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 0072866373, 9780072866377

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CLASSROOM SUGGESTIONS Accommodations �

Accommodations That Can Be Made in the General Education Classroom for Students with Lear



Examples of Instructional Grouping Accommodations for Students with Intellectual Disabilities



Accommodations for a Student Who Has Difficulty with Self-Control 209



Suggestions for Adapting the Physical Environment for Students with Blindness or Low Vision



Accommodations for Teaching Students with AD/HD 504



Differentiating Curriculum for Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 537

Classroom Examples

Procedural Forms A Sample Team-Teaching Plan 81

Direct Instruction Lesson for Teaching WORK to Students with AD/HD Online Appendix A Unit Based on Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 531

A Collaborative Plan for Working with John Language Intervention Goals and Objectives for a Teacher and Speech-Language Pathologist Working in the Collaboration Model 233 IFSP for an Infant/Toddler 457

Instructional Forms Edit “Think Sheet” Used in the Revising Stage of Writing Online Appendix A

Parent Training Scenario to Support a Child At Risk 461

Mnemonic Strategy for Teaching Students to Write a Friendly Letter 118

Responsive Home Environment for a Child At Risk 465

Skillstreaming Homework Assignment 192

504 Plan Classroom Accommodations with Rating Scale 505

A Contingency Contract 200

Lesson Plans

Modified Objectives for a Student with a Significant Hearing Loss 269

Direct Instruction Lesson for Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities the Subject of a Sentence Online Appendix A

A Checklist to Ensure Access to Learning for a Student Who Is Deaf or Hard of Hearing

Learning Sequence Lesson for Students with Intellectual Disabilities 157

Sample Work Envir

Direct Instruction Lesson for Teaching Sequence to Students with Intellectual Disabilities Online Appendix A Direct Instruction Lesson for Teaching the Social Skills Strategy: STOP Online Appendix A Direct Instruction Lesson for Teaching Sight Words to Students with a Communication Disorder Online Appendix A

Student with an OHI A Social Story 383 Samp Disabilities 417

Direct Instructional Lesson for Teaching a Child with ASD to Count 1–5 Objects Online Appendix A Form

Exceptional Students Preparing Teachers for the 21st Century

Ronald L. Taylor Florida Atlantic University

Lydia R. Smiley Florida Atlantic University

Stephen B. Richards University of Dayton

iii

Dedicated to the many students in Introduction to Special Education courses who motivated us to write this text.

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2009. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QPD/QPD 0 9 8 7 ISBN: 978-0-07-286637-7 MHID: 0-07-286637-3 Editor in Chief: Michael Ryan Publisher: Beth Mejia Senior Sponsoring Editor: Allison McNamara Marketing Manager: James Headley Director of Development: Dawn Groundwater Senior Developmental Editor: Cara Labell Production Editor: Catherine Morris Manuscript Editor: Kay Mikel Art Director: Jeanne Schreiber Design Manager: Andrei Pasternak Text Designer: Ellen Pettengell Cover Designer: Scott Idleman Inside Cover Designer: Linda Robertson Art Editor: Emma Ghiselli Illustrators: Dave Bohn, Rennie Evans, John Waller, Judy Waller Photo Research Coordinator: Nora Agbayani Photo Researcher: Judy Mason Supplements Producer: Patrick McCarthy Production Supervisor: Tandra Jorgensen Composition: 9.75/12 ITC Century Book, by Aptara Printing: 45# Pub Matte Plus, Quebecor World, Inc. Cover: Background © Japack Company/Corbis; Left © Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit Inc.; Middle © Bill Aron/PhotoEdit Inc.; Right © Gideon Mendel/Corbis. Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Taylor, Ronald. Exceptional students: preparing teachers for the 21st century / Ronald Taylor, Lydia Smiley, Stephen Richards. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-286637-7 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-286637-3 (alk. paper) 1. Special education teachers—In-service training. I. Smiley, Lydia Ruffner II. Richards, Steve III. Title. LC3969.45.T39 2008 371.9—dc22 2007047022 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com

About the Authors

Ronald L. Taylor, Ed.D. is currently professor of Exceptional Student Education at Florida Atlantic University. He received his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in Psychology at Austin College and Trinity University. He received his doctorate in Special Education from the University of Houston. Prior to coming to Florida Atlantic University, Dr. Taylor was a school psychologist and consulting teacher for a Title III grant that focused on working with culturally diverse students. He also served on the faculty in Special Education at Boston University. Dr. Taylor has published extensively, including 8 books (18 counting various editions) and over 20 chapters and 90 articles. He recently completed the eighth edition of his assessment text, Assessment of Exceptional Students: Educational and Psychological Procedures. He has received over 2 million dollars in grant funding. He is active in several professional organizations, having made over 60 presentations, and was editor of Diagnostique, the journal for the assessment division of the Council for Exceptional Children. Lydia R. Smiley, Ph.D. is a professor of Exceptional Student Education at Florida Atlantic University. She received her doctorate in Special Education from Georgia State University. Dr. Smiley co-authored Language Delays and Disorders: From Research to Practice (1998) and has also written several articles and chapters on a variety of topics. She teaches both undergraduate and graduate classes and has been the recipient of several teaching awards and the CLD Professional of the Year award. Her current interests are in methods of teaching students with mild/moderate disabilities and language disorders. Stephen B. Richards, Ed.D. is an Associate Professor and Coordinator for Intervention Specialist Programs at the University of Dayton. He received his doctorate in Special Education from Florida Atlantic University. He teaches in both the undergraduate and graduate licensure programs. He has co-authored three textbooks, Mental Retardation: Historical Perspectives, Current Practices, and Future Directions (2005); Single Subject Research and Design: Applications in Educational and Clinical Settings (1999); and Exceptional Children: Integrating Research and Teaching (1995); in addition to journal articles on a variety of topics. His current interests are in assessing the preparation of pre-service teacher education candidates for their first year in teaching.

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Brief Contents PART ONE Special Education: Fundamentals and Processes CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Special Education

1

CHAPTER 2 The Special Education Process: From Initial Identification to the Delivery of Services CHAPTER 3 School, Family, and Community Collaboration

34

63

PART TWO IDEA 04 High-Prevalence Exceptionalities: Foundations and Instruction CHAPTER 4 Students with Learning Disabilities

92

CHAPTER 5 Students with Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities

134

CHAPTER 6 Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 174 CHAPTER 7 Students with Communication Disorders

214

PART THREE IDEA 04 Low-Incidence Exceptionalities: Foundations and Instruction CHAPTER 8 Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing

252

CHAPTER 9 Students with Blindness or Low Vision 286 CHAPTER 10 Students with Physical or Health Disabilities CHAPTER 11 Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders CHAPTER 12 Students with Severe Disabilities

322

358

398

PART FOUR Other Exceptionalities: Foundations and Instruction CHAPTER 13 Students Who Are At Risk: Early Identification and Intervention CHAPTER 14 Students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder CHAPTER 15 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

438

474

510

Appendixes TEXT APPENDIX: Sample Individualized Education Program A-1 ONLINE APPENDIX A: Lesson Plans, Classroom Suggestions, and Instructional Resources ONLINE APPENDIX B: CEC Content Standards ONLINE APPENDIX C: Praxis II Exceptional Students Core Content www.mhhe.com/taylor1e

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Contents Preface

xiv

PART ONE Special Education: Fundamentals and Processes CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Special Education 1 Who Are Exceptional Students? 3 How Many Exceptional Students Are There? 5 What Are Special Education and Related Services? 7 Special Education 8 Related Services 12

What Is the History of Special Education? 16

How Are Exceptional Students Initially Identified? 36 Initial Identification of Infants, Toddlers, and Preschool Children 36 Initial Identification of School-Aged Students 37

What Are the Prereferral Process and the Referral Process? 38

Early History 16

The Prereferral Process 38

The 17th through 19th Centuries 16

The Referral Process 44

The 20th Century 17

How Has Litigation and Legislation Affected Special Education? 19 Early Court Cases 19 Early Legislation Affecting Special Education 19 Post–PL 94-142 Legislation 21 Current Legislation: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (PL 108-446) 23

What Are Some Current and Future Issues in Special Education? 28 Overrepresentation of Students from Culturally or Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds 29 Education and Transition of Infants and Toddlers 30 Role of the General Education Teacher 31

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CHAPTER 2 The Special Education Process: From Initial Identification to the Delivery of Services 34

How Do Students Become Eligible for Special Education? 45 The Use of Labels 46 Evaluation Procedures 48

How Is an Exceptional Student’s Educational Program Developed? 51 The Individualized Education Program 52 The Individual Family Service Plan 54 Decisions about Program Placement 56

CHAPTER 3 School, Family, and Community Collaboration 63

Conflict Management 76 Increasing Involvement of Diverse Families 77

What Are Best Practices for Collaboration among School Personnel? 78

What Is Collaboration? 65 A Brief History of Collaboration 67

Co-teaching 78

Key Concepts of Collaboration 67

Role of Administrators in Collaboration 80

Barriers to Collaboration 70

Role of Paraprofessionals in Collaboration 82

Role of Teams in Collaboration 72

Role of Related Services Personnel in Collaboration 83

What Are Best Practices for Collaboration between Schools and Families? 73

What Are Best Practices for Collaboration between Schools and Communities? 85

Increasing Student Involvement 73

Best Practices for Collaboration in Early Childhood 85

Increasing Family Involvement 74

Best Practices for Collaboration for Transition to Adult Living 87

Increasing Sibling Involvement 76

PART TWO IDEA 04 HighPrevalence Exceptionalities: Foundations and Instruction CHAPTER 4 Students with Learning Disabilities 92 What Are the Foundations of Learning Disabilities? 94 A Brief History of Learning Disabilities 94

CHAPTER 5 Students with Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities

134

What Are the Foundations of Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities? 136

Definitions of Learning Disabilities 96

A Brief History of Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities 136

Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 97

Definitions of Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities 137

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Learning Disabilities? 97 Causes of Learning Disabilities 98 Characteristics of Students with Learning Disabilities 99

How Are Students with Learning Disabilities Identified? 104 Response to Intervention 105 The Use of Standardized Testing 106

Prevalence of Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities 140

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities? 141 Causes of Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities 141 Characteristics of Students with Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities 144

How Are Students with Mental Retardation/ Intellectual Disabilities Identified? 147 Intelligence Testing 148

What and How Do I Teach Students with Learning Disabilities? 108 Instructional Content 108 Instructional Procedures 112

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities? 119 The Instructional Environment 120 Instructional Technology 122

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 127

Adaptive Behavior Skills Assessment 148 Academic Skills Assessment 148

What and How Do I Teach Students with Mental Retardation/ Intellectual Disabilities? 149 Instructional Content 149 Instructional Procedures 156

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities? 159

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders? 203

The Instructional Environment 159

The Instructional Environment 203

Instructional Technology 163

Instructional Technology 206

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 166

CHAPTER 6 Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 174 What Are the Foundations of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders? 176 A Brief History of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 176 Definitions of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 177 Classification of Individuals with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 178 Prevalence of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 179

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders? 181 Causes of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 181 Characteristics of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 182

How Are Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Identified? 185

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 208

CHAPTER 7 Students with Communication Disorders 214 What Are the Foundations of Communication Disorders? 216 A Brief History of Communication Disorders 216 Definition of Communication Disorders 217 Prevalence of Communication Disorders 221

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Communication Disorders? 222 Causes of Communication Disorders 222 Characteristics of Students with Communication Disorders 224

How Are Students with Communication Disorders Identified? 228 Identification of Language Disorders 228 Identification of Speech Disorders 230 Evaluation of Students Who Are Linguistically Diverse 230

Observation 186 Behavior Rating Scales 186

What and How Do I Teach Students with Communication Disorders? 232

Behavior Assessment Systems 187 Personality Inventories 187

Instructional Content 233

Projective Tests 187

Instructional Procedures 235

What and How Do I Teach Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders? 189

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Communication Disorders? 238

Instructional Content 189

The Instructional Environment 238

Instructional Procedures 193

Instructional Technology 243

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 246

PART THREE IDEA 04 LowIncidence Exceptionalities: Foundations and Instruction CHAPTER 8 Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 252 What Are the Foundations of Deafness and Hard of Hearing? 254 A Brief History of Deafness and Hard of Hearing 254 Definitions of Deafness and Hard of Hearing 256 Prevalence of Deafness and Hard of Hearing 258

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What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Deafness and Hard of Hearing? 259 Causes of Hearing Losses 259 Characteristics of Deaf Students and Those Who Are Hard of Hearing 261

How Are Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Identified? 265 Identification of Newborns and Young Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 266 Identification of School-Aged Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 266 Assessment of the Effect on Educational Performance 266

CHAPTER 10 Students with Physical or Health Disabilities 322 What Are the Foundations of Physical and Health Disabilities? 324 A Brief History of Physical and Health Disabilities 324 Definitions of Physical and Health Disabilities 325

What and How Do I Teach Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing? 267 Instructional Content 267 Instructional Procedures 271

Prevalence of Physical and Health Disabilities 325

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Physical and Health Disabilities? 327 Orthopedic Impairments 327

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing? 272

Other Health Impairments 330 Traumatic Brain Injury 334

The Instructional Environment 272 Instructional Technology 274

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 280

CHAPTER 9 Students with Blindness or Low Vision 286 What Are the Foundations of Blindness and Low Vision? 288 A Brief History of Blindness and Low Vision 288 Definitions of Blindness and Low Vision 290 Prevalence of Blindness and Low Vision 291

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Blindness and Low Vision? 291 Causes of Blindness and Low Vision 292 Characteristics of Students with Blindness or Low Vision 294

How Are Students with Blindness or Low Vision Identified? 296 Identification of Blindness or Low Vision in Infants and Toddlers 297 Identification of Blindness or Low Vision in School-Aged Students 297 Comprehensive Assessment 298

What and How Do I Teach Students with Blindness and Low Vision? 301 Instructional Content 301 Instructional Procedures 306

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Blindness or Low Vision? 309 The Instructional Environment 309 Instructional Technology 312

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 314

How Are Students with Physical or Health Disabilities Identified? 337 Identification of Orthopedic Impairments 337 Identification of Other Health Impairments 337 Identification of Traumatic Brain Injury 338

What and How Do I Teach Students with Physical or Health Disabilities? 339 Instructional Content 339 Instructional Procedures 342

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Physical or Health Disabilities? 346 The Instructional Environment 346 Instructional Technology 347

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 352

CHAPTER 11 Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 358 What Are the Foundations of Autism Spectrum Disorders? 360 A Brief History of Autism Spectrum Disorders 360 Definitions of Autism Spectrum Disorders 361 Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders 363

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders? 364 Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorders 365 Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders 366

xi

How Are Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders Identified? 372 Early Screening 372

Classification of Individuals with Severe Disabilities 402 Prevalence of Severe Disabilities 403

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Severe Disabilities? 403

Diagnosis 373

What and How Do I Teach Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders? 374 Instructional Content 374

Causes of Severe Disabilities 403 Characteristics of Students with Severe Disabilities 405

How Are Students with Severe Disabilities Identified? 411

Instructional Procedures 379

Early Childhood Assessments 411

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders? 384 The Instructional Environment 385

Assessments Used with School-Aged Students 411 Identification of Individuals with Deaf-Blindness 413

What and How Do I Teach Students with Severe Disabilities? 413

Instructional Technology 387

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 391

CHAPTER 12 Students with Severe Disabilities 398 What Are the Foundations of Severe Disabilities? 400 A Brief History of Severe Disabilities 400 Definitions of Severe Disabilities 401

Instructional Content 413 Instructional Procedures 420

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Severe Disabilities? 426 The Instructional Environment 426 Instructional Technology 429

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 432

PART FOUR Other Exceptionalities: Foundations and Instruction CHAPTER 13 Students Who Are At Risk: Early Identification and Intervention 438 What Are the Foundations of At-Risk Conditions? 441 A Brief History of At-Risk Conditions 441 The Definition of At Risk 442 Prevalence of Students Who Are At Risk 443

What Are Factors That Place Children At Risk? 444 Conditions of Established Risk 444 Conditions of Biological/Medical Risk 445 Conditions of Environmental Risk 445

What and How Do I Teach Students Who Are At Risk? 455 Instructional Content 455 Instructional Procedures 458

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students Who Are At Risk? 464 The Home Environment 464 The Instructional Environment 464 Instructional Technology 466

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 468

Protective Factors 449 Profile of an At-Risk Child 450

How Are Students Who Are At Risk Identified? 452 The Identification of Infants and Toddlers At Risk 452 The Identification of Young Children At Risk 453

CHAPTER 14 Students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 474 What Are the Foundations of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? 477 A Brief History of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 477 The Definition of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 477 Prevalence of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 478

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? 480

What and How Do I Teach Students Who Are Gifted and Talented? 526

Causes of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 480

Acceleration and Enrichment 527

Characteristics of Students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 481

Instructional Content 528

How Are Students with Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder Identified? 485 Interviews 486

Instructional Procedures 530

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students Who Are Gifted and Talented? 535

Questionnaires and Checklists 487

The Instructional Environment 535

Rating Scales 487

Instructional Technology 539

Academic Testing 488 Direct Observation 488

What and How Do I Teach Students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? 488 Instructional Content 489 Instructional Procedures 491

What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? 496 The Instructional Environment 496 Instructional Technology 499

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 503

What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? 540

APPENDIXES TEXT APPENDIX: Sample Individualized Education Program A-1 ONLINE APPENDIX A: Lesson Plans, Classroom Suggestions, and Instructional Resources ONLINE APPENDIX B: CEC Content Standards ONLINE APPENDIX C: Praxis II Exceptional Students Core Context www.mhhe.com/taylor1e GLOSSARY

CHAPTER 15 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 510 What Are the Foundations of Gifts and Talents? 512 A Brief History of Gifts and Talents 512 Definitions of Gifts and Talents 513 Prevalence of Gifts and Talents 515

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Gifts and Talents? 516 Causes of Gifts and Talents 516 Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Students 517

How Are Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Identified? 521 Identification of Preschool Children with Gifts or Talents 522 Identification of School-Aged Students with Gifts or Talents 522 Identification of Underrepresented Groups with Gifts or Talents 524 Alternative Approaches to Identification 525

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Preface When we first started teaching the Introduction to Special Education course years ago, our classes were filled with students who were excited about becoming special education teachers. As the area of Special Education has grown and evolved over the years, we have found that our classes are no longer made up solely of future special education teachers. What began with a trickle of elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers taking the course has evolved into an introductory course with a significant number of both future special educators and future general educators. Clearly, no one teacher, no one person, can ever bear full responsibility for educating exceptional students, and we are glad to see that the Introduction to Special Education course reflects this reality. The course continues to evolve, and we have struggled to find We asked ourselves: how teaching materials that support the diversity of students we see in our can we write a book that classes. Many books focus on future special educators, but few reach out speaks to the range of to both groups of future teachers—the special educator and the general educator. In response to this need, Exceptional Students: Preparing students who take the All Teachers for the 21st Century includes both foundational material course—including future that is at the core of understanding exceptionalities and practical special educators and information that is key to effective teaching. Using this format, we hope to provide future teachers with the knowledge and resources they future general educators? need to be successful, no matter what role they play in the education of exceptional students.

An Emphasis on What Teachers Need to Know and Be Able to Do

CHA PTE R

A Brief History of Learning Disabilities Definitions of Learning Disabilities Prevalence of Learning Disabilities

What Are the Causes and Characteristics of Learning Disabilities? Causes of Learning Disabilities Characteristics of Students with Learning Disabilities

How Are Students with Learning Disabilities Identified? Response to Intervention The Use of Standardized Testing

Instructional Content Types of Content Knowledge Areas of Instructional Content Transition Planning Instructional Procedures

The Instructional Environment Instructional Technology

FOUNDATIONS

F OU N D AT I O NS What Are the Foundations of Learning Disabilities?

Exceptional Students provides balanced coverage of the foundations of exceptionalities that future teachers need to know to understand their students and responsibilities, and the practical information they need to effectively teach their students. Although the general topics addressed are similar to those of other textbooks, coverage of these topics is enhanced within each chapter of Exceptional Students. Coverage of practical information related to OUT LINE instructional content, instructional procedures, the instructional environment, and instructional P R AC T I CE What and How Do I Teach Students with Learning technology has been expanded from its traditional Disabilities? treatment so that each chapter provides equal amounts of foundational and practical material. In addition, two topics crucial for future teachers What Are Other Instructional Considerations for Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities? to understand in order to best support their students—collaboration and students at risk—are What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher? stand-alone chapters.

Foundational Information for Understanding Exceptionalities The first half of each exceptionality chapter is devoted to the foundational information about exceptionalities that future teachers need to know. This section discusses the history, definitions, prevalence, causes, characteristics, and identification procedures xiv

of the specific exceptionality. Devoting the first half of the chapter to Exceptional Students foundational content provides future teachers with the groundwork they will need to make informed instructional decisions in the provides balanced coverage classroom. of the foundations of Foundational coverage is also highlighted through the An exceptionalities that future Important Event feature, which presents a key event or the publication of seminal research that has helped shape special teachers need to know to education today. Reflection questions, designed to help students understand their students consider their opinion or the importance of the event, accompany and responsibilities, and the each discussion. Examples of important events include the founding of the Council for Exceptional Children, publication of Wang and practical information they Birch’s proposal for the use of the Adaptive Learning Environment need to have to effectively Model, and publication of the results of the Carolina Abecedarian teach their students. Project. Even though Exceptional Students emphasizes practical applications, we believe it is vital for students to understand how special education has evolved and to consider their place in its continuing development.

Practical Information to Guide Classroom Planning and Instruction The second half of each exceptionality chapter provides instructional and pedagogical information future teachers need to know to effectively teach students. This part of the chapter is organized around instructional content, instructional procedures, the instructional environment, and instructional technology, as well as specific considerations for the general education teacher. In addition, the general education section introduces topics that are important when planning and implementing instruction for students with special needs within the general education classroom. Practical strategies are also highlighted in the following features:

Chapter-opening Case Study and Revisit Opportunities Each chapter begins with a scenario describing a student with special needs in the context of his or her educational experience. Throughout the chapter, readers are presented with related questions called Revisits, which ask students to apply key concepts they have just learned to an actual situation. These cases tie the chapter together, allow for contextual learning, and offer an instructor several additional topics for discussion. For example, in Chapter 8, the reader is introduced to Allison, a student with a hearing loss. Later in the chapter, the reader is asked whether Allison would be considered deaf or hard of hearing, what issues she might have with her identity, and how her teacher might plan for accommodations during literacy instruction.

INT RO DUC ING A L L ISO N Allison is a 6-year-old girl who has just

Allison uses hearing aids that make

ologist will provide consultation to

started the first grade. She has a hear-

it possible for her to learn using her

Allison’s parents, teachers, and speech

ing loss resulting from repeated and

auditory channel. Her speech and lan-

and language pathologist to ensure her

severe ear infections in infancy and

guage skills are delayed, likely the

hearing aids are working properly, are

throughout her early childhood. The

result of not hearing adequately in

being maintained, and are being used

infections resulted in a bilateral con-

early childhood. Her parents are con-

as effectively as possible.

ductive hearing loss. Her loss is mild to

cerned about her literacy skills devel-

moderate—she does not hear clearly

opment as she begins school. Because

until sounds reach a 40 decibel level.

she qualified for early intervention, the

She experiences this hearing loss

school and Allison’s parents developed

across all frequencies of sound detect-

an IEP for her. She receives speech

able by the human ear. Prior to enter-

and language services regularly. An

ing school, Allison received early

itinerant teacher for students who are

intervention services at home from an

deaf or hard of hearing provides con-

audiologist and early childhood special

sultation to her general education

educator. Because of her frequent ill-

teacher. The team did not feel they

nesses, she only sporadically attended

should “pull out” Allison for resource

a center-based preschool program.

room services if her literacy skills,

With time, medical interventions

which will be monitored and assessed

greatly reduced the infections and

frequently, can be developed in her

their severity.

general education class. Also, an audi-

xv

Classroom Suggestions Classroom Suggestions Strategies to Promote Family Involvement ❑

Provide professional development.



Teach families their rights under state and federal laws.



Plan for family input and seek that input regularly. Family members are important in providing information about the social, behavioral, communication, academic skill, and curriculum needs of their child. Involve family members as critical decision makers in the life of the child.



Use plain language that family members can understand.



Show respect for ethnicity/culture and language.



Adjust meeting schedules to accommodate family schedules (for example, scheduling IEP meetings after school when parents are not at work).



Expand parents’ and siblings’ roles as appropriate to the family’s wishes and abilities, such as providing academic support (for example, tutoring, helping with homework), going on field trips, chaperoning, and other appropriate activities.

Source: Taylor, G. R. (2004). Parenting skills & collaborative services for students with disabilities. Lanham, MD: ScarecrowEducation.

While writing this text, we interviewed and surveyed hundreds of teachers, both in the classroom and in Colleges of Education. The universal cry for “more strategies!” rang through loud and clear. In response, each chapter includes several Classroom Suggestions with strategies and tips. These clear, concise strategies serve as miniguides for future teachers, giving them confidence to enter their classrooms ready to handle myriad situations. Examples of Classroom Suggestions include Strategies to Promote Family Involvement, Guidelines for Implementing Cooperative Learning, Examples of Instructional Grouping Accommodations for Students with Intellectual Disabilities, and Accommodations for a Student Who Has Difficulty with Self-Control.

Classroom Examples Classroom Example A Sample Team-Teaching Plan The Plan Learning Goal: Students will be able to use place values concepts to represent whole numbers and decimals using numerals, words, expanded notation, and physical models (Ohio Content Area Standards: Grade Three Mathematics: Numbers and Number Systems). Lesson Objective: Students will be able to describe the multiplicative nature of the number system (e.g., 2520 can be represented as 2 1000 5 100 2 10 0 1). IEP Objectives (as appropriate): John will be able to apply principles of multiplication to solve computational and word problems with 90% accuracy.

Exceptional Students does not just talk about what future teachers will find or use in class, but shows them by including classroom artifacts and sample handouts of real and relevant student and teacher work. For example, the text shares a sample TeamTeaching plan, a Contingency Contract, and a Social Story with picture cues to assist with waiting in line in the cafeteria.

Instructional Grouping: Students will be in one large group for initial instruction (one teach, one assist), followed by students being divided for smaller group instruction (parallel teaching), and finally divided into one smaller homogeneous group and one large homogeneous group (alternative teaching). I

t

ti

Meet the Educator

l A ti iti

In Practice Meet Educator Michael Woods and His Student Kathy

I

teach learning strategies at an urban high school in one of the nation’s largest school districts. I have taught for over 14 years, primarily at the high school level, though I have worked with students at all levels. My area of expertise is postsecondary transition and independent living skills. I was honored to receive the 2004 Teacher of the Year Award in my school district. My student Kathy is an 11th grader who has been receiving services for

xvi

learning disabilities since the 4th grade. She was in a pullout resource room setting through middle school. She was gradually included more and more in general education and now, with the exception of her learning strategies class, attends all classes in an inclusive general education setting. She is working on a standard diploma, and her IEP goals are directed at teaching her learning strategies to support her success in the inclusive environment. Kathy has experienced success in her elective courses (art, physical education, cooking). However, she requires extensive support in her academic courses. These supports include teaching her cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies in reading comprehension, study skills, essay and short answer test taking skills, and report writing. Additionally, Kathy needs to develop selfadvocacy skills. She shows some limitations when it comes to communicating her needs and/or questions to her general education teachers. She describes talking to her teachers as “difficult.” When asked why, she replies, “I don’t want to feel stupid … there are only a few teachers I am good at talking with.”

I had to help her feel more positive about her ability to meet these requirements. I pointed out that she could be successful if she tried hard and applied the strategies she learned in her strategies class.

Instructional Content and Procedures Like many students with learning disabilities, Kathy and the students in my learning strategies course require ongoing instruction in organizational strategies, study skills, self-advocacy, and written expression. For that reason, whole group lessons have been created to provide both support and reinforcement of these activities. I have taught Kathy to use graphic organizers to better understand her reading assignments. She has learned to attend to the text organization patterns (for example, chronological, compare-contrast, or cause-effect) and to select a graphic organizer that she can apply to that particular chapter or text. She has also learned to attend to the visual cues in each of her texts, including bold print and marginal notes. As another example, I focus on note taking and

As teachers, we know that students often forget concepts and definitions but remember stories. Each chapter devoted to a particular exceptionality includes a classroom case study presented in a teacher’s voice that applies and personalizes the content. Teachers throughout the country provided us with their experiences to help future teachers experience real learning and teaching situations. The student’s background, characteristics, learning challenges, and strengths are described alongside the teacher’s implementation of instructional content and strategies, the instructional environment and technology, and collaboration. The feature is designed to show how the topics introduced in the practical half of the chapter are used in a real teaching situation. For example, in Chapter 4, educator Michael Woods shares his experiences teaching Kathy, an 11th grader who has a learning disability. Michael discusses how he has supported her study and self-advocacy skills to help her succeed in school.

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Practical Considerations for the Classroom

Students with Learning Disabilities

What IDEA 04 Says about Learning Disabilities: Learning Disabilities is an IDEA 04 category. IDEA defines learning disabilities as “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, spell, or do mathematical calculations.” Disorders included are perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Disorders not included are learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; mental retardation; emotional disturbance; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Identification Tools: The general classroom teacher often makes the initial identification based on classroom observation and performance, and state- or districtwide assessments. Prereferral Assessment and RTI Approaches: Possibly uses criterion-referenced testing, curriculum-based assessment, and criterion-referenced measurement. Formal Identification: Several sources are used for identification. They may include intelligence and achievement tests, tests measuring process skills, and language and academic tests. The response to intervention approach may also be used.

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Characteristics

Indicators You Might See

Teaching Implications

Methodologies and Strategies to Try

Considerations for the General Classroom and Collaboration

Related to Reading

May have problems with phonological awareness or processing; rapid automatic naming; word recognition (mispronunciation; skipping, adding, or substituting words; reversing letters or words; difficulty blending sounds together); and comprehension (due to lack of background knowledge, difficulty understanding text structure, and vocabulary deficits).

Instructional Content

• Task Analysis (p. 113)

• Most students with learning disabilities will participate in the general education curriculum. They will most likely need intensive instruction in the process of learning and in the content of learning. • Consider need for the curriculum to include declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge. • Consider the Direct Instruction program for reading. • Support content areas of reading (phonological awareness, decoding and comprehension), written language (teaching writing as a process), mathematics (computation and problem solving), and study skills (such as listening, note taking, time management, comprehending textbook usage and memory strategies). • Transition planning should include the development of goal setting and self-advocacy.

• Direction Instruction (p. 113)

Instruction generally occurs in the general education classroom.

• Cognitive Strategies (p. 115)

The general education teacher should:

• Metacognitive Strategies (p. 115)

• Establish a positive climate that promotes valuing and accepting personal responsibility for learning. • Consider accommodations such as modified instructional methods or materials, assignments and tests, time demands and scheduling, and the learning environment. • Consider adapting the academic content. • Consider a parallel or overlapping curriculum.

Related to Mathematics

Possible problems with basic number facts, calculation, application, language of math, problem solving, oral drills and worksheets, word problems, math anxiety, and retrieving information from long-term memory.

Writing and Written Expression Characteristics

Possible problems with handwriting, spelling, or written language/ written expression (punctuation, vocabulary, and sentence structure).

Expressive and Receptive Language Characteristics

Possible problems with Producing and understanding language.

Cognitive-Related Characteristics

Possible problems with attention, memory, strategy use, and metacognition.

Social and Emotional Characteristics

Possible social skills deficits, and problems with social cognition and relationships with others. May have fewer friends and less social status than peers. Possible behavioral problems include depression, anxiety disorders, and antisocial personality disorder. May also display learned helplessness.

Instructional Procedures • Provide a structured instructional program with daily routines and expectations; clear rules; curriculum presented in an organized, sequential fashion; and a focus on learning tasks rather than extraneous stimuli. • In planning, consider what, how, and when to teach; provide activities for practice, feedback, and evaluation; organize and pace the curriculum; and provide smooth transitions. • Consider using task analysis and direct instruction. • Consider using cognitive and metacognitive strategies instruction. Consider whether using the Learning Strategies Curriculum would be of use in teaching academics and social interaction. Consider attribution retraining. • Effective instructional practices for ELLs include using visuals to reinforce concepts and vocabulary, utilizing cooperative learning and peer tutoring, making strategic use of the native language by allowing students to organize their thoughts in their native language, providing sufficient time and opportunity for students to use oral language and writing in formal and informal contexts, and focusing on rich vocabulary words during lessons to be used as vehicles for teaching literary concepts. Also consider providing simplified, appealing, multisensory lectures; adapting textbooks and assignments; and using supplementary materials.

• Mnemonics (p. 117) • Attribution Retraining (p. 118)

Collaboration General and special educators should consult on: • Determining the curriculum • Developing accommodations • Choosing procedures and strategies • Planning the physical environment • Planning for assistive technology

Instructional Environment • Reduce congestion in high-traffic areas, make sure you can see all students, make frequently used materials and supplies easily accessible, ensure that all students can see whole class presentations. • For preschool students, the environment should be structured and promote efficiency, accessibility, independence, and functionality. It should also promote language and literacy development. • For elementary and secondary students, the environment should be organized to prevent “dead time.” Structure and routine are important. Space should be available for individual work, large and small group work, peer tutoring, and cooperative learning. Decrease possible distractions. • Effective grouping options include one-to-one instruction, small group, whole class, peer tutoring, and classwide peer tutoring.

Practical Considerations for the Classroom Concluding each chapter, Practical Considerations for the Classroom: A Reference for Teachers provides an at-a-glance practical summary the future teacher can take into the classroom. Sections of the feature include What IDEA Says about the Specific Exceptionality, Identification Tools, Characteristics, Indicators You Might See, Teaching Implications, Methodologies and Strategies to Try, Considerations for the General Classroom, and Collaboration.

Coverage of Collaboration We strongly believe that helping our future teachers to be part of a collaborative team will result in a better educational experience for the exceptional student, the general education teacher, and the special education teacher. We dedicate a complete chapter (Chapter 3) to the foundations of collaboration. The chapter provides an introduction to collaboration including its history and key concepts and the roles of different team members. It also explores best practices in collaboration among schools and families, between school personnel, and between schools and communities. In addition, we’ve integrated issues of collaboration in individual chapters where relevant.

Coverage of Students at Risk As part of our belief in including practical and relevant information for all future teachers, we have included a chapter dedicated to at-risk children (Chapter 13). Regardless of whether they receive services under Part C of IDEA 04, children at risk may be identified as needing services through Part B of IDEA 04. If identified early and addressed properly, the learning challenges of some of these students can be remediated without formal identification. This chapter enables future teachers to identify students who may be at risk and provide them with the appropriate supports. xvii

Integration of Key Topics Based on our experience teaching introduction to special education courses, we have chosen to integrate the coverage of several key topics throughout the chapters rather than isolate them in their own chapters. This approach better shows the topics’ relevance to the exceptionality being discussed. Integrated topics include: • Inclusion: The inclusive classroom is first introduced in Chapter 2 (The Special Education Process). To further emphasize the importance of this topic, and to discuss it in a relevant and practical manner, the final section of each chapter in Parts Two–Four focuses on the inclusive, general education classroom. As members of the collaborative special education team, both the special education teacher and the general education teacher benefit from fully understanding inclusion. It prepares the future general education teacher for a classroom with exceptional students and enables the future special education teacher to better understand general classroom needs, thereby fostering better collaboration. • Student Cultural Diversity: Diversity is first introduced in Chapter 1 (An Overview of Special Education) and then discussed within each chapter. For example, effective instructional strategies for English language learners with learning disabilities are suggested in Chapter 4 (Students with Learning Disabilities); working with families from diverse backgrounds when implementing assistive technology for students with intellectual disabilities is discussed in Chapter 5 (Students with Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disabilities); and the underidentification of culturally diverse gifted students is explored in Chapter 15 (Students Who Are Gifted and Talented). • Technology: Technology offers a range of support and learning opportunities for students. With the explosive growth of technology tools, an understanding of how and when to use these tools and their benefits should be discussed. Each chapter in Parts Two–Four presents a section on relevant technologies useful in the instruction and support of students with special needs. • Early Intervention and Transition: Like technology, early intervention and transition issues vary by exceptionality. Coverage ranges from the importance of early intervention with children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder, to special transition support, such as for postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities.

Features That Support Student Learning Students in our classrooms not only need to read textual information but also need to understand, analyze, and synthesize the large amount of material presented to them. Exceptional Students includes the following pedagogical aids as guides for future teachers, resulting in more application and a better understanding of special education. • Chapter Opening Outline: Each chapter begins with a chapter outline designed as an advance organizer to prepare the reader for the content to come. • Check Your Understanding: Concluding each major section are several questions presented to check understanding of key ideas. This allows students to learn and digest material in smaller chunks. By using this tool, students can work through the material at their own pace, checking that they fully understand one concept before moving to the next.

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• Marginal Definitions of Key Terms: For easy reference, full definitions of key terms are presented in the margin next to where they appear in the chapter. These definitions are also available in the glossary at the end of the text. • Links to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards: Understanding CEC standards and how each concept and strategy supports those standards is of the utmost importance to future teachers. Marginal notations key relevant CEC standards to section content, thereby allowing students to see these standards in context. For instructors, these icons show where and how course materials are relevant to the relevant standards. • Chapter Summary: Key concepts are highlighted to reinforce an understanding of the most important concepts and provide an effective tool for studying. • Reflection Questions: Chapter-ending reflection questions encourage debate, collaborative projects, active learning, or, simply, reflection. They provide the instructor with easy ways to assign meaningful in- and out-of-class contextual learning opportunities. • Application Activities: For Learning and Your Portfolio: These field-based activities provide students with an opportunity to apply what they are learning in real environments, to use real life materials and data, and to interact with people from the schools and community.

Supplemental Offerings Exceptional Students is accompanied by a wealth of teaching and learning resources. • Instructor’s Manual by Tandra Tyler-Wood, University of North Texas. Each chapter includes an overview, objectives, outline, and key vocabulary list; teaching strategies; classroom activities; alternative assessment activities; possible responses to the Revisit questions asked in the text; and additional case studies and examples. • Test Bank by Donna Kearns, University of Central Oklahoma. Each chapter is supported by multiple-choice and true/false questions categorized by type of question and level of difficulty, and essay questions. • EZTest Online Computerized Test Bank. Test questions are available electronically through EZTest. EZTest is a flexible and easy-to-use program that enables instructors to create tests from book-specific items combined with their own items. Multiple versions of the test can be created, and any test can be exported for use with course management systems such as WebCT and Blackboard. In addition, EZ Test Online is accessible virtually anywhere via the Web, and eliminates the need to install testing software. Instructors also have the option of delivering tests through iQuiz™ via students’ iPods™. • PowerPoint Slides by Donna Kearns, University of Central Oklahoma. The PowerPoint slides cover the key points of each chapter and include charts and graphs from the text. The PowerPoint presentations serve as an organization and navigation tool, and can be modified to meet your needs. • Video Clips. These clips offer a view inside actual special education and general education classroom settings, demonstrating the key concepts and a number of the instructional strategies covered in the text. • Classroom Performance System (CPS) Content by Richael Barger-Anderson, Slippery Rock University. Each chapter includes objective and opinion questions to be used in a Classroom Performance System (“clickers”) to gauge student understanding and spark discussion. • Course Management Cartridges. Cartridges including material from the Online Learning Center and the test bank are available and can be customized to match your course. Our cartridges are free for adopting instructors.

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• Online Learning Center—Student Study Guide with quizzes by Craig Rice, Middle Tennessee State University. The Online Learning Center houses a student study guide including a study checklist and practice quizzes, Web links for further exploration, and online appendices with additional classroom examples. • Annual Editions: Educating Children with Exceptionalities 07/08 by Karen Freiberg. This collection of reprinted contemporary articles from sources such as Teaching Exceptional Children, Educational Leadership, and Intervention in School and Clinic can be packaged with Exceptional Students for a reduced price.

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Acknowledgments We want to start by thanking our significant others— Yvette, Dave, and Joyce—for putting up with us for the many, many hours we ignored them as we were involved in this project. Just as it takes a team to educate students with exceptionalities, so it does to write a textbook. We gratefully acknowledge the feedback, guidance, and contributions offered by our expert consultants who helped ensure current and comprehensive coverage in their areas of specialty; design consultants who commented on the cover and interior designs; peer reviewers who teach relevant college courses and were able to suggest how chapters or discussions could be improved to best meet the way they teach and their students learn the course content; and the practicing teachers who shared their experiences of teaching students with exceptionalities. Finally, we would like to thank Tandra TylerWood, Donna Kearns, Richael Barger-Anderson, and Craig Rice for their hard work on the supplements program.

Expert Consultants

Susan Simmerman, Utah Valley State College James Thompson, Illinois State University Shirley E. Thompson, Valdosta State University

Peer Reviewers Gary Allison, University of Delaware Ellyn Lucas Arwood, University of Portland Richael Barger-Anderson, Slippery Rock University Dawn Behan, Upper Iowa University Rebecca Newcom Belcher, Northwest Missouri State University Dawn Berlin, California State University, Dominguez Hills Carrie Ann Blackaller, California State University, Dominguez Hills Sally Burton-Hoyle, Eastern Michigan University Kathleen M. Chinn, New Mexico State University Denise Clark, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh

Hank Bersani, Western Oregon University

Martha Cocchiarella, Arizona State University-Tempe

Diane P. Bryant, The University of Texas at Austin

Christina Curran, Central Washington University

Barbara Clark, California State University, Los Angeles

Stephen Dempsey, Emporia State University

Belva Collins, University of Kentucky

J’anne Ellsworth, Worthman University

Maureen Conroy, The University of Florida

Theresa Estrem, University of Minnesota

Thomas N. Kluwin, Gallaudet University S. Jay Kuder, Rowan University

Richard Evans, University of Texas, Permian Basin

Janet Lerner, Northeastern Illinois University

Bob Faulk, University of Memphis

Brenda Myles, The University of Kansas

Mary Fisher, Purdue University

J. David Smith, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Constance J. Fournier, Texas A&M University

Joyce VanTassel-Baska, The College of William and Mary

Kenneth Coffey, Mississippi State University

Jo Webber, Texas State University, San Marcos Sydney S. Zentall, Purdue University

Douglas Eicher, Missouri Western

Derrick Fries, Eastern Michigan University Dan Glasgow, Northeastern State University Blanche Jackson Glimps, Tennessee State University Patrick Grant, Slippery Rock University

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Design Consultants

Barbara Green, University of Central Oklahoma

Patricia Campbell, Valdosta State University

Holly Hoffman, Central Michigan University

Robert E. Faulk, University of Memphis

Jack Hourcade, Boise State University

Holly Hoffman, Central Michigan University

Susan Hupp, University of Minnesota

Donna Kearns, University of Central Oklahoma

Nithya Narayanaswamy Iyer, SUNY, Oneonta

Craig Rice, Middle Tennessee State University

Donna Kearns, University of Central Oklahoma

Myung-sook Koh, Eastern Michigan University Wilbert Corry Larson, Eastern Kentucky University

Linda Svobodny, Minnesota State University Moorhead Kristine Swain, University of Nebraska, Omaha

Marcel Lebrun, Plymouth State College

James Thompson, Illinois State University

Barbara Lee, Kean University

Shirley E. Thompson, Valdosta State University

Yeun joo Lee, California State University, Bakersfield

Tandra Tyler-Wood, University of North Texas

Joan D. Lewis, University of Nebraska, Kearney

Phillip Waldrop, Middle Tennessee State University

Reid Linn, James Madison University

Doreen Vieitez, Joliet Junior College

Carmelita Lomeo-Smrtic, Mohawk Valley Community College

Robin Wells, Eastern New Mexico University

Joy McGehee, Northwestern State University

James Yanok, Ohio University

Dianna McNair, Central Washington University

Dalun Zhang, Clemson University

Barbara Wert, Bloomsberg University

Joseph Merhaut, Slippery Rock University Martha Meyer, Butler University Dorothy D. Miles, Saint Louis University N. Kagendo Mutua, University of Alabama Joseph Nolan, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Anne Papalia-Berardi, Millersville University

Practicing Teachers Joanne Bennett, Horizon Elementary School, FL Juliana Berry, Smith Elementary School, TX Kimberly DiLorenzo, Forest Hills Elementary School, FL

E. Michelle Pardew, Western Oregon University

Carol Elder, Graves County Central Elementary School, KY

Kathlyn Parker, Eastern Michigan University

Barbara Gejer, Arnold Elementary School, CA

Loreena Parks, Eastern Michigan University

Christine Honsberger, Early Steps, FL

Linda Parrish, Texas A&M University Darcie Peterson, Utah State University

Toby Honsberger, Renaissance Learning Center, FL

Barbara Rebhuhn, University of Wisconsin–River Falls

Varie Hudson Hawkins, Wesley Lakes Elementary School, GA

Craig Rice, Middle Tennessee State University

Ingrid Huisman, Williams High School, TX

Patricia Rippe, Peru State College Phyllis Robertson, University of Texas, Austin

Amanda Norris, Mason County Intermediate School, KY

Lynne A. Rocklage, Eastern Michigan University

Carlotta Rody, Cross Creek School, FL

Loline Saras, Kutztown University

Jamie Mendelsohn, P.S. 59 Beekman Hill Elementary School, NY

Susan Simmerman, Utah Valley State College Scott Sparks, Ohio University Terry Spigner, University of Central Oklahoma Georgine Steinmiller, Henderson State University Linda Strunck, Ball State University

Dian Trompler, Remington Elementary School, OK Michael Woods, Forest Hills High School, FL Jamie Worrell, Howell L. Watkins Middle School, FL

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C H A PTER 1

An Overview of Special Education

C HA PTER O UTL INE Who Are Exceptional Students? How Many Exceptional Students Are There? What Are Special Education and Related Services? Special Education Related Services

What Is the History of Special Education? Early History The 17th through 19th Centuries The 20th Century

T

How Has Litigation and Legislation Affected Special Education? Early Court Cases Early Legislation Affecting Special Education Post–PL 94-142 Legislation Current Legislation: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (PL 108-446)

What Are Some Current and Future Issues in Special Education? Overrepresentation of Students from Culturally or Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds Education and Transition of Infants and Toddlers Role of the General Education Teacher

his book is about teaching exceptional students—what both special education and general education teachers, and other professionals, can do to educate students with special needs to the maximum extent possible. It covers foundational information on the history, definitions, prevalence, causes, characteristics, and identification of exceptional students that teachers need to understand in order to make informed decisions for the classroom. Perhaps more importantly, in this book we discuss practical information regarding the instructional content, procedures, environment, and technology that teachers will use in their day-to-day activities. Teaching exceptional students is a challenging, rewarding, and sometimes both a frustrating and joyful endeavor. Through research and continued teaching, we are constantly discovering more and more about the characteristics, capabilities, and educational needs of exceptional students. Similarly, we have learned a great deal about the educational approaches to use with students with special needs. However, we have also learned that just as each student has individual characteristics, needs, and strengths and weaknesses, there is no single approach, theory, or philosophy that gives us all the answers or will be relevant for all exceptional students. Current federal law requires that students with disabilities be taught using scientifically based instruction. With this in mind, the approaches, models, and techniques discussed in this text are supported by research. We share this research-based information for you to use as you begin your personal collection of approaches, models, and techniques to be implemented with your students with different needs. In this first chapter, we provide you with the foundational understanding you need to explore the different categories of exceptionality and to effectively support and teach students with exceptionalities. We first explain how exceptional students are defined and how many exceptional students are being served in the schools. This leads to an explanation of the meaning and intent of special education and related services. Next, we provide an overview of the history of the treatment and education of individuals with exceptionalities. We then discuss the litigation and legislation that defines special education today, and that will, in many cases, outline your responsibilities in the classroom. We conclude this chapter by introducing you to three issues in special education that we will revisit throughout the text: (1) the overidentification of students from culturally and

linguistically diverse backgrounds in many categories of disability, (2) the need for early intervention and transition of young children with disabilities, and (3) the important role of the general education teacher.

Who Are Exceptional Students? In the simplest terms, an exceptional student is one whose educational needs are not met by traditional educational programs so that a special education program is necessary. An exceptional student may have a disability, such as a learning disability, or a significant gift or talent. Many terms are used in the field of special education, some that you probably are familiar with and others that you might not be. Before we go any further, we will make a distinction between three important terms that are sometimes incorrectly used interchangeably: impairment, disability, and handicap. An impairment refers to a loss or abnormality of a psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. For example, Devon, who had a diving accident and is paralyzed below his waist, has an impairment. A disability is a limitation that is inherent in the individual as a result of the impairment, whereas a handicap is caused when an individual encounters a situation based on external factors. For example, Devon has a disability due to a lack of mobility caused by his paralysis. Devon would also have a handicap if he wanted to enter a building that has stairs but no ramp for his wheelchair. A person with a disability does not have to have a handicap. In fact, it should be a goal to ensure that no person with a disability also has a handicap. For example, some universities, through their Office of Students with Disabilities, make sure that the courses attended by students who use wheelchairs are offered on the first floor of buildings in case the elevators break down. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA), an earlier version of the current federal law, first recommended that the term disability replace the term handicap, which had been used in previous legislation. To be consistent with the recommended terminology, we use the term handicap when referring to legal information prior to 1990 and the term disability for information after 1990. Another recommendation made by IDEA was the use of “person-first” terminology that emphasizes the individual first and then the disability. For

exceptional student A student whose educational needs are not met by traditional education programs. An exceptional student can have a disability or can have gifts and talents. impairment A loss or abnormality of a psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. disability A limitation that is inherent in an individual as a result of the impairment. handicap A problem an individual encounters based on external factors. Relevant CEC Standards Issues in definition and identification of individuals with exceptional learning needs, including those from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (CC1K5) Similarities and differences of individuals with and without exceptional learning needs (CC2K5)

A person with a disability does not have to have a handicap.

Who Are Exceptional Students?

3

example, prior to IDEA an individual might be referred to as “a learning disabled student” or “an orthopedically impaired child.” Now, the appropriate terminology is “a student with a learning disability” and “a child with an orthopedic impairment.” Students are defined as having a disability, and in need of special education, based on criteria outlined in the most recent federal law, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, referred to as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA 04), which guides today’s special education practices. This law is discussed in depth later in this chapter and will be referred to throughout the text. IDEA 04 identifies the following specific types, labels, or categories of students who are considered as having a disability: A child evaluated . . . as having mental retardation,* a hearing impairment (including deafness), a speech or language impairment, a visual impairment (including blindness), a serious emotional disturbance (referred to . . . as “emotional disturbance”),* an orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, an other health impairment, a specific learning disability, deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities, and who by reason thereof, needs special education and related services.

IDEA 04 also states that, as a result of the disability, the student must need special education and related services to qualify for funding and services. For example, Sara, a student with diabetes, has a medical condition included under the other health impairment category. However, her diabetes is controlled through insulin shots administered at home, and she is having no particular difficulties academically. Therefore, she would not qualify for IDEA 04 funding and services. Parts 2 and 3 of this text contain chapters that provide foundational and practical classroom information related to children classified with disabilities by each of these categories outlined by Part B of IDEA 04, which focuses on the education of school-aged children. Additionally, Part 4 of this text explores three areas of exceptionality not specifically identified in Part B of IDEA 04—students who are at risk, students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD), and students with gifts and talents. Students who are at risk have a high probability of being classified into an IDEA 04 category in the future if certain problems cannot be resolved through intervention. They may be eligible for services under Part C of IDEA 04. Students with AD/HD are often provided services through the IDEA 04 category of other health impairments or may receive educational accommodations under Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (discussed later in this chapter). These students also frequently have another disability, such as a learning disability, and might receive services under that category. Even though gifted and talented students are not included under IDEA 04, they are acknowledged and supported through the Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented Education Act, most recently reauthorized in 2001. Check Your Understanding 1.

What is the definition of an exceptional student?

2.

What is the difference between an impairment, a disability, and a handicap?

3.

Students with which disabilities are served under IDEA 04?

4.

Students with which exceptionalities not served under IDEA 04 are teachers likely to encounter in their classrooms?

*Although IDEA 04 uses the term mental retardation, we have chosen to use the term intellectual disability in this text. Intellectual disabilities is considered a less derogatory term by many parents and professionals. We will refer to mental retardation when discussing it as an IDEA 04 category and when referring to historical information such as early research and court cases. Similarly, the term emotional or behavioral disorder will be used in place of emotional disturbance whenever appropriate as this term better reflects the nature of the category.

4

Chapter 1 An Overview of Special Education

How Many Exceptional Students Are There? Two terms are typically used when describing the number of exceptional students. Incidence refers to the number of individuals identified as falling into a particular category for the first time during a specific period. The period of time used to determine incidence figures can vary, although one year is frequently used. We might find, for instance, that the number of individuals with emotional disturbance, ages 6 through 17 years, identified for the first time during 2009 was 9,500. Prevalence, on the other hand, refers to the total number of individuals who are in a given category at a particular point in time. For example, we might find that the total number of individuals ages 6 through 17 years with emotional disturbance in 2009 was 500,000. Prevalence is often expressed as a percentage of the total population in a particular category. In our example, if the total population of individuals ages 6 to 17 years was 50 million in 2009, the prevalence of individuals with emotional disturbance in that age range would be 1%. Incidence and prevalence rates are not interchangeable. As an example, Grossman (1983) pointed out that in underdeveloped countries, the incidence of mental retardation is relatively high because of problems such as poor nutrition and lack of prenatal care. However, because of the high mortality rate of these children, the prevalence is relatively low. For practical purposes, prevalence is more useful than incidence because it gives an indication of the total number of individuals who are actually receiving special education services; therefore, we report prevalence figures rather than incidence figures in this text. Although prevalence rates are often estimates that have remained relatively consistent over the years, the most pragmatic method of determining the prevalence figures is to identify the percentage of individuals who are actually identified and receiving special education services. In 2004–2005, the percentage of the total number of school-aged students (ages 6–17) who received special education services under IDEA was 11.6%, or approximately 6 million students (United States Department of Education [U.S. DOE], 2006). This number does not include gifted and talented students. Reports indicate that more than 2.3 million students received services for gifts and talents in 2001–2002 (Council of State Directors of Programs for the Gifted, 2003). Although data from these two studies come from different years, they suggest that exceptional students make up approximately 15% of the school-aged population. Figure 1.1 shows the percentage of students ages 6–17 receiving services in each category of disability as reported by IDEA as a function of the total population and of all students with disabilities. Almost half of all students ages 6–17 with disabilities fall into the learning disability category. In fact, 9 out of 10 students with disabilities (90.3%) fall into one of five categories: learning disabilities (45.3%), speech or language impairments (19%), other health impairments (9.3%), mental retardation (8.9%), and emotional disturbance (7.8%). The percentage of students in different categories receiving special education has changed over the years. Figure 1.2 shows the increases and decreases in the various categories of disabilities between 1993 and 2005. Interestingly, only three categories—other health impairment, autism, and traumatic brain injury—show relative increases over that time period. The increase in the other health impairment category may be largely attributed to some states’ use of this category to provide services for students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, which itself is rapidly growing. The probable reason for the increases in autism and traumatic brain injury is that they were not considered as disability areas under federal law until 1990. Substantial interest and awareness, as well as improved diagnostic procedures, have resulted in more students being identified. Interestingly, the category that showed the largest relative decrease between 1993 and 2005 was learning disabilities, which historically has been the fastest growing category. One possible explanation for this decrease may be related to the corresponding increase in the other health impairment category. In other words, students who may previously have been identified as having a learning disability might now be identified as having an attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and are being served under the other

incidence The number of individuals identified as falling into a particular category for the first time during a specific period (such as a year). prevalence The total number of individuals who are in a given category at a particular point in time.

How Many Exceptional Students Are There?

5

Disability category Specific learning disabilities

5.24 45.3

Speech or language impairments

2.31 18.99 0.94

Mental retardation

8.86

Emotional disturbance

0.90

Multiple disabilities

0.23 2.2

7.83

Hearing 0.14 impairments 1.19 Orthopedic 0.12 impairments 1.07 Other health impairments

1.09 9.25 0.37 3.20

Autism

0.05 0.42

Visual impairments

Percentage of total school population, ages 6–17

Traumatic 0.04 brain injury 0.39 Developmental ** delay **

Percentage of those with disabilities, ages 6–17*