, 2008. MDA, Ministério do Desenvolvimento Agrário. Agricultura familiar movimenta a economia local no Rio de Janeiro. Disponível em: http://www.mda.gov.br/sitemda/noticias/ agricultura-familiar-movimenta-economia-local-no-riode-janeiro. Acessado em: 10 de novembro de 2016. Petrini, C. SlowFood: princípios da nova gastronomia. São Paulo: Editora SENAC São Paulo, 2009. Pollan, M. Em defesa da comida. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Intrínseca, 2013. Singer, P. A economia solidária no governo federal. IPEA, Mercado de Trabalho, n. 24, p. 3–5, 2004.

5 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS AND NEXT STEPS What we could verify in this research is that the products and their methods of production, planting or processing, all of these are good, clean and fair (such as the SlowFood´s main tenets), mainly due to respect for the environment, the working conditions of farmers’ families and their forms of commercialization. The correct values practiced in agroecological fairs and other forms of commercialization of the scope, generate satisfaction for both sides: the producer and the consumer. Thus, their relations of mutual respect make commercial actions balanced, in addition to the practice of hospitality and solidarity, which are sociocultural values inseparable from agroecology. Ancestral methods of culture, extraction and food processing were also identified, which are fundamental for the

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Using design methodologies to problematise the dominant logic of current culinary pedagogy A. Woodhouse & R. Mitchell Food Design Institute, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand

ABSTRACT: The Food Design Institute at Otago Polytechnic (Dunedin, New Zealand) introduced a design-based culinary arts degree in 2011. This degree has been recognized as being best practice teaching in New Zealand, but despite this, few have adopted design as pedagogy in tertiary culinary arts education. This paper explores how and why, despite many cutting-edge chefs also using design in their practice, culinary arts education has resisted change. It discusses three key structures within culinary arts that create this inertia: 1) the persistence of master-apprentice pedagogy; 2) an entrenched kitchen hierarchy, and; 3) institutionalized culinary vocational education. It also highlights that, for much of the last 20 years, there has been a call for culinary arts (and hospitality) education to become more liberal and critical in its approach. The paper concludes by suggesting that design could be used as pedagogy to overcome the inertia and address these calls for change. 1

INTRODUCTION

by exploring the situation in New Zealand where the Food Design Institute at Otago Polytechnic has embraced design pedagogy to teach its Bachelor of Culinary Arts.

Over the last century there have been a number of “design thinking” chefs who have challenged the norms of their time and created innovative solutions within their respective culinary domains. Chefs like Auguste Escoffier radically redesigned the kitchen by implementing the brigade system and codifying the commercial cookery process and, more recently, Ferran Adria and the modernist cuisine movement redesigned both the way chefs think about cookery and the way the diner eats. In doing so they have left us with new ways of conceiving of how consumer value can be constructed and delivered in a constantly evolving society. For these significant food innovations to occur it has required chefs to adopt design methodologies and challenge the hegemonic practices and offerings of their times. Chefs at the cutting edge of their field have had to break the conventional culinary norms or doxa that operate within their social and cultural fields in order to provide consumers with new products, processes and experiences. While the chef community has long embraced design-thinking (albeit while not explicitly using the lexicon of design until the last 15 years) the vast majority of western culinary education has remained embedded in the original thinking of Escoffier of more than a century ago (Deutsch 2014, Woodhouse 2015). This paper explores some of the key drivers that have seen the resistance to change within culinary education and then posits how design as pedagogy might be used to change thinking for culinary educators. The paper begins

2

CULINARY DESIGN PEDAGOGY— A NEW ZEALAND PERSPECTIVE

The Food Design Institute at Otago Polytechnic has developed a new pedagogy which challenges the dominant master–apprentice approach to culinary learning. Until recently culinary arts education in New Zealand was predominantly focused on competency-based assessment and largely positioned within the polytechnic sector. In 2011 Otago Polytechnic commenced delivery of the first culinary arts degree in New Zealand and this programme was the first anywhere to embrace design as a methodology for learning and practice. Bachelor of Culinary Arts (BCA) students at Otago Polytechnic operate within an enquiry-based learning framework which allows them to explore, experiment and evaluate their work and in turn create their own canons of knowledge. Supporting this framework is the embedding of 21st Century learning skills which incorporate creative thinking, being a creator, communication and collaboration skills (21st Century Schools, N.D.). This new pedagogical approach to culinary education has now been celebrated and recognised in the New Zealand tertiary sector (2015  New Zealand National Tertiary Teaching Sustained Excellence awardees) as being innovative and of best practice.

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In this environment the apprentice developed an understanding of the medium of their craft while honing their technical skills and becoming proficient in their master’s trade. With time and through the acquisition and proficiencies of these new skills, the apprentice transitioned to become a ‘journeyman’ and eventually a master of their craft in their own right (Emms 2005, Mitchell et al. 2013). During the 18th Century industrial revolution the function and role of these guilds started to be relinquished as governments looked to take on more responsibility for vocational education. The state formalised and codified through arrangements with the workplace to deliver apprenticeships in the workplace (Mills 2007).

Utilising the methodologies from design, students draw from their existing knowledge whilst integrating and exploring new areas of knowledge and understanding in directions that the student chooses (e.g. a project on contemporary practice allows them to choose any area of contemporary practice that appeals to them). In this learning environment the role of lecturer is transformed from the ‘master’ of knowledge to the facilitator of knowledge, allowing for the co-construction of knowledge for both student and teacher. Knowledge is constructed by learners in ways that allow it to be meaningful to them and relevant to the design problem that they are solving. Students then apply this knowledge, either individually or collaboratively, in practical ways and evaluate it through the feedback of others and themselves (see Mitchell et al. 2013 for more detail). The application of this design methodology allows the experience to become a reflective learning opportunity and, in turn, a phenomenological construction of knowledge. This evaluation and reflection stage is an important part of the process, as it develops the student’s critical thinking skills with a long-term aim of students being able to transfer them into all aspects of culinary life (Mitchell et  al. 2013). However, while designthinking is utilised by thought-leaders like Ferran Adria in their culinary practice and the Otago Polytechnic BCA pedagogy has been recognized as best practice in New Zealand, why has design not been more widely adopted in culinary education? What structures might be at play that are creating inertia that prevents widespread change?

3 3.1

3.2 Structure 2: Escoffier and the hierarchical kitchen At the beginning of the 20th Century the pioneering work of French Chef Auguste Escoffier was the catalyst for the most significant pedagogical structures of modern culinary education. Escoffier, often cited as the father of modern cuisine, reorganised many of the professional kitchens of leading European hotels to create a revolutionary new food production and service model called service à la russe. A key component of Escoffier’s service à la russe model was the development of the hierarchical brigade system (Mitchell et  al. 2013) using this system 19th Century Taylorist principles (Woodhouse 2015). To oversee the efficient production, Escoffier developed a military-style hierarchical workforce system with the chef de cuisine at the top and commis chef at the bottom. It was while working at the Savoy Hotel in London that Escoffier wrote his 1903 book Le Guide Culinaire as a hotel training model for apprentices (Cullen 2010). During this time Escoffier advocated for formal culinary education for young boys and this led to the opening of Britain’s first cookery school at Westminster Technical Institute in 1910 (James 2002). The crossover of Le Guide Culinaire into formalised learning came in 1946 when Escoffier’s book became the core curriculum for an American cookery school (Deutsch 2014). In 1951 this school became the Culinary Institute of America (CIA) and is now recognised as one of the Western world’s preeminent culinary education institutes (Deutsch 2014).

STRUCTURAL RESISTANCE TO CHANGE Structure 1: The guilds and master-apprentice pedagogy

Western culinary arts and its accompanying pedagogy have their roots deeply embedded in the European master craftsmen of the Middle Ages. It was during this time that these craftsmen organized themselves into ‘guilds’ for the purposes of overseeing the learning and the working rights of their workplace (Emms 2005). Throughout this era, the education of cooks and chefs was delivered through a workplace master-apprentice model of pedagogy (Emms 2005). This learning model was based on an apprentice spending time with a master craftsman and learning the vocational craft through workplace observation. Through this process the apprentice would replicate the actions of the master under his (females were rarely cookery masters) watchful eye so that they learned to apply and replicate the master’s skill and knowledge.

3.3 Structure 3: The rise of institutionalized culinary vocational education In the 1960s and 1970s, as a result of economic growth and increased post-war funding from governments, there was a rise in supply and demand for global culinary vocational education. Alongside

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turn, constructed. This has seen a call from critical hospitality, tourism and culinary academics for its education to be realigned with its pedagogical emphasis to be on producing future-focused and critically reflective practitioners with transferable skill sets (Liburd & Hjalager 2011, Lugosi et  al. 2009, Mitchell & Scott 2013).

this, culinary work was elevated to a more professional status and this reinforced the desirability of culinary education (VanLandingham 1995). Vocational culinary education was now no longer informal and solely work-based but had morphed into an institutionalised and structured, government endorsed certification. Following an educational movement towards higher education within hospitality and tourism, the 1990s saw the emergence of the first culinary degrees in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. So today, a variety of education providers from community colleges, polytechnics and universities now provide institutional culinary education from certificate (high school) through to postgraduate level. However, despite the educational evolution from the past hundred years, the pedagogical model remains based upon the masterapprentice framework and the hierarchical structures designed by Auguste Escoffier (Cullen 2012, Deutsch 2014, Mitchell et  al. 2013) and, in most parts of the world, culinary curriculum is still delivered using the content and structure of Escoffier’s Le Guide Culinaire (Deutsch 2014). Even today it is common practice for a culinary student to start their education with simple vegetable preparation before transitioning to more technical tasks such as meat production and cooking, in accordance with Escoffier’s book (Deutsch 2014). 4

5

PROBLEMATIZING THE DOMINANT PEDAGOGY

With master-apprentice hierarchical structures and a firmly entrenched classical curriculum, culinary arts education provides the ideal environment for perpetuating the “ivory towers” of culinary knowledge and the resistance to an alternative pedagogy. Furthermore, these reinforcing power structures present challenges to those wishing to embrace the critical calls for change and adopt design as a pedagogy within the culinary arts community (Mitchell et al. 2013). Design as a pedagogy removes the technocratic focus of the French curriculum and supporting hierarchical structures. The classical system perpetuates a Francophile truth (Woodhouse 2015), whilst adopting design as a pedagogy allows students to explore and discover their own canons and truths. O’Mahony (2007) also encourages culinary educators to transition their curricula from technocratic to critical enquiry as this will prepare students for a future set of skills for an ever-changing market place. This will require new schools of thought and underpinning this is the embracement of the culinary imagination (Hegarty 2011). Hegarty proposes that culinary students need to develop cognitive skill sets utilising both the “rational and spiritual imagination” (2011, p. 56). He continues that this will require an epistemology that values structured scientific processes while also nurturing the creative and cultural imagination of students (Hegarty 2011), both qualities fundamental to design thinking. In order to achieve this, Hegarty suggests that this pedagogical approach will improve the chances of education becoming transformative and culturally responsive and lift culinary arts beyond being a craft. Fundamental to the pedagogical transition from master-apprentice knowledge formation to a selfdetermining and co-constructed design methodology, will be for the community of culinary arts to challenge—and at times question—the ultimate knowledge of its culinary masters. However the powers of uniformity and conformity deeply shape the classical culinary curriculum (Deutsch 2014) at the expense of skills such as communication, problem solving and initiative, skills which are embraced when the BCA adopted design as a pedagogy.

INERTIA AND CRITICAL CALLS FOR CHANGE

This examination of literature highlights that the culinary arts community of practice is powerfully structured around hierarchical cultures incorporating master-apprentice pedagogies. Since the 1990s and particularly since the adoption of degrees within culinary arts education, there has been a growing voice of culinary academics who have questioned these structures and the ways in which knowledge is acquired and utilised by students. As highlighted above, a number of structures present within the community of practice and educational frameworks are reinforcing these cultures and, in turn, are acting as forms of inertia to any significant pedagogical change. In the 1980s some of the first criticisms of the traditional approaches to hospitality education emerged. Ferguson and Berger (1985) asked questions of the role of hospitality education and its function in the encouragement of creative problem solving processes. They challenged the dominant logic of conformity over individual thinking. Their comments were to segue into a global discussion in the new millennium in relation to how hospitality and tourism knowledge is taught and, in

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As Deutsch (2014) emphasizes, the continued use of the classical master–apprentice pedagogy devalues the individual and, in turn, their creative thinking processes. Likewise, Deutsch proposes that the lack of questioning of the existing modes of practice inhibits a student’s ability to become better prepared for the challenges they will face when having to think innovatively within the industry. In light of these comments design as a pedagogy may offer some salvation to the culinary arts community. Like Van Haren (2010) suggests, students gain a greater level of agency and engagement from using design as pedagogy, while teachers are able to transform their teaching practice, as design allowed them to deal with a wider perspective and more diverse approaches to problem solving. The BCA at Otago Polytechnic employs design thinking and a wide range of design methods that address the need for critical thinking, problem-solving and the acquisition and application of skills on an ongoing basis (leading to lifelong learning processes). At the same time, design as pedagogy is allowing BCA students and graduates to use their agency to explore the knowledge that is most relevant to them and to develop their own culinary identity. In providing the student with agency the educator has no choice but to challenge (and, hopefully, relinquish) the structures that have created so much inertia for so long. How the Food Design Institute fosters student agency is discussed further in a paper by these authors in these proceedings entitled ‘Design as Pedagogy: Giving Culinary Arts Students Agency over Their Learning’.

Deutsch, J. 2014. Suppressing Desire as Culinary Discipline: Can Culinary Education Be Hedonistic? Should It Be? Paper presented at the Dublin Gastronomy Symposium, Dublin Institute of Technology. http://arrow. dit.ie/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=dgs. Emms, S.M. 2005. The modern journeyman: influences and controls of apprentice style learning in culinary education. Auckland University of Technology. Ferguson, D.H. & Berger, F. 1985. Encouraging creativity in hospitality education. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 26(2), 74–76. Hegarty, J. 2011. Achieving Excellence by Means of Critical Reflection and Cultural Imagination in Culinary Arts and Gastronomy Education. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 9(2), 55–65. doi:10.1080/15428 052.2011.580705. James, K. 2002. Escoffier: The king of chefs. London: Hambaldon and London. Liburd, J. & Hjalager, A. 2011. From copyright to Copyleft. Towards tourism education 2.0. The critical turn in tourism studies: Creating an academy of hope, 96–109. Lugosi, P., Lynch, P. & Morrison, A. 2009. Critical hospitality management research. The Service Industries Journal, 29(10), 1465–1478. Mills, R. 2007. Culinary education: Past, present practice and future direction. Paper presented at the 2007  Annual International CHRIE Conference & Exposition, Dallas, Texas. Mitchell, R. & Scott, D. 2013. A Critical turn in Hospitality and Tourism Research. In A. Murcott, W. Belasco, & P. Jackson (Eds.), The Handbook of Food Research (pp. 229–253). London: Bloomsbury. Mitchell, R., Woodhouse, A., Heptinstall, T. & Camp, J. 2013. Why use design methodology in culinary arts education? Hospitality & Society, 3(3), 239–260. doi:10.1386/hosp.3.3.239_1. O’Mahony, B. 2007. Culinary imagination: the essential ingredient in food and beverage management. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 14(01), 1–5. Van Haren, R. 2010. Engaging learner diversity through learning by design. E-learning and Digital Media, 7(3), 258–271. VanLandingham, P.G. 1995. The Effects of Change in Vocational, Technical, and Occupational Education on the Teaching of Culinary Arts in America. Woodhouse, A. 2015. Culinary Arts Pedagogy: A Critical Enquiry into its Knowledge, Power and Identity Formation. (Masters of Professional Practice ebook), Otago Polytechnic, Research Gate. Retrieved from https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/284409855_Culinary_Arts_Pedagogy_A_Critical_Enquiry_into_its_ Knowledge_Power_and_Identity_Formation.

REFERENCES 21st Century Schools N.D. Critical Pedagogy, Retrieved from www.21stceturyschools.com/Critical_Pedagogy. Cullen, F. 2010. Phenomenological Views and Analysis of Culinary Arts Students’ International Internships: ‘The Educational Psychology and Nature of Being’ Before, During, and After International Culinary Internship, Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 8(2/3), 106–126. doi:10.1080/15428052.2010.511106. Cullen, F. 2012. An Investigation in Culinary Life and Professional Identity in Practice during Internship.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Design as pedagogy: Giving culinary arts students agency over their learning R. Mitchell & A. Woodhouse Food Design Institute, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand

ABSTRACT: The Food Design Institute (FDI) at Otago Polytechnic has been using design as pedagogy to teach its Bachelor of Culinary Arts (BCA) since 2011. This approach uses design as pedagogy to provide students with tools to develop their own food and provide solutions to myriad food problems. One of the outcomes of the application of this pedagogy has been that students have been given more agency over their learning. This paper explores the tension between structure and agency in this new pedagogy for culinary arts. In particular, we explore how design has broken down the structures of traditional culinary arts pedagogy across the three years of the BCA. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of design as pedagogy for culinary arts educators. Note: A paper by Woodhouse and Mitchell in these proceedings provides a preface for this paper. 1

INTRODUCTION

2 STRUCTURE AND AGENCY: SOCIAL REPRODUCTION OR SELF-LIBERATION

The FDI at Otago Polytechnic (Dunedin, New Zealand) has been using design as pedagogy to teach its BCA since 2011. This approach uses usercentered design methods to provide students with tools to develop everything from a dish to a restaurant or a FMCG (fast moving consumer good) suitable for retail. The pedagogy is constructivist in its approach and utilizes project-based learning. A key outcome of the application of this pedagogy has been that students have been given more agency over their learning (Woodhouse 2015). This contrasts with the traditional approach to culinary arts education where students have limited agency (Deutsch 2014, Woodhouse 2015). It is a response to a call for a critical approach to culinary arts education (Hegarty 2011) and the structure-agency debate in education (Freire 1970, Illich 1971). Powerful structures are at play and have created inertia that is resistant to change in traditional culinary education. Using Schön’s (1992) notion of design as pedagogy, the FDI has been delivering the BCA since 2011. This is one of the first attempts to break free from these structures and allow students a degree of agency over their culinary learning. This paper explores a structure-agency discussion in education theory, highlights the need to challenge the dominant structures in culinary education and introduces a new ‘design as pedagogy’ approach to culinary arts education that provides increasing levels student agency across the three years of the program.

The control of knowledge and identity has been an integral facet of our human evolution since the time of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle (Nussbaum & Long 1988). These philosophers posed critical questions relating to the control of knowledge and the human benefits associated with it. More recently the structures of education and its associated ‘hidden’ ideologies have been challenged by critical education theorists (Apple 1982, Bowles & Gintis 1976, Freire 1970, Illich, 1971). Education and its supporting structures have been criticised as being enablers of social reproduction (Bowles & Gintis 1976) whilst acting as distribution systems for one’s social class and economic trajectory (Apple 1982). For Apple, the structures of education mirror the “norms, values, dispositions and culture that contribute to the ideological hegemony of the dominant group” (1982, p.38). Meanwhile, Freire (1970) states that educating people using these ideologies is a ‘dehumanising’ process as individuals have their identities formed for them instead of forming them for themselves. Freire is critical of learning environments where people become passive and adaptive to the views of the dominant ideologies, as this results in the ‘oppressors’ (the dominant ruling class) emerging as the sole benefactors. To this end, he believes that a learner’s ‘tranquility’ rests on how well they fit “the world the oppressors have created, and how little they question it” (Freire 1970, p. 57). As such, education

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4

should be a ‘liberating’ process of ‘conscientization’ that frees individuals from the conformity of their world. “Liberation is a praxis: the action and reflection of men and women upon their world in order to transform it” (Freire 1970, p. 60). Breunig (2011) suggests that Freire argues that this allows for a breaking down of a ‘culture of silence’ allowing ‘the oppressed’ to “break through prevailing mythologies” (see paper by Woodhouse & Mitchell in these proceedings for a discussion of the structural mythologies in place in traditional culinary education and classic cuisine). 3

GIVING STUDENTS AGENCY THROUGH DESIGN PEDAGOGY

In response to the “critical turn” in hospitality education the FDI at Otago Polytechnic has developed a pedagogical framework that embraces alternative culinary ways of knowing and subsequent cultures, norms and values. The adoption of design as pedagogy within the BCA has provided students with agency over their learning and, in turn, alternative culinary world perspectives are not only accepted but openly celebrated. A design approach to learning helps learners to become more reflective because “the designer constructs the design world within which he/she sets the dimensions of his/her problem space, and invents the moves by which he/she attempts to find solutions” (Schön 1992, p. 11). The degree of agency a design approach permits sees students design and construct things with meaning and the ontologies of the world of these things (e.g. systems of appreciation, language, methods of manipulation, etc.) (Schön 1992). Wellington (1991, p. 5) suggests that “like Schön’s (1987) reflection in action and Feire’s (1970) conscientization this kind of [design-informed] reflective practice engages professionals in the redesign and reconstruction of their professional worlds.” So, empowerment through agency can be more meaningful and powerful when the design worlds that they construct are connected to the world(s) that a student may become a professional in after they graduate.

CHALLENGING THE DOMINANT STRUCTURES OF HOSPITALITY EDUCATION

The academy of hospitality and tourism (of which culinary arts education is a subset) is not exempt from criticisms of the hegemony of its education. Over the last 20 years, this criticism has seen a growing number of academics call for a critical turn that rethinks the bases for hospitality education and the knowledge creation that informs it (Fullagar & Wilson 2012, Mitchell & Scott 2013, Mitchell et al. 2013). Hospitality educators are being called upon to embrace critical pedagogy within their curricula to allow for different knowledge creation in their classrooms (Fullagar & Wilson 2012). Fullagar & Wilson (2012, p. 1) suggest that there should be a multiplicity ways of engaging in disciplinary ‘truths’, as hospitality educators had remained largely “unreflexive about their own power-knowledge relations”. Similarly, there have recently been more specific calls to rethink culinary arts pedagogy (Hegarty 2011, Deutsch 2014, Woodhouse 2015), where the vast majority of courses in the Western world indoctrinate students into a Francophile culinary world (Woodhouse 2015). In the USA, Deutsch (2014, p.3) states that the dominant curriculum framework and world view deeply values uniformity and conformity at the expense of “suppressing and controlling desires” of the students and their passion for learning. Meanwhile in Ireland, Hegarty (2011, p. 60) further suggests that a pedagogical transformation will require a ‘paradigmatic shift’ from the traditional Francophile and hierarchical mindset within the culinary schools. As such, Hegarty (2011, p. 64) advocates that culinary arts lecturers do not need to “think our way into a new kind of living: rather, we [need to] live our way into a new kind of thinking”. For the culinary arts community, this means embracing alternative culinary world views beyond the Francophile Bourgeois and new forms of pedagogy that embrace a multitude of epistemological and ontological positions in the same classroom.

5

STUDENT AGENCY BY DESIGN IN THE FOOD DESIGN INSTITUTE BACHELOR OF CULINARY ARTS

Inherent within the BCA pedagogical framework is Freire’s (1970) concept of conscientization. Students of the BCA are permitted to construct their own culinary identity based upon their own personal values and self-determined culinary world views. This section explores the framework used to both provide agency and contextualize that agency in a way that empowers the student to enact their new culinary selves in a variety of professional (food) contexts (worlds). The framework develops across the three years of the program using agency in different ways to build confidence and skill in the application of the understandings that students gain from their own exploration of different culinary worlds/contexts (Figure 1). Figure 1 shows that, in traditional culinary education, students are indoctrinated into the French classical canon with only a cursory nod to other culinary worlds. This is usually based on the lecturer’s own professional world which, because of their own indoctrination, is usually heavily influenced by the French canon.

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Brief: Design a dish suitable for service in a specified contemporary eating establishment. You will design and deliver five portions of a main savoury dish appropriate to serve in a food establishment that embraces your chosen contemporary food philosophy. Your dish needs to reflect technical preparation of food products and incorporate ingredients in the same manner as your chosen establishment. This will include the plating and associated service ware of the establishment, and extend to the intended service of the dish. In essence, the dish needs to appear as a natural integration into the establishment’s menu offerings. Areas of Contemporary Practice include: • Sustainability and/or Health • Nostalgia and/or Comfort Food • Cultural Identity Teaching in year one focusses on exposing students to examples of practices, materials and contexts from different culinary worlds (related to project briefs) and providing them with the tools necessary to navigate and explore in these worlds. Tools include a range of research approaches, culinary practices, sensory feedback mechanisms, design tools (frameworks and methods) and various forms of communication. 5.2 Figure 1. Agency in the food design institute bachelor of culinary arts.

5.1

Year two: Engaging in different worlds

In year two students are provided with much tighter briefs that require them to operate at a much deeper level within a specified culinary world. They are encouraged to explore beyond this culinary world to identify things that could help them to solve the problem (e.g. they may bring aspects of their culture to help fulfil the needs of consumers in the culinary world they are designing for). They are required to develop a deeper understanding of the context for the culinary world the problem is situated within (e.g. the characteristics and needs of consumers, societal trends influencing behavior, trends in food and operational and systems requirements). Brief: Develop an artisan food product for a specified target market. You are part of a small start-up artisan company and you are developing a product for the retail market. Your product is to be designed to meet the needs of a specified target market. You will be allocated a target market from the Roy Morgan Helix Personas. You will explore their needs, wants and values and how they might influence their choice of food products and you will design a product to meet those needs. Teaching in year two focuses on engaging in culinary worlds beyond those typically known to the students. The teacher guides the students through each of these culinary world experiences whilst assisting in unpacking the culinary tenets pertaining to each of them. At times, students can be challenged by the

Year one: Exploration of culinary worlds

In year one of the BCA, students are given agency to explore culinary worlds that are of interest or known to them and which connect them to broad areas of culinary practice, techniques and methods, cultural understandings (including some understanding of consumers and their values), ingredients and professional contexts. Students are given a design brief to that encourages them to make choices about where (e.g. a food establishment), how (e.g. contemporary practices) and/ or for whom (e.g. a culinarian or a consumer) the design problem might be solved. The following excerpt from the brief for Contemporary Culinary Practice and Design demonstrates how a year one student is asked to explore a food establishment of their choice from a broad area of contemporary food practice. The student brings their interest and (unknowingly) their values and philosophy (a point we return to in year three of the degree) to the selection of world(s) they explore. In essence, their world is deliberately connected to a culinary world.

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classroom filled only with truths from many different culinary worlds (many of which are foreign and culturally distant from the world of the educator) further challenges educators working in this new paradigm for culinary education. Hegarty (2011) called for a radical shift in culinary education so that it could become transformative and culturally responsive. Design as pedagogy has allowed Otago Polytechnic to begin to address Hegarty’s call to action.

cultures, values, ideologies and practices of these worlds. However, it is in the process of reflecting critically on these culinary world experiences that students begin to start the process of formulating the principles which will reinforce the underpinning values of their own culinary world(s). 5.3

Year three: Emergence of their culinary world

In year three of the programme students begin the process of identifying and transitioning into a culinary world that best integrates with their culinary values, stylistic approach and design methodology. In effect, they are given agency to discover, embrace and transition into a professional culinary world of their own. In order to achieve this the programme is structured around exploring and identifying a student’s unique culinary philosophy and supporting approaches to design thinking and technical practices. Students are asked to engage in deeper levels of critical reflection that help them understand their epistemological and ontological place in their culinary world. Within these year three projects the lecturer takes the role of the supporting guide that helps the student to first formulate the key principles of their own culinary world before then facilitating the transition into their culinary worlds. As such the year three design projects are intentionally designed to have high levels of student direction and autonomy. In practice this means that students write their own brief and develop their own measures for success and reflect upon how well they have achieved what they set out to do.

6

REFERENCES Apple, M. 1982. Education and Power. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. 1976. Schooling in capitalist America: New York: Basic Books. Breunig, F. 2011. Paulo Freire: Critical praxis and experiential education. Source book of experiential education: Key thinkers and their contributions, pp. 56–63. Routledge. Deutsch, J. 2014. Suppressing Desire as Culinary Discipline: Can Culinary Education Be Hedonistic? Should It Be? Paper presented at the Dublin Gastronomy Symposium, Dublin Institute of technology. http://arrow. dit.ie/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=dgs. Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. Fullagar, S. & Wilson, E. 2012. Critical pedagogies: A reflexive approach to knowledge creation in tourism and hospitality studies. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 19(1), 1–6. Hegarty, J. 2011. Achieving Excellence by Means of Critical Reflection and Cultural Imagination in Culinary Arts and Gastronomy Education. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 9(2), 55–65. Illich, I. 1971. Deschooling Society. London: Calder and Bayars. Mitchell, R., Woodhouse, A., Heptinstall, T., & Camp, J. 2013. Why use design methodology in culinary arts education? Hospitality & Society, 3(3), 239–260. doi:10.1386/hosp.3.3.239_1. Mitchell, R. & Scott, D. 2013. A Critical turn in Hospitality and Tourism Research. In A. Murcott, W. Belasco, & P. Jackson (Eds.), The Handbook of Food Research (pp. 229–253). London: Bloomsbury. Nussbaum, M.C. & Long, A. 1988. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Philosophy, 1981, 82. Schön, D.A. 1987. Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Jossey-Bass. Schön, D.A. 1992. Designing as reflective conversation with the materials of a design situation. KnowledgeBased Systems, 5(1), 3–14. Wellington, B. 1991. The promise of reflective practice. Educational Leadership, 48(6), pp. 4–5. Woodhouse, A. 2015. Culinary Arts Pedagogy: A Critical Enquiry into its Knowledge, Power and Identity Formation. (Masters of Professional Practice Thesis), Otago Polytechnic.

CONCLUSION

It is in the reflective aspects of the programme that students are nurtured to become critically conscious practitioners. By being empowered to analyse the worlds they operate within they are given agency to construct their own culinary identities and worlds they wish to operate within (Freire 1970). As Schön (1992) suggests, critical reflection becomes a powerful tool for the redesign and construction of their professional selves. For educators who teach using the traditional (master/apprentice) culinary arts pedagogy, the gestalt shift that design as pedagogy forces is confronting. The traditional model sees the ownership and control of knowledge lies with the educator, while the model used for the BCA shifts the control of knowledge to the student. Likewise, the shift from the universal truth of the French culinary canon to a

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Integrated food studies education and research: Challenges and potentials for integration and reflection M.W. Hansen & S.R. Hansen Aalborg University Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

ABSTRACT: The research group Foodscapes Innovation and Networks has addressed integrated food studies issues in research and education since 2010. Based on experiences in the group, this paper aims at discussing the challenges, learning outcomes and potentials for pushing an integrated thinking into research and education. It also addresses the challenges in integration when the methodological approaches and theoretical frameworks chosen are ontologically and epistemologically different. A discussion of the limitations of integration is thus also part of the paper. The conceptual framework of ontonorms (Mol, 2013) is suggested as a common point of departure for a further development of integration. This is suggested relevant due to the fact that it forces different traditions to reflect their own value-related basis and discuss implications of this approach in a broader sense. The common values have been identified to be sustainability, healthy and better food, food systems change and enhanced food experiences. 1

INTRODUCTION

of the results. The basic discussion about ontology and epistemology is among several other things challenged by the fact that these philosophies of science discussions are not traditionally a part of applied (natural) science traditions such as nutrition and to some extend also design. An approach that qualifies the discussions of ontological differences is suggested by Mol (2013) with the term ontonorms emphasizing that all ontological assumptions are embedded in scientific norms (what is good or bad science) and traditions (how do we see the world) rather than being based in the essentialist static and objective worldview of ontology in singular. Thus, what is considered ‘good’ and ‘proper’ obviously differs within different disciplines, but is often based on implicit normativities that can make it difficult to address the differences openly and constructively. By addressing the need to discuss these fundamental issues of ‘good’, ‘real’ or ‘bad’ solutions to food related problems as touching upon normativity rather than real life measurements, some internal disagreements in the interdisciplinary teacher and researcher group occurs. Basically, the major challenge is to convince all involved in teaching and research that their own scientific tradition is a basis for fundamental science discussions, and that this discussion might challenge the fundamental basis for the research they are involved in. Another challenge is for all teachers to see and acknowledge its relevance rather than keep on teaching the things that belong to each tradition and thereby leaving the integration of heterogeneous worldviews (Moser, 2008) for the students to create.

Working with food systems and food studies means looking at the ‘wicked’ problems of food (Rittel & Webber, 1973, Durant and Legge, 2006, Dalgaard et al, 2003) from a holistic approach and acknowledging the fact that no single discipline will be able to understand or create absolute solutions on its own for the many challenges and contradicting aspects throughout the food system (Maroud, 1997; Cargill, 2005; Børsen, 2013). The integrated approach to research and education in integrated food studies (IFS) underlines the importance of discussing the questions asked, the methodologies used and the theoretical frameworks offered to understand the research. Qualitative, quantitative, innovative and creative methods are involved in this approach, at the same time leaving many unsolved dilemmas behind when an attempt to combine them is not fully succeeding. Today mixed methods approach is often mentioned as a way to solve the basic differences in approaches but looking into the ontological differences of e.g. nutritional and anthropological methodologies, this mixed methods approach might not be able to address the challenges properly. Rather is seems as if the mixed methods approach views different methods and approaches as add-ons which smoothly supplement each other, while at times leaving the ontological questions of e.g. post-positivist versus constructivist ontologies unsolved (Lincoln and Gupa, 2000). Differences in ontologies come to expression in what types of question the research is able to address and answer, or in discussions about reality, evidence and the validity and generalizability

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1.1

Often students in their last year of study realize the potential of the different approaches, and partially succeed in thinking the disciplines in new constellations when doing their master thesis. Feed-back from alumni shows that sometimes the real use of the integration emerges when graduates get their first job and realize the usefulness of being able to design, discuss nutrition and identify relevant actors in the different organizational contexts they are in, in order to make a change in the food system in front of them.

Integrated food studies program

The Integrated Food Studies (IFS) program is based on three pillars addressing different approaches towards understanding food aspects. Thereby different ontological approaches are at stake as well: 1) the medical inspired epidemiology in public health nutrition (food as an intake variable as Mol (2013) states), 2) the creative and experience-oriented design thinking (food atmosphere and aesthetic spatial context) and 3) the socio-material everyday life or governance-oriented aspects of food systems and meal practices (food policy and the practices and meanings of meals, the socio-technical matter of food). The program is a two-year curriculum with nine courses, three major group projects, and a finalizing master thesis. The courses outline a variety of methods and frameworks that represent different understandings of knowledge in food and outline different values and relevance criteria: from intervention based control studies with clearly selected parameters to creative design processes of making food and experiences and explorative analyses of political or daily life meaning of production and consumption of food. The projects are organized as group based activities where the students themselves (in collaboration with their supervisor) are meant to find a relevant topic of interest (in a given framework). They will then be responsible for creating a comprehensive study of the given topic and are formally expected to integrate the different topics taught in the courses and thereby the different approaches to food described earlier. This means that it is in the project work that the main integration is expected to happen. Experiences from the last five years of teaching the program show that this succeeds in some projects but also shows the challenges in creating the integration, not only due to the fact that the integration of approaches is difficult but also that the supervisors are themselves embedded in their own approach and thereby not representing an integrated thinking. A third reason is also that the basic ontological and epistemological discussion as shown in this paper makes the creation of a comprehensive narrative a difficult project. From the point of view of their background, the students in the IFS program are from all over the world, but two thirds are Danish. A majority of the students are educated in nutrition and health or food science before starting at the program. Thus the students themselves carry specific ontological and epistemological backgrounds into the master education from their former education. This sometimes results in a feeling among students of being challenged on their fundamental worldview, and this leads to a questioning of the relevance of topics taught. The fact that students are presented with methods and arguments of validity that contrast or question what they take for granted as ‘good science’ seems hard to comprehend and for some leads to a frustration.

1.2 The FRIDA project The FRIDA project is an example of a research based project trying to incorporate the three pillars of IFS into three Ph.D. projects. The FRIDA project had the overall goal of creating knowledge about how to support health promotion and food education through lunch scheme arrangements. The three projects separately gathered data in different kindergartens, but also cooperated in a shared kindergarten case. Though these were three individual Ph.D. projects, it was also an aim to relate the findings of the projects to each other and to collaborate in suggesting solutions to identified problems, based on the idea that ‘the more perspectives on the same problem, the better’. However, this implies that identification of problems is unproblematic and that different solutions can just be added together. This was challenged as the project developed and it became obvious that the problems addressed and the kinds of knowledge produced about them were valued differently in the three projects. It turned out to be very difficult to relate the knowledge produced in the different projects to each other. In spite of the fact that the researchers found interest in the others’ findings these often became a kind of ‘extra’/ bonus information that was difficult to relate to one’s own work, because it did not touch upon the assessed ‘real’ problems of their own project. Thus, the normativity implied in each project meant that knowledge was valued differently. Another challenge to consider was that it was often difficult for the case-kindergarten to embrace all three projects and it was sometimes confusing for the kindergarten staff to understand that the researchers often expressed contrasting viewpoints. Thus, when meeting the empirical world in interdisciplinary projects also raise questions of how to explain and discuss the differences with the participants without undermining the credibility of the project.

2

INTEGRATION

When working with integrating disciplinary approaches into new ways of thinking and teaching there are several experiences to discuss, including

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on the other hand STS approaches would dismiss the essentialist view and the belief in objectivity as is represented by nutritionists. Design is observed drawing on both qualitative explorative constructivist approaches, evidence-based nutrition research, and more market-oriented modeling frameworks. It is thereby in its own approach more or less represented by both traditions earlier described. But by not reflecting the combination openly, sometimes design overlooks the pitfalls of modeling the explorative qualitative work into stereotypes such as personas or customers. By emphasizing creativity and innovation, design is also drawing on ways of thinking that are not traditionally academic and thereby not covered or included in the same amount into philosophy of science discussions as the two other approaches described. Thereby the design area sometimes seems to slip out of the obvious dilemma of positivist versus constructivist approaches and appears almost ‘value-free,’ especially among the students who are using the methods and theories more or less uncritically. This is an important area to unfold further, in more elaborated discussions among teachers and students.

the whole set-up in talking about inter- or intradisciplines, or as here in this context integration of disciplines. According to Klein (1990) the term interdisciplinary refers to problem solving activities that involves and to some extend integrate at least two different disciplines (Børsen, 2013). 2.1

What is integration?

A long tradition of discussing disciplinary versus interdisciplinary approaches to science and research will not be touched upon in depth here. Shortly multi, inter- intra- or cross-disciplinarity has been mentioned as different levels of interaction between existing disciplines both methodologically and theoretically (Børsen, 2013; Klein, 1990). The difference often lies in the level of interaction and collaboration between the different disciplines or approaches. The integration of approaches will in this context be one of the most collaborative and cross-disciplinary, thereby challenging the traditional ways of teaching and working—at least in the overall aim of the research but as indicated here not always in reality. 2.2

Integration—looking at ontonorms 2.3

In order to create a conceptual framework, although not stated as such by the author herself Mol’s ontonorms (2013) will act as a sort of sensitizing concept (Clarke et al, 2017) in two discussions. First of all the concept of ontonorm constitutes a line of thinking that can address the norms—or as Mol also states, the politics of the research, thereby opening for a discussion about the values in the education and research. They provide a basis to start establishing common ground since words such as ‘better food for all,’ ‘more sustainability,’ and ‘healthier human beings’ are values shared in the three scientific approaches and thereby suitable to start the discussion from. The next step is to start filling these concepts with meaning—what do we each mean when stating such aims? Secondly, the use of the ontonorm discussion allows for opening a dialogue about the traditions and cultures of science that is often implicit and not debated. It forces all teachers and researchers to reflect about their practices in depth and creates basis for common seminars of discussions to help the co-existence of the different research traditions and the multiplicity of realities without valuing one over the other. The discussion of the interactions and implications will create a stronger basis for developing research and education in an integrated manner. The major challenge in creating a common basis for discussion is the fact that ontonorms of food matters are not agreed upon as a common ground. Post-positivist intervention approaches would be skeptical about the fluid worldview and the constructivist multiplicity of understandings, whilst

Examples of heterogeneous meetings

As the topic of this paper is the interdisciplinary Food Studies research and educational activities, this section will discuss some experiences or moments of integration in both research and teaching activities. The challenge for the IFS program is to work with integration in the teaching and not only offering different understandings for the students to integrate autonomously. The most successful activities in terms of integration of teaching have been to openly address some of the disagreements and with the presence of teachers from different traditions at the same time. A seminar was arranged around the common topic ‘Evidence in scientific work,’ with lectures in related topics such as evidence and how it is created and argued in public health nutrition, evidence in mixed methods approaches, and the controversies in talking about evidence in qualitative research. The workshop day ended with a common panel debate about evidence where teachers were present from all different approaches of the program. This type of activity has proved itself popular among students and created a good basis for discussions among teachers. By creating room for a real-time discussion and the doubts and considerations among researchers the students are themselves able to see the complexity and the interaction in heterogeneous worlds of food matters. In the FRIDA project the most successful moments came from doing some concrete tasks together. For example the design Ph.D. student in FRIDA did a process of user involvement in the

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the researchers involved, thereby also creating a basis for discussions and understanding that is not so easily established without an external framework of collaboration. Mol’s (2013) concept of ontonorms is suggested as a starting point for a deeper reflection on the values and scientific practices characterizing the research and teaching activities. In order to actually start these shared discussions, activities to create a mutual sense of relevance is needed where the values of the food studies research and educational activities could be a starting point. However all these attempts to integrate and discuss values needs attention in the university structures, as the responsibility for strengthening the integrated basis for teaching cannot be an individual teacher responsibility alone. Extra seminars and preparation time that support the more demanding work of discussing perspectives and political or normative standpoints need to be aspects of structural character in interdisciplinary educational programs.

design of a prototype that aimed to support learning about the food prior to the meal. As preparation for the user involvement the designer cooperated with the socio-material sub-project to create probes— materials to support reflection and out-of-the-box thinking—that would be close and relevant to the everyday life of the kindergarten. The three researchers also did a common analysis of a video section recorded in the shared kindergarten case, as well as a common workshop with pedagogical staff. Instead of focusing on the aims of the separate Ph.D. projects, this workshop tried to identify the challenges and vision that the staff themselves found the most relevant. The workshop used methods from the design tradition to support the staff in identifying issues prior to the workshop, such as maps where staff would draw and write issues relevant to the specific spaces in the kindergarten. It then drew on methods of analyzing and categorizing this material from the socio-material approach, as well as common group interviewing techniques. Thus, this became a way of finding common ground to work in. However as already described the focus points of the individual projects quickly attracted more focus in each project afterwards. What was common for these scenarios was that they provided some concrete issues to be discussed. Thereby the ontonorms of the different approaches became more ‘visible’ when a situation was understood and interpreted differently. 3

REFERENCES Børsen, T. (2013): Identifying Interdisciplinarity Core Competencies in Techno-Anthropology: Interactional expertise, social responsibility competence, and skills in antropology-driven design. Chapter 1 in Børsen, T. & Botin, L. (eds)(2013): What is Techno-Anthropology? Aalborg University Press. 1st edition. p 35–66. Cargill, K. (2005): Food Studies in the Curriculum. Food Culture and society. Vol 8. no. 1. p. 115–123. Clarke, A., Friese, C. and Washburn, R. (2017): Situational Analysis. Grounded Theory after the Interpretive Turn. 2nd ed. Sage. Dalgaard, T., Hutchings, N.J. and Porter J.R. (2003): Agroecology, scaling and interdisciplinarity. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Volume 100, Issue 1, p 39–51. Durant, R.F. and Legge, J.S. (2006): “Wicked Problems,” Public Policy, and Administrative Theory. Lessons From the GM Food Regulatory Arena. Administration & Society. Vol 38, Issue 3. p. Klein, J.T. (1990): Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, and Practice. Detroit MI: Wayne State University Press. Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba E.G. (2000): Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and emerging Confluences. Chapter 6 in Denzin, N.K & Lincoln Y.S. (Eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research Second Edition. pp 163–188. Mourad, R.P., Jr. (1997). Postmodern Interdisciplinarity. Review of Higher Education Vol 20 Issue 2. P 113–140. Mol, A. (2013): Mind your plate! The ontonorms of Dutch dieting. Social Studies of Science 43(3), p 379–396. Moser, I. (2008): Making Alzheimer’s disease matter. Enacting, interfering and doing politics of nature. Geoforum 39. P 98–110. Rittel, H. and Webber M.M. (1973): Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Policy Sciences (4). P 155–169.

CONCLUSION

By looking at research and educational activities in the Danish Food studies research group this paper aims at addressing the fundamental challenges and positive experiences in working with the integration of different scientific approaches to food. The paper has outlined several challenges in the meeting between research traditions. One major challenge is the fact that the common ground for discussing values and normative backgrounds for science is not accepted as relevant in all scientific traditions and thus not a topic of reflection for teachers and researchers in general. The dominant activity in most teaching is to give insights and knowledge that students can use to get skills and competencies in a specific tradition, and there is a basic challenge in both research collaborations and in teaching activities to actually give time and priority to the more fundamental challenges of the basic differences in approaches. Important experiences in the research and teaching activities of IFS and FRIDA are the described shared activities where researchers are involved in arranging common external or teaching related undertakings. The physical meetings and the requirement of shared planning create a good basis for developing an interaction between

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Experiencing food

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Effect of nostalgia triggered by sound on flavor perception Filipe Leonor Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril, Estoril, Portugal

Jonny Lake The Fat Duck, Bray, West Berkshire, UK

Manuela Guerra Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril, Estoril, Portugal

ABSTRACT: Understanding the physiological reactions experienced while eating has become of great interest for professional chefs. Flavor regards to a set of sensations provided by food – taste, smell, touch and aroma. These sensations are processed in the brain together with others – sound, sight, emotion, memory and others – in a way unique to humans. This phenomenon is known as the multisensory perception experience of eating. The main objective of this study was to contribute to the understanding on how nostalgia triggered by sound may affect the way food is perceived. For this preliminary study – which aims for further development – an experiment was conducted and results suggest that nostalgia can effectively be triggered by sound. When hearing the sound of the seaside, participants felt the Sound of the Sea – signature dish by Heston Blumenthal – fresher and more delicious overall than when sound was not being played. It was also suggested that the type of evoked memory directly affects the overall enjoyment of the dish and that each individual has its own multisensory perception experience. 1

INTRODUCTION

ferent data, and the phenomenon is what we should call flavor (Wilson & Stevenson, 2006). For almost thirty years scientists have been studying multisensory experience, and today we have some information that allows us to explain, for instance, the fact that some food and drink “feel” different when people have them while on vacation, and later when back home (Knoferle & Spence, 2012). The answer lies in the context and nostalgic image evoked in the OFC, if the coding (stimuli) of the smells, the sounds, the sights and so on are not the same, the image will be different from the one that triggered pleasure, or any other sensation, in the first place (Verhagen & Engelen, 2006).With the awareness of multisensory tendencies everyone can experience when it comes to flavor, sound for instance, may have a bigger role in the restaurants’ tasting menus. Also understanding how the brain works in this multisensory area may give chefs a new path leading to the construction of new eating experiences, supporting the claim that science should be taken into consideration in every created dish. Heston Blumenthal is one of those chefs. In his restaurant – The Fat Duck – he conducted numerous food experiments, from using modernist techniques and equipment to adding other stimuli more than taste, such as sound, to the multisensory experience. With the collaboration of Professor Charles Spence, they started experimenting – headphones

The world of gastronomy has significantly changed in the last two decades –chefs have been exploring not only the science behind cooking, but also the physiological reactions the human beings experience while eating. People are often confused with the terms taste and flavor. While the first is related to what happens exclusively in the mouth, such as perceiving sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami (and fat, as recently suggested by other authors), the second includes the perception not only of the taste but also the smell and the aroma of food (Blumenthal, 2008). Odor and aroma also have a huge impact on one’s perception of the world. Humans are able to map odor perception, and on doing so, our brain creates an image which is later interpreted by specialized areas. This kind of image is not like the ones that are used with eye’s perception—those are patterns generated by our brain and they have their own “fingerprints” because each person’s brain has its own perception of the world. These images are then stored, and when accessed later they act as memories which give sense of nostalgia (Shepherd, 2006). When the flavor information reaches areas in the brain such as the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) the complexity increases. The brain processes and represents it along with other inputs from different systems. The result is a combination of all these dif-

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nine tasters started tasting without the influence of sound and the other five on reversed. The sound was played from loud speakers. Every person that was part of the tasting had the exact same influences as the others, no more than the Sound of the Sea dish and the sound. The sittings were individual and the room was empty. Tasting took place at 14.00 h.

would be given do diners, and farm and beach sounds would play separately while serving oysters. Apparently, diners perceived oyster differently – the ones listening to beach sounds felt this seafood fresher, although they were cooked exactly the same way (Blumenthal, 2008). Sometime later, the Sound of the Sea was developed. This dish was first registered in 2007, and it consists on a very complex combination of sea ingredients with Asian nuances. It is served on a bespoke plate made from walnut wood and with a conch with a music player inside (containing sound of the seashore). This is placed at the table before the dish is served to give time for the diner to get in place and to create context (Blumenthal, 2008).Aiming at understanding the effect of nostalgia – triggered by sound – on flavor perception of the Sound of the Sea dish a preliminary experiment was conducted at The Fat Duck, restaurant canteen in Bray, UK. 2

2.3 Inquiry The inquiry for the tasting had six questions with multiple choice answers only, four of them addressing the dish and its saltiness, freshness and overall enjoyment; these had numerical variants from 1 to 5 scale, being 1 the lowest grade and 5 the highest. The other two questions were about the nostalgic part of the study and had two variants only. The Likert scale was chosen for the answers of Q1–3 and Q5; Q4 and Q4.1 had dichotomy variables: Question 1 (Q1) – How salty is the dish? Question 2 (Q2) – How Fresh is the dish? Question 3 (Q3) – How tasty is the dish? Question 4 (Q4) – Does the dish remind you of something familiar? (If you answer No, skip to question 5)Question 4.1 (Q4.1) – What was it that felt familiar? Question 5 (Q5) – How much did you enjoy the dish? Inquiry data were coded into an Excel spreadsheet and statistics were performed using R, version 3.0.2 for windows. Given the fact most variables are of qualitative nature, descriptive statistics analysis was used.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment consisted of a tasting and an inquiry, both designed to demonstrate the question: “does nostalgia triggered by sound from the Sound of the Sea dish affect flavor perception?” This experiment was conducted in an academic/ professional internship and was designed to meet both the researchers’ interests and the Fat Duck Experimental Kitchen development team’s. 2.1

Recipe formulation—Sound of the sea simple version

3

Results of the experiment can be seen in Table 1. Although the tasting was set for 14.00 h to prevent participants from being either hungry or satiated from lunch (which on average people in the UK have around 12.30 h), there was not a way to control this factor as participants were not asked what time they had their last meal. This may have influence on the results – for future experimentation it is advised to give a standard meal to participants in a controlled time schedule. Participants may have had some expectation of what they were about to eat, although subjects were not familiar with the Sound of the Sea, they were likely to know about the Fat Duck concept. These facts may alter the multisensory experience congruency and may result in a different perception of flavor (Yeomans & Chambers, 2008). Apart from these experimental deviations, every other requisite was accomplished accordingly. It can be observed that sound influenced subjects 1–9 reminding participants of something familiar, i.e., sound evoked a memory; this suggests the requisite nostalgia was triggered by sound. Some studies refer this phenomenon is possible and likely to happen since our hearing system is part of the

The Sound of the Sea dish has over eighty different ingredients and that would make the tasting very difficult, after some discussion about which ingredients truly make Sound of the Sea, a basic recipe was remade containing: the sand, foam (sea), four seaweeds (ice lettuce, sapphire, tosaka and codium), ponzu sauce and one fish (yellow tail). 2.2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sensory tasting

Sensory tasting was performed by 9  individuals, making this a preliminary study, aiming for further development and experimentation. Participants lived or took frequent vacation by the seaside and did not know about the Sound of the Sea; selection was made by inviting individuals via e-mail. There were two phases, one of them with nostalgia factor; this was controlled by adding sound of sea side while the tasting was occurring. Five minutes for each phase was the time limit except on the trial with sound, which had one extra minute hearing it before tasting, to get involved and create context with the environment. The gap between each tasting was five minutes. To avoid biased results, four out of

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answered Q4.1 with “Good times by the seaside” when sound was being played. This can be, as other authors suggest, for the fact of introducing another sense in the multisensory experience. Addressing Q1: How salty is the dish? (1-not salty at all; 5-very salty), data distribution is shown in Graphic 1a. With sound influence, the perception of saltiness of the dish tends to stabilize as the 1st and 3rd quartile are of 3, the same value as median and two outliers were found with values of 4 and 2. On the other hand, saltiness perception without sound influence had a wider amplitude between quartiles, with values of 2 for 1st and 4 for 3rd; minimum value given was of 1. These findings might suggest sound and context triggered with nostalgia affects our saltiness perception of a dish, turning it more standard and similarly perceived by different people, however not saltier. Q2 was in the inquiry to understand how perceived freshness of the Sound of the Sea dish differs when there is the influence of sound; data results are represented in Graphic 1b. Without sound influence, 1st quartile had the same value of median 3, 3rd quartile was 4 meaning 25% of subjects answered between 3 and 4, box-plot maximum was of 5 and minimum of 3. On the other hand, with sound, the median was 4, 1st and 3rd of 3 and 5 accordingly, being the minimum and maximum values as well, which translates in 50% of answers between 4 and 5. It can be assumed that context and nostalgia triggered by sound have high influence on making a dish seem fresher: median is above 4 and more of the data is wider distributed in the 3rd quartile. Mean values are of 4 with sound and 3.56

Table  1. Influence of the sound in sensory tasting of Sound of the sea dish. Ind

Sound

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q4.1

Q5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N N N N

3 3 3 2 4 3 3 4 3 4 1 4 4 3 2 2 4 3

5 4 4 3 5 3 4 5 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 3 5 4

4 4 5 4 5 4 4 5 4 3 3 4 5 5 4 3 4 4

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n/a n/a 1 0 1 1 1 1

4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 4

Legend: There were 9 participants, however 18 individual results – the tasting had two phases (phase 1: individual 1–9; phase 2: individual 10–18; Y: with sound influence; N: without sound influence; Q1: Question 1, Q2: Question 2, Q3: Question 3, Q4: Question 4, (Reminds – 1; Does Not Remind – 0): Question 4.1 (Good Times – 1; Not Good Times – 0), Q5: Question 5; n/a: not analyzed.

integration of multisensory perception (Spence, 2014), therefore connected to our OFC and memory accessible data. Also for Q4.1 all participants answered with “Good times by the seaside” meaning the triggered nostalgia corresponded to a pleasant memory. According to some authors, nostalgic pleasant memories are more likely to promote a better overall eating experience (Yeshurun & Sobel, 2010). However, without the influence of sound, the dish did not evoke any memory for two participants, suggesting the dish alone (taste, texture and aroma) is not enough for the multisensory experience in this case. These individuals, as showed in the results, answered Q5 with the lowest values, suggesting—as defended by some authors—nostalgia triggered by sound affects the overall multisensory experience (Verhagen & Engelen, 2006). The remaining participants, who did not have the influence of sound and evoked pleasant memories, with the exception of one. This exception might be explained by the dish itself reminding of something unpleasant due to its flavor profile (since this person answered Remind in Q4), which is very rich in umami, and citrus aroma (not acidic in the mouth) probably similar to some rich seafood, which he/she might not have enjoyed in the past. By itself, the taste of the dish evoked an unpleasant image. However, when analyzing Table 1 further it can be observed that the same person

Graphic 1. Box-plot Q1 to Q5 (Question 1 to Question 5). Legend: data distribution obtained in each Question: a) Q1 – How salty is the dish?; b) Q2 – How Fresh is the dish; c) Q3 – How tasty is the dish?; d) Q5 – How much did you enjoy the dish?

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world. Having that, it can be assumed eating is a multisensory experience unique to every individual, as the results varied from each participant in this preliminary study. This might be explained by the fact that multisensory experience from the Sound of the Sea dish triggers (according to the sample studied) a strong sense of nostalgia and emotion. The fact that most participants found the dish fresher is proof enough that it evoked seaside memories and taste related to it (Blumenthal, 2008; Spence, 2015).

without it, which enhances freshness perception of the dish (similar to the freshness of the sea) when sound of the sea side is played. Different studies suggest the same, sound is crucial to create context and enhance eating experience (Knoferle & Spence, 2012). Other authors also defend that nostalgia is very important creating context and enhancing the following experience (Yeomans & Chambers, 2008). For Q2, data suggest the triggered memory of the seaside creates context and makes the participants feel the dish fresher, mirroring the freshness of the seaside while on vacation. Graphic 1c represents data distribution of Q3: How tasty is the dish? (1-not tasty at all; 5-very tasty). Both have the same value for median of 4, clearly data distribution with sound influence is wider on 3rd quartile and without sound on 1st quartile, it means there were more participants answering between those values—sound above 4 and without it under 4. Maximum with sound influence is of 5 and minimum of 4 meaning 100% of participants answered between 4 and 5. Nevertheless 50% answered between 3 and 4 without sound influence. These are distinct values that suggest that with more complex multisensory perception tastiness of a dish is significantly improved. To enhance this possibility, with sound influence, average was of 4.33 and without it was 3.89, showing higher evaluation of tastiness when sound triggers nostalgia. Similar findings are suggested by some experts in the field: it is more likely to enjoy a meal when several senses are activated; the more activation in our flavor system in the brain the tastiest a dish should feel (Prescott, 2008). For Q5: How much did you enjoy the dish? although both have the same median 4, different data distribution may be observed in Graphic 1d. With sound influence, 1st and 3rd quartile are of 4, meaning 75% of participants evaluated the overall experience as 4, an outlier exists who answered 5. Distribution of data without sound influence is mainly below median value, with a minimum of 3 corresponding to the 1st quartile, this means 25% of participants had an overall experience of 3 and 50% of participants answered between 3 and 4 this last one being the maximum value. Average values are of 4.11 and 3.56 with and without sound, accordingly. This translates in a higher overall experience, therefore suggesting nostalgia triggered by sound—which puts participants in context with the seaside landscape—affects the final perception of taste, resulting in better overall enjoyment of the Sound of the Sea dish. These results also suggest individuals have an aptitude to relate several senses, and to understand one of them as the result of the other, i.e., in this case, taste is highly influenced by nostalgia when triggered by sound. This study suggests there is a crossmodal correspondence between senses, thus putting forward the hypothesis of each individual living in his own multisensory perception

4

CONCLUSIONS

Nostalgia triggered by sound made Sound of the Sea dish to affect flavor perception: it seemed more delicious and fresher; it made the participants to better evaluate the overall deliciousness of the dish. Albeit the mentioned sample constraints, this experimental assay provided a better understanding of how complex the multisensory experience of eating is. This study should be continued for a deeper understanding of the effect of several senses and emotions on flavor perception, in order to give the modernist chef the tools to better control his creations and to provide clients with memorable multisensory experiences. REFERENCES Blumenthal, H. (2008). The Fat Duck Cookbook. London: Bloomsbury. Knoferle, K., & Spence, C. (2012). Crossmodal Correspondences Between Sounds and Tastes. Psychon Bull Rev, 992–1006. Prescott, J. (2008). Flavour Perception and Preference as a Learned Experience. In H. Blumenthal, The Fat Duck Cookbook (pp. 488–489). London: Bloomsbury. Shepherd, G. (2006). Smell Images and the Flavour System in the Human Brain. Nature, 316–321. Spence, C. (2014). Eating with our ears: assessing the importance of the sounds of consumption on our perception and enjoyment of multisensory flavour experiences. Flavour. Spence, C. (2015). Multisensory flavor perception. Cell, 24–35. Verhagen, J.V., & Engelen, L. (2006). The Neurocognitive Bases of Human Multimodal Food Perception: Sensory Integration. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 613–650. Wilson, D., & Stevenson, R. (2006). Leaning to Smell: Olfactory Perception from Neurobiology to Behavior. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Yeomans, M.R., & Chambers, L. (2008). Effects of Flavour Expectation on Liking: From Pleasure to Disgust. In H. Blumenthal, The Fat Duck Cookbook (pp. 503–504). London: Bloomsbury. Yeshurun, Y., & Sobel, N. (2010). An Odor is Not Worth a Thousand Words: From Multidimentional Odors to Unidimentional Odor Objects. Annual Review of Psychology, 219–241.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

“A Saudade Portuguesa”. Designing a dialogical food narrative R. Bonacho CIAUD – Research Center for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

M. Pires & C. Viegas Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Estoril, Portugal

ABSTRACT: The design of the meal/event “A Saudade Portuguesa” was conceived by the MSc in Innovation in Culinary Arts (ESHTE) as part of an inter-disciplinary academic project and a meta-territorial task, in dialogue with design students who created unique crockery for this culinary experience. Together with a reflection on sensorial stimulation throughout the creative cooking process, the performance was closely connected to the developing gastronomic process, throughout a process of musical and visual interpretation. Such a mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experiences perfectly suits the theme “saudade”— a feeling of longing and recollecting experiences, widely indicated as the essence of the Portuguese soul. Because food memories shape the future, the twelve guests were offered several moments that simultaneously took them to a journey through past gastronomic traditions, discoveries and innovative fusions. 1

INTRODUCTION

niques), natural sciences (chemistry, nutrition) and design interacted and sought to work in synergy with other areas of knowledge (music, literature, visual arts). The old model of teaching in culinary arts (master—apprentice) (Emms 2005, Miles 2007 apud Mitchell 2012) makes no sense for MIAC, as it seeks to qualify students with tools that allow them to understand and interpret symbols from different cultures, traditions and metaphors (Gustafsson et al. 2006, Watz 2008, Mitchel 2012, Bonacho et al. 2015). Accordingly, design in its most extensive, multidisciplinary and experimental sense can lead to this experimentation, with the goal of using new creative procedures in culinary practices and processes (Maffei et  al. 2014). As such, our study becomes relevant in this context given the demands of food production professionals who need creativity when “building their competitive edge” (Leung 2013), as modern chefs must now create new dining experiences, from the design of the menu, the dining and ambience (Gustafsson et  al. 2006) to the dining and/or cooking/eating tools. Currently the diner “wants to consume experiences rather than simply to purchase products” (Spence et al. 2014).

Eating is a necessity and a pleasure with biological, cultural and social characteristics. This study seeks to emphasize the idea of how we eat, by contrast to what we eat. Whereas what we eat has to do with what is presented to us, and it has a direct relation with the physical and chemical aspects of food and the transformation that occurs during the cooking process (McGee 2016), how we eat has to do with the experience of the diner receiving various forms of sensory stimulations related to food, environment, lighting, color, and movement (Gustafsson et  al. 2006, Watz 2008, Spence et al. 2014, Spence 2017). “A Saudade Portuguesa” (SP), a project developed by the students of the MSc in Innovation in Culinary Arts (MIAC – 2015/2016) of the Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies (ESHTE), began with four main references: 1) the direct approach transmitted to students, the twelve-act opera by Franc Aleu and the Roca brothers (El Celler de Can Roca), El Somni (2014), as an example of an interdisciplinary project that provides a “total” sensory experience; 2) the teaching methodology (creative process in design)borrowed from the Food Design discipline; 3) the reinterpretation of the Portuguese gastronomy through the feeling of saudade; and 4) the development of a menu using pulses and typical Portuguese food product for the identity and sustainability of the national gastronomy to serve 12 guests. To reinforce the interdisciplinary character of the project, developed in an academic environment, the culinary arts (culinary practices and tech-

2 2.1

METHODOLOGY Hypothesis or question to be discussed

The project focuses mainly on two questions: whether it is possible for students to develop a “perfect meal” (Spence et  al. 2014) that triggers

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3

in the diner the feeling of saudade and whether this experience can be developed from a creative process in design and its application tools (creative process, shapes, color, visual communication) in partnership with other disciplines (nutrition, culinary arts, music, literature). 2.2

3.1

Sight

The aphorism “the first taste is always with the eyes” (Apicius) best describes the sensory experience SP. We appreciate food in extremely sensory ways and information from the various senses is perceptually and semantically integrated to provide an experience (Michel et  al. 2014). A meal encompasses the total experience, the presence of other people, the environment and the atmosphere, the cutlery, the dishes, but what people see has a substantial importance in the perception of food. The visual component not only affects the perception of food but also plays an important role in the expectations as well (Hutchings 1999, Spence et al. 2014). The sense of sight in our experience focused on food and on how all the visual elements reinforced the concept we wanted to convey, saudade. To recreate an environment that functioned as a time capsule, the dining room was transformed by a set of panels with illustrations alluding to the history of Portugal (Fig. 1, M8), which recreated our narrative. The illustrations were developed in black and white so that we could work with the

Project briefing

Students were to develop a gastronomic experience where the identity of the Portuguese gastronomy would reflect the feeling of saudade, following a creative process in design (Double Diamond 2005) with an extensive characterization of all the components in each phase of the proposed model. In the first one, discovering, they would research about the Portuguese gastronomic identity and how this is reflected in the current panorama of the Portuguese cuisine. In the second phase, definition, students would develop the concept that served as the guiding line to the entire gastronomic experience. The intention was to construct a visual and sensorial narrative about the Portuguese gastronomy (Gustafsson et  al. 2006, Spence et  al. 2014). In this phase of the creative process, students also benefited from the collaboration of the design students (2nd Year – 2015/2016) of the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon in the development of unique ceramics in a dialogue with the menu. In the later stages of the project (development and implementation) students would follow a design orientation that should set the dining experience and define the narrative, music and sounds, presence of scents, and the design of the space (table, ceramics, cutlery, flooring, walls, illustration). These two phases were the longest and more debated ones by both MIAC students in menu development (ingredients, techniques, supports) and the designers for the development of the ceramics that followed the process from the beginning (shape, color, material). 2.3

THE SENSES

What is “Saudade”

Semantically saudade is referred as a Portuguese word that is not easy to translate. According to Lourenço (2000), it is not a word, nor the identity card of the Portuguese people; saudade cannot be perceived, nor defined, only lived and/or experienced. Saudade expresses itself in feelings, poems and songs. As such, the noun acquires an added importance in the results and the question that we propose: is it possible to trigger this feeling in a gastronomic sensory experience? Hence, the relevance of the questionnaire to the guests one year later, on the idea of having saudade present at the table.

Figure  1. Ceramics and illustration of “A Saudade Portuguesa”.

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a Japanese seaweed salad and a citric sauce with soybean paste fermented in two colors—yellowbrown, as a sandy beach, and black cuttlefish ink, representing the sea. Flying fish roe was used to give color and flavor, while the Kombu seaweed contributed to the umami taste and to the smell of the sea. This ceramic symbolized the breaking of the waves, not only by the color, but also by the shape raised on one of the ends that guided the placement of the dishes on the table. The sixth moment, The faithful friend and the desired king (Fig. 1, M6) was an allegory for cod and the Portuguese king D. Sebastião. The dish consisted of different, less noble, parts (swim bladder, cheeks and tongues) of the “faithful friend”, bacalhau—the Portuguese salted and dried codfish. This dish was based on the “Meia desfeita”, traditionally with chickpeas, egg and baked cod. In the table centerpiece seawater was poured over dry ice to create the effect of mist and the smell of the tide, alluding to the young king D. Sebastian, who disappeared in a battle in Morocco and is still often referred to as The Desired One. The ceramic was monochromatic (white) with irregular and wavy shapes, allowing its inner chamber to accommodate all ingredients. The royal hunting inspired the second main course Walk in the woods, depicting the vegetation on its various elements: wild boar loin cooked at low temperature and its juice wrapped in a forest of mini vegetables, edible soil, micro herbs, mushrooms, and pickled shallots and beets, with mashed sweet potato. The soil was toasted corn bread, powdered mushroom, activated charcoal, and smoked bísaro pork loin, dehydrated peas and spinach. The plating mirrored the harmony of all elements as if they would come directly from the earth, enhance by the ceramic with its organic and rustic form and the black and green tones suggested the soil and moss of the place (Fig. 1, M7). The pre-dessert On the top of that mountain was inspired by the North and South of Portugal, more specifically Serra da Estrela (the highest mountain in Portugal) and the Algarve. Accordingly, the plating tried to transmit a trip to both regions with two products, which are harmoniously combined: cottage cheese and honey. Visually, the goal was to convey a mountain perspective, along with a perception of an immense floral landscape from the Algarve. The dessert Past Memories was inspired by Portuguese convent sweets. The dessert consisted of a ball of white chocolate, filled with a sweet rice cream, Abade de Priscos pudding—egg yolks baked in syrup thickened with uncured bacon, and aromatized with Port wine, lemon and cinnamon— pear sorbet with muscatel of Setúbal, lemon and beets gelatin, Algarve almond and hazelnut aerated cake, cinnamon meringue and yuzu gel. The

lighting that would change during the menu to recreate thermal sensations for the guests (Spence et  al. 2014). When entering, the room was pitch dark outside the capsule to create a more theatrical effect. The guests were greeted in a blue capsule with a haze rising from the floor, to convey the concept of sea enhanced by the smells introduced into the mix (fragrance of sea urchins). In a second moment the lighting turned red to create a more welcoming environment and the third and fourth moments (green and blue) reinforced the objective of the first—following the narrative back to the high seas. As for ceramics, 12 prototypes of each dish were presented in a 10-course menu. As the plate constitutes the frame for the food, each one reinforced the concept of the menu through its shape, color, size and texture. The first moment was the amuse bouche The Taste is in the simplicity: half sphere of fried wonton dough, filled with gel, smoked ham, sprouts of amaranth and diced fresh melon. The developed ceramic proposed a similar shape to that of a melon split in half (Fig. 1, M1), anticipating how a typical Portuguese dish “melon with ham” would be served. The second moment, Boarding the adventure, reinterpreted another dish of the Portuguese gastronomy: “Carne de Porco à Alentejana”, pork croquette with spices, spherified clams coated with airbag flour. The shell-shaped ceramic (Fig. 1, M2) intended to reinforce the harmony between the sea and the land from which the products used (meat, clams) come. The third moment “Trincaespinhas”—Portuguese Grilled Sardines (Fig. 1, M3) is a reinterpretation of Portuguese grilled sardines, typically served in the summer: Torricado of sardines with peppers and tomato, rosemary smoked sardine fillet, and charcoal powder. The white speckled with blue portrayed the bursting of the waves. The fourth moment, Seafood (Fig. 1, M4), was the dish that had the most impact from a visual point of view, not only because of its color complexity, but also because of the use of black ceramics. In this interpretation of the Mariscada, the scarlet shrimp is smoked, the barnacles are cooked in seawater, and the cockles are spherified in bisque. The crab with pickled mayonnaise is in a wheat carapace, instead of the traditional crab carapace. The ceramic was inspired by the sea, with organic shapes of waves and shells (oyster, mussel) and the reliefs in the center allowed the elements to be accommodated. The fifth moment, Fishy Garden (Fig.  1, M5) was inspired by the Portuguese dish “Peixinhos da Horta”. The dish consists of two products from the land—green beans and sweet potatoes—and two seafood—cuttlefish and sea bass—representing the “sea vegetables” in opposition, as a pun. To emphasize the sea symbolism the dish included

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3.3 Smell

ceramic was based on nature, shaped textured by the form of trees and their rough texture. As we have mentioned, many of the techniques used in the visual arts can be replicated in the culinary arts (Watz 2008, Michel 2014). The techniques used included not only studies of color, shape and structure but also “balance, unity, harmony, variety, rhythm, emphasis, contrast, proportion, pattern and movement. […] Although we are only talking about the visual attributes, we also know that the other sensory inputs should be harmoniously incorporated”(Spence et al. 2014). 3.2

“Smell and taste are in fact but a single sense, whose laboratory is in the mouth and whose chimney is in the nose” (Brillat-Savarin 1835). The guests first made contact with the experience through the invitation in which a fragrance (developed by a professional perfumist) was sprayed. This aroma was present on the day of the experience, triggering this memory and those of the sea and its products used in the Portuguese cuisine. Throughout the performance, the experience sought to awaken these sensory memories through smell: with the entrance in the room and the haze with sea aromas, during the dinner—the land and the forest with pine scents and wood, the staging of smoke through dry ice that released on the table also sea scents. Still, the smells present in the room did not influence the scents of the menu, as those had already decreased when the dishes arrived at the table (Spence 2017).

Hearing

The sense of hearing was worked from different perspectives in SP: a) music, original soundtrack developed on purpose for the event based on Portuguese guitar acoustics and the influence of “Fado” (Unesco intangible heritage in 2011); b) the sounds integrated into the soundtrack according to the menu moments (e.g. sounds of the sea and forest); and c) the narrator who told the story and described the dishes. No scientific records were used to prove the influence of sound in the experiment, but we had looked at already tested data (e.g. low-frequency sounds intensify the sweetness of food or tempo of the music that influences the pace and speed of the meal). Another aspect in the experience regarding sound was the menu itself, where several elements were thought to obtain certain crispness that allowed the diner to experience that sense. In moments 1, 2, 5 and 8we reinforced the crispness of the elements (wonton crust, pork crunch, fishy garden, and chocolate spheres). The composer was present in the time capsule and in tune with the narrator dictated the rhythm of the experience, offering several moments whose aim was to trigger memories of the Portuguese imagery. The narrator who, besides the story, described the dishes, allowed to have a positive effect before the guest ate, since “the description of food can play a particularly important role when the expectations set up by our eyes upon seeing a dish is either ambiguous or else different from the actual taste or flavor of the dish” (Spence et al. 2014).The narrative was presented based on the recollection of different Portuguese authors (as Camões and Fernando Pessoa). The story took the guests from land (1) to the sea (2, 3), venturing into the high seas (4), where they reached land (5), but did not stop and went further(6) to return home, valuing nature (7), north and south (8). Our memories shape us, as we treasure the tradition and knowledge of past generations (9), but we are thirsty for knowledge, which allows us to go further, to have a glimpse of the future (10).

3.4 Taste The Portuguese cuisine, the flavours, textures and seasonings of the dishes rooted in the Portuguese culture inspired the flavours presented to the diners –”Ultimately it is the interaction between what is in the mouth and what is in the mind that the final tasting experience is like, and how much we enjoy it” (Spence 2017). It was from this premise that the menu was developed: to create a different expectation from what would be savored. The presentation of the dishes and the flavours aimed to reinforce the memories of the saudade concept, but left the surprise effect through the triggering of memories with traditional flavours that were worked in a unique way from our imagery of a certain dish (e.g. pork pearl, chocolate dome with sweet rice inside). 3.5 Touch In SP, touch was thought of in three aspects: a) the invitation with a rough texture similar to the cork; b) the texture of the floor of the capsule, conceived according to the whole concept, by using a typical Portuguese material, cork, in order to create a more comfortable environment both from a thermal point of view and the visual and touch perspective; c) finally, the ceramics used and the menu items that were requested to be touched (moments 2 and 10).

4

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Joan Roca states that “El Somni” was about “uniting gastronomy, visual arts and music in an operatic format through 12 acts and 12 concepts in which we could find answers to: what’s

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the flavour of the moon? “(Aleu 2014). In “The Portuguese Saudade” the principle was the same: through an interdisciplinary project the students asked the guests, what is the flavour of saudade? SP intended to be an odyssey of flavours, textures, colors and aromas presented to 12 diners, recognized for their professional merit, respect for the Portuguese gastronomy and for representing areas essential to the experience—from the academia, to catering, and industry, through gastronomic criticism, design and the arts. To know if saudade was reflected in the sensory experience, the guests answered a questionnaire a year later. The questions were: 1) which aspects referred to saudade; 2) whether the guest considered that the experience reflected the Portuguese gastronomic identity; 3) if so, in which aspects; 4) classify the presence of the concept throughout the experience; 5) if the feeling of “nostalgia” can be re-interpreted and if so in what way [a) flavours, b) environment, c) odours, d) ceramics, e) music]; if the dinner had awakened any memory and which one(s). This small sample revealed that the experience reflected Portuguese gastronomic identity, especially through tastes and environment. Interestingly the fragrances were the aspect less related to the feeling of longing; from 1 to 5 this feeling was present enough (4,3). The guests all agreed that nostalgia could be reinterpreted, mainly through flavours, ambience and narrative. For most of the guests the SP experience evoked memories of childhood. “It is our belief that, no matter how good the food is, the diner’s impression of a meal is always going to be influenced by the atmosphere of the place in which they are eating”. The important thing is that “the ambience is congruent with the spirit of the dish...” and, therefore, “the perfect meal most likely requires the perfect atmosphere if the overall experience is not to be disappointed” (Spence et al. 2014).

Bonacho, R.; et  al 2017. O design e gastronomia portuguesa, um contributo para a identidade local de produtos alimentares. Proceedings of Designa 2015, Identity Covilhã: Faculdade de Artes e Letras da Universidade da Beira Interior. 663–669. DesignCouncil. 2005. “The Double Diamond Design Process”. https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/newsopinion/design-process-what-double-diamond. Gustafsson, I.-B., Öström, Å., Johansson, J.; Mossberg, L. 2006. “The Five Aspects Meal Model: A Tool for Developing Meal Services in Restaurants.” Journal of Foodservice 17:84–93. Hutchings, J.B. 1999. Food Color and appearance. Springer: 2nd Edition. Leung, B.P.Y.; Choy, S.; Lee, K. 2013. Education for Modern Chef – Adding value through design. Proceedings of DesignEd Asia Conference 2013. http:// www.designedasia.com/2013/proceedings.php. Lourenço, E. 2001. O labirinto da saudade. Lisboa: Gradiva. Maffei, S.; Parini, B. 2014. “Beyond taste: fuelling a food (r)evolution with design. https://www.academia. edu/15265718/Beyond_Taste._Fuelling_a_Food_R_ evolution_with_Design. McGee, H. 2016. “Comida & Cozinha –Ciência e Cultura da Culinária.” São Paulo, Brasil: WMF Martins Fontes. Michel, C. et al. 2014. “A taste of Kandinsky: assessing the influence of the artistic visual presentation of food on the dining experience.” Flavour Journal: 3:7. Mitchel, R. et  al 2012. Why use design philosophy in culinary arts education? Proceedings of the International Conference on Designing Food and Designing for Food. London: London Metropolitan University. 383–395. Savarin, B. 2010 [1825]. Fisiologia do Gosto. Lisboa: Relógio d’Água Editores. Spence, C.; Piqueras-Fiszman, B. 2014. “The Perfect Meal – The multisensory science of food and dining.” Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Spence, C. 2017. “Gastrophysics”. UK: Penguin Random House. Unesco. 2011. Fado Património Imaterial da Humanidade. www.unesco.com. Watz, B. 2008. “The Entirety of the Meal: A Designer’s Perspective.” Journal of Foodservice 19:96–104.

REFERENCES Aleu, F.; El Celler de Can Roca. 2014. “El Somni.” Barcelona: Editorial Planeta, SA.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Designing for the senses through food design and psychophysiology R. Mota & P. Mata LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal

H. Vilaseca La Masia (I+R) del Restaurante El Celler de Can Roca, Calle Can Sunyer, Girona, España

R. Bonacho CIAUD – Research Center for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon School of Architecture, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

M. Carvalho

ABSTRACT: Olfactory perception of food can be dramatically affected by the way it is presented and particularly by the design of the containers. The aim of the present study was to develop a container, using design process, a literature review, and research based on psychophysiology, in order to optimize the sensory perception of the food served and improve the global experience. The work described in this paper is part of a more comprehensive investigation for the development of a tasting menu composed by five dishes, each one of these intending mainly to stimulate a particular sense. The development of the containers, the food used for the research and the sensory analysis was done at La Masia (R&D department) at El Celler de Can Roca. The results show that the design of the containers and the way the food is eaten, had an impact on the perception of this dish, particularly on the perception of aromas and smells. Keywords: 1

Food-Design, Psychophysiology, Gastrophysics, Sensory Perception, Ergonomics

INTRODUCTION

of Design, known as Food Design, intends in this research to serve our senses. Chefs should work aside of psychologists, designers, scientists, etc., as this interdisciplinary holistic approach, and the sharing of different knowledge, allow the achievement of better results (Hermannsdóttir et  al. 2012). “The Five Aspects Meal Model” by Gustafsson et  al. (2006) is the practical example of this. The concept of Eating Design by Marije Vogelzang & Schouwenberg (2008) that covers and connects large fields: science, psychology, action, technique, nature, culture and society is another example (Zampollo 2013). The famous axiom of Louis Sullivan (1856– 1924) “form follows function” means that the purpose of an object should be the starting point for its design (Watz 2008). Tasting a dish is not only a flavour experience but involves also an additional vivid sensory experience of shape in mind’s eye, or perhaps “feel” the shape in mind’s hand instead, speaking of memories and emotions. Shape symbolism, related to tastes and flavours is another

Design and Gastronomy are parallel universes both involving a conception and an execution of an idea (Catterall 1999). Without Design, feeding ourselves would be much more difficult and monotonous. Human creativity and Design have always sought to improve the feeding process, providing tools to obtain food, to eat and to cook. In the course of human evolution, Design eventually gave rise to tools and procedures in more or less elaborate preparations and combinations, and in this sense, objects, besides its functionality, acquired symbolism and representation (Capella 2015). Even the simplest meal is a complex composition of textures, colours, shapes, tastes, aromas, flavours and sounds, resulting in an aesthetic gastronomical odyssey causing various sensations in people. Food is an interesting material for designers to create objects, in order to improve their sensory characteristics. This new emerging territory

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rotary evaporators, etc, (Spence & Youssef 2015, Spence 2017). It is also important to understand how aromas behave and are perceived in containers with different designs, in order to efficiently take advance of the olfactory system.

aspect that has already been studied (Spence & Deroy 2013). Previous experiences may also induce expectations and can influence taste perception (Shankar et al. 2010). Shape symbolism can therefore be seen as a specific form of cross-modal correspondence, as a tendency for a sensory feature, or attribute, in one modality, either physically presented or merely imagined, to be matched (or associated) with a sensory feature in another sensory modality. Recent studies have been published about some cross-modal correspondences for instance, matching tastes, aromas, and flavours with colours (Spence et  al. 2012), sounds (Piesse 1891, Hansen 1968, Rudmin & Cappelli 1983, Mesz et al. 2011, Crisinel & Spence 2012, Knöferle & Spence 2012, Deroy et  al. 2013) and shapes (Deroy & Spence 2013, Stewart & Goss 2013). Also familiarity is associated with pleasantness in odour detection (Liang et al. 2013). Since food can be considered a pleasure, a disease or a fuel humans and animals empirically smell food (externally) before placing it in the mouth (Garner 1974, Rozin 1982). The sense of smell is the ability to detect vaporized chemical molecules (usually of low molecular mass) (Guyton & Hall 2006). Between 75 and 95% of what is commonly considered as flavour really relies on the information transduced by the nose (Gibson 1966, Stevenson 2009, Spence 2015). Specifically about the sense of smell there is still much to be studied, “the number of discriminable smells may be much closer to one trillion” (Briggs 2014, Bushdid et al. 2014). Also, the odour elicited upon recognition of a volatile substance by the receptors in the olfactory epithelium is a property of the person perceiving it and not of the molecules being perceived (Sell 2014). Individual variations in the odour detection threshold, intensity and character, linked to genetic variations have been reported (Ulloa et al. 2017). Apart from the smell of the food, extra olfactory elements can be used to change or enhance perception of food as: atomizers used to spray over the meal or even over the customer, smoke-filled containers, air-filled pillows with aromas, organic elements like leaves or wooden cutlery, Aromafork®, porous ceramic spoons that release aromas, dry ice and liquid nitrogen diffusion, Vaportini®,

2 2.1

MATERIALS AND METHODS Food stimulus

A roasted celery cream was prepared using, for a total amount of 3 kg, 1707 g of roasted and peeled celery root, 75 g of salty Président® butter, 1215 g of rice milk by Vive Soy®, 3 g of sucroester by Texturas®, 1,95 mL of each green mandarin and ginger essential pure oils by Organic Skin Food®. The cream was divided in individual ninety grams portion stored in sous vide bags and then frozenat −17°C. This food stimulus was chosen since this root is very aromatic, eco-friendly, nutritious and cheap. Celery root also showed a good flavour matching with ginger and green mandarin essential oils, several tests were made to define the right concentrations. 2.2

Containers

Three different containers (Fig. 1) made with fizzy transparent glass were created from recycled glass at Roca Recicla®, a department of La Masía of El Celler de Can Roca Restaurant. One was a used half transparent fizzy bottle, covered with a lid with an organic shape made from a Siemens® glass oven with irregular holes made from bottlenecks. Another a common transparent bowl covered with a fizzy glass campanula. The third container was a recovered broken balloon glass, with a fizzy inside obtained using a Pallinatrici Norblast® machine. 2.3

Participants

Participants were thirty-three volunteers, without any food intolerances, allergies or taste and smell related diseases, belonging to the staff of El Celler de Can Roca, Girona. This group of tasters was composed by 18  males and 15 females aged between 19 and

Figure 1. Containers used for the experiment: A – bottle & lid; B – bowl & cloche; C – glass & support.

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56 (mean 29,5 years, standard deviation 9,8 years). Although these were non-trained tasters, they can be considered experts as they work in the restaurant and are familiar with food tasting and ingredients. 2.4

tion to the bowl or bottle (M = 2.45 vs. 1.71 1.83, p ≤ 0.05); and when using a spoon the differences did not reach significance (M = 2.00 for the glass, 1.94 for the bottle, 2.06 for the bowl, p ≥ 0.05) as the interaction plot in Figure 2 illustrates. For the second test, the aromatic characterization of the dish served in each container, the Friedman analysis shows that there is a significant difference of p = 0.043 among the features. This statistical significant difference was specified by Wilcoxon analysis. The value is lower for the glass relative to the bottle and bowl (M = 1.62 vs. 2.31 2.07 p ≤ 0.05). With PCA a biplot chart was obtained (Fig. 3) that reveals which features were the most significant

Procedure

Participants were asked to restrain from eating for at least half an hour before the tasting. The tasting was done in a room, away from the production zone, with a temperature of 24ºC. Natural mineral water was available for mouth cleaning between samples. The roasted celery cream samples (90 g) were warmed in a water bath at 45ºC and equally divided between the three containers. The food was plated 20 seconds before tasting. According to Macfie & Bratchell (1989) a random tasting order was established for the containers. A quick introduction was made to each taster and they were not informed that the samples were identical. Three tests were sequentially performed 1) a ranking test ISO 8587:2006 (ISO 2006), in which tasters had to order by the intensity of smell/aroma samples, perceived in three different situations: sniffing without tasting, eating using a silver spoon and drinking a sip; 2) tasters were asked to pick from 20 aromatic characteristics the two that better described each dish; 3) tasters should apply a structured numeric scale test ISO 4121:2003 (ISO 2003), of 10 values, for measuring essential oils intensity. 2.5

Figure  2. Mean scores of the perceived intensities of smell by sniffing, and of aroma by tasting using a spoon and drinking a sip. Note: For similar characters the ranks are similar, for a p ≤ 0.05. *Identifies significant differences as measured with Tukey’s and Wilcoxon, p ≤ 0.05.

Data analysis

In order to detect if the design of the containers had a significant impact on the perception of this dish, particularly in the perception of aroma and smell, a nonparametric analysis (Friedman) was performed. Whenever the results revealed significant differences, the Multi Mean Comparisons were made using Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test to identify that differences. For the second test the principal component analysis (PCA) method was used to identify the most relevant characteristics of each dish. Differences were considered significant when p  ≤  0,05. Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics GradPack 24 and XLStat. 3

RESULTS

Considering the ranking test, the intensity of aroma and smell was perceived as significantly different for some samples: in the glass and bowl the smell perceived by sniffing was perceived as significantly more intense than in the bottle (M = 2.27 and 2.18 vs. 1.55, p ≤ 0.05); the aroma perceived when drinking a sip was more intense in the glass in opposi-

Figure 3. Biplot (axis F1 and F2: 95.39%) made as a result of PCA method to evaluate from all the features (Vegetala, Herbaceousb, Citrusc, Sweetd, Butterf, Floralg, Earthyh, Spicyi, Fruityj, Fermentedk, Caramell, Woodym, Roastn, Nuttyo, Chemicalp, Smokyq, Dry Fruitr, Rancids, Pungentt and Burntu), which were more associated to each container.

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assumed that the cutlery cuts the link between the container characteristics and human physiological perception, equalizing and limiting sensory perception. This can also be the explanation for the fact that away from restaurants everyone prefers to eat roasted chicken by hands, and also that sushi is traditionally eaten by hands (Woortmann 2004). The smell perceived for the cream served in the bottle was the less intense, the organic shape appearance and the lid with holes did not prevent the food from being totally exposed to the exterior atmosphere, resulting in a faster cooling down of the cream during tasting. Lower temperatures reduce odour and flavour intensities (Ventanas et  al. 2010). Also less steam is available and so a smaller amount of airborne odorants are released and reach the cilia in order to stimulate olfactory cells (Adhikari et  al. 2006, Hall & Guyton 2006, Guichard et al. 2017). For the bowl, the smell intensity perceived by sniffing was similar to the glass, however the aroma intensity perceived by sipping was the less intense. This can be related to the cloche cover. For the sniffing test, the cover was removed for the first time and the volatiles were concentrated in the cloche headspace. For the sipping the cloche was kept away, the bowl was then without the headspace concentrated odorants. Spence (2015) showed that this happened with coffee, once it is smelled for the first time after removing the lid the aroma intensity will never be that strong again. The reason for the material chosen for all the containers to be fizzy transparent recycled glass, apart from the Roca Recicla® sustainability brand image, was because it was considered that these characteristics reduce the impact on the other senses, thus allowing to focus the sensorial analysis preferentially on the olfactory sense. In fact, the colour will not induce cross-modal correspondences and the opacity of the containers and the lids reduces the taster’s previous expectations. Shape symbolism can justify the results of the variance of aromatic characteristics obtained in the second test. The bottle, the container that has the most organic shape, as the base seems a bamboo leave and the lid looks like stones, is associated with earthy, spicy, fruity, fermented and woody aromas. A sensation transference might have occurred and the attributes of the container influenced the rated attributes of the food (Piqueras et  al. 2012). Also, the bottle cooling rate is higher when compared to the other containers, thus the amount of odorants released is smaller and the association to the attributes of the container can be more relevant. The bowl was evaluated as vegetal, herbaceous, citrus and sweet. The shape of the bowl and cloche are completely round, and circle shapes enhance the sweet sensitivity. In fact, the glass looks round as

Figure 4. Profile spider chart reckoning in positives counting of the relevant aromatic characteristics for the three containers, related to the results of the second experiment.

ones correlated to each container. The bowl is associated to Vegetala, Herbaceousb, Citrusc and Sweetd; the bottle to Earthyh, Spicyi, Fruityj, Fermentedk and Woodym; for the glass the characterization was not coherent, consequently it is not significant, however the profile graph (Fig. 4) shows that it is related to Citrusc, Floralg and Smokyq. About the structured numeric scale test, contrary to expectations, the impact of the presentation of a dish in containers with different designs and characteristics did not reach significance (p  ≥  0.05) in terms of participant’s perceptions of the aromas added by green mandarin and ginger essential oils. This means that, in this study, their aromatic intensity did not depend on the containers used. 4

DISCUSSION

The current study investigates if the presentation of a dish in containers with different designs and characteristics has a significant impact on the perception of the dish, particularly in the perception of aroma and smell. The results show that tasters’ olfactory perception changed significantly. In general, the best container to enhance the smell and aroma of the roasted celery cream was the glass in the sniffing and sipping trials. It is well known that the impact of glassware is important when tasting wine. There are some scientific researches (Hummel et al. 2003, Vilanova et al. 2008, Wan et al. 2015) about how the physical parameters of a glass: size, shape and opening influence wine tasting. A glassware with a more closed opening concentrates wine aromas around the rim so tasters pointing the nose towards the centre of the glass, distinguish aromas easier and experience all aromatic potential (Spence & Wan 2015). This can also justify our results. When using a spoon, no significant difference in aroma perception was encountered. It can be

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This research was supported in part by La Masia (R&D department) at El Celler de Can Roca restaurant. This paper was presented on the 19th of October 2017 at the 1st International Conference on Food Design and Food Studies: Experiencing Food and Designing Dialogues, at Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon and at Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies, Estoril.

well, although its sharp end breaks the totally roundness, so it reduces the impact (Bar & Neta 2006, Deroy & Valentin, 2011, Liang et al. 2013, Ngo et al. 2013). The citrus features were associated equally to the bowl and the glass. It has been shown that various citrus components present in green mandarin essential oil (Organic Skin Food® producer and seller stated containing 70,44% of limonene analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry at 20ºC, by HP5890), can reduce the odour perception of others components (Spence 2014). The results of the last test were not significant, this can be explained by the fact that the sensory perception can change with repetitive tasting of the same food, and can either decrease, due to sensory specific satiety, boredom or irritation, or increase, due to increased familiarity and/or a change in perceived complexity, which in turn can impact on perception (Appelqvist et al. 2016). Most sensory perception research is based on single sips or single bites in order to avoid olfactory adaptation, and the tests should be discontinuous or with some resting periods to allow nerves recover from their refractory state (Moncrieff 1956). Further research should be carried out in order to assess the validity of this experiment. Particularly reducing the amount of aromas, and designing a shorter sensory test. Also, future studies should involve a larger number of tasters in order to find more robust differences. 5

REFERENCES Adhikari, K.; Hein, K.A.; Elmore, J.R.; Heymann, H.; Willott, A.M. 2006. “Flavor Threshold as Affected by Interaction among Three Dairy-Related Flavor Compounds.” Journal of Sensory Studies 21(6):626–643. Appelqvist, I.A.M.; Poelman, A.A.M.; Cochet-Broch, M.; Delahunty, C.M. 2016. “Impact of Model Fat Emulsions on Sensory Perception Using Repeated Spoon to Spoon Ingestion.” Physiology and Behavior 160:80–86. Bar, M.; Neta, M. 2006. “Humans Prefer Curved Visual Objects.” Psychological Science 17(8):645–648. Briggs, H. 2014. “Nose Can Detect One Trillion Odours.” BBC News Online. Retrieved (http://www.bbc.com/ news/health-26638085). Bushdid, C.; Magnasco, M.O.; Vosshall, L.B.; Keller, A. 2014. “Humans Can Discriminate More than 1 Trillion Olfactory Stimuli.” Science 343:1370–1372. Capella, J. 2015. Tapas—Spanish Design for Food. Barcelona: Sociedad Estatal de Acción Cultural, SA. Catterall, C. 1999. Food: Design and Culture. London, UK: Laurence King. Crisinel, A.-S.; Spence, C. 2012. “A Fruity Note: Crossmodal Associations between Odors and Musical Notes.” Chemical Senses 37:151–158. Deroy, O.; Valentin, D. 2011. “Tasting Liquid Shapes: Investigating the Sensory Basis of Cross-Modal Correspondences.” Chemosensory Perception 4(3):80–90. Deroy, O.; Crisinel, A.-S.; Spence, C. 2013. “Crossmodal Correspondences between Odors and Contingent Features: Odors, Musical Notes, and Geometrical Shapes.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 20(5):878–896. Garner, W.R. 1974. The Processing of Information and Structure. 6th ed. New York: Potomac, L. Erlbaum Associates. Gibson, J.J. 1966. The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Guichard, E.; Salles, C.; Morzel, M.; Le Bon, A.-M. 2017. Flavour : From Food to Perception. 1st ed. UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Gustafsson, I.-B., Öström, Å., Johansson, J.; Mossberg, L. 2006. “The Five Aspects Meal Model: A Tool for Developing Meal Services in Restaurants.” Journal of Foodservice 17:84–93. Guyton, A.C.; Hall, J.E.; 2006. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 11thbb ed. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Elsevier’s Health Sciences. Hermannsdóttir, H.S.; Fisker, A.M.; Poulsen, S.B. 2012. “What’s Cooking ? Designing to Change FoodRelated Behaviour.” 10th European Academy of Design Conference—Crafting the Future 1–13.

CONCLUSION

According to Spence (2014) making chefs and culinary artists aware of the power of smell will make them think about their food delivery and multisensory experience design. Our findings suggest that different designs of containers, as well as the process used to eat, can modify the aroma and smell perception. The container with the glass shape was identified as the best for enhancing the olfactory perception of the dish. This type of knowledge can be relevant in the development of new dishes, as well to plateware producers. Contacts have been made with Vista Alegre® for the development of a new container for food based on the results of this study. However, there is still room for further investigation regarding the characteristics of the perfect plate to enhance the aroma perception. Design promotes possibilities, approaches and competencies required, for this kind of projects and, if needed, to allow results to be reformulated, sharpened, redefined and reframed. (Schifferstein 2016). There is an increasing need for multidisciplinary approaches to better understand the mechanisms involved in flavour perception.

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Holt-Hansen, K. 1968. “Taste and Pitch.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 27:59–68. Holt-Hansen, K. 1976. “Extraordinary Experiences during Cross-Modal Perception.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 43:1023–1027. Hummel, T.; Delwiche, J.F.; Schmidt, C.; Hüttenbrink, K.B. 2003. “Effects of the Form of Glasses on the Perception of Wine Flavors: A Study in Untrained Subjects.” Appetite 41(2):197–202. ISO 4121:2003. “Sensory Analysis—Guidelines for the Use of Quantitative Response Scales.” 2nd ed. Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization. ISO 8587:2006. “Sensory Analysis—Methodology— Ranking.” 2nd ed. Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization. Knöferle, K.M.; Spence, C. 2012. “Crossmodal Correspondences between Sounds and Tastes.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 19:992–1006. Liang, P.; Roy, S.; Chen, M.L.; Zhang, G.H. 2013. “Visual Influence of Shapes and Semantic Familiarity on Human Sweet Sensitivity.” Behavioural Brain Research 253:42–47. Macfie, H.J.; Bratchell, N. 1989. “Designs to Balance the Effect of Order of Presentation and First-Order Carry-Over Effects in Hall Tests.” Journal of Sensory Studies 4:129–148. Mesz, B.; Trevisanô, M.A.; Sigman, M. 2011. “The Taste of Music.” Perception 40:209–219. Moncrieff, R.W. 1956. “Olfactory Adaptation and Odour Likeness.” Journal of Physiology. 133:301–316. Ngo, M.K.; Velasco, C.; Salgado, A.; Boehm, E.; O’Neill, D.; Spence, C. 2013. “Assessing Crossmodal Correspondences in Exotic Fruit Juices: The Case of Shape and Sound Symbolism.” Food Quality and Preference 28(1):361–369. Parise C.V.; Spence C. 2012. Audiovisual Crossmodal Correspondences. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Piesse, G.W.S. 1891. Piesse’s the Art of Perfumery. 5th ed. London: Piesse and Lubin. Piqueras-Fiszman, B.; Alcaide, J.; Roura, E.; Spence, C. 2012. “Is It the Plate or Is It the Food? Assessing the Influence of the Color (Black or White) and Shape of the Plate on the Perception of the Food Placed on It.” Food Quality and Preference 24(1):205–208. Rozin, P. 1982. “‘Taste-Smell Confusions’ and the Duality of the Olfactory Sense.” Perception & Psychophysics 31(4):397–401. Rudmin, F.; Cappelli, M. 1983. “Tone-Taste Synesthesia: A Replication.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 56:10–118. Schifferstein, H.N.J. 2016. “What Design Can Bring to the Food Industry.” International Journal of Food Design 1(2):103–134. Sell, S.C. 2014. “Chapter 1: Why Do We Have a Sense of Smell?” In Chemistry and Sense of Smell. New Jersey, EUA: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sell, S.C. 2014. “Chapter  4: The Sense of Smell in Our Lives Chemistry and the Sense of Smell.” In Chemistry and Sense of Smell. New Jersey, EUA: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Shankar, M.U.; Levitan, C.A.; Spence, C. 2010. “Grape Expectations: The Role of Cognitive Influences in Color–flavor Interactions.” Consciousness and Cognition 19(1):380–390. Spence, C.; Deroy, O. 2013. “On the Shapes of Flavours: A Review of Four Hypotheses.” Theoria et Historia Scientiarum 5:207–238. Spence, C.; Ngo, M.K. 2012. “Assessing the Shape Symbolism of the Taste, Flavour, and Texture of Foods and Beverages.” Flavour 1:1–12. Spence, C. 2015. “Just How Much of What We Taste Derives from the Sense of Smell?” Flavour 4(30):1–10. Spence, C. 2017. “Enhancing the Experience of Food and Drink via Neuroscience-Inspired Olfactory Design.” Senses and Society 12(2):209–221. Spence, C.; Wan, X. 2015. “Beverage Perception and Consumption: The Influence of the Container on the Perception of the Contents.” Food Quality and Preference 39:131–140. Spence, C.; Youssef, J. 2015. “Olfactory Dining: Designing for the Dominant Sense.” Flavour 4(32):1–14. Stevenson, R. 2009. The Psychology of Flavour. 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Stewart, P.C.; Goss, E. 2013. “Plate Shape and Colour Interact to Influence Taste and Quality Judgments.” Flavour 1(2):12–27. Ulloa, A.M.; Roca, J.; Vilaseca, H. 2017. “From Sensory Capacities to Sensible Skills: Experimenting with El Celler de Can Roca.” Gastronomica: The Journal of Critical Food Studies 17(2):26–38. Ventanas, S.; Mustonen, S.; Puolanne, E.; Tuorila, H. 2010. “Odour and Flavour Perception in Flavoured Model Systems: Influence of Sodium Chloride, Umami Compounds and Serving Temperature.” Food Quality and Preference 21(5):453–462. Vilanova, M.; Vidal, P.; Cortés, S. 2008. “Effect of the Glass Shape on Flavor Perception Of ‘toasted Wine’ from Ribeiro (NW Spain).” Journal of Sensory Studies 23(1):114–124. Vogelzang, M.; Schouwenberg, L. 2008. Eat Love: Food Concepts. Amsterdam: BIS Publishers. Wan, X.; Zhou, X.; Woods, A.T.; Spence, C. 2015. “Influence of the Glassware on the Perception of Alcoholic Drinks.” Food Quality and Preference 44:101–110. Watz, B. 2008. “The Entirety of the Meal: A Designer’s Perspective.” Journal of Foodservice 19:96–104. Woortmann, K.A.A. 2004. The Symbolic Meaning of Food. Gastronomy: Courteous and Re-Courteous. Brasília: SENAC. Zampollo, F. 2013. Meaningful Eating: A New Method for Food Design. London, UK: London Metropolitan University.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Threading tradition—a path for innovation with methylcellulose threads M. Santos, P. Gabriel & P. Mata LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal

P. Fradinho & A. Raymundo LEAF—Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, Lisboa, Portugal

ABSTRACT: A new culinary technique, inspired by a traditional Portuguese recipe, the Egg Threads (Fios de Ovos), was developed combining scientific and traditional knowledge. It is based on the hot gelling properties of Methylcellulose (MC) and the osmotic dehydration of the gels in a hot sucrose solution to get threads with a wide range of textures and flavours. Resulting products have high potential for the creation of innovative and healthy food products. Creative culinary applications inspired by Portuguese traditional products, flavours and the fine art of Portuguese desserts were developed using threads made of eggless Rice Pudding (Arroz Doce) and Algarve orange juice. The products described in this paper are innovative reinterpretations of traditional desserts, particularly Portuguese Rice Pudding (Arroz Doce) and Nun’s Throat (Garganta de Freira) a conventual sweet consisting of a tube-shaped wafer filled with Egg Threads. The potential of the MC threads for the development of other creative food applications is also demonstrated using orange threads in “food embroidery”. 1

INTRODUCTION

Caputo 2010).However, its greatest interest to the food technologists results from MC ability to form thermal gels that melt upon cooling (Coffey et al. 2006). Thermal gelation can be explained by the weakness of hydrogen bonds between water and ether groups along the MC chains. When an aqueous MC solution is heated, these bonds are dissociated, allowing polymer-polymer interaction and gel formation. This process is completely reversible, and thermal gelling and cooling to a solution state may be repeated maintaining the initial properties (Coffey et al. 2006; Cash & Caputo 2010; BeMiller & Whistler 1996). MC is used in the food industry to produce gluten-free bread, egg-free food and to reduce the fat amount of a product, decreasing its caloric value. This additive replaces the ingredients referred, giving an identical texture to the products and maintaining the binding properties, the viscosity and moisture on heating (Coffey et  al. 2006; Murray 2009). In food design and gastronomy, thermal gelling properties are used to create “false noodles”, “hot ice creams” and “hot foams” that return to initial solution state on cooling. Also, the filmforming ability of MC is used to produce, by dehydration, on air or in drying ovens, “flexible films” and “false meringues” which are thermally stable (Lersch 2014).

In the last two decades, some hydrocolloids traditionally used in the food industry were introduced in gastronomy. This allowed the development of new food products that are compatible with the present lifestyle and mainly with the general tendency to experience innovative food, the emphasis on the aesthetics of food presentation, and the restrictions imposed by health problems or specific food options. One of those hydrocolloids is methylcellulose (MC), which has unique properties that allow the creation of new culinary applications as the ones described in this paper. MC is a cellulose derivative belonging to the group of non-ionic water-soluble cellulose ethers, used as food additives (Cash & Caputo 2010). Identified as E461, this food additive is commercially known as a Metilgel (Sosa®) or modified cellulose gel. MC acts as dietary fibre, thus being resistant to digestion in the gastrointestinal tract of humans (Coffey et al. 2006), and not contributing significantly to nourishment or calories (BeMiller & Whistler 1996). The properties of efficient thickening, surface activity and film-forming ability of MC are entirely related to its molecular structure. These allow it to be used in food applications as thickener, stabilizer, emulsifier and rheology modifier (Cash &

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mixture was then transferred to a bowl and cooled to room temperature (±20°C). The Rice Pudding was then strained to separate the “Rice Pudding cream” which was stored in the fridge for approximately 12 h.

The goal of this project was to develop a new culinary technique based on the osmotic dehydration of “false noodles”, to obtain products which maintain their structure and properties in a range of temperatures. This new technique was inspired by a traditional Portuguese recipe, Egg Threads (Fios de Ovos), also known as “Angel Hair”. In this preparation, egg yolks are drawn into thin strands and dehydrated in a hot sucrose solution. Basically, by dehydrating MC gels in hot sucrose solution, it is possible to make threads with any liquid and flavour, without using eggs. These products might be an alternative for people with food intolerances or personal food choices, as vegans. Tests of moisture, texture and sensory analysis allowed to optimize the method and showed the potential and acceptability of this technique (Santos 2016). Based on these results, ideal conditions were selected to apply the technique to eggless Rice Pudding (Arroz Doce) and Algarve orange juice. Inspired by traditional products, flavours and the fine art of Portuguese desserts, some creative culinary application of the MC threads were developed. 2 2.1

2.3 Preparation of methylcellulose solutions Algarve orange juice threads – MC (8 g) was dispersed in the orange juice (200  mL) with a hand blender to produce a solution with 4% MC concentration. The solution was stored in the fridge at 4°C for 5 days, to obtain a solution free of air bubbles. Rice Pudding threads – The same procedure described above was used, but with different conditions: 6  g of MC for 200  mL of Rice Pudding cream to produce a solution with 3% MC concentration, and a fridge storage time of 2 days. 2.4 Preparation of sucrose solutions 400 g of white sugarand 400 g water were heated at 100°C, for 17 minutes, with constant agitation. For dehydration, sucrose solutions were kept at 70–80°C, under constant stirring (at 60 rpm), in a heating plate with magnetic stirrer (ARE, VELP Scientific®). The concentration of sucrose solutions was verified and adjusted using a Digital Hand-held “Pocket” Refractometer PAL-α (ATAGO, measuring range 0.0 to 85.0% Brix) to avoid variations during the process.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials

Methylcellulose (Sosa®), orange juice (Classic Compal® Algarve orange juice) and Rice Pudding cream (composition in Table 1) were used to prepare the MC solutions. For the sucrose dehydration solutions, white sugar (SIDUL®) and spring water (pH 6.6) were used. 2.2

2.5 Preparation of MC gel threads dehydrated by osmosis MC solutions were poured into a confectionery syringe. Using a reduced and constant force on the plunger, they were dropped into the sugar solution to form a thread approximately 20 cm long. They were left in the solution for gelling and dehydration for 2  min for Algarve orange juice threads, and 3 min for Rice Pudding threads. After finishing the dehydration process, the threads were drained and dried with absorbent paper and then placed on a plane surface at room temperature, for 10 min, before being used.

Preparation of rice pudding cream

All the ingredients were separately weighted with an analytical balance (KERN – ABJ-NM/ABSN). In a kitchen robot (Thermomix® TM31), all ingredients, except the sugar, were homogenized in spoon/reverse mode and heated at 90°C for 50  min. After this, at the same temperature and stirring mode, the sugar was added to the mixture and the process was maintained for 10  min. The Table 1.

Rice pudding cream formulation.

Ingredients

Quantities

3

Milk Carolino rice Lemon peel Cinnamon stick Salt Sugar

1 L 65 g 1 unit 1 unit a pinch 75 g

Previous work (Santos 2016) on the influence of the process variables on texture and moisture of MC threads revealed that the increment of variables (MC concentration, sucrose solution concentration and dehydration time) strongly affect the texture of MC threads. The most resistant threads

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

parmesan cheese and the sauce is a cream made with lemon, always used to aromatize the Portuguese Rice Pudding (Fig. 1). Concerning the orange threads, they can be an alternative for people with food intolerances (gluten or eggs), personal food choices (veganism) or following a healthier fat free diet. Thinking about these specific consumers, and the cultural relevance of the fine art of Portuguese desserts, are interpretation of the conventual sweet from Covilhã, Nun’s Throat (Garganta de Freira), was developed where Egg Threads were replaced by MC threads of Algarve orange juice which were rolled in rice paper (Fig. 2).

are obtained with higher concentrations and dehydration time, due to its lower moisture content. This knowledge, about the effect of processing variables on the characteristics of the final product, was essential for the development of orange juice threads and eggless Rice Pudding threads. Previous sensory analysis tests showed that consumers preferred threads with higher moisture content and lower deformation force (Santos 2016). Due to the distinct characteristics of the orange juice and Rice Pudding cream, it was necessary to adjust MC concentrations and dehydration time, to get threads with the required properties. For orange juice threads, the ideal conditions were 4% MC, dehydrated for 2  min, and for the Rice Pudding threads were 3% MC, dehydrated for 3 min, both in a 50% sucrose solution. For the Rice Pudding threads, a lower MC concentration was used because the gelatinization of rice starch, on cooking, increases the viscosity and thickness of the solution. Therefore, it is possible to reduce the amount of MC to give the necessary consistence to the final threads (Mudambi et al. 2006). The flavours referred were chosen since the goal of this project was to develop some creative culinary applications inspired by traditional recipes, products, and flavours collected from the fine art of Portuguese desserts. Rice Pudding represents a popular dessert consumed all over the country, since the 16th century. It is an element of Portuguese gastronomical memories and traditions. As said by the researcher and food writer Virgílio Gomes, until today there is no party, pilgrimage or wedding without Rice Pudding (Gomes 2014). On the other hand, the Algarve orange juice was chosen because it is produced with a traditional Portuguese fruit. In fact, sweet oranges are linked to Portuguese discoveries, since before the 16th century all oranges in Europe were sour. But the main reason for this choice was the colour similarity of the orange and the Egg Threads, which allows the consumer to establish an easier link to the original Portuguese dessert and allows also to introduce a surprise element. It is also known that the visual presentation is important to build expectation about the flavour and experience when consuming specific foods (Kostyra et al. 2017). It is with this aim that MC threads are introduced in gastronomy. They represent the food design and go beyond the shape and pleasures of aesthetic, taste and other senses (Celi & Rudkin 2016), since they also characterize a culture, Portuguese traditions and satisfy the consumer’s needs. Threads made of Rice Pudding (Arroz Doce) and Algarve orange juice, were applied in various contexts and used to make contemporary and attractive reinterpretations of traditional desserts. The plate developed using the Rice Pudding threads was inspired by the threads similarity to Italian pasta, where cinnamon is applied as the

Figure 1. Reinterpretation of the traditional Rice Pudding. Rice Pudding threads sprinkled with cinnamon and accompanied with a lemon cream.

Figure  2. Reinterpretation of a conventual sweet, Nun’s Throat (Garganta de Freira), using MC threads of Algarve orange juice instead of Egg Threads.

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Figure 3.

Egg Threads are substituted by orange threads. The potential of the MC threads for the development of other creative food applications is also demonstrated using Algarve orange threads stitched in a sheet of rice paper. The ability of the osmotic dehydration technique of MC solutions to produce threads with different textures and flavours is quite wide. As demonstrated by the work described, it has a high potential for the development of new food products. Likewise, it can be adapted to the current trend for sustainable and healthy products, as the use of MC allows the replacement of ingredients such as fat, gluten and eggs. Nevertheless, it is also compatible with innovative food design, since it allows to create dishes with interesting aesthetic characteristics that are pleasurable for the taste and other senses.

Embroidering with orange threads.

The last application of the MC threads was created due to their similarity to embroidery line. It is possible to use the MC threads for embroidery, thus promoting new and creative approaches to food design. In Figure  3  Algarve orange threads are being stitched in a sheet of rice paper. This new technique can open a new field of experimentation, where frontiers between different disciplines, cultures, and other norms are blurred, opening up space for “alternative perspectives, critical reflection and examination” of possible futures (Evans 2003). Also, this innovation accompanies the current market trend and responds to a necessity to incorporate, in modern cuisine, new products with application in various gastronomic contexts, namely in the production of either creative dishes or healthier products. 4

REFERENCES BeMiller, J.N. & Whistler, R.L. 1996. Carbohydrates. In O.R. Fennema (ed.), Food Chemistry: 157–224. New York: Marcel Dekker. Cash, M.J. & Caputo, S.J. 2010. Cellulose Derivatives. In A. Imeson (ed.), Food Stabilisers, Thickeners and Gelling Agents: 95–113. Wiley-Blackwell – John Wiley & Sons. Celi, M. & Rudkin, J. 2016. Drawing food trends: Design potential in shaping food future. Futures 83:112–121. Coffey, D.G., Bell, D.A. & Henderson, A. 2006. Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives. In A.M. Stephen, G.O. Phillips, & P.A. Williams (eds.), Food Polysaccharides and Their Applications: 147–180. Boca Raton, London, New York: Taylor & Francis Group. Evans, M. 2003. Trend Forecasting for Design Futures. Techné’s strategic nature: 1–10. Gomes, V.N.2014. Doces da nossa vida: segredos e maravilhas da doçaria tradicional portuguesa. Lisboa: Marcador. Kostyra, E., Zakowska-Biemans, S., Sniegocka, K. & Piotrowska, A. 2017. Food shopping, sensory determinants of food choice and meal preparation by visually impaired people. Obstacles and expectations in daily food experiences. Appetite 113: 14–22. Lersch, M. 2014. Texture – A hydrocolloid recipe collection, v.3.0. San Francisco: Creative Commons. Available for download from: http://blog.khymos.org/ recipe-collection. Mudambi, S.R., Rao, S.M. & Rajagopal, M.V. 2006. Food Science, New Delhi: New Age International Publishers. Murray, J.C.F. 2009. Cellulosics. In P.A. Williams & G.O. Phillips (eds.) Handbook of Hydrocolloids: 710–723. Boca Raton, Boston, New York: Woodhead Publishing. Santos, M. 2016. Desenvolvimento de Novas Técnicas Culinárias a Partir da Desidratação Osmótica de Soluções de Metilcelulose., MSc Dissertation, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologias – Universidade Nova de Lisboa.

CONCLUSIONS

In the last two decades, some hydrocolloids were introduced in gastronomy and used to modify or reinterpret traditional dishes. One of these was MC which, due to its properties, is used to create hot gels and foams, whose dehydration allows to obtain a range of interesting textures. A new cooking technique, based on the osmotic dehydration of MC solutions, was previously developed in the context of a Master Degree dissertation. The aim of the work described in this paper is its use in creative culinary applications, inspired by traditional products, flavours and the fine art of Portuguese desserts. The hot gelling properties and the osmotic dehydration process of MC solutions were explored, to get threads of Algarve orange juice and eggless rice pudding which were used for the reinterpretation of traditional desserts, namely: the Portuguese Rice Pudding, creating a dish containing the traditional flavours and elements, with an innovative aesthetical and textural characteristics; and a dessert inspired in a conventual sweet, Nun’s Throat, which is visually quite similar to it, but in which

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Edible affinities: How memories shape our food P. Gabriel & P. Mata LAQV, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal

ABSTRACT: When deciding which food to eat, memory is accessed and affinities with food are recalled. From flavours to people, shapes or colours, locations or sounds… a whole variety of references can be connected with food and confer another dimension to it. Those same references can impact and influence the creation of a menu. The research work presented here, using the autoethnography method, consists of the creation of a menu “Alimento”, which was served in an experimental dinner. The creative process began with the recreation of authentic Portuguese flavours, altogether with stories and childhood memories, which inspired and shaped the dishes presented in each of the 12+1 moments composing the menu. In order to enhance the experience and establish a more intimate relationship with the diners, mixed media and unusual scenarios, provided a multisensory surrounding, whose creation was supported on recent scientific researches involving multisensory eating experiences. 1

INTRODUCTION

In the food universe where some people eat-tolive and others live-to-eat, food habits and interactions are also changing, calling for new diets and new awareness, but consisting also in a playground for fun and nourishing experiences. Today food can be seen as nourishment but, also as knowledge, enrichment and, importantly, entertainment. Much can be shared at a lunch table, a plate that is given and eaten by hand can be engaging, the impact of an experience can cause someone to change. Nowadays chefs, researchers and food designers, are developing experiences intending to create a multisensory impact on diners. This involves either creating unexpected surprises or presenting a dish with such originality that emotions are triggered. These experiences are not just a repetition of a ritual, but a ritual that engages and establish links with diners’ background thus changing their perception of a meal (Spence & Piqueras-Fiszman 2014).

In the 80’s a sensorial turn occurred on human and social sciences with anthropologists starting to recognize the importance of all the senses when experiencing culture and arts in general (Howes 2013). As stated by Ong (Howes 2013) “the sensorium is a fascinating focus for cultural studies”. Lévi-Strauss (1965) with the “science of the concrete” suggests the determination of a universal code expressed by the “tangible qualities” of the Amerindian traditions. Using the classical method, he expressed facts focusing on food and the importance of food habits on the social organization, human evolution and learning processes. The impact of food in society is broadly defined by Pierre Bourdieu as a habitus (Bourdieu 1984) meaning that individuals and society are interdependent and impart on food choices. Edmund Roll’s work also follows an approach in which the senses are more widely considered in the analysis of human activities. Rolls (2014) highlights the emotions and motivations involved in the reward caused by the act of eating. The omnivore dilemma (Rozin 1976), comprising neophobia and neophilia represents the rejection of new food items (neophobia) which may be incongruent with the human need of variety (neophilia). The identity of a person or a group can be reflected in the food displayed on a table (Fischler 1988). The political and social meaning of a meal can result from the ingredients, the message and the surroundings (Steel 2009).

2

METHOD AND CREATIVE PROCESS

The main aim in the development of “Alimento” was to reinterpret traditional Portuguese dishes introducing the first author’s own life experiences and stories. This work, which involved the development process and the production of a gastronomical happening for 15 diners, was developed in the context of a MSc dissertation in Gastronomical Sciences at Universidade Nova de Lisboa (Gabriel 2016).Therefore, the corresponding dinner was announced as:

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(Fig. 1c). Its shape is well known for all the Portuguese, it is a shape characteristic of the gold filigree from Viana do Castelo, in the north of the country. The delicate, crunchy, smoked and sweet filigree represented an homage to Portuguese cooking.

“Alimento: an edible thesis in 12+1 moments”, and held in May 2016 at “O Apartamento”, a designed apartment, in Lisbon, that doubles as an art gallery, an atelier or a dining space. The menu intended to reflect the research on multisensory experiences (Spence & PiquerasFiszman 2014) and also the approach of partage du sensible expressed by Rancière (Osborne 2000) and Laplantine (2015) where food conjugates aesthetics and politiques and where the self that reports it also transforms and is transformed by it. The autoethnography was the research method chosen since it allows the researcher to be involved and document the whole process as part of the research. When creating the menu “Alimento” some common denominators led to the choice of the dishes and their sequence:

3.2

− most of the diners were Portuguese, thus the memories shared would most probably create affinities with their backgrounds; − all diners were served at the same time to improve the surprises or the impact of the unexpected moments; − most of the dishes would respect a sequence: • prior the service, written information, in different forms and supports, arrived at the table. Only one exemplar was provided and handed to one of the diners who would share it with the remaining ones; • music was played to create the mood and ambiance; • a significant sound or smell was used as a clue for the food being served in each moment; • for some of the moments, a video was displayed to induce emotions or experiences. − the author and creator of the experience met the diners just at the end, to give instructions related to the last dish – a dessert – and to talk about the whole experience.

3

Water – “India Song”

Inspired by the first author memories of the two years she lived in India, the moment India Song, named after Marguerite Duras’s movie (Duras 1975), brings to the beginning of the meal the simplicity and sophistication of the Indian gestures. Water is of major importance and, in India, it is always offered when arriving to any place. Here the fresh water, aromatized with rose, cardamom and jasmin, was served in the form of an edible “bubble” (Fig. 2) which was handed to the diners. 3.3

Sardine – “1/3”

Prior the service a branch of pine tree was burned in the corridor leading to the dining room, reminding the smell that involves the summer days in Lisbon. Then the menu (Fig. 3a) with an original story written by Pedro Cruz Gomes was handed. This dish is related with a childhood story heard by the first author. Her grandmother used to say that on the old times a sardine was enough for three. In this case, the dish was presented like a jewel on a tree branch served over a napkin scented with sardine oil (Fig. 3c, d). It was composed by a

MATERIALS AND SOME OF THE DISHES SERVED

3.1 Amuse bouche – “Still nature” and “Refogado”

Figure  1. A – still life, B – “refogado” – pan, C – “refogado” – filigree.

A collection of “sculptures” made with Portuguese cabbage (Fig. 1a) – “Still Nature” – were displayed in the table and should be shared by all diners on arrival. In Portuguese gastronomy a “refogado” – onions, garlic and bay leaf stir fried in olive oil – and its smell are always the starting point of a dish. Considering the importance of smell to flavour (Finck 1880, Spence 2015) a small pan arrived at the table and was opened before to the diners (Fig. 1b). The scent of the “refogado” could be felt by everyone when an edible filigree made with “refogado” arrived

Figure 2. “Bubble” of aromatized water.

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stone from Azores (Fig.  4b,c), was composed of steamed yam with a creamy texture garnished with a collection of Azorean flavours: a “caviar” of a spicy Azorean pepper, an encapsulated drop of olive oil, two quenelles of butter fermented with green and black tea from Azores (smen), a crunchy banana slice and a vinegary popcorn. The wine chosen was very mineral, from the Pico island that belongs to Azores archipelago.

potato fondant with a creamy roasted pepper puree filling (tasting like the salad that typically goes with grilled sardines), coloured with squid ink, dusted with dehydrated and powdered sardine’s skin, and decorated with silver leaf. It resembled a piece of coal like those used to grill the sardines. It was served together with a corn bread tuille. At the table, the whole composition was sprinkled with smoked paprika (Fig. 3c). A video, made especially for this occasion, was displayed in the wall highlighting the division of a sardine by three and bringing the sea presence to this moment (Fig. 3b). 3.4

3.5 Beetroot – “Eating the heart” The theme of this dish was the heart. The menu was a paper origami (Fig. 5a) with a heart shape enclosing the elements that were going to be presented: a soft and smooth “beetroot heart”, smoked cauliflower purée, lemon preserve, raspberry, strawberry mara des bois, fresh pea and pistachio. A video was displayed (Fig. 5c) with images (but no sound) from Edward Burtynsky’s documentary, Manufactured Landscapes (Baichwal 2006). Under each plate was hidden (Fig. 5b) a small mechanism reproducing sounds recorded at an organic farm. Next to the dish a glass sphere with a garden made of flowers, mushrooms, walnut sand and a cheese foam (Fig. 5d). During service, a short fragment of an interview with the organic farm’s owner talking about the importance of her activity and the land that sustains the farmed food, could be heard. This moment reported to the partage du sensible where food is a political and aesthetical act.

Yam – “No man is an island”

This dish was inspired by the two years the first author lived in São Miguel, Azores and by a story about the 1811 temporary English conquest of Sabrina, an ephemeral island. The flag was hoisted only for three months since the island submerged. As John Donne (1839) stats: “No man is an island entire of itself ”. A menu, resembling an island, arrived to the table reporting these story (Fig. 4a). The menu was printed in a typography in São Miguel, Azores. The dish, served on a basalt

3.6 Apple – “Once you had the luxuriant taste of nothing, nothing else will do”

Figure  3. A – menu, B – projection, C – sprinkling smoked paprika, D – 1/3 moment.

A “fortune cookie” was served as a palate cleaner between the first dishes and the meat dish, the partridge. The diners were asked to close their eyes for a few seconds. A video, with David Tudor sitting in front of a piano to perform John Cage’s 4’33’’, was displayed. Cage was heard saying: The material of music is sound and silence. Integrating this is composing. I have nothing to say and I am saying it (Tudor 1952).

Figure 4.

Figure 5. A – menu, B – attaching the music mechanism to the plate, C – service in sequence, D – dish served.

A – menu, B and C – presentation.

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supports used (cork, a tree branch, a stone, etc.) also contributed to change the perception of food and enhance the experience. Displays and projections accompanied the service and its aim was to improve intimacy, create an adequate ambiance to influence perception of each dish and also to contribute to covey the desired messages. There were moments of laugh and fun, of surprise and nostalgia, there were many questions in the end. Overall, the reception was good and everyone left the event very enthusiastic about the experience. Some lived it as an installation where they had a role which allowed them to transform and be transformed. There is room for improvement, particularly related to some of the interventions, video and music, which can be better tuned and associated with the gastronomical experience. It is believed that such a gastronomic happening could benefit from a space with a larger area where everything could flow more efficiently and with an improved contribution of the movement component.

Figure 6. A – “fortune cookie” in the mirascope, small, B – chopsticks to eat the “fortune cookie”.

Figure 7. Playing the disc and sharing it with the diners.

In accordance to the concept of silence and absence, the plate was served on a mirascope (Fig. 6a), a device that creates a holographic illusion and through reflection, places the image of the “fortune cookie”, that was inside it, outside and on top of the hole. It should be eaten with chopsticks (Fig. 6b) making the diners try to pick the “fortune cookie” on top of the mirascope. A technique was developed in order to give the shape and crunchiness of a “fortune cookie” to a slice of apple simmered in vinho verde, with sugar and Sichuan pepper which causes some dormancy to the tongue. 3.7

REFERENCES Baichwal, J. 2006. Manufactured Landscapes. National Film Board of Canada. Bourdieu, P. 1984. Distinction. A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA United States of America: Harvard University Press. Donne, J. 1839. The Works of John Donne. London: John W. Parker. Duras, M. 1975. India Song. Les Films Armonial. Finck, H. 1880. The Aesthetic Value of the Sense of Smell. Boston: The Atlantic Monthly, December: 798. Fischler, C. 1988. Food, Self and Identity, Social Science 7: 275–292. Gabriel, P. 2016. Alimento Quase. MSc dissertation, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa. Howes, D. 2013. The expanding field of Sensory Studies. Sensory Studies. http://www.sensorystudies. org/sensorial-investigations/the-expanding-field-ofsensory-studies. Lévi-Strauss, C. 1965 Le triangle Culinaire, L’Arc 26:19–29. Laplantine, F. 2015. The Life of the Senses: Introduction to a Modal Anthropology. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Osborne, P. 2000. From an Aesthetic Point of View – Philosophy, Art and the Senses, London: Serpent’s Tail. Rozin, P. 1976. The Selection of Foods by Rats, Humans, and Other Animals. Advances in the Study of Behavior 6:21–76. Steel, C. 2009. Hungry City. London: Vintage. Spence, C. & Piqueras-Fiszman, B. 2014. The PerfectMeal. New Jersey: Wyley Blackwell. Spence, C. 2015. Just how much of what we taste derives from the sense of smell?. Flavour 4:30. Tudor, David. 1952. David Tudor performs John Cage’s  4’33”. https://www.artforum.com/video/ id=21612&mode=large&page_id=19.

Chocolate – “Amália”

The dinner finished with fado music played by an edible chocolate disc. This moment, with the song Gai-vota, consisted on an homage to the fado singer Amália Rodrigues (1920–1999). Everyone was delighted and surprised with the music coming out of the chocolate and these emotions were intensified when the disc was broken and shared by all the diners. 4

CONCLUSIONS

The creation of “Alimento” – the menu and gastronomical happening – was based on memories of landscapes, stories and people, which allowed to create the 12+1 edible moments designed in order to establish an affinity with diners’ background and to trigger emotions and pleasure. This research work also implied the development of different cooking techniques to improve the flavour, texture and shape of the dishes prepared. The

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

LX design with food T. Marat-Mendes ISCTE-IUL, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

ABSTRACT: This paper exposes the results of an academic experience which informs how the food system can be reinforced in architectural higher education, while providing: (1) a better relation of the urban realm to the food thematic; (2) perceive the impact of urban form on the food system, in space and time; and (3) promote design solutions for a more resilient, socially inclusive and sustainable city, as recently proposed by the Urban Food Policy, signed by several European municipalities. 1

INTRODUCTION

proposed by the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact (https://www.milanurbanfoodpolicypact.org/ text/), signed by 161 European cities.

Food is one of the hottest topics of contemporary architecture and urbanism. On the other hand, there is a growing consensus that we are facing epochal challenges in global food security, which will impact on the metabolism of cities and their sustainability (Morgan, 2009; Niza et al., 2016). The promotion of sustainability in the design of the built environment is a key factor to addressing the challenges mankind faces in response to climate change, resource availability, environmental degradation, energy consumption but also food security (Marat-Mendes, 2015, 2002). Architecture is a unique discipline that facilitates spatial solutions for human needs and has a fundamental responsibility to ensure a sustainable urban environment (Bentley, 1985). Paramount to the discussion of the ‘integrity’ between sustainability and food design through architecture is to discuss how the concept of food system is being considered in architectural education. Within this context, this paper aims to analyze to what extent can Food Design contribute to meet the sustainability challenge in Architectural higher education. Thus, the results of a pedagogic experience, which aimed to articulate design criteria, food systems and urban metabolism within the urban realm, will be here exposed. Finally, this chapter exposes how the sociocultural dimension of urban metabolism can be greatly perceived by students throughout a design proposal which takes into account the food system analysis, and therefore reinforce students architectural education to: (1) better relate the urban realm to the food thematic, which represents a vital daily need of humanity; (2) perceive the impact of urban form on the food system, in space and time; and (3) promote design solutions for a more resilient, socially inclusive and sustainable city, as recently

2 2.1

FOOD AND DESIGN Bringing the food system into an urban project course

This paper introduces the results of an academic experience, which took place at the Department of Architecture and Urbanism, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa ISCTE-IUL. More precisely, in the Urban Project III module, that runs on the first semester of the 4th year of the Integrated Master Course of Architecture. This experience took place during the 2016/2017 academic year, and was led by the author of this paper. This course, which is theoretical-practical, contains a strong analytical and design focus. The introduction of the food thematic in this Urban Project course occurred mainly because of the following reasons. First, the research context within which the author of this paper has been exposed to in the last years, to the areas of Urban Sustainability and Urban Metabolism of cities, with a strong focus on water, green areas and food issues with the urban realm (Niza, 2016 and Marat-Mendes et al., 2015). Secondly, because the complexity to which the urban realm is exposed demands new understandings and tools to intervene within it, including at its design dimension (Kennedy et al., 2010). Therefore, it was an ambition of Urban Project III, the last Urban Project course that students undertake at their Integrated Master of Architecture, for students to focus not only at the physical dimension of urban form, but rather to better relate it to other dimensions, such as the social, the economic and the

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invite students to identify different examples of urban situation related to the several stages of the food system, which included production, distribution, commercialization, waste disposal and recycling. Students, now organized in groups of four to five elements, proceed with a worldwide survey about urban models, which denoted the relationship of the food system in the urban space, in order to:

natural ones. The main goal would be to make students more aware of the implications of these different dimensions on the urban form solutions as well, and therefore became more conscious of their design options against such dimensions of the urban realm. 2.2

The urban project III goals

The main goals of Urban Project III, which were expected to be fulfilled by students were:

1. Understand the relationship between the food system and the urban space, at the most varied scales of resolution, and in different historical moments; 2. Identify different types of integration of the urban spaces with the food system (in particular: markets, restaurants, cafes, supermarkets, vegetable gardens, etc.) as well as the relationships that are established between them, for different historic periods of time, geographical areas and cultural contexts; 3. Reference the identified urban models in relation to the case study (Lisbon).

1. To understand the relationship between the food system and the urban space; 2. To recognize the various types of urban form related to the food system and the possible symbiosis established between them; 3. To address the various components of the urban system and determine the existing relationship between them; 4. To acquire knowledge of urban morphology and metabolic assessment; 5. To identify the principles of urban design that allow making communities, while designing successful public spaces and create responsive and vital urban areas; 6. To develop an urban strategy for the city of Lisbon, in particular to the study area in question, while taking into account the public space, the urban fabric, the existing and planned infrastructures, in order to unify the whole and at the same time integrate the food system within the urban space, in an efficient manner and guarantee a more efficient metabolism for the city. 3 3.1

The survey conducted by the students in this Stage followed immediately, after the presentation of a video of a Ted Talk performed by Carolyn Steel, while presenting her book Hungry City (Steel, 2013). Promptly, students became stimulated by the thematic under analysis and rapidly proceeded with the Project. The examples selected by students included, per group, a well-known or familiar example by the students according to their home place, but also other international one, which would less familiar to them. Almost at the same time that students searched for these examples, they also begin an exercise of systematization of the information according to the given categories of the food system functioning. Student’s reaction to this exercise was very enthusiastic. Their surprise towards the less known examples, and the discovery of the different levels of the food system in their better-known examples was inspiring for their future urban design proposals. Furthermore, Stage 1 of the exercise provide the opportunity for students to compare all the different examples in terms of number, repletion and frequency that the several levels of the food system was being responded, but also which were the urban form solutions which were associated to each food system. Finally, Stage 1 provided an opportunity for students to compile an exhaustive catalogue of design solutions related to Food System and Urban Form, in different geographical and cultural contexts, worldwide. This exercise took place for 4 weeks. In the end of Stage 1students were also conscious about which stages of the food system were better perceived by architects and planners, and which

THE URBAN PROJECT PROGRAM The program layout

In order to respond to the above-identified six goals the Urban Project III exercise was organized in three stages (Marat-Mendes, 2016). The first stage aimed to contextualize the student within the thematic under analysis: the food system. The second stage aimed to focus the student within the design proposal for a specific case study, wherein informing him/her about how the food system operates, and guaranteeing that the design proposal would contribute to improve the identified food system. For this stage two specific typologies of the food system were identified for analysis. The third and last stage aimed to present a design solution that could contribute to improve the overall food system of the case study under analysis. 3.2

Stage 1 – The food system general approach

In order to contextualize the student with the food system, a first and brief exercise was developed to

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ones were less perceived and needed greater attention in future, by those that are responsible for the design of urban places. 3.3

Stage 2 – The SWOT analysis

Students were now invited to identify the different stages of the Food System within a given case study. Lisbon was the case study selected for this academic year. A SWOT analysis as define by Moughtin et  al. (1999) was immediately initiated, applied however specifically for the food system operating in Lisbon. However, given the complexity of the territory under analysis, and the short time available to perform the exercise, students were asked to identify only two specific typologies of the Lisbon Food System: i) Supermarkets of small to medium dimension; and ii) Markets. For the first case the ‘Pingo Doce’ shops were selected and the general markets for the second case. In this way, the entire class was working over the same typologies and would be able to compare results throughout their exercise. The goal was to evaluate how these two specific typologies responded to the overall food system of the city and related to the urban form, at two specific scales of resolution: the city, and the urban area under analysis. A Catalogue of these two specific typologies was organized and the results of student’s analysis allowed to identify a number of elements that gained their attention, including: access to transports, dimension of the urban bock where the supermarket is located, the age of the buildings, the public spaces surrounding the markets and Pingo-Doce, the social portrait of the people that use each supermarket, each neighborhood socio-economic fabric and the urban form (see Figure 1). All these elements were compared, which allowed an evaluation of the social and the urban space within the different parts of the city, and therefore an identification of specific areas which would deserve greater attention, for the students to work on the following Stage of the exercise. These efforts resulted in an exhaustive stage of the exercise, implying however, a whole body of research conducted by the students, including the collection of a number of statistical accounts (number of housing, age of population, etc.) which provided a more realistic perspective of the area under analysis. 3.4

Figure  1. An example of student’s work, indicating a selection of symbols which aimed to classify the markets typology under analysis, according to their location, size, urban form and integration within the city.

tion which would reflect the application of the proposed strategy. Moreover, the various programmatic dimensions included in the strategy (for example, socio-economic and environmental dimensions) were also expected to be indicated. 4

THE DESIGN SOLUTIONS

Several Design solutions emerged throughout the different works developed by the students of Urban Project III. From a total of 14 groups of students, the majority of the student’s solutions can be here identified as being of conventional solutions. For example, most of the proposals identified the need for the design of new green urban areas within the city, while making use of roof tops or abandoned areas within the city. A second group of solutions focused their attention on the need to improve existing public spaces, wherein integrating the local population in specific collective activities. The proposal of temporary markets and ambulant food stores were some of the solutions proposed to respond to this specific problematic. A number of other examples, although fewer, exposed however a more ambitious strategy, which implied the construction of a cultural transition towards current practices, in terms of food systems. For example, the proposal of an electronic mobile application, to allow food distribution in a more convenient manner for elderly people. Complementary, another solution pointed out the proposal of a Good Practice handbook for local people, to

Stage 3 – The design proposal

The last Stage of the exercise consisted on the development of a Strategic Proposal to improve the food system of a given area within the city of Lisbon. This Stage was informed by the results of the SWOT analysis. Thus, students were invited to identify and develop a specific urban form solu-

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maintain their public space and guarantee the good functioning of the whole food system. The following pictures shows some of the design solutions proposed by students in their projects. While Figure  1 exposes a selection of symbols, designed by students during their SWOT

analysis, to classify the typologies under analysis, Figure 2 shows the cover of a handbook of good practices, designed by students, to be given to local authorities and local neighborhoods in order to improve the Food System of the study area. Figure 3 shows an example of design approach in what regards the entire city. Wherein, transport, public access and mobility were identified as the main issues which cannot be dissociated from the food system issue. 5

CONCLUSIONS

Given the time available for the development of the exercise LX Design with Food, in one semester of 12 classes, each one with 3  hours, one should emphasize the interesting results that emerged from the different design proposals. Furthermore, one should also stress the importance of the comparative strategy that this exercise involved, allowing for the compilation of a number of examples for future reference by the students. Finally, it is notorious that a greater conscious of the food system and the metabolism of the cities acquired by students was succeeded at the same time that urban form was being examined. REFERENCES Kennedy, C. et al. 2010. The study of urban metabolism and its applications to urban planning and design, Environmental Pollution 159 (8–9): 1965–73. Marat-Mendes, T. 2002. The Sustainable Urban Form. ‘A comparative study in Lisbon, Edinburgh and Barcelona’, unpublished PhD thesis Nottingham. University of Nottingham. Marat-Mendes, T. 2015. Adaptabilidade, continuidade, flexibilidade e resiliência. Algumas considerações sobre as propriedades das formas urbanas, Revista de Morfologia Urbana 3(2): 133–134. Marat-Mendes, T. 2016. Ficha da Unidade Curricular de Projecto Urbano III. Lisboa: ISCTE-IUL. Marat-Mendes, T. et al. 2015. Atlas da Água e da Agricultura da Região de Lisboa em 1900–1940. Lisboa: ISCTE-IUL. Morgan, K. 2009. Feeding the city: The Challenge of Urban Food Planning, International Planning Studies 14(4): 341–348. Moughtin, C. et  al. 1999. Urban Design. Methods and Techniques. Oxford: Architectural Press. Niza, S. et  al. 2016. Lisbon’s womb: an approach to the city metabolism in the turn to the 20th century, Regional Environmental Change 16(6): 1725–1737. Salvador, M. 2016. Arquitectura e Comensalidade. Lisboa: Caleidoscópio. Steel, C. 2013. Hungry City: How Food Shapes our Lives. London: Vintage Books.

Figure  2. Example of student’s work assessing a good practice guide for public users towards the food system.

Figure  3. An example of student’s work assessing the city of lisbon in terms of the relationship between the food system and mobility of consumers.

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Integrating design and food studies: Learning by design or getting a sense of different contexts? M.H. Larsen Aalborg University, Copenhagen Campus, Denmark

ABSTRACT: This paper tries to relay some of the experiences with integrating design perspectives and solutions into the overall fabric of the Master’s education in Integrated Food Studies (IFS) over the last five years, as witnessed from an occasionally assessor, lecturer and observer in the design and gastronomy courses. This is done, in order to facilitate a discussion on how food design can facilitate better interdisciplinary learning possibilities that are more fully integrated with issues like innovation, policy, health, sociology and communication (some the other major themes that the IFS education offer). More concretely the paper positions and explores (but does not fully answer) the question: How do we as researchers, practitioners and teachers use food design to engage students with issues that go beyond the “plate-meal” – scapes? And how can design engage societal, scientific and political issues and their interrelations? Integrated Food Studies is an interdisciplinary Master of Science Program addressing today’s national and global challenges in the food sector. The three pillars of the education are: Design and Gastronomy; Food Policy, Innovation and Networks; Public Health Nutrition. 1

INTRODUCTION

have gained through work or previous experience and interest in the field. They could therefore be considered as being in an excellent position to successfully accomplish a fuller integration of the educations pillars of the IFS; and as this paper will try to prove in its closing discussion, some of them have grasped – if but tentatively – the potential of (food) design and its importance in order to explain and affect more sociological and political orientated topics.

The Masters education in Integrated Food Studies (hereafter abbreviated IFS) has now been running for five years at the Department of Planning and Development at Aalborg University-Copenhagen Campus (Denmark). One of the overall aims of the education program is to make graduates able to work coherently with and integrate different methodologies and approaches to various food issues. “The program is based on a combination of three different directions: food sociology and innovation, public health and design. You will, as students, gain insight into the challenges and opportunities in food production and public / private consumption. This gives you the unique skills to analyse complex problems in the field and the ability to formulate innovative solutions to future challenges in the food area.” (IFS Curriculum 2017). A significant proportion of the IFS students have a bachelor’s degree in nutrition and health and are thus often very knowledgeable (and not unusually somewhat biased) in regards to many issues concerning food-including design dimensions. They are, therefore, often quite proficient in applying pre-set (health) models and in carrying out interventions. Some of them also come with a good understanding of gastronomy and how to apply aesthetic solutions in different foodsettings (or foodscapes), an understanding they

2

THE DESIGN PERSPECTIVES: ISSUES AND POSSIBILITIES

IFS students receive three specialized courses in food design throughout their two-year Master’s program—one in each of the first three semesters. These three courses are quite broad academically, which is also reflected in their titles: “Mapping Meals and their Spaces”, “Mapping food and its structures” and “Food concept design”. The course literature also reflects these broad ambitions although with an emphasis on aesthetics (the two main lecturers are trained architects) and hospitality design (primarily restaurants). A telling example is that mandatory literature includes and emphasizes hospitality/culinary models and the aesthetic experience: A tool for developing meal services in restaurants: The Five Aspects Meal Model (Gustafsson et al. 2006). Models like

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how to integrate “learning by doing” with “learning through knowing”, though their separation is an abstract exercise, surely. Some design thinkers have suggested that we should learn from and integrate more abductive thinking, in order to better come up with broad but still well-argued future design solutions, both within business (Martin 2009) and design processes and sense-making (Kolko 2010). This should be done in order to circumvent the restraining logics and possibly reductive outcomes of deductive and inductive thinking, that are indispensable to making valid and evidence-based claims and projections, but ultimately invokes a framework – and mode of thinking- that does not necessarily leave much room to imagine what is not yet in existence! Kolko (2010) is indeed part of the design curriculum, but from the perspective of an occasionally assessor, lecturer and observer at the design courses, it is rare to witness a student arguing for an abductive approach, or even presenting its meaning or importance. Also, abductive reasoning requires some pre-existing knowledge of objective and subjective knowledge, deductive and inductive approaches and ensuing traditions – not traditional strong suits of (food) designers or lecturers in my experience. Overall students who complete the design courses are thus provided valuable – although possibly somewhat reductive- tools and methods to understand and make sense of different foods, their contexts and users. And they are, importantly, provided a chance to strengthen and develop their intuitive and creative (in both the best and worst sense of the word) capabilities within food and design. But this apprenticeship-like approach does seem to have some weak points in relation to knowledge generation and attainment, and often fails to establish more nuanced and wider criteria for what is good or poor design and how these designs can be evaluated and integrated with criteria from their other courses in governance and public health for instance. This is also reflected in the student’s general inability to use theory to argue why one food design solution is better than another—and to whom. Surely IFS students are able to evaluate if a design is beautiful and/or utilitarian or not. But this misses the point somewhat, if you do not necessarily consider the concept of aesthetic beauty as universal (to all people), but rather as one mutually dependent and influenced by the social context and situation of its receivers. The most famous academic to argue for such an approach is of course Pierre Bourdieu whose work more than amply illustrate how matters of taste, including aesthetic preferences, are shaped by a complex, but not opaque, set of socio-economic factors,

these seem very popular among our students. The reason for their popularity could be because they reduce the complexity of the eating situation and places it firmly in a restaurant setting completely devoid of any socio-political issues – and thus it seems to subscribe to the notion that aesthetics and (food) experiences are universally understood by all, and can be comprehended and decoded no matter ones knowledge or social background. The Five Aspects Meal Model (Gustafsson et al. 2006) is supplemented by other models like: “Customer Journey Maps” (Rosenbaum et  al. 2017) and “Business Canvas Models” (Osterwalder & Pigneur 2010). All of these contrast somewhat, if appropriated uncritically, with the seminal works of Bourdieu (1984), Mintz (1985), Mennell (1984) and Korsmeyer (2002), to mention but a few, who have clearly showed that manners, taste and, thoughindirectly, the designs associated with such, are severely affected and constrained by socioeconomic,cultural and political factors. I am not arguing here that some form of universal beauty or shared tastes/preferences in relation to some foods and food experiences do not exist, but that they are, more times than not, contingent on the cultural context in which they are to be appropriated. Such observations are also mirrored by recent research into global (food) consumption (Trentmann 2005) and within health behavior (Larsen 2015). Admittedly literature indicating all this (including Korsmeyer and Mennell) is actually part of the design curriculum, albeit often relegated to optional literature. The lecturers are aware of this complexity and try and instill the students with a sense of social and cultural context in relation to design solutions. However, the emphasis and final evaluation of the students assignments in design seem, ultimately, to rest on their capabilities to convey and produce a product or design that is aesthetically and universally pleasing, and which is in alignment with the (personal) tastes of the lecturers rather than aligned with any objective criteria or any theoretical framework beyond basic consumer/hospitality models. Examination products, for instance, include pasta-prototypes with visual posters/portfolios focusing on a restaurant setting and a customer’s journey. This “if you have to ask you will never know” approach by the lecturers, has also prompted some discontent among some of the students who miss a more objective evaluation of their assignments in design. However, most students are also highly motivated by the apprentice-like format provided through the lectures and hands-on workshops, as well as the lecturers’ personalities, whose passion for food design is unmistakable. So the question remains as to how to reconcile, or integrate, passion with objective reasoning and evaluation, or

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left with a useful, well-argued, communicative strategy (with beautiful illustrations), but very little in the way of convincing explanations as to why the design solutions look as they do. However, especially theory and case studies relating to experience economy and planned events seem to have potential to inspire students to better integrate the socio-political and cultural issues with design and aesthetic aspects. These “performance-designs” allow the students to situate and contextualize their food designs in an “organic and living” context, where participation and physical environment from the outset is embedded and entangled – “the consumer is the product, the product is the experience” as positioned and proposed by Pine and Gilmore (1999). Also some cultural sociologists like Sharon Zukin and her interpretations of different and changing (food) consumption venues like supermarkets (Zukin 2005) and Farmers markets (Zukin 2008) seem to inspire students. Zukin, on the basis of historical documents and contemporary observations, are able to show how the physical environment and its design is afforded certain socio-cultural and political values like authenticity and gentrification and can help mitigate or promote these through a continuing interplay between its participants and their environment. This mirrors earlier writings on power and everyday rhythms by Henri Lefebvre (1991). Such authors do not necessarily provide any exact model to develop design/experience solutions, but they do offer a good platform to understand physical environments, their actors and their interplay/powerrelations, however complex they might seem. And having a better grasp of those and their complexity, the ensuing design solutions seem to gain an additional depth, which again could help not just to inspire new (food) designs but, importantly, also to inform them in regards to the more sociological and political issues (the other pillars of the IFS education).

most famously illustrated by the different “capitals” (economic, cultural and social – and their sub-capitals). These theories and thoughts have inspired a wide range of researchers and research in the humanities and social sciences (and beyond). However, design theory does not seem to have appropriated these thoughts. The influence of Bourdieu within physical environments seems left to geographers and planning researchers within academia. 3

INTEGRATION EFFORTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Along with project-supervising duties on most semesters on IFS (Aalborg University is a project oriented university where students spend half their time working in groups on a semester project) observations for this paper also come from being main lecturer and developer of the course “Strategic Communication and staging of food”, which is a mandatory course for third semester IFS students. In this course students are presented with communication and consumer theories. These are presented and tried put into context by both researchers as well as expert practitioners representing different commercial companies, public institutions and NGOs. The students are also assigned a real-life case study (a start-up food entrepreneur/business from our embedded start-up kitchen facilitator “Kitchen Collective”), whose communication strategies they are asked to analyze and improve using the knowledge and theory they attain during the course. The ambitions of this course thus both compliment and run counter to what they experience in their design lectures, as the innovative element is maintained, and they are expected to design and develop solutions for participating food start-ups. But in this course solutions are expected to be, largely, based on pre-existent knowledge, as well as the students’ ability to asses how the knowledge and theoretical framework taught inthe course support or subtract from the communications strategies they provide the young food start-ups with. This is not always an easy task for many students. Integrating their communications solutions with theory, as well as designing visual communicative formats for the young food start-ups (which they are encouraged but not obliged to do) is often a strenuous exercise. Not because their suggestions are not mostly relevant and even quite innovative (most merit positive response from the participating food start-ups), but because the students are, often, unable to explain their process and argue for the decisions made. Ultimately you are, frequently,

4

CONCLUSION

The intention of this paper was to present some of the experiences from integrating design perspectives in the education in Integrated Food Studies, while discussing the opportunities and barriers for wider integration. As such this paper should not be seen as a criticism of our current educational efforts or a dismissal of design aspects and associated theory – though the field does not seem overburdened at present with convincing theoretical frameworks, even when including supposedly “critical design” approaches. Rather the author of this paper is

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very keen on further integration between design (thinking and theory) with other relevant areas of research and education—especially the area(s) of what could be labeled food studies. A fuller integration that includes more political and social aspects—so important to the foundation of contemporary food studies – could enrich both the more traditional fields as well as bring more objective (but not restraining) criteria into the evaluation and creation of (food) design solutions. The first step towards this fuller integration is of course an increased dialogue between different actors representing various approaches in the way of food experiences, design and beyond. Despite of its limited scope of research, this paper aims to be a positive contribution to such ongoing work.

Korsmeyer, C. (2002). Making Sense of Taste. Cornell University Press. Larsen, M.H (2015) Nutritional advice from George Orwell: exploring the social mechanisms behind the overconsumption of un-healthy foods by people with low socio-economic status Appetite. 91, 1. Lefebvre, H. (1991) The Production of Space Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Martin, R. (2009) The Design of Business: Why Design Thinking Is the Next Competitive Advantage Harvard Business School Press. Mennell, S. (1986). All Manners of Food. New York: Basil Blackwell. Mintz, W.S. (1985). Sweetness and Power. New York: Penguin Books. Osterwalder, A. & Pigneur, Y. (2010) Business Model Generation: a Handbook for Visionaries, Game Changers, and Challengers Wiley. Pine, J., Gilmore, J. (1999) The Experience Economy, Harvard Business School Press, Boston. Rosenbaum, M.S., Otalora, M.L., Ramirez, G.C. (2017). How to create a realistic customer journey map Business Horizons. Volume 60, Issue 1, January–February 2017, Pages 143–150. Trentmann F. (2008). 4½ Lessons about Consumption. A Short Overview of the Cultures of Consumption Research Programme. Birkbeck College, University of London. Zukin, S. (2005). Point of Purchase Routledge New York, USA. Zukin, S. (2008). Consuming Authenticity. Cultural Studies, 22(5), 724–748.

REFERENCES Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Harvard University Press. Gustafsson, I.B.; Öström, Å.; Johansson, J. & Mossberg, L. (2006). A tool for developing meal services in restaurants: The Five Aspects Meal Model. Journal of Foodservice, 17, pp. 84–93 (9 pages). IFS (2017) Curriculum Overview http://www.ifs.aau.dk/ about/curriculum-courses/. Kolko, J. (2010). Abductive Thinking and Sensemaking: The drivers of Design Synthesis. MIT’s Design Issues, 26(1),online document (11 pages).

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

What is sedimented in the cup: Perceptions of Turkish coffee drinking experience H. Nihal Bursa Beykent University, Istanbul, Turkey

Z. Mine Galip Koca Istanbul Bilgi University, Istanbul, Turkey

ABSTRACT: This qualitative study aims to investigate the perceptual dimensions, structures, potential patterns between the social, emotional, sensory, functional and cultural attributes of Turkish Coffee Drinking Experience (TCDE) and the culture expressed by Turkish people as a part of their daily lives. A mixed method qualitative analysis technique is employed to extract sedimented codes of Turkish Coffee (TC) culture and to detect patterns the among the codes. TCDE will also be examined by focusing on the relationship between the coffee cup and the moments of drinking as pleasurable experience. 1

INTRODUCTION

to the same social practices because food resembles symbols/codes that can express patterns about social relationships (Lévi-Strauss, 1983). In this dialectical context, as the second most popular beverage in the world after water and also the second most traded commodity after crude oil, “coffee” and “coffee drinking experience” harbors a rich ground for observing and analyzing behaviors, senses and perceptions along with cultural patterns and diversity. Due to its historical and social depth and unique characteristics of preparation (roasting, fine grinding and simmering on slow heat with special utensils) and ceremonial presentation, TCDE provides compelling exploratory dimensions. This study aims to investigate the perceptual dimensions, structures, potential patterns between social, emotional, sensory, functional and cultural attributes of TCDE, verbally expressed by Turkish people as a part of their daily lives. Within this particular context of coffee drinking culture, how TCcup influence their TCDE will also be explored. Here, the question is put in the way that why particular cups matter for this group of people. In that sense, cup is seen as an evidence of their concern, so that their sentimental associations would be expressed (Miller, 2003; p. 11).

What nature offers needs human touch to become food and drink. This human touch reveals itself in multiple dimensions; its tangible aspect range from collecting and harvesting produce in nature to designing tools and vessels for processing and enjoying food. The intangible aspects range from emotions and senses to social identities, rituals, tradition built around food and beverages (Thompson, 2010). Interrelation between food and humans is a biological, sensual, emotional and social phenomenon. Last few decades, food and its perception has been an intriguing subject for many disciplines including psychology, anthropology, marketing, food engineering, psycholinguistics, sociology, neuroscience, philosophy and industrial design. Recent studies have viewed various aspects of the interaction between humans and their perception of what they eat/drink (Arshamian, et  al., 2012, Thomson, et al., 2010, Majid, 2011, Cavanaugh & Riley, 2014). Since food and language are brought to the table as essential, multi-dimensional components of daily life, the intertwined nature of producing and processing food and language as a medium reflects the diverse social contexts within specific and dynamic cultural settings, with rich meanings transmitted across generations (Cavanaugh & Riley, 2014, Schutz, 1962). Humans are wired to sense, perceive and process stimuli to create and exchange information and create meaning as a part of their social nature (Kashima, 2014, Cavanaugh & Riley, 2014). Claude Lévi-Strauss and Mary Douglas refer to food and language as having the similar receptors to connect

2 2.1

THEORETHICAL BACKGROUND TCDE and its sedimentation; “telve”

The main course of thinking here is inspired by Schutz’s understanding of the relationship between the human mind and social world rooted

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people living in the Ottoman land, it was ubiquitous and indispensable part of the everyday routine. Today, TC culture maintains its visibility through its own set of rituals and decorum which are evolving to adapt to new pace of life. Verbal descriptions made during the focus group (FG) sessions display how coffee is embedded in the consciousness and sediment of historically and socially defined minds of these participants. Needless to say, the expressions of sensory attributes of coffee cannot be divorced from culture, language, context; therefore, the participants of the group discussions are not only contributing to the discussions as being subjectivities but also representing their own sedimentation of knowledge through language (Han-Seok Seo et al., 2009, Bhumiratana et al., 2014, Schutz, 1962).

in phenomenology. According to him, all the “habitual possessions” form our “stock of knowledge at hand” which is “the sedimentation of various previous activities of our mind” (Schutz, 1962. p. 131). The concept of sedimentation acts as a perfect metaphor for the sedimented grounds of TC at the bottom of the TC cup, called “telve”. Telve is also the subject of the fortune telling ritual, as an extended part of TCDE. The words and expressions in threefocus group sessions in this study are coded and analyzed to constellate the attributes of TCDE and its perceptions as sedimentation (Schutz, 1962, p. 23). The participants in these research groups are also assumed to have their own subjectivities and seeing TC within the boundaries of their interaction with the world around them. In their perception, having a cup of coffee with friends or alone is an occurrence existing with everyday life. It should also be noted that this occurrence is possible both within a physical realm and psychological realm; first is transparent to human senses and later is a realm perceived by the human subject. This would be defined in Schutz’s terms that we are “in situation”; environment does not impact on us; it is not a one way relationship; it becomes meaningful with our ongoing stream of activities (Schutz, p. 145). This also corroborates the belief that human understanding is not only a cognitive activity; it is interacting with reality which is socially constructed. From the first moment of deliberation to create relationships between things, reality starts to appear in quotation marks (Bursa, 2003; p. 3). In this context of socially constructed reality, humans play the role of “meaning making animals” (Kashima, p. 81). 2.2

3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Identifying the key attributes of TCDE To capture the attributes and the layers of experience associated with TCDE in full scale, three 120 minutes long FG sessions were conducted at a professional facility in Istanbul. Eight participants per three FGs were selected in targetted combinations based on their characteristics to assure maximum level of group dynamics (Catterall, et  al., 1998, Calder, 1977); (a) all participants are light to heavy TC drinkers (1–2 cups/week-4–5+cups/ day), (b) Common SES groups; B, C1C2, (b) same gender groups or balanced number gender distribution in the group. Further selection criteria were also employed to maximize group dynamics and to reflect various educational, cultural, occupational and geographic diversities in order to extract enhanced layers of attributes and codes embedded in their culture as meaning systems. The first two groups were structured as: (G1) Females 30–60 yrs. old, (G2) Males 30–60  yrs. old, and (G3) Young adults, mixed gender, 18–29 yrs. old. The sessions were moderated by an experienced moderator and recorded visually then transcribed into texts. The sessions were semi structured by key concepts and the participants are asked to initiate free talks about coffee. The moderator followed a rolling five stage moderation and probing technique in order to maximize the group interaction and extraction of data (Chrzanowska, 2002, Chandler et al., 1989). Since TCDE appears as a multilayered phenomena, the paper employs a hybrid two level approach; capturing and identifying the attributes of TCDE under three conceptualization categories; emotional, functional and abstract (Thompson, 2010) and by using a mixed method analysis to

TC as part of life experiences

Coffee appears as a tangible commodity, but societies and culture infuse coffee with a plethora of social motifs and symbolic meanings in a way that coffee and coffee drinking experience becomes something much larger than the commodity value it carries, like the sounds and languages we exchange. When coffee is traced within its deep trajectory, it will be seen that at the very beginning, it was not an ordinary and ubiquitous beverage as it is today. Coffee is consumed for more than 550 years in the world since it had first become a popular drink in Yemen around mid-15th century (Hattox, 1996, p. 20–23). Then, coffee drinking culture was cultivated in the Ottoman geography and spread to Europe and to the rest of the world. From the beginning of 16th century on, coffee was known as a Turkish drink in the minds of Europeans. For

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identify, position and correlate the phenomenological and ontological domains of TCDE (Miller, 2006, Saldana, 2013, Calder & Tybout, 1989). For enhancing the qualitative analysis of textual data extracted from contextual setting, a CAQDAS software application QDA Miner is used for first and second cycle coding, code frequency and cooccurrence link analysis (Maclaran et  al., 2002). During group sessions, the participants made sensory and emotional attributes to the eight different cups shown to them. 4 4.1

Figure 2. TCDE coding co-occurrence 3-D map.

FINDINGS Identifying the key attributes/codes of TCDE

One of the first findings extracted from both manual FG coding and QDA Miner code frequency analysis, the repeating codes are very similar as shown in Figure 1. Although, the frequency of codes differ across the three groups, some codes were very prominent for all groups. Predominant codes of TCDE are listed as: Social Experience (collective sharing, individual sharing, small talk), Personal Experience (Introspection, pleasure, emotion, physiological effects, freedom, feeling valued, rewarding, comforting/relaxing/escape, senses, taste and flavor, scent), The Moment of TC (Past, Future projections, place), Physical elements of TCDE (preparing, presenting, accompaniment), TC Cup (Flamboyance, size/form, preciousness, functionality, simplicity, delicacy, traditional design) TCDE is distinctively associated with intimate sharing, traditional and social identity, comfort, relaxing, escape, physiological effects and feeling valued for all three groups (Figure 1). Females (G1) predominantly focused on intimate sharing, relaxation/comfort, escape and freedom, distinct from the males and younger adults. TCDE both in solitude and with friends often means to be free of burdens and worries of life for

Figure 1.

Figure  3. Co-occurrence map of codes for perception of TCDE and TC cup.

the period its experienced. Males (G2) perceived TCDE as an experience that makes them feel special, privileged and valued since TC requires labor, time and custom made cooking. They also perceive TCDE as a reward and as a way to identify themselves with TC culture. Young adults (G3) as a mixed gender group mostly defined TCDE as intimate sharing and as a part of their identity and traditional values. 4.2 TCDE co-occurrence links and their categorical clusters Figure 3 shows the co-occurrence links in relevant clusters. Senses, scent, taste and flavor, presentation and accompaniments of TC are clustered as a “sensual” category (Thomson, 2010). Associating the preparation of TC, with traditional identity, feeling valued and valuing via TC, collective sharing appears as the second cluster. Thirdly emotions, introspection, future projections, intimate sharing, escape/relaxation/comfort, reward, pleasure, freedom and small talk appears as the most crowded third cluster As seen in this co-occurrence map; on the left cluster which can be called as “functional”, the TCDE is highly dependent on good craftsmanship

Caption of a code frequencies for TCDE.

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during its preparation and presentation (Thomson et  al, 2010, p. 1117). Functional associations are also predominantly referred by male participants. 4.3

Bhumiratana, N., Adhikari, K., & Chambers, E. (2014). The development of an emotion lexicon for the coffee drinking experience. Food Research International, 61, 83–92. Bursa, Nihal (2003). A socially constructed reality: Sedad Hakkı Eldem, Unpulish PHD Thesis, METU Faculty of Architecture, 2003. Bursa, Nihal (2015). Bir Keyfin Adabı: Çekirdekten fincana Türk kahvesinin maddi kültürü in Bir taşım keyif: Türk kahvesinin 500 yıllık öyküsü, İstanbul. Calder, B., and A. Tybout (1987). What Consumer Research Is... Journal of Consumer Research 14:136–140. Catterall, M., Maclaran, P., Using computer software for the analysis of qualitative market research data, Journal of the Market Research Society; Jul 1998; 40, 3. Chandler, J., & Owen, M. (1989). Genesis to Revelations: the evolution of qualitative philosophy. In Proceedings of the Market Research Society Conference (pp. 295–305). London: The Market Research Society. Chrzanowska, J. (2002). Interviewing groups and individuals in qualitative market research (Vol. 2). Sage. Claude Levi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked: Mythologiques Volume One, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983. Han-Seok Seo, Seung-Yeon Lee, Inkyeong Hwank (2009). Development of Sensory Attribute Pool of Brewed Coffee, Journal of Sensory Studies 24; pp. 111–132. Hattox. Ralph S. (1996). Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Middle East. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. Hirschman, E.C., & Holbrook, M.B. (1982). Hedonic consumption: emerging concepts, methods and propositions. The Journal of Marketing, 92–101. Lévi-Strauss, C. (1983). Histoire et ethnologie. Annales, 1217–1231. Maclaran, P., & Catterall, M. (2002). Analysing qualitative data: computer software and the market research practitioner. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 5(1), 28–39. Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M., & Saldana, J. (2013). Qualitative data analysis. Sage. Miller, Daniel (ed.) (2003). Material Cultures: Why Some Things Matter. London and New York: Routledge. Miller, S.I., & Fredericks, M. (2006). Mixed-methods and evaluation research: Trends and issues. Qualitative Health Research, 16(4), 567–579. Rallis, S.F., & Rossman, G.B. (2003). Mixed methods in evaluation contexts: A pragmatic framework. Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research, 491–512. Schutz, A. (1962). Phenomenology and the social sciences. In Collected Papers I (pp. 118–139). Springer Netherlands. Seo, H.S., Arshamian, A., Schemmer, K., Scheer, I., Sander, T., Ritter, G., & Hummel, T. (2010). Crossmodal integration between odors and abstract symbols. Neuroscience letters, 478(3), 175–178. Thomson, David M.H., Crocker, C., Marketo, C.G. (2010). Linking sensory characteristics to emotions: An example using dark chocolate. Food Quality and reference, 21, 1117–1125.

TCDE and the TC cup

TC cup, “fin can” is functionally and symbolically significant in determining the pleasure of TCDE; not as a passive container holding the hot, frothy beverage but as an agent active in defining and extending the self (Belk, 1988, Bursa, 2015, p. 271) Drinking TC is a total experience; it creates instances, encourages recollections and evokes sensations, feelings; therefore, it enhances pleasures in addition to the gustatory ones. Drinking experience enhances the pleasure taken from coffee; The TC cup is fundamental component of TCDE. It should also be noted that there will be differences in the sensory perception within these experiences depending on the subject’s background knowledge Participants from all three groups have addressed attributes of TC cup which can be coded as; flamboyance, simplicity, functionality, size/form, preciousness, delicacy, traditional design, material, nobility and quality. The 2-D co-occurrence map shows that the codes describing TC cup are tied to TCDE via the emotional set of codes first, functional set of codes later and finally reaching to the abstract set of TCDE codes respectively. 5

CONCLUSION AND FINAL REMARKS

The research shows us that the perceptions about TCDE are closely associated with emotional, functional and abstract conceptualizations of life, culture and self. Intimate sharing, cultural heritage, preparation and presentation of TC, the TC cup appear as predominant components of TCDE. Feeling valued, introspection, freedom, escape/ comfort, future projections and scent connected with other sensory elements and brewing process inspire us to further our research on the material culture of TCDE including to develop a sensory and emotion lexicon for TC. Another prospect of this study would be to analyze coffee cup as part of a marketing strategy for TC. After all, we are what we eat/drink, how we experience and how we express it.

REFERENCES Anderson, E.N. (2014). Everyone eats: Understanding food and culture. NYU Press. Belk, R.W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of consumer research, 15(2), 139–168.

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Carved offerings: Butter sculpture as a valuable centerpiece of American dairy culture A. Sophie Slesinger Chatham University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

ABSTRACT: This article examines the ritual of sculpting butter in the United States. Focusing on the early 20th century, this article presents an analysis of butter sculpture as a centerpiece of the Midwestern state fair. Midwestern American butter sculpture depicts vivid scenes from current events of the community; predominantly celebrating agricultural feats and lifelike iconic renderings. Techniques of butter sculpture are transferred over a lifetime of study, and in examining regional artifacts, butter emerges as a significant food in its cultural representation. Analyzing research of American butter art historians shows how sculpting butter is ritualized, made into art, and reveled; placing it as a historic staple in learning what and why American communities eat. Butter is an edible medium with value in farming, art, and community; a truly meaningful food whose history can solidify its value in the food landscape today. 1

INTRODUCTION

the sculpture is made. It is taste of place symbolized and preserved. At the Minnesota State Fair, it is common for the crowned dairy queen to have her likeness carved into fat (Davis 2013). On Tibetan monasteries, colorful religious homages are formed from yak butter, a ritualistic discipline that attracts thousands of onlookers each year (Yong-Shang 2007). Each Easter holiday in Pittsburgh, Keller’s brand butter lambs are available at grocery chain Giant Eagle in Pittsburgh-Polish-Catholic fashion (Phillips 2007). In designing butter, both the sculptors and the work are placing butter in a meaningful category of significant food. Analyzing butter sculpture history in the United States gives weight to the importance of American dairying and specialty food production.

The very best are proficient in athletes, busts, and of course, cows. Visit any agricultural event in Pennsylvania or the American Midwest and it is likely you will spot them bundled in sweats and carving tons of state-made butter, continuing this century-old practice. This paper unpacks the ritual of sculpting butter in the United States, and particularly agricultural communities in middle Northeast and Midwest. Studying butter sculpture reveals deep meaning in dairy culture. With roots in European feasting practices, American butter sculpture depicts vivid scenes from current events of the agricultural community. So, why is the practice of butter sculpture important? First, understanding the craftsperson behind the work helps to explain how the practice continues over centuries. As seen in studying sculpting regions, themes of religion, pride and devotion are central in understanding the purpose of the work. Art historians cite butter sculpture as unique intersections of artistic mastery and agricultural production feats. How are these processes intertwined? With historical analysis across disciplines, coding the sculpture portrayal within media coverage and art representations analysis, clues about the importance of butter sculpture within community and craft are revealed. How then, can the dedication surround this practice enhance the future of dairy in America? 2

3

BUTTER SCULPTING IN AMERICAN ART HISTORY

Historical analysis of American butter reveals this food to be an anchor of American art and agricultural life. The work of American art history professors Karal Ann Marling and Pamela Simpson delves into the practices of the original American butter sculptors. Marling’s 1987 work She Brought Forth Butter in a Lordly Dish is essential in understanding the prevalence of butter sculpture in Minnesota celebration ritual (Marling 1987). The Minnesota state fairs that Marling studies are home base for revealing who is sculpting and why. Butter carving, just like butter manufacturing, was women’s work in America until the introduction of the mechanized cream separator and the formal incorporation of modern day creameries (Marling

DEFINING BUTTER SCULPTURE

Butter sculpture is turning massive blocks of butter into significant icons and scenes to the place where

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kitchens. A recent episode of the popular Netflix show “Chef’s Table,” captures popular New York City chef Gabrielle Hamilton meticulously carving butter rosettes with famed chef Jacques Pepin, the two of them marveling at the complexity and beauty of such an act (Chef’s Table  2017). The medium, it seems, turns sculpture big and small into a feat of art and technique.

1987). Caroline Brooks is the first documented butter sculptor, rising to prominence in 1876 for her carving at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia (Marling 1987). Marling captures the intersection of art, food, and Minnesota in a compelling way that is fundamental to understanding the layers of meaning in sculpting butter. Women working in the fine arts with a medium of their own manufacturing is particularly important. Simpson builds on Marling’s work with another art history lens, tracing American butter sculpture origins back to the elaborate tables capes of feasting meals in Renaissance and Baroque periods (Simpson 2007). Butter in art representations also conjures images of Dutch Gilded Age paintings, and particularly the study of art historian Julie Hochstrasser, who documents the presence of butter in paintings as a sign of prosperous times (Hochstrasser 2007). The mere presence of butter, it seems, denotes abundance and wealth. Simpson argues the commonness of butter sculpture can be documented much before 19th century American works, but agrees with Marling that the 1876  sculpture by Caroline Brooks is a pivotal moment in the medium’s history (Simpson 2007). The piece itself, a relief bust titled Dreaming Iolanthe, boasts meticulous craftsmanship and detail all made from simple rendering tools, “a common butter paddle, cedar sticks, broom straws, and camel’s hair pencil” (Simpson 2007 p.4). The piece attracted coverage from The New York times, and catapulted Brooks to the center of butter sculpting fascination in the United States (Simpson 2007). Would this have been the case if the medium was inedible marble or clay, showcased in a museum? Sculpting in butter for an agricultural fair attracts high viewer ship of people who most likely understand the value of this food. The artistic talent on display enhances the power of this form. Today, butter sculpture is still found prominently in the American state fair. Searching archives of local newspapers produces regular coverage of these centerpieces. A 2013 piece from the Minnesota West Central Tribune recounts the dairy queen winner posing for her likeness in butter (Davis 2013). The latest 2017 farm show in Harrisburg, PA boasted a half-ton sculpture, with the local press declaring that the massive piece “… showcases culture of stewardship during 101st farm show….” (Gant 2017). The Associated Press produced a nationally run obituary in 2011 to cover the life and work of Norma Lynn, the woman creating the famous Iowa fair butter cow year after year (AP 2011). While news coverage analysis documents the continuing of this massive artistic undertaking, smaller scale sculpture is coming back into fashion in successful modern American restaurant

4

VALUE OF ARTFUL FOOD

Simpson argues that documentation of butter sculpture in the United States is underrepresented, although both Simpson and Marling offer detailed analysis of the key places and players in this medium (Simpson 2007). Tracing local press coverage of individual works and sculptors provides consistent information for when and where the major works are happening across the country. What, then, does this documentation provide for regional dairy where the work is made? In other words, what does documenting this food art practice do for the makers and product itself ? Looking to how other regions preserve the craft shows how deep this study can go. The Museum of Butter in Cork, Ireland collects stamps, patterns, tools, and photographs of Irish butter production (Jenkins 2010). Irish butter is known internationally for its quality, and the museum provides historical and artistic preservation of the work, people, animals, and tools behind the butter medium. In connecting the value in craft not just of making butter but of sculpting it, it can bolster the food to have more economic weight. Here is the intersection of artful depictions translating into economic weight. As the food studies field considers the value in the history and story of foods, there may be economic value for the butter industry in preserving the art of butter sculpture. A 2010  study on the monetary effect of storytelling on food purchase behavior reinforces this idea (Park et. al. 2010). Published in the Korean Journal of Food Culture, researchers found that positive attitudes towards food storytelling led to higher customer purchasing (Park et. al, 2010). In the current American food landscape, this is reinforced in the recent increase of middlemen storytelling job functions such as cheese monger, fishmonger, sommelier, and barista (Zepos 2009). All hold power in conveying the cultural value of their wares, thus having the power to increase their sales. Simpson expressed the need of more butter sculpture analysis, and the next step may be for today’s butter sellers to fold the sculpture history knowledge into their repertoire for continuation of the industry.

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5

CONCLUSION

Show. 101st Pennsylvania Farm Show in Harrisburg. Gant News. Retrieved February 2017. Hochstrasser, J. (2007). Still Life and Trade in the Dutch Golden Age. New Haven: Yale University Press. Jenkins, C. (2010). The Museum of Butter. Meanjin, Vol. 69, No. 4, Summer 2010: 13–15. Marling, K.A. (1987). She Brought Forth Butter in a Lordly Dish: The Origins of Minnesota Butter Sculpture. Minnesota Historical Society Journal. Summer 1987. Netflix (2017). Prune. Mind of a Chef: Gabrielle Hamilton. Aired September 5th, 2015. Retrieved July 2017. Park, A. et. al. (2010). The Effect of Storytelling on Purchase Behavior in Local Food Restaurant. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture. Vol. 25 No. 6. pp. 764–769. Phillips, C. (2007) A Butter Lamb for Easter. The Kitchn. Retrieved July 2017. Simpson, P. (2007). Butter Cows and Butter Buildings. Journal of American Material Culture. Vol. 41 No. 1. Simpson, P. (2012). Corn Palaces and Butter Queens: A History of Crop Art and Dairy Sculpture. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. Yong-Shang, Q. (2007). The Art of Butter Sculpture at Kumbum Monastery and Its Present Condition. Journal of the Central University for Nationalities. 2007 No. 2. Zepos, D. (2009). Who Are These People, “Cheesemongers”? The Atlantic. Retrieved July 2017.

Studying butter sculpture in the United States raises topics of food preservation, craftsmanship, and how singular agricultural products can give insight to community issues of the time. As interest in regional agricultural products grows, tracing prominence throughout history is necessary for food historians, sellers, and producers in understanding their potential power in the food that they document, sell, taste, make, and ultimately value. Thanks to the work of Pamela Simpson and Karal Ann Marling, the density of butter as a subject reaches beyond nutrition and taste, placing it as a meaningful food within the American agricultural landscape. REFERENCES AP (2011). Norma Lynn, Iowa Fair’s Butter Cow Lady, Dies. The Spokesman-Review. Retrieved February 2017. Davis, D. (2013). It’s Cool to Be Princess Kay of the Milky Way. Minnesota West Central Tribune. Retrieved February 2017. Gant Team in Features (2017). Half-Ton Butter Sculpture Showcases Culture of Stewardship During 101st Farm

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Tourism experience through food design: Case of the city of Phuket A. Krasae-in & N. Rodjanathum Faculty of Architecture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

ABSTRACT: Phuket has been the renowned tourist destination in Thailand for decades, mostly due to beautiful seascape and the beach life. However, the city centre had not fully been benefited from the tourism industry. In order to promote the City of Phuket, the cultural tourism has been escalated especially the food and eating culture that involved in distinctive ethnic group of Peranakan. In 2016, the city was announced as UNESCO Creative City of Gastronomy and therefore, the project has been established. The project has not only conducted the research and development on nutrition of local recipes, but also studied cultural value of the local cuisine both to the local people and the tourists from the perception and recognition analysis, which leads to the definition of its ‘identity and uniqueness’ as by the authors. The outcomes of the study were strategies to develop different categorized groups of food to create new tourism experience, such as the design directions and suggestions for restaurants, food manufacturers and street food vendors through the built environment, packaging and the presentation of the food. 1

PHUKET AS THE CREATIVE CITY OF GASTRONOMY

Holland, the mixture of the modern Chinese and the European was occurred in some evidences such as the architectural style, called “Sino-Portuguese”, which many of them still remain in the Phuket city centre or the old town areas. The intercultural and intergenerational knowledge and know-how had made Phuket become considerably unique and rich in history, especially in culinary culture. As the result, the city has been chosen by The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to be one of the world’s ‘Cities of Gastronomy’. The incidence has become an impulsion for the city to do further development to promote tourism through local foods. Therefore, the collaboration between academics, local businesses, authorities, and the community had been established to conduct the research that aimed to amplify the authenticity of Phuket’s local food not only preserving and promoting its recipes, but also developing the food-related environment that helps improving the tourism experiences. The objectives of this research are to study, understand, and conserve the authenticity of local Phuket food using both scientific research and design approach, and to find appropriate communication and strategies in terms of tourism attractiveness that help increasing the value of local Phuket food. In search of the food that could represent the community, there were 2 concepts that needed to be defined, the identity and uniqueness. Identity is both the characteristic of the individual and the culturally identical group sharing the same cultural

Thailand is one of the most famous destinations for tourism. According to the statistic from Tourism Authority of Thailand in 2016, the country welcomed more than 32  million tourists, and Phuket, the southern province that consists of islands situated in the Andaman Sea on the west coast of Thailand, had more than 9 million visitors owing to the famous beaches, luxurious resorts and night-life activities. The tourism industry had always tried to encourage the economic growth by boosting investments and creating jobs in the islands. However, the distribution of the tourists and their tourism expenses were only concentrated at the beaches and coastal areas, not in the city centre. Therefore, the promotion for tourism within the City of Phuket had been initiated by the cooperative of local administrative and private sectors in order to create the economy from the tourists in the city area. Phuket, one of the oldest cities in Thailand, used to be the important port on the west of the Malay Peninsula where Chinese immigrants first landed. The Chinese tin miners, who were mostly Hokkien Chinese, became the major ancestry of the people of Phuket and had brought about the strong cultural influences that had been carried down to their descendants, so-called the Peranakan Chinese. Nowadays, the Peranakan culture still appears distinctly in religious beliefs, festivals, including the food culture. Besides, due to the fact that the city used to be ruled by both Portugal and

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dishes of both categories into 3  groups based on the average percentage of recognition (see Figure 1 for savory and Figure  2 for snack/sweet dishes). The dishes from the upper-right part of the graph (1) can be considered as ‘well-known’ or ‘popular’ dishes which are well recognized by both the locals and the tourists. The downright part of the graph (2) represents dishes that are better known by locals but not among tourists. And the downleft part (3) are dishes that are less known by both locals and tourists. The ‘popular’ dishes from the savory category are, for example, Kanom Jeen Phuket (rice vermicelli with curries in Phuket style), Mee Hokkien (stir-fried yellow noodles in Hokkien style), Moo Hong (streaky pork braised in soy sauce). These menus can be found in many restaurants and food markets, some are prepared in the authentic way but in the meanwhile there are many shops

identity resulted of various conditions including: location, gender, race, history, nationality, language, sexuality, religious beliefs, ethnicity, aesthetics, and even food, which those individual or group have perceived as themselves. On the other hand, uniqueness was a concept when someone or something is unlike anything else in comparison from an outsider’s perspective. Therefore, the study had considered both identity and uniqueness from the view or local people and the tourist as an outsider.

2 2.1

IDENTITY AND UNIQUENESS OF THE LOCAL PHUKET CUISINE Perception and recognition of Baba-Nyonya dishes

There were more than 100 kinds of dishes listed as Phuket’s local food or called by the locals as ‘Baba-Nyonya Dishes’1, which is the mixture of local Thai food in the Southern area and the Hokkien Chinese food, bringing about the new genre of flavor, a little bit sweet and not as spicy as the original Thai southern food. However, some of the Baba-Nyonya dishes are not well recognized by tourists, due to the names in Hokkien Chinese, which are difficult to pronounce or to remember. The difficulty does not affect only Foreign and Thai tourists but also new generations of local Phuket whose families are no longer accustomed to the language. The research team had gathered the list of BabaNyonya dishes and had conducted online surveys on perception and recognition with 2 groups, Thai tourists and the locals, both male and female, from age 20 to more than 60. The questionnaires let the surveyed groups answer whether if they recognize each of the dish from 117 names in the list, both savory and snack/sweet dishes. The results showed that the surveyed local group recognized 52.6% of the dishes in average from the savory list, and 43% in average from the snack/sweet list. The survey of the Thai tourists presented significant difference in recognition, only 26.9% of the dishes in average from the savory list and 21.8% in average from the snack/sweet list. 2.2

Figure  1. Recognition survey on local savory Phuket Dishes analysis.

Perception and recognition analysis

The research team had brought the results from both surveyed groups and classified all of the

1

Pakdeewong K. 2002. Phuket Ethnic Food. Phuket Ratchabhat University.

Figure  2. Recognition survey on local snack/sweet Phuket Dishes analysis.

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then selected from many considerations, including the understanding of the owners on the importance of design that can increase value of products or services. The final selected food producers were comprised of different kinds of businesses; street food vendors and kiosks, packaged food manufacturers, and local restaurants.

whose ingredients or the cooking process have been slightly modified from the original due to the economic factors. The dishes from group (2) are, for example, O-Taw (pan fried small oysters with baked taro), Lo-ba (pork and entrails braised in spices), Nam Chub Yhum (chili paste with shrimps served with vegetables). These dishes are less found in touristic restaurants but more in local food markets or in-house cuisine. And group (3) is mostly composed by dishes that require complicated preparation process or contain ingredients that are more difficult to find nowadays. As shown in Figure 2, about 44% of snack/sweet dishes fell into group (3). The reason is, in addition to the names which are mostly in Hokkien Chinese, more than half of these are snack/sweet used in specific local ceremonies and are not easily found in daily life, even for some local people of the new generation who didn’t carry on the old traditions from their ancestors. 2.3

3.2 Design outcome The design team had developed the appearance, the communication, the promotion, the experience, etc., following the guidelines from the strategy each of the dishes categorized into. The design outcome could be summarized into 3 directions which had been deployed to the design of shops, environment and packaging including; 1. Emphasize the story and tell with design: some of the food producers or restaurants already had their own interesting and sensual stories which could be escalated into the design concept and told with illustrations and visual elements. 2. Associate with Phuket’s visual identity: mostly of the street vender and packaging for street foods were designed to match the Phuket’s visual identities, using motif from architectures, decorative ornaments and apparel to create the distinguishing and memorable image to the products and the producers. 3. Create identity of the food and its business: along with those two directions above, there were some food producers that didn’t have their own identity. The design team designed the logo and decorative items to the business, in order to create business identity, to make the customer recognized not only where (the city), but also who (the food producers) too.

Strategies to promote tourism through local Phuket food

From the analysis, the research team has set different development strategies to promote the dishes from the 3  groups. Dishes from group (1) which are highly perceived as ‘real local food’ by the locals and are already popular and considered ‘unique’ among tourists, need less introduction but more the awareness of how they should be prepared in the right way, in order to preserve and carry on the authentic know-how to the later generations. Dishes from group (2), which are also perceived by the locals as their ‘identity’ but are less recognized by tourists, need better promotion to show how good and unique they are in order to be more accessible. And dishes from group (3) are in need for conservation and stories of their uniqueness should be retold in a strategic way. 3 3.1

These directions were implied to the food experience design of the participants of the projects, which also demonstrated how design was integrated into the food business in Thailand in the business level.

DESIGNING TOURISM EXPERIENCE THROUGH FOOD

3.3 Design constraints

Selection on local food businesses

The research team had closely worked with the participants and the local food business owners in the designing process. The major constraints of the project that the team had found during the work that effected the implementation of the design were;

From those groups of dishes, the research team had worked with the local cultural and cuisine experts, owners of famous authentic restaurants, and guests invited by Thai Peranakan Association to conduct series of focus groups and interviews, in order to identify the type of food products or menu and the food producers that had the potential to develop for the tourism. After the screening process following the expert’s opinion on identity and uniqueness, 10 kinds of dishes were selected to the program for ‘Phuket food design for tourism’. Local businesses were

1. Manageability: The program provided the design and prototypes, but after the program, these food producers must be able to continue the design such as locally sourcing the materials. 2. Cost: While the design aimed to create more value to the tourism experience, the new design must not raise the cost to business.

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development, to attract more tourists to come and experience the local food businesses of Phuket in the future.

CONCLUSIONS

The tourism experience of local food in Phuket had been enhanced with the design to demonstrate their identity and uniqueness with memorable and distinguishing visual experience of with design in the restaurants, packaging and street vendors that associated with City of Phuket Although at the time the project had just been implemented and some of the ideas and designs had been on hold due to their business necessities, the outcome of the program has shown the potential of design and creativity that impacts the local food businesses and creates the value into city tourism. For example, the case of the development of a street food vendor in a local food market, the design team had created a new shop appearance that are more visually attractive and communicative, the feedback from the business owners were very satisfying and other shops nearby had also started to apply similar methods to their own businesses. This shows that the study successfully was the prototype to the local food businesses to adopt these ideas and processes that could lead to further

REFERENCES Abdulkador, T., 2004. Maintaining Apartheid or Promoting Change?: The Role of the Dutch Reformed Church in a Phase of Increasing Conflict in South Africa. Munich Waxmann, 85. Ennaji, M. 2005. Multilingualism, Cultural Identity, and Education in Morocco. Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 19–23. Nasution, K. 2009. Hokkien Chinese on the Phuket Mining Frontier: The Penang Connection and the Emergence of the Phuket Baba Community. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 8(2): 81–112. Sakolnakorn, T.P.N. Naipinit, A. and Kroeksakul, P. 2013. Sustainable tourism development and management in the Phuket province, Thailand. Asian Social Science, 9(7): 75. Tepsing, P. 2013. Art Identity of Sino-Portuguese Shop Houses in Phuket Town: Problems and Guidelines for Conservation and Tourism Development. Asian Social Science, 9(10): 124.

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Designing for/with food

Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Design and development of a lunchbox to carry healthy meals V. Duarte Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Barcelos, Portugal

ABSTRACT: Daily activities and the lack of alternatives often interfere in the preparation of healthy, balanced, hygienic, and delicious food. Therefore, the hypothesis discussed consists in presenting a lunchbox inserted in a healthy lifestyle context that naturally preserves food temperature. The bases of emotional design were taken into account in order to understand how the experience through emotion happens. The proposal that emerges in this work focuses a research done by different authors. Usability tests were carried out, and inquiries related to them, whose data collected were treated with the help of the SPSS statistical software and an Excel sheet, in order to obtain a qualitative and quantitative evaluation. In conclusion, it is hoped that it will be a contribution to future researches about the ways the product design can act with healthy eating. 1

INTRODUCTION

Currently, the food packaging and lunchbox market is missing a product that is simultaneously focused on the importance of choosing natural materials, on separating each food group by size in different modular containers, and on placing a hole in each container with the purpose of storing hot or frozen water to preserve the food at the desired temperature. That said, the article consists of seven sections, namely introduction, short literature review, methods used, product description, results, discussion and conclusions and future prospects.

Lunchbox is a useful interface between food and consumers; its primary functions are to protect and store food, and its secondary functions are mainly related to the importance of getting the lunchbox to communicate with the users (Norman, 2004). In this regard, the increased competition in the lunchbox and food packaging market is forcing companies and researchers to invest in a functional design that generates a positive emotional experience in the interaction between user and object, exploring, for example, the fact that materials with pleasant textures provide comfort through touch, the fact that balanced colours allow the product to convey pleasant sensations through sight, or of the fact that the shape of the product can trigger memories associated with other products or references to nature (Clarkson, 2008; Hekkert & Leder, 2008; Nefs, 2008; Schifferstein & Spence, 2008; Sonneveld & Schifferstein, 2008; Vink & De Looze, 2008). All the factors that allow a product to trigger an experience are intended to add value to it, so that it can stand out and meet the consumers’ preferences (Meiselman, 2008; Mugge et al., 2008; Shin & Wang, 2015). That said, an aesthetically appealing product was created to store, protect and carry meals, particularly healthy meals, to the workplace and while travelling, to be used either on a daily basis or occasionally. The term healthy means that there is an emphasis on the preservation of health, thus fostering healthy eating habits and raising people’s awareness to the type and amount of food they eat.

2 2.1

BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Importance of emotional design

Emotional design is developed with the purpose of triggering positive emotions (Desmet & Hekkert, 2009; Ortony & Turner, 1990; Walter, 2011). It is related to three different cerebral processing levels: visceral, behavioural and reflective. The visceral level enables quick judgements of what is good and bad, safe and dangerous, being related to the initial impact of the product. The behavioural level is associated with usage, with the experience we have via the function, performance and usability of a given object. On the other hand, the reflective level is related to the meaning and memories triggered by a product, as well as to the personal satisfaction it provides (Norman, 2004). Desmet (2002) has developed a user emotion interface measuring tool, known as PrEmo, focused on specific product characteristics. Using fourteen characters, each of which represents a

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specific emotion, users are invited to assess and describe how they feel. Furthermore, users are allowed to assign more than one emotion to the same moment, thus being able to describe more complex emotional responses. There are fourteen emotions divided into two groups—seven pleasant emotions and seven unpleasant emotions; the positive emotions are: desire, satisfaction, inspiration, fascination, amusement, pleasant surprise and admiration. The negative emotions are: disgust, boredom, indignation, unpleasant surprise, contempt, disappointment and dissatisfaction (Desmet, 2002). 3

Figure  1. From left to right: Container sketch and backpack sketch (final concept).

METHODS

In order to develop this project, the IDEO method was ideally chosen, in order to obtain a useful and pleasant solution through the process and analysis of design thinking approaches. Design thinking can be interpreted as an innovative methodology that systematically integrates technical and human factors in order to solve design-related problems (Brown, 2009). The IDEO design method is divided into five stages, known as (Brown, 2009):

Figure  2. 3D prints of the parts of one of the containers.

STL file format, to allow transferring the designs from the CAD (computer-aided design) software to the rapid 3D prototyping machine in order to physically produce the parts (Fig.  2). The prototype of the bag was made by the sewing machine. To validate the prototype, were carried out usability tests in mid-October 2016, which involved 98 individuals from the district of Aveiro, Portugal, of both genders, with ages ranging from 18 to 65. The age group was chosen considering the active population on the labour market. It was possible to divide the participants into two groups: those who care about having healthy eating habits, comprising 39  individuals, and the group of those who do not care about eating balanced meals, comprising 59 individuals. The usability tests were based on the collection and analysis of information for a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the use of the prototype and on an analysis of the emotions experienced according to desmet’s premo measuring tool. In order to handle the obtained data as a statistical analysis, was used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (SPSS) and the Excel spreadsheet.

• Empathize: it is necessary to understand the consumer. • Define and synthesize: it is important to interpret the consumer's needs and wishes. • Ideate: brainstorming ideas, which allows exploring possible solutions and alternatives. • Prototype, assess and enhance: this stage involves producing something tangible based on what was designed and selected, to test the idea and the product. • Implement and test: once there is a more consistent product, it is important to test it on the users. Initially, there were questionnaires distributed online during the month of May 2016, via the Googledocs platform, to allow identifying the possible needs of people. Then, were developed possible solutions through sketches. Next, from the 10 final concepts, was chose the most relevant one (Fig. 1). The choice of the final concept was made by 36 individuals. Once the final concept was chosen, were defined every technical and aesthetic aspect of the product. In order to define every technical aspect in detail, it was necessary to develop virtual models, 3D prints and prototypes. The volumetric studies (3D prints and prototypes), were mainly used as first attempts to turn the idea into early physical representations, in order to test them. The various parts were initially designed in Solidworks and then saved as an

4

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

Product is a bag that can also work as a backpack, which has food containers, stoppers and straps to fasten the containers’ lids inside (Figs 3, 4). In order to keep the food at the appropriate temperature, there is a hole that allows using hot

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water or water at room temperature for freezing (the container should be placed in the freezer for the water to freeze), according to the type of food that is placed in each container. The final product should have various containers, each of which is adjusted to a specific food group. The chosen food groups were suggested by the respondents, and are the following: whole grains, vegetables, legumes, fish, salad, soup, seeds, fruit and natural beverage. The sizes of the various containers were defined based on opinions provided by nutritionists. The container presented in this study is the one designed for the vegetable group; it is made from ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), because it is still a prototype, but we should note that the final product should be ceramic. The backpack is made from “burel” fabric, as this 100% natural, resistant and flexible fabric is a material with a high level of impermeability; the structure is made from cork sheets, an impactresistant material that allows protecting the containers. The colours chosen for the bag were brown and gray, as most of the possible users of the product mentioned them in the questionnaires when they were asked about their favourite colours. The container straps which allow holding the containers are also made from cork, sealing them in order to avoid liquid or food spillage or the undesirable entrance of air or dust. 5

Figure 3. Different positions of the “burel” fabric backpack (physical prototype).

RESULTS

Consequently, it was possible to observe that 51.0% of the participants in the usability tests were female, while 49% were male. In terms of the trial of the prototype, was should highlight that all the participants were able to successfully put water inside the container. With regard to the use of cutlery inside the container, was noted that 62.2% said that using cutlery to move and pick up vegetables was convenient, 7.2% disagreed and 30.6% were indifferent. On the other hand, once the vegetables and the water were inside the container and it was closed, there was no spillage of food or liquids (Fig. 5). Pleasant surprise was the most commonly experienced emotion while using the prototype. Negative emotions were less experienced than positive ones. On the other hand, there were very similar emotions among the individuals from the group of people that care about the food they eat while, by contrast, there were very different emotions among the individuals from the group that underestimates good eating habits. Finally, most of the individuals mentioned that the product under study could contribute toward encouraging people to adopt healthy eating

Figure  4. Top to bottom: Stacked containers (3D virtual models), container with lid and open container (physical prototype).

Figure  5. From top to bottom, from left to right: put water inside the container, move the container, put the cutlery inside the container and use the cutlery to move and pick up the vegetables.

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habits because, according to most of participants, by using an innovative product that is convenient, safe and pleasant to use, users feel more attracted to using it and to experience the lifestyle advocated by the project as they find it different and motivating; given that the product will have various containers whose sizes are adjusted to different healthy food groups, it will be easy for users to prepare balanced and healthy meals.

an important factor of the consumer evaluation of food products. It is necessary to determine the time users take to get the backpack ready to go on a daily basis or verify if the backpack would be suitable for this daily usage. Finally, the product under study should be improved through its redesign, followed by the development of a final prototype to be subject to further usability tests and various adjustments.

6

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

DISCUSSION

This work was carried out in the scope of the dissertation for the Master in Product Design and Development, inserted in the Design School from the Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (ESD/ IPCA), in Barcelos, entitled “Development of a project in universal design to transport healthy meals”, under the guidance of the Doctor Maria João Félix.

The results obtained through an analysis of the usability tests showed that there is the need to make several changes to the design. First of all, was noted that it would appropriate to design a cutlery-specific container. This study aims at promoting healthy eating habits and aims at developing a product that is associated with globalization and with the needs it generates. On the other hand, was can identify the need for more prototypes and usability tests to strengthen this study. The concept of product emotion is broad, because products can trigger different emotions. On the other hand, emotions are subjective, as different individuals have different emotional responses to a given object, and it is even possible for the same person to experience different emotions when faced with the same product at different times. As the users’ wishes and needs are met, more positive emotions will be shown and less negative emotions will be experienced, resulting in better interactions with the product. 7

REFERENCES Brown, T. 2009. Change by design: How design thinking transforms organizations and inspires innovation. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Clarkson, J. 2008. 6 – Human capability and product design. Product Experience: 165–198. Desmet, P.M.A. 2002. Designing emotions. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Desmet, P.M.A. & Hekkert, P. 2009. Special Issue Editorial: Design & Emotion. International Journal of Design, 3(2): 1–6. Hekkert, P. & Leder, H. 2008. 10 – Product Aesthetics. Product Experience: 259–285. Meiselman, H.L. 2008. 24 – Experiencing food products with in a physical and social context. Product Experience: 559–580. Mugge, R., Schoormans, J.P.L. & Schifferstein, H.N.J. 2008. 17 – Product attachment: design strategies to stimulate the emotional bonding to products. Product Experience: 425–440. Nefs, H.T. 2008. 1 – On the visual appearance of objects. Product Experience: 11–39. Norman, D.A. 2004. Emotional Design: why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York: Basic Books. Ortony, A. & Turner, T.J. 1990. What’s Basic About Emotions? Psychological Review, 97(3): 315–331. Schifferstein, H.N.J. & Spence, C. 2008. 5 – Multisensory product experience. Product Experience: 133–161. Shin, D. & Wang, Z. 2015. The Experimentation of Matrix for Product Emotion. Procedia Manufacturing, 3: 2295–2302. Sonneveld, M.H. & Schifferstein, H.N.J. 2008. 2 – The tactual experience of objects. Product Experience: 41–67. Vink, P. & De Looze, M.P. 2008. 18 – Crucial elements of designing for comfort. Product Experience: 441–460. Walter, A. 2011. Design for emotion. New York: A Book Apart.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

Considering the references that were studied, it is important to highlight the fact that emotional design can change the way people interact with products on a daily basis, as the products that generate positive emotions are more easily integrated into the consumers’ preferences and arouse the individuals’ interest in using them. However, the emotional design approach can also be improved through a better understanding of the users’ emotions. Another conclusion that can be drawn from is that this paper contributes to future research on the way design can act in connection with healthy eating habits, as it is focuses on the development of an innovative product aimed at encouraging people to eat appropriate meals in the appropriate quantities. The study results revealed that attitudes toward lunchbox influence consumers’ perceived product food value. Lunchbox design, therefore, is

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Experiencing Food, Designing Dialogues – Bonacho et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-57538-7

Tableware design as a method for weight reduction N. Cinovics Art Academy of Latvia, Riga, Latvia

ABSTRACT: The proportion of the population who are overweight is constantly increasing; thus associated health problems are rising globally. There are many methods on how to encourage weight loss, e.g. physical activities, stress reduction, diets, however there have been few studies on how tableware design can change eating habits, and result in weight reduction. By using case analysis as a methodology, I studied three different tableware groups—cutlery, dishes and tableware accessories. In total 29 tableware items were included in the analysis. It was concluded that among the analysed cases form was the most often applied design technique- for weight reduction. 1

INTRODUCTION

alizations or photos. Exclusion criteria: products in the initial stage of development; descriptions of design ideas; drafts or prototypes; patents without visualizations; products repeating techniques and ideas already included in the sample. In total 29 tableware design cases were included and each of them was analysed according to the following criteria: function and aim; product parts; form of the product in 2D, 3D; colour, texture, decoration and graphics; sizes; materials and components; target audience; analogues; originality; appearance or aesthetics; anthropometrics; ergonomics; user requirements; safety for use.

Being overweight is one of the main health problems which today affects 2.1  billion people worldwide—almost 30% of world’s population. (Ng et al., 2014). Being overweight can be caused by different factors and their mutual interaction. One of the factors increasing body weight, is related to large food portions. (Swinburn, et al., 2004). The amount of food intake can be influenced both by eating environment and food environment. Eating environment is defined as surrounding factors that are related to eating, but which are not dependent on food, whereas food environment includes factors directly related to how the food is presented, including all types of tableware. (Wansink, 2004) Thus, one of the methods that might reduce the risk of becoming overweight is purposeful tableware design. As stated by one of the pioneers of this approach B. Wansink “it’s easier to be slim by design than to be slim by willpower...” (Gross, 2016). The aim of this study is to analyse design techniques used in tableware design for weight reduction. 2

3 3.1

RESULTS Cutlery

Nine cutlery items (dinner forks, knifes, spoons, etc.) were included in the analysis (Table Tabula), and the analysis shows that three techniques have been used as design techniques for weight reduction—technology, form and weight. Example of technology as a design technique:

METHODS

To select cases (tableware designed with the aim to reduce their user’s body weight) Google, Trend Hunter, Dezeen search was undertaken, by using targeted search words. The cases found were divided into three groups – (1) cutlery, (2) dishes, (3) tableware accessories according to the following inclusion/exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria: the aim of the design product is (or can be equalized as) reducing weight; products which are in production, or design concepts presented as visu-

Figure 1.

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10SFork (the image is used with permission).

Table 1.

Name

Based on the theoretical literature and autoetnography, I have created heavy design cutlery Feel the Feeling as a solution for fast eating (Fig. Attēls). Each item of cutlery weighs 1.3 kg (an adult person can comfortably hold up to 1.5 kg) to reduce the speed of the eating process. The deflections in the handle are created so that the fingertips would comfortably fit in and there would be a stopping point against the surface, therefore the cutlery is safe to use, moreover, these deflections are decorative. The cutlery is designed based on the fact that satiety is reached after 20 minutes (for obese people even longer) after the initiation of the meal.

Cutlery analysis results. Main design technique Aim

10SFork

Technology To increase time between morsels (fixation of eating habits). The fork vibrates and signal with light, if the time between morsels is less than 10 seconds. Forks of Form To visually decrease amount Excess of food with different length forks—with very short ends and long handles as well as opposite—with very long ends and short handles. Silver Form To depict usual eating habits Sensations (e.g., spoon licking) through cutlery. Enhanced Form To change eating habits Tasty through synaesthesia. Formulas Jouw… Form To provide new ways to taste Cutlery food without following the rules of regular cutlery usage. Eat Fit Weight To perform some exercise while having a meal by using dumbbells attached eating zone ends of the cutlery. Feel the Weight To reduce eating pace by using Feeling heavy handles.

3.2 Dishes 21 dishes were included in the analysis group (e.g. plates, bowls, cups, glasses) (Table Tabula). The case analysis shows that four design techniques have been used for designing the dishes—graphic, form, technology and light. Example of graphic as a design technique:

Figure  3. Celebrate: The poetry of life (the image is used with permission).

10SFork is the first fork which uses technology to change the eating habits by slowing the eating process. The handle of this fork digitally records information and depicts how much time the meal takes, how many bites have been eaten, when a meal has to be planned, and most importantly— how fast actually the person eats (Fig. Tabula). The user is being warned when eating is too fast (35, with higher education

age >35, without high education

age 35, with higher education

age >35, without high education

age