Examining the Levallois Reduction Strategy from a Design Theory Point of View 9781841717173, 9781407328584

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Introduction
Chapter 2:
Chapter 3:
Chapter 4:
Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:
Chapter 7:
Chapter 8:
Chapter 9
Chapter 10:
Chapter 11
Conclusions
Appendix A
REFERENCES

Citation preview

Examining the Levallois Reduction Strategy from a Design Theory Point of View

Dennis M. Sandgathe

BAR International Series 141 7 2005

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1417 Examining the Levallois Reduction Strategy from a Design Theory Point of View © Dennis M. Sandgathe and the Publisher 2005 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841717173 paperback ISBN 9781407328584 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841717173 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2005. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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Ab s trac t T he L eva l lo is r e duc t ion s t ra tegy w a s s e lec ted f r om a mong an umbe r o f d i f f e ren t l i t h ic s t ra teg ie s a va i lab le i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd w a s e mp loyed o ve r aw ide g eog raph ic a r ea o ft h e O ld Wo r ld f o r w e l l o ve r 2 00 ,000 y ea r s . T h i s r e sea rch a t temp t s t o e xam ine t h e p o ten t ia l a dvan tage s o ft h i s r e duc t ion s t ra tegy t h a t l e d t ot h i s l o ng h i s to ry o fu se . T h is r e qu i re s t h e d eve lopmen t o f amode l o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i f eways f r om w h ich c an b e i d en t if ied t h o se f a c to r s t h a t w ou ld h ave i nf luenced a nd c on s t ra ined t h e d e s ign o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s t one t e chno logy a nd t o o l k i t s . F rom a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e se c on s t ra in t s o n s t one t o o l p roduc t ion a nd u se , s eve ra l h ypo the se s a r e d eve loped w h ich w ou ld e xp la in t h e a dvan tage s t h a t L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion w ou ld p r e sen t a nd u nde rw ha tc ond i t ion sw ew ou ld e xpec ti tt ob ee mp loyed . T he se

h ypo the se sa r et h en t e s ted t h rough t h ea na ly s is o fb o th t h e m o rpho logy o f t h e p roduc t s o f d i f f e ren t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s a nd o f t o o l b l ank s e lec t ion p a t te rn s a t f ou r M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s i n SW a nd S E F rance . T h i s a na ly s is i n d ica te s t h a t L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion w ou ld p r e sen t n o tab le a dvan tage su nde rc ond i t ion so fr e s t r ic ted a cce s st o r aw m a te r ia l , w h ich m ay b e d ue t o c i rcum s tance s o f i n c r ea sed g roup mob i l i ty o r d i s tance f r om r aw m a te r ia l s ou rce s . S ome f unc t iona l a dvan tage s m ay a l so r e s t i nt h e m o rpho logy o f c e r ta in L eva l lo is p r oduc t s a nd i n t h e p roduc t s o f s im i la r r e duc t ion a pp roa che s . I t i s a l so a ppa r en tt h a tc l a ss ic L eva l lo i sr e duc t ion c anno tb ed ef ined i ni s o la t ion f r om o t he r s i ng le su rf a ce c o re s t ra teg ie s , a nd t h a t much o ft h e a dvan tage o fc l a s s ic L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion i si n he ren ti na l s uch s t ra teg ie s .

i

A cknow ledgemen t s a nd t h e v e ry f r iend ly s t af fo ft h e mu seum i nL e s E yz ie s , i n c lud ing A nd r e Mo ra la , A la in T u rq , C han ta l F o r t in , B e rna rd N ico la s , P eggy J a cqu emen t , P h i l ipp e J ug ie , a nd J a ncqu e l in e A ngo t -W e s t in g av e m e s p a ce a nd e qu ipmen t t o u s ew h i le Iw a s c o l lec t ing d a ta t h e r e . T he I n s t i tu t d u Q ua ter na i r e a t t h e U n ive r s i t e d e B o rd eaux a nd i t s d i r ec to r , J e an -Ph i l ippe R igaud , g av e m e a c ce s s t oc o l lec t ion s f r om P ech d e l ' Aze I V a nd l e Mou s t ie r a nd p r ov id ed l a b s p a ce a nd e qu ipmen t . M . R igaud a l so a l lowed m e t h e u s e o ft h e I n s t i tu t e 's h ou se i nL e s E yz ie sw h i l e Iw a s c a r ry ing o u t m y a na ly se s t h e re . T h e r e w e re a l so s e ve ra l o t he r p eop le a t t h e I n s t i tu t e a t t h e U n iv e r s i ty o f B o rd eaux w ho a i d ed i n my r e sea r ch ; i n p a r t icu la r , Ma r ie S o r e s s i , M iche l L eno i r , a nd D om in ique A rmand . H owev e r , a ny e r ro r s i nt h i st h e s i s , i ne i th e rc on t en to rl o g ic , a r e a l my o wn .

S i gn if i can t c r ed i t f o r t h i s w o rk i sd u e an umbe r o f p eop le , i np a r t icu la r m y d o c to ra l c omm i t t ee : B r ian H ayd en , J on D r iv e r , R oy C a r l son , a nd N icho la s R o l land . Io we as im i la r d eb t t ot h o se c o l l eague s w i th w hom Iw o rk i nt h e f i e ld a nd w ho h av e a l so p rov id ed i mpo r tan t s uppo r t a nd i n pu t , i n c lud ing : H a ro ld D ibb le , S hannon McPh e r ron , P au l G o ldbe rg , Ma r ie S o r e s s i , A lex S t eenhuy se , a nd A la in T u rq . T h e r e a r e an umb e r o fi n s t i tu t ion s a nd p eop le w ho h av e a lowed m e a c ce s s t o c o l lec t ion s a nd a i d ed i n m y d a ta c o l lec t ion : T h ie r ry T i l le t a nd S eba s t ien B e rna rd G u e l le i nG r enob le g ene rou s ly p r ov id ed m e w i th t h e i r o wn d a ta o n t h e l i t h ic s f r om t h e s i t e o f J i bou i . T he Mu see N a t iona l d eP r eh i s to i r e i nL e s E yz ie s , F rance a nd i t s d i r ec to r , J e an Ja cqu e C ley e t - Me r le , a lowed m e a c ce s s t ot h e C ombe C ape l le B a s c o l lec t ion f r om a n e x cava t ion c a r r ied o u tb yH a ro ld D ibb l ea nd M iche lL eno i r ;

1

T ab le o fC on ten t s I n troduc t ion

1

Chap ter 2 :B ackground a nd P rev ious R e search o n L eva l lo i s

3

DE SCR IB ING A ND DE F IN ING T HE LE VALLO IS TE CHN IQU E L eva l lo i sD i s tr ibu t ion D i s tr ibu t ion i nW es t ern E urope

5 8 9

Chap ter 3 : Me thods

1 4

TH EORET ICAL FR AMEWORK 1 4 DE S IGN TH EORY A ND M I DDLE PA LAEOL ITH IC ST ONE TO OLS 1 5 CO NSTRA INTS I NT HE FR ENCH M I DDLE PA LAEOL ITH IC 1 7 FI R ST -AD DRESS ING BL ANK SE LECT ION * 1 7 SE COND -BL ANK SE LECT ION A ND T HE PR ODUCTS O F DI F FERENT RE DUCT ION ST RATEG IES : TH IRD -SI T E -SP EC IF IC PA TTERNS : 1 8

Chap ter 4 : Midd le P a laeo l i th ic S ub s i s tence Mode l MO USTER IAN AD APTAT IONS TH E NA TURE O F MI DDLE PA LAEOL ITH IC HU NT ING TH E US EO F FI S H RE SOURCES US EO F PL ANTS SE T TLEMENT PAT TERNS MO DEL SUMMARY

1 8

1 9 1 9 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 6 3 2

Chap ter 5 : Cons tra in t s o n Midd le P a laeo l i th ic L i th ic T echno logy 1 / PO TENT IAL CO NSTRA INTS O N TO OL M O RPHOLOGY Morpho log ica lT ra i t s :g enera lc on s id era t ion s C ons tra in t so n aT oo l ' s Morpho logy U se -Ac t ions a nd T a sk Mechan ic s M idd l eP a laeo l i th ic T a sk sa nd T a sk Ma ter ia l s R aw Ma ter ia lL im i ta t ion si nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic 2 / PO TENT IAL CO NSTRA INTS O N TO OL BL ANK PR ODUCT ION R aw Ma ter ia lA va i lab i l i ty R aw Ma ter ia lS i ze a nd S hap e R aw Ma ter ia li nt h eP er igord a nd a tt h eS tud yS i tes A va i lab le T echno log i es O ther D es ign C ons id era t ion s

1

3 4 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 6 4 6 4 7 4 7 5 0 5 0 5 1 5 2

3 4

Chap ter 6 :D e s ign E xpec ta t ions

5 7

TO OL M O RPHOLOGY TO OL BL ANK PR ODUCT ION OT HER DE S IGN CO NS IDERAT IONS SUMMARY SA T ISFY ING TH ESE DE S IGN EX PECTAT IONS HY POTHESES

5 7 5 7 5 8 5 8 5 8 6 2

Chap ter 7 : Da ta C o l lec t ion a nd A s semb lage Ana ly s i s I N TRODUCT ION TH E AR CHAEOLOG ICAL SI T ES P ech d el ' Azj I V C ur r en tR e sea rch l e Mou s t i er C ombe C ape I l eB a s J i bou i AS SEMBLAGE SAMPLES P ech d el ' Azj I V l e Mou s t i er C ombe C ape I l eB a s J i bou i A na ly s i so fT he P r imary S amp l e s S of thammer F lak eD a ta

6 4 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 1 7 4 7 7 8 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 4

Chap ter 8 :B lank S e lec t ion Ana ly s i s 8A PA TTERNS I N BL ANK SE LECT ION I NT HE COMB INED SA MPLE DA TA F lak e T oo lA t t r ibu t e s S i ze S p ine -P lane A ng l e s V en t ra lC ur va tur e -" F la tne s s" R egu lar i ty o fE dg e s R obu s t ic i ty S ummary :B lank S e l ec t ion T end enc i es C ommon t ot h eP r ima ry S i t eS amp l es 8B SAMPLE -SP EC IF IC PA TTERNS I N BL ANK SE LECT ION S i z e S p ine -P lane A ng l e s E dg e Da ta : N umber , L eng th , a nd m orpho logy o fU sab l eE dg es p er f l ak e V en t ra lC ur va tur e -" F la tne s s" S tandard i za t ion R obu s t ic i ty SU MMARY O F BL ANK SE LECT ION AT TR IBUTES SU MMARY O F SI T E -SP EC IF IC PA TTERNS O F BL ANK SE LECT ION P ech d el ' Azj I V l e Mou s t i er C ombe C ape l l eB a s J i bou i

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8 5 8 5 8 5 8 6 8 9 9 4 9 9 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 08 1 09 13 17 17 1 21 1 24 1 24 1 24 1 24 1 25 1 25

Chap ter 9 : Morpho log ica lC ompar ison : T oo lB lank sa nd T echno log ica lP roduc t s 1 26 SI Z E( COMB INED D ATA A ND B YI ND IV IDUAL S I TE S AMPLE ) 1 30 SP I NE -PL ANE AN GLE 1 3 1 VE NTRAL CU RVATURE 1 32 ED GE LE NGTHS 1 34 ED GE M O RPHOLOGY 1 36 Number o fU sab l ee dg es p er f l ak e 1 36 R egu lar i ty o fe dge s 1 38 ST ANDARD IZAT ION 1 40 RO BUST IC ITY 1 41 SUMMARY O F COMPAR ISON O F TO OL SE LECT ION CR ITER IA & TE CHNOLOG ICAL PR ODUCTS

Chap ter 1 0 : S i te S pec if ic P a t terns

1 45

1 48

CO NSTRA INTS T HAT A RE COMMON T OA LL FO UR SI T ES SI T E - SP EC IF IC FA CTORS OT HER EN V IRONMENTAL CO NSTRA INTS SI T E TY PES EX PLA IN ING SI T E - SP EC IF IC DI F FERENCES I NT HE LI TH IC DA TA P ech d el ' Azj I V L e Mou s t ier C ombe C ape l l eB a s J i bou i

1 48 1 48 1 49 1 49 1 49 1 49 1 53 1 53 1 54

Chap ter 1 : D i scus s ion a nd C onc lus ion CO NCLUS IONS

1 55 1 60

Append ix A

1 63

REFERENCES

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V

L i s to fF igures F igu re 2 . 1 C la s s ic L eva l lo i st e chn ique . 3 F igu re 2 . 2 P ref e ren t ia l a nd R ecur ran tL eva l lo is a pp roa che s 6 F igu re 2 . 3 C en t r ipe ta la nd D isc c o re r e duc t ion a pp roache s . 7 F igu re 2 . 4 Me thod o fp roduc t ion o fg v la t s daordan t s . 7 F igu re 2 . 5 D is t r ibu t ion map o f7 7 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te si nF rance 1 F igu re 4 . 1 P o l len d i ag ram f r om G rande P i le ( N . F rance ) f o rt h el a s tg l ac ia l c yc le 2 6 F igu re 4 . 2 F requency o fr e touch a nd a r t if ac td en s i ty p a t te rns i ns amp le a s semb lage s . 2 9 F igu re 4 . 3 C omponen ts pec if ic d a ta o na r t if ac td en s i ty a nd f r equency o fr e touched p i ece s 3 0 F igu re 5 . 1 I lu s t ra t ion o ft h ed i f f e rence b e tween ' e dge a ng le ' a nd ' s p ine -p lane a ng le ' 3 5 F igu re 5 . 2 T ype o fh af ti nw h ich b l ank w id th i sa n i mpo r tan tc on s ide ra t ion . 4 5 F igu re 5 . 3 F requency o fr e touch & f l ake :co re r a t io sf o rt h ef ou ra s semb lage s amp le s 4 8 F igu re 5 . 4 F lake t oc o re r a t io s f o rt h es t ra t ig raph ic l e ve ls i nP ech d e l ' Aze I V 4 9 F igu re 5 . 5 I lu s t ra t ion o ft oo lr e sha rpen ing p roce ss 5 5 F igu re 7 . 1 Map o fF rance s how ing t h el o ca t ion o ft h ef ou rs i te se mp loyed i nt h es t udy 6 4 F igu re 7 . 2 O xygen I s o tope S tage sf r om t h el a s tg l ac ia l c yc le 6 5 F igu re 7 . 3 Map s how ing t h er e la t ive l o ca t ions o ft h eP ech d e l ' Aze c omp lex o fs i te s . 6 6 F igu re 7 . 4 I lu s t ra t ion o ft h e s t ra t ig raphy a tP ech d el ' Aze I V . 6 9 F igu re 7 . 5 Map o fl o ca t ion o ft h eu ppe ra nd l owe rr o ck she l te r so fl e Mous t ie r 7 1 F igu re 7 . 6 S t ra t ig raphy o ft h el owe rr ock she l te ra tl e Mou s t ie r . 7 2 F igu re 7 . 7 Map o ft h e l a you to ft h es i te o fC ombe C ape l le B a s 7 4 F igu re 7 . 8 I lu s t ra t ion o ft h es t ra t ig raphy a tC ombe C ape l le B a s . 7 5 F igu re 8 . 1 P e rcen tage o ff l ake sw i th e v idence o fu se ,b y c a tego r ie so f max imum s i ze 8 8 F igu re 8 . 2 Mean o ft h ea ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le s a mong c a tego r ie so fu se e v idence . 9 0 F igu re 8 . 3 Ah i s tog ram o ft h ef r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o fu sed f l ake sb y a ng le o ft h eu sed e dge 9 1 F igu re 8 . 4T he f r equency w i th w h ich t oo l e dges w e re r e touched r e la t ive t os p ine -p lane a ng le 9 2 F igu re 8 . 5 T he f r equency o fu se o ff l ake sb yg ene ra l c a tego r ie so fv en t ra l c u rva tu re 9 4 F igu re 8 . 6 P e rcen td i s t r ibu t ion o fu sed a nd u nused f l ake si n to c a tego r ie so fv en t ra l c u rva tu re . 9 5 F igu re 8 . 7C ompa r ison o fv en t ra l c u rva tu re o fh a rdhamme ra nd s of thamme rf l ake s 9 5 F igu re 8 . 8 P e rcen tage o fu nu sed a nd u sed f l ake sb y s pec if ic c a tego r ie so fv en t ra l c u rva tu re 9 6 F igu re 8 . 9 T he p e rcen tage o fu nu sed a nd u sed f l ake sb y c a tego r ies o fv en t ra lc u rva tu re 9 7 F igu re 8 . 10 P e rcen tf r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o ff l a ta nd c urved f l ake s i n to c a tego r ie so fa ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le . 9 8 F igu re 8 . 11 P e rcen tf r equency d i s t r ibu t ion i n to c a tego r ie so fu se e v idence o fa l f l ake s< 55° i na ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le , d i v ided i n to f l a ta nd c u rved f l ake s 9 8 F igu re 8 . 12 P e rcen tf r equency d i s t r ibu t ion i n to c a tego r ie so fu se e v idence o fa l f l ake s> 55° i na ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le , d i v ided i n to f l a ta nd c urved f l ake s 9 9 F igu re 8 . 13 Numbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b y u se -ev idence 1 00 F igu re 8 . 14 Mean n umbe ro fu sab le e dge s p e rf l ake c a tego r ized b y f l ake s i ze 1 01 F igu re 8 . 15 P e rcen tage o ft y pe o fu se e v idence b y n umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake 1 02 F igu re 8 . 16 P e rcen tage o fr e gu la ra nd i regu la re dge so u to ft o ta l n umbe ro fu sab le e dges 1 02 F igu re 8 . 17 A s soc ia t ion b e tween o ccu r rence o fr e touch a nd t h e l e ng th o ft h es e lec ted e dge 1 05 F igu re 8 . 18 R obus t ic i ty b yU se E v idence f o ra l t h ree p r ima ry s i te s 1 06 F igu re 8 . 19 P e rcen tage o ff l ake sw i th a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 55° o r> 55° i ne ach c a tego ry o fu se f o rP ech d e l 'Aze I V . 10 F igu re 8 . 20 P e rcen tage o ff l ake sw i th a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 55° o r> 55° i ne ach c a tego ry o fu se f o rl e Mou s t ie r . 11 F igu re 8 . 2 1 P e rcen tage o ff l ake sw i th a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 55° o r> 55° i ne ach c a tego ry o fu se f o rC ombe C ape l le B a s . 11 F igu re 8 . 22 P e rcen tage o ff l ake sw i th a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 35° o r> 35° i ne ach c a tego ry o fu se f o rP ech d e l ' Aze I V . 12 F igu re 8 . 23 P e rcen tage o ff l akes w i th a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 35° o r> 35° i ne ach c a tego ry o fu se f o rl e Mou s t ie r . 12 F igu re 8 . 24 P e rcen tage o ff l akes w i th a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 35° o r> 35° i ne ach c a tego ry o fu se f o rC ombe C ape l le B a s . 13 F igu re 8 . 25 D eg ree o fr obu s t ic i ty b y u se e v idence f o rP ech d e l ' Aze I V 1 2 1 F igu re 8 . 26 D eg ree o fr obu s t ic i ty b y u se e v idence f o rl e Mou s t ie r . 1 2 1 F igu re 8 . 27 D eg ree o fr obu s t ic i ty b y u se e v idence f o rC ombe C ape l le B a s 1 22 F igu re 8 . 28 D eg ree o fr obus t ic i ty b y u se e v idence f o rJ i bou i 1 22

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F igu re 8 . 29 D eg ree o fr obu s t ic i ty i nr e touched t o o l sv e r se sa l f l ake s . F igu re 9 . 1 F requency o fu se o ft e chno log ica lp roduc t si nt h ep r ima ry s amp le s F igu re 9 . 2 F r equency o fu se o ft e chno log ica lp roduc t si nt h eP ech I Vs amp le . F igu re 9 . 3 F requency o fu se o ft e chno log ica lp roduc t si nt h el e Mou s t ie rs amp le F igu re 9 . 4 F requency o fu se o ft e chno log ica lp roduc t si nt h e CC ape l le B a ss amp le . F igu re 9 . 5 F requency o fr e touch o ft e chno log ica lp roduc t si nt h ep r ima ry s amp le s . F igu re 9 . 6 F requency o fr e touch o ft e chno log ica lp roduc t si na l f o u rs amp le s . F igu re 9 . 7 Mean a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le s( a l l f l ake s )f o rt h e p r ima ry s i te s F igu re 9 . 8 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt e chno logy i n to c a tego r ie so fv en t ra lc u rva tu re F igu re 9 . 9 N umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yt e chno logy f o rt h ep r ima ry s i te s . F igu re 9 . 10 N umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yt e chno logy f o rP ech d el ' Aze I V F igu re 9 . 11 N umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yt e chno logy f o rl e Mou s t ie r . F igu re 9 . 12 N umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yt e chno logy f o r CC ape l le B a s . F igu re 9 . 13 Mean r obu s t ic i ty b yt e chno logy f o rt h ep r ima ry s i te s . F igu r e9 . 14 Mean r obu s t ic i ty b yt e chno logy f o rP ech d el ' Aze I V F igu re 9 . 15 Mean r obu s t ic i ty b yt e chno logy f o rl e Mou s t ie r F igu re 9 . 16 Mean r obu s t ic i ty b yt e chno logy f o rC ombe C ape l le B a s F igu re 9 . 17 Mean r obu s t ic i ty b yt e chno logy f o rJ i bou i F igu re 1 0 .1 T ypo log ica lL eva l lo i sI nd ice sf o re a ch c omponen to fP ech d el ' Az6 I V

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L i s t o fT ab le s T ab le 2 . 1 A ve rage L eva l lo is I n d ice sf o rt h e Mou s te r ian I ndu s t r ie so f1 3F rench s i t e s 9 T ab le 2 . 2 L i s to fs i te su sed i nf i gu re 2 . 5 1 2 T ab le 5 . 1 S umma ry o fr aw m a te r ia lq ua l i ty ,f o rm & a va i lab i l i ty f o ra l f o u rs i t e s . 5 1 T ab le 7 . 1 T he f a una la s semb lage b y l e ve lf r om P ech d el ' Aze I V . 7 0 T ab le 7 . 2 F auna la s semb lage b yl e ve l , l e Mou s t ie r 7 3 T ab le 7 3 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t o o lt y pe sf o rl e ve lF -2 o fP ech d el ' Aze I V 7 8 T ab le 7 4 B a s ic s umma r ie so ft h el e ve lF -2 s amp le a s semb lage . 7 8 T ab le 7 5 S umma ry o fi n d ice sf o rl e ve lF -2 7 8 T ab le 7 6 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t o o lt y pe sf o rl e ve l Go fl e Mou s t ie r . 7 9 T ab le 7 7 B a s ic s umma r ie s f o rt h ea s semb lage o fl e ve lG . 7 9 T ab le 7 8 S umma ry i n d ice sf o rl e ve lG 7 9 T ab le 7 9 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t o o lt y pe s ,l e ve l I lD o fC ombe C ape l le B a s 8 0 T ab le 7 10 B a s ic s umma r ie sf o rt h ea s semb lage o fl e ve l I 1 -D 8 0 T ab le 7 11 S umma ry i n d ice sf o rl e ve l I 1 -D . 8 0 T ab le 7 12 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t o o lt y pe sf o rJ i bou i 8 1 T ab le 7 10 .2 B a s ic s umma r ie sf o rt h e Mou s te r ian c omponen to fJ i bou i 8 1 T ab le 7 14 S umma ry i n d ice so ft h e Mou s te r ian c omponen to fJ i bou i . 8 1 T ab le 8 . 1 P ea r son 's C o r re la t ion C oeff ic ien tv a lue sf o rt h em a jo rm e t r ica la t t r ibu t e s 8 6 T ab le 8 . 2 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rt h ep r ima ry s amp le s( c omb ined )b yu se e v idence . 8 6 T ab le 8 . 3 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rP ech d el Aze I V , l e ve l F -2 ,b yt y pe o fu se e v idence 8 6 T ab le 8 . 4 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rl e Mou s t ie r , l e ve lG ,b yt y pe o fu s ee v idence 8 7 T ab le 8 . 5 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o r CC ape l le B a s ,l e ve l I 1D ,b yt y pe o fu se e v idence 8 7 T ab le 8 . 6 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rJ i bou i 8 7 T ab le 8 . 7 Mean d imen s ion sf o rt h ef o u rs t udy s i te sc omb ined d a ta . 8 7 T ab le 8 . 8 B a s ic m e t r ic d a ta f o rf l ake sw i th j u s tr e touch ,j u s tu se -wea r ,a nd f l ake sw i th b o th 8 T ab le 8 . 9 B a s ic m e t r ic d a ta f o ru sed f l ake sf o rP ech I V 8 9 T ab le 8 . 10 B a s ic m e t r ic d a ta f o ru sed f l ake sf o rl e Mou s t ie r . 8 9 T ab le 8 . 11 B a s ic m e t r ic d a ta f o ru s ed f l ake sf o r CC ape l le B a s . 8 9 T ab le 8 . 12 Mean sf o rt h ea ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le p e rf l ake o nu sed a nd u nu sed f l ake s 9 0 T ab le 8 . 13 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt y pe o fe dge m od if ica t ion i nt wo c a tego r ie ss e ta t3 5° 9 3 T ab le 8 . 14 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt y pe o fe dge m od if ica t ion i nt wo c a tego r ie ss e ta t4 0 ° 9 3 T ab le 8 . 15 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt y pe o fe dge m od if ica t ion i nt wo c a tego r ie ss e ta t4 5° 9 3 T ab le 8 . 16 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge m od if ica t ion i nt wo c a tego r ie ss e ta t5 0 ° 9 3 T ab le 8 . 17 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt y pe o fe dge m od if ica t ion i nt wo c a tego r ie ss e ta t 5° 9 3 T ab le 8 . 18 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt y pe o fe dge m od if ica t ion i nt wo c a tego r ie ss e ta t6 0 ° 9 3 T ab le 8 . 19 N umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yu s e -ev idence f o ra l s i te s . 1 00 T ab le 8 . 20 Mean n umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yt y pe o fe dge d amage 1 0 1 T ab le 8 . 2 1 .F requency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge leng th sr e la t ive t ot h eo p t ion sa va i lab le o n af l ake . 1 03 T ab le 8 . 22 . F r equency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge leng th sf o ru se ,a mong f l ake sw i th j u s tu sewea r ,r e la t ive t ot h eo p t ion sa va i lab le o n e a ch f l ake 1 04 T ab le 8 . 23 .F requency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge leng th f o ru se ,a mong f l ake st h a tw e re r e touched ,r e la t ive t ot h eo p t ion sa va i lab le o ne a ch f l ake 1 04 T ab le 8 . 24 R e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h er e gu la r i ty o fa va i lab le e dge sa nd t h e i rs e lec t ion f o ru se . 1 05 T ab le 8 . 25 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh t sf o rt h ef o u rs i te s amp le sb yu se e v idence 1 08 T ab le 8 . 26 S t anda rd d ev ia t ion ( SD )a nd s t anda rd e r ro r( SE )o ft h el e ng th ,w id th ,t h ickne s s ,a nd w e igh t so fa l f l ake sf o re a ch s i te s amp le 1 09 T ab le 8 . 27 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh t sb yt y pe o fu se -mod i f ica t ion f o re ach s i te s amp le 1 09 T ab le 8 . 28 P e rcen td i s t r ibu t ion b yt y pe o fe dge m od if ica t ion i nt wo c a tego r ie so fs p ine -p lane a ng le ss e ta t 5° 10 T ab le 8 . 29 Mean n umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b y u se -ev idence f o rt h et h r ee p r ima ry s i te s amp le s 14 T ab le 8 . 30 Mean n umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yt y pe o fe dge d amage 14 T ab le 8 . 31 Mean n umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yt y pe o fe dge d amage f o re a ch s i te 14 T ab le 8 . 32 T he f r equency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge sf o ru se ,r e la t ive t ot h el e ng th so ft h ea va i lab le e dge so ne a ch f l ake ,f o ra l u n re touched t o o l s ,P ech d el ' Aze I V 15 T ab le 8 . 33 T he f r equency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge sf o ru s e ,r e la t ive t ot h el e ng th so ft h ea va i lab le e dge so ne a ch f l ake ,f o ra l r e touched t o o l s i nt h ei nt h eP ech d el ' Aze I Vs amp le . 15 T ab le 8 . 34 T he f r equency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge sf o ru s e ,r e la t ive t ot h el e ng th so ft h ea va i lab le e dge so ne a ch f l ake ,a l u n re touched t o o l s, l e Mou s t ie r. 15

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T ab le 8 . 35 T he f r equency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge sf o ru se ,r e la t ive t ot h el e ng th so ft h ea va i lab le e dge so ne ach f l ake ,f o ra l r e touched t o o l si nt h el e Mou s t ie rs amp le . T ab le 8 . 36 T he f r equency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge sf o ru se ,r e la t ive t ot h el e ng th so ft h ea va i lab le e dge so ne ach f l ake ,f o ra l u n re touched t o o l s ,C ombe C ape l le B a s T ab le 8 . 37 T he f r equency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge sf o ru se ,r e la t ive t ot h el e ng th so ft h ea va i lab le e dge so ne a ch f l ake ,f o ra l r e touched t o o l si nt h eC ombe C ape l le B a ss amp le . T ab le 8 . 38 D i s t r ibu t ion b yd eg ree o fv en t ra lc u rva tu re f o rt h es amp le a s semb lage s T ab le 8 . 39 D i s t r ibu t ion b yd eg ree o fv en t ra lc u rva tu re f o rt h eu sed a nd u nu sed f l ake s T ab le 8 . 40 Mean s ,r a nge s ,a nd s t anda rd d ev ia t ion so ft h ep r ima ry m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s -P ech I V T ab le 8 . 4 1 Mean s ,r a nge s ,a nd s t anda rd d ev ia t ion so ft h ep r ima ry m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s -l e Mou s t ie r . T ab le 8 . 42 Mean s ,r a nge s ,a nd s t anda rd d ev ia t ion so ft h ep r ima ry m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s -C C ape l le B a s T ab le 9 . 1 Max imum d imen s ion s( a l ls i te s )a nd w e igh t( p r ima ry s i te s )f o rt e chno log ica lp roduc t s T ab le 9 . 2 Max imum d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rP ech I Vt e chno log ica lp roduc t s . T ab le 9 . 3 Max imum d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rl e Mou s t ie rt e chno log ica lp roduc t s T ab le 9 . 4 Max imum d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o r CC ape l le B a st e chno log ica lp roduc t s . T ab le 9 . 5 Max imum d imen s ion sf o rJ i bou it e chno log ica lp roduc t s T ab le 9 . 6 Mean ' a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le ' o fa l f l ake sb y i n d iv idua ls i te s amp le T ab le 9 . 7 D is t r ibu t ion b yt e chno logy i n to c a tego r ie so fv en t ra lc u rva tu re , P ech I V T ab le 9 . 8 D is t r ibu t ion b yt e chno logy i n to c a tego r ie so fv en t ra lc u rva tu re , l e Mou s t ie r T ab le 9 . 9 D i s t r ibu t ion b yt e chno logy i n to c a tego r ie so fv en t ra lc u rva tu re , CC ape l le B a s T ab le 9 . 10 Mean t o ta ll e ng th o fe dge sp e rf l ake* b yt e chno logy f o rt h e p r ima ry s i te s . T ab le 9 . 11 Mean l e ng th p e re dge a nd m ean t o ta l l e ng th o fe dge sp e rf l ake b yt e chno logy f o rP ech I V T ab le 9 . 12 Mean l e ng th p e re dge a nd m ean t o ta l l e ng th o fe dge sp e rf l ake b yt e chno logy f o rl e Mou s t ie r . T ab le 9 . 13 Mean l e ng th p e re dge a nd m ean t o ta l l e ng th o fe dge sp e rf l ake b yt e chno logy f o r CC ape l le B a s . T ab le 9 . 14 E dge m o rpho log ie s( r egu la rv si reg . )b yt e chno logy f o rt h ep r ima ry s i te s T ab le 9 . 15 E dge Mo rpho log ie s( r egu la rv si reg )b yt e chno logy f o rP ech I V T ab le 9 . 16 E dge Mo rpho log ie s( r egu la rv si reg )b yt e chno logy f o rl e Mou s t ie r T ab le 9 . 17 E dge Mo rpho log ie s( r egu la rv si reg )b yt e chno logy f o r CC ape l le B a s T ab le 9 . 20 C ompa r i son o ft h eb a s ic v a r iab i l i ty a mong t e chno log ica l p roduc t s( p r ima ry s i te s ) . T ab le 9 . 2 1 B iva r ia te t a b le o f` l a rge 'and ' sma l l ' C en t ra lL eva l lo i sf l ake st h a tw e re r e touched o rn o t T ab le 9 . 22 B iva r ia te t a b le o f' l a rge ' a nd ' sma l l ' Amo rphou sC o r ef l ake st h a tw e re r e touched o rn o t T ab le 1 0 . 1 L eva l lo is I n d ice sa nd c o re t y pe sa nd f r equenc ie sf o ra l f ou rs amp le s i te s T ab le 1 . 1 S umma ry d a ta f o re ach o ft h et e chno log ica lp roduc t s T ab le 1 .2 N umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake b yu se -ev idence ( p r ima ry s i te s )

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I n troduc t ion I nt h i s s t udy Id eve lop ad e s ign t h eo ry f r amewo rk b a sed o n t h e a r cha eo log ica l c on tex t o fL eva l lo is o ccu r rence s i n t h e F rench M idd le P a la eo l i th ic . T h i s r e qu i re s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f p o ten t ia l f a c to r s t h a t w ou ld h ave i n f luenced t h e n a tu re o f l i t h ic r e duc t ion i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , i n c lud ing a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e n a tu re a nd a va i lab i l i ty o fl i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l s , a va i lab le t e chno log ie s , s ome i d ea o ft h e f o rm a nd l i f e span o ft h e i n tended e nd p roduc t s o ft h e r e duc t ion p r ac t ice s ( i . e . , t oo l s ) , a nd s ome c oncep t o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t o o l n eed s b a sed o n s ub s i s tence p a t te rn s . B y i d en t if y ing t h e c i rcum s tance s i n w h ich t h e t e chn ique w a s e mp loyed ( a nd t h o se c on tempo raneou s c i rcum s tance s i nw h ich i tw a s n o t ) w e c ou ld e xpec t t o b e t te r u nde r s tand t h e a dvan tage s o f t h e t e chn ique .

T h is s t udy e xam ine s p o ten t ia l a dvan tage s o ft h e L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion t e chn ique w h ich m igh t h e lp e xp la in i t s p r eh is to r ic u se o ve r aw ide g eog raph ic a r ea f o r o ve r 2 00 ,000 y ea r s . I n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e r e a son s w hy P a laeo l i th ic p eop le e mp loyed t h i s r e duc t ion a pp roa ch i t w i l l b e n ece s sa ry t o i s o la te t ho se f a c to r s t h a t i nf luenced a nd c on s t ra ined t h e d e s ign o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s t one t e chno logy a nd t oo l k i t s . T he q ue s t ion a dd re s sed i s :g i ven t h e c i rcum s tance s , t a sk r e qu i remen t s a nd p rac t ica l c on s t ra in t s i nw h ich t h eL eva l lo i sr e duc t ion t e chn ique w a s e mp loyed , w ha t i mp l ic i t a dvan tage s d i d t h e t e chn ique p r e sen tt oP a la eo l i th ic ' mappe r s? T he s t one t o o lp roduc t ion s t ra teg ie ss e lec ted o ra dop ted b y ag roup mu s t p roduce a t o o l k i t t h a t i s c apab le o f s a t i sf y ing t h e t a sk r e qu i remen t s f a ced b y t h e g roup a nd t ha t a l so c onf o rm s t o t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu r e c on s t ra in t s d i c ta ted b y t h e g roup 's c i rcum s tance s . T h i s m ean s t h a t , g i ven t h e d if e rence s i n r aw m a te r ia l s , n ece s sa ry s k i l l l e ve l s , a nd v a r ia t ion s i ne nd -p roduc t s , d if e ren t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie sa r e l i ke ly t ob ea pp l icab le i n ar a nge o fd i f f e ren t a dap t ive s c ena r io s . I t i s e xpec ted t h a t t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique , l i ke a l r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s , m u s t p r e sen t d if e r en ts pec if ic a dvan tage s ( a nd p o ten t ia l d i sadvan tage s ) u nde rd if e ren tc i rcum s tance s .

P re sumab ly ,t h e mo rpho logy o f af l ake t o o l i s ap roduc to f b o th t h ec on s t ra in t s o fi t s i n tended f u nc t ion a nd t h en a tu re o f t h e r e duc t ion s t ra tegy u sed t o p roduce i t . T he t y pe s , r a nge o f f unc t ion s , a nd c on tex t o f u se f o r w h ich t h e L eva l lo i s p roduc t s w e r e i n tended m u s t h ave b een a c on s t ra in t o n a spec t s o f t h e i r m o rpho logy . P rev iou s s t ud ie s h ave p rov ided u s w i th a r e a sonab ly g ood u nde r s tand ing o f t h e d if e r en t t y pe s a nd r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f t a sk s t o w h ich Mou s te r ian t o o ls w e re a pp l ied ( Ande r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; B eyr ie s 1 988 , 1 987 , 1 984 ; K ee ley 1 980 , 1 977 ; S hea 1 988 ) , a nd s o u se -wea r e xam ina t ion s t o d e te rm ine s pec if ic t a sk a pp l ica t ion s w i l l n o tb ep a r to ft h i sr e sea rch . I tw i l lb em o r ei mpo r tan tt ot r y t o u nde r s tand w h ich f l ake s , o f a l t h e p roduc t s r e su l t ing f r om t h e r e duc t ion p roce s s , w e re e i the r u sed a s t oo ls o r h ad t h e p o ten t ia l t o b e t o o ls a nd w h ich w e re s imp ly t h e w a s te p roduc t so ft h ep roduc t ion p r oce s s .

T he t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e L eva l lo is r e duc t ion t e chn ique i st h a t t h e p u rpo se o f t h e t e chn ique w a s t o p roduce a l i m i ted n umbe r o f f l ake s t h a t p r e sen t c e r ta in h i gh -u t i l i ty c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , a nd t h a t t h e se c ha ra c te r is t ic s a r e t h e r e su l t o fp r ede te rm in ing e a ch f l ake 's m o rpho logy t h rough c a ref u l p r epa ra t ion o ft h e c o r e p r io rt ot h e f l ake 's r emova l . T h is i so ne p o ten t ia l r e a son f o r t h e u se o ft h e t e chn ique , b u t s i nce i t s i n i t ia l s ugge s t ion ( a round t h e t u rn o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ) t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion h a s b een a ccep ted w i thou tr e a l ly b e ing t e s ted a ga in s ta ny a va i lab le d a ta .

G enera lP arame ter so fR e search Wh i le t h e Ma jo r P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod s a r e d ef ined m a in ly o n t e chno log ica l c hange , i n We s ter n E u rope , a t l e a s t , L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion h a s n o a ppa ren t a ff i l ia t ion w i th a ny s pec if ic t ime p e r iod s . I t o ccu r s i n w ha t h ave b een c h rono log ica l ly d ef ined a sL owe r P a la eo l i th ic a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s , a nd p o s s ib ly e ven U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T he L eva l lo i st e chn ique a l so h a s n o c l ea r a s soc ia t ion w i th s p ec if ic s t one t o o l i n du s t r ie s . I t o ccu r s i na l t h e Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie st os ome d eg ree a nd i n L owe r a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s i n r e g ion s o u t s ide o fE u rope a s w e l l . I n g ene ra l , t h e a ppea rance o f t h e L eva l lo is s t ra tegy s e em s t o c r o s scu t mo s t c u l tu re t empo ra l u n i t s . B ecau se o ft h i s w ide sp read d i s t r ibu t ion i t b ecome s n ece s sa ry t h en t ol im i t t h e f i e ld o fd a ta . I nt h is s t udy as imp le a pp roach m igh th ave b een t ol i m i tt h ed a ta e mp loyed , a nd s ub sequen t d i scu s s ion s b a sed o n t h em , t o t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a s i t i s d ef ined f o r We s te rn E u rope . H oweve r , t h i s i sn o t s o s imp le . T he re i sn o r e a l c on sen su s o n w ha t t h e t empo ra l l i m i t s o f t h is p e r iod s hou ld b e a nd s ome s ugge s t t h a t i ts hou ld n o t b e d ef ined b a sed o n t empo ra l b ounda r ie s a ta l ( e .g . T uf f reau 1 982 :

Mo re r e cen t r e sea r ch h a s b een f o cu sed o n t e chno log ica l a na ly se s o ft h e L eva l lo is r e duc t ion p roce s s a nd t h is h a s b ecome r e a sonab ly w e l l u nde r s tood ( e .g . , B oeda 1 979 , 1 986 , 1 988 ; V an P ee r 1 992 ) . H oweve r , t h e se a pp roache s s t i l l t e nd t o ma in ta in t h e t r ad i t iona l v i ew o fw hy i tw a s u sed , w i th s ome n o tab le e xcep t ion s ( e .g . , B a rY o sef 1 995 ; B aum le r 1 995 , 1 988 ; D ibb le 1 995 , 1 989 ; R eyno ld s 1 990 ; Weng le r 1 995 ; R o l land 1 988 ) . T he a dvan tage s o f t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique , t o t h o se P a laeo l i th ic g roup s w ho e mp loyed i t , a r e n o t c u r ren t ly o bv iou s . T he r e a l a dvan tage s m ay b e , a s t h e t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion s ugg e s t s , i nt h e mo rpho log ica l c ha ra c te r is t ic s o f al im i ted n umbe r o ff l ake p roduc t s , o r i tm ay b e i nm o rpho log ica l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s h e ld b y a l e nd -p roduc t s , o r i tm ay b e t h a t , l i ke o t he rr e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s ,t h ea dvan tage s s t em m a in ly f r om o t he r i s sue s s u ch a s : r aw m a te r ia l s i ze , f o rm , a nd q ua l i ty ; r aw ma te r ia l e conom iza t ion ; v e r sa t i l i ty o f t h e s t ra tegy ; d i ve r s i ty o fp roduc t s ; o rt h e e a se w i th w h ich t h e s t ra tegy c an b ee mp loyed i nd i f f e ren tl o ca t ion s .

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1 37 ) . T rad i t iona l ly , t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic h a s b een d ef ined b y r e sea r che r s i n r e la t ion t o g l ac ia l c h rono s t ra t ig raph ic m a rke r s ,a nd t h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic r e f e r st o t h e f i r s t p a r t o ft h e l a s tg l ac ia t ion (Wü rm o r We i sh se l ian ) w h ich , d epend ing o n t h e d a t ing , b egan a r ound 7 5 t o 8 0 k ya ( e .g . , C on rad 1 990 : 2 47 ; D enne l l 1 983 : 1 99 ; L av i l le 1 982 : 1 3 1 ; T uf f reau 1 982 ;B o rde s 1 977 : 1 ) .O the r sp u tt h e L owe r /M idd le P a laeo l i th ic b ound a ry e a r l ie r t h an t h i s t o w i th in t h e l a s t i n te rg lac ia l o ra r ound 2 00 k ya ( e .g . , C ha se 1 985 : 3 ; R enf rew a nd B ahn 1 997 : 1 57 ) o r e ven e a r l ie r ( e .g . , L au t r idou e t . a l . 1 986 : 3 90 ; R oeb roek s e t . a l . 1 988 : 1 8 ; T uf f reau 1 995 : 4 16 ; Wh i te a nd A sh ton 2 003 :598 ) , w h ich c ou ld p u tt h ed a te o ft h eb ounda ry b e tween 2 00 a nd 3 00 k ya . T he m a jo r p rob lem l i e s i n b o th t h e t e n ta t ive n a tu re o fo u r c u r ren t a b i l i t ie s t o a s s ign a b so lu te a ge s t o g l a c ia ls equence sa nd t h ed i f f icu l ty i nc o r re la t ing d i f f e ren t r e g iona ls e quence s .

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S ubs i s tence I no rde rt oa t temp tt ou nde r s tand t h ep a rame te r so fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l p roduc t ion a nd d e s ign o ft e chno logy i ti s n ece s sa ry t o f i r s t t r y t o r e con s t ru c t g ene ra l M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s ub s is tence p a t ter n s . T h i s r e con s t ruc t ion w i l l i n c lude s eve ra l a spec t s o f h un te r -ga the r e r a dap ta t ion s i n c lud ing s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s ( l eve l o fm ob i l i ty , t y pe s o f s i t e s , s e a sona l i ty o f s i t e s , e t c . ) , t y pe a nd a cqu i s i t ion o f f o od r e sou rce s , n a tu re a nd a cqu i s i t ion o fo t he r r e sou r ce s ( i nc lud ing l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l s ) , l e ve l a nd n a tu re o fg r oup i n te ra c t ion s , a nd p e rhap s s ome i d ea o f o t he r a spec t s o f t e chno logy t h a t m ay h ave b een p r e sen t ( e .g . u se o fn on l i t h ic m a te r ia l s -w ood , b one , e t c . ) . T h i s r e con s t ruc t ion w i l l a l so r e qu i r e ar e a sonab le u nde r s tand ing o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic e nv i ronmen t s . C hange s i nc l ima te a nd f l o ra a nd f a una t h rough t h e c ou r se o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic m ay h ave b een as i gn if i can tf a c to ri nt h ef o rma t ion o ft o o l k i t s o ve r t ime . T h is w i l l b e t h e f r amewo rk f r om w h ich i n tended t o o l k i t a nd t e chno logy d e s ign c on s t ra in t s a r e i n f e r red .

Wh i le t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic i s ( mo r e o r l e s s ) a n a r b i t ra r i ly d ef ined c u l tu re tempo ra l u n i t , i n w e s te rn E u rope mo s t o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l s d a ted t o w i th in t h i s p e r iod b e long t o o ne o f s eve ra l s t one t o o l i n du s t r ie s c o l lec t ive ly r e f e r red t o a s t h e Mou s te r ian . T he ref o re , w h i le t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e Mou s te r ian a r e n o t s ynonymou s , i np r a c t ice w hen o ne 's r e se a rch i n We s te rn E u rope i sr e s t r ic ted t ot h e f o rme r i t t e nd st od ea lw i th t h el a t te r . T he ref o re ,i ts e em sp ruden tt o u se t h el i m i t so ft h e Mou s te r ian ,a st h ey a r ed ef ined b yt h e o ccu r rence s o f Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s , a s t h e l im i t s o f t h er e sea r ch h e re .

D a ta C o l lec t ion T he p r ima ry d a ta e mp loyed a r e f r om t h ree d i f f e ren t s i te s l o ca ted i n S ou thwe s t F rance : P ech d e L 'Azd I V , l e Mou s t ie r a nd C ombe C ape l le B a s . B y l o ok ing a t a s semb lage s f r om d if e ren t s i t e s w i th d if e ren t c ha ra c te r i s t ic s ( e .g . , p rox im i ty t o r aw m a te r ia l s ou rce s , r e la t ive u s e o f L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion ) b e t te r i n s igh t i n to s ome o ft h e d e s ign v a r iab le s w a s o b ta ined . D a ta f r om a f o u r th s t udy s i te a r e a l so i n c luded a s as p ec if ic c on t ro l o n g eog raphy . T he s i te o f J i bou i i sl o ca ted i nt h e V e rco r s r e g ion o ft h eF r ench A lp si ns ou thea s tF rance .D a ta o nt h i s s i te d o n o t i n c lude i n f o rma t ion o n a l t h e v a r iab le s w h ich w e re m ea su red o re xam ined i nt h e t h ree p r ima ry s amp le s a nd ,t h e r ef o re ,t h i s s i t ec anno tb eu sed i na l a spec t s o ft h e a na ly s i s .

R eg iona lL im i t so ft h eS amp l eD a ta T h i s r e sea r ch i ss pa t ia l ly f o cu sed m a in ly i nt h e D o rdogne r e g ion o f S ou thw e s t F r ance w he re m uch o f E u ropean M idd le P a la eo l i th ic r e sea rch h a s b een c a r r ied o u t a nd l a rge , w e l l c u ra ted a s semb lage s a r e n ume rou s . H oweve r , s ome o ft h ed a ta c ome f r om as i t ei nt h eF rench A lp s . T empora lL im i t so ft h eS amp l e Da ta

D a ta Ana lys i sa nd I n terpre ta t ion

L eva l lo is t e chno logy i sg ene ra l ly ( bu t n o t e xc lu s ive ly ) a s soc ia ted w i th t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i nE u rope . E u ropean p r eh i s to r ian s t y p ica l ly s p eak i ng eo log ic t e rm s w hen d i scu s s ing r e la t ive c h rono log ie s a nd r e f e r t og l a c ia l e poch s , l ö e s s c yc le s , a nd o xygen i s o tope s t age s w hen p l a c ing a r cheo log ica l u n i t s i n t ime . T he M idd le P a la eo l i th ic i n c lude s s t age s 7 ? , 6 ,5 ,4 ,a nd t h e i n i t ia l h a lf o f 3( c . 2 50 /200 ,000 t o3 5 ,000 y ea r s b p . ) . S ome c on t ro l o ve r t h e c h rono log ic r e la t ion sh ip a nd c l ima t ic s e t t ing o f a s semb lage s i n c luded i nt h e a na ly s i s w a s e s tab l i shed b y s e lec t ing a s semb lage s d a ted t ot h e s ame i s o tope s t age e a r ly O xygen I s o tope S t age 3 .

I n i t ia l ly t h ed a ta f r om t h ef o u rs i te s amp le sa r ea na lyzed t o c ompa r e t h e mo rpho logy o f t h e u s ed v e r su s t h e u nu sed f l ake s i no rde r t od e te rm ine t h e d eg ree t ow h ich M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s ma tch t h e d e s ign e xpec ta t ion s a nd h ypo the se s a r i s ing f r om m y p r ed ic t ive m ode l . T he a t t r ibu te s a s soc ia ted w i th M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s a r e t h en c ompa red t o t h e mo rpho log ie s o f t h e d if e ren t p r oduc t s a s soc ia ted w i th d i f f e ren t r e duc t ion t e chno log ie s e mp loyed a tt h e f ou r s i te s . T he s i te spec if i c p a t ter n s o f c ho ice o fr e duc t ion t e chno logy a nd b l ank s e lec t ion c r i te r ia a r e t h en e xam ined . T h i s p rov ide s am ean s o fi d en t if y ing b ehav iou r s u n ique t o s p ec if i c c ond i t ion s a nd s hou ld p r ov ide s ome i n s igh t i n to t h e c i rcum s tance s u nde r w h ich t h eL eva l lo i st e chn ique w a se mp loyed .

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Chap ter 2 :B ackground a nd P rev ious R e search o n L eva l lo i s . .t h ef o rm o ft h eL eva l lo i sf l ak e ( i s )p red e t erm ined t h rough t h es pec ia lp r epara t ion o ft h ec o r ep r ior t ot h e r emova lo ft h ef l ak e .

C h rono log ica l ly t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e L owe r a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod s i nE u rope i sn ow c ommon ly s e t a t a r ound 2 00 ,000 B P . Wh i le a s t r ic t b ounda ry i n p r eh is to ry w i l l a lmo s ta lway sb es omewha ta r b i t ra ry ,t h e re d oe s a ppea r t o b e g ene ra l s uppo r t i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd f o r t h i s o ne . A l though t h e h om in id f o s s i l r e co rd f r om E u rope i ss pa r se , N eande r tha l s , a s ad i s t inc t g roup , l i ke ly e me rged a r ound t h i s t ime . T he re w a s a l so an o tab le c hang e i nt h em a te r ia l r e co rd a r ound t h i st ime . T he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic w a s d om ina ted b y t h e u s e o f c o re t o o l s i n c lud ing l a rge u n if ac ia l a nd b i f a c ia lc hoppe r sa nd b i f a c ia l h andaxe s . A round 2 00 ,000 y ea r sa go t h e re w a s as w i tch t o s ma l le rt o o l s m ade f r om f l ake s r emoved f r om c o r e s . C o re t o o ls , s p ec if ica l ly h andaxe s o f v a r iou s f o rm s , w e re s t i l l p roduced b u t w i th l e s s f r equency . T he se M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s i n c luded a v a r ie ty o f s c rape r s , n o tched t o o l s , b o r e r s , a nd o t he r t o o l t y pe s p r oduced t h rough l i t t le o r n o m od if ica t ion o f af l ake . T he v a r iou s We s te rn E u ropean M idd le P a la eo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s c ompo sed o ft h e se s t one t o o ls a r e c o l lec t ive ly r e f e r red t o a st h e Mou s te r ian . Wh i le m any o f t h e f l ake s f r om w h ich t h e se t o o ls w e re m ade w e re p r oduced t h rough t h e r a ndom r e duc t ion o fa c o re ; a r ound t h e e a r ly 1 900 s a s p ec if ic s y s tema t ic r e duc t ion t e chn ique w a s r e cogn ized a mong Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s . T he t e chn ique w a s r e f e r r ed t o a s L eva l lo i s a f te r aP a r i ss ubu rb w he re i th ad b een s p ec if ica l ly n o ted . I t i n vo lve st h e r e la t ive ly l i m i ted i n i t ia l p r epa ra t ion o f ac o r e s uch t h a t t wo o ppo s ing c onvex s u rf ace s a r e f o rmed ( f ig . 2 . 1 : A a nd B ) . F rom o ne o f t h e se s u rf a ce s s ma l l t o m ed ium s i ze f l ake s a r e r emoved f r om a r ound t h e p e r iphe ry i n ar a d ia l f a sh ion ( f ig . 2 . 1 :B ) .T h is r e su l t si na n i n c rea sed c en t ra l c onvex i ty w h ich i st h en r e duced t h rough t h er emova lo fo ne o rt wo l a rge f l ake sf r om t h ec en t re ( f ig . 2 . 1 : C ) . T h i s c yc le i s t h en r e pea ted w i th t h e f u r the r r emova lo fp e r iphe ra l o rc en t r ipe ta lf l ake sf o l lowed b yt h e r emova lo fa no the ro ne o rt wo c en t ra lf l ake s . F rom ag ene ra l t e chno log ica l p o in t o fv i ew t h e L eva l lo is r e duc t ion t e chn ique i s ar e la t ive ly s imp le c oncep t , w h ich d oe sn o tr e qu i re a ny s pec ia l r e duc t ion t o o l s ( s uch a sw ood o ra n t le rb i l le t so rp unche s )a nd w a sc a r r ied o u tw i th j u s ta s imp le h amme r s tone . I t a l so d oe s n o t r e qu i re a ny e xcep t iona l c o re p r epa ra t ion a nd , w h i le i td oe s r e qu i re a s k i l led k nappe rt oc a r ry i to u t , i td oe s n o tr e qu i re t h e l e ve l o f s k i l l o r t r a in ing t h a t s y s tema t ic p r isma t ic b l ade p roduc t ion t y p ica l ly d oe s .

F igure 2 . 1 C la s s ic L eva l lo i st e chn ique . I n i t ia l p repara t ion o f n odu le t o f o rm p er iphera l s t r ik ing p l a tf orms ( A ) ,f o l lowed b yr emova l o ff l ake s i n ar ad ia l f a sh ion f r om t he c ore s urf ace ( B ) , p roduc ing a c onvex s urf ace f r om w h ich a L eva l lo i s f l ake c an b e r emoved ( C ) .

T he t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e t e chn ique i st h a t i t s p r ima ry p u rpo se w a s t op r oduce t wo o rt h r ee l a rge c en t ra l f l ake s o fp r ede te rm ined s hape f r om e a ch c o re . T he c l a s s ic d ef in i t ion c ome s ( t ran s la ted f r om f r ench a nd p a raph ra sed ) f r om B o rde s( 1 961b , 1 4 ) :

I nt h et r ad i t iona l s c ena r io , i ne ach r e duc t ion c yc le as i ng le f l ake i sr emoved f r om t h e c en t ra l m a s s . C la s s ic L eva l lo is f l ake s a r e r e la t ive ly l a rge , g ene ra l ly s ub -c i rcu la r , h ave a s ha rp e dge a r ound t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e m a rg in , e xh ib i t a f a ce ted s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm , a nd t h e d o r sa l s u rf a ce r ef lec t s t h e r a d ia l p a t t er n o f t h e p r eced ing f l ake r emova ls . I ti s

3

t h e se c ha rac te r i s t ic s t h a t a r e g ene ra l ly u sed t o r e cogn ize a ppa ren t L eva l lo i s f l ake s i n a s semb lage s . V a r ia t ion s o n L eva l lo i se nd -p roduc t si n c lude L eva l lo is P o in t s , w h ich a r e t r iangu la r i ns hape a nd h ave b een i n te rp re t ed b y s ome a s h af t ed p ro jec t i le t i p s ,a nd L eva l lo is b l ad es ,t wo o r mo r eo f w h ich m ay b er emoved f r om t h ec en t re o ft h ec o re i ne a ch r e duc t ion c yc le .

T he se p roduc t si n c luded " po in t s" a nd " b lade s" .O the rt h an t h e i s sue o f c on s i s tency o f i d en t if ica t ion o f L eva l lo i s " p roduc t s" i na s semb lage s ,t h e i d ea o ft h e r eb e ing ar a nge o f i n tended p roduc t s d i d n o t s e em t o e l ic i t a ny c oncer n a bou tt h et r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h et e chn ique . S i nce L eva l lo i s h ad b een s e en , a lmo s t f r om i t s o r ig ina l r e cogn i t ion , o n ly i nt e rm s o f i t s p r e sumed e nd -p roduc t s , t h ea dd i t ion o fs ome v a r iab i l i ty t ot h e se wa s n o ti n i t ia l ly a p rob lem .

L a rge , s ub -c i r cu la r L eva l lo i s f l ake s h ad b een r e cogn iz ed i n F rench P a la eo l i th ic s i te s p r io r t o t h e 1 900 s ( e .g . , d e Mo r t i l le t 1 883 ; s e ea l so : B aum le r 1 995 : 1 8 ; B o rde s 1 96 1a : 8 05 ; D eb6na th a nd D ibb le 1 994 : 2 3 ; P e rpe re 1 986 ; V an P ee r 1 992 : 1 ) . I tw a s e a r ly i nt h e 2 0 th c en tu ry , h oweve r , w hen t h e n a tu re o ft h e r e duc t ion t e chn ique a s af o rm o f p r epa red c o re t e chno logy w a s d e sc r ibed i nt h e l i t e ra tu r e b y C ommon t ( Deb6na th a nd D ibb le 1 994 : 2 3 ; V an P ee r 1 992 : 1 ) . C ommon th ad r e f e r red t oi ta st h e "Mou s te r ian" t e chn ique a nd i t w a s n o t u n t i l 1 926 t h a t t h e t e rm " Leva l lo i s ian" w a s u sed b y B rue i l ( Debina th a nd D ibb le 1 994 : 2 3 ) . L eva l lo i s c o re s w e re a l so r e cove red f r om B r i t i sh P a la eo l i th ic s i te s a nd , d ue t o t h e i r s im i la r i ty t o t u r t le 's s he l l s ,w e re r e f e r r ed t oa s" t or to i se c o re s" .

T h i s w a s t h e n a tu re o ft h e s i tua t ion t h rough mo s t o ft h e m idd le o f t h e 2 0 th c en tu ry ; mo rpho logy w a s s t i l l t h e f o cu s .T h rough t h e 1 950 sa nd 6 0 sr e sea r che r sd ea l ing w i th L eva l lo i s w e re ma in ly c once rned w i th t h e c on s i s t ency a mong i n d iv idua la na ly s t si nt h ei d en t if i ca t ion o fL eva l lo is f l ake s a s t h i s h ad a d i rec t i nf luence i n d i s t ingu i sh ing B o rde s ' d if e r en t Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s ( Van P ee r 1 995 : 1 5 ; S e l le t 1 995 : 2 5 -27 ) . T he p o ten t ia l p rob lem s i n he ren t i nt h es ub jec t iv i ty i n vo lved i nd e te rm in ing w he the r af l ake w a s L eva l lo i s o r n o t , s imp ly b y e xam in ing t h e g ro s s mo rpho logy , h ad a l ready b een r e cogn ized ( e .g . B o rde s 1 961b ) , b u t i t wa s e xpec ted t h a t t h is c ou ld b e g ene ra l ly a vo ided o r o ve rcome w i th a mod icum o f t r a in ing a nd e xpe r ience ( Bo rde s 1 950 : 3 0 ) . P e rpe re ( 1 986 ) , i n as imp le e xpe r imen t , d emon s t ra ted t h a tt h i sw a sn o tt h ec a se .T h r ee p r eh i s to r ian s o f s i gn if ican t L eva l lo i s e xpe r ience w e re a sked t o d i v ide u p as ma l l a s semb lage o f f l ake s i n to L eva l lo i s , n on -Leva l lo i s , a nd u nknown . T he i n d iv idua l r e su l t s w e re s i gn if ican t ly d if e ren t , w i th o n ly 6 9% o ft h e a s semb lage b e ing s im i la r ly c a tego r ized b y a l t h r ee i n d iv idua l s( Van P ee r 1 995 :2 ) .

A c e r ta in d eg ree o f " s tanda rd iza t ion" c ame t o b e r e cogn ized a mong f l ake s p roduced u s ing t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique . T h i s r e cogn i t ion , a nd l a te r r e p l ica t ive e xpe r imen t s b y B o rde s , r e su l ted i n t h e t r ad i t iona l i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e t e chn ique a s a m e thod f o r p r ede te rm in ing t h e f o rm o f af l ake ( Bo rde s 1 953 : 2 26 , 1 955 : 13 , 1 961a : 8 05 -6 -s e ea l so V an P ee r 1 992 : 1 5 a nd D ebina th a nd D ibb le 1 994 : 2 3 -29 f o r mo re t h o rough d i scu s s ion so ft h i si s sue ) .

P e rpe re 's e xpe r imen t r ef lec ted a g ene ra l r e cogn i t ion t h rough t h e 1 960 s , 1 970 s , a nd 1 980 s t h a t t h e l e ve l o f v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e P a la eo l i th ic r e co rd h ad o u tg rown t h e a b i l i ty o fc l a s s if ica t ion s , b a sed s o le ly o n m o rpho logy , t o d ea l w i th i te f ec t ive ly ( Bodda 1 995 : 4 1 ; C ope land 1 983 ; F i sh 1 978 ; R o l land a nd D ibb le 1 991 ) . T h i s may h ave b een b e s t i lu s t ra ted b y t h e d eba te b e tween B o rde s a nd t h e B inf o rd sa bou tw he the rt h ed if e ren t Mou s t e r ian i n du s t r ie s r e p re sen ted d if e ren t , b u t c on tempo ra ry , c u l tu ra l ( " e thn ic" ) e n t i t ie s o r r e p re sen ted f u nc t iona l ly s pec if ic a s semb lage s ( B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 966 ; B o rde s a nd d e S onnev i l le -Bo rde s 1 970 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime i n te r e s t g r ew i n t r y ing t o u nde r s tand t h e u nde r ly ing t e chno log ica l v a r iab i l i ty a nd h ow i tr ef lec ted h uman c ogn i t ion a nd b ehav iou ra l p a t ter n s ( e .g . , B odda 1 979 , 1 986 , 1 988 , 1 993 ; C ha se 1 985 ; C rew 1 975 ; D ibb le 1 983 , 1 984 ; G ene s te 1 985 ; H en ry 1 989 ; R oeb roek s e t . a l . 1 988 ; R o l land 1 98 1 ; T ix ie r e t . a l . 1 980 ; V an P ee r 1 988 ) . Two p o ten t ia l ly p owe rf u l t oo l s b rough t t o b ea r o n t h i s i s sue w e re f unc t iona l a na ly s i s t h rough t oo l e dg e u se -damage ( Ande r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; B ey r ie s 1 988 , 1 985 , 1 984 ; H ayden a nd K amm inga 1 979 ; H o ldaway 1 989 ; K ee ley 1 980 ; S emenov 1 964 ; S hea 1 988 ) a nd r ef i t t ing s t ud ie s ( e .g . ,V o lkman 1 983 ; Ma rk sa nd V o lkman 1 987 ; V an P ee r 1 992 ) . U se -wea r s t ud ie s b egan t o p r ov ide i n f o rma t ion a bou tt h eb ehav iou ro ft h eu se r so ft h eL eva l lo i st e chn ique b y e xam in ing t h e t a sk s t o w h ich t h e p roduc t s o f t h e p roce s sw e re a pp l ied . S ome r e sea r che r s a dd re s sed g ene ra l

I n t h e c ou r se o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f t ypo log ie s a nd c h rono log ie s , t h rough t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e 2 0 th c en tu ry , L eva l lo i s b ecame a lmo s t i n ex t r icab ly i n te r tw ined w i th t h e d ef in i t ion s o fw e s ter nE u ropean P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s . I n p a r t icu la r , B o rde s ' Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s w e re d i s t ingu i shed i np a r t b y t h e p r e sence /ab sence o r r e la t ive o ccu r rence o fL eva l lo i s f l ake s ( Leva l lo i s I nd ice s ) . I np a r t b ecau se o ft h i si tb ecame i mpo r tan tt ot r yt oa r r ive a ts ome c on sen su s o n w ha t c on s t i tu ted a L eva l lo i s f l ake . Mo rpho logy r a the r t h an t e chno logy d om ina ted L eva l lo i s d i scu s s ion s a nd r e sea rch . O ne o ft h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s t h a t s ome a r gued w a s ap r e requ i s i te f o r af l ake t ob eL eva l lo i s wa s t ha t i th ad t oh ave af a ce ted p l a tf o rm . T h i s r ef lec ted t h e o p in ion o fs ome t h a t s i gn if ican t p l a tf o rm p r epa ra t ion p r io r t o f l ake r emova l w a s a n u navo idab le p a r t o f t h e p roce s s ( Van P ee r 1 995 :1-2 ) . O the r s p o in ted o u tt h a tt h i s w a sa l so ac ha ra c te r is t ic o fb i f a c ia lr e duc t ion f l ake s ,w h ich c ou ld b e a s c ommon i n Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s w i th h andaxe s a nd , t h e r ef o re , t h i s a l one w ou ld f a i l t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h em . B o rde s o r ig ina l ly i n c luded f a ce ted p l a tf o rm s i nh i s c r i te r ia f o r L eva l lo is f l ake s , b u t l a te r h e ld t ha t L eva l lo i s f l ake s c ou ld b e p roduced w i th b o th f a ce ted a nd p l a in p l a tf o rm s( 1961a : 8 05 ) . I ta l so c ame t ob e r e cogn ized t h a tt h eL eva l lo i st e chn ique h ad b een u sed t op roduce av a r ie ty o fp roduc t sb e s ide st h e " c la s s ic" s ub -c i r cu la r f l ake s f i r s t r e cogn ized i n F rance .

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c u r ren ta t t i tude s a nd a pp roa che sw e re s t rong ly r e f lec ted i n t h e c on ten t o f a1 993 c onf e rence h e ld t o s pec if ica l ly a dd re s st h e i s sue o fd ef in ing a nd i n te rp r e t ing t h eL eva l lo i s t e chn ique ( D ibb le a nd B a r -Yo sef 1 995 ) .

s ub s is tence q ue s t ion s ( e .g . , B ey r ie s 1 988 , 1 984 , 1 985 ) . O the r s a dd re s sed mo re s pec if ic i s sue s . O ne o ft h e se w a s t h e i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h e u se o fL eva l lo i s " po in t s" . T he se h ad b een i n te rp re ted e a r ly o n a s b e ing h af t ed t ow ooden s haf t sf o ru s ea st h row ing o rt h ru s t ing s p ea r s( e .g . , L eakey 1 960 ) . U se -wea r a na ly s i s w a s e mp loyed t o a dd re s s t h i s q ue s t ion ( Ho ldaway 1 989 ; P l i s son a nd B ey r ie s 1 998 ; S hea 1 988 ; S o leck i 1 992 ) a nd mo s t r e sea rch p r e sen ted o n t h is h a sc onc luded t h a tt h ey h ad b een u sed i ns uch af a sh ion . I f L eva l lo i s p o in t s w e re p roduced s pec if ica l ly a s t i p s f o r p ro jec t i le s i tw ou ld b e f u r the r p r oof t h a t Mou s te r ian p eop le h un ted a nd w e r en o tj u s t s c aveng ing m ea t . B eyond s e t t l ing t h is q ue s t ion , i ta l so i n d ica te s as i gn if ican t f o cu s o n , a nd d i rec t ing o f t ime a nd e ne rgy t owa rd s h un t ing b ehav iou r . N eande r tha ls w e re n o t j u s t p u t t ing t h e m in imum o f e f f o r t i n to h un t ing t o o l s ( s uch a s p o in ted s t ick s ) , b u t w e re p u t t ing t oge the r c ompo s i te w eapon s w h ich w ou ld i n c lude , a tl e a s t , aw ooden s haf t , as t one t i p a nd l e a the r ,s i new ,o rr e s in h af t ing m a te r ia l s .

D e scr ib ing a nd D ef in ing t he L eva l lo i s T echn ique L eva l lo i s i s ap r epa red c o re t e chn ique , c a r r ied o u t s o le ly w i th h a rd h amme r d i rec t p e rcu s s ion , w h ich i n vo lve s t wo g ene ra l p ha se s ( f ig . 2 . 1) . T he f i r s t i st h e i n i t ia l , r ough p r epa ra t ion o f an odu le o f r aw m a te r ia l i n o rde r t o c on s t ruc t a n a cu te ly a ng led e dge a r ound t h e e n t i re p e r iphe ry t o s e rve a s as t r ik ing p l a tf o rm . T h is t y p ica l ly i n vo lve s t h e r emova l o ff l ake s a r ound t h e m a rg in s o ft h e n odu le f r om o ne ( " lowe r" ) f a ce o f t h e n odu le . T he p e r iphe ry o ft h i s f a ce t h en s e rve s a s as t r ik ing p l a tf o rm f r om w h ich a r e i n i t ia ted f l ake r emova l s f r om t h e o ppo s i te f a ce . I nt h e c l a s s ic L eva l lo i s t e chn ique , t h e s e cond p ha se , t h e p roce s s o f r emov ing f l ake s f r om t h is o ppo s i te ( " uppe r" ) f a ce o r ' s u rf a ce o fd eb i tage , i sc a r r ied o u t i na s em i sys tema t ic m anne r . A t f i r s t , s ma l l t om ed ium s i zed f l ake sa r er emoved i n ar a d ia l f a sh ion ( i nt h ec l a s s ic f o rm ) f r om a r ound t h ep e r iphe ry ( c en t r ipe ta l f l ake s ) , r e su l t ing i n ac onvex o rd omed u ppe rs u rf ace . T he c en t ra l m a s s o ft h i s d omed s u rf a ce i st h en r emoved i nt h e f o rm o fo ne l a rge f l ake . Af t e r t h is l a rge f l ake h a s b een r emoved a s e cond s e r ie s o fc en t r ipe ta l f l ake sc an b er emoved , a ga in r e su l t ing i na n i n c rea sed u ppe r s u rf a ce c onvex i ty . T h is c yc le c ou ld h ave b een c a r r ied o u t s e ve ra l t ime s u n t i l t h e c o re w a s e xhau s ted ( Boöda 1 995 ) . T he r emova l o ft h e c en t r ipe ta l f l ake s a ppea r st oh ave b een c ommon ly c a r r ied o u t i ns uch af a sh ion s o a s t o p r ede te rm ine t h e g ene ra l s hape o ft h e l a rge c en t ra l f l ake s ( e .g . , V an P ee r 1 995 ) . U s ing t h is t e chn ique , s k i l led k nappe r s w e re a b le t o p roduce l a rge s ub -c i rcu la rf l ake s ,t r iangu la rf l ake s ,a nd ' b lade s ' .

O ve r t h e l a s t d ecade o rt wo , much o fL eva l lo is r e sea rch h a s i n vo lved t r y ing t o a r r ive a t am o re c omp rehen s ive d ef in i t ion o f L eva l lo is : o ne t h a t w ou ld e ncompa s s t h e r a nge o fv a r iab i l i ty a ppa r en t i nb o th c o re a nd e ndp roduc t m o rpho logy . B a sed o n t h e r e su l t s o f h e r e xpe r imen t , w h ich d emon s t ra ted t h e i n a ccu ra cy o f a s ub jec t ive a pp roach , P e rpe re ( 1986 ) s ugge s ted t h a t as o lu t ion t ot h e p rob lem w ou ld b e t o c ome u p w i th a q uan t i ta t ive d ef in i t ion o fL eva l lo i s f l ake s . V an P ee r ( 1992 ) h a s u sed t h i s a sa ne xamp le o ft h eu nde r ly ing b a r r ie rt oa ch iev ing a b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f L eva l lo i s . Many ( p e rhap s m o s t ) r e sea r che r s p e r ce ive a nd d ef ine L eva l lo i s b y i t s p r e sumed i n tended e nd -p roduc t s . T he p r e sump t ion o f i n ten t ion c a r r ie s i t so wn p rob lem s . H oweve r ,d ef in ing ap roce s sl i ke L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion b a sed o n i t s e nd -p roduc t s w i l l p r even t ad i sc re tene s s o fd ef in i t ion b ecau se o fb o th t h e r a nge o f v a r ia t ion i ne nd -p roduc t s a nd t h e i s sue o fe qu if ina l i ty . I t h a s b een d emon s t ra ted t h a t L eva l lo i s p roduc t s c an b e p roduced u s ing n on -Leva l lo is t e chn ique s ( Boöda 1 995 : 4 3 -45 ) . F l ake s s im i la rt ot h e c l a s s ic s ub -c i r cu la r L eva l lo i s f l ake s c an b e p roduced d u r ing b i f a c ia l r e duc t ion . B lade s s im i la r ( o r i d en t ica l ) t o t h o se p roduced f r om L eva l lo i s c o re s a r e p r oduced t h rough s eve ra l o t he r t y pe s o fb l ade c o re r e duc t ion .C o re r e con s t ruc t ion sf r om t h es i te o fB oke r T a ch t i t h ave s hown t h a t f l ake s r e cove red f r om o ne l e ve l , i n i t ia l ly i d en t if ied a sL eva l lo i s p o in t s ,w e re p roduced w i th ad i f f e ren tr e duc t ion m e thod ( Ma rk sa nd V o lkman 1 987 ) .

Wh i le , a s m en t ioned a bove , t h e p hy s ica l p roce s s o f r e duc ing ac o re u s ing t h eL eva l lo i st e chn ique d oe s r e qu i re as i gn if ican t s k i l l l e ve l ( Ro l land 1 995 : 33 ) , i ti s n o t t e chn ica l ly c omp l ica ted . A c tua l ly d ef in ing t h e t e chn ique , h oweve r , h a s p roven t ob e ap rob lem . T h i s i sm a in ly d ue t o t h e s t rong i n f luence o f at y po log ica l a pp roach i n We s te rn E u ropean a r chaeo logy . I t h a s b een w ide ly a c cep ted a mong P a laeo l i th ic r e sea rche r s , o ve r t h e l a s t s eve ra l d ecade s a tl e a s t , t h a t t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique w a s u sed s pec if ica l ly t o p roduce f l ake s o f p r ede te rm ined m o rpho log ie s . T he a c tua l r e duc t ion t e chn ique h a s b een e c l ip sed b y af o cu s o n i t sp r e sumed i n tended e nd -p roduc t s ( D ibb le 1 995 ) .

V an P ee r ( 1992 a nd 1 995 ) p rov ide s ag ood s umma ry o f c u r ren t p rob lem s . I ng ene ra l s ome r e sea rche r s s t i l l s e e n o p r ob lem w i th c l a s s ic p e rcep t ion s o fL eva l lo is a nd s ugge s t t h a t a l t h a t i s r e qu i red a r e m o re s p ec if ic c r i te r ia f o r d ef in i t ion s o fL eva l lo i s e nd -p roduc t s ( Van P ee r 1 992 : 5 6 ) . O the r s s ugge s t t h a t i ti s t h e u nde r ly ing r e duc t ion p r oce ss i t se lf w h ich w e n eed t o b e t te r u nde r s tand a nd b e t te r d ef ine ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 995 : x i ; B aum le r 1 995 ; B oüda 1 995 ; D ibb le 1 989 : 4 24 ; V an P ee r 1 992 , 1 995 ; S ch lange r 1 996 ) . S ome r e sea r che r s i n p a r t icu la r ( e .g . , E r ic B oeda 1 988 , 1 993 , 1 995 ) h ave b een t r y ing s p ec if ica l ly t o b e t te r u nde r s tand L eva l lo i s a s at e chno log ica l p roce s s . T he se

Much o f t h e r e cen t L eva l lo i s r e sea r ch c a r r ied o u t i n E u rope h a s i n vo lved t h e r e cogn i t ion a nd d e sc r ip t ion o fa n umbe r o fd i f f e ren t v a r ie t ie s o r a pp roa che s t o t h e u se o f t h e L eva l lo is c oncep t . B oöda ( 1988 , 1 993 , 1 995 ) h a s p rov ided a u sef u l m o rpho log ica l d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e L eva l lo i s c oncep t . I n h i s " vo lume t r ic c oncep t ion" t h e L eva l lo i s c o re i sv i ewed a s " two a s ymme t r ica l , c onvex s e can t s u rf ace s t h e i n te r sec t ion o fw h ich f o rms ap l ane" . T he se t wo s u rf a ce s a r e h i e ra r ch ized i n t h a t o ne ( t he

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i n to c ommon u sage . T he se d i f f e r b a sed o n w he the r t h e c en t ra l r emova ls f r om e a ch p r epa r ed u ppe r s u rf a ce i n vo lved o n ly o ne f l ake ( P r ef er en t ia l ) o r s eve ra l f l ake s ( Recu r r en t ) ,o rw he the r , i nt h ec a se o fR ecu r r en tt y pe s ,t h e r emova l s a r e u n id i rec t iona l ( a l l o r ig ina te f r om t h e s ame e nd o ft h ec o re ) ,b i d i rec t iona l( o r ig ina te f r om t wo o ppo s i te e nd so ft h ec o re ) ,o rr a d ia l( F igu r e2 . 2 ) .

' u ppe r ' f a ce o r ' s u rf a ce o fd eb i tage ' ) i su s ed s o le ly a s a s ou r ce o ff l ake b l ank s , w h i le t h e o t he r s e rve s s o le ly a s a l o ca t ion f o r s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s f o r t h e r emova l o f t h e se b l ank s . B ecau se t h e se t wo s u rf a ce s a r e n o t s ymme t r ica l t h e i r r o le s c anno t b e r e ve r sed . W i th in B oeda 's L eva l lo i s c oncep t , h e a nd o t he r r e sea r che r s ( e .g . , L eno i r a nd T u rq 1 995 ) h ave d ef ined mo re s pec if ic t y pe s t h a t h ave c ome

1 st L evane ls f l ake 2nd L eva l lo is f l ake

P re fe ren t ia l L eva l lo is

i s t L eva l lo is S e r ies 2 nd L eva l lo

S e

%cu r ran t L eva l lo is F igure 2 . 2 P ref eren t ia la nd R ecurran tL eva l lo i sa pproache s .

r emova l ( s ) . D isc c o re s a r e t h e s ame a s C en t r ipe ta l c o re s e xcep t t h a t t h e i r t wo s u rf a ce s c an b e s ymme t r ica l a nd s o m ay n o t b e h i e ra r ch ized , e i the r f a ce c an s e rve a s t h e s u rf ace o f d eb i tage , a nd s o t h e se a r e e s sen t ia l ly h a rdhamme rb i f a ce c o re s( F igu re 2 . 3 ) .

T he se v a r ian t s o ft h e L eva l lo i s c oncep tc an a l b e g r ouped i n to t h e l a rge r c a tego ry o fs i ng l e su rf ace c o r e r e duc t ion . W i th in t h i s c a tego ry t h e re a r e o t he r a pp roa che s t h a t a r e n on -Leva l lo i s i n t h e c l a s s ica l s e n se . C en t r ipe ta l c o re s h ave a s i ng le s u rf a ce o f d eb i tage , b u t f r om t h i s o n ly p e r iphe ra l f l ake s a r e r emoved , w i th n o s ub sequen t c en t ra l

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D isc C o re ( b i r ac ia lo rr eve rs ib le s i ng le -su r face )

F igure 2 . 3 C en tr ipe ta la nd D i sc c ore r educ t ion a pproache s . A no the r v a r ian t o n t h e s i ng le su rf a ce a pp roa ch i s a m e thod t h a t p roduce s n o tab ly d i s t inc t p roduc t s c a l led E c la t sD g •bordan t s( F igu re 2 . 4 ) .T he d i s t inc t ive a t t r ibu te o f t h e se p roduc t s i st h e i n c lu s ion o f as i gn if ican t p o r t ion o f c o re e dge a l ong o ne m a rg in o f t h e f l ake . T h is i s a ccomp l i shed b y s t r ik ing t h e i n tended f l ake p l a tf o rm o n t h e c o re e dge a ta n o b l ique a ng le ( r a the rt h an p a ra l le l ) t o

t h e r a d iu s o ft h e c o r e s u rf a ce . O n s uch f l ake s t h e re t e nd s t o b e o ne o r t wo r e gu la r , s ha rp e dge s ( t he n umbe r d epend ing o n t h e c onf igu ra t ion o f t h e c o re s u rf a ce ) o ppo s i te t h e m a rg in e xh ib i t ing ap o r t ion o ft h e c o r e e dge . Of t en t ime s , w hen t h e f l ake h a s t wo o ft h e se s ha rp e dge s a nd t h ey f o rm a p o in t , t h e r e su l t ing f l ake s hape i sw ha t B o rde sc l a s s if ied a s' p seudo -Leva l lo is p o in t s ' .

F igure 2 . 4 Me thod o fp roduc t ion o f Ma t sd dbordan t s . T he d arker s haded f l ake s cars r epre sen tc en tra l ly -d irec ted r emova l s .T he Ma t s d dbordan t s( A ,B ,C )w ere r emoved w i th o b l ique i mpac t st ot he c ore e dge .

7

C u r r en t ly t h e re i ss i gn if i can tc onf u s ion a mong r e sea rche r s a nd i nt h e l i t e ra tu re o n L eva l lo i s a nd i t s d ef in i t ion , a nd d if e ren tv i ew s a nd d ef in i t ion s s e em t oc o r re spond m a in ly t o d if e rence s i nn a t iona l i ty a nd l a nguage . T h is i sp a r t ly d ue t ot h e s l owne s s w i th w h ich m uch o ft h e m o s t c u r ren t r e sea rch ( mo s t o fi ta mong t h e F r ench a nd B e lg ian s ) h a s b een a c ce s sed b y B r i t i sh a nd N o r th Ame r ican r e sea rche r s . Among A ng lophone s , e s pec ia l ly t h e B r i t i sh , t h e t e rm s ' To r to i se c o re ' a nd ' D isc c o re ' , r e f e r r ing t o L eva l lo i s v a r ian t s , a r e s t i l l i n c ommon u sage , w h i le mo s t F r ancophone r e sea r che r s h ave b een u s ing t e rm s l i ke ' p ref eren t ia l ' , l i nea l , r e cur r en t , a nd ` c en t r ipe t e ' f o r o ve r 1 0y ea r s .

P a la eo l i th ic a s semb lage s i n E u rope , i n A f r ica t h e i r u s e w a s p a ra l le led i ns ome r e g ion s b y t h e u s e o fo t he r c o re r e duc t ion t e chn ique s s u ch a s t h e T a chengh i t , V ic to r ia We s t Ia nd I , a nd " ho r se s h oof ' c o r e s ( Ro l land 1 995 ) . S ome s aw t h e se c o r e r e duc t ion t e chn ique s a s l i ke ly p r ecu r so r s t of u l ly d eve loped L eva l lo i s a nd , d ue t ot h e i r a ge s , i ts e emed l i ke ly t h a tt h eL eva l lo i st e chn ique i n i t ia l ly e me rged i nA f r ica . C oup led w i th t h e l a ck o fp o ten t ia l p r e a nd " p ro to -Leva l lo is" c and ida te s ( b e s ide s h andaxe s ) i n E u rope ,t h i sl e ds ome r e sea rche r st os ugge s tt h a tL eva l lo i s h ad e n te r ed E u rope i ni t s f u l ly d eve loped ( c la s s ic ) f o rm f r om e l sewhe re , w i th A f r ica a s t h e u l t ima te p l a ce o f o r ig in . T h i s m ono the t ic v i ew o f L eva l lo i s o r ig in s s aw L eva l lo is e n t e r ing E u rope e i the r t h rough t h e M idd le E a s t o rd i rec t ly f r om N o r th A f r ica .T he l a t te rr ou te w a s s e en t o b e s uppo r ted t os ome d eg ree b y t h e g ene ra l s im i la r i t ie s i n h andaxe t y pe s b e tween t h e I b e r ian P en in su la a nd t h e Magh reb ( Ro l land 1 995 : 35 -51) .O the r ss e et h et e chn ique d eve lop ing i n dependen t ly i nE u rope ( e .g . T uf f reau 1 995 ; Wh i te a nd A sh ton 2 003 ) . B o rde s ( 1 961a : 8 06 ) s t a ted o u t r igh tt h a tt h et e chn ique wa sd eve loped i nE u rope i nt h e M idd le A cheu l ian .

L eva l lo is D is tr ibu t ion T he p r e sence o f t h e L eva l lo i s T echn ique h a s b een r e cogn ized i nt h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd i nA f r ica , We s ter n E u ra s ia , a nd p a r t s o f A s ia -p rope r i n c lud ing s ou ther n S i be r ia ( De rev ianko a nd Ma rk in 1 995 ) , Mongo l ia ( De rev ianko a nd P e t r in 1 995 ) , a nd o n t h e I n d ian s ub c on t inen t ( Ro l land 1 995 , 33 ) . C onv inc ing ly L eva l lo i s l i ke c o r e sh ave a l so b een i d en t if i ed i nt h eJ apane se M idd le P a la eo l i th ic ( Sa to e t .a l . 1 995 ) .

I nE u rope ,f u l ly d eve loped L eva l lo i ss e em st oa ppea rq u i te e a r ly a nd w i th f ew o bv iou s t r an s i t iona l f o rm s b e tween i t a nd A cheu l ian h andaxe s , a s i s s e en t o b e t h e c a se i n A f r ica . Wh i le Wh i te a nd A sh ton ( 2 003 ) p ropo se t h e e x i s tence o f ` p ro to -Leva l lo i s ' t e chno logy a t t h e s i te o f P u r f lee t i nE ng land d a ted t oO IS 9 / 8 , " genu ine" L eva l lo i s c o re s a nd f l ake sh ave b een i d en t if i ed a tt h es i t e o fC agney l aG a renne i nt h e S omme v a l ley ,w h ich h a sb een a s s igned c h rono s t ra t ig raph ica l ly t oi s o tope s t age 1 2( c a . 4 70 t o4 40 k ya ) (Tuf f r eau 1 995 , 1 982 ) . T he e a r ly a ppea rance o f o bv iou s L eva l lo i s p r oduc t s a nd t h e s c a rc i ty o f p o ten t ia l t r an s i t iona l t e chno log ie s l e d R o l land t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique a ppea red h e r e i n dependen t ly o f i t s d eve lopmen t e l sewhe re . T he p r e sence o ff u l ly d eve loped L eva l lo i s a t o t he r s i t e s , s uch a s C hampvo i sy a nd A rgoeuve s , p l a ced i ne a r ly o xygen i s o tope s t age 8( 3 00 t o 2 80 k ya ) , i n d ica te s t h a t t h e t e chn ique w a s e s tab l i shed i n E u rope w e l l p r io r t o t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic ( Ro l land 1 995 : 3 45 -46 a nd T uf f reau 1 982 ) .

D e te rm in ing t h e t ime s p an o f t h e u se o f t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique i sh ampe red b y t wo g ene ra l p rob lem s . T he f i r s t i st h e i n con s i s tency i nt h e d ef in i t ion o fL eva l lo i s a nd t h e r e cogn i t ion o fi t s p r oduc t s i na s semb lage s . T h i s p rob lem c an a r i se i n b o th t h e q ue s t ion o f f i r s t a ppea rance s o f L eva l lo i s a nd i nd e te rm in ing t h e l a te r d u ra t ion o ft h e u se o ft h et e chn ique . T yp ica l ly t h eL eva l lo i st e chn ique i ss e en a se vo lv ing o u to fp r ev iou st e chno log ie sa nd e vo lv ing i n to s ub sequen t o ne s . T he i n i t ia l a nd f i na l f o rm s o f t h e t e chn ique , t e nd ing t ob e d i s s im i la r t ot h e c l a s s ic f o rm ( s ) o b se rved t h roughou t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e t e chn ique 's u se s pan , l e ad t os ome d i sag reemen ta bou tt h ea c tua l p o in t s a t w h ich t h e t e chn ique e me rged a nd f i na l ly d i sappea r ed ( Ro l land 1 995 ; V e rmee r sch 1 995 ) . T he s e cond p rob lem i s i nt h e a c cu racy a nd r e l iab i l i ty o ft h e d a t ing o ft h e e a r l ie r s i te a s semb lage s . T he L eva l lo i s t e chn ique s e em s t o g ene ra l ly a ppea ra r ound ,o rp r io rt o ,t h em idd le o ft h eR i s s ( c a . 4 70 -195 k ya ) ( Wh i te a nd A sh ton 2 003 ; R o l land 1 995 ; V e rmee r sch 1 995 ) . T uf f reau ( 1 995 : 4 17 ) p u t s t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence f o ri tu nequ ivoca l ly i ni s o tope s t age 1 4( c a . 50 5 00 k ya ) i n n o r ther n F rance . Wh i te a nd A sh ton ( 2 003 :598 ) , h oweve r , p u t i t s e me rgence a t 3 00 ,000 t o 2 50 ,000 y e a r s a go ( O IS 8 ) . R a re ly , h oweve r , a r e r e l iab le a b so lu te d a te s a va i lab le f o r s i te s o ft h e se a ge s . T yp ica l ly t h e a ge s o fa s semb lage s r e p re sen t ing e a r ly o ccu r r ence s o f L eva l lo i s c an o n ly b e e xp re s sed i n P l e i s tocene c h rono s t ra t ig raph ic t e rm s ; s ome t ime s b y a s soc ia t ion w i th as p ec if i c o xygen i s o top ic s t age , b u t s ome t ime s o n ly b y p l acemen tw i th in ag l ac ia lp e r iod ( e .g . " i n i t ia lt ol a te rR i s s t ime s" -R o l land 1 995 : 3 49 ) .

T he D i sappearance o fL eva l lo i s I nE u rope , r e ga rd le s s o ft h e a c tua l n a tu r e o ft h e t empo ra l r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e v a r iou s Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s ( r e . Me l la r s 1 969 ; L av i l le 1 972 ) , c la s s ic L eva l lo is h ad a ppa ren t ly a l ready b ecome q u i te s c a rc e i nt h e t e rm ina l Mou s te r ian I n du s t r ie s . H oweve r , s ome r e sea rche r s h ave s e en s im i la r i t ie s t o L eva l lo i s i no t he r r e duc t ion m e thod s o b se rved i n L a te M idd le /Ea r ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s ( e .g . K oz low sk i 1 990 ; O t te 1 990 ) . T yp ica l ly t h e se o t he rm e thod s a r eo r ien ted t owa rd sp r oduc ing b l ade s o rb l ade l ike f l ake su s ing f a ce ted p l a tf o rm p r epa ra t ion a nd h a rd h amme r , a s o ppo sed t ot h e s of t h amme r o r i n d i rec t p e r cu s s ion m e thod s t y p ica l ly a s soc ia ted w i th U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic b l ade p r oduc t ion ( Newcome r 1 975 ) . E xamp le s o f s uch a s semb lage s , e xh ib i t ing U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic t y pe t o o l s p roduced w i th M idd le P a laeo l i th ic

S eve ra l r e sea rche r s h ave s ugge s ted t h a t t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique e vo lved d i rec t ly f r om A cheu l ian h andaxe t e chno logy ( Ro l land 1 995 : 3 46 ; T uf f reau 1 995 , 1 982 : 1 42 ) . Wh i le h andaxe s w e re s t i l l ac omponen t o fM idd le

8

t e chno logy , i n c lude t h o se o ft h e B ohun ic ian i n du s t ry o f E a s ter n E u rope , d a ted t o a r ound 4 0 ,000 B P ( Koz low sk i 1 990 ; S voboda a nd S k rd la 1 995 ) . T he r e cogn i t ion o f s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e se t wo p roce s se s h i gh l igh t s t wo i s sue s . T he f i r s t i st h e p rob lem o f t r y ing t o d ef ine t h e L eva l lo is t e chn ique ( o r a ny o t he r p roce s s ) b a sed o n i t s e nd -p roduc t s r a the r t h an t h e n a tu re o f i t s t e chno log ica l p roce s s . T he s e cond i mp l ica t ion o ft h is r e cogn i t ion i st h a t p e rhap s t h e u nde r ly ing a dvan tage s o fb o th t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique a nd c e r ta in b l ade p roduc t ion t e chn ique s a r e t h e s ame , o r a tl e a s t s im i la r , i nh ow t h ey a dd re s s r e duc t ion r e qu i remen t s a nd c on s t ra in t s a nd t h a t t h e i r d i s t inc t p roduc t sa r e as e conda ry c ha rac te r i s t ic .

3 00 k ya ) a nd c on t inued o n i n to a nd t h rough t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic . C la s s ic L eva l lo i s e nded w i th t h e Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s ( c a . 4 0t o3 5 k ya ) , b u tt h e m e thod c on t inued o n t os ome d eg ree i n to t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nt h e f o rm o f b l ade -p roduc t ion o r s ome t r an sf o rmed f o rm . H oweve r , a t n o t ime d oe s t h e L eva l lo is m e thod a ppea r t oh ave h ad a w ide sp read e mp loymen t b y a l c on tempo raneou s g roup s / cu l tu re s i nE u rope o rA f r ica . I nf a c t , e ven i fs ome f o rm o f l o ng t e rm c h rono log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s e me rge ( s uch a st h a t s ugge s ted b y Me l la r s [ 1 969 ] ) , t h e L eva l lo is s t ra tegy a ppea r s t oh ave h ad as po rad ic h i s to ry o fu se . I n t h e E u ropean M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , L eva l lo i s i sa s soc ia ted t os ome d eg ree w i th a l t h e Mou s te r ian l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s . I n s ome Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie st h et e chn ique i sm o re c ommon w h i le i n o t he r s t h e p r e sence o f t h e t e chn ique i s v e ry l i m i ted . I n t h e T yp ica l Mou s te r ian a nd t h e D en t icu la te Mou s te r ian , L eva l lo i s m a te r ia ls a r e c ommon i n s ome c omponen t s , b u t p oo r ly r e p r e sen ted a t o t he r s . I n t h e l a F e r ra s s ie t r ad i t ion L eva l lo is m a te r ia ls s t a r t o u t b e ing c ommon b u t s l ow ly b ecome s c a rce r t h rough t ime . I nt h e Q u ina ( wh ich l i ke ly f o l low st h eF e r ra s s ie c h rono log ica l ly ) L eva l lo is b ecome s s c a rce r y e t . I n t h e Mou s te r ian o f A cheu l ian T rad i t ion ( MAT ) t h e t e chn ique i sl e s s s t rong ly r e p re sen ted , b u t i su sua l ly s t i l l p r e sen t t o s ome d eg ree . T ab le 2 . 1 p r e sen t s s ome a ve rage L eva l lo i s i n d ice s f o rt h e Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s b a sed o n d a ta f r om 1 3 s i te s i n SW F rance ( Combe G rena l , P ech d e I ' Azi I a nd I , A b r i C hadou rne , R oc e n P a i l , H au te roche , P e t i t -Puymoyen , P . B a i l la rd , C am inade , F e r ra s s ie , B ouheben , R oc d e Ma r sa l [ Ro l land 1 988 ] , a nd P ech d e l ' Azi I V [ D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 ] ) . Wh i le t h e d a ta a r e l i m i ted , t h e t a b le d oe s g i ve s ome i n d ica t ion o f t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f L eva l lo is r e duc t ion i ne a ch i n du s t ry .

I n A f r ica t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique s e em s t o d i sappea r i n m o s t a r ea s b y a r ound 4 0 k ya . H oweve r , t h e r e a r e r e g ion s w he re i ta ppea r st oc on t inue ,o rp e rhap sr e appea r , i nm uch l a te r p e r iod s . L eva l lo is i sp r e sen t ( " reappea r s"? ) i n t h e N i le V a l ley a r ound 2 1 k ya ( Ve rmee r sch 1 995 : 3 09 ) . L eakey e t . a l . ( 1972 : 32 -33 ) i d en t if y t h e p r e sence o f L eva l lo is c o re s a tO lduva i G o rge i nd epo s i t sw e l l d a ted t o 1 7 k ya . I n T un is ia L eva l lo is f l ake s h ave b een f ound a s soc ia ted w i th t yp ica l U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o ls . Wh i le t h i s a s semb lage r ema in s u nda ted , a n e s t ima te o fc .2 5 k ya h a sb een p ropo sed ( Ve rmee r sch 1 995 : 3 08 )

D is tr ibu t ion i n We s tern E urope A s o u t l ined a bove , L eva l lo is m a te r ia l s h ave b een r e cove red f r om s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion sp l a ced q u i te e a r ly i n E u ropean c h rono s t ra t ig raph ic s equence s . I t s e em s a ppa r en t t h a t t h e t e chn ique w a s e s tab l i shed i n E u rope ( whe the r i te me rged t h e re o r n o t ) b y i s o tope s t age 8( c a .

T ab le 2 . 1 A verage L eva l lo i sI nd ice sf o rt he Mou s ter ian I ndus tr ie so f1 3F rench s i te s ( d a ta f r om R o l land 1 988 a nd D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 ) . ( CG=Combe G rena l ,P =Pech ,R dM—Roc d e Ma r sa l , BH=Bouheben , AC=Ab r i C hadou rne , H —Hau te roche , R eP=Roc e n P a i l , C =Cam inade , F e r= la F e r ra s s ie ,P P=Pe t i t -Pu m o e n ,P B13.B a i l la rd ) . T yp ica l D en t icu la te F erra s s ie Qu ina MAT Mou s ter ian Mous ter ian Mous ter ian Mou s ter ian L eve l I L L eve l I L L eve l I L L eve l I L L eve l I L CG-7 CG -9 CG10 CG-28 CG-29 CG-30 CG-31 CG-36 CG-37 CG -39 CG-42 CG-46 CG-50a CG-50 CG-52 CG-54 CG -55 P I I —3 P I I-4C C —M 1 b

3 0 2 0 2 5 2 3 2 7 2 5 2 9 2 4 1 3 1 3 1 7 1 5 7 1 1 4 1 2 8 2 9 1 0 2 5

CG -8 CG11 CG12 CG13 CG14 CG15 CG16 CG38 CG-4 1 P I I-4F P I I-4B AC -A H -3 R dM -3 R dM -2

1 3 2 0 1 2 3 2 4 1 8 2 0 1 3 1 0 9 7 4 2 0 2 2

CG-27 CG32 CG33 CG34 CG35 AC— C AC -D R eP -1 R eP -4 C —M ls C —M2b C —M2s C—M3b C —M3s F e r —C F e r —D 1 F e r —D 2

1 7 2 1 2 2 2 1 3 2 1 9 2 6 1 9 1 4 3 2 5 6 4 1 4 1 2 3 5 1 4 0 2 1

9

CG— 1 P I —7 P I —6 P I— P I —B P I —5 P I— 5 A P I —4 F P I -3 P IV -F4 P IV -F3 P IV -F2 P IV -F 1

7 6 8 9 1 1 0 1 3 8 6 8 4 5 5

CG17 CG18 CG19 CG-21 CG-22 CG-23 CG-24 CG-25 CG-26 AC -B R eP -5 H -1 P P —l w P P -u p P B —1 P B -2 C —M3s R dM 11 R dM 10 R dM -9b

3 5 1 2 2 4 3 4 9 1 2 3 8 1 2 1 8 2 4 2 1 3

T yp ica l Mou s ter ian B H— 1 5 BH— la R dM -7 R dM -6 R dM -5 R dM -4 P IV -Z P IV -Y P IV -X P IV J3c P IV J3b P IV J3a P IV J3 P IV J2 P IV J 1 P IV I2 P IV I 1 P IV -H

D en t icu la te Mous ter ian

F erra s s ie Mou s ter ian

Qu ina Mou s ter ian

MAT

R dM -9a

2

1 9 1 5 1 4 1 2 2 1 3 1 5 1 3 1 5 2 1 2 2 2 4 1 2 2 2 1 8 1 3 6

T o ta l

6 57

1 77

4 96

1 00

9 1

MEAN

1 7 .3

1 .8

2 9 .2

7 . 7

4 . 3

W i th in s ome Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s , s ome s i te c omponen t s h ave as t rong L eva l lo is p r e sence , w h i le a to t he r s i te s i ti s a l b u t n on -ex i s ten t . Wha t t h i s a c tua l ly m ean s i nt e rm s o f h uman b ehav iou ra nd c ho ice si sn o tc l ea r .T he se i n du s t r ie s a r e d ef ined b a sed o nt h e i rr e la t ive c on ten t s o fc e r ta in ' t oo l t y pe s ' a nd t e chno logy , t h e m ean ing o fw h ich i ss t i l l u nde r d eba te . I ft h e se d i f f e ren t i n du s t r ie s ( a s sum ing t h ey a r e r e a l , d i s t inc t e n t i t ie s ) r e p re sen t d if e ren t a dap ta t ion s t o s p ec if ic c ond i t ion s ( i nd iv idua l s i te re la ted , r e g iona l , o r c l ima t ic ) , a s i s b e ing s ugge s ted h e re f o r c ho ice o f r e duc t ion t e chno logy , t h en t h i s w i l l r e qu i re a dd i t iona l c omp i la t ion o f a l t h e p e r t inen t d a ta ( a m a s s ive u nde r tak ing b y i t s e l f ) . G ene ra l ly , t h e u se o f L eva l lo is r e duc t ion c r o s s -cu t st h e B o rd ian I n du s t r ie s ( wha teve rt h ey m igh t r e p re sen t ) , a l though i t s u se i s a lmo s t a lway s s i gn if ican t ly l owe r i n t h e Q u ina a nd MAT i n du s t r ie s . O ccu r rence s o ft h e MAT i n du s t ry i nt h e A qu i ta ine r e g ion a r e q u i te l a te i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd s e em t o r e p re sen t ar e la t ive ly s ho r t p e r iod o ft ime ( p e rhap s 1 0 k y i n d u ra t ion ) , a nd s o m igh t b e m o re o pen t o p o ten t ia l i n te rp re ta t ion s t h a t t a ke c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion ( a s o ppo sed t o s t r ic t a dap t ive r e spon se s ) i n to c on s ide ra t ion ( Ro l land 2 000 ) .

s u rf a ce c o re r e duc t ion ( b e s ide s L eva l lo is ) , i n c lud ing c en t r ipe ta l /d i sc c o re , s a u sage s l ice r e duc t ion , a nd b i d i rec t iona l a pp roa che s t ot h e r emova l o ff l ake s f r om t h e c o re s u rf a ce . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e r e i ss ome u nde r ly ing p a t ter n ing t o t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f L eva l lo i s ( a nd o t he rr e duc t ion t e chn ique s ) t h roughou tt h i s p e r iod . T o m ap o u t L eva l lo is u se t h rough t ime a nd s pa ce w ou ld r e qu i re a L eva l lo i s I ndex v a lue f o r a l a rge p r opo r t ion o f a l t h e a va i lab le M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te c omponen t s a nd a c cu ra te d a t ing a nd e nv i ronmen ta l r e con s t ruc t ion f o re a ch . U nf o r tuna te ly ,a tt h i st i me d a ta f o r t h e se p u rpo se s a r e n o t g ene ra l ly a va i lab le i n q uan t if ied f o rm t o a ny r e a sonab le d eg ree . F o r t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f k nown s i te s o f t h is t ime p e r iod t h e re i sa lmo s t n o d a ta p ub l i shed . F o rt h o se s i te sw he re s i gn if ican tw o rk h a sb een c a r r ied o u t , d a te s a r e n o t t y p ica l ly a va i lab le f o r e a ch c omponen t a nd o f t en t h e i r a s soc ia ted L eva l lo is I n d ice s h ave n o tb een m ade a va i lab le b yt h er e sea rche r s . N eve r the le s s , t h e re h ave b een s ome a necdo ta l s t a temen t s a bou t r e duc t ion t e chno logy p a t ter n ing b y r e sea r che r s i n F rance . F o r e xamp le , J aube r t a nd F a r izy ( 1995 : 2 28 ) i n d ica te st h a t , w h i le t h e L eva l lo is r e duc t ion a pp roa ch m ay b e c ommon i nr e g ion s l i ke t h e P e r igo rd a nd t h e n o r ther n E u ropean P l a in , i ti sn o t c ommon i n B r i t tany , Q ue r cy , T a rn , t h e P y renee s , C a ta lon ia , t h e I b e r ian P en in su la , C en t ra l E u rope , o r t h e B a lkan s ( s ee a l so R o l land 1 986 : 1 23 ) . Q uan t if ied d i s t r ibu t iona l d a ta t os uppo r t t h e se i d ea s w ou ld b ew e lcome .

I f L eva l lo is r e duc t ion w a s r e la ted t o d i s t inc t c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ions , o r p e rhap s d i s t inc t a dap ta t ion s , t h en w e m igh t e xpec t s ome g eog raph ica l p a t te rn ing . T he r e h ave b een s ome a t temp t s a td e tec t ing t h i s ( e .g . , J aube r t a nd F a r izy 1 995 ; R o l land 1 988 ) , b u tt h e se , l i ke a ny s u ch a temp t s , a r e s e ve re ly l i m i ted b y t h e r e so lu t ion a nd q ua l i ty o f t h e a va i lab le d a ta . I n F r ance , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e u se o f L eva l lo is t e chno logy a ppea r s , a t a c oa r se l e ve l o f r e so lu t ion , t o b e g ene ra l ly h omogeneou s . H oweve r , t h roughou t t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic an umbe r o fd i f f e ren t r e duc t ion t e chno log ie s w e re u s ed i n F rance i n c lud ing a mo rphou s c o re r e duc t ion a nd o t he r v a r ian t s o f s i ng le -

W i th in F r ance i t s e lf , Ih ave c omp i led m uch o ft h e r e ad i ly a va i lab le d a ta o n L eva l lo is d i s t r ibu t ion . T h is i sf a r f r om e xhau s t ive , b u t i n t h e a va i lab le l i t e ra tu re s u ch d a ta i s a c tua l ly q u i te r a re f o r m o s t s i te s . F o rt h e m a jo r i ty o fs i t e s i n c luded h e re , L eva l lo is p r e sence h a s b een r e po r ted o n ly i n d e sc r ip t ive f o rm ( e .g . , h i gh , l ow , a b sen t ) a nd a c tua l

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L eva l lo is I n d ice s a r e n o t a va i lab le i nt h e l i t e ra tu re . T he se d a ta a r ep r e sen ted h e re i nf i gu re 2 . 5 . T he a dd i t ion o f mo re d a ta ( w i th b e t te r r e so lu t ion ) m ay r e su l t i n d e tec tab le p a t te rn s , b u t a s t h e se d a ta s t and , n one a r e a ppa ren t . I t s hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e re a r e m any k nown M idd le

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p o s s ib ly t h ee x t r eme NW B r i t tany -No rmandy a r ea ( f o ra l o f w h ich l i t t le s i te spec if i c d a ta i sr e ad i ly a va i lab le , a s r e f lec ted i nt h e l a ck o fp l o t ted s i t e s i nt h e se r e g ion s i n f i gu re 2 . 5 ) .

B a sed o nt h el i m i ted d a ta i nf i gu re 2 . 5t h eu s eo fL eva l lo i s r e duc t ion a ppa ren t ly d i d n o t f o l low a ny b road g eog raph ica l p a t ter n ing . I f t h i s l a ck o f p a t ter n ing i s a c cu ra te t h en i tw ou ld i n d ica te t h a ti tw a sn o ts t rong ly t i ed t ob r oad , r e g iona l p a t te rn ing i nr aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty , o ri nc l ima te o re t hn ic g r oup s . I tm u s tb en o ted , h oweve r , t h a t a c ce s s t og ood r aw m a te r ia l s i sn o t a n i s sue i nm o s t r e g ion s o f F r ance . T he m a jo r e xcep t ion s a r e t h e Ma s s if C en t ra le , t h e G a ronne d e l ta i nt h e B o rdeaux r e g ion a nd

T he r e po r ted l a ck o fL eva l lo i s a mong t h e s i t e s s i tua ted i n t h e f o o th i l l s o f t h e P y r enee s i n f i gu r e 2 . 5 ( d a ta f r om J aube r t a nd F a r izy 1 995 ) m igh t b e a n i n d ica t ion o fr aw m a te r ia l c on s t ra in t s i n f luenc ing t h e s e le c t ion o fr e duc t ion

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s t ra tegy ( t he se a s semb lage s d o i n c lude h i ghe r f r equenc ie s o fn on -f l in tm a te r ia ls ,s u ch a sq ua r tz ,t h an i nt h eD o rdogne r e g ion , a l though s ou rce s o f g ood q ua l i ty f l in t a r e n o t u ncommon i n t h e r e g ion ) . H oweve r , t h e d om inan t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s a mong t h e se a s semb lage s a r e s t i l l b a sed o n s i ng le su rf a ce c o re r e duc t ion ( J aube r ta nd F a r izy 1 995 ) , w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t r aw ma te r ia l t y pe a l one w ou ld n o tp rec lude t h ea pp l ica t ion o fc l a s s ic L eva l lo i sr e duc t ion .

w h i le Wü rm p ha se I ( wa rm ) h a s T yp ica l Mou s te r ian w i thou t s i gn if ican t L eva l lo i s . H oweve r , a tt h e s i te o fL e Mou s t ie r , Wü rm p ha se I ( wa rm ) i so ccup ied b y T yp ica l Mou s te r ian w i th s t rong L eva l lo i sr e p re sen ta t ion . I n t h e l a te 1 960 s Me l la r s ( 1969 ) p r e sen ted e v idence , c ompe l l ing a t t h a t t ime , f o r a s imp le s equen t ia l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e t h ree Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s Q u ina , F e r ra s s ie , a nd MAT , w i th t h e MAT a s t h e f i na l m an if e s ta t ion o ft h e Mou s te r ian , w h ich w a s r e p laced , b y U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s , s pec if ica l ly t h e P e r igo rd ian I /C ha te lpe r ron ian . I ft h is s e quence w a s a c cu ra te i tm igh t s ugge s t s ome s o r t o fd i a ch ron ic p a t ter n ing i nt h e u se o f L eva l lo i sw i th ap e r iod o f mo re i n ten s ive u s ee a r l ie ri nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , b u t f o l lowed b y ag r adua l d ec l ine t owa rd s d i su se i nt h e l a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd e a r ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . H oweve r , p o ten t ia l f l aw s i n Me l la r s s c heme w e r e s ub sequen t ly p r e sen ted ( e .g . L av i l le 1 972 ) . T he p ub l ica t ion o fn ew t h e rmo lum ine scence d a te s f o r t h e s i te o fL e Mou s t ie r m ay a low Me l la r s ' o r ig ina l s equence t ob er e -a rgued ( Me l la r s 1 986 ) .

A s m en t ioned a bove , h ow eve r , m o r e q uan t if ied d a ta o n o ccupa t ion s i te s a nd c omponen t s , mo re d a ta o n s ou r ce s o f r aw m a te r ia l , a nd g r ea te rr e so lu t ion i nd a te s c ou ld h e lp t o i d en t if y a ny i n t ra reg iona l p a t te rn ing t h a t m igh t e x i s t . G iven t h e l a ck o fg eog raph ic p a t te rn ing , t h e mo s t l i ke ly d e te rm inan t o f t h e u se o f L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion w ou ld b e s i te spec if ic c i rcum s tance s , s uch a s : p l ace o f t h e s i te w i th in a s e a sona l c yc le , l o ca l r aw m a te r ia l q ua l i ty a nd a va i lab i l i ty , a nd t y pe o f t a sk s b e ing c a r r ied o u t . A lso , b e t te rr e so lu t ion i nd a t ing c ou ld i lum ina te a ny d i a ch ron ic p a t te rn ing t h a t m igh t r e p re sen t s ome a s soc ia t ion b e tween c l ima te a nd c ho ice o fs t ra teg ie s .

S ome e xam ina t ion o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e o ccu r rence o fL eva l lo is a nd M idd le a nd L a te P l e i s tocene c l ima t ic s equence s w i l l b e i n c luded i n a n a t temp t t o d e te rm ine w he the r c l ima te h a s ap o ten t ia l i n f luence i n L eva l lo is u se o r n o t . S ea sona l i ty i s ad if e ren t i s sue a nd w i l l p l ay a p a r t i n a dd re s s ing p a rame te r s s uch a s a va i lab i l i ty o f r e sou r ce s , i n c lud ing r aw m a te r ia l , a nd i n m ob i l i ty p a t ter n s .

L eva l lo is a nd C l ima te T he a ppea rance o ft h e m e thod i sn o t o bv iou s ly a s soc ia ted w i th s pec if ic c l ima t ic p e r iod s . T he s i te s o fP ech d e L 'Aze I V a nd L e Mou s t ie r a r e e xamp le s o f t h e a ppa ren t u np red ic tab i l i ty o ft h e u se o fL eva l lo is . A t P ech d eL 'Aze I V , i nt h e Wü rm Id epo s i t s o ft h is s i te , p ha se I( c o ld a nd d amp t oc o ld a nd d r y ) a nd p ha se I I ( c o ld a nd d ry ) a r e T yp ica l Mou s te r ian w i th s t rong L eva l lo i sr e p re sen ta t ion ,

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Chap ter 3 : Me thods T heore t ica l F ramework n eeded t op e rf o rm s p ec if i c t a sk s b y f i r s t a na lyz ing t h e i r i n tended f u nc t ion a nd i d en t if y ing a l t h e c on s t ra in t s t h a t w i l l a f ec t t h e p e rf o rmance o f t h a t t o o l o r t e chn ique . B e s ide sj u s t t h e a c tua l t a sk t h a t m u s t b e p e rf o rmed , s u ch c on s t ra in t s m igh t i n c lude : a va i lab i l i ty o f p o ten t ia l r aw m a te r ia l s ( i n t e rm s o f c o s t ) , t h e p hy s ica l p rope r t ie s o f p o ten t ia l r aw m a te r ia l s , t h e n ece s sa ry p o r tab i l i ty o f t h e t o o lo rt e chn ique ,t h ed e s i red e a se o fu s e( t he l e ve lo fs k i l l o rt r a in ing t h a t w ou ld b e r e qu i red ) , a nd h ow l o ng at o o l n eed st ol a s t( c o s to fr e p la cemen t ) .

T he g ene ra l m e thodo logy u s ed i nt h i s s t udy i st oa pp ly a d e s ign t h eo ry f r amewo rk t o t h e q ue s t ion o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s t one t o o l p r oduc t ion . D e s ign t h eo ry i sa n a na ly t ica l t o o l t h a t a pp roa che s t h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e n a tu re o fa n i t em , a r t if ac t , t e chn ique , e t c . b y v i ew ing i t s f o rm a st h er e su l to f ap rob lem s o lv ing p roce s sd ef ined b y s pec if ic p a r ame te r s a nd l i m i ted b y s p ec if ic c on s t ra in t s ( B leed 1 986 ; H ayden e t . a l . 1 996 ; H o r sf a l l 1 987 ; P ye 1 964 ) . T h i s i s ar e ve r se a pp roa ch t o t h a t a pp l ied i n i n du s t r ia l d e s ign f r om w h ich i ti sb o r rowed . I n i n du s t ry , manuf a c tu r e r sa pp roa ch t h ed e s ign o f t o o l s o rt e chn ique s

D iagramma t ic c oncep t ion o ft he g enera ld e s ign p roce s s T a sk r e qu i r ing t o o l o rt e chn ique ( f unc t ion )

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C on s t ra in t sa nd p o ss ib le c omponen t s ( d es ign p a rame t er s )

D e s ign t h eo ry , a si ti sa pp l ied i na r chaeo logy , i ss im i la rt o s y s t em s t h eo ry i n t h a t i t i n vo lve s a na lyz ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip s o f v a r iou s i n te ra c t ing v a r iab le s . D e s ign t h eo ry , h oweve r , i s a pp l ied t o p roce s se s t h a t h ave a t r a jec tor y . T ha t i st h ey h ave ab eg inn ing a nd e nd w h ich c an b e e s sen t ia l ly i s o la ted i nt ime a nd s pace . Wh i le t h e r e a r e l i ke ly t o b e m u l t ip le a nd v a r ied c on s t ra in t s o n a ny s pec if i c d e s ign p r oce s s , t h e o u tcome w i l l t y p ica l ly b e d i rec ted a t s a t i sf y ing a v e ry l i m i ted n umbe r o f g oa l s ; p e rhap s e ven a s i ng le o ne . U n l ike i n du s t r ia l d e s ign , i n a pp ly ing d e s ign t h eo ry i na r cha eo logy w e b eg in w i th t h e e nd -p roduc t , t h e a r t if a c t t y pe o r a r t if a c t p r oduc t ion t e chn ique o rs t ra tegy , a nd w o rk b a ckwa rd s t oi d en t if y t h e c on s t ra in t s a nd o t he r d e ta i l s o f t h e d e s ign p r oce s s , a nd u l t ima te ly ,t h eu s e f o rw h ich t h et o o l w a sd e s igned . I nt h e c a se o fa n a r t if a c t t y pe , t h i s a na lys i s w ou ld f i r s t r e qu i re d e te rm in ing a tl e a s tt h eg ene ra l f u nc t ion o ft o o l s .

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R ange o fp o ten t ia l ly e f ec t ive s o lu t ion s ( f orm o ft o o lo r t e chn ique )

I nt h ec a se o fr e la t ive ly s imp le i t em s , s u ch a sf l aked s t one t o o l s ,a r cha eo log i s t sw ho c ommon ly w o rk w i th s uch i t em s t e nd t o h ave a r e a sonab ly g ood u nde r s tand ing o f s u ch t h ing sa st h em echan ica lp rope r t ie s( s ha rpne s s ,b r i t t lene s s ) a nd f l ak ing b ehav iou r o f r aw m a te r ia l s a nd w i l l a u toma t ica l ly r e cogn ize a nd t a ke i n to a c coun t s u ch p o ten t ia lc on s t ra in t so nt h ef u nc t ion o f at o o l . H ow eve r , s u ch i n f o rma l a pp roa che s g ene ra l ly f a i l t o a t temp tt oi d en t if ya l lo ft h ep o ten t ia l c on s t ra in t st h a tm ay h ave p l ayed ar o le . F u r the rmo re , t h e r e sea rche r m ay n o t h ave i mmed ia te a c ce s s t o t h e n ece s sa ry i n f o rma t ion t o a low t h em t oa pp ly t h ea pp rop r ia te w e igh t ing , i nt e rm so f p o ten t ia l i n f luence , t o e a ch p o ten t ia l c on s t ra in t a nd t o u nde r s tand t h e n a tu re o f i n te rac t ion s b e tween d if e ren t c on s t ra in t s .F o re xamp le , ar e sea rche rm ay n o tk now o fa l t h e p o ten t ia l s ou rce s o fr aw m a te r ia l i n ar e g ion a nd t h e r e la t ive q ua l i t ie s o f e a ch , a nd t h u s m igh t n o t b e a b le t o a ccu ra te ly w e igh t h e c o s t s ( i n t ime a nd e f o r t ) a s soc ia ted w i th a cqu i r ing e ach t y pe o fr aw m a te r ia l a ga in s tt h e l e ve l o f e f ec t ivene s s t h ey m igh t p rov ide . T he e f ec t ive a pp l ica t ion o fd e s ign t h eo ry r e qu i re s as y s t ema t ic a temp t t or e cogn ize a nd r e con s t ruc ta l t h ep o t en t ia lc on s t ra in t s .

D e s ign t h eo ry h a s s e en l i t t le e xp l ic i t a pp l ica t ion t o a r cha eo log ica l q ue s t ion s ( w i th s ome n o tab le e xcep t ion s , e . g . , H ayden e t . a l . 1 996 ; H o r sf a l l 1 987 ) . H oweve r , i n v e ry g ene ra l t e rm s , i ti sa n a na ly t ica l a pp roa ch t h a t h a s b een c ommon ly u s ed i n a t temp t ing t o e xp la in a r t if a c t f unc t ion ,o rp a s tb ehav iou ri ng ene ra l ,b u tt y p ica l ly o n ly i n ac a sua l , i n tu i t ive , i mp l ic i t , o r u n s t ruc tu red m anne r a nd w i thou t af o rma l ized f r amewo rk o f a na ly s i s . I n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a r t if a c t s , s t ruc tu re s , o r f e a tu re s o f u nknown f u nc t ion , a r cha eo log is t sw i l l , c on sc iou s ly o rn o t , t y p ica l ly t r y t ot a ke i n to a c coun t a ny k nown o rp e rce ived c on s t ra in t st h a tm ay h ave p l ayed ar o le i nh ow t h e i t em i n q ue s t ion m ay h ave f u nc t ioned . I d en t if ica t ion o f s u ch c on s t ra in t s m igh t e mp loy a na logy o fv a r iou s l e ve l s , f r om g ene ra l p e r sona l e xpe r ience t os p ec if i c e t hnog raph ic d a ta .

D e s ign t h eo ry i s a no the r e xamp le o f M idd le R ange T heo ry ; i ts e rve s a s au s ef u l m e thod f o r d i scove r ing o r b e t te r u nde r s tand ing t h e p a s t c on tex t s w h ich w e re s p ec if ica l ly r e spon s ib le f o r t h e n a tu r e o f a s pec t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( t he f o rm o f a n a r t if a c t o r t h e t e chn ique u s ed t op roduce i t )a st h ey a r e e ncoun te red b y a r chaeo log i s t s . F o r s ome a s pec t s o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re t h i s a pp roa ch w i l l b e s e ve re ly l im i ted . F o r e xamp le s o fm o re c omp lex m a te r ia l c u l tu re , w he re s ymbo l i sm a nd s t y l i s t ic

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e l emen t s m ay b e d om inan t a spec t s o f t h e d e s ign , t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e f o rm o ft h e i t em , i t s p e rce ived f unc t ion , a nd i t sd e s ign e l emen t sm ay b eq u i te a mb iguou s . C a rved f i gu r ine s , l i ke t h o se i nU ppe r P a la eo l i th ic E u rope , a r e ag ood e xamp le o ft h is i s sue . F i r s to fa l ,t h e re i ss t i l l a l a ck o f c on sen su s a mong a r cha eo log i s t s o n w ha t t h e f u nc t ion o ft h e se i t em s w e r e , i ft h e re e ven w a s as i ng le f u nc t ion t h roughou t t h e t ime p e r iod i nw h ich t h ey w e re p roduced . S econd ly , i ns uch e xamp le sw he re s ymbo l i sm i s o bv iou s ly ap r ima ry a t t r ibu te , t h e re i sn o r e a son t oe xpec t ad i rec t , l o g ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween f o rm a nd f u nc t ion . T h is m ean st h a to ne c anno ta s sume t h a tt h ed e s ign o ft h e se i t em s w a s i n f luenced t o a ny s i gn if ican t d eg ree b y c on s t ra in t s o ft h e s ame p ragma t ic n a tu r ea st h o se t h a tt e nd t o d i c ta te t h e d e s ign o f l e s s c omp lex i t em s , s uch a s r e touched f l ake s .

t h e P a laeo l i th ic ) a nd m oder n d e s ign i s t h e d eg ree o f c on sc iou sne s so ft h ed e s igne ri nt h ep roce s sa nd t h er a te o f c hange . T he a pp l ica t ion o f d e s ign t h eo ry i n as p ec if ic a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s t i l l p r e sume s t h a t t h e u nde r ly ing d ec is ion mak ing t h a t i s i n q ue s t ion w a s p rac t ica l a nd a dap t ive . T ha t i st o s a y t h a t t h e d r iv ing r a t iona le o ft h e d ec is ion -mak ing p roce s s i st o i n c rea se t h e " goodne s s o f f i t " ( A lexande r 1 964 :33 ) o ft h e t o o l o r t e chn ique t o t h e t a rge tt a sk w i th in t h ec i rcum s tan t ia lc on s t ra in t s . D e s ign t h eo ry i n vo lve st h e a na ly s i s o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip s o f t h e d i f f e ren t c omponen t s t h a t i n te ra c t i n t h e p roce s s o f d e s ign ing o rd eve lop ing s ome th ing ( e .g . , at oo l , s t ruc tu re , o r t e chn ique ) t o s a t isf y an eed . T he r e cogn i t ion o f p o ten t ia l ly s i gn i f ican tp a rame te r s i nt h is p roce s s c ome s i n l a rge p a r t f r om e t hnog raph ic d a ta . F rom s pec if ic e t hnog raph ic c on tex t s ( many o fw h ich m ay b e i n mode rn , e ven i n du s t r ia l ized , s e t t ing s ) w e h ave o b ta ined ag ene ra l u nde r s tand ing o f t h e r a nge o f c on s ide ra t ion s t h a t m u s t c ome i n to p l ay i f at o o l o rm e thod i st ob e ag ood f i tt oa s pec if ic p rob lem o r n eed . F o r e xamp le , i nt h e p roce s s o f d eve lop ing a manua l t o o l f o r h a rve s t ing g ra in w e c an o b ta in a f a i r ly a ccu ra te u nde r s tand ing o f t h e p o ten t ia l e f f ec t ivene s s o f d i f f e r en t p o s s ib le r aw ma te r ia ls ( e .g . , w ood , b one , f l in t , b ronze , i r on , o r s t ee l ) , t h e s ou rce s o f t h e se ma te r ia l s a nd t h e c o s t s ( s uch a s t ime , e ne rgy , o r s o c ia l n e two rk s ) i n vo lved i no b ta in ing t h em , t h e p o ten t ia l r a nge o ft o o l s i ze s a nd f o rm s t h a t c ou ld b e m anuf ac tu red w i th t h e d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l s , t h e p o ten t ia l r e tu rn s f o r d i f f e r en t t o o l d e s ign s ( i n t e rm s o f q uan t i ty o f g r a in c o l lec ted p e r t ime s p en t i n t h e f i e ld ) , a nd t h e c o s t s i n m a in tenance f o r d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l s a nd d e s ign s . T hu s , i f w e w e re g iven a m o re s pec if ic c on tex t w e c ou ld r e con s t ruc t w i th s ome a ccu racy t h e r a nge o f c ho ice s a va i lab le t o af a rm ing c u l tu re . H oweve r , a f t e r w e h ave i d en t if ied t h e p a r t icu la rc on s t ra in t st h a tm igh th ave p l ayed ar o le i n t h e d e s ign o f w ha teve r o b jec t i ti s w e a r e i n ve s t iga t ing , i ti sa n a na ly s is o f t h e i n te rp lay b e tween t h e se v a r iou s c on s ide ra t ion s t h a t i su sed t o a r r ive a ta n i n te rp re ta t ion . T hu s d e s ign t h eo ry i s n o t s imp ly t h e a pp l ica t ion o f a na logy , a nd i t s p o ten t ia l a ccu racy i n p a r t icu la rc a se si sn o tl i m i ted b yt h ea va i lab i l i ty o fs u i tab le e t hnog raph ic c a se s t h a t a r e a pp l icab le d ue t o t h e i r p r e sumed s im i la r i ty t ot h et ime p e r iod , r e g ion , a nd g ene ra l l i f eway o ft h ep a s tc u l tu re u nde rs t udy .

A no the r , n o tab ly a mb iguou s c on s t ra in t t h a t c an h ave a s t rong i nf luence i n t h e d e s ign o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re i s c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion o rc u l tu ra l " s ty le" . T he m anne r i nw h ich p eop le c a r ry o u t t a sk s a nd t h e f o rm o f t h e i r m a te r ia l c u l tu re i sv e ry o f ten d i c ta ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h is i st h e w ay t h e se t h ing s h ave b een d one i nt h e i r c u l tu re f o r s ome t ime . I n s u ch c on tex t s p eop le 's a c t ion s a nd d ec i s ion s a r e i nf luenced b y s oc ia l c on s t ra in t s a nd l e a rn ing t r ad i t ion s . H oweve r , t h is i s ap a t te rn t h a t m igh t b e v i s ib le o n ly a t r e la t ive ly h i gh a r chaeo log ica l r e so lu t ion . O ve r r e la t ive ly s ho r t p e r iod s o ft ime , s o c ia l n o rm s m ay t a ke p r ecedence o ve r t r ue e ff icacy , c r ea t ing al a g i na dap t ive r e spon se . A t r ad i t iona l m e thod o r t o o l m ay c on t inue t ob e u sed e ven t h ough t h e c on tex t s f o r i t s u se h ave c hanged a nd i tn o l o nge r r e p r e sen t s t h e m o s t o p t ima l d e s ign . I fc hange s i n c i r cum s tance s ( e .g . , t h e n a tu re o f at a sk , t ime a va i lab le t o c a r ry i to u t , a va i lab le r aw m a te r ia ls , e t c . ) o ccu r a t a g radua l p a ce t h en d e s ign s m ay a l so c hange g r adua l ly t o a dap t t o c hang ing c on s t ra in t s . C hange s m ay a l so b e d r ama t ic h oweve r , i nw h ich c a se t h e d e s ign o fm e thod s , t o o ls ,e t c . mu s ta dap tr a p id ly t ot h en ew c i rcum s tance s . W i th r e spec tt ot h e r e la t ive ly s imp le f l aked s t one t o o l s o f t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , f ew w ou ld a r gue t h a t s t y le a nd s ymbo l ism p l ayed m uch , i fa ny , r o le i nt h e i r d e s ign . B o th t h el a ck o fc omp lex i ty o ft h e se i t em sa nd t h es pa r sene s so f e v idence f o r w ide sp read s ymbo l ic b ehav iou r d u r ing t h i s a nd e a r l ie r p e r iod s s uppo r t t h is c onc lu s ion . F u r the rmo re , w hen d ea l ing w i th P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s , t h e d eg ree o f t empo ra l r e so lu t ion i sp a r t icu la r ly c oa r se . A ny r o le t h a t c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion , a s w e l l a s i n d iv idua l b ehav iou r , m igh t h ave p l ayed w ou ld p robab ly b e l o s ti nt h eb roade rp a t ter n s o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re c hange o ve r t h e t e n s o ft h ou sand s o f y ea r s i n vo lved . O ve r s uch s pan s o f t ime , t h e o p t ima l d e s ign o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re , e spec ia l ly i nt h e p r edom inan t ly h a r sh M idd le a nd L a te P l e is tocene c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s ( a s w e a r e d ea l ing w i th h e re ) , mu s t h ave b een p a ramoun t t o a ny o t he r c ons ide ra t ion s i n d e s ign o f t o o l f o rm , t o o l p r oduc t ion , a nd a ny o t he r b ehav iou ra l c ho ice s . T a sk c on s t ra in t s w ou ld h ave b een much m o re n a r row ly c on s t i tu ted a l low ing l i t t le l a t i tude f o r n on -op t ima l s o lu t ion s . A s e xp re s sed b y H o r sf a l l ( 1 987 : 34 ) ,t h e ma jo r d if e rence b e tween t r ad i t iona l ( p e rhap s e spec ia l ly d u r ing

D e s ign T heory a nd Midd le P a laeo l i th ic S tone T oo l s A s t h e a pp l ica t ion o f d e s ign t h eo ry i n a r cha eo logy i n vo lve st h e r e ve r se o ft h e a na ly t ica l p roce s s e mp loyed i n i n du s t ry , t h e o p t ima l s t a r t ing p o in t f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e c on tex t o f t h e d e s ign a nd u se o f s pec if ic M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r t if ac t sw ou ld b et od e te rm ine t h e i rf unc t ion . W i th in a r chaeo logy , t h e re a r e o n ly a l im i ted n umbe r o f r e sea rch t o o ls ( a s ide f r om d e s ign i n f e r ence s )a va i lab le t h a t c an b e u sed t ot r yt od e te rm ine t h e s pec if ic a pp l ica t ion s o f p r eh i s to r ic a r t if a c t s . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t h e c a se f o r p r e H o locene p e r iod s , a nd e ven m o re s o f o r p r e -mode rn

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h uman c on tex t s ( f o r w h ich moder n a na log s m ay b e q ue s t ionab le ) . I n s ome c a se s e t hnog raph ic a na logy c an p rov ide d i rec t i n s igh t i n to t o o l f unc t ion : t h e u b iqu i tou s e nd sc rape r i s ag ood e xamp le o f t h i s . I n s ome c a se s d epo s i t iona l c on tex t m ay p r ov ide i n d i rec t u nde r s tand ing o f a r t if ac t u s e s , b u t s u ch e v idence r e qu i re s s t rong , c l ea r p a t te rn ing w h ich i st y p ica l ly l a ck ing i n v e ry o l d s i te s . U sewea ra na ly s i sa nd ,t os ome e x ten t ,r e s idue a na lys i sa r e c u r ren t ly t h e m o s t p rom i s ing t e chn ique s f o r d e te rm in ing s t one t o o l f u nc t ion , a nd m igh t e ven tua l ly b e r e gu la r ly a pp l ied t oa r t if a c t s m anuf a c tu red f r om o t he r m a te r ia l s a s w e l l . F u r the r r ef inemen t i nt h e se m e thod s m igh t a low a s i gn if i can t d eg ree o f c onf idence i n t h e i r r e su l t s . M in ima l ly , w e c an s a y t h a t f l i n t w a s u sed b ecau se o ft h e s ha rp , d u rab le e dge s t h a t c ou ld b e c r ea ted w i th i t ,w h ich o n ly m ake s d e s ign s e n se i nt e rm s o fc u t t ing , s hav ing , a nd s c rap ing ma te r ia l s l i ke m ea t ,h i de s , a nd w ood . I nf a c t , i ti s t h es ha rp e dge s o ff l i n tt o o l st h a t e xh ib i tu s ewea ra nd t h i s u sewea rc o r re spond st ot h e se m a te r ia l s .

c i r cum s t ance s a s a r e su l t o f t h e se d i sadvan tage s .

a dvan tage s

a nd

R ecen tr e sea rch h a s i d en t if ied s ome o ft h ea dvan tage sa nd d i sadvan tage s o f t h e se a nd o t he r s t ra t eg ie s a nd t h e c ond i t ion s u nde r w h ich w e m igh t e xpec t t h em t oa ppea r . T h i s , c oup led w i th a l t h e a pp rop r ia te e t hnog raph ic d a ta , s hou ld a low u s t o i d en t if y t h e m a jo r c on s t ra in t s t h a t w ou ld b ef a ced i nt h e p r oduc t ion a nd a pp l ica t ion o fs t one t o o l s ( e .g . , S andga the 2 004 ; H ayden e t . a l . 1 996 ; K uhn 1 994 ; H en ry 1 989 ; B leed 1 986 ; K e l ly 1 988 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ; P a r ry a nd K e l ly 1 987 ; S ho t t 1 986 ; B amf o r th 1 986 ) . T he m a jo r v a r iab le s c on s t ra in ing o r s i gn if i can t ly i nf luenc ing t h e c ho ice a nd d e s ign o f l i t h ic s t ra teg ie s i n c lude t h ing s l i ke ; i n tended f unc t ion o f t h e r e duc t ion p r oduc t s , d eg ree o f mob i l i ty , a nd q uan t i t ie s a nd q ua l i t ie s o fa va i lab le r aw m a te r ia l s .T he se a nd o t he rl i t h ic r e duc t ion c on s t ra in t sa r ed i scu s sed i nm o r ed e ta i li nC hap te r5 . T he a pp l ica t ion o f d if e ren t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s a t d if e ren t s i t e s l i ke ly r ef lec t s d if e rence s i ns ome o ra l o f t h e se p o ten t ia lv a r iab le s . A to ne s i te t h eq ua l i ty , f o rm ,a nd q uan t i ty o f a va i lab le r aw m a te r ia l s m igh t d if e r f r om a no the rs i t ea nd t h i sm igh tr e su l ti nt h ec ho ice t oe mp loy a d i f f e ren t r e duc t ion s t ra t egy i n t h e p r oduc t ion o f t o o l b l ank s .T h is m ay a l so d i c ta te w he the r ag roup h a st oa r r ive a t o r l e ave a s i te w i th a n a pp rop r ia te s upp ly o f r aw m a te r ia lo rt o o l s .O ccupy ing as i t ed u r ing d i f f e r en ts e a son s m igh tr e su l ti ns im i la rc hange si nr aw m a te r ia la va i lab i l i ty ( d ue t o s nowcove r , w a te r l e ve l s , o r g r oundf ro s t , w h ich m igh t r e qu i r e d i f f e ren t r aw m a te r ia l e conom iz ing s t ra teg ie s ) a nd m igh t a l so i n vo lve c a r ry ing o u t d if e ren t t a sk sa tt h a ts i t e .

H oweve r ,t h ee mpha s i so ft h ea na lys i sh e re i sn o ta imed a t i n te rp re t ing t h e s p ec if ic u se o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l s ,b u ti si n tended t ou nde r s tand t h en a tu re o ft h ed e s ign o ft h er e duc t ion s t ra teg ie st h a tp roduced t h e se t o o l s . I nt h e c a se o fl i t h ic r e duc t ion ,i ft h ee nd -p roduc t so ft h ed i f f e ren t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s w e r e o bv iou s ly d i s t inc t t h en t h e a n swe rm igh tb ea ss imp le a st h en eed t op r oduce d if e ren t t o o l f o rm s , p r e sumab ly i n tended f o r d if e ren t f u nc t ion s . H oweve r , f o r s ome o ft h e d if e ren t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s e mp loyed i nt h eM idd le P a la eo l i th ic ,t h e e nd -p roduc t s a r e n o t n o tab ly d i s t inc t , a nd e ven f o r s t ra teg ie s t h a t d o p r oduce d i s t inc t t o o l b l ank s ( e .g . , b l ade s v e r se s f l ake s ) , m any o f t h e d if e ren t e nd -p roduc t s w e re a ppa ren t ly e mp loyed f o rs im i la rt a sk s . T hu s , a ny i n he r en t a dvan tage s o f s pec if i c p r oduc t f o rm s a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly c r i t ica l t o u nde r s t and ing r e a son s w hy d if e ren t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s w e re u sed . T he d e s ign o fr e duc t ion t e chn ique s mu s t h ave t y p ica l ly i n vo lved m o re c on s ide ra t ion s t h an s imp ly c r ea t ing e nd -p roduc t s f o r s p ec if i ct a sk s . T he m a in g oa l o f m y a na lys i s w a s t o i d en t if y t h o se o t he r p o ten t ia l c on s ide ra t ion sa nd a temp tt od e te rm ine t h en a tu re o ft h e i r r o le sa sc on s t ra in t s .

T he a va i lab le e v idence i n d ica te s t h a t m uch o f t h e v a r iab i l i ty i nt h ec ho ice o fd if e ren tr e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s i n t h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic r e p re sen t sa dap ta t ion t os ho r t te rm c hange s . T h i s i s d emon s t ra ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t m any a s semb lage s f r om i n d iv idua l l e ve ls a t as i t e ,a nd p roduced f r om as i ng le r aw m a te r ia lt y pe ,o f t en h ave t h ep r oduc t so f s e ve ra l d if e r en t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s c omb ined . T he s i t e c omponen t s u s ed h e re a r e s uch e xamp le s . I n t h e s t udy s amp le c omponen t s f r om P ech d e l ' Az d I V a nd C ombe C ape l le B a s , f l in t n odu le s w e re r e duced , t o v a ry ing d eg ree s , t h rough L eva l lo i s , D i sc , a nd Amo rphou s c o re r e duc t ion . T he f r equen t u se o f d if e r en t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s i n t h i s m anne r m ay r e p re sen t r e spon se s t o r e la t ive ly s ho r t te rm c hange s i n c i r cum s tance ( e .g . , s e a sona l i ty o r t h e p l a ce o f t h e s i te w i th in a c yc le o f mob i l i ty ) , b u t m ay a l so r ef lec t t h e u se o f d if e ren t s t ra teg ie s b y d if e ren t i n d iv idua ls w i th in a g r oup ; f o r e xamp le , m en v e r se s w omen , y oung v e r se s o l d , i n d iv idua l s o f d if e ren t a b i l i t ie s , o r i n d iv idua l s c a r ry ing o u td if e r en tt a sk s .

B e low a r es ome e xamp le so fr e duc t ion s t ra teg ie st h a th ave b een a dop ted a tv a r iou s t ime s a nd p l a ce s i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p r e sumab ly t os a t i sf y c e r ta in r e qu i remen t s i n t h ec on tex to fs p ec if i cc on s t ra in t s : R andom /Amo rphou sC o r eR educ t ion B if ace P roduc t ion /B if a c ia lR educ t ion B lade P roduc t ion B ipo la rC o re R educ t ion " Sau sage -S l ice" R educ t ion S i ng le -Su rf ace C o re R educ t ion ( Leva l lo is ,D i sc ,e t c . ) K ombewa C o re R educ t ion

S ome o ft h e v a r iab i l i ty m igh t a l so r e p r e sen t l o nge r te rm , e vo lu t iona ry p r oce s se s , b o th b i o log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l , b u tt h i s m igh t a pp ly m o re t ot h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic s i nce a l l t h e l i t h ic r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s e mp loyed i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h ad a ppea red i n E u rope b y , o r p r io r t o ,

A cco rd ing t o c u r ren t u nde r s tand ing , e a ch o f t h e se s t ra teg ie s s hou ld h ave c e r ta in a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tage s a nd , w he the r b y i t s e lf o r i n c omb ina t ion w i th o t he r s ,e i the ro ccu r s( o rd oe sn o to ccu r ) u nde rc e r ta in

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2 50 ,000 y ea r s a go . S ome o f t h e p a t te rn ing w i th in t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic m igh t r ef lec t a dap ta t ion s t o l o nge r t e rm c l ima t ic c hange s . T he Mou s te r ian o f A cheu l ian T rad i t ion c on s i s ten t ly o ccu r s a t t h e t o p o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te s equence s ( Me l la r s 1 969 , 1 986 ) . T hu s , Mou s te r ian b i f a ce s a nd f o rma l e nd sc rape r s a ppea r r e la t ive ly l a te i nt h e l a s tg l a c ia l c yc le ( c . 5 0 ,000 y ea r s a go o r l a te r ) a nd c ou ld r ef lec t t h e s t one t o o l c omponen t s o f a dap ta t ion ss pec if ic t oc o ld ,d ry ,s t epp ic e nv i ronmen t s .

D a ta f r om af ou r th s i te , J i bou i , w a s i n c luded b ecau se i ti s c ompa rab le i na ge ,h a s av e ry s t rong L eva l lo is c omponen t , b u t h a s as i gn if ican t ly d i f f e ren t g eog raph ic s i tua t ion . I ti s s i tua ted i n ah i gh a l p ine s e t t ing a nd , t h e ref o r e , p rov ide s a d a ta s e t f o r c ompa r i son t o t h e t h ree p r ima ry s amp le c omponen t s t h a t a lowed a n e xam ina t ion o ft h e p o ten t ia l i n f luence s t h a t g eog raphy , s ea son , a nd a c t iv i ty m igh t p r e sen t . I np a r t icu la r ,t h eh i gh a l p ine s e t t ing m ean s c o lde r t empe ra tu re s ( e spec ia l ly a t n i gh t ) , g r ea te r d i ff icu l ty i n m ov ing a r ound t h e l a nd scape , r e duced a cce s s t o c e r ta in r e sou rce s ( e .g . , w ood , m o s t e d ib le p l an t s pec ie s , m any g ame s s pec ie s ) , a nd l i m i t s o n s e a son o fo ccupa t ion . T he l o ca t ion o f J i bou i a lmo s t c e r ta in ly p r ec lude s i th av ing b een o ccup ied d u r ing t h e c o lde r s e a son s . T he l i t h ic d a ta f o r J i bou i c ome f r om a na ly se s c a r r ied o u t b y o t he r r e sea rche r s w h ich d i d n o t i n c lude a l t h e s ame v a r iab le s t h a t w e re r e co rded f o r t h e p r ima ry s i te s . T he ref o re , t h e J i bou i d a ta a r e n o t i n c luded i n e ve ry a spec t o f t h is a na lys is . Mo re d e ta i led i n f o rma t ion o n e ach o ft h e s i te s , t h e s t udy c omponen t s , a nd t h e s amp l ing m e thod s a r e p r ov ided i nC hap te r7 .

C ons tra in t s i nt he F rench Midd le P a laeo l i th ic I no rde rt oa r r ive a ta nu nde r s tand ing o ft h es pec if ic n a tu re o ft h eg ene ra lc on s t ra in t s ,o u t l ined a bove , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o f i r s t d eve lop a m ode l o f F rench M idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i f eway s . T h i s i sd one i n C hap te r 4 ,w he re e a ch o ft h e c on s t ra in t s l i s ted a bove i se xam ined , i n t h e c on tex t o f S ou thwe s tF rance i ne a r ly O xygen I s o tope S t age 3 ,t ot h e e x ten t t h a t a va i lab le e v idence a nd t h eo ry a low s . T he i n ten t h e re i s t o e s tab l i sh a s r e a sonab le a p i c tu re a s p o s s ib le o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e se c on s t ra in t s a s f a ced b y p eop le i nt h i sr e g ion i nt h is t ime p e r iod .

T he d a ta f r om t h e se f ou r s amp le s a r e a na lyzed w i th t h e i n ten t ion o ft r y ing t o r e a ch a g ood u nde r s tand ing o ft h e m o rpho log ica l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s i nf luenc ing t h e s e lec t ion o f t o o l b l ank s ( Chap te r 8 ) . C hap te r 9e xam ine s h ow t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f f l ake s s e lec ted f o r u se c ompa re t o t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s s pec if ic t o L eva l lo is a nd n on -Leva l lo is r e duc t ion p roduc t s . A l so ,a na s semb lage o fe xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced s of thamme r ( t i l ler ) f l ake s w a s a na lyzed i n o rde r t o c ompa re t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o f t h e se f l ake s t o t h o se s e lec ted f o rt o o l si nt h ef ou rs i te s ,a nd t h e se d a ta w i l l b e i n c lude i nC hap te r 9a s w e l l . C hap te r 1 0 t h en d ea ls w i th h ow t h e c ond i t ion s s p ec if ic t o e ach o f t h e f ou r s amp le s i te s m igh t a f f ec t c ho ice s o fl i t h ic r e duc t ion a nd t o o lp roduc t ion s t ra teg ie sa tt h o se l o ca t ion s .

B a sed o n t h is r e con s t ruc t ion o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a dap ta t ion s a nd t h e r e su l t ing f r amewo rk o f f a c to r s i d en t if ied a s i n f luenc ing t h e d e s ign o f t o o l p roduc t ion ( Chap te r 5 ) , s eve ra l h ypo the se s w e re f o rmu la ted w h ich c ou ld e xp la in t h e c ond i t ion s i n w h ich t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique a ppea r s w i th i t s p o ten t ia l a dvan tage s . T he se a r e p r e sen ted i n C hap te r 6 . B a sed o n t h e se h ypo the se s , t e s tab le v a r iab le sa r et h en i d en t if ied . T he d a ta o n s pec if ic v a r iab le s w e r e c o l lec ted ( Chap te r 7 ) t h rough t h e a na lys i s o f s amp le s o f a s semb lage s f r om c omponen t s o ft h ree d if e ren t Mou s te r ian s i te s . T he se a r e t h e t h ree p r ima ry s ou rce s o fd a ta u s ed h e re . O ne o ft h e se c omponen t s h a s as i gn if i can t L eva l lo i s c omponen t , o ne h a s am ode ra te L eva l lo i s c omponen t , a nd t h e t h i rd h a s a n eg l ig ib le o ne . T he se t h ree p r ima ry s i t e s , P ech d e L 'Az6 I V , l e Mou s t ie r , a nd C ombe C ape l le a r e a l l o ca ted i n r e a sonab ly c l o se p rox im i ty t o e a ch o t he r ( b y m ode rn p e rcep t ion s ) . P ech d e L 'Aze I V i si nt h e D o rdogne R ive r v a l ley j u s t s ou th o ft h e c i ty o fS a r la t ; C ombe C ape l le B a s i sa bou t3 0 k m w e s ta nd s l igh t ly s ou th i nt h ev a l ley o ft h e C ouze r i ve r , at r ibu ta ry o ft h eD o rdogne ; a nd L e Mou s t ie r i sj u s to ve r2 0 km d i rec t ly n o r thwe s to fP ech d e L 'Aze I V i nt h e v a l ley o ft h e V eze r e R ive r , a no the rt r ibu ta ry o ft h e D o rdogne . T he se s i te s a r e a mong t h e l a rge s t a nd mo s t t h o rough ly i n ve s t iga ted M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i t e s i n We s te rn E u rope a nd a tl e a s t p o r t ion s o ft h e i r a s soc ia ted l i t h ic c o l lec t ion s h ave b een e xcava ted i n r e cen t y ea r s u s ing m ode rn , r i go rou s s t anda rd s a nd m e thod s . T he se t h ree p r ima ry s i te s w e r e s e lec ted , i np a r t , b ecau se o ft h e i r c l o se p rox im i ty ,a nd t h es amp le c omponen t sw e re s e lec ted b ecau se o ft h e i r c ompa rab le a ge s . T h i s p r ov ided ac on t ro l o n s ome p o s s ib le c on s t ra in t s , s uch a sl o ca l c l ima te a nd t h e g ene ra l t y pe a nd a bundance o f m o s t f l o ra l a nd f a una l r e sou rce s .

T he q ue s t ion s a ti s sue i nt h e a c tua l a s semb lage a na ly se s i n c lude :

F ir s t -Addre s s ing B lank S e lec t ion : 1 / Wha t w e re t h e g ene ra l m o rpho log ica l c r i te r ia u sed t o s e lec tf l ake b l ank sf o ru se a st o o ls? 2 /H ow d i dt h e se v a ry b e tween t h es i te s amp le s? I n o rde r t o a ch ieve s ome u nde r s tand ing o f w ha t t h e s ough t -af te rc ha ra c te r i s t ic so fL eva l lo is p roduc t sw e re i ti s n ece s sa ry t o e xam ine a l t h e p r oduc t s , w i th s p ec if ic a t ten t ion p a id t ot h o se p roduc t sw h ich s how i n d ica t ion s o f b e ing u sed a st o o l s . P r io r t oa ny d i scu s s ion o ft h e a c tua l a na ly se st ob eu nde r taken ,t h eb a s ic a s sump t ion ,t h a tt h e re w e re d e s i red c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , mu s t b e d i scu s sed . A ny a na lys i s r e l ie s o n t h e a c cu racy o ft h e a s sump t ion t h a t f o r a ny t a sk s f o r w h ich f l ake t o o l s w e r e m anuf ac tu r ed t h e re w ou ld b e a t l e a s t s ome g ene ra l mo rpho log ica l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s n ece s sa ry f o r t h e t o o l t o w o rk a ta l , a nd t h a t t h e re w ou ld b e s ome c ha ra c te r i s t ic s t h a t w ou ld b e d e s i red t o a g r ea te r o r l e s se r d eg r ee t h an o t he r c ha ra c te r i s t ic s b ecau se t h ey i mp rove o r d e t ra c t f r om t h e

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p o ten t ia l u t i l i ty o f t h e f l ake . I n t h e c a se o f r e la t ive ly s imp le f l ake t o o l s t h e se m igh t b e s u ch t h ing s a s g r ea te r s i ze , s ha rpe r e dge s , l e s se r v en t ra l -cu rva tu re , o r g r ea t e r r e gu la r i ty o f e dge m o rpho log ie s . I n p r a c t ica l t e rm s t h e a s sump t ion i s t h a t , o f a l t h e f l ake s p roduced i n t h e r e duc t ion o f ac o re , s ome w i l l b e o fg r ea te r i n he ren tv a lue b ecau se t h ey h ave t h e d e s i r ed c ha rac te r is t ic s t o ag r ea te r d eg ree t h an o t he r s .

4 /H ow d o t h e se c ha ra c te r is t ic s c ompa re t ot h o se o ft h e f l ake b l ank ss e lec ted f o ru se a st o o l s? 5 / H ow d o t h e se c ha ra c te r i s t ic s r e la t e t o t h e r e duc t ion p r oce s s? N o te :t h roughou tt h is s t udy , u n le s ss p ec if ica l ly m en t ioned , Iu se t h e t e rm ` Leva l lo is ' t o i n c lude b o th t h e c l a s s ica l d ef in i t ion ( s ee C hap te r 2 ) a nd c en t r ipe ta l c o re r e duc t ion . " Non -Leva l lo i s ' r e f e r s t oa ny o t he r r e duc t ion t e chn ique s , i n c lud ing , a mo rphou s c o re , b i f ace p r oduc t ion , b i po la r r e duc t ion , S au sage -S l ice r e duc t ion . ` L eva l lo is f l ake s ' i n c lude b o th C en t ra l L eva l lo i s a nd P e r iphe ra l f l ake s . ' P e r iphe ra l L eva l lo i s f l ake ' r e f e r s t ot h o se f l ake s r emoved f r om a r ound t h e p e r ime te r o ft h e s u rf a ce o fd eb i tage o fa s i ng le su rf a ce c o re . ' Cen t ra l L eva l lo i s f l ak e ' r e f e r s t ot h e r e la t ive ly l a rge f l ake s t h a t w e re r emoved f r om t h e c en t re o ft h ec o r es u rf a ce .

A l l M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l a s semb lage s i n c lude t h o se f l ake s w ho se m a rg in s h ad b een mod if ied t o s ome e x ten t t h rough r e touch ing . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t s ome o f t h e se w e r em od if ied p r io rt ou se i no rde rt op roduce at o o l mo r e s u i tab le f o rt h e t a sk a th and ( e .g . ,t h et a sk r e qu i re s a mo re o b tu se e dge ) , a nd t h a t s ome w e re i n i t ia l ly u sed u nmod if ied a nd w e re t h en r e touched i no rde rt or e sha rpen a n e dge t h a t h ad d u l led f r om u se . U nf o r tuna te ly , t h e se a r e n o t a lway s r e ad i ly d i s t ingu ishab le a nd s oi ti sn o tp o s s ib le ( i n m any c a se s ) t o d e te rm ine w ha t t h e d e s i red e dge c ha rac te r is t ic s w e re a tt h e s t a r t o f at a sk . T he a b i l i ty t o s epa ra te t h e se t wo c l a s se s o ft o o l s w ou ld a low a b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e p o ten t ia l ly d e s i rab le e dge c ha rac te r i s t ic s w i th in t h e r a nge p r e sen ted b y as e r ie s o f f l ake b l ank sr emoved f r om ac o re .

O ne e xcep t ion t ot h i s i st h a t Ec l a t sD jbo rd an t s , w h ich a r e s i ng le su rf a ce c o re p roduc t s ( a v a r ia t ion o n D i sc c o re r e duc t ion ) , a r et r ea ted a s as e pa ra te c a tego ry . T h is b ecau se t h ey a r e q u i te d i s t inc t ive f r om o t he r s i ng le su rf a ce c o r e p r oduc t s a nd b ecau se t h ey a r e a n i mpo r tan t c omponen t o f a t l e a s t o ne o f t h e s amp le a s semb lage s i n c luded i nt h e s t udy .

H oweve r , a n i mpo r tan t c omponen t o ft h e a na ly s is i nt h i s s t udy w a s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fu sewea r . A l l f l ake s i nt h e t h ree p r ima ry s i te s amp le s w e re e xam ined u nde r l ow p owe r m ic ro scopy f o r a ny o bv iou s u se -damage . A s i gn if ican t p o r t ion o fa l , o t he rw i se u nmod if ied , f l ake s i n t h e s amp le s h ad e v idence o f u se , i n d ica t ing t h a t s u ch u nmod if ied f l ake s w e re t h e m o s t c ommon t o o l t y pe u s ed . F l ake s u s ed i n u nmod if ied f o rm l i ke ly r e p re sen t t wo d i f f e r en t ,a nd p o ten t ia l ly o ve r lapp ing ,b ehav iou r s . I ns ome c a se s t h e n a tu ra l , u n re touched e dge o f af l ake w i l l b e t h e o p t ima l c ho ice . H oweve r , i ns ome s i tua t ion s r e sha rpen ing o ft h ef l ake m igh th ave b een ap o ten t ia l o p t ion ,b u td i dn o t o ccu r b ecau se e i the r t h e t a sk w a s c omp le ted b ef o re t h e o r ig ina l f l ake e dge d u l led o r b ecau se i tw a s e a s ie r t o r e p la ce t h e f l ake w i th a no the r e ven t h ough r e touch ing t h e f i r s t e dge m igh t h ave b een a v i ab le o p t ion . We c an p r e sume , h oweve r , t h a t i ne ve ry c a se w he re a f l ake w a s u sed i n a n u nmod if ied s t a te i tw a s b ecau se t h e f l ake e xh ib i ted c e r ta in , s ough t -af t e rc ha ra c te r is t ic s .

T h ird -S i te -Spec if ic P a t terns : 1 /H ow d i d c ho ice s o fr e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s d i f f e r b e tween t h es i te s? 2 / Wha t c ond i t ions s pec if ic t oe a ch s i te m igh t a ccoun t f o r t h e se d i f f e r ence s? 3 / Why w e r ed i f f e ren tr e duc t ion s t ra teg ie se mp loyed a tt h e s ame s i te a td i f f e ren tt ime s? We re t h e re c hange s o ve rt i me i nt h e n a tu r e o fc i rcum s tance s a te a ch s i t e t h a t r e su l ted i n c hange s i n t h e c on s t ra in t s i n f luenc ing t h e s e lec t ion o f r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s?

T he r e su l t s o f t h e se d i f f e ren t s t age s o f t h e a na lys i s a r e d i scu s sed a nd w e ighed t o ge the r i nC hap te r s 1 . T he h ope w a s t h a t r e cogn izab le p a t te rn s w ou ld e me rge i n r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e b l ank s e lec t ion d a ta , t h e r e duc t ion t e chno logy d a ta , a nd t h e s pec if ic s i te c ha ra c te r i s t ic s t h a t c an a l b e l o g ica l ly t i ed t oi d en t if iab le c on s t ra in t s . T h i s w ou ld p o ten t ia l ly i n d ica te ( a t l e a s t s ome o f )t h em o t ive sb eh ind t h ec ho ice o fo ne r e duc t ion s t ra tegy o ve r a no the r i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . C onc lu s ion s r e ga rd ing t h i sa r ep r e sen ted i nC hap te r 1 .

S econd -B lank S e lec t ion a nd t he P roduc t s o fD if f eren tR educ t ion S tra teg ie s : 1 / Wha ta r et h ea c tua l m o rpho log ica l c ha rac te r is t ic so ft h e p roduc t s? 2 / H ow d o t h e c en t ra l L eva l lo i s f l ake s c ompa re t o t h e P e r iphe ra lo ne s? 3 / Wha t a r e t h e m o rpho log ica l c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e n on L eva l lo is p r oduc t s?

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Chap ter 4 : Midd le P a laeo l i th ic S ubs i s tence Mode l B ecau se o f t h e p auc i ty a nd f r agmen ta ry n a tu re o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e co rd , r e con s t ruc t ing m ean ingf u l mode l s o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i f eways i sn ece s sa r i ly av e ry t e n ta t ive u nde r tak ing ( Ro l land 1 990 ) . I n f a c t C ha se ( 1986 :1) s ugge s t st h a tf o rt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic " l im i ta t ion so ft h e a rcha eo log ica l e v id ence . . a r e s o s e vere t ha t t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f a s ub s i s t ence s y s t em i s n o l o ng er p o s s ib l e" . T he n on spec if ic n a tu re o ft h e e v idence t h a t i s a va i lab le , b o th a r cha eo log ica l ( l i th ic s a nd f a una ) , p a leoenv i ronmen ta l ,a nd e t hnog raph ic ,c an b em an ipu la ted s o a s t o p r e sen t s uppo r t f o r av a r ie ty o f m ode l s , s ome p o ten t ia l ly c on f l ic t ing ( e .g . B oy le 2 000 ; P a tou -Ma th i s 2 000 ; P ike -Tay e t . a l . 1 999 ) . T he t y pe s o fd a ta t h a t a r e a va i lab le t h a t c an b e e mp loyed i nr e con s t ruc t ing M idd le P a laeo l i th ic l i f eway s p a t te rn s i n c lude : e t hnog raph ic a na logy ; f a una l r ema in s ( a r cha eo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l ) ; i s o top ic a na ly s i s o f h uman r ema in s ; l i t h ic a cqu is i t ion , u se , a nd d i sca rd p a t ter n s ; s i te d i s t r ibu t ion ; a nd r a re e xamp le s o fo rgan ic ( ma in ly w ood ) a r t if ac t s .

A ugu s t in s 1 993 , 1 997 , 1 999 ) , a nd g ame a cqu is i t ion ( e .g . , B oöda e t .a l . 1 999 ; S hea 1 988 ) .

D a ta o n f a una l r ema in s h ave b een u s ed t ot r y t o a na lyze s ub s is tence b ehav iou r si no rde rt ou nde r s tand t h en a tu re o f a n ima l a cqu i s i t ion a nd u se a nd t h e s e a sona l i ty o f s uch a c t iv i t ie s . H oweve r , t h e f a una l d a ta a r e s eve re ly l i m i ted d ue t ot h et y p ica l ly f r agmen ta ry n a tu re o ft h e r ema in s ,t h e d if i cu l ty i nd i s t ingu i sh ing c u l tu ra lf r om n a tu ra l ( e .g . o t he r p r eda to r 's ) d epo s i t s , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t a s semb lage s f r om m o s t s i te s a r e p a l im se s t s , r e p r e sen t ing l o ng s pan s o ft ime a nd t h e m ix ing o fm u l t ip le o ccupa t ion s . S ome r e sea rche r s h ave d i r ec ted t h e i r r e sea rch t os pec if ica l ly a dd re s s ing t h e f i r s tt wo p r ob lem s( e .g . ,C ona rd a nd P r ind iv i l le 2 000 ) .T he l a s t i s sue a pp l ie s t ot h e l i t h ic d a ta a s w e l l a nd c u r ren t ly t h e re a r e n o r e a l s o lu t ion s f o r d ea l ing w i th t h i s l a ck o f r e so lu t ion . T he i mp l ic i tr e cogn i t ion o ft h i s f a c ti sr e f lec ted i n r e sea r che r s c ommon ly l ump ing t o ge the r d a ta f r om d if e r en t a s semb lage s w ho se a ge s s pan t h e L a te P l e is tocene . T h i s m ean s t h a t a ny r e a l i s t ic mode l -bu i ld ing m u s tn ece s sa r i ly r ema in v e ry g ene ra l a nd w i l l n o t a dd re s s m uch o ft h e p o ten t ia l v a r iab i l i ty t h a t w ou ld h ave e x is ted w i th in t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a nd b e tween d i f f e r en t r e g ion s .

I ti sr e cogn ized h e re , a nd mu s t b e s t re s sed , t h a t s uch mode l b u i ld ing i n vo lve s an umbe r o f a s sump t ion s a nd e ven t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fq u i te g ene r ic m ode ls d oe s s t ra in t h e l i m i t s o f t h e a va i lab le d a ta . H oweve r , i ti sa l so a n ece s sa ry c omponen to ft h e d e s ign t h eo ry a pp roa ch a nd a t l e a s t i d en t if ie sv a r iab le st h a tc an b er ef ined i nf u tu re w o rk a nd e s tab l ishe s m ode ls t h a t c an t e s ted , m od if ied , a nd i mp roved . Wh i le u ndoub ted ly e n ta i l ing s ome i n accu rac ie s r e su l t ing f r om t h e p auc i ty o f e v idence , t h e mode l p r e sen ted h e re h a s r ema ined g ene ra l e nough s o a s t o p rov ide g enu ine , a l be i t t e n ta t ive , s uppo r t f o r s ome s uppo s i t ion s a bou t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a dap ta t ions , w h ich a low t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h o se c ons t ra in t s t h a t w ou ld h ave a f ec ted t h e d e s ign o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l t e chno log ie s .

R econ s t ruc t ing mode ls o fM idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i f eways i s a l so ad i ff icu l t u nde r tak ing b ecau se o f al a ck o fg ene ra l mode lb u i ld ing a nd s ub sequen tt e s t ing f o rt h eP a laeo l i th ic . B eyond b a s ic H uman B ehav iou ra l E co logy , t h e re i s v i r tua l ly n o e s tab l i shed f r amewo rk f r om w h ich t o b eg in s uch a n u nde r tak ing . H oweve r , w h i le o ne m igh t h ave t o a g ree w i th C ha se 's s e n t imen t s a bou tt h e l im i ta t ion s o ft h e a va i lab le e v idence , Iw ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h is o n ly l i m i t s t h e l e ve l o fd e ta i l t h a t c an b e i n c luded i no u r m ode ls o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic l i f eway s : i td oe s n o t p r even t u s f r om b eg inn ing t o c on s t ruc t g ene ra l o r p rov i s iona l o ne s . E xamp le s o fs uch g ene ra l mode ls h ave b een p u t f o rwa rd b yR o l land ( 200 1 ; 1 996 , 1 981) , B oy le ( 2 000 :350 -53 -w i th r e spec t t o s ub s is tence ) , a nd P a tou -Ma th is ( 2000 ) , w ho e mp loyed a w ide v a r ie ty o f d a ta f r om 3 23 M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te s f r om F rance t o R u s s ian G eo rg ia , c o l lec ted o ve r 1 0y ea r s .

Mous ter ian Adap ta t ions S e r iou s a t temp t s a t r e con s t ruc t ing L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic l i f eway s a r e ar e la t ive ly r e cen t t h ing . O ne o f t h e m a jo r b a r r ie r s t oc a r ry ing o u t t h is t y pe o fr e sea rch i s t h e s i gn if ican t d ec rea se i n t h e p r e se rva t ion o f o rgan ic m a te r ia ls t h e o l de rt h et ime p e r iod i nq ue s t ion . O ne o ft h e m a in d if e rence s o f t en c i ted b e tween t h e M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s i st h e c ompa ra t ive a bundance o fi t em s o fw o rked b one , a n t le r , a nd i v o ry i na s semb lage s o ft h e l a t te r . T he re a r e n o tab le e xamp le s o fb one a r t if a c t s i nM idd le P a la eo l i th ic c on tex t s( e .g . , S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t [ Gaudz in sk i 1 999 ; T ode 1 982 ] a nd B i lz ing s leben [ Man ia e t . a l . 1 999 ; Man ia 1 995 ) , t h e se a r e r e la t ive ly r a re e xamp le s a nd t h e d eg ree o f mod if ica t ion t o t h e o r ig ina l b one i sq u i te l i m i ted .

I s o top ic a na ly s i s o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic h uman r ema in s h ave p r ov ided mo re d i rec t e v idence o f s ub s i s tence b ehav iou r s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod ( e .g . , B oche ren s 1 999 ; R icha rd se t .a l . 2 000 ;R icha rd se t .a l . 2 001 ) . W i th r e spec t t o a spec t s o f l i f eway s , t h e a va i lab le l i t h ic d a ta h a s b een e mp loyed i n r e sea r ch i n to t e chno log ica l a dap ta t ion s ( e .g . , T u rq 1 992 ; B oüda 1 986 ) , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t a sk s( e .g . ,A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; B ey r ie s 1 988 ) , t y pe s a nd l e ve ls o f g r oup mob i l i ty ( e .g . , R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton 2 004 ;R o l land 2 00 1 ;F eb lo t -

Wh i le t h e re d oe s a ppea r t o h ave b een a s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence i nt h e d eg ree o fu se o fb one , a n t le r , a nd i v o ry

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b e tween t h e se t wo p e r iod s , t h e re c an b e l i t t le d oub t t h a t s ome o rg an ic r aw m a te r ia ls , e s pec ia l ly w ood , w e re u s ed b y M idd le P a la eo l i th ic ( a nd e a r l ie r ) p eop le ( Gaudz in sk i 1 999 ; Man ia e t . a l . 1 999 ; Man ia 1 995 ; A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; B ey r ie s 1 988 ; T ode 1 982 ; T romnau 1 982 ; V a loch 1 982 ) . U nf o r tuna te ly t h e se m a te r ia l s d o n o t s u rv ive w e l l , r e su l t ing i n ad a ta s e tt h a t l e ave s u nc lea r t ou st h e d eg ree o fi mpo r tance o ft h e se r aw m a te r ia l si nE u rope p r io rt ot h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . I n g ene ra l , h ow eve r , i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t , w i th r e spec t t or aw m a te r ia l f o r t o o l s , w ood , r a the r t h an b one a nd i v o ry , w a s t h e d om inan t o rgan ic m ed ium u s ed t h roughou tt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd e a r l ie r .

t h e r e i sn o e v idence o fa ny o t he r s i gn if ican t b ehav iou ra l d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e se g r oup s a tt h i st ime . T h i s w ou ld s t rong ly s ugge s t t h a t t h e a ppa ren t d if e r ence s i nm a te r ia l c u l tu re ( a nd a s soc ia ted b ehav iou r s ) b e tween t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e e a r ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a r e n o t t h e r e su l t o fi n t r in s ic b i o log ica l d if e rence s b e tween t h e t wo s ub spec ie s , b u ta r e s t r ic t ly c u l tu ra l a nd c on tex td ependen t . T he c hange si nb ehav iou rt h a tm a rk t h eU ppe rP a la eo l i th ic f r om t h eM idd le ( e .g . ,t h eo ve r ts ymbo l i sm r e p re sen ted b y c ave p a in t ing s a nd t h e i n c rea se i nt h e s p ec ia l iza t ion a nd r e l iab i l i ty o ft o o lk i t s ) ,w he the rt h ey a r ei mpo r ted o ri ns i tu d eve lopmen t s , mo re l i ke ly r ef lec t a dap ta t ion s t o s ome s i gn if ican t c hange i n c i rcum s tance s , s u ch a s i n c r ea sed p opu la t ion d en s i ty o r ; p e rhap s , s o c io -cu l tu ra l r e spon se st o t h e e me rgence o f p ro longed c on ta c t , c ompe t i t ion , o r g ene ra l i n te ra c t ion w i th a d if e ren t s ub spec ie s ; o r , m o re l i ke ly , a m o re c omp lex c omb ina t ion o f d if e ren t c i rcum s tan t ia l f a c to r s ( e .g . , R igaud 1 997 ; H ayden 1 993 ; O t te 1 990 ; R eyno ld s 1 990 ; R o l land 1 990 ; T r inkau s 1 989 :5 -9 ) .

As e cond , r e la ted , p rob lem w i th t h e a va i lab le d a ta s e t i s t h a t t h e o l de r t h e d epo s i t s t h e g r ea te r t h e p o ten t ia l f o r p o s t -depo s i t iona l p r oce s se s ( n a tu ra l o r c u l tu ra l ) t o a f ec t t h e i n teg r i ty o ft h e o r ig ina l p a t ter n ing w i th in a s semb lage s a nd t od e s t roy s ome s i te s a l toge the r . S uch p r oce s se s c an i n t roduce s i gn if ican tb i a se s i n to a s semb lage s ,r e duc ing t h e l e ve l o fc onf idence t h a t c an b e p l a ced i nt h e i r p o ten t ia l c on t r ibu t ion t o c u l tu ra l i n te rp re ta t ion s , a nd s i gn if ican t ly a f ec tp a t ter n s o fs i t ev i s ib i l i ty , a nd t h u s o u rv i ew o ft h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion .

Wh i le i ti sd if i cu l t t oa r gue t h a t m oder n h un te r -ga the r e r a na log s c an b e r e ad i ly a pp l ied t o h om in id b ehav iou r t h roughou t o u r e vo lu t iona ry h i s to ry , t o s ugge s t t h a t N eande r ta l s f a l l o u t s ide t h i s a pp l ica t ion r e qu i re s a n a r gumen t a s t o w hy w e w ou ld d r aw t h e l i ne a t t h i s p a r t icu la rt ime a nd n o te a r l ie r ,o rl a t er .

At h i rd p o ten t ia l p r ob lem , c on s ide red mo re s i gn if i can tb y s ome t h an b yo t he r s ,i st h a tf o rt h e Mou s te r ian ( o fw e s ter n E u rope a t l e a s t ) w e a r e t a lk ing a bou t as ub spec ie s m o rpho log ica l ly d if e ren t f r om m oder n h uman s . B ecau se w e a r e d ea l ing w i th t h e m a te r ia l r ema in s , a nd a sk ing q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e b ehav iou r o f H omo s ap ien s n eand er tha l en s i s i t c an b e a r gued t h a t t h e u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy ( i . e . , f r om moder n H omo s p .) mu s t b e l i m i ted . T he l a ck o fe v idence f o rs ymbo l i sm i nM idd le P a la eo l i th ic c on tex t s h a s b een u sed a s p o s i t ive e v idence f o r al a ck o f l i ngu i s t ic a b i l i t ie s a nd f o r g ene ra l ly l owe r c ogn i t ive a b i l i t ie s r e la t ive t om oder nh uman s ( McB rea r ty a nd B rook s 2 000 ; C ha se a nd D ibb le 1 987 , a l though s e e H ayden 1 993 ) . Wh i le t h e o l d t r u i sm " t he a b sence o f e v idence i s n o t e v idence o f a b sence" m u s t b e a cknow ledged a nd t h e f a c t e x i s t s t h a t t h e re a r e m any e x tan t ( a nd r e cen t ly d i sappea red ) c u l tu r e s w ho w ou ld p o ten t ia l ly l e ave b eh ind e ven l e s s e v idence o f s ymbo l ic t h ough ta nd b ehav iou rt h an n eande r ta l sh ave ( i fa l o rm o s t o f t h e i r o rgan ic m a te r ia l r ema in s d i sappea red ) , t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t N eande r tha l s w e re l e s s c ogn i t ive ly d eve loped t h an m oder n h uman s i sw e l l e n t renched i nt h e l i t e ra tu re ( e .g . G a rge t t 1 999 , 1 989 ; C ha se a nd D ibb le 1 987 ; B inf o rd 1 985 ) a nd , t h e ref o re , mu s t b e t a ken i n to a c coun t . T he r e i st h e p o s s ib i l i ty , g i ven m o re w e igh t b y s ome r e sea rche r s t h an o t he r s , t h a t i fN eande r ta l s d i d n o t h ave s im i la r c ogn i t ive a b i l i t ie s o r p a t te rn s a s moder n h uman s , t h e i r b ehav iou r m ay n o t h ave m i r ro red t h a t o f m oder nh un te r -ga the re r s i ns im i la rc i rcum s tance sa nd t h ey m ay h ave r e sponded i n am anne rt h a th a sn od i rec t moder n h uman a na log s .

I f w e d o a pp ly t o M idd le P a la eo l i th ic c on tex t s , i n te rp r e ta t ion s b a sed o n s ome o ft h e g ene ra l p a t te rn s t h a t h ave b een r e cogn ized a mong m o re r e cen t h un te r -ga the re r g r oup s w e c ou ld m ake s ome g ene ra l p r ed ic t ion s a bou t N eande r ta l a dap ta t ion s . Among r e cen t h un te r -ga the r e r g r oup s a g r ada t ion i n a dap t ive s t ra teg ie s h a s b een r e cogn ized t h a t i sd ef ined b y h i gh ly r e s iden t ia l ly m ob i le ' f o rage r s ' a to ne e nd a nd m o re l o g i s t ica l ly o r ien ted , l e s s m ob i le ' c o l lec to r s ' a tt h e o t he r ( a s i n i t ia l ly d ef ined b y B inf o rd 1 978 , 1 980 ;b u ts e ea l so B e t t inge r 1 99 1 :64 -70 a nd H abu 2 004 :7 16 ) .T he n a tu re o fs uch a dap ta t ion si sm a in ly ar e spon se t o t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o f e xp lo i tab le r e sou rce s i n ar e g ion w i th g i ven t e chno log ie s . I n s ome r e g ion s , e xp lo i tab le r e sou r ce s a r e f a i r ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted i nb o th t ime a nd s p ace ; t h a t i st os a y t h ey a r e a va i lab le i nr e la t ive ly c on s i s ten t q uan t i t ie s o ve r t ime a nd t h roughou t t h e r e g ion . G roup s l i v ing i ns u ch r e g ion s w i l l f a ce l i t t le d if i cu l ty i n m a tch ing t h e i r p a t ter n s o f m ovemen t t o a va i lab le r e sou r ce s . N o m a t te r w he re o r w hen t h ey move t h ey w i l l e ncoun te rr e sou r ce s , a nd w hen t h e se h ave b een d ep le ted t h ey c an m ove t o a n a d jacen t a r ea w he re t h ey c an r e a sonab ly e xpec t t o f i nd n ew r e sou rce s . L i t t le o r gan iza t iona l e f o r t o r p l ann ing i s r e qu i red o t he rt h an r e la t ive ly f r equen tr e s iden t ia l m ove s i n r e spon se t or e sou rce d ep le t ion i nt h ei mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t h e c u r ren t s i te . S uch g roup s h ave c ome t ob e r e f e r r ed t o a s ' f o rage r s ' a nd t h i s s e t t lemen t p a t ter n i s s ome t ime s r e f e r r ed t oa s' c i rcu la r ' ( e .g . ,L iebe rman a nd S hea 1 994 )i n c on t ra s t t ot h a t o f ' c o l lec to r s ' d i scu s sed b e low ( B inf o rd 1 980 ) . F o rage r a dap ta t ion s a r e m o s t c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th r e g ion s a nd b i ome s i n w h ich t h e e xp lo i tab le r e sou rce s , w h i le n o t n ece s sa r i ly r i ch i n t e rm s o f r aw

H oweve r , c u r ren t d a ta i n d ica te s t h a t d u r ing t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic m o rpho log ica l ly m oder nh uman g r oup s i nt h e M idd le E a s t w e re m ak ing a nd u s ing e xa c t ly t h e s ame t y pe s o f s t one t o o l s a s t h e i r N eande r ta l n e ighbou r s a nd

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b i oma s s , a r e f a i r ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted i nt ime a nd s pa ce ( Be t t inge r 1 99 1 :66 -67 ) .

s i gn if ican t d eg ree o f s eden t i sm , b a sed l a rge ly o n w e l l d eve loped s t o rage t e chno logy ,b u tt h e r ec an a l so b eg roup s w ho t e nd t o f a l l mo r e i n t h e c o l lec to r e nd o f t h e c on t inuum , b u t w ho se d eg ree o f r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty i s q u i te h i gh r e la t ive t o t h a t o f t h e f o rme r . T he re w i l l b e g roup s w ho e mp loy (ed ) b o th l o g i s t ica l a nd ' mapp ing -on ' s t ra teg ie s , a nd s t o rage t e chno log ie s t o d if e ren t d eg ree s ( B inf o rd 1 980 :12 )

I nr e g ion s w he re , d ue t om a rked s e a sona l i ty a nd e x t reme s o ft empe ra tu re a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion , r e sou r ce p roduc t iv i ty i s n o t t empo ra l ly o r s pa t ia l ly h omogeneou s , h uman a dap ta t ion s n ece s sa r i ly b ecome m o re c omp lex ( Hayden 1 981a :347 -49 ) . Whe re r e sou rce s ,a l though p o ten t ia l ly v e ry r i ch , a r e u neven ly d i s t r ibu ted i nt ime a nd s pa ce , h un te r g a the re r g roup s a r e f a ced w i th t ime s a nd l o ca t ion s w i th in t h e i r s e a sona l c yc le w he re r e sou rce a va i lab i l i ty i sl i m i ted . I n s u ch r e g ion s , h un te r -ga the re r s c an e mp loy d i f f e ren t m e thod s f o r d ea l ing w i th t h e se t wo i n cong ruenc ie s . T o a dd r e ss t empo ra l i n cong ruenc ie s , s t o rage c an b e u sed . G roup s a ccumu la te , w he r e a nd w hen a va i lab le , b u lk q uan t i t ie s o fp l an to ra n ima l r e sou r ce st h a t a r et h en s t o red a t b a se c amp s f o r t h o se t ime s w hen r e sou r ce s a r e s e a sona l ly u nava i lab le . S pa t ia l i n cong ruenc ie s a r e d ea l t w i th , i n p a r t , b y m od if y ing s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s . R a the r t h an t a k ing o n t h e r i sk i n vo lved i n m ov ing t h e w ho le g roup f r om o ne a r ea w he re r e sou r ce s a r e d ep le ted ( e i the r b ecau se o fe xp lo i ta t ion o rd ue t on a tu ra ls e a sona l p a t te rn s ) t oa n a d ja cen ta r ea i nt h e h ope t h a tt h e r ew i l l b e s uf i c ien t r e sou rce s t os u s ta in t h em t h e re , t h e g roup w i l l m a in ta in a mo re p e rmanen t r e s idence f r om w h ich s ma l l , s pec if ic t a sk -o r ien ted g roup sw i l lb es e n to u tt oc o l lec tr e sou r ce st o b e b rough t b a ck t o t h e c en t ra l r e s idence . T h i s h a s b een r e f e r r ed t oa s a' r ad ia l ' p a t ter no fm ovemen t , c ompa red t o t h ec i rcu la ro ne o ff o rage r s . Wh i le t h e c en t ra l r e s idence o f c o l lec to r s m ay b e m a in ta ined f o r s i gn if ican t ly l o nge rt h an f o rage r b a se c amp s , t h e se t o o mu s t b e m oved e ven tua l ly a sr e sou r ce s i nt h e e xp lo i ted r e g ion b ecome d ep le ted . T he ' c o l le c to r 's ' a pp roa ch i sm o re c omp lex ,b u ta low s ag roup t o mo re e f ec t ive ly e xp lo i t amuch l a rg e rr e g ion , w h ich i s mo re l i ke ly t op roduce r e sou rce s i nq uan t i t ie s s uff ic ien tt o s u s ta in t h em . T he u se o fl o ng te rm s t o rage , h oweve r , c an e f ec t ive ly t e the r ag roup t os p ec if ic l o ca le sa nd r e su l t i na d ec rea se i nm ob i l i ty c ho ice s( Be t t inge r 1 99 1 :67 -70 ; S of f e r 1 989 : 7 22 ;B inf o rd 1 978 , 1 980 ) .

Wh i le t h e re w a s s i gn if ican t v a r iab i l i ty i n c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s o ve r t h e c ou r se o f t h e M idd le a nd L a te P l e is tocene i nE u rope , t h ed om inan tc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s i n t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic w e r e t empe ra te a nd v e ry o f t en e x t reme i nt e rm so ft empe ra tu re a nd a r id i ty ( t yp ica l ly c o ld a nd d ry ) a nd d eg ree o fs e a sona l i ty ( S t r inge r a nd G amb le 1 998 : 4 6 -50 ; B rad ley 1 995 ) . T oday , m o s t r e g ion s o ft h e w o r ld w i th s uch c ond i t ion s a r e m a rked b y s i gn if ican t h e te rogene i ty i nt h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou rce s . I f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s f o l lowed t h e g ene ra l p a t te rn o b se rved a mong m o re r e cen t g roup s , s uch a s s ome g roup s i nt h e A r c t ic , S uba r c t ic a nd t h eN o r th Ame r ican G rea t P l a in s w ho e mp loyed i n ten s ive s t o rage p ra c t ice s , w e m igh t e xpec t t h em t o h ave mo s t c l o se ly r e semb led t h ec o l lec to ra dap ta t ion . H oweve r , a l though s t o rage ( pa r t icu la r ly o f m ea t ) c ou ld h ave b een p r ac t iced i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( t he p r edom inan t ly c o ld c l ima te w ou ld h ave f a c i l i ta ted i t )a nd e v idence o fi th a s b een c l a imed i nt h e p a s t ( e .g . , F ranco is B o rde s o f t en r e f e r red t op i t f e a tu re s i nc ave s i te s a sm ea t c a che s , D ibb le 2 004 p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) , t h e re i sn o c onc lu s ive e v idence t h a t i tw a s ( Gamb le 1 999 : 2 30 ) . Wh i le i ti sc e r ta in ly p o s s ib le t h a t s t o rage m e thod s m igh t h ave b een u sed t h a tw ou ld l e ave l i t t le a r cha eo log ica lt r ace ( e .g . , h ang ing m ea t i nt r ee s ) , t h e l a ck o fa ny i d en t if iab le e v idence s e em s t oi n d ica te t h a t e i the r i tw a s n o t p ra c t iced a t a l o r w a s e mp loyed o n ly i n te rm i t ten t ly , u n sys tema t ica l ly , o r o n av e ry s ma l l s c a le ( e .g . , S t r inge r a nd G amb le 1 998 : 1 64 -66 ) . I ta ppea r s a tt h i s p o in t t h a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a dap ta t ion s d i d n o t t y p ica l ly e mp loy t h i sr i sk reduc t ion m e thod .

I nr e a l i ty ,t h e s e t t lemen ts t ra teg ie s o fm o s th un te r -ga the r e r g roup s t y p ica l ly f i t s omewhe re b e tw een t h e f o rage r c o l lec to re x t reme s ,d epend ing o nt h es p ec if ic c ond i t ion so r n uance s i nt h e c l ima te , s e a sona l i ty , o rr e sou r ce a bundance a nd a va i lab i l i ty o ft h e i r r e g ion . F u r the rmo re , a st h e re a r e n o s t r ic t c r i te r ia t h a t a low u s t o d r aw a d ef inab le l i ne b e tween " f o rage r s" a nd " co l lec to r s" , d i scu s s ion s o f h un te r -ga the r e r s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s i nt h e l i t e ra tu re c an b e c onf u s ing . H e re i ti sv i ewed s t r ic t ly a s ag r ada t ion , w h ich i n c lude s s t r ic t f o rage r s , w ho p r ac t ice t h e h i ghe s t l e ve l o f r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty ( move a s f r equen t ly a s 4 5 t ime s p e r y ea r —B inf o rd 1 980 :7 ) ,b u ta l so g roup sw ho w ou ld s t i l lb e c a tego r iz ed a sf o rage r s , b u tw ho t e nd t op r ac t ice al im i ted d eg ree o fl o g i s t ica l c o l lec t ing . T h is i st os a yt h a tt h ey m ay m ake l i m i ted u se o fs pec ia l ized t a sk g r oup s w ho b eg in t o c a r ry o u t r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion a c t iv i t ie s t h a t t a ke t h em a way f r om t h e i rh ome b a se f o rs l igh t ly l o nge rp e r iod st h an i st y p ica l o f s t r ic t f o rage r a dap ta t ion s a nd m ove t h e re r e s idence a sf ew a sf i ve t ime sp e ry ea r( B inf o rd 1 980 :7 -8 ) . L ikew i se , t h e re c an b e c o l lec to r s w ho p r a c t ice a

I ti sa l so l i ke ly t h a t o ve r m uch o f P l e is tocene We s ter n E u rope t h e q uan t i t ie s o fa va i lab le a n ima ls d i d n o t r e f lec t t h o se t yp ica l o f s im i la r mode rn c l ima t ic r e g ion s . P l e is tocene E u rope l i ke ly h ad a r ema rkab ly h i gh a n ima l b i oma s s u nequa l led i n c on tempo ra ry e nv i ronmen t s ; e spec ia l ly d u r ing p a r t icu la r c l ima t ic p e r iod s w hen s t epp ic g r a s s land s w e re t h e d om inan t v ege ta t iona l b i ome ( Bu tze r 1 964 :138 ; R o l land 1 981 :33 , 1 996 : 1 37 ;G amb le 1 999 :2313 4 , 1 986 :111) . D u r ing s u ch p e r iod s , l a rge h e rd s o f m ed ium t o l a rge m amma l s ( pa r t icu la r ly r e indee r , b i son , a nd h o r se ) m ay h ave s i gn if ican t ly l owe r ed t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l i n cong ru i ty o ff o od r e sou rce s o f t en a s soc ia ted w i th c o lde r t empe ra te e nv i ronmen t s . T h is w ou ld h ave r e duced t h e d eg r ee t ow h ich h un te r -ga the re r s w ou ld h ave h ad t oo rgan ize t h e i r s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s t oc o inc ide w i th r e sou rce s a nd r e sou rce d i s t r ibu t ion a nd , d u r ing much o f t h e P l e is tocene , m ay h ave a lowed f o r m o re f o rage r

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o r ien ted a dap ta t ion s . T h is i s e xam ined i n m o re d e ta i l b e low .

p r of i le f a una l a na ly s t s h ave d i rec t ly r e f u ted B inf o rd 's i n te rp re ta t ion t h a tt h eb one d amage a tt h eF r ench s i t e sw a s n o tf r om b u tche r ing p r a c t ice s( G ray son a nd D e lpech 1 998 ; C ha se 1 986 , 1 989 ; Ma rean a nd K im 1 998 ) . I n f a c t t h e re s e em s t ob e l i t t le e v idence a tt h i s p o in t t h a t s uppo r t s t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t s c aveng ing wa s t h e d om inan t p r a c t ice , a l though i t mu s t h ave c e r ta in ly b een p r ac t iced a tt i me s ( S t ine r 1 994 ) .

D ie t L a rge Mamma lU se ( hun t ing v s .s c aveng ing? ) I t i s r e cogn ized t h a t t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd w i l l i n ev i tab ly b e b i a sed i nf a vou r o ft h e p r e se rva t ion o ft h e r ema in s o f l a rge m amma l s . H oweve r , b a sed o n t h e a bundance o f r ema in s i t i s s t i l l a ppa ren t t h a t l a rge mamma l s m u s t h ave r e p r e sen ted a n i mpo r tan t c omponen t o f Mou s te r ian s ub s is tence , a nd i s o top ic a na ly s i s s uppo r t s t h i s ( Boche r en s 1 999 ; R icha rd s e t . a l . 2 000 ; R icha rd s e t . a l . 2 00 1) .P l an t sm ay w e l lh ave m ade u p an o tab le p o r t ion o f Mou s te r ian d i e t s ( p e rhap s t o ad eg ree s im i la r t o t r ad i t iona l N o r th Ame r ican P l a in s a nd S uba rc t ic g r oup s ) , b u t u nf o r tuna te ly , t h e re a r e v e ry l i t t le p o s i t ive d a ta w i th r e spec t t o t h i s ( Ha rdy 2 004 ) . T he e v idence f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f s ma l l a n ima l s i s , l i kew i se , v e ry l i m i ted ( Cha se 1 989 , 1 985 ; S t ine re t .a l . 1 999 ,2 000 ;B u rke 2 000 ) , b u t t h e re a r e s ome r a re e xamp le s o f s i te s w he re s ma l l m amma l s a ppea rt oh ave p l ayed as i gn if i can tr o le , s u ch a s S a lpa re d e P omp ignan ( NE o f Ma r se i l le s ) w he re r a bb i t w a st h em o s tc ommon f a una lr ema in ( Boy le 2 000 :342 ) .

T he re a r e an umbe r o fl i ne s o fe v idence t h a t c an u sed t o a r gue t h a t h un t ing w a s ac ommon p r a c t ice i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o r e a r l ie r . T he r e cove ry o f s e ve ra l w ooden s p ea r s f r om L owe r a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic c on tex t s ( e .g . S chön ingen , G e rmany - T h ieme 1 999 a nd L eh r ingen , G e rmany ) ,a nd e v idence o fj ump s i te s , s u ch a sa tC o t te d e S a in t -B re lade , w he re e l ephan t a nd r h inoce ro s w e re k i l led ( V i l la 1 99 1 :206 ) , a r e d i rec t e v idence t h a t h un t ing w a s p r a c t iced i nE u rope . T ha t Mou s te r ian g roup sa c t ive ly h un ted l a rge g ame i sa l so w e l l s uppo r ted b y c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f a una l r e co rd ( R icha rd s e t . a l2 000 :7665 -66 ) . I n g ene ra l t h e e v idence i n d ica te s v a r iou s l e ve l s o f s e lec t iv i ty o f p r ey , ab ehav iou r t h a t i sn o t i n l i ne w i th s c aveng ing . F i r s t o f a l , t h e re a r e an umbe r o f w e l l d ocumen ted s i te s w he re t h e f a una l a s semb lage s a r e d om ina ted b y as i ng le s p ec ie s , i ns ome c a se sa lmo s tt ot h e e xc lu s ion o fa l o t he rs p ec ie s a va i lab le i nt h er e g ion a tt h e t ime ( Koz low sk i 1 990 : 4 29 ) . E xamp le s o ft h e se i n c lude : Mau ran ,L aB o rde ,C oudou lou s( Boy le 2 000 ; F a r izy e t .a l . 1 994 ) , a nd I l ' skaya ( Hof f eche ra nd C leghor n2 000 )w he r e b ov id s h eav i ly d om ina te ; H o r tu s a nd L aza r e t w i th p r edom ina te ly i b ex ( Boy le 2 000 ; Ma rean a nd K im 1 998 ; J a ube r t e t . a l . 1 993 ; J a ube r t e t . a l . 1 990 ) ; a nd S a lzg i t te r L eben s ted tw he re r e indee rd om ina te ( Gaudz in sk i2 000 ) .

T he n a tu re o ft h ea cqu i s i t ion o fl a rge m amma lr e sou rce si s a n i mpo r tan t q ue s t ion . S eve ra l a l ter n a t ive s h ave b een p r e sen ted b y v a r iou s r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , C ha se 1 989 ; R o l land 1 990 ; S t ine r 1 994 ; S pe th a nd T cher nov 1 998 ; G amb le 2 000 ; B u rke 2 000 ; B oy le 2 000 ; P a tou -Ma th is 2 000 ; G audz in sk i 2 000 ) . M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p eop le m ay h ave r e l ied m a in ly o n s c aveng ing t oa cqu i re l a rge a n ima l r ema in s ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 982 ; C ha se 1 989 ) o r t h ey c ou ld h ave i n ten t iona l ly h un ted l a rge m amma ls f o l low ing a n umbe r o f d i f f e ren t s t ra teg ie s ( Gaudz in sk i 2 000 , 1 996 ; G audz in sk i a nd R oeb roek s 2 000 ; F a r izy e t . a l . 1 994 ; J aube r t e t . a l . 1 990 ; B u rke 2 000 ; B oy le 2 000 ; P a tou Ma th i s2 000 ;K oz low sk i 1 990 ) . Wh i le B inf o rd ( 1982 :178 ) s t a ted t h a t , i nt h e f a ce o fo u r l a ck o fu nde r s tand ing o ft h e f a c to r s a f f ec t ing t h e f o rma t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s , h i s " j udgmen t" i st h a t d u r ing t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s c aveng ing w a s a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f P a la eo l i th ic s ub s is tence . H e a l so f e e l s t h a t h un t ing o f m ig ra to ry h e rd a n ima ls w a s a l so c ommon , b u t o n ly i n vo lved t h ek i l l ing o fi n d iv idua ls a nd d i dn o to ccu ri nt h e f o rm o f m a s s k i l l s . F u r the rmo re , h i s s ugge s t ion t h a t s c aveng ing w a s a n i mpo r t an t , i fn o tt h e m a in , c omponen t o f N eande r ta l s ub s i s tence w a s b a sed o n t h e i d ea t h a t M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s w e r e d om ina ted b y h ead a nd l owe r l i mb e l emen t s ( a p a t ter n t h a t h e s ugge s ted w a s i n d ica t ive o f s c aveng ing ) a nd o n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t much o ft h es u rf ace d amage o nb one si n t h eF r ench s i t e so fC ombe G rena la nd G ro t te V auf rey ( a nd t h e S ou th A f r ican s i t e o fK la s ie s R ive r Mou th ) w a s f r om c a rn ivo re g naw ing . S ub sequen t r e sea rch ( e .g . , S pe th a nd T chemov 1 998 ; Ma rean a nd K im 1 998 ; B ra t lund 1 999 : 4 4 1 ; G audz in sk i a nd R oeb roek s 1 999 ) h a s i n d ica ted t h a t m uch o f t h e d a ta t h a t s ugge s ted h ead a nd l owe r l i mb d om ina t ion o fa s semb lage sw a s d ue t oe xcava to rb i a se s i n t h e a s semb lage s s t ud ied a nd , f u r the rmo re , s e ve ra l h i gh -

F u r the rmo re , m any f a una l a s semb lages i n d ica te t h a t w i th in as p ec ie s t h e re w a s ac e r ta in d eg ree o fs e lec t ion o f p r ey . S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t i s a l so a n e xamp le o f t h i s , w he re t h es e lec t ion f o ra du l tr e indee ri sc l ea r( Gaudz in sk i 2 000 ;G audz in sk ia nd R oeb roek s 1 999 ) . F i na l ly , i ti sa r gued b y s ome t h a t t h e s h e e r q uan t i t ie s o f f a una l r ema in s a ts ome s i t e s p r ec lude t h e i r a c cumu la t ion b e ing d ue t os c aveng ing . T hey a r gue t h a t s u ch q uan t i t ie s c ou ld o n ly r e p re sen t ar e gu la rs upp ly o fa n ima l s e xp lo i ted b yw e l l -e s tab l i shed h un t ing m e thod s( e .g . G a rde i sen 1 999 ; Ma rean a nd K im 1 998 ; F a r izy a nd D av id 1 989 ; J aube r te t . a l . 1 990 ) . W i th in t h e c u r r en t l i t e ra tu re , t h e m a jo r i ty o f f a una l a na lys t s w o rk ing o n M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a s semb lage s a c cep tt h e i d ea t h a t h un t ing w a st h e d om inan tm e thod f o r a cqu i r ing a n ima l r e sou rce s , a l though s ome s c aveng ing w a s l i ke ly p r a c t iced d u r ing c e r ta in c l ima t ic e p isode s a nd i nc e r ta in r e g ion s( s ee e s pec ia l ly S t ine r 1 994 ) .

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q uan t i t ie s o f s ma l l m amma l s a s w e l l . Wh i le i n d iv idua l c omponen t a s semb lage s c anno t b e r e a l i s t ica l ly v i ewed a s t empo ra l ly d i sc re te a nd u ndoub ted ly o f t en r e p re sen t m ix ing o f mu l t ip le e ven t s a nd o ccupa t ion s ,t h es t r eng th o f t h e p a t te rn ing i nM idd le P a la eo l i th ic f a una l a s semb lage s s uppo r t s t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t s i te c omponen t s c on ta in ing a n umbe r o fd i f f e r en t s pec ie s r e f lec t ag ene ra l e xp lo i ta t ion b y i n d iv idua l g roup s o f mu l t ip le s pec ie s . T h is w ou ld b e t h e mo re l o g ica l i n te rp re ta t ion , a s o ppo sed t o t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t ac omponen t w i th t h e r ema in s o f f ew i n d iv idua l a n ima ls o f a n umbe r o f d if e r en t s pec ie s r e p re sen t s t h e m ix ing o fi n hab i ta t ion s b y d i f f e ren t g roup s w ho e ach s pec ia l ized i n h un t ing o ne o r t wo o f t h e se a n ima l s pec ie s . T h i s w ou ld b e p a r t icu la r ly s o f o r s i te c omponen t se xh ib i t ing as i ng le Mou s te r ian i n du s t ry .

T he Na ture o f Midd le P a laeo l i th ic Hun t ing H un t ing c an b e c a r r ied o u t w i th a v a r ie ty o ft e chn ique s a nd s t ra teg ie s . I nt e rm so ft e chn ique s ,t h et e rm ' h un t ing ' i s u sed h e r e i nt h e mo s t i n c lu s ive manne r a nd i n c lude s b o th t h e p opu la r c oncep t o f h un t ing , i n w h ich p a r t ic ipan t s a c t ive ly p u r sue g ame w i th s ome f o rm o fm anua l w eapon , a sw e l l a sm o re p a s s ive t e chn ique s l i k et r app ing . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a te i the ro rb o th o ft h e se g ene ra l t e chn ique s c ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed b y M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p eop le , b u t m o re s pec if ic t y pe so ft h e se w i l ln o tb ed i scu s sed . I n t e rm s o f h un t ing s t ra teg ie s , t h r ee d i f f e ren t t y pe s a r e c ommon ly r e f e r red t o i nt h e l i t e ra tu re ( e .g . , C ha se 1 985 ; B inf o rd 1 983a :215 18 ; ) :

S uch a s semb lage s w ou ld i n d ica te t h a t t h e p eop le w ho c r ea ted t h em t e nded t oe xp lo i tw ha teve r s p ec ie s p r e sen ted i t se lf d u r ing e a ch h un t ing e ven t , w i th l i t t le o rn o s pec if ic p r ey o b jec t ive i nm ind a tt h e t ime t h ey s e t o u t . H oweve r , e co log ica l t h eo ry p r ed ic t s t h a t , w i th a l e l se e qua l , l a rge r g ame w ou ld h ave b een t h e p r ef e rence i nt e rm s o fr e tu rn s o nt ime a nd e ne rgy i n ve s ted .

1 O ppor tun i s t ic o r E ncoun te r Hun t ing i n vo lve s t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima ls i fa nd w hen t h ey a r e r a ndom ly e ncoun t e red . P eop le w ou ld n o t s e t o u t t o s pec if ica l ly e xp lo i t ac e r ta in a n ima ls pec ie sa t as pec if ic t ime . 2 /S pec ia l i zed Hun t ing r e p re sen t s af o cu sed e xp lo i ta t ion o f as pec if ic s pec ie s a t as p ec if ic t ime a nd o f t en i n c lude s t h e t a rge t ing o f as p ec if ic s ex a nd a ge g roup (s ) . T h is w ou ld i n vo lve p a ra l le l ing a nd /o r a n t ic ipa t ing t h e movemen t o f e xp lo i ted s pec ie s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape . D if f e ren t s pec ie s m ay b e s ough t a f te r , p a r t icu la r ly a t d i f f e r en tt ime so fy ea ro ri nd i f f e ren tr e g ion s ,a l though t h e move t owa rd s s pec ia l iza t ion t e nd s t o r e su l t i n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f ar e duced n umbe ro fs p ec ie s .

S pec ia l ized Hun t ing i nt he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T he re a r e s ome a s semb lage s w h ich a ppea r t o r ef lec t a c e r ta in d eg ree o f f o cu s o n t h e h un t ing o f s pec if ic p r ey s p ec ie s . T he se a s semb lage s s e em t o r e f lec t e i the r a s pec ia l ized h un t ing a pp roa ch o r p u rpo sef u l e c lec t ic h un t ing w i th d if e ren t s i te s b e ing u sed t oe xp lo i t s pec if ic p r ey s pec ie s . T he s pec ie s e xp lo i ted i ns u ch a s semb lage s a r e a l l m ed ium t o l a rge h e rd m amma l s ( e spec ia l ly r e indee r ,h o r se ,b i son ,a nd r e dd ee r -P a tou -Ma th is 2 000 ) .

3 /P urpo sef u l E c lec t ic H un t ing r e f e r s t ot h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f av a r ie ty o fs pec ie s b u t i n ap u rpo sef u l m anne r . P eop le w ou ld s e t o u t t o s pec if ica l ly e xp lo i t d i f f e ren t s pec ie s a t d if e r en tt i me s .

W i th in t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , P a tou -Ma th i s ( 2 000 ) s e e s s pec ia l ized h un t ing t o b e s omewha t mo re c ommon i n We s te rn E u rope a nd i nn o r the rn p a r t s o fC en t ra l E u rope ( s pec if ica l ly G e rmany a nd P o land ) , a nd , i n f a c t , s e e s a n o tab le d ec rea se i n i tf r om O IS 7 t h rough t o O IS 3 . I n g ene ra l , s he s e e s s pec ia l ized h un t ing t ob e m o re c ommon d u r ing mo re t empe ra te p e r iod s ( O IS 7 a nd 5 e ) a nd c o ld m ax imum s ( O IS 2 ,U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic ) , w h ich m ay a l so s imp ly b e ar e f lec t ion o f c hange s i n t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f d i f f e ren t s pec ie s . E xamp le s o f We s te rn E u ropean a s semb lage s d om ina ted b y a s i ng le s p ec ie s i n c lude L aza re t , w i th r e d d ee r a nd i b ex c omp r is ing 8 2% o fn on p r eda to r r ema in s ( Va len s i 2 000 ) ; L e s C ana le t te s , d om ina ted b y r e d d ee r ( Boy le 2 000 ) ; Mau ran w i th a lmo s t 1 00% b i son ( Dav id 1 994 ;B ruga l a nd D av id 1 993 ) ; a nd L a B o rde w i th 9 0+% a u roch sr ema in s( J aube r te t .a l . 1 990 ) .

Oppor tun i s t ic Hun t ing i nt he Midd le P a laeo l i th ic I th a sb een t r ad i t iona l ly a ccep ted t h a ta ny h un t ing t h a tw a s p r a c t iced i n t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic w ou ld h ave m a in ly b een a n o ppo r tun i s t ic f o rm . T he f a una l a s semb lage s a t m any s i te s t e nd t o s uppo r t t h is i n t h e w ide v a r ie ty o f s p ec ie s a nd s i ze s o f g ame t h a t a r e r e p re sen ted w i th in i n d iv idua l l e ve l s . L eve l Go fl e Mou s t ie r ( i nc luded i nt h e s t udy h e re ) w i th a tl e a s t 1 2 d i f f e ren t s p ec ie s p r e sen t a nd l e ve ls J 3a nd 1 2o fP ech d e l ' Az6 I V ,e a ch w i th a tl e a s t 1 d i f f e ren t s p ec ie s ( LaQuay 1 981) , a r e g ood e xamp le s o f t h i s . T he w ide r a nge o f s p ec ie s r e cove r ed f r om M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te s a c ro s s E u rope i n c lude ( among o t he r s ) : m ammo th ( M ammu thu s p r im ig en iu s ) , r h inoce ro s ( Coe lodon ta a n t iqu i ta t i s a nd D icero rh inu s h em i toechu s ) , w i ld a s s ( Equu s h yd run t inu s ) , b i son ( B i son s p .) , a u roch s ( Bo s p r im ig en iu s ) , h o r se ( Equu s p r zewa l sk i i ) , r e indee r ( Rang if er t a rand u s ) , r e d d ee r ( C ervu s e l aphu s ) , r o e d ee r ( Capr eo lu s c ap reo lu s ) , f a l low d ee r ( Dama d ama ) , i b ex ( Capra i b ex ) , c hamo i s ( Rup icap ra r up icap ra ) , a nd w i ld b oa r ( Sus s c rof a ) , a nd p r eda to r s s uch a sb ea r ( U r su s s p .) , w o lf ( Can i s l u pu s ) , f ox ( V u lpes v u lp e s ) , a nd h yena ( C rocu ta c rocu ta ) , a nd s ome a s semb lage s i n c lude

T he re a r e , h oweve r , n o tab le e xamp le s o f s i ng le -spec ie s d om ina ted a s semb lage s i n E a s ter n E u rope a s w e l l . T he s i te s o f I l ' skaya Ia nd I l ' skaya I c omp r i sed b e tween 8 6 a nd 1 00% b i son ( B i son p r i scu s ) ( Hof f ecke r a nd C leghor n 2 000 ) . T he f a una l r ema in s i nt h e f ou r l e ve l s i nt h e s i te o f S t a ro se le i nw e s ter nC r imea i n c lude b e tween 8 0a nd 9 0+% h o r se r ema in s .

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t h an a tt h o se s i te s o r d u r ing t h o se c l ima t ic p e r iod s w hen t h e re a ppea r st oh ave b een ab roade rp r ey s e lec t ion .

T he se d i f f e r ing p a t ter n s i n p r ey s e lec t ion m ay s imp ly r ef le c tr e spon se st oc hange si nt h et y pe sa nd a va i lab i l i ty o f p r ey s p ec ie s t h a t o ccu r red w i th c l ima t ic c hange s o rw i th d if e r en t s i t e l o ca t ion s . We m igh t h ypo the s ize t h a t t h e t r end t owa rd s s p ec ia l ized h un t ing i n w a rme r p e r iod s r ef lec t s a n o ve ra l l f l a t ten ing o f s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r iab i l i ty i nr e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty ( mo sa ic b i ome p a t ter n s a s soc ia ted w i th s ome P l e i s tocene p e r iod s - R o l land 1 996 ) , r e duc ing r i sk o ve ra l l , a nd f r ee ing g roup s f r om t h e p r e s su re t oa pp ly a" ca tch a sc a tch c an" a pp roa ch t of o od a cqu i s i t ion . S i ng le spec ie s d om ina ted a s semb lage s d u r ing e x t r eme c o ld p e r iod s may s imp ly r ef l ec t a va i lab i l i ty w i th in as p ec if ic r e g ion a tt h a tt ime . Wh i le mo re a c cu ra te ( a nd c onf iden t )p l a cemen to ft h e se a s semb lage s i ns p ec if ic o xygen i s o tope s t age s i s n ece s sa ry t o r e so lve t h e se q ue s t ion s , t h e d a ta ( s pec ie s r e p re sen ted i n a s semb lage s c ompa red t ow ha tw a sa va i lab le w i th in t h er e g ion ) s ugge s t t h a ta tm any o ft h e se s i t e st h es pec ie st h a tw e r ef o cu sed o n b y h un te r s d i d n o tw e l l r e p re sen tt h e a r ray o fs p ec ie s t h a t w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le t ot h em ( Boy le 2 000 ) .

T he U se o fF i sh R e source s A l though s e ve ra l f i sh s pec ie s , i n p a r t icu la r s a lmon id s , w e re p r e sen t , a nd i nf a c t m ay h ave b een a bundan t , i nt h e r i ve r s i n t h e i n te r io r o f SW F rance d u r ing d if e ren t c l ima t ic p e r iod si nt h eM idd le P a la eo l i th ic ,t h e re i sl i m i ted e v idence t h a t f i sh w e re h eav i ly e xp lo i t ed b y M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le . Among m oder n A r c t ic a nd S uba rc t ic g r oup s f i sh o f t en make u p al a rge p o r t ion ( u p t o8 0% i n s ome c a se s -K e l ly 1 995 :67 ) o ft h e m ea t d i e t . H oweve r , f i sh r ema in sa r er a re ly r e cove r ed f r om M idd le P a laeo l i th ic d epo s i t s ( a l though t h ey d o n o t t e nd t op r e se rve w e l l a nd m ay n o to f t en b et a ken f r om t h ep r ocu r emen tl o ca t ion t oa c amp s i te ) a nd n o f i sh p r ocu r emen t t e chno logy h a s b een r e cogn ized t h a t w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t f i sh w e re r e gu la r ly e xp lo i ted . S pec ia l ized t e chno log ie s a r e n ece s sa ry i no rde r t o e xp lo i t f i sh t o a ny s i gn if ican t e x ten t b eyond c hance p r ocu remen t s ( Hayden e t . a l 1 987 ) . U nf o r tuna te ly , w h i le i s o top ic a na ly se s h ave i n d ica ted t h a t N eande r ta l d i e t s c ompa red m o s t c l o se ly w i th m amma l ian c a rn ivo re s , t h e s t ud ie s d o n o t d i s t ingu i sh b e tween a n ima l p r o te in f r om m amma l p r ey a nd a n ima l p ro te in f r om f r e shwa te r f i sh ( R icha rd se t .a l .2 000 a nd B oche r en s 1 999 ) . Wh i le t h e re i s s ome e v idence t h a tf i sh w e re o cca s iona l ly e xp lo i ted i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , f o r e xamp le a t G ro t te XV I i n t h e D o rdogne r e g ion ( R igaud e t . a l . 1 995 ) a nd l ' a b r i d e s C ana le t te s ( Pa tou -Ma th i s 1 993 ) , t h ey w e re l i ke ly am ino r d i e t a ry c omponen ta tb e s t .

A no the r i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t m ay f i t t h e a va i lab le d a ta e qua l ly w e l l i st h e i d ea t h a t , r a the r t h an t h e N eande r ta l h un te r s b e ing s p ec ia l ized ; t h e i r s i te s w e re s p ec ia l iz ed ( Ga rde i sen 1 999 :1155 ) . T ha t i st os a y t h a tt h e g eog raph ic l o ca t ion o fs i te sm ade t h em l o g ica ll o ca t ion s( n a tu ra lt r ap s , a mbu she s , g ame s i gh t ing , o ri n te rcep t ing m ig ra t ing h e rd s ) f o r e xp lo i t ing as p ec if ic s pec ie s a nd k i l l ing o ne o r m o r e i n d iv idua l s e a ch t ime . A s i ng le g roup m ay e xp lo i t d if e ren t s p ec ie s a td if e ren tt ime s b yt a k ing a dvan tage o f d if e ren t " s pec ia l ized" s i t e s . T he s pec if i c l o ca t ion s o f m any M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te s m igh t b e ar ef l ec t ion o f c e r ta in r e sou r ce o p t ion s . D u r ing c o lde rp e r iod s , s i te s s u ch a sP ech d e l ' Az6 I IV , R oc d e Ma r sa l , A b r i C hadour n e , a nd l e s Me rve i l le s p r ov ide r e ady a cce s s t ou ppe r p l a teau b i ome s a nd a low m on i to r ing o fg ame movemen tt h rough t h e v a l ley s b e low ( Ro l land 1 996 ) . O fc ou r se , a l ong w i th c hange s i n c l ima te a nd a s soc ia ted f l o ra l a nd f a una l s p ec ie s , t h e t y pe s a nd r a nge s o f p r ey s p ec ie s a va i lab le a r ound s p ec if i cs i t e sw ou ld c hange .

U se o fP lan t s U se -wea r a na lys i s ( e .g . , B ey r ie s 1 988 ; A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; K ee ley 1 980 , 1 977 ; H a rdy 2 004 ; S hea 1 988 ) h a s i n d ica ted t h a t w ood w a s a t l e a s t o ne o f , i f n o t t h e d om inan t m a te r ia l t o w h ich m any r a c lo i r s , n o tche s , a nd d en t icu la te sw e r ea pp l ied .C on s ide r ing t h ec on tex to ft h e se t o o l s , ( s pec if i ca l ly , h ab i ta t ion r a the r t h an s p ec ia l t a sk s i t e s ) Ie xpec t f ew a r cha eo log i s t s w ou ld d i sag ree t h a tt h i s l i ke ly r e p r e sen t s t h e w o rk ing o fw ood a s ar aw m a te r ia l r a the r t h an t h e c o l lec t ion /p roce s s ing o f af o od r e sou rce . E thnog raph ica l ly , c h ipped s t one t o o l s a r er a re ly e mp loyed i nt h ep roce s s ing o fp l an t f o od s ( e .g . , H ayden 1 977 ) . T ha t w ood w a s a c ommon ly e mp loyed r aw m a te r ia l b y P a la eo l i th ic p eop le i sa l so s uppo r ted b y t h e d i scove ry o f w ooden i mp lemen t s ( s pea r s / jave l in s? ) o fc on s ide rab le a ge f r om a tl e a s tt h ree d i f f e ren tE u ropean s i t e s . T he se i n c lude : aw ooden " s pea r" a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r ema in s o f a n e l eph an t a tt h e s i t e o fL eh r ingen i nG e rmany a nd d a ted t o t h e R i s s - Wü rm I n te rg la c ia l ( Mov iu s 1 950 ) , t h e t i p o f a y ew " t h ru s t ing s pea r" r e cove red f r om t h eC la c ton c hanne l i nE ng land a nd d a ted t oi s o tope s t age 7( Champ ion e t . a l . 1 984 : 3 8 ; O ak ley e t . a l . 1 977 ) , a nd t h e m o re r e cen t d i scove ry o f 4 s p ruce i mp lemen t s , i n c lud ing t h ree " t h row ing s p ea r s" , f r om a G e rman c oa l m ine d a ted t o a r ound 4 00 k ya ( Th ieme 1 997 , 1 999 ) .

T he i mp l ica t ion o ft h e se d a ta i st h a t N eande r ta l s , r a the r t h an l a ck ing a ny r e a l f o re s igh to rp l ann ing a b i l i ty ,w e r e i n f a c t r e ad i ly c apab le o fm od if y ing t h e i r a pp roa ch t og ame a cqu i s i t ion t o s u i t b o th t h e i r c i rcum s tance s a nd t h e s i ze , b ehav iou r , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e g ame a va i lab le i na ny s p ec if i c t ime p e r iod ( Pa tou -Ma th i s 2 000 ; B oy le 2 000 ; B u rk e 2 000 ; R o l land 1 996 ) . T he d a ta n ow s e em t o i n d ica te t h a t t h e v a r iab i l i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o f N eande r ta l s ub s i s tence w a s f a r mo re m a rked a c ro s s We s ter n E u ra s ia a nd t h roughou t t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t h an w a s p r ev iou s ly e nv i s ioned ( s ee B u rke 2 000 : 2 81-84 [ p ref a ce t os p ec ia l v o lume ] f o r ab r ief s umma ry o ft h i s ) . T h is a b i l i ty t oa dap tt oc hange s i nt y pe s a nd v a r iab i l i ty o f g ame s p ec ie s w ou ld t e nd t o b e b e s t s e rved t h rough t h e e mp loymen t o fg ene ra l ized t o o l k i t s w h ich w ou ld a low a g r ea t d eg ree o ff l ex ib i l i ty ( O t te 1 999 : 2 49 ) . Wh i le t h e r e a r es i te s ,a nd p e rhap sc l ima t ic p e r iod s ,w he re as i ng le p r ey s p ec ie s w a s f o cu sed o n , t h e re i sn o e v idence t h a t t h e c o r re spond ing l i t h ic t e chno logy w a s a ny m o re s p ec ia l ized

2 4

n a tan s L . ) ; b i lbe r ry ( V acc in ium m y r t i l lu s L . ) ; w i ld c a r ro t ( Daucu sc aro ta L . ) ; a nd t h is t le ( Carduu sc ra ss if o l iu sL . )

A s v i r tua l ly n o h a rd e v idence h a s b een c o l lec ted s o f a r w i th r e spec t t o t h e u se o f e d ib le p l an t s i n M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te s ( J äge r a nd S chäf e r 1 999 ; Ma son a nd H a the r 1 993 ; C ha se 1 986 :4 ; S of f e r 1 985 ) , a ny mode l s o f u se mu s t r e ly h eav i ly o n p o ten t ia l ly a pp l icab le e t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd o n ab a s ic u nde r s tand ing o f t h e r e per to ry o f p l an t r e sou r ce s a va i lab le i n s ou thwe s te rn E u rope d u r ing t h e l a s ti n te rg la c ia l a nd i n to t h ef i r s th a lf o f t h e l a s t g l a c ia l p e r iod . I t i s r e cogn ized t h a t i n mo re n o r the r ly l a t i tude s ( a nd p r e sumab ly t h e i r e nv i ronmen ta l e qu iva len t s i n l e s s n o r the r ly l a t i tud e s d u r ing g l a c ia l p e r iod s ) w he re t h e q uan t i ty a nd v a r iab i l i ty o f p l an t s i s r e la t ive ly l ow , a n ima l r e sou rce s i ng ene ra l m ay r e p re sen t t h em o re r e l iab le f ood s ou rce a nd m u s tn ece s sa r i ly t a ke o n am o re i mpo r tan t r o le ( S t r inge r a nd G amb le 1 998 : 1 6 1 ; G amb le 1 986 ; H ayden 1 981a : 3 57 ) . T h is m ay b e p a r t icu la r ly s o f o r s ou thw e s ter n E u rope d u r ing t h e L a te P l e is tocene w hen " op t imum [ a n ima l ] b i oma s s c ond i t ion s" p r eva i led ( Ro l land 1 981 : 3) , m a in ly i nt h e f o rm o fl a rge h e rd m amma ls ( Gamb le 1 986 , 1 1) . H oweve r , w h i le o n t h ew ho le p l an t s m ay n o tb ea bundan to rv a r ied e nough t o p rov ide ar e l iab le s ub s is tence b a se i ns u ch e nv i ronmen t s , t h o se i nd iv id ua le d ib le p l an t s pec ie st h a t a r ea va i lab le w i l l s t i l l r e p r e sen t mo re r e l iab le r e sou r ce s t h an i nd iv idua l g ame a n ima l s i nt h a t t h ey c an b e c oun ted o n t ob e i nt h e s ame l o ca t ion a tt h e s ame t ime e a ch y ea r ( a nd n o t r un a way w hen a pp roa ched - H ayden 1 981a :357 ) .

Wh i le t h e i s sue o f r e tu rn s o n e ne rgy e xpend i tu r e s m ay a r i se w i th a t temp t s t o r e ly h eav i ly o n r e sou rce s s uch a s t h e se , i ft h e a bundance a nd d en s i ty i sg r ea t e nough t h ey c ou ld c on t r ibu te s i gn if ican t ly t o as ub s i s tence b a se . I t w ou ld s e em r e a sonab le t o e xpec t t h a t , w he re a va i lab le , p eop le w ou ld h ave e xp lo i ted a tl e a s tt ho se p l an t i t em st h a t r e qu i re l i t t le o rn o p r epa ra t ion o r mod if ica t ion ( e .g . r oo t s , b e r r ie s , a nd s ome n u t s ) , a nd p e rhap s a l so t ho se t h a t m ay h ave r e qu i r ed m ino r p r epa ra t ion ( e .g . t u be r s , l i ke w i ld c a r ro t s o r t h is t le s ) . S ome o ft h e se r e sou rce s , s pec if ica l ly n u t s , w ou ld h ave a l so l e n t t h em se lve s w e l l t o s t o rage , a t l e a s t i nt h e s ho r t t e rm , a l though t h e re i sn o e v idence f o r t h i s ( Sof f e r 1 989 ) . I n t h e e a r ly g l ac ia l p e r iod (Wü rm I ) w i th t h e r e duc t ion i nd ec iduou s f o re s t s t h e re w ou ld h ave b een a d ec rea se i nt h e v a r ie ty a nd q uan t i ty o fp l an t s o f p o ten t ia l f ood v a lue t o p eop le . S ome h e rbaceou s p l an t s ( e .g . , b e r r ie s ) w ou ld h ave c on t inued o n , e spec ia l ly i n p ro tec ted r i ve r v a l leys , i n to t h e i n c rea s ing ly s t epp ic e nv i ron s o f t h e g l ac ia l p e r iod , p rov id ing s ome p o ten t ia l f ood r e sou r ce s . D u r ing i n te r s tad ia l s , p o ten t ia l f ood p l an t s w ou ld h ave i n c rea sed a ga in , b u t i ng ene ra l p l an t s w ou ld h ave p robab ly b een a m ino r c omponen t o f p eop le 's s ub s is tence t h roughou tt h e Wü rm ( s ee f i gu re 4 . 1) . O ne p o ten t ia l p l an t f ood t h a t w a s l i ke ly e xp lo i ted t h roughou tt h eP a la eo l i th ic i st h ei n ne rb a rk o fv a r iou st r ee s pec ie s . T h is i s ar e sou r ce t h a th a sb een e xp lo i ted b y m o s t r e cen t i n d igenou s c u l tu re s i nt h e n or ther n h em i sphe re f o r w h ich t h is s o r t o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta a r e a va i lab le . T h i s i n c lude s e ve ry m a jo r i n d igenou s c u l tu ra l g roup a c ro s s t empe ra te N o r th Ame r ica ,E u rope a nd A s ia . I t si mpo r tance i nt h e se v a r iou s r e g ion s r a nged f r om u se a s ac ommon , s e a sona l ly e xp lo i ted s t ap le t o o cca s iona l u se a s e i the r a " t rea t" o r as t a rva t ion f ood . T he r a nge o ft r ee s pec ie s u sed w a s a l so q u i te v a r ied a nd i n c luded b o th c on if e r a nd d ec iduou s t y pe s , a l though c on if e r t r ee s , w he re a va i lab le , w e re a ppa ren t ly m o re r e ad i ly e xp lo i ted . A cqu i r ing t h e s o f t i n ne r b a rk ( c amb ium ) o f a t r ee r e qu i r e s s omewha t s p ec ia l ized t oo ls ,a l though o fs imp le d e s ign .T he se i n c lude s ome s o r to fh eavy -du ty k n if e o rc hopp ing t o o l t oc u ts l i t s i nt h e o u te r b a rk s u rf a ce a nd as omewha t mo re e l abo ra te b one , a n t le r , o r w ood t o o l ( t yp ica l ly b e tween 2 5 a nd 5 0 c m i nl e ng th ) w i th as pa tu la te o rc h i se l l ike t i p t op r y t h e h a rd , o u te r b a rk o f ft h e t r ee i no rde r t oe xpo se t h e i n ne r b a rk ( Sandga the a nd H ayden 2 003 ) .

D u r ing t h e l a s t i n t e rg la c ia l ( 0 1 s t age 5 e ) am uch w ide r v a r ie ty o fp o ten t ia l p l an t f ood r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le ( f igu re 4 . 1) . T he a bundan t d ec iduou s f o re s t s w ou ld h ave i n c luded f r u i t a nd n u t -bea r ing t r ee s s u ch a s o ak s , b eech , c he s tnu t , w a lnu t , a nd h az e l . H oweve r , s ome o ft h e se r e qu i re as i gn if ican t d eg ree o fp roce s s ing b ef o re t h ey a r e e d ib le a nd t h e re i sn o e v idence t oi n d ica te s uch p r a c t ice s i n t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic . P e rhap s o f g r ea te r p o ten t ia l u se w ou ld h ave b een t h e h e rba ceou s p l an t s a va i lab le a tt h is t ime . T he se a r e m a in ly r se lec ted s p ec ie s w i th h i gh p roduc t iv i ty l e ve l s a nd w h ich a r e o f ten f r u i t b ea r ing ; i n p a r t icu la r b e r r ie s a nd n u t s ( Gamb le 1 986 ) . T ho se e d ib le p l an t r e sou r ce s t h a t w ou ld h ave h ad s ome p r e sence i nP l e i s tocene E u rope a td i f f e ren t t ime s a nd i n d i f f e ren t r e g ion s i n c lude : w i ld a pp le ( Ro sacea e P y ru s m a lu s s y l ve s t r i s L . ) ; w i ld p ea r ( Ro sa ceae P y ru s c ommun i s /py ra s ter L . ) ; w i ld c he r ry ( Ro sa ceae P runu s a v ium L . ) ; r a spbe r ry ( Ro sacea e R ubu s i d aeu s L . ) ; b l a ckbe r ry ( Ro sacea e R ubu s f ru t ico su s L . ) ; w i ld s t rawbe r ry ( Ro sacea e F raga r ia v e sca L . ) ; h a ckbe r ry o r n e t t le t r ee ( C e l t i s a u s t ra l i s L . ) ; h aw thor n ( Ro sacea e C ra ta egu s a zaro lu s L . ) ; r o se h i p ( Ro sa c an ina L . ) ; e l de rbe r ry ( Sambucu s n ig ra L . ) ; w a te r c he s tnu t ( T rapa

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F igure 4 . 1 P o l len d iagram f rom Grande P i le ( N . F rance )f or t he l a s tg l ac ia lc yc le ( 130 ,000 y ear s ) w i th t he a ge r ange o f t he f our s a mp le s i te s s hown ( adap ted f r om Wo i l lard 1 978 a nd u sed b y p erm i s s ion o ft he e d i tor s o fQ ua te rnar yR e sea rch , Un iver s i ty o f Wash ing ton ) . T he a rborea l p o l len i nc lude s n o tab le l e ve l s o f b irch , e lm , o ak , h aze l , s pruce a nd p ine , a nd l ower l e ve l s o fw i l low , p op lar , h o l ly , map le , i vy , l ime , a sh , a lder , y ew ,b oxwood ,g rape ,a nd f i r .

S e t t lemen tP a t terns

h a sb een a dop ted w ide ly a mong P a la eo l i th ic r e sea rche r sa s a s ou rce o f g ene ra l d e sc r ip to r s o f a l t e rna te a dap t ive s t ra teg ie s . Mo re i mpo r tan t ly ,t h e c on s t ra in t st h a ti n f luence p a t ter n s o fm ob i l i ty , r e sou r ce a cqu is i t ion , a nd d u ra t ion o f o ccupa t ions a r e a l so p o ten t ia l c on s t ra in t s o n l i t h ic r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s .

Wh i le B inf o rd 's ( 1978 , 1 980 ) t h eo r e t ica l s y s tem o f s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s ( i n t roduced a bove ) c an b e c r i t ic ized b y s ome a s b e ing o ve r ly s imp l i s t ic , i td oe s p rov ide au sef u l s t a r t ing p o in t f r om w h ich t o c on s t ruc t s p ec if ic r e g iona l / tempo ra l m ode ls o fp r eh i s to r ic b ehav iou r , a nd i t

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e v idence s uppo r t ing mo re s t r ic t ly a dap ta t ion s( e .g . ,B oy le 2 000 ) .

U n t i l r e cen t ly , mo s t r e sea rche r s w ho h ave a dd r e s sed t h e i s sue o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic mob i l i ty h ave s ugge s ted t h a t t h e m ovemen t o fp eop le d u r ing t h i s p e r iod p robab ly mo s t c l o se ly r e semb led f o rage r s o rr e s iden t ia l ly mob i le h un te r g a the re r s r a the r t h an c o l lec to r s o r l o g i s t ica l ly o rgan ized h un te r -ga the re r s ( e .g . , K uhn 1 992 ; P ik e -Tay e t . a l . 1 999 ; L iebe rman a nd S hea 1 994 ; A l tuna 1 989 ; B u tze r 1 986 ) . H ow eve r , M idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i f eway s a c ro s s E u rope , We s t e rn A s ia ,a nd t h eM idd le E a s t( t he k nown d i s t r ibu t ion o fN eande r tha ls ) i n c luded a dap ta t ion st o aw ide v a r ie ty o f l a t i tude s , a l t i tude s , a nd m a jo r c l ima t ic r e g ime s . T he w ide v a r ie ty o f e nv i ronmen t s t h a t t h i s n ece s sa r i ly i n c lude s m ean s t h a t t h e re m u s t h ave b een a c e r ta in l e ve l o f v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s i n Mou s te r ian a dap ta t ion s i n d if e ren t r e g ion s a nd a t d if e ren t t ime p e r iod s ( R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton 2 004 ; R o l land 2 00 1 ; 1 990 : 3 56 ; R o l land a nd D ibb le 1 99 1) . T he se l i ke ly r a nged f r om s t r ic t c i r cu la r o rr e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty p a t te rn s ( whe re r e s iden t ia lm ove sw e re v e ry f r equen ta nd s e t t lemen t sw e re v e ry b r ief a nd a tl o ca t ion so fs p ec if ic , i n d iv idua lr e sou rce s -e . g .t r ad i t iona l d e se r tA u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l l i f eway s )t o p a t te rn st h a t i n vo lved al i m i ted d eg ree o fr a d ia l o rl o g is t ic mob i l i ty i n w h ich r e sou rce a cqu is i t ion i n vo lved t h e t r an spo r t o f av a r ie ty o f r e sou r ce s t o h ab i ta t ion s i te s o f s omewha t l o nge r d u ra t ion ( e .g . , m o s t A r c t ic r e g ion t r ad i t iona l l i f eways ) . T he M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd d oe s n o t a ppea rt os uppo r t t h e i d ea o f f u l l -b lown l o g is t ica l m ob i l i ty ( i . e . , c o l lec to r s ) w he re r e s iden t ia l s t ays a t as i ng le l o ca t ion m igh tl a s tf o r aw ho le s e a son o r l o nge r . T he l ow c oncen t ra t ion s o fa r t if ac t s a nd a n ima l r ema in s t y p ica l o fi n d iv idua l c omponen t s o f mo s t M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i t e ss ugge s t st h i s . M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s w e re p r obab ly r a re ly a s l o ng a s as i ng le s e a son , a nd l i ke ly t y p ica l ly much s ho r te rt h an t h i s ( Cha se 1 985 :2 ; P i ke -Tay e t .a l . 1 999 :309 ) .

f o rage r

o r ien ted

I td oe s s e em a ppa ren t , h oweve r , t h a t , a sd i scu s sed a bove , s ome o ft h e d i sc repanc ie s b e tween t h e se v i ew s a r e d ue t o a l a ck o f s t r ic t , c ommon d ef in i t ion s f o r t h e t e rm s ( ' f o rage r ' v s . ' c o l lec to r ' , ' r ad ia t ing ' v e r se s ' c i rcu la r ' ) c ommon ly u sed i nt h e l i t e ra tu re , a nd t o as imp le l a ck o f c l a r i ty i nr e sea rche r 's d e sc r ip t ion so ft h e i r mode ls . P a r t o f t h e d i ff icu l ty i n mov ing t owa rd s a b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o fP a laeo l i th ic a dap ta t ion s i s al a ck o fd a ta o n t h e n a tu re o f f o od r e sou rce s ( p lan t a nd a n ima l ) i n d i f f e ren tr e g ion st h roughou tt h eP l e is tocene . U ndoub ted ly , t h e d if e ren t t y pe s a nd q uan t i t ie s o fr e sou rce s t h a t w ou ld h ave t y p if ied t h e b i ome s o fd if e ren t r e g ion s a nd c l ima t ic p e r iod s w ou ld h ave e l ic i ted d if e ren t a dap t ive r e spon se s a nd b e t te r d a ta o n t h e se r e sou r ce s i nd i f f e ren t t ime s a nd p l a ce s a r e n ece s sa ry . We c an p r ed ic t , b a sed o n c u r ren t f o rag ing t h eo ry ,t h a t i ns i tua t ion s w he re r e sou r ce s a r e l e s s p a tchy i n t ime a nd s pa ce m o re f o rage r o r ien ted a dap ta t ion s w i l l d om ina te , w h i le i n s i tua t ion s w he re r e sou rce s a r e mo re p a tchy , g roup s w i l l t e nd t o i n c rea se t h e i rl e ve lo fl o g is t ica lb ehav iou r( Be t t inge r 1 99 1 :6 4 -70 ) .

S ea sona l i ty A na ly s is o f t h e s e a sona l i ty o f h ab i ta t ion s a t Mou s te r ian s i te s w ou ld g o al o ng w ay t owa rd s b e t te r u nde r s tand ing t h e d u ra t ion o f i n d iv idua l o ccupa t ion e ven t s a nd , o f c ou r se , r e con s t ruc t ing b a s ic s e t t lemen t b ehav iou r . U nf o r tuna te ly , t h e se t ype s o f a na ly s i s a r e f ew a nd g ene ra l ly a low f o r l i t t le g ene ra l iza t ion o fP an -Eu ropean M idd le P a la eo l i th ic b ehav iou r ( e .g . , B u rke 2 000 :331 ; G audz in sk i 2 000 :402 ; P ike -Tay e t . a l . 1 999 ; G o rdon 1 975 ) . T he m a in p rob lem w i th s e a sona l i ty s t ud ie s i st h e d i ff icu l ty i n i d en t if y ing d i sc re te , i n d iv idua l o ccupa t ion e ven t s w i th in s i te c omponen t s . T rad i t iona l ly , " l iv ing f l oo r s" w e re a ccep ted E u ropean P a la eo l i th ic e xcava t ion s a st h er ema in so fs i ng le o ccupa t ion s . H oweve r ,t h eg ene ra l c oncep t o f " l iv ing f l oo r s" h a s b een b rough t i n to s e r iou s q ue s t ion ( D ibb le e t . a l . 1 997 ) a nd i ts e em s c l ea r a tt h i s p o in tt h a tt h is s o r to fr e so lu t ion i su n l ike ly t ob e a ch ieved f o r s i te s o f s uch a ge s . F u r the rmo re , a n MN I c ompu ted f r om ag enu ine " l iv ing f l oo r" i sl i ke ly t o b e t o o l ow f o r a ny r e l iab le i n te rp re ta t ion s . T he ref o re , i n te rp re ta t ion s o f s ea sona l i ty f r om f a una l r ema in e v idence a r e a pp l ied t o w ho le c omponen t s ( o r e ven w ho le s i te a s semb lage s ) . A ny v a r ia t ion i ns ea sona l u se o ft h e s i te t h a tm igh te x is tw i th in aw ho le c omponen t m ay b e ma sked . As e cond p r ob lem i s d e te rm in ing t h e r o le o f t a phonom ic p roce s se s i n t h e f o rma t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica la s semb lage s .

H oweve r , s ome r e sea rche r s h ave b egun t o s ugge s t t h e p r e sence o f s ome l o g i s t ica l ly o rgan ized b ehav iou r i n M idd le P a la eo l i th ic E u rope ( e .g . , R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton 2 004 ; H of f ecke ra nd C legho rn 2 000 ; P a tou -Ma th i s 2 000 ) . Wh i le t h e o ccu r rence o fs i te c omponen t s w i th h i gh e nough c oncen t ra t ion s o f l i t h ic s a nd b one s t o i n d ica te l o ng te rm o ccupa t ion s a r e r a re , m any o f t h e s i te s t h a t c on ta in h i gh ly d i ve r se f a una l a s semb lage s ( t ha t t e nd t o i n d ica te al a ck o fs p ec ia l iza t ion ) d o s e em t ob e s ome s o r t o fb a se c amp a nd r ef lec t as i gn if ican td eg ree o f c o l lec t ing , a t l e a s t f r om t h e i mmed ia te e xp lo i ta t ion a r ea ( R ie l S a lva to re a nd B a r ton 2 004 ) . I n P a tou -Ma th i s 's ( 2 000 :392 -93 ) g ene ra l mode l , N eander ta l g roup m ob i l i ty r e vo lved a r ound s e a sona l move s t o b a se c amp s , w he re t h e r e sou r ce s , e s pec ia l ly g ame ,w e re w e l lk nown .A round t h e se b a se c amp s as e r ie s o f s p ec ia l ized c amp s w e re o rgan ized w h ich i n c luded " s ea sona l c amp s" ( p r e sumab ly e x t ra c t ion s i te s f o r s e a sona l ly a va i lab le r e sou r ce s ) a nd h un t ing s t a t ion s . H oweve r , t h is m igh t b e t h e c l o se s t t h a t a ny r e sea rche r s h ave c ome t oa c tua l ly m ode l ing ac o l lec to ra dap ta t ion a nd i t s e em s a ppa ren t t h a t mo s t r e sea r che r s s t i l l s e e t h e

A s i ti s , t h e a va i lab le s e a sona l i ty d a ta ( ma in ly d en ta l i n c r emen ta l g row th a na ly s i s ) h a s i d en t if ied s i t e s a c ro s s We s ter n E u ra s ia i n hab i ted d u r ing e a ch o f t h e d if e ren t s e a son s , w i th s ome s i te s l i ke ly b e ing i n hab i ted f o r t wo o r m o re s e a son s ( t hough n o t n ece s sa r i ly i nt h e s ame y ea r b y t h e s ame g roup ) ( e .g . B u rke 2 000 ; C ona rd a nd P r ind iv i l le 2 000 ; C ona rd a nd A d le r 1 997 ; G audz in sk i 2 000 ; P i ke -Tay

2 7

t o o l t y pe s i n d if e ren t s i t e s a nd s i t e c omponen t s ( f rom w h ich s o m uch d i scu s s ion h a s a r i sen : i n c lud ing B o rde s ' i n du s t r ie s ,B inf o rd 's t a sk s ,a nd Me l la r s ' c h rono logy ) , mo s t s i t e s c on ta in a tl e a s t s ome e xamp le s o fa l t h er e cogn ized M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t o o l t y pe s ( w i th l i m i t ed e xcep t ion s l i ke Mou s te r ian h andaxe s , b u tt h e se o n ly o ccu r l a te i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a f t e rp e rhap s5 0 ,000 b po rl a te r ) .

e t . a l . 1 999 ) . T h i s i s , o fc ou r se , n o t s u rp r i s ing , a sp eop le h ad t ob el i v ing s omewhe re e a ch s e a son o ft h ey ea r . A st o t h e r e cogn i t ion o f a ny s i gn if i can t p a t te rn ing t o t h e s e a sona l i ty d a ta , i t mu s t b e s a id t h a t a tt h is p o in t n one i s a ppa ren t . W i th mo re d a ta a nd g r ea te r r e so lu t ion w e m ay e xpec t t o s e e p a t ter n ing . F o r e xamp le , t h e re m ay h ave b een a g ene ra l t e ndency f o r c ave s i t e s t o b e o ccup ied d u r ing c o lde r s e a son s a nd o pen -a i r s i t e s d u r ing w a rme r s e a son s . T h is t e ndency w ou ld n ece s sa r i ly h ave b een , o f c ou r se , d ependen t o n p a t ter n s o f r e sou rce a va i lab i l i ty , d ep le t ion ,g ame m ovemen t ,a nd r a inf a l lp a t ter n s .

C o l lec to r s , o nt h e o t he rh and ,t e nd t op r oduce av a r ie ty o f d i s t inc t s i t e t y pe s o ve rt h e i r e xp lo i ta t ion r a ng e . T he mo s t a r cha eo log ica l ly v i s ib le o ft h e se i st h eh om e b a se . T h i s i s t h e l o ca t ion w he r e mo s t o ft h e g r oup s p end s m o s t o fi t s t ime g ea r ing u p a nd w he re m o s t r e sou r ce s a r eb rough t t o b e u sed o r c on sumed . S ome o ft h e o t he r s i t e s t h a t t h ey p r oduce ,l i ke q ua r r ie s( a pp l ie st of o rage r sa sw e l l ) ,a r ea l so t y p ica l ly h i gh ly v i s ib le ,b u to t he r st e nd t ol e ave f ew o rn o a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s i nt h e r e co rd . K i l l s i t e s m ay l e ave v i s ib le r ema in s i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd i f l a rge n umbe r s o f a n ima l s a r e k i l led , t h e a n ima l s a r e l a rge e nough , i fp o r t ion s o ft h em a r e l e f t b eh ind , a nd i ft h e i r r ema in s s u rv ive . S ome p rocu remen t b ehav iou r a nd l o ca t ion s m ay r ema in i n v i s ib le t o a r cha eo log i s t s . T h i s m igh t a pp ly t o t h ing s l i ke f i sh ing , o r b e r ry a nd r o o t c o l lec t ing , u n le s s t h ey a r e a c compan ied b y f i xed f e a tu r e s s u ch a sf i sh ing w e i r so re a r th o ven sf o rc ook ing r oo t s .

A s m en t ioned a bove , i t mu s t b e k ep t i n m ind t h a t B inf o rd 's f o rag er -co l l ec tor m ode li sn o t as t r ic td i cho tomy s o much a s r e p re sen ta t ive o f a w ide s c a le o f s ub s i s tence / se t t lemen t s y s tem s t h a t r e p re sen t a dap ta t ion s t oc e r ta in e nv i ronmen ta la nd s o c ioeconom ic c i r cum s tance s p r e sen ted i n as p ec if i c e xp lo i ta t ion r a nge . I ti sg ene ra l ly e xpec ted , h ow eve r , t h a t b ecau se f o rag ing o r ien ted g roup s g ene ra l ly m ove t h e i r r e s idence s n ea r m a jo r r e sou rce l o ca t ion s i n o r de r t o e xp lo i t t h em , t e nd t o m ove t h e i r r e s idence s mo re f r equen t ly , a nd g ene ra l ly p r oduce o n ly t wo t y pe s o fs i t e s , r e s iden t ia l b a se s a nd ' l oca t ion s ' ( v e ry s ho r t te rm , s i ng le re sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion s i t e s - B inf o rd 1 980 )t h ey w i l lt e nd t op roduce a r cha eo log ica lr ema in s o f a m o r e g ene r ic a nd h omogeneou s n a tu re . Wh i le s p e c ia l ized t a sk s i te s , s u ch a s k i l l s i t e s , d o o ccu r i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic ,t h ek i l l ing ,p roce s s ing ,a nd e a t ing o fa l a rge m amma l m ay n o t a l a lway s t a ke p l a ce a t o ne l o ca t ion , f o r av a r ie ty o f r ea son s , a nd s u ch s p ec ia l t a sk s i t e s w i l l n o t u sua l ly l e ave much a r cha eo log ica l e v idence b eh ind b ecau se o ft h e i r s ma l l a nd e pheme ra l n a tu re ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 980 a nd f o r as p ec if i ce xamp le s e eH ayden 1 977 : 1 90 -91) . Mo s t o ft h e t a sk s a nd b ehav iou r s t h a t c on t r ibu te t o t h e mo s t v i s ib le a s pec t s o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd ( e .g . t o o l p r oduc t ion , t o o l m a in tenance , f ood p roce s s ing , a nd f o od c on sump t ion ) o f ten o ccu r a tt h e s ame l o ca t ion ( i . e . ,b a se c amp s ) .

R ecen t ly R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton ( 2 004 )h ave p ropo sed ap o ten t ia l p r oxy m ea su re o ft h e d eg ree o fm ob i l i ty o fa g r oup b a sed o n t h e d en s i ty o f a r t if a c t s a nd p ropo r t iona l f r equency o f r e touched p i ece s t h ey l e f t i n as i te . T hey a r gue t h a t t h e re s hou ld b e ag ene ra l t e ndency f o r b o th t h e se v a lue st oh ave an ega t ive r e la t ion sh ip w i th mob i l i ty a nd , t h e ref o r e , s hou ld t e nd t or i se a l ong w i th d ec rea se s i n t h e d eg r ee o f mob i l i ty p r a c t iced b y ag r oup . T he g ene ra l l o g ic b eh ind t h i ss e em sv a l id a nd t h e i rd a ta s e em t or ef l ec t ac e r ta in l i nea r d i s t r ibu t ion o f s i t e o ccupa t ion s a l ong a c on t inuum w h ich m ay w e l l r e f lec t as egmen t o f t h e t h eo re t ica l c on t inuum b e tw een s t r ic t f o rage r s a nd s t r ic t c o l lec to r s . N o tw i th s t and ing p o ten t ia l p r ob lem s w i th t h e a va i lab le d a ta ( e .g . , e ven m ino r v a r iab i l i ty i n s e d imen ta t ion r a te s o ve r t h ou sand s o f y ea r s c ou ld s i gn if i can t ly a f ec t d en s i ty o f a r t if a c t s ) , t h e a pp l ica t ion s e em s r o bu s t e nough t o a t l e a s t p r ov ide a g ene ra l u nde r s tand ing o f mob i l i ty a sr e f lec ted i nm a jo rd if e r ence s i n l i t h ic r e duc t ion a nd t o o l p roduc t ion b ehav iou r i nt h e s i t e sr e p r e sen ted b ym ys amp le c omponen t s . Ih ave p l o t ted t h e d a ta f r om m y f ou r s t udy s amp le s t o ge the r w i th R ie l S a lva to re a nd B a r ton 's i nF i gu re 4 . 2 .

H igh ly mob i le f orag er a dap ta t ion s w ou ld r e qu i re av e ry g ene ra l ized t o o l k i t , o ne t h a t c an r e ad i ly b e m od if i ed t o s u i t m any c i rcum s tance s w hen a nd w he r e t h ey a r e e ncoun te red . O ve r ly s p ec ia l ized t o o l k i t s , w h i le m o r e ef i c ien t u nde r t h e r i gh t c ond i t ion , w ou ld b e p o ten t ia l ly u s e le s s i no t he r c i rcum s tance s a nd w ou ld b e d if i cu l t t o m a in ta in a nd t r an spo r tu nde rh i gh m ob i l i ty c on s t ra in t s . T he f orag er mode la nd t h eg ene ra l ized t o o lk i tp ropo sed t o s u i t i tw ou ld s e em t ob e r e f lec ted i nt h e g enera l p a t ter n o b se rved i nM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s . Wh i le t h e re i so bv iou s ly s ome v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e r e la t ive q uan t i t ie s o f

2 8

1 00 U ppe rP a leo M idd le P a leo

F requency o fr e touched p ieces

C ur a t ed A A_m

1 0

A ave G o rham 's C A

1 be C ape I le ( I -D 1) C m 0

P ech I V( F -3

0 . 1 l eM ous t ie r( G )

0 . 0 1

J i bou i

0

E xp ed i en t 0 .001 0 . 1

1

1 0

1 00

1 000

1 0000

A r t ifac ts p er Cub ic Me t re F igure 4 . 2 F requency o fr e touch a nd a r t if ac td en s i ty p a t terns i ns amp le a s semb lag e s . S i te & c omponen t s pec if i c p a t terns i nd ica t ing a n ega t ive l i near r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a r t if ac td en s i ty & f r equency o fr e touched p i ece s .C ompar i son o fd a ta f r om G orham 's C ave ( R ie l -Sa lva tore & B ar ton 2 004 )a nd t he s i te su sed i nt h i ss t udy

s i te ) o r w he re i n t h e g roup 's s e a sona l c yc le t h e s i te i s s i tua ted . T h is i s sue i s s pec if ica l ly i lu s t ra ted w i th t h e J i bou i d a ta . F o l low ing R ie l -Sa lva to r e a nd B a r ton , a mong a l t h e s i te s p l o t ted i n f i gu re 4 . 2 , t h is s i te w ou ld b e i n te rp re ted a s t h e mo s t c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th a l o nge r d u ra t ion o ccupa t ion a nd a c o l lec to r s e t t lemen t p a t ter n . H oweve r , t h is h i gh a l t i tude s i te i s i n te rp re ted a s p r edom inan t ly a l i t h ic e x t ra c t ion s i te o n ly i n hab i ted f o r b r ief p e r iod s i nt h e s umme r mon th s a nd i ti st h is , r a the r t h an t h eo ve ra l l s e t t lemen tp a t ter no ft h eg roup ( s )t h a tu sed i t ,w h ich b e s t e xp la in s b o th t h e h i gh a r t if a c t d en s i ty a nd l ow f r equency o fr e touch . Q ua r ry s i te sm ay ,h oweve r ,b ea n o tab le e xcep t ion t ot h i so ve ra l li n te rp re ta t ion .

R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton a s soc ia te t h e t wo e x t reme s o f t h i s l i nea r d i s t r ibu t ion w i th l i t h ic t e chno log ica l s t ra teg ie s : t h e u ppe r l ef t e nd o f t h e r e g re s s ion i sa s soc ia ted w i th ` c u ra t ed ' t e chno log ie s a nd i n c rea sed m ob i l i ty ( f o rage r s ) , a nd t h e l owe r r i gh t w i th ' e xped ien t ' t e chno log ie s a nd ' b a se c amp s ' o f m o re l o g i s t ica l ly o r gan ized g roup s ( c o l lec to r s ) . I f t h e se p ropo sed a s soc ia t ion s h ave s ome v a l id i ty , t h ree o f m y s t udy s amp le s ( f o r w h ich Ih ave a cce s s t o a l t h e n ece s sa ry d a ta ) s t rong ly s ugge s t b a se c amp o ccupa t ion s ( a t l e a s t i n c ompa r i son t o t h o se o ccupa t ion si n c luded b yR ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton ) . T he re a r e , h oweve r , s ome i n te rp re ta t ion i s sue s . Wh i le R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton s ugge s t t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e v a lue s o b ta ined f o r e a ch i n d iv idua l s i te c omponen ta r eb e s te xp la ined a sr e p re sen t ing s ome o ve ra l l s e t t lemen tp a t te rn p r a c t iced b y t h e g r oup w h ich c r ea ted i t , t h ey d o n o t g i ve e nough w e igh t t o t h e p o ten t ia l t h a t i n d iv idua l c omponen t s o f s e t t lemen t s y s tem s may r e p re sen t m o re s pa t ia l ly o rt empo ra l ly s p ec if ic b ehav iou r . T he n a tu r e o f t h e q uan t i t ie s o f f l ake s p roduced a nd f r equency o f r e touch ing m ay b e m o re c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e t y pe o fs i te i ti s( e .g . c amp s i t e , k i l l s i te , q ua r ry

I ng ene ra l ,t wo d i f f e ren ti n te rp re ta t ion s c ou ld b ep r e sen ted t oa ccoun t f o r t h e p a t ter n e xh ib i ted i nf i gu r e 4 . 2 . E i the r , t h e p l o t ted c omponen t s r e p re sen t o ccupa t ion s o fd i f f e ren t g roup s p rac t ic ing d i f f e r en t s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s a l ong t h e f o rage r -co l lec to r c on t inuum ( t he i n te rp re ta t ion f a vou red b y R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton ) , o r g roup s i n t h e se t ime p e r iod s p r ac t iced t h e s ame g ene ra l s e t t lemen t p a t ter n a nd t h e se c omponen t s r e p r e sen t d i f f e r en t t y pe s o f s i te s o r d i f f e ren t p o s i t ion s w i th in t h e g roup 's a nnua l s e t t lemen t

2 9

s y s tem c yc le s . I n t h i s l a t te r i n te rp r e ta t ion , t h o se o ccupa t ion s w i th h i gh a r t if ac t d en s i t ie s a nd l ow f r equenc ie s o f r e touched p i ece s w ou ld r e p re sen t l o nge r t e rm c amp s i t e s w h ich m igh tb e a s soc ia ted w i th r e la t ive ly l o ng ( p e rhap s w in te r ) o ccupa t ion s o f f o rage r -o r ien ted g r oup sa sm igh tb ee xpec ted i nt h es h e l te red v a l ley so ft h e V 6ze re d u r ing g l a c ia l w in te r s . T he o ccupa t ion s w i th l ow a r t if a c t d en s i t ie s , b u t h i gh n umbe r s o fr e touched p i ece s , w ou ld r e p r e sen t e i the r e x t ra c t ion s i te s o rt h e s ho r te r te rm o ccupa t ion s i t e s mo re t y p ica l ly a s soc ia t ed w i th m o re r e s iden t ia l ly m ob i le f o rage r s . I n b o th c a se s , i mmed ia te a c ce s st or aw m a te r ia l s i sd im in i shed r e su l t ing i nt h en eed f o re conom iza t ion o ft h o se t o o l si nt h eg roup 's p o s se s s ion , w h ich m ean s ag r ea te r f r equency o f r e touch ing . A s d i scu s sed b y R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton ( 2004 : 2 61 ) , f o l low ing K uhn ( 1 992 , 1 994 ) , o ne d if e r ence w e m igh t e xpec t b e tween t h e t o o l s o fl o g i s t ica l t a sk g roup s ( sma l l g r oup s o f ' c o l lec to r s ' o n s p ec if i c r e sou rce e x t rac t ion e xcu r s ion s ) a nd r e s iden t ia l ly mob i le f o rage r s i st h a t i nt h e f o rme r c a se , t o o l s w ou ld t e nd t ob e d e s igned t ob e m o re

r e l iab le a nd i nt h el a t te rt h ey w ou ld b em o re m a in ta inab le . H oweve r , d u r ing t h e P a la eo l i th ic t h e se t wo c ha ra c te r i s t ic a r e b o th f o und i nt h e s ame g ene ra l f o rm : r e la t ive ly l a rge , r o bu s tf l ake b l ank st h a tc an b er e pea ted ly r e touched . O ne w ay t o h e lp r e so lve t h i s i s sue i st o e xam ine t h e s t reng th o ft h e p a t te rn s a ti n d iv idua l s i t es . I fw ha t w e a r e s e e ing a r e o ccupa t ion s o f h i gh ly r e s id en t ia l ly m ob i le f o rage r s t h en , w h i le w e m igh t e xpec t o cca s iona l l o nge r t e rm o ccupa t ion s , mo s t o ft h em s hou ld b e d om ina ted b y l ow a r t if ac t d en s i ty /h igh r e touch f r equency p a t ter n s . F igu re 4 . 3 i n c lude s a l l t h e c omponen t s o fP ech d e l ' Azi I V a nd C ombe C ape l le B a s ( d a ta w a sn o t a va i lab le f o ra l l t h e c omponen t s o fl e Mou s t ie r ) . T h i s a low s u s t os e e i f t h e s t reng th o ft h e i n t ra s i te p a t ter n ing s ugge s t s w he the r i n d iv idua l s i t e s a ppea r t o h ave b een u s ed i n t h e s ame g ene ra lm anne ro ve rt ime ,o ri ft h e re w a sa ny v a r iab i l i ty o f n o te a mong o ccupa t ion s

F requency o fr e touched p ieces

1 0 0

•

1 0

• G o rham 's C av e • C ombe C ape l le b as • l eM ous t ie r( G )

A 4,

0 . 1 0 P ech D e l A ze I V 0 . 0 1 J i bou i 0 . 00 1 0 . 1

1

1 0

1 0 0

1 0 00

1 0 000

A r t i fac ts p er C ub ic M e t re F igure 4 . 3 C omponen ts pec if i cd a ta o na r t if ac td en s i ty a nd f r equency o fr e touched p i ece s . C ompar i son o fd a ta f r om t he c omponen t so f Gorham 's C ave ( R ie l -Sa lva tore & B ar ton 2 004 ) a nd a l lc omponen t so ft wo o ft he s t udy s i te s . T he re i s a ppa ren t ly s i gn if i can t s im i la r i ty a mong t h e c omponen t s o ft h e t h ree p r ima ry s t udy s i t e s . F o r t h e t wo s i te s , P ech d e l ' Azi I V a nd C ombe C ape l le B a s , a tl e a s t , t h e s ame g ene ra l p a t ter n o ft o o l p r oduc t ion a nd u se w a s g o ing o n i na l t h e c omponen t s t h roughou t t h e h i s to ry o f t h e u se o ft h e s i te . T h i s m igh t b e t a ken a s a n i n d ica t ion t h a t e i the r t h e se s i te s w e re c on t inua l ly u s ed a s s ome s o r t

o fc en t ra l r e s idence s b y m o re l o g i s t ica l ly o r ien ted g r oup s , o ra tt h ev e ry l e a s t , t h ey p l ayed as im i la rr o le i ns ea sona l c yc le b ehav iou r t h roughou t t h e i r o ccupa t ion h i s to r ie s . C on s ide r ing t h el ow f r equency o fe xo t ic ( o re ven r e g iona l ) l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l s a nd t h e p r e sen ce o f ar a nge o f d i f f e ren t p r ey s p ec ie s w i th in i n d iv idua l c omponen t s , t h e f o rme r e xp lana t ion w ou ld s e em t o b e t h e m o re

3 0

i n c r ea se t oe i the ru sed e x i s t ing s t ock s m o re e conom ica l ly , l o ok f o r p o ten t ia l f a c s im i le s ( e .g . , u se p oo re r l o ca l r aw m a te r ia ls o rs c avenge m a te r ia l sp r ev iou s ly d i sca rded a tt h e s i te ) ,o rc on s ide r mov ing t o an ew h ab i ta t ion s i te .

p a r s imon iou s . Wh i le t h e b u lk o f t h e a va i lab le e v idence a r gue s a ga in s t t h e p r e sence o f af u l l -b lown c o l lec to r a dap ta t ion d u r ing t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , t h e s t reng th o f t h e i n t ra s i te p a t te rn ing s ugge s t s t h a t t h e o ccupan t s w e re n o t s t r ic t ly r e s iden t ia l ly m ob i le f o rag e r s e i the r . Ma jo r , mu l t i -componen t s i te s , s u ch a s P ech d e l ' Azd I V , l e Mou s t ie r , a nd C ombe C ape l le B a s w ou ld s e em t o r e p re sen t s ome d eg ree o f c en t ra l r e s iden t ia l b ehav iou r . Mo re t h an t h i s , t h e v a r ia t ion w i th in a nd b e tween t h e se s i te s i n t e rm s o f Mou s te r ian I ndu s t r ie s a nd L eva l lo i s I nd ice s c anno t b e v i ewed a s r e la ted t o v a r ia t ion s i n mob i l i ty .

E xp lo i ta t ion Range S i ze S ome r e sea rch h a s b een d i rec ted t owa rd s e s tab l i sh ing a n u nde r s tand ing o f b o th g roup s i ze a nd t h e s i ze s o f t h e i r e xp lo i ta t ion r a nge s . T he se h ave b een b a sed m a in ly o nr aw m a te r ia l t r an spo r t d a ta f o r t h e E u ropean P a la eo l i th ic a nd mu s t b e s e en a s b e ing v e ry t e nuou s b ecau se o f t h e d i ff icu l ty i n c on t ro l l ing f o r a l t h e f a c to r s t h a t c ou ld p o ten t ia l ly p l ay a p a r t i n h ow l i t h ic i t em s c an b e d i s t r ibu ted a c ro s st h el a nd scape .F o re xamp le ,G amb le a nd S t ee le ( 1999 ) t a ke t h e d i s tance f r om s ou rce o f a l i d en t if iab le r aw m a te r ia ls i ns pec if ic l e ve l s a tt h e s i te s o f C aune d el ' A rago a nd G ro t te V auf rey a si n d ica t ion so ft h e l i m i t s o ft h e " home r a nge" a r ea e xp lo i ted b y t h e p eop le w ho i n hab i ted t h a tl e ve l .T h is i so ne p o s s ib le s c ena r io ,b u t i t mu s t b e r e cogn ized t h a t i ti s a l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e a r t if a c tua lr ema in si ne a ch l e ve l a t as i te m ay r e p re sen tt h e c omb ined m a te r ia l r ema in s o fs eve ra l d i f f e ren tg roup s , a l o fw hom u sed t h es i te f r om t ime t ot ime ,a nd t h a te ach r aw m a te r ia l t y pe f ound i n al e ve l m ay h ave b een l e f t b y a d i f f e ren t g roup o fp eop le . I ti sa l so l i ke ly t h a t i n d iv idua ls moved b e tween g roup s ( v i s i t s o r move s ) a nd t h a t t h i s i n c luded t r an spo r t o r e xchange i n vo lv ing l i t h ic t o o l s o r r aw m a te r ia l s . I nt h e se s c ena r io s h ome r a nge s w ou ld h ave t ob e s i gn if ican t ly s ma l le r t h an t h a t c ompu ted i nG amb le a nd S t ee le 's s c ena r io .

R e source C o l lec t ing Whe the r F r ench M idd le P a la eo l i th ic g r oup s w ou ld h ave b een mo re r e ad i ly c l a s s if ied a s f o rage r s o r n o t , i ti s a ppa r en t t h a t t h ey d i d p ra c t ice a c e r ta in d eg r ee o f c o l lec t ing a ts ome o ft h e i r h ab i ta t ion s i t e s . T he q uan t i t ie s o f a n ima l r ema in s a nd s pec if ic t y pe s o f l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia ls w h ich e n te red t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd a tm any s i te s o bv iou s ly c ou ld n o t r e p re sen tj u s tt h o se m a te r ia ls i n t h eg roup 's p o s se s s ion w hen i ta r r ived a tt h es i te , o rb et h e r e su l to fa no ccupa t ion o fo ne o rt wo d ay 's d u ra t ion . Much o fi th ad t ob et h er e su l to fc o l lec t ion e ven t s c a r r ied o u t i n t h es u r round ing r eg ion i nt h ec ou r se o ft h e i rs t ay t h e re . A t a ny o ne s i te , s ome r aw ma te r ia l s m ay o ccu r v e ry n ea rby ( w i th in 1 km ) a nd w i l l b e r e ad i ly a c ce s s ib le w heneve r t h ey a r e n eeded . A t s i te s w i th p oo re r a cce s s t o s pec if ic , f i xed r aw m a te r ia l s ou rce s ag roup w i l l h ave t o e i the r : p l an a head a nd a r r ive t h e r e w i th as upp ly o r s end o u ts pec ia lt a sk g roup st oc o l lec t as upp ly a nd r e tu rn t ot h e s i te w i th i t . Whe the r o r n o t s uch t a sk s w ou ld h ave t o b e e mbedded i no t he r b ehav iou r s ( e .g . , h un t ing o r g a the r ing o f o t he r r e sou rce s ) w ou ld d epend o n t h e d i s tance t o s ou rce s a nd o nt h e l e ve l o ft ime -ene rgy s t re s s ag roup w a s u nde r . T h is s t re s s w a s t y p ica l ly s e a sona l ly d ependen t a mong e t hnog raph ic g roup s . I f a g roup w a s n o t p a r t icu la r ly t ime s t re s sed t h en p e rhap s as ma l lg roup c ou ld b e s en t o u t s p ec if ica l ly t oa cqu i re as i ng le r e sou rce t y pe , l i ke l i t h ic r aw ma te r ia l s . T hey w ou ld c a r ry a s much a s t h ey c ou ld f r om t h e s ou rce b ack t ot h e h ab i ta t ion s i te . I f t ime s t re s s w a s g r ea te r a nd /o r p o ten t ia l s ou rce s w e re f u r the ra way t h en ag roup m igh t i n c lude t h ea cqu i s i t ion o f t h is r e sou rce w i th t h ea cqu i s i t ion o fo t he rr e sou rce sa nd s o l im i tt h ep o ten t ia l s ou rce loca t ion st h ey c ou ld v i s i ta nd t h e q uan t i t ie st h ey c ou ld r e tur nw i th . T h i sw ou ld i n f luence t h e d eg ree o f r aw m a te r ia l e conom iza t ion a g roup h ad t o p ra c t ice .

A s i ti s ,t h et wo d i f f e r en t m e thod s t h ey e mp loy ( Adap t ive K ema l m e thod a nd M in imum C onvex P o lygon m e thod ) f o r d e te rm in ing h ome r a nge s i ze g i ve v e ry d if e ren t r e su l t s . T he A dap t ive K ema l m e thod , w h ich t a ke s i n to a ccoun t t h e f r equenc ie s o ft h e v a r iou s t r an spo r t d i s tance s r a the r t h an j u s t u s ing t h e m ax imum d i s tance s o b se rved , s ugge s t s a" home r a nge" s i ze o fa pp rox ima te ly 6 8 s q . k m . T he 6 8 s q . k m a r ea w ou ld s ugge s t ar a d iu s o fm ovemen t o fl e ss t h an 5k i lome te r s . T h i sw ou ld b e i nt h e s ame r a nge o f magn i tude a st h e " f o rag ing r a d iu s" a r ound at empo ra ry c amp a s soc ia ted w i th a c o l lec to r s e t t lemen t p a t ter n ( r e . B inf o rd 1 983b :380 ) o r a" s i te c a tchmen t a r ea " o f t h e r e s iden t ia l b a se o f af o rage r g roup . Among s ome r e cen t h un te r -ga the re r s ( f o rage r s ) , s ma l l , d a i ly t a sk g roup s t e nd t of o rage o n t h is s c a le . G ou ld ( 1 980 :16 ) o b se rved g roup s o fA u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ina l w omen a nd c h i ld r en t r ave l l ing u p t o 6k m a way f r om t h e c amp d u r ing t h e i r d a i ly f o rag ing r ou t ine . Among t h e ! Kung S an , Y e l len ( 1972 ) , a s r e f e renced b y B inf o rd ( 1980 : 8 ) m apped d a i ly f o rag ing t r ip st h a ta ve raged a bou t 1 5k mp e rr ound t r ip .

I fl o ca l s ub s is tence r e sou rce s b ecame d ep le ted o ve r t h e c ou r se o ft h e o ccupa t ion o f as i te t h en t ime s t re s s w ou ld b ecome g r ea te r a nd o p t ion s f o r t h e a cqu i s i t ion o f mo re d i s tan t r aw m a te r ia l s w ou ld b ecome l im i ted a nd p o ten t ia l ly e f ec t L eva l lo i s p roduc t ion . I f , f o r e xamp le , l o ca l g ame w a s b ecom ing s c a rce r a nd i tr e qu i red mo re t ime a nd e f or t t o s u cce s sf u l ly a cqu i r e m ea t t h en i n d iv idua l s m ay n o t b e f r ee t o make s p ec ia l e xcu r s ion s t o r e cove r d e s i rab le r aw m a te r ia l s a nd t h e p r e s su re w ou ld

H oweve r , 6 8 s q . k m i s w e l l b e low w ha t m igh t b e c on s ide red a" home r a nge" a si ti sd ef ined a nd m ea su red f o r moder nc a rn ivo re s .A cco rd ing t ot h is d a ta , f o rl a t i tude s a bove 4 5 ° N . t h e a ve rage h ome r a nge f o r as i ng le 8 0 k g c a rn ivo re i tw ou ld b e a bou t 4 00 s q . k m ( L ind s ted t e t . a l . 1 985 ) . A" home r a nge" i sd ef ined a s " t he a r ea n o rma l ly t r ave r sed d u r ing a c t iv i t ie sa s soc ia ted w i th f e ed ing ,r e s t ing ,

3 1

r e p roduc t ion , a nd s h e l te r seek ing" , a l though n o t ime s pan i sp rov ided .

d u r ing s ome s e a son s a nd r e su l ted i n a dap ta t ion s t h a t i n c luded s ome a spec t s o ft h e c o l lec to r p a t te rn . T h is m ay h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly t h e c a se d u r ing w in te rw hen p eop le a nd a n ima l s w ou ld h ave b een c oncen t ra t ed i n t h e r i ve r v a l ley s f o r s h e l te r , f u e l , a nd f odde r . R e s iden t ia l m ove s w ou ld h ave b een i n s t iga ted b y d ep le t ion o f l o ca l r e sou rce s , b u t l i ke ly r e vo lved m o re a r ound a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e w hen a nd w he r e o f s p ec if ic , s e a sona l ly a va i lab le r e sou rce s , a nd a c e r ta in d eg ree o f p l ann ing i nt h e e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e se . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o f s p ec if ic r e sou rce s l i ke ly o ccu r red b o th a sf orag ing i nt h e c ou r se o f m ov ing b e tw een h ab i ta t ion s i te s o r a tc e r ta in s e a son s a nd a s c o l l ec t ing a nd c oncen t ra t ing r e sou r ce s a t r e gu la r ly f r equen ted b a se c amp s T he r e la t ive d eg r ee o f i mpo r tance o f f o rag ing a nd c o l lec t ing , a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h e c o l lec t ing w h i le o ccupy ing t h e s i te w ou ld d epend o n t h e s p ec if ic c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e e xp lo i ta t ion r a nge , m any o fw h ich p robab ly v a r ied w i th d i f f e ren t c l ima t ic r e g ime s . T he se c ha ra c te r is t ic sw ou ld i n c lude s uch v a r iab le sa sw ha t g ame s p e c ie s w e re a va i lab le a nd i n w ha t q uan t i t ie s , t o pog raphy , l o ca t ion a nd q uan t i t ie s o f u sef u l a nd n ece s sa ry p l an t r e sou r ce s , l o ca t ion a nd q uan t i t ie s o fo t he r n ece s sa ry r e sou rce s l i ke w a t e r a nd l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia ls , a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h e g roup 's r e la t ion sh ip w i th o t he r g r oup s .

T he r a d i i o f movemen t s ugge s ted b y t h e M in imum C onvex P o lygon ( a pp rox ima te ly 1 8k m f o rl ' A rago a nd 2 5 f o r G ro t te V auf rey ) w ou ld s e em s l igh t ly mo re o n t h e m agn i tude o ft h eh ome r a nge o f ag roup w ho w e re a tl e a s t p a r t t ime c ar n ivo re s . T he se d i s tance s w ou ld s ugge s th ome r a nge a r ea s o f 1 000 a nd 2 000 s q . k m r e spec t ive ly . H oweve r , d a ta c o l lec ted b y F eb lo t -Augu s t in s ( 1997 ) s how t h a t t h rough t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , a ve rage m ax imum l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l t r an sf e r s d i s tance s w e re b e tween 3 5 a nd 6 0k m . A sr a d i i o fm ob i l i ty p a t te rn s( a nd a pp ly ing j u s t t h e M in imum C onvex P o lygon m e thod ) t h e se d i s tance s w ou ld s ugge s t h ome r a nge a r ea s o f b e tween 3 850 a nd 1 ,300 s q . k m r e spec t ive ly , a s sum ing t h a t i n te rband e xchange o fr aw m a te r ia l s o r p e r sonne l p l ayed n o m a jo r p a r t i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e l i t h ic s . A t h i rd s uch r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p r ocu remen t t e r r i to ry f o r G ro t te V auf rey ( l eve l V I I I ) s ugge s t s a n a r ea o fa r ound 3 000 s q . k m ( Gene s te 1 988 :464 ) . T he a r ea s s ugge s ted b y t h e se l a t te r t wo s t ud ie s a r e a pp roa ch ing a d i f f e ren t m agn i tude t h an t h a t s ugge s ted b y t h e c a rn ivo re d a ta a nd w ou ld a ppea r u n rea sonab le . I t s a ppa ren t t h a t t h e M in imum C onvex P o lygon m e thod t e nd s t o o ve r s imp l if y t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l i t h ic d i s t r ibu t ion i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd o r ig ina l m ob i l i ty p a t ter n s . I t f a i ls t oa ccoun t f o r t h e f a c to r s m en t ioned a bove ( o ve r lap o f t h e o ccupa t ion s o f d i f f e ren t g roup s , movemen t o f i n d iv idua ls , a nd l im i ted t r ade a nd e xchange ) t h a t l i ke ly p l ayed v a r iou sr o le s i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fl i t h ic s a c ro s st h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic l a nd scape a nd t h i s w ou ld s e rve t o i nf la te t h ea ppa r en ts i ze o fc ompu ted r a nge so fm ob i l i ty .

Wh i le t h i s m ode l i s v e ry g ene ra l a nd p rov ide s l i t t le d e ta i led i n s igh t i n to M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a dap ta t ions , i t d oe s c a r ry s p ec i f ic e xpec ta t ion s f o r t h e n a tu re o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic t e chno logy a nd t o o l k i t s . I ng ene ra l i tw ou ld s e em t h a ta l g r oup s m u s th ave a dop ted as y s tem o fb r oad e xp lo i ta t ion o f r e sou r ce s , w h ich e xh ib i ted t wo m a in c omponen t s :

G amb le a nd S t ee le 's c ompu ta t ion s b a sed o n t h e A dap t ive K e rna l m e thod m ay b e t e nd ing t oo ve r rep re sen tj u s t t h e b ehav iou r a s soc ia ted w i th s i te c a tchmen t e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd m ay u nde r rep re sen t a ny l a rge r s c a le , l o nge r te rmed m ob i l i ty p a t ter n s . C on t ra r i ly , t h e M in imum C onvex P o lygon m e thod p u t st o om uch e mpha s i so nt h em ax imum d i s tance s t h a t l i t h ic m a te r ia ls h ad t r ave l led a nd , t h e ref o re , p roduce s e s t ima te s t h a t a r e t o o h i gh . We m igh t a n t ic ipa te t h a t r e a sonab le e s t ima te s o f F r ench M idd le P a la eo l i th ic h ome r a nge s w a s b e tween 1 00 a nd 1 000 s q . k m , w i th p e rhap s t h e l a t te r b e ing m o re r e a sonab le , s i nce m ob i l i ty a mong We s ter n D e se r t a bo r ig ina l g roup s i n A u s t ra l ia i n vo lve s m ax imum h ome r a nge s o f a r ound 1 000 s q . k m ( Hayden 2 005 p e r . c omm ) .

1 / T he e xp lo i ta t ion o f ap a r t icu la r ly l a rge r a nge o ft h e e xp lo i tab le r e sou r ce s ( p lan t , a n ima l , a nd m ine ra l ) t h a t t h ey e ncoun te red u s ing a M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t e chno logy . T he re w ou ld , o f c ou r se , b e n o tab le e xcep t ion s t o t h is i n s i tua t ion s w he re t h e s ucce s sf u l e xp lo i ta t ion o f ar e sou rce r e qu i r ed i n ve s tmen t s o ft ime a nd /o r s p ec ia l ized e qu ipmen t t h a t m ade t h e c ho ice t o e xp lo i ti tap oo ro ne i nt e rm so fe ne rgy r e tu rn sa nd t ime t a ken a way f r om t h e p u r su i t o f o t he r mo r e e ne rgy e ff ic ien t r e sou r ce s . I ns ome a r ea s f r e shwa te rf i sh m igh t h ave f a l len i n to t h i s c a tego ry a nd m igh t h ave r e p re sen ted a p oo r i n ve s tmen t o f t ime a nd e ne rgy , e xcep t p e rhap s d u r ing p e r iod s o f m a rked ly i n c r ea sed a va i lab i l i ty , s u ch a sd u r ing s a lmon s pawn ing r un s . A l l r e sou r ce s w h ich c ou ld b e e ff ic ien t ly e xp lo i ted w i th M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t e chno logy w ou ld h ave t h e p o ten t ia l t ob e e xp lo i ted w hen e ncoun te red . W i th s u ch ag ene ra l i s t a pp roa ch , f a una l a s semb lage s d om ina ted b yo ne o rt wo s pec ie sw ou ld b ea n i n d ica t ion o fs p ec ie s a va i lab i l i ty r a the r t h an o f a move t owa rd s m o re s p ec ia l ized b ehav iou r s .

Mode l S ummary D u r ing t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , s ma l l , f am i l ia l g roup s ( b e tween p e rhap s 1 5 a nd 3 5 i n d iv idua l s ) e xp lo i ted l a rge r e g ion s , s omewhe re b e tween 1 00 a nd 1 000 s q . k m . T he i r m ovemen t a r ound t h is r e g ion w ou ld l i ke ly h ave m o s t c l o se ly r e semb led a p a t ter n o f f o rag ing , i n vo lv ing ' mapp ing o n to ' s pec if ic r e sou rce s a nd f a i r ly f r equen t r e s iden t ia l m ove s , b u t t h e h i gh a n ima l b i oma s s t y p ica l o f w e s te rn E u rope d u r ing m uch o f t h e L a te P l e is tocene w ou ld h ave r e duced t h e l e ve l o fp a tch ine s s o f r e sou rce s

a nd : 2 /Am a rked d eg ree o ft e chno log ica l a nd b ehav iou ra l a dap tab i l i ty t ot h e p o ten t ia l ly g r ea t ly v a r ied c ond i t ion s o ft h e d ay , w h ich a l lowed t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f av a r ie ty

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o fr e sou rce s i fa nd w hen t h ey w e re e ncoun te r ed . Wh i le t h e re a r e s i te s , a nd p e rhap s c l ima t ic p e r iod s , w he r e a s i ng le p r ey s pec ie sw a sf o cu sed o n ,t h e re i sn oe v idence t h a t t h e c o r re spond ing l i t h ic t e chno logy w a s a ny m o re s pec ia l ized t h an a tt h o se s i te s o rc l ima t ic p e r iod sw he re t h e re a ppea r s t o h ave b een a b roade r p r ey s e lec t ion . T he c u r ren t e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t oo l k i t s w e re d e s igned t o b e a dap tab le t o ar a nge o f t a sk t y pe s a nd u nf o re seen n eed s ( a l though m o re a nd g r ea te rr e so lu t ion o fd a ta i nt h e f u tu r em ay e xpo se t h is a sa n o ve r -gene ra l iza t ion ) . Wh i le t h e r e a r ee xamp le s o f p o ten t ia l ly m o re s p ec ia l ized f avonnag e l i t h ic s t ra teg ie s ( e .g . , B la t sp l i tzen - s ma l l b i f ace s c ommon i nC en t ra l a nd E a s te rn E u rope ) ,t h e se a r en o tab le e xcep t ion si nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ng ene ra l a nd d u r ing t h is p e r iod We s te rn E u rope , a tl e a s t , i sm a rked b y ar e l iance o n r e la t iv e ly u n s tanda rd ized dM i tag e t e chno logy ( O t te 1 990 ) .

i n c r ea se i nt h ev a r ie ty o ft y pe so ft o o l sa nd t h ee v idence s ugge s t s t h a t much m o re t ime a nd e ne rgy w a s e xpended o n p roduc ing t o o l s t h a t w e re m a rked ly s pec ia l ized a nd t a sk spec if ic . G r ea te r s pec ia l iza t ion o f d e s ign t e nd s t o r e f lec t t h e d e s i r e f o r mo re r e l iab le t o o ls t h a t w i l l a low g r ea te r c onf idence i n t h e i r p e rf o rmance ( B leed 1 986 ) . O the r d a ta o n t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic , e spec ia l ly t h e l a te r U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic ( e .g . ,s i te s i ze s ,f r equency a nd /o rl e ng th o fo ccupa t ion s ) i n d ica te t h a t s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s e xh ib i ted c ha rac te r is t ic s mo re t owa rd s t h e c o l l ec to r e nd o f t h e s pec t rum ( e .g . , K le in 1 999 : 5 32 ; C hamp ion e t . a l . 1 994 :84 ; S t rau s 1 990 :287 -9 1) . T he U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod o ccu r red e n t i re ly w i th in a g l ac ia l m ax imum r e su l t ing i n a c l ima te i n ( non Med i te r ranean ) E u rope d om ina ted b y l a rge h e rd a n ima ls a dap ted t os t epp ic e nv i ronmen t s . S uch c i r cum s tance s m ay w e l l h ave e ncou raged a m ove t owa rd s m o r e s pec ia l ized a dap ta t ion s , b u t t h e re i sl i t t le e v idence t h a t s uch c hange s o ccu r red d u r ing t h e c o lde r p e r iod s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic .

T h i s t y pe o f l i f eway c an b e c on t ra s ted t o t h a t t y p ica l ly d e sc r ibed f o rt h eL a te F r ench U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic P e r iod i n w h ich g roup s , w h i le s t i l l d epend ing t o al a rge p a r t o n a r a nge o f m ed ium t o l a rge g ame , f o cu sed much m o re f r equen t ly o n p rocu r ing l a rge n umbe r s o f al i m i ted r a nge o f s pec ie s ( of t en r e indee r , a l though d a ta f r om o t he r r e g ion s , i n p a r t icu la r I t a ly , i n d ica te t h e e me rgence o f b road spec t rum d i e t sj u s t p r io r t oa nd c on t inu ing i n to t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic - S t ine r e t . a l . 2 000 ) . R a the r t h an d e s ign ing t h e i r t oo lk i t s a nd a dap t ing t h e i r b ehav iou r t o a low t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f w ha teve r r e sou rce s a r e e ncoun te red ,F rench U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic t o o lk i t ss howed a n i n c rea se i ns pec ia l iza t ion i nd e s ign .T he r e i s as i gn if ican t

W i th amo re s pec ia l ized a dap ta t ion , l i ke t h a t o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s ub s i s tence k now ledge w ou ld b e a bou t t h e b ehav iou r o ft h e f o ca l s p ec ie s ; w hen a nd w he re i t move s a bou t t h e l a nd scape a nd , c ons ide r ing i t s n a tu ra l b ehav iou r a nd r e ac t ion w hen e ncoun te red , h ow t o mo s t e f f ec t ive ly h un t i t . We m igh t a r gue t h en t h a t f o r t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic g ene ra l is t a dap ta t ion d e ta i led k now ledge o ft h e i r e n t i r e r e g ion o fe xp lo i ta t ion w ou ld b e mo s ti mpo r tan t .

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Chap ter 5 :C ons tra in t so n Midd le P a laeo l i th ic L i th ic T echno logy m o rpho log ica l ly u sef u l p r oduc t s p o s s ib le . C on s t ra in t s o t he rt h an f u nc t ion w i l l ,h ow eve r ,p l ay s i gn if i can tr o le s i n e nd -p roduc t f o rm s . F o r e xamp le , i tm ay b e n ece s sa ry t o p r oduce i n i t ia l f l ake p r oduc t s f r om w h ich av a r ie ty o ft o o l t y pe s m u s t c ome a nd s o f l ake b l ank s o f mo re g ene ra l m o rpho logy w i l l b ep r oduced a nd t h i sw i l l b er ef l ec ted i n t h e f i na l f o rm o fa l t h e t o o l t y pe s . T he se mo re g ene ra l f o rm s w i l l , h oweve r , s t i l l r e qu i r e c e r ta in m o rpho log ica l t r a i t s d i c ta ted b y s p ec if i c , i d en t if iab le c on s t ra in t s ( s ee H ayden e t .a l . 1 996 : 1f o r am o re g ene ra ll i s t ) .

T he l i f eway s mode l i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te r w a s c on s t ruc ted a s af r amewo rk f r om w h ich a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e t y pe a nd n a tu re o ft h e c on s t ra in t s f a ced b y M idd le P a la eo l i th ic g r oup s i nt h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e i r s t one t o o l t e chno log ie s c ou ld b e d eve loped . C on s t ra in t s t h a t p l ay a r o le i nt h e d e s ign o f as o lu t ion d o n o t a c t i n dependen t ly , a nd i nf a c to f ten c onf l ic tw i th e a ch o t he r .B ecau se o ft h e se c onf l ic t s , i ti sp o s s ib le t og e t amo re s p ec if i c i d ea o ft h e d e s igne r s ' g oa l s b ecau se i n t h e d e s ign p roce s s s ome c on s t ra in t s w e re g i ven g r ea te r c on s ide ra t ion t h an o t he r s , i n d ica t ing p r ef e rence s i nd e s ign d i rec t ion ( Ho r sf a l l 1 987 : 34 -36 ) . C on s t ra in t s m ay a l so i nf luence e a ch o t he r i n f e edba ck s i tua t ion s ,w he re t h ed eg ree o fi mpo r tance o fo ne w i l l p o s i t ive ly i nf luence t h e d eg ree o f i mpo r tance o f a no the r( Hayden e t . a l . 1 996 ) . A l l d i scu s s ion o fp r ob lem s a nd c on s t ra in t s i nt h i s s t udy w i l l b e r e s t r ic ted t oc h ipped s t one f l ake t o o l s .

Morpho log ica lT ra i t s : g enera lc on s idera t ions T he f o l low ing a t t r ibu te sa r el o g ica l ly ( a nd e xpe r imen ta l ly ) r e la ted t o ef i c ien to rs a t i sf ac to ry p e rf o rmance o ft o o l sa nd c an b e e xpec ted t op l ay i mpo r tan t r o le s i nr e duc t ion /co re s t ra teg ie s . T he ref o re , t h ey h ave b een u s ed i n r e co rd ing o b se rva t ion so nf l ake si nt h es t udy a s semb lage s .

T he r e a r e t wo d if e ren t , y e t s ome t ime s o ve r lapp ing , c a tego r ie s o fc on s t ra in t s t h a t w ou ld h ave i nf luenced t h e d eve lopmen t a nd u s e o f as p ec if i c r e duc t ion t e chn ique . T he f i r s t c a tego ry i n c lude s t h o se c on s t ra in t s t h a t w ou ld h ave i nf luenced t h en a tu re o ft h ed e s i red e nd -p roduc t s ,t h e t o o l s .T he se a r et h ef a c to r st h a ti nf luence t h ef o rm af l ake t o o l mu s tt a ke i no r de rf o ri tt of u lf i l li t si n tended f u nc t ion . F o r e xamp le , at o o l i n tended f o r c u t t ing t a sk s m u s t h ave a n a cu te e dge . E a ch o ft h e se c on s t ra in t s w i l l b e d i scu s sed f i r s t i n ag ene ra l s e n se f o l lowed b y ad i scu s s ion o ft h e f o rm t h ey m igh t b e e xpec ted t o t a ke i n t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o fF rance .

F lake S i ze We c an p r obab ly s a f e ly a s sume t h a t t h e re i s am in imum s i ze f o r a ny f l ake b l ank b e low w h ich i tw ou ld n o t b e s e rv iceab le r e ga rd le s so fu s e -a c t ion o rt y pe o fm a te r ia li ti s a pp l ied t o , a l though t h e u s e o f h af t s c ou ld s i gn if i can t ly i nf luence t h i s .F l ake sb e low ac e r ta in s i ze l i m i tw e re l i ke ly c on s ide r ed w a s te a nd d i sca rded b yt h ek nappe r . Wha tt h i s m in imum s i ze w ou ld h ave b een i sd i ff i cu l tt og ue s sa t ,a nd f o r p eop le f a c ing s eve re l i m i ta t ion s i n r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty ,t h i sm in imum s i ze m ay h ave b een n ece s sa r i ly q u i te s ma l l . H oweve r , e ven w hen r aw m a te r ia l e conom iza t ion w a s n o t ac oncer n p eop le m igh t h ave e mp loyed f l ake s much s ma l le r t h an w ha t a r cha eo log i s t s h ave h i s to r ica l ly c on s ide red p ra c t ica l ly u sab le ( Sandga the 1 998 , 1 68 ;a nd s e eH ayden 1 981b ; Wh i te 1 968 ; a nd M i l le r 1 979 f o re t hnog raph ic d a ta o nt h i si s sue ) .

T he s e cond c a tego ry o f c on s t ra in t s i n c lude s t h o se t h a t w ou ld h ave i nf luenced t h e n a tu re o ft h e t o o l p roduc t ion p r ocedu r e i t s e lf . Wha t a r e t h e f a c to r s t h a t i nf luence h ow t h e d e s i red f l ake too ls c an b e p r oduced? F o r e xamp le , i f s u i tab le r aw m a te r ia ls a r e i ns ho r t s upp ly t h en ar e duc t ion s t ra tegy t h a ti sn o tw a s tef u l o fr aw m a te r ia l i sl i ke ly t ob e s e lec ted . A s w i th t h e f i r s t c a tego ry , t h e se a r e f i r s t p r e sen ted i ng ene ra lt e rm sa nd t h en i nr e f e rence t oM idd le P a la eo l i th ic c ond i t ion s .

Edge L eng th T oo l s w i l l r e qu i re w o rk ing e dge s w i th l e ng th s s u i tab le t o t h et a sk . F o rs ome t a sk s , s uch a sc u t t ing , l o nge r s e gmen t s o f s h a rp , r e gu la r e dge w i l l b e m o re d e s i rab le o r e ven n ece s sa ry .O ne c an i mag ine t h ed if i cu l ty a nd i n ef f i c iency i nt r y ing t oc u t t h rough m ea t o r at u be rw i th ak n if e t h a t h a s o n ly ao ne c en t ime te r l o ng w o rk ing e dge . F o r o t he r t a sk s , s u ch a se ng rav ing , s ma l le r e dge s egmen t s m ay b e n ece s sa ry a nd r e gu la r i ty o ft h e e dge m ay n o t b e a n i s sue . T h i s i si l u s t ra ted b y r e la t ive ly m oder n ( manua l ) t o o l s d e s igned f o rs p ec if ic t a sk sl i ke b u tche r ing m ea to rc a rv ing w ood . Wh i le ap ocke t k n if e m ay f u nc t ion f o r c u t t ing u p m ea t a nd c a rv ing w ood , ab u tche r 's k n if e h a s a much l o nge re dge a nd mo s tw oodwo rk ing t o o l s h ave v e ry s ho r t o ne s . W i th r e spec t t o r e gu la r i ty o f t h e se t o o l e dge s , i n c u t t ing m ea t i ti so f t en ar e qu i remen tt h a t t h e e n t i re e dge o f t h e k n if e c ome s i n to c on ta c t w i th t h e m a te r ia l i n a s i ng le s t roke , b u tw i th m o s tw oodca rv ing t o o l s t h i s i sn o t

1 /P o ten t ia lC ons tra in t s o n T oo l Morpho logy T h i sc a tego ry d ea l sw i th t h eg ene ra l f o rm t h a ti tw ou ld b e n ece s sa ry o rd e s i rab le f o r M idd le P a laeo l i th ic f l ake t o o l s t o h ave i n o r de r f o r t h em t o c a r ry o u t t h e i r i n tended f u nc t ion . T he b a s ic f u nc t iona l c on s t ra in t i s t h a t t a sk s r e qu i re t o o l sw i th c e r ta in m o rpho log ica l c r i te r ia . I tc an b e a s sumed t h a t t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n d iv idua l s p r oduc ing f l ake t o o l sw e re c apab le o fp roduc ing o ne sw i th a pp rop r ia te m o rpho log ie s .T he re i sn or e a son t ot h ink t h a t , w i th in t h e l i m i t s s e t b y t h e i d en t if iab le c on s t ra in t s i n vo lved ,t h ey w ou ld h ave p r oduced a ny th ing b u tt h em o s t

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t h e c a se . C a rv ing w ood t y p ica l ly i n vo lve s s c rap ing o r s hea r ing a c t ion s , r a the r t h an c u t t ing , a nd t h e g r ea te r t h e l e ng th o fe dge /ma te r ia l c on ta c tt h em o re d if i cu l tt h is i st o a ccomp l i sh . O ne c an i mag ine t h e d i ff icu l ty i n t r y ing t o p u sh t h e e n t i r e e dge o ft h e b l ade o f ap ocke t k n if e i n to a w ood s u rf a ce .

s ho r t u se -edge i s r e qu i red ( e .g . , s ha rpen ing s p ea r s ) , c u rva tu re w i l l n o t l i ke ly b e am a jo r f a c to r . V en t ra l c u rva tu re m ay b e as i gn if ican t f a c to r w i th t o o ls u sed f o r c u t t ing m ea t . T oo m uch v en t ra l c u rva tu re i nt h e f l ake w i l l i n h ib i tc u t t ing e f f ec t ivene s sb yr e duc ing t h el e ng th o fe dge t h a t c an b e b rough t i n to c on tac t w i th t h e t a sk m a te r ia l a t a ny o ne t ime . B ecau se o ft h ec u rve i nt h ee dge i tc anno tb e p u l led a c ro s st h es u rf a ce o f am a te r ia li n as t ra igh tl i ne a nd a c tua l ly c u t i n to t h e m a te r ia l e f ec t ive ly . A ga in , o ne c an i mag ine t h e d i ff icu l ty i nc u t t ing t h rough ap i ece o fm ea t w i th ac a rv ing k n if ew i th ab en to rl a te ra l ly c u rved b l ade .

E dg eA ng l e ( o rs p in e -p lane a ng l e ) O ne o ft h e m o re c ommon ly d i scu s sed a tr ibu te s o fs t one t o o l s , e dge a ng le i so f t en d i scu s sed a s am o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te d i rec t ly r e la ted t ot h en a tu re o ft h et a sk ( W i lm sen 1 970 ) .F o rc u t t ing t a sk s ,o t he rc on s ide ra t ion sa s ide , amo re a cu te e dge i sb e t te ra si tw i l l t e nd t oc u tt h rough m a te r ia l s m o re e f ec t ive ly . F o rs c rap ing t a sk s ,w he re t h e e dge i sp u t u nde r g r ea te r l a te ra l s t re s s ( w i th g r ea te r a cu tene s s b e ing e qua l t o g r ea te r f r ag i l i ty ) a nd a b so lu te s ha rpne s s i sn o t n ece s sa ry , ah i ghe re dge i s mo re s u i tab le . F o ra l p o ten t ia l a pp l ica t ion so f at o o l ,t h ed eg ree o fl a te ra ls t re s sp u to nt h e w o rk ing e dge w i l l s t rong ly d i c ta te h ow s t rong , a nd t h e ref o re h ow o b tu se ,i tm u s tb e .

R obu s t ic i ty F o r s ome t a sk s , s u ch a sc u t t ing o rc a rv ing s o f t m a te r ia ls , m o re d e l ica te f l ake t o o l s may s uff ice . T he s t re s s b rough t t ob ea ro nt h et o o la nd t o o le dge a r en o ts i gn if ican te nough t oc omp rom i se t h e s t reng th o fe ven at h in f l ake t o o l . F o r o t he rt a sk s , h oweve r , t h e l e ve l o fs t re s st h a tt h et o o l mu s t e ndu re w i l l f a c to r i n to f l ake b l ank r o bu s t ic i ty . F o r t a sk s t h a t i n vo lve t h ew o rk ing o fh a rde r m a te r ia ls t h et o o l m u s t b e p u t u nde r g r ea te r s t re s s , b o th a tt h e p o in t o f c on ta c t b e tween t h e t a sk m a te r ia l a nd t o o l e dge a nd i ne i the r t h e g r ip o ft h e w o rke r 's h and o r i nt h e t o o l 's h af t . C a rv ing b one o ri v o ry i so ne e xamp le o ft h is . I no rde rt ow i th s tand t h e n ece s sa ry s t re s s i n vo lved i nt h i s s o r t o ft a sk , b o th t h e t o o l e dge a nd t h e t o o l a s aw ho le mu s tb e s u i tab ly r obu s t . F o re xamp le , at o o lm ade f r om af l ake t h a ti sl a rge e nough t o h o ld c omf o r tab ly i nt h e h and , b u t t h a t i sl e s s t h an 5 m i l l ime te r s t h ick a nd h a s e dge s w i th s p ine -p lane o r e dge a ng le s l e s s t h an 2 0 d eg ree s w i l l n o t l i ke ly h o ld u p t ot h e s t re s si n vo lved i nm o s tw oodwo rk ing .

W i th in l i t h ic a na lys i s t wo d i f f e ren t e xp re s s ion s o f t h e a ng le o f af l ake m a rg in h ave c ome t ob e r e cogn ized : e dg e a ng l e a nd s p ine -p lan e a ng l e . T hey b o th r e f e rt ot h e a ng le f o rmed b yt h em ee t ing o ft wo a d jacen t s u rf ace s o f af l ake , b u tt h e f o rme r i sm ea su red w i th in o n ly o ne o rt wo mm o f t h e e dge , w h i le t h e l a t te r i s am ea su re t a ken u s ing g r ea te r p o r t ion s o fe a ch o ppo s ing s u rf a ce a sr e f e rence s , g ene ra l ly s e ve ra l mm o r mo re ( f ig .5 . 1) .

C ons tra in t so n aT oo l 's Morpho logy

e dge a ng le

T he se a r ea spec t so ft h es pec if ic a pp l ica t ion so fs t one t o o ls t h a t w e c an a n t ic ipa te w i l l s e rve a s i mpo r tan t c on s t ra in t s o n t h e mo rpho logy o ft h e t o o l s . We c an p roduce r e l iab le e xpec ta t ion s a bou tt h en a tu re o ft h e se a pp l ica t ion s a nd t h e c on s t ra in t s t h ey w i l l p l a ce o n t o o l f o rm f r om b o th e t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd s ome p e r sona l e xpe r ience a nd e xpe r imen ta t ion .

s p ine -p lane a ng le F igure 5 . 1 I lu s tra t ion o ft he d if erence b e tween ' e dge a ng le ' a nd ' s p ine -p lane a ng le ' .

U se-A c t ions a nd T ask Mechan ics T he d i f f e ren t p o s s ib le t a sk m echan ic s o r u se -a c t ion s o f f l ake t o o ls c an b e d e sc r ibed u s ing t h e c ommon t e rm s : c u t t ing , c hopp ing , s c rap ing , b o r ing , p i e r c ing , a nd c a rv ing /e tch ing . T a sk s i n vo lv ing t h e u se o f f l aked s t one t o o l s w i l l t y p ica l ly i n c lude o ne o r m o re o f t h e se u se a c t ion s . A l l a spec t s o f f l ake t o o l m o rpho logy c ou ld b e i n f luenced b yu se -a c t ion .

E dge a ng le m igh tb es a id t ob ea ne xp re s s ion o fh ow s ha rp a n e dge i s ,w h i le s p ine -p lane a ng le g i ve s amo re a ccu ra te i n d ica t ion o ft h ea c tua lg ro s sm o rpho logy o ft h a te dge ,a nd o f t en t h e f l ake a s aw ho le . I ti sc ommon f o r t h e r e t o b e s ome d if e rence b e tween t h e se t wo m ea su re s o n at y p ica l f l ake e dge . H oweve r , t h ey u sua l ly d o n o t d if e r b y m agn i tude a nd g ene ra l ly a l owe r s p ine -p lane a ng le w i l l i n d ica te t h e p r e sence o f al owe r e dge -ang le , a l though i ti s p o s s ib le ( a nd i so cca s iona l ly t h e c a se ) f o r t h e e dge -ang le t ob e s i gn if ican t ly h i ghe r t h an t h e s p ine -p lane a ng le ( t he r e ve r se i so bv iou s ly n o tp o s s ib le ) .

C u t t ing a c t ion s g ene ra l ly r e qu i re t o o l s w i th m o r e a cu te s p ine -p lane /edge a ng le s , u se -edge s o f ar e a sonab le l e ng th , l ow v en t ra l c u rva tu re , a nd mu s t b e l a rge e nough s o t h a t t h ey w i l l e i the r f i t i n a h a f t o r c an b e h and -he ld c omf o r tab ly e nough t o a pp ly t h e n ece s sa ry p owe r a nd p r ec i s ion .

V en t ra lC urva tu r e F o r c e r ta in t a sk s a ny s i gn if ican t v en t ra l c u rva tu re m ay i n h ib i tt h ee f ec t ivene s so ft h et o o l . F o rt a sk sw he re o n ly a

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e v idence f o r t h i s p ra c t ice i sa l so v e ry c ommon i n t h e Mou s te r ian . H oweve r , t h i s p a r t o ft h e t a sk i sn o t r e levan t t of l ake t o o l u se a nd w i l l n o tb ec on s ide r ed f u r the rh e re . ) I t a l so s e em s r e a sonab le t h a t p eop le w ou ld h ave m ade s ome u se o ft h e h i de s o f t h e se a n ima l s , e s pec ia l ly d u r ing t h e c o lde r , g l ac ia l e p i sode s . T h is w ou ld h ave i n c luded b o th t h e p r epa ra t ion ( i n s ome f o rm ) o f t h e h i de s a nd t h e s ub sequen tp roce s s ing o ft h em i n to i t em s s u ch a sc l o th ing , s h e l te r s , a nd c on ta ine r s . O the r p a r t s o ft h e a n ima ls , s u ch a s s i new s , b one s , i v o ry , a nd a n t le r s m ay h ave a l so b een u sed t o s ome e x ten t . T he se i t em s a r e u s ef u l i n t h e m anuf a c t u re o f t o o ls /weapon s , c l o th ing , s h e l te r s , c on ta ine r s , a nd mob i l ia ry a r t , a l though t h e a r cha eo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e u se o f b one , i v o ry , a nd a n t le r i n a ny c on tex t si nt h eM idd le P a la eo l i th ic i se x t reme ly s pa r se a nd s o i ts e em s a ppa ren t t h a t f l ake t o o l s w e re n o t t y p ica l ly u s ed o n t h e se m a te r ia l s . T hey c an , t h e ref o r e , b e e xc luded f r om d e s ign c on s ide ra t ion s .

C hopp ing t a sk s w i l l g ene ra l ly r e qu i re h eav ie r t o o ls w i th r e a sonab ly s ha rp e dge s . H ow s ha rp t h e e dge n eed s t ob e w ou ld d epend o n t h e t y pe o fm a te r ia l b e ing c hopped a nd o nt h ew e igh to ft h et oo l . Al i gh te rt o o l c an b em ade m o re e f f ec t ive f o rc hopp ing t a sk sb y e mp loy ing t h ee x t ra w e igh t a nd l e ve rage o f ah af t . W i th s c rap ing a c t ion s , m o re o b tu se ( l e s s f r ag i le ) w o rk ing e dge s a r e b e t te r , c u rva tu re m ay b e d e s i rab le ( o r i sa tl e a s t l e s s o fa n i s sue ) , g r ea te r r obu s tne s s i sr e qu i red , a nd s i ze d epend s o n t h e s ame f a c to r s a sw i th c u t t ing a c t ion s . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly s oi ns c rap ing h a rde rm a te r ia ls l i ke w ood . F o r b o r ing a nd c arv ing / e tch ing / inc i s ing , s ma l le r , m o re s pec if ica l ly s haped u se -edge s a r e g ene ra l ly r e qu i red o r , a t l e a s td e s i rab le . B o r ing a nd e t ch ing , i np a r t icu la r , a r e l i ke ly t o h ave m o re p o in ted w o rk ing e dge s . A l l t h ree o ft h e se w ou ld t y p ica l ly b e a pp l ied t o h a rde r m a te r ia l s ( a l though b o r ing h o le s o n h i de s w a s l i ke ly ac ommon t a sk ) a nd s o w ou ld t e nd t or e qu i re g r ea te r r obu s tne s s o ft h e u s e -edge a nd t h ef l ake a s aw ho le .

F o r h un t e r s a nd g a the re r s i n g ene ra l , r e ga rd le s s o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e i r e nv i ronmen t , w ood m ake s u p av e ry i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re . T h i s i st h e c a se i n e nv i ronmen t s w he re w ood i sn o t o ve r ly a bundan t ( e .g . , A u s t ra l ia -s e e G ou ld 1 980 ; H ayden 1 981b ) , a nd e ven i n e nv i ronmen t s w he re w ood i se s sen t ia l ly n on -ex i s ten t a nd m u s t c ome f r om e l sewhe re ( e .g . , t h e A r c t ic ) . I tw ou ld s e em l o g ica l t o e xpec t t h a t w ood w a s a n i mpo r tan t r aw m a te r ia l d u r ing t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a s w e l l . I n S ou thwe s t F rance , d u r ing i n te rg la c ia l s , w ood s o fv a r iou s s o r t s , i n c lud ing s of twood c on if e r s ( e .g . , p i ne , s p ruce ) a nd h a rdwood d ec iduou s s p ec ie s ( e .g . , o ak , e lm , b oxwood , y ew , m ap le , a sh ) w ou ld h ave b een r e ad i ly a va i lab le i n m o s t a r ea s ( f igu re 4 . 1) . E ven i n a r ea s , o r a te l eva t ion s w he re t h e se d i d n o t a c tua l ly g row o ne w ou ld n o t n eed t o t r ave l f a rt of i nd w he re t h ey d i d . D u r ing t h eg l a c ia lp e r iod s t h e q uan t i t ie s , v a r ie t ie s , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t r ee s w ou ld h ave b een d im in ished , b u t i nm o s t a r ea s ( i fe ven o n ly i n r i ve r v a l leys ) t h e c on if e r s , a t l e a s t , w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le . I n f a c t , b a sed o n t h e p o l len r e co rd s f r om s u ch s i t e s a s G rande P i le P ea t B og i n N o r th ea s te rn F rance ( Wo i l la rd 1 978 ;J .G u io t ,e t .a l . 1 989 ; P on se t .a l . 1 992 ; d e B eau l ieu a nd R e i l le 1 992 ) , B ouche t ( Re i l le a nd d e B eau l ieu 1 990 ) a nd R iba in s ( d e B eau l ieu a nd R e i l le 1 992 ) i nt h e Ma s s if C en t ra l o f F rance , a nd L e s E che t s i n t h e R hone V a l ley n ea r L yon s , F rance ( d e B eau l ieu a nd R e i l le 1 984 ; J .G u io t , e t . a l . 1 989 ; P on s e t . a l . 1 992 ) , aw ide v a r ie ty o f h a rd a nd s of t w ood t r ee s p ec ie s w e re a lway s a va i lab le i ns ome q uan t i ty .

P ierc ing i s i n c luded h e r e t o r e f e r t o t h e u se o f s t one p ro jec t i le t i p s f o rt h e p i e rc ing o fa n ima l h i de s . T he se t o o l s r e qu i re as ha rp t i p f o rt h ei n i t ia l p unc tu r ing o ft h eh i de a nd s ha rp e dge s t o c u t af u r the r p a th i n to t h e h i de a nd u nde r ly ing t i s sue t o a low a r e a sonab le d ep th o f p ene t ra t ion a nd c au se e x ten s ive t i s sue d amage . H af t ing t h e se t o o l s a l so p u t s c on s t ra in t s o n t h e i r m o rpho logy , b u t t h e h af t ing c on s t ra in t s i nt h i s c a se a r e m o re l i m i t ing t h an w i th o t he r t o o l s b ecau se t h e m echan ic s o f p ene t ra t ing m emb rane s r e qu i re t h e b u lk ine s s o ft h e h a f t ing t ob e k ep t t oa na b so lu te m in imum ( Hughe s 1 998 : 3 57 ) .

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T ask s a nd T ask Ma ter ia ls D e te rm in ing w ha t u se -a c t ion c on s t ra in t s w ou ld h ave p l ayed a r o le i n i nf luenc ing M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t o o l m o rpho logy r e qu i re s ag ood u nde r s tand ing o fw ha t t a sk s t h ey w ou ld h ave b een r e qu i r ed t of u lf i l l . B y e xam in ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , u s ing a pp rop r ia te e t hnog raph ic d a ta , a nd t h rough a n u nde r s tand ing o fM idd le P a la eo l i th ic e nv i ronmen t sw ec an e s tab l ish ab a s ic u nde r s tand ing o ft h e p o ten t ia l r a nge o f t a sk s f o rw h ich s t one t o o l s m ay h ave b een r e qu i red d u r ing t h is p e r iod . T he f a una l r ema in s r e cove red f r om m any M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i t e s i n d ica te t h a t , w h i le l a rge t o m ed ium s i zed m amma l s w e re l i ke ly n o t t h e o n ly s ou rce o f f o od a nd r aw m a te r ia l s , t h ey w e re a v e ry i mpo r tan t , i fn o t d om inan t , p a r t o fs ub s is tence d u r ing t h i s p e r iod ( R icha rd s 2 000 ; B oche ren s 1 999 ) . H un t ing a nd b u tche r ing m u s t h ave m ade u p al a rge p a r t o f t h e t a sk s c a r r ied o u t b y M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p eop le . ( Be s ide s t h e c u t t ing o ff r e sh h i de a nd m ea t , b u tche r ing a l so t y p ica l ly i n c lude s t h e b r eak ing o r s ma sh ing o f b one s . T h is i s s ome t ime s n ece s sa ry i nt h e c ou r se o f d i smembe r ing a n a n ima l , b u t t h e b r eak ing o f l o ngbone s t o e x t ra c t t h e m a r row i sa n a lmo s t u n ive r sa l p r ac t ice a mong h un te r -ga the re r s a nd t h e

I nt h e s amp le l a ye r , Go fl e Mou s t ie ri n c luded h e re , p o l len a na lys is i n d ica ted t h e p r e sence o f S co t s p i ne , b i r ch , w i l low , a l de r , a nd e lm . T he a cqu is i t ion o fw ood s u i tab le f o r aw ide r a nge o f a pp l ica t ion s w ou ld n o t h ave b een p rob lema t ic i na ny p e r iod o ft h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic . A s d i scus sed a bove ( M idd le P a la eo l i th ic S ub s i s tence Mode l ) , an umbe r o f t h ru s t ing s p ea r s h ave b een r e cove red f r om P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s , i n d ica t ing t h a t w ood a r t if a c t s w e re m anuf a c tu red . T he t e n ta t ive d a t ing o ft h e se i t ems p l a ce s t h em a l i nw a rme r c l ima t ic s t age s , b u t m o s t , i fn o t a l , o f t h e se i t ems a r e o f c on if e rou s w ood a nd s o a cce s s t o

3 6

s u i tab le r aw m a te r ia l s w ou ld n o t h ave p r even ted t h e i r manuf a c tu re d u r ing c o lde r s t age s a sw e l l . O ne m igh t a l so a rgue t h a t t h e s u rv iva l a nd s ub sequen t d i scove ry o fi t em s o fs uch p oo r p r e se rva t ion p o ten t ia l i nt h ree d i f f e ren t s i te s o f s u ch e x t r eme a ge s ( b e tween 2 00 ,000 a nd 4 00 ,000 y ea r s ) s ugge s t s t ha t t h ey w e re a c ommon e n t ry i n to t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . H ayden ( 1981b :15 16 ) p r ed ic ted , b a sed o n e t hnoa rcha eo log ica l w o rk i n A u s t ra l ia , t h a t w oodwo rk ing w a s l i ke ly t h e d om inan t t a sk f o r w h ich s t one t o o l s w e re p roduced i n t h e F rench M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , a nd m o re r e cen t u se -wea r a na lyse s h ave d emon s t ra ted t h i s ( e .g . , B ey r ie s 1 988 , 1 987 , 1 984 ; A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; K ee ley 1 980 ; S hea 1 988 ) .

U se - Wear I nve s t iga t ions I d en t if y ing t h e t a sk s f o r w h ich P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l s w e re e mp loyed i s as ub jec t t h a t h a s w i tne s sed s ome r e sea rch o ve rt h e l a s tt wo o rt h ree d ecade s . K ee ley ( 1977 ) a pp l ied u se -wea r a na lys i s t oP a laeo l i th ic t oo l s f r om t h ree L owe rt oe a r ly M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te s i nE ng land i nt h e 1 970 s . B ey r ie s ( 1988 ) a nd A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( 1 990 ) d i d t h e s ame i n t h e 1 980 s w i th M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om F rance . S hea ( 1988 ) e xam ined Mou s te r ian t o o ls f r om K eba ra C ave i nI s rae l . K ee ley 's r e su l t s i n d ica ted t h a t w oodwo rk ing a nd b u tche r ing w e re t h e p r edom inan t t a sk s f o r w h ich s t one t o o l s w e r e u sed . O f t h e t o o l s t h a t B ey r ie s ( 1988 ) , S hea ( 1988 ) , a nd A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( 1990 ) e xam ined , 6 4% , 3 8% , a nd 6 8% r e spec t ive ly , h ad i n d ica t ion s o f u se f o r w oodwo rk ing .U n l ike K ee ley ,h oweve r ,t h e se t h ree s t ud ie s f ound l i t t le e v idence o fb u tche r ing ( Beyr ie sa nd A nde r son G e rf aud r e po r ti ta sn eg l ig ib le w h i le S hea r e po r t st h a t 1 5% o f t h e w ea r w a s f r om b u tche r ing ) . I ts e em s l o g ica l t o e xpec t t h a t b u tche r ing w a s o ne o ft h e d om inan t t a sk s i n t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd , i na dd re s s ing t h i s i s sue , A nde r son G e rf aud ( 1990 , 3 98 ) s ugge s t s t h a tt h is m ay b e a n i s sue o f p r e se rva t ion b e ing d ependen t u pon s p ec if ic d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t s . I , h oweve r , a m n o t c onv inced t h a t b u tche r ing w ou ld , i nm o s t c a se s , p roduce d e tec tab le w ea r . P e rhap s i fat o o l w e re u sed v e ry e x ten s ive ly w i thou tb e ing r e p laced o rr e touched , s ome d e tec tab le a nd d i s t ingu ish ing w ea rm igh t b e p roduced a nd p e rhap s t h is i sw ha t a lowed t h ed e tec t ion o fw ha th a sb een r e po r ted a sb u tche r ing w ea r i n s ome c a se s ( e .g . , K ee ley 1 977 ) . I t h a s y e t t o b e s a t i sf a c to r i ly e xp la ined ( c on t ra B amf o r th e t . a l . 1 990 ; K amm inga 1 979 ) o r d e sc r ibed i nt h e l i t e ra tu re w ha t t h e e xa c t m echan ic s a r e w h ich a l low v e ry s of t ma te r ia l s l i ke f r e sh m ea t t oa l te r t h e s u rf a ce o fh a rd s t one t o ad eg ree t h a t p o l i sh i sf o rmed . S ma l l c h ip s m ay c ome of t h e t o o l e dge d u r ing c u t t ing a nd s ub sequen t ly p r oduce s t r ia t ion so n t h et o o l e dge , b u tt h e se c h ip s c ou ld n o t b e r e spon s ib le f o r " mea t -po l i sh" ( Kee ley 1 977 , 4 ) . Is u spec t t h a t t o o ls u sed f o r b u tche r ing f r e sh m ea t a nd c u t t ing f r e sh h i de w i l l t e nd t o b e h i gh ly u nde r rep r e sen ted i n r e l iab le u se -wea r a na ly s i ss t ud ie s .

T he a cqu i s i t ion o f n on -woody p l an t s f o r f ood o r r aw ma te r ia l s w a s a l so l i ke ly a c omponen t o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i f eway s . F ood p l an t s , s u ch a s n u t s , b e r r ie s , a nd t u be r s ,w ou ld n o th ave r e qu i red t h eu s eo ff l aked s t one t oo ls i n t h e i r a cqu i s i t ion . T he re i sn o e v idence f o r t h e p roce s s ing o ft h e se e i the r a nd s o , w hen a nd i ft h ey w e re e xp lo i ted , t h ey w e re l i ke ly j u s t c on sumed a s f ound o r p roce s sed u s ing n a tu ra l r o ck f o rm s . S of t i n ne r t r ee b a rk may w e l l h ave b een c o l lec ted f o r f o od ( Sandga the a nd H ayden 2 003 ) a nd t h i s w ou ld h ave r e qu i red a s ha rp , r obu s t s t one k n if e o r c hopp ing t o o l t o c u t t h rough t h e o u te rb a rk a nd ab a rk p ee le r ,u sed t op r y of t h eo u te rb a rk . T he m anuf ac tu re o f b a rk p ee le r s w ou ld h ave r e qu i red s t one t o o l s . N on -woody p l an t s s u i tab le a s r aw m a te r ia ls f o r s t ruc tu re s , c o rdage , a nd c l o th ing w ou ld i n c lude g ra s se s , s e dge s , a nd b a rk s ( t he l a t te r m ay t e chn ica l ly b e f r om w oody p l an t s ,b u tt h e i ru se a nd c on s i s tency w ou ld b e mo s t s im i la r t on on -woody p l an t s ) . S ome a pp l ica t ion s o f t h e se t y pe s o f ma te r ia ls , s u ch a si nw eav ing a nd b a ske t ry , r equ i r e t h e d eve lopmen t o f m o re s oph i s t ica ted t e chno log ie s f o r w h ich t h e re i s n o e v idence i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd p r io r t o t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( s ome e v idence h a s r e cen t ly b een p r e sen ted f o r s uch t e chno log ie s i nt h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic -s e e S of f e r 2 000 ) . T he re a r en o ap r io r i r e a son st oa s sume t h a tt h ey w e re n o t k nown i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , a nd b a ske t s a nd w eav ing i n g ene ra l a r e /we r e v e ry w ide ly u sed e t hnog raph ica l ly ,b u tb ecau se o ft h eg ene ra l c omp lex i ty o f t h e se t e chno log ie s , i tw ou ld s e em r e a sonab le t ow a i t f o r e v idence b ef o r e i n c lud ing t h em i n m ode ls o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic b ehav iou r s . I t w ou ld , h oweve r , s e em r e a sonab le t o a l low f o r t h e u se o f t h e se t ype s o f r aw m a te r ia l s i ns imp le a pp l ica t ion s s u ch a st h e m anuf a c tu re o f s h e l te r s o r r ope /co rdage . B o th t h e a cqu is i t ion a nd p roce s s ing o ft h e se t y pe s o fr aw m a te r ia l s m ay w e l l h ave r e qu i red t h e u se o ff l aked s tone t o o l s . F l ake t o o l s c ou ld h ave b een u sed t o c u t g r a s se s a nd s e dge s a nd t o c u t o r s c rape t h e b a rk f r om at r ee o r b ranch . E thnog raph ic d a ta a l so i n d ica te s t h e u se o f f l ake t o o ls f o r s c rap ing s uch f i b rou s m a te r ia l s ( e spec ia l ly b a rk s ) i no rde r t o c l ean of t h e d r y , i nf lex ib le e x te r io r l a ye r s a nd t op roduce amo re r egu la rs hape a nd c on s is tency .

S ummary o f Midd le P a laeo l i th ic T ask s B a sed o n e t hnog raph ic o b se rva t ion s , i n te rp r e ta t ion s f r om t h e s u rv iv ing a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , p o l len r e co rd s , a nd u se -wea r s t ud ie s i t s e em s l i ke ly t h a t b u tche r ing a nd w oodwo rk ing w e re t h e t wo b a s ic t a sk s f o r w h ich f l ake t o o l s w e re r e qu i red d u r ing t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic . S pec if ic w oodwo rk ing t a sk s p robab ly i n c luded t h e m anuf ac tu re o f s pea r s , b a rk p ee le r s , d i gg ing s t ick s , a nd t o o l h af t s . P roce s s ing h i de s l i ke ly a l so t o ok p l a ce , b u t t h e d eg ree t ow h ich a n ima l h i de s w e re m od if ied i sn o t c l ea r . A tt h e v e ry l e a s t s t one t o o ls w ou ld h ave b een u sed t oc u t h i de s u p f o r u se a s c ove r ing o r t o m ake r ope . A l though o t he rt a sk sb e s ide st h e se l i ke ly t o ok p l ace ,t h ey a l so l i ke ly p l ayed a n eg l ig ib le r o le i n manuf a c tu re a nd d e s ign c on s ide ra t ion s .

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S i z e

B u tcher ing T oo lC ons tra in t s

A ny p r o jec ted s i ze p a rame te r s w i l l b e n ece s sa r i ly a r b i t ra ry , b u t Iw ou ld s ugge s t t h a t , b a sed o n m y o wn e xpe r imen ta t ion ( Sandga the 1 998 ) , u nhaf t ed f l ake s w i th a m ax imum d imen s ion o fl e s s t h an t wo c en t ime te r s w ou ld b e b o th d i ff i cu l t t om anage m anua l ly , w ou ld t e nd t ol a ck c u t t ing e dge s o f r e a sonab le l e ng th , a nd a r e mo re e a s i ly l o s t i nt h e i n ev i tab le m e s s o fb u tche r ing . T he max imum s i ze f o r af l ake i n tended f o rc u t t ing m ea t , b eyond w h ich i t w ou ld b e t o o h eavy a nd u nw ie ldy , i sl i ke ly s t i l l g r ea te r t h an t h e m ax imum s i ze s a t ta inab le f o r f l ake s f r om a n a ve rage c o re . I no t he r w o rd s , p roduc ing t o o l a rge af l ake w a s l i ke ly n o ta n i s sue b ecau se o ft h et y p ica l s i ze s o fr aw m a te r ia l n odu le s . H ow eve r , af l ake b e tween 5 a nd 8 c en t ime te r sf i t s mo s tc omf o r tab ly i na no b l ique p ow e rg r ip a nd a ny th ing s i gn if i can t ly l a rge r t h an t h is w ou ld b e r e dundan ta nd l i ke ly n o ti mp rove e f ec t ivene s s .

I no r de rf o r as t one t o o lt os imp ly c u tm ea ta nd f r e sh h i de , f ew s pec if ic mo rpho log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s a r e n ece s sa ry . A l l t h a t i sr e qu i red i sa n e dge o fr e a sonab le l e ng th a nd o f s u ff i c ien ts ha rpne s s .T he t o o lm u s ta l so b el a rge e nough t o b eh e ld r e a sonab ly s e cu r e ly i nt h eh and o rt ob es e cu red i n ah af t . H af t ing i sn o tn ece s sa ry f o rt h is f u nc t ion ,h oweve r . As imp le , s ma l l ( bu tp e rhap sa tl e a s tt wo c m i nm ax imum d imen s ion ) f l ake c an w o rk v e ry e f f ic ien t ly i n t h e b u tche r ing o f mo s t a n ima l s ( Sandga the 1 998 ) , a l though l a rge r f l ake s p rov ide am o re s e cu re g r ip w h ich b ecome s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t i n b u tche r ing b ecau se b l ood w i l l m ake at o o l s l ippe ry a nd mo re d if i cu l t t oh o ld . F o r v e ry l a rge s p ec ie s , e l ephan t s a nd b i son a s e xamp le s , t h e h i de m ay b e t h ick a nd t o ugh e nough s o a s t o r e qu i r e l a rge r , mo re r o bu s tt o o l st oc u tt h rough i te ff i c ien t ly .A l so ,f o rt h e p roce s s ing o fl a rge q uan t i t ie s a nd /o r l a rge p i ece s o fm ea t , l a rge rf l ake sw i th g r ea te rp ropo r t ion so fc u t t ing e dge sm ay b e m o re ef i c ien t a s t h ey w ou ld t e nd t o r e qu i re f ewe r s t oke s t h an as ma l le r f l ake t o o l t o c u t t h rough t h e s ame v o lume .

Haf t ing S imp le e xped ien t f l ake k n ive s a r e p e rf ec t ly s e rv iceab le b u tche r ing t o o l s a nd h af t ing i s n o t n ece s sa ry , b u t , d epend ing o n t h e t y pe o f h af t , o ne c an p rov ide c e r ta in m echan ica l a dvan tage s , i n c lud ing t h e a b i l i ty t o a pp ly g r ea te r p r e s su re ( wh ich m igh t b e a dvan tageou s i nc u t t ing t h rough j o in t s ) a nd t h e a b i l i ty t o s l ice m o re d eep ly i n to f l e sh ( b y r e p la c ing a b u lky h and w i th a n a r row h and le w h ich c an m o re e a s i ly f o l low a b l ade i n to a n i n c i s ion ) . Two d i f f e ren t g ene ra l a pp roa che s i n h af t ed b u t che r ing t o o l s a r e c ommon i n t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd ( e .g . , A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 a nd H e lme r 1 987 : 5 2 ) . O ne i n vo lve s t h e i n se r t ion o fo ne s i de o f af l ake o rb l ade i n to t h e s i de o f ah af t ( o r a tl e a s t m in ima l ly i n to s ome g um , r e s in ,o r ap i ece o fl e a the r )s oa st ol e ave e xpo sed as i ng le , l o ng c u t t ing e dge a d ja cen t a nd p a ra l le l t ot h e h a f t . T h i s a pp roa ch i sp r obab ly b e s t i l u s t ra ted b y t h e u l u u sed b y N o r th Ame r ican A r c t ic g roup s . T he o t he ra pp roa ch w ou ld b ec ompa rab le t o am ode rn k i tchen k n if e , w i th o ne e nd o f af l ake o rb l ade i n se r ted i nt h e e nd o f ah af t s o t h a t i ti s m o re o rl e s s p a ra l le l t ot h e h af tb u t a n e x ten s ion o fi t .I n t h i s c a se t h e b l ank p r o t rude s e xpo s ing t wo p o ten t ia l c u t t ing e dge s .B o th t y pe s o fk n if e a r ee f ec t ive b u tche r ing t o o l s a nd i tm ay b et h a tt h es e lec t ion o fo ne o ve rt h eo t he r i s as t y l i s t ic i s sue ( p e rhap s i nt h e i s och re s t ic s en se ) , o ra f u nc t ion o f d e s i r ed u se l if e , p roce s s ing v o lume s , o r m ob i l i ty . H oweve r , w h i le t h e t y pe o f h a f t ing e mp loyed m ay i n f luence t h e g ene ra l p l an shape o f b l ank s , c ha ra c te r i s t ic s d e s i rab le i n a ny b l ank w ou ld i n c lude a t l e a s t o ne l o ng c u t t ing e dge a nd r e la t ive f l a tne s s ( b e s ide s r e duc ing t h e e f ec t ivene s s o f t h e a c tua l c u t t ing e dge i n e i the r a pp roa ch , v en t ra l c u rva tu re c ou ld p r e sen t a p a r t icu la r h a f t ing p rob lem i n t h e ` u lu ' f o rm ) . T he re i s s i gn if i can t e v idence f o rh af t ing i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h i si sd i scu s sed b e low .

C on t ra ry t o s ome c l a im s i n t h e l i t e ra tu re ( e .g . , J one s 1 980 ) , i nm y o wn b u tche r ing e xpe r imen t s ( w i th d ee r ) I h ave f ound a n u nmod if ied f l ake s i gn if ican t ly m o re e f ec t ive t h an ab i f ace i nc u t t ing m ea ta nd f r e sh h i de . T he s l igh t ly s e r ra ted n a tu r e o f ab i f a ce e dge m ay i n c rea se i t s e f f ec t ivene s s i nc u t t ing h a rde r m a t e r ia l s , b u t i ti ss t i l l n o t a ss ha rp a s af r e sh f l ake e dge . T he re a r e s ome a dvan tage s t h a t ab i f ace may h ave o ve r s ome f l ake s i nc u t t ing m ea t . O ne i s ar e la t ive ly l o ng , s t ra igh t e dge . A c ommon c ha rac te r i s t ic o f f l ake s p roduced b y s ome r e duc t ion t e chno log ie s , e spec ia l ly b i f a c ia l r e duc t ion , i s as i gn if ican t d eg ree o fv en t ra l c u rva tu re . I f , a s i so f ten t h e c a se , t h e l a te ra l m a rg in s a r e t h o se s e lec ted f o r u s e , t h i s t r an s la te s i n to a l a te ra l c u rva tu re w h ich c an i n h ib i t t h e p o ten t ia l e f ec t ivene s s o f t h a t e dge . F lake s w i th a f l a t te r l o ng i tud ina l c r o s s sec t ion w ou ld b e p r ef e rab le f o r mo s t t a sk sa nd p e rhap s an ece s s i ty i ns ome . As e cond a dvan tage o fb i f ace si nb u tche r ing i st h a tt h ey t e nd t ob eh eav ie rt h an m o s t f l ake s a nd s o a r e u s ef u l f o r c hopp ing t h rough b one s o r j o in t s . H oweve r , i n t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , b i f ace s o n ly a ppea r i n MAT ( Mou s te r ian o fA cheu l ian T rad i t ion ) i n du s t r ie s w h ich a ppea r t oo ccu r q u i te l a te i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . Two o ft h e s amp le a s semb lage s u sed h e re , l e Mou s t ie r a nd P ech d e l ' Az e I V , a r e MAT i n du s t r ie s , a l though o n ly t h ef o rme ri n c luded n ume rou sb i f a ce s . T he Op t ima l D es ign f or B utcher ing T oo l s

Wh i le a lmo s ta ny f l ake w i th as ha rp e dge c ou ld b eu sed t o c u t m ea t , t h e re a r e s p ec if i c d e s i rab le c ha rac te r i s t ic s f o r f l ake b u tche r ing t o o l s . F l a t f l ake s o r b l ade s w i th l o ng , s t ra igh t ,v e ry a cu te e dge s(

50 ° .

R ega rd le s s o f t h e s pec if ic t y pe o f w oodwo rk ing , mo s t t y pe s o fw ood ( i n P a la eo l i th ic We s te rn E u rope ) a r e h a rd e nough s ot h a ts i gn if ican tp r e s su re mu s tb eb rough tt ob ea r o nt h et o o l f o ri tt op roduce s a t i sf a c to ry r e su l t s ( t h is c ome s f r om e x ten s ive p e r sona l , t h ough u n sys tema t ic , e xpe r imen ta t ion ) . I f t h e t o o l o r i t s e dge s a r e n o t s u ff ic ien t ly r obu s t t h ey w i l l b r eak . T h i s m ean s t h a t t h e f l ake mu s t n o t b e t oo t h in . Wh i le s ha rpne s s i s g ood , r e duced a cu tene s s i s n o t a s e r iou s p rob lem i n

A s m en t ioned a bove , t h e r e cove ry o fs e ve ra l P a la eo l i th ic a ge w ooden s p ea r s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se m igh t h ave b een o ne o ft h e mo re c ommon u se s o fw ood a nd r e a son s f o r w oodwo rk ing . N o t s u rp r i s ing ly , m o s t , i fn o t a l , o ft h e se

3 9

g ene ra l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h ep roduc t ion o f mo re t h em o re i n t r ica te ly c a rved i t em s ( o f b one , i v o ry , a nd a n t le r ) c ommon i nt h is p e r iod , a nd w i th m o re d e l ica te c ompo s i te t o o ls ( e .g . , c ompo s i te p ro jec t i le t i p s ) . I n M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s t h e re a r e s ome b u r in s ( ma in ly a t yp ica l o ne s , a st r ue b u r in s a r e v e ry r a re ) a nd o t he r t o o l t y pe s ,s u ch a sa l ter na te r e touched b ec s ,t h a tm ay h ave u sed f o r f i ne r c a rv ing , e t ch ing , o r i n c i s ing t a sk s . H oweve r , t h e s c a rc i ty o fs u ch l i t h ic i t em si nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic m ay i n d ica te a p r edom inance o f c r ude r o r c oa r se r t y pe s o f w oodwo rk ing w he re s ma l ld e l ica te t o o l sa r en o ts u i tab le .

w oodwo rk ing a si tm igh tb e i no t he rt a sk s , s u ch a sc u t t ing m ea ta nd h i de s , w he re d ep th o fp ene t ra t ion i s as i gn if ican t p a r t o f t h e i r i n tended f unc t ion . Woodwo rk ing d oe s n o t t y p ica l ly e n ta i ld eep i n c is ion si ns i ng le s t roke s . Among t h e A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l g roup s s t ud ied b y G ou ld ( 1980 ) s t one f l ake s u sed f o r c u t t ing m ea t h ad e dge a ng le s b e tween 1 5 ° a nd 5 9 ° ( w i th a n a ve rage o f4 0 ° ) a nd t o o l s u sed f o r w oodwo rk ing h ad e dge a ng le s b e tween 4 0° a nd 8 9 ° ( w i th a n a ve rage o f6 7 ° ) . H ayden 's ( 1 981b ) d a ta o n t h eA u s t ra l ian h un te r -ga the re r s h ew o rked w i th p rov ide a n a ve rage e dge a ng le b e tween 7 0 ° a nd 7 5° f o rw oodwo rk ing ( a dze s , c hopp ing i mp lemen t s , a nd h and -he ld s c rape r s ) , w i th o ve r 8 0% o ft h em w i th e dge s b e tween 6 0 ° a nd 8 5° . T he s p ine -p lane a ng le d a ta f o r t h e t o o ls a mong t h e t h ree p r ima ry s t udy s amp le s s how s s u ch ab imoda l d i s t r ibu t ion ( s ee f i gu re 8 . 6 ) . Moder n m e ta l t o o l s e xh ib i t s im i la r b imoda l e dge -mo rpho log ie s . T he e dge o f at y p ica l s t eak k n if e i s1 0 ° t o2 0 ° w h i le t h e e dge o fc h i se l s d e s igned f o r c a rv ing w ood a r e b e tween 3 5° a nd 6 0 ° ( f rom m ea su remen t s t a ken o n ac omp le te w oodca rv ing s e t ) . Woodwo rk ing t o o le dge sn eed t ob es ha rp e nough t os have of w ood f i be r sa st h ey a r ep u l led a c ro s st h ew ood s u rf ace , b u tn o tt os l ice d eep ly . S ome e xpe r imen ta l w o rk b y e a r l ie r r e sea rche r s p rov ide s f u r the r s uppo r t f o r t h is r e la t ion sh ip b e tween e dge a ng le a nd a pp l ica t ion . W i lm sen ( 1 968 :156 8 ) s ugge s ted a r a nge o f 6 6 ° t o 7 5 ° f o r h eavy d u ty t o o l s ( s uch a s f o r w oodwo rk ing ) , a nd 2 6 ° t o 3 5 ° f o r c u t t ing t o o l s . T he re a r e e xamp le s o f m oder n w oodca rv ing t o o l s w i th v e ry a cu te e dge s t h a t a r e u s ed f o r f i ne r e t ch ing a nd i n c is ing , b u tt h e s t r eng th o ft h e s t ee l f r om w h ich t h e se a r e m ade a low s t h e u se o f s u ch e dge s f o r a pp l ica t ion s i n w h ich s u ch f i ne e dge s , i ft h ey w e re m ade o fs t one , w ou ld b r eak .

( n o t e : T h ere i sm oun t ing e v id ence t h a t s ma l lf l ak e s w er e s pec if i ca l ly p roduced i n t h e M idd l e P a laeo l i th ic . T h i s e v id ence i n c lud es t h e p roduc t ion o f K ombewa f l ak e s , f ound i n m any Mou s ter ian s i t e a s semb lag e s , a nd t h e r ed uc t ion o fv e ry s ma l l c or e s , l i k e t h e A s s in ipod ian t y pe s f ound a t P ech d e l ' Azé I V a nd o t her E uropean a nd L evan t ine s i t e s [ e .g . , B a r -Yo sef e t . a l . 1 992] ) . T he p rod uc t ion o fs uch s ma l lf l ak e s m igh t b e a s soc ia t ed w i th a va i lab l e r aw m a ter ia ls i z e s t os ome d eg r ee , b u t , a tl e a s t i nt h e c a s e o fP ech d e l ' Azj I V , t h e d im inu t ive c o re s a nd f l ak es r e cover ed i n t h e A s s in ipod ian l e v e l s a r e s i gn if i can t ly s ma l l er t h an t h e a va i lab l er aw m a te r ia ls i z e s w ou ld w a r ran t , w h ich s t rong ly s ugg e s t st ha tt h es ma l ls i ze o f t h e p roduc t s w a s a s pec i f ica l ly s ough t a f t er c ha rac t er i s t ic ( D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 ) . F l ake c u rva tu re a nd e dge l e ng th r e qu i r emen t s w ou ld b e d i c ta ted b y t h e s pec if ic n a tu re o fe a ch w oodwo rk ing t a sk . I n s i tua t ion s w he re l o ng s t ra igh t c u t s o r g roove s a r e d e s i red s t ra igh t c u t t ing e dge s w ou ld b e p r ef e rab le . F o r m o re i n t r ica te c u t t ing , e ng rav ing o rb o r ing , as ma l l c h ise l l i ke e dge o r ar obu s t p o in t w ou ld b e r e qu i red i n , w h ich c a se s l e ng th o f e dge a nd l a te ra l c u rva tu re w ou ld n o t b e i s sue s . F o r s c rap ing o rp l an ing t h e s u rf a ce o fw ood , a si n t h e c a se o f f o rm ing o r f i n i sh ing s p ea r s haf t s , h i gh e dge a ng le s w ou ld b e r e qu i red a nd c u rva tu re o ft h e e dge m ay b e u sef u l , b u tn o t n ece s sa r i ly r e qu i red . F o r c e r ta in a s pec t s o ft h i s t y pe o ft a sk , s ha rp -edged n o t che s w ou ld b e m o s t e f f ec t ive ( Hayden 1 981b ) , b u tt h e se a r eq u ick ly a nd e a s i ly p roduced o n a lmo s t a ny f l ake e dge r e ga rd le s s o f a ny c u rva tu re i nt h ef l ake .

B ecau se s i gn if ican tp r e s su re i sa pp l ied w i th t h e se t y pe s o f t oo ls t h ey t yp ica l ly n eed t o b e r e a sonab ly l a rge , u n le s s t h ey a r e h af ted . A s t h e d eg ree o f p r e s su re a pp l ied i n c rea se s , i tb ecome s m o re a nd m o r e d i ff icu l t , i n eff ic ien t , a nd u ncomf o r tab le t ou se s ma l l t o o l s ( t he se a s se r t ion s a r e a l so b o rn o fp e r sona l e xpe r ience ) . T he d i scomf o r t c an b e r e l ieved t o s ome e x ten t b y e i the r b a ck ing t h e t o o l ( w i th v e ry a b rup t r e touch f o r e xamp le ) o rb y h o ld ing t h et o o l i n ap i ece o f l e a the r t o p ro tec t t h e h and , b u t t h i s d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly a dd r e s s t h e p rob lem o fd ec rea s ing e ff ic iency . T h is p r ob lem c an b e d ea l t w i th t o ac e r ta in e x ten t w i th h af t ing t e chno logy . S ome f l ake s , w i th in a c e r ta in s i ze r a nge , m ay b e t o o s ma l l t o b e u sed e ff ic ien t ly o r c omf o r tab ly h and -he ld , b u t m ay b e l a rge e nough t ob e s e t s e cu re ly e nough i n ah af ts ot h a ts uff ic ien tp r e s su re c an b e a pp l ied w i th t h em . S ecu re ly h af t ing at o o l , h oweve r , s t i l l r e qu i re s t h a t t h e t o o l b e o f ar e a sonab le s i ze , e spec ia l ly i f i ti st o b e p u t u nde r s i gn if ican t p r e s su r e . I ft h e t y pe o f w oodwo rk ing b e ing c a r r ied o u t i n vo lve st h ep roduc t ion o f m o re d e l ica te o r i n t r ica te ly s haped i t em s , t h en o ne c ou ld e xpec tt h ep roduc t ion o fs ma l le r , mo re d e l ica te t o o ls , o ra t l e a s tt o o ls w i th s ma l l , d e l ica te w o rk ing e dge s . T he re i sa n a ppa ren ts c a rc i ty o fv e ry s ma l l f l ake t o o l s , o fr e cogn izab le t ype s , i n t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , e spec ia l ly w hen c ompa red t o l a te r p e r iod s . M ic rob lade s , b u r in s , a nd g rave r s , c ommon U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic t o o l s , h ave l o ng b een

T he Op t ima l D e s ign o f Woodwork ing T oo ls Woodwo rk ing i s at a sk c a tego ry i nw h ich f a l l an umbe ro f d i f f e ren t t a sk m echan ic s a nd s o w i l l i n c lude a r a nge o f t o o l t y pe s . I ng ene ra l t h ey w ou ld n eed t ob e r a the r r obu s t ( t h ick a nd s t rong ) w i th r e la t ive ly h i gh a ng led w o rk ing e dge s ( >50 ° ) . T he h i ghe r e dge a ng le i sn ece s sa ry b o th t o s t reng then t h e e dge t o w i th s tand t h e n ece ssa ry p r e s su re a nd b ecau se f o r m any w oodwo rk ing a c t ion s av e ry a cu te e dge t e nd s t o r e duce t h e l e ve l o f c on t ro l t h a t c an b e m a in ta ined o ve r h ow i tb ehave s o n t h e w ood s u rf a ce . Moder n s t ee l w oodwo rk ing c h i se ls a r e p roduced w i th a v a r ie ty o fw o rk ing e dge a ng le s a nd a r e u sed i nw ays t h a t s t one f l ak e s c ou ld n o t b e ( e .g . , h amme red d eep ly i n to w ood w i th ah amme r o rm a l le t ) , b u t c h i se l s d e s igned f o r t a sk s t h a t g ene ra l ly i n vo lve t h e s hav ing d own o f w ood s u rf ace s h ave r e la t ive ly h i gh e dge a ng le s ( 4 5 ° t o6 0 ° ) . I fa

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l a rge o r r obu s t . S c rape r s o r n o tche s m igh t s e rve f o r l e s s d emand ing w oodwo rk ing t a sk s , s u ch a s r e sha rpen ing t h e t i p so fd u l led s pea r so rd i gg ing s t ick s .

v e ry s ha rp , l ow a ng led e dge i sp u l led o r p u shed o ve r a w ood s u rf a ce t h ee dge t e nd st ow an tt oc u td eep ly i n to t h e s u rf a ce m ak ing i td i ff icu l t t oc on t ro l h ow much w ood i s r emoved i ne a ch s t roke a nd m ak ing i td i ff icu l tt op roduce e ven s u rf a ce s ( The w ood -p lane i s a t o o l d e s igned s pec if i ca l ly t oa dd re s s t h is p rob lem . I nt h i s t o o l t h e s t ee l w o rk ing e dge i s p r even ted f r om b i t ing t o o d eep ly b y h av ing o n ly a t h in e dge o f i tp ro t rud ing f r om t h e f l a t s u rf ace o ft h e t o o l b a se t h a t i sp u shed a c ro s s t h e w ood s u r f ac e ) . R e la t ive ly h i gh a ng led ( y e t s t i l l s ha rp ) e dge s a r e n o ts oi n c l ined t oc u ts od eep ly i n to t h ew ood a nd s ob e t te r c on t ro l c an b e m a in ta ined o ve r h ow m uch w ood i s r emov ed w i th e a ch s t roke . T he g r ea te rt h e e dge a ng le t h e b e t te r t h e c on t ro l , a l though w hen a n e dge a ng le b ecome s t o oh i gh ( >90 ° )i tn ol o nge rc u t sw e l la ta l a nd s oe f ec t ive w oodwo rk ing e dge s m u s t b e w i th in a c e r ta in r a nge o f e dge -ang le s . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic w ood w o rk ing t a sk sm ay n o t h ave i n vo lved o n ly t h e s hav ing o r p l an ing o fw ood s u r f ac e s ; s ome mo re c omp lex r e l ief w o rk ( e tch ing a nd g roov ing ) m ay h ave a l so b een c a r r ied o u t , b u t i ft h e m anuf ac tu re o f s pea r s ( a nd p e rhap s d i gg ing s t ick s a nd h and le s ) w a s ad om inan t t a sk t h en p l an ing a nd s hav ing w ood w ou ld h ave b een t h e d om inan t w oodwo rk ing a c t ion s , a nd s hou ld p l ay i mpo r tan t r o le s i n c on s t ra in ing t o o l b l ank f o rm a nd r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s . F o r t h e i n i t ia l p roce s s o ft ur n ing as ma l l t r ee i n to as p ea r , s ome f o rm o f c hoppe ro r as aw l ike t o o lw ou ld h ave b een m o s te f f ec t ive i nc u t t ing d own t h et r ee a nd r emov ing t h el a rge rb r anche s . T he c hoppe r n eed n o t b e af o rma l t o o l f o rm ; a ny h eavy s t one w i th e ven ar emo te ly s ha rp e dge w ou ld s uff ice a nd c ou ld b e m ade a nd d i sca rded a t t h e p r ocu remen t s i te ( Hayden 1 98 1b , 1 977 ) . R egu la r ly s e r ra ted d en t icu la te s m ay a l so w o rk w e l l i nr emov ing b ranche s .T he n ex t s t ep s , r emov ing t h e b a rk , r emov ing t h e s we l l s w he re b r anche s w e re a t ta ched , a nd r ough ing o u t t h e s hape o f t h e s p ea r w ou ld r e qu i re av e ry r obu s t f l ake t o o l w i th a s ha rp , b u t r e la t ive ly h i gh a ng led ( 5 0 ° a nd 8 0 ° ) w o rk ing e dge s im i la r t o m oder n w ood c h i se ls u sed f o r s hav ing d own w ood s u rf a ce s . Ec l a t s D jbo rdan t s , n a tu ra l ly b a cked f l ake s , o r f l ake sw i th r e touch b ack ing w ou ld b e p a r t icu la r ly s u i tab le f o r s u ch a pp l ica t ion s a s mo re p r e s su re c an b e e xe r ted w hen n eeded , a l though h af t ed s c rape r s ( c h i se ls , a dze s ) w ou ld a l so b e e f f ec t ive . C u rva tu re o ft h e w o rk ing e dge w ou ld n o t b e a n u nde s i rab le c ha rac te r i s t ic a s i ta low s m o re o ft h e w o rk ing e dge t ob e b rough t i n to c on tac t w i th t h e c u rva tu re o f t h e w o rked i t em . C u rva tu r e c an b e a ch ieved b y e i the r s e lec t ing a c u rved f l ake b l ank o r b y m od if y ing t h e e dge . T h i s mod if ica t ion c an t a ke t h e f o rm o f e i the r s c rape r r e touch ( r e touch ing a n e dge s o t h a t a c oncav i ty i sp roduced ) o rb y r emov ing as i ng le l a rge f l ake f r om a ne dge p roduc ing an o tch . B lank s s e lec ted f o rw ood w o rk ing o ft h i s n a tu re w ou ld n eed t ob e t h ick , h eavy , a nd r e la t ive ly l a rge . Iw ou ld s ugge s t , b a sed o n m y o wn e xpe r ience , t h a t f l ake s s ma l le r t h an a r ound f ou r o r f i ve c en t ime te r s i n m ax imum d imen s ion w ou ld n o t b e e f f ec t ive . E igh t c en t ime te r s o r l a rge r i n m ax imum d imen s ion w ou ld b e d e s i rab le . V en t ra l c u rva tu re w ou ld n o t b e an ece s sa ry c ha ra c te r is t ic , b u t m ay e nhance t o o l f u nc t ion . F o r t h e f i ne r f i n ish ing o fw ood s hape s s im i la r t o o ls w ou ld b e n eeded , b u t t h ey w ou ld n o t n eed t ob e a s

H af t ing w ou ld n o t b e n ece s sa ry , b u t i tc ou ld b e au sef u l p r a c t ice w i th w ood w o rk ing t o o ls b ecau se g r ea te r a pp l ied p r e s su re i sn eeded t ow o rk w ood a nd c e r ta in t y pe so fh af t s c ou ld p rov ide t h i s . T he d r awba ck w i th h af t ing t h e se t y pe s o ft o o l s i st h a t w oodwo rk ing c an d u l l t o o l e dge s r a p id ly m ean ing t h a t t o o l b l ank s w ou ld h ave t o b e r e gu la r ly r e sha rpened a nd m igh t h ave t ob e r e p la ced f r equen t ly . I t m ay b et h a tt h et ime a nd e ne rgy n ece s sa ry f o rt h ef r equen t r e p la c ing o fb l ank s c ou ld r e su l t i nt h e c o s t o fu s ing h af t s o u twe igh ing t h e b enef i t s . Whe the r o rn o t t h e u se o fh a f t s i se conom ica l i nt e rm s o ft ime a nd e ne rgy m ay d epend o n t h e t y pe o fh af t , t h e t y pe o fw ood b e ing w o rked , a nd t h e n a tu r e o ft h e t a sk a c t ion , a nd t h e f r equency a nd i n ten s i ty o fu se .

O ther T ask T ype sa nd Ma ter ia l s O the r g ene ra l t a sk s w e m igh t e xpec t w ou ld i n c lude t h e c u t t ing a nd s c rap ing o f h i de s ( f re sh a nd d r y ) , t h e c u t t ing /wo rk ing o f n on -woody p l an t m a te r ia ls , a nd p o s s ib ly t h e w o rk ing o fb one a nd a n t le r . K ee ley ( 1977 ) f ound a s ma l l p e rcen tage o f t o o l s t h a t h e i n te rp re ted t o h ave b een u sed t ow o rk b one a nd t oc u t n on -woody p l an t m a te r ia l s . B ey r ie s ( 1988 ) i n te rp re ta t ion s i n c luded : 5% o f t h e t o o ls e xam ined w e re u sed o n h i de s a nd s k in s , 3% o n a n t le r , a nd 8% o n m ea t a nd b one . S he a ppa r en t ly f i nd s n o e v idence o ft h e c u t t ing o fn on -woody p l an t m a te r ia ls . O f t h e t o o l s t h a t A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( 1 990 ) e xam ined 9% w e re i n te rp re ted t oh ave b een u sed o n h i de s , 4% o n n on w oody p l an t s , a nd 1 6% w e re u nknown . S hea ( 1988 ) r e po r ted 1 2% f o rb one o ra n t le r , 5% f o rh i de s c rap ing , a nd 5% f o r c u t t ing n on -woody v ege ta l m a t te r . S hea a l so r e po r ted t h a t 7% o ft h ew ea rw a s f r om i mpa c t ( i . e . , u se a s p ro jec t i le t i p s ) . A s s u ch t a sk s m ake u p as ma l l c omponen t o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic l i f e , f ew s p ec if ic t o o ls w ou ld b e r e qu i red t os a t i sf yt h em a nd ,t h e ref o re ,s u ch t a sk sw i l lp l ay l i t t le r o le i nc on s t ra in ing b l ank p roduc t ion . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a tt h e re i s an eed f o rc au t ion i nt a k ing t h er e su l t so fu se -wea rs t ud ie s a tf a ce v a lue . Many g ene ra l c r i t ic ism s o ft h et e chn ique a nd i t sv a r ied f o rm s h ave b een e xp re s sed i nt h e l i t e ra tu re a nd Iw i l l n o tc ove r a l t h e se i n d e ta i l h e re . H oweve r , e ven i f i n d iv idua l r e sea rche r 's e xpe r imen ta l r e su l t s a r e m o re o r l e s s r e l iab le ( e .g . , B amf o r th 1 990 ; N ewcome r e t . a l . 1 986 ) t h e re a r e o t he r f a c to r s t h a t m ake t h e s t ra igh tf o rwa rd a pp l ica t ion o ft h e se i ni n te rp re t ing p a s t a c t iv i t ie s d i ff icu l t . S pec if ic " t ype s" o f t o o l s( e .g . , " s c rape r s" ," den t icu la te s" )m ay h ave b een u sed f o r m o re t h an o ne t y pe o ft a sk a nd s o t h e w ea r o b se rved o n t h e i r e dge s m ay o n ly b e t h a t l ef t b y t h e l a s t t a sk t o w h ich t h ey w e re a pp l ied . A s e cond f a c to r i st h a t t o o l s w ou ld u ndoub ted ly b e r e gu la r ly r e sha rpened a st h ey w e re u sed a nd s o e dge -damage w ou ld r a re ly h ave ac hance t o d eve lop t o a ny g r ea t d eg ree , w h ich w ou ld i n h ib i t a n a ccu ra te " r ead ing" o f i t s a c tua l c au se ( i . e . , t y pe o f u se a c t ion a nd e spec ia l ly t a sk m a te r ia l ) . A t h i rd p r ob lem i s

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t h a t t o o l s u sed o n a s p ec if ic t a sk m a te r ia l o f t en i n adve r ten t ly c ome i n to c on ta c t w i th o t he r m a te r ia l s . E xamp le s o f t h is a r e b u tche r ing t o o l s c on ta c t ing u nde r ly ing b one , a nd t o o l s c om ing i n to c on ta c t w i th t h e w o rk s u rf a ce u pon w h ich m a te r ia ls a r e b e ing c u t ( e .g . c u t t ing h i de o n t h e g round ) . A f i na l i s sue i st h a t s ome e xped ien t t o o l s m ay n o t b e u sed l o ng e nough t od eve lop w ea rt r ace s .

H ide s c rap ing t o o l s w ou ld n o t n eed t o b e a s r obu s t a s w ood w o rk ing t o o l s , b u t w ou ld r e qu i re r e la t ive ly s t rong , r e gu la r , a nd h i gh a ng led w o rk ing e dge s ( >80 ° ) . T h is i s c l ea r ly d emon s t ra ted b y t h e f o rm o f s t one e nd sc rape r s , w h ich a r e a lmo s t u b iqu i tou s i n P o s t -M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r a s semb lage s a r ound t h e g l obe . T ha t t h e se w e re u sed a sh i de sc rape r s i sq u i te c l ea rf r om t h e f a c tt h a t i d en t ica l t o o l s o f s t one a r e s t i l l i n u s e a mong c e r ta in t r ad i t iona l g r oup s , f o r e xamp le i nA f r ica ( e .g . , G a l laghe r 1 977 ) . T he s i ze o ft h e b l ank w ou ld d epend o n b o th t h e d e s i red s i ze o f t h e w o rk ing e dge a nd p o s s ib ly o n p r oce s s ing v o lume s . F o r t h e s c rap ing o f as ma l l r a bb i t h i de , f o r e xamp le , a s ma l l f i nge r -he ld s c rape r ( " thumbna i l" s c rape r ) m igh t s uff ice . F o r l a rge r , t h icke r h i de s i n g r ea te r q uan t i t ie s o ne w ou ld l i k e ly n eed , o r a t l e a s t p r ef e r , a l a rge r , r e sha rpenab le s c rape r ( mo re c omf o r tab le t oh o ld )o r ah af t ed o ne .

I fw e d o a c cep t t h e r e su l t s o ft h e se s p ec if ic s t ud ie s , t h ey w ou ld s uppo r t t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t b u tche r ing a nd w oodwo rk ing w e re b y f a r t h e d om inan t t a sk s f o r w h ich s t one t o o l s w e re u sed i n t h e M idd le ( a nd L owe r ) P a laeo l i th ic , b u t t h a t t h e re w e re a f ew o t he r c ommon t a sk s . T he l i m i ted o ccu r r ence , r e po r ted b y a l t h e a na lys t s , o fu se -wea ra s soc ia ted w i th w o rk ing b one o ri v o ry i sa l so s uppo r ted b y t h e l a ck o fm a te r ia l e v idence r e cove red f r om s i te s . V e ry f ew i t em so fw o rked b one ,i v o ry ,o ra n t le rh ave b een r e cove red f r om M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s .

T he m a jo r i ty o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic h i de -p roce s s ing t o o l r e qu i remen t s c ou ld h ave b een s a t i sf ied w i th s i de sc rape r s . Mo rpho log ica l ly , t h e se w ou ld s e rve w e l l i nl e s s r i go rou s s c rap ing t a sk s , s u ch a s d ef le sh ing . V a r iou s f o rm s o f s i de sc rape r s , w h ich m ay r e p r e sen t v a r iou s s t age s o f r e sha rpen ing ( D ibb le 1 987 ) , a r et h em o s tc ommon f o rm o f r e touched t o o l i nm any Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s . F o rm o re r i go rou s , l a t e r s t age s o fh i de p roce s s ing , s u ch a ss c rap ing o f t h e h a i r o r d r ied t i s sue s , e nd sc rape r s ( e spec ia l ly i n h af t ed f o rm ) w ou ld b e t h e m o s t s u i tab le . T he se a r e , h oweve r , a r e la t ive ly r a re t o o l t y pe i n Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s . F o r e xamp le , t h e n umbe r o fe nd sc rape r s i n t h e s t udy s amp le s u sed h e re i n c lude : P ech d e l ' Az I V ( l eve l F 2 )h a so ne t yp ica l ; l e Mou s t ie rh a s f o u rt y p ica l a nd o ne a t yp ica l ; C ombe C ape l le B a s h a s o ne t y p ica l a nd o ne a t yp ica l ; a nd J i bou i h a s o ne t y p ica l a nd s i x a t yp ica l . ( i n m y e xpe r ience ,m any o ft h e i t em s i d en t if ied b y a na lys t s a s a t yp ica l e nd sc rape r sw ou ld n o t s e rve w e l l a sh i de s c rape r s b ecau se t h e r e touch w a s s o i regu la r t h a t i tw ou ld h ave d amaged t h e h i de ) . T h i s m igh t b e a n i n d ica t ion t h a t t h e p r oce s s ing o fh i de s w a s n o t d eve loped t ot h e p o in t w he re i tt y p ica l ly , o r p e rhap s r e gu la r ly , i n c luded f i ne r f i n i sh ing t e chn ique s .

H ide Work ing /Proce s s ing T he w o rk ing /p roce s s ing o fa n ima l h i de s ,a tw ha teve rs t age o fd eve lopmen t i tw a s a t , w a s l i ke ly ar e la t ive ly c ommon t a sk i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( Ande r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; K ee ley 1 977 ) . H oweve r ,t h e d eg ree o fw ea rt h a to ccu r s o n h i de s c rap ing t o o l s d epend s o n t h e c ond i t ion o ft h e h i de , t h e n a tu re o f t h e h i de p r epa ra t ion ( s imp le d ef le sh ing v e r se s t a nn ing ) a nd , a s w i th a l t a sk s , t h e l e ng th o fu se . C u t t ing a nd s c rap ing d r y h i de s c ou ld b e e xpec ted t o p r oduce d e tec tab le w ea r ( b u t , s e e n o te a bove o n i s sue s i n u sew ea ra na ly s i s ) , b u t i ft h e w o rk ing o fh i de s w a s m a in ly c a r r ied o u tw hen t h ey w e re e n t i re ly f r e sh ( a s e ven s l igh t ly d r ied h i de s c an p roduce s i gn if ican t w ea r ) t h en t h i s t a sk m ay a l so , l i ke c u t t ing m ea t , b e g o ing u nde r -de tec ted i n u se -wea rs t ud ie s( Hayden 1 990 ) . C u t t ing t o o l s f o r t h is s o r t o ft a sk w ou ld r e qu i re t h e s ame g ene ra l m o rpho logy a s t h o se u sed f o r c u t t ing m ea t ; a r ea sonab ly l o ng a nd s ha rp c u t t ing e dge . T he t o o l s u sed f o r t h eo ne t a sk w ou ld l i ke ly w o rk w e l l i nt h eo t he r . T he g ene ra l f o rm o fs c rap ing t o o l s u sed o n h i de s w ou ld d epend o n w he the rt h ey w e re h and -he ld o rh af ted , a nd o n t h e i n tended r e su l t s o ft h e s c rap ing . I fm o re p r e s su r e a nd ' b i te ' a r e r e qu i red ( a s w i th l a rge r , t h icke r h i de s ) t h en a s c rape r w i th as ho r te r u se -edge , l i ke a n e nd sc rape r , m igh t b e m o re s u i tab le . O the rw i se af l ake w i th al o nge rw o rk ing e dge t h a t i se i the r n a tu ra l ly h i gh a ng led o r r e touched t o h ave ah i ghe r a ng le , l i ke as i de sc rape r , m ay b e s u i tab le , p a r t icu la r ly f o r d e f le sh ing f r e sh h i de s . A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( 1990 ) n o ted t h a t e v idence o f h i dewo rk ing w a s mo s t p r eva len t o n e nd sc rape r s , a nd t r an sve r se a nd c onve rgen t c onvex s c rape r s . K ee ley ( 1977 :126 ) n o ted t h a t h i dewo rk ing w ea r w a s t h e m o s t c ommon t y pe o fw ea r o n s i de sc rape r s . F o rt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , i tw ou ld b ev e ry u s ef u l t o h ave s ome i d ea o f w ha t l e ve l h i de w o rk ing t e chno logy h ad r e ached . I tm ay h ave s t i l l b een a r a the r c r ude p roce s s , p r oduc ing s e r v iceab le , b u t n o t f i ne , l e a the r f o r" c lo the s" ,c on ta ine r s ,s h e l te r ,e t c . .

P l an tC o l lec t ion /Proce s s ing T he re i s , o f c ou r se , l i t t le c hance o f t h e p r e se rva t ion o f p l an t m a te r ia ls t h a t m ay h ave b een g a the red a nd u sed , e i the ra sf ood o rc on s t ruc t ion m a te r ia ls . H oweve r , i ts e em s h i gh ly u n l ike ly t h a t p l an t s w e re n o t c o l lec t ed t o s ome d eg ree f o r f o od a nd f o r u se i n c on s t ruc t ing s e rv iceab le i t em s ( s he l te r s , c l o th ing , c o rd ing , b a sk e t s? ) . S t one t o o l s m ay h ave b een u sef u l i nt h ec o l lec t ion a nd m od if ica t ion o f c on s t ruc t ion m a te r ia ls . F o r e xamp le , g r a s se s a nd s e dg e s c ou ld b e g a the red a nd c u t t o s u i tab le l e ng th s w i th f l ake t o o ls a nd b a rk c ou ld b e c u t a nd s h r edd ed t o p r oduce c o rdage . H oweve r , s t one t o o ls m ay n o t h ave b een n ece s sa ry i nt h e g a the r ing a nd p r oce s s ing o fm any n on w oody p l an t s a nd , f o r t h o se s i tua t ion s w he r e t h ey w e re u s ed , s p ec if ic t o o l t y pe s o r s hape s m ay n o t h ave b een r e qu i red . T he s ame f o rm s o f c u t t ing a nd s c rap ing t o o ls u s ed f o r b u tche r ing a nd w o rk ing w ood m ay h ave b een s e rv iceab le f o r p l an t g a the r ing a nd p roce s s ing , e s pec ia l ly

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i t se lf ( t h inn ing i to r m od if y ing i t s p l an s hape w i th e dge r e touch ) .

i ft h el a t te rt a sk sw e re i n f requen t . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a tt a sk s a s soc ia ted w i th n on -woody p l an t s w ou ld h ave h ad l i t t le i n f luence o ng ene ra lt o o lb l ank f o rm .

T he re i s a n a l ter na t ive f o rm o f h af t ing t o t h e u se o f w ooden h and le s . B y s imp ly a pp ly ing a l a rge w ad o f v ege ta l r e s in , l i ke t h e ` s p in if ex ' u sed b y A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina ls ( e .g . , H ayden 1 981b ) o rb i tumen p roduced i n o t he rr e g ion s , ah af tc an b ep roduced f o rn on s tanda rd ized o r i regu la r s i zed a nd s haped f l ake s . S uch h af t s w i l l p ro tec t t h e u se r 's h and a nd s o a low t h e p e r son t o a pp ly m o re f o rce w i thou t f e a r o fi n ju ry , b u t d o n o t r e a l ly a low a ny i n c rea sed l e ve rage d u r ing u se o f t h e t o o l . T he se m a te r ia l s c an , h oweve r , b e r e con s t i tu ted ( a l though n o t a n u n l im i ted n umbe r o f t ime s ) a nd s o w hen a t o o l i s e xhau s ted i tc an b e r emoved f r om t h e r e s in h af t , a nd t h e r e s in s of t ened a nd r e app l ied t o an ew t o o lo rt o o lb l ank .

Haf t ing T he re h ave b een m any d if e r en t f o rm s o f s t one t o o l h af t ing d e sc r ibed i nt h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd ( Ande r son G e rf aud a nd H e lme r 1 987 )w h ich c an b ec l a s s if ied b yb o th t h e d eg ree o fi mpo r tance o ft h e h af tf o rm t ot o o l f unc t ion a nd s imp ly b y t h e g ene ra l l e ve l o f s oph i s t ica t ion o ft h e h af t . F o r s ome t o o l t y pe s t h e f unc t ion w i l l p u t v e ry s pec if ic c on s t ra in t s o n t h e h af t f o rm . P ro jec t i le s ( s pea r s , a r row s ) a r e ag ood e xamp le o ft h i s . T he p ro jec t i le s haf t mu s t s e rve i t s o wn f u nc t ion ( p rov ide m a s s , b a lance a nd f l igh t s t ab i l i ty , am e thod o f p ropu l s ion , e t c . ) i n t h e a pp l ica t ion o ft h e t o o l a sw ho le , b u t m u s t a l so e nab le t h e s t one t i p t o c a r ry o u t i t s f unc t ion ( p rov ide s ymme t ry , r e duce f l i gh t d rag , p unc tu re , c u t a nd p ene t ra te f l e sh ) w i thou t i n t roduc ing h i nd rance s l i ke at h ick c r o s s sec t ion o rb u lky l a sh ing o rg l ue . B ecau se o ft h e se c on s t ra in t s a nd r e qu i r emen t s h af t s l i ke t h e se a r e n ece s sa r i ly r e la t ive ly s oph i s t ica ted ( Hughe s 1 998 , 3 57 ) . I no t he r t oo ls t h e h af t m ay n o t b e an ece s sa ry c omponen t a nd i so n ly e mp loyed t oe nhance t h e u se o fa n a l ready f unc t iona l s t one t o o l . I n t h e se c a se s f ew c on s t ra in t s a r e p l a ced o n w ha t f o rm a nd l e ve l o fs oph i s t ica t ion t h e h af t may t a ke . Ag ood e xamp le o ft h i si sa nu nmod if ied f l ake ,u sed p e rhap sf o rb u tche r ing , t h a t i s s imp ly s andw iched i n ap i ece o f l e a the r o r a p a r t ia l ly s p l i tb ranch w h ich i st h en b ound o ne i the rs i de o f t h ef l ake .

H af t ing i nt he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T he re s e em s l i t t le q ue s t ion t h a t h af t ing w a s e mp loyed b y M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le i n s ome r e g ion s . T he s t emmed / tanged b i f ace s o ft h e A te r ian w e re v e ry l i ke ly h af t ed , b u t t h e se a r e r e s t r ic ted i nu se t oN o r th A f r ica a nd s im i la r i t em s a r e n o t f o und i n E u ropean P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s . I ti s ,a tt h is p o in t ,n o tw ide ly a g reed u pon a mong r e sea rche r s w he the r h af t ing w a s p r ac t iced i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic ( o r e a r l ie r ) i n We s te rn E u rope o r n o t , b u t t h e re a r e s eve ra l d i f f e ren tt y pe s o fe v idence s uppo r t ing i t s u se : 1 / E dge a nd s u rf a ce w ea r o n f l ake t o o ls h a s b een i n te rp re ted t ob e t h e r e su l t o ft h e t o o l m ov ing i nt h e h af t d u r ing u se ( e .g . , B ey r ie s 1 988 ; A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; A nde r son -Ge rf aud a nd H e lme r 1 987 ) -( one w onde r s , h oweve r ,w hy t h es ame s o r to fw ea rc ou ld n o tb ep roduced b y ad i r ty ,g r i t ty h and o rl e a the rf i nge rg ua rd ) .

T he h af t ing o ft o o l s r e su l t s i nt h e i r b e ing d i v ided u p i n to t wo d i f f e ren tp a r t s ; t h ep a r ts e cu red i n s ide t h eh af ta nd t h e p a r t a pp l ied t o t h e t a sk m a te r ia l . E a ch p a r t m ay r e qu i re d i f f e r en t m o rpho log ica l c r i te r ia . T h i s i sw hy t o o l s t h a t w e re o bv iou s ly h af t ed , e spec ia l ly t h o se i nw h ich t h e h af t h a s am o re i n t r ica te r o le i n t o o l f u nc t ion , o f t en h ave s pec if ic m od if ica t ion s f o r t h e h af t ing ( e .g . , as t em o r n o tch ing ) t h a t a r e d i s t inc t f r om t h e s t one t o o l 's f o rm o r mod if ica t ion s d e s igned f o r t a sk a pp l ica t ion . R egu la r h af t ing p r a c t ice sw ou ld t e nd t oe ncou rage e i the rt h eu se o f s pec if ic f o rm s o f f l ake m od if ica t ion ( l ike n o tch ing ) o r a c e r ta in l e ve lo fs t anda rd iza t ion a mong f l ake b l ank s .T h i si s b ecau se i ti st y p ica l ly t h e h af t s , r a the rt h an t h e s t one t i p s , t h a tr e qu i re t h e mo s tt ime a nd e f f o r tt op r oduce . Wh i le t h i s w ou ld b e m o re o f a n i s sue w i th s oph i s t ica ted t o o ls a nd h af t s , i ts t i l l h o ld s t r ue f o r s imp le t o o l f o rm s w i th s imp le t y pe s o f h af t s . T he s imp le s p l i t b r anch h af t , d e sc r ibed a bove , m ay p u t f ew s e r iou s c on s t ra in t s o n t h e f l ake s h af t ed i ni t ,b u t i ff l ake b l ank s o f as t anda rd ized s i ze a nd s hape a r e p roduced i ti se a s ie rt or e p la ce aw o rn o ne i na h a f tw i th af r e sh o ne t h an i ti st om anuf a c tu r e an ew h af tt o f i tt h e n ew f l ake t o o l . S ome l e ve l o fr e gu la r i ty i nt h e s i ze a nd s hape o f f l ake b l ank s w ou ld a l so a l low g r ea te r i n ve s tmen t i n , a nd t h u s s oph i s t ica t ion o ft h e h af t s . I fo ne c an s a f e ly a s sume t h a tt h e h af tw i l l n o t h ave t ob e a l te red f o r e a ch n ew b l ank r e p la cemen t , t h en o ne w i l l b e m o re i n c l ined t op roduce m o re e l abo ra te h af t s . F i t t ing e a ch n ew b l ank w i l l r e qu i re o n ly m in ima l mod if ica t ion o ft h e b l ank

2 /T he n a tu re o ff r ac tu re s ,o ns ome t o o l s ,a r ei n te rp re ted a s e i the r o f at y pe t h a t w ou ld r e su l t f r om p r e s su re a pp l ied t o t h e f l ake t o o l w h i le i tw a s s e cu red i n ah af t ( e .g . , A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; H o ldaway 1 989 ) o rf r om i mpac t ( Shea 1 988 , 1 995 ) . T he se i mpa c t f r a c tu re s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e i n te rp re ta t ion , b y s ome r e sea rche r s , t h a t Mou s te r ian a nd L eva l lo is " po in t s" w e re t h et i p s o fs p ea r s . I ft h is w a s t h e c a se t h en h af t ing i so bv iou s ly i mp l ied . H oweve r , t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o fM idd le P a la eo l i th ic p o in t s i sn o t u n ive r sa l ly a ccep ted a nd s ome r e sea rche r s w ou ld n o t a g ree , w i thou t mo re c onv inc ing e v idence , t h a t t h e se w e re p ro jec t i le t i p s . T he re a r e t ho se w ho h ave p r e sen ted c a se s f o r b o th s i de s o f t h e d eba te ( Shea 1 988 , 1 995 ; H o ldaway 1 989 ; B ey r ie s 1 988 ; A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 990 ; P l is son 1 988 ; S o leck i 1 992 ) . R ecen t ly , mo re d i rec t e v idence r e la t ing t ot h eq ue s t ion o fL eva l lo is p o in tu se h a s b een p r e sen ted w i th t h e d i scove ry o fw ha t a ppea r s t ob e t h e t i p o f aL eva l lo is p o in t e mbedded i n t h e c e rv ica l v e r teb ra o f aw i ld a s s i n S y r ia ( Boöda e t a l 1 999 ) , a l though t h e m ed ia l f l ake f r agmen t i nq ue s t ion w a s f o und i n s ide t h e n eu ra l c ana l a nd i t i s n o t c l ea r f r om t h e i l u s t ra t ion s o r p ho tog raph s p rov ided t h a t i th ad t o h ave p a s sed f o r cef u l ly t h rough t h e w a l l o ft h e v e r teb ra t oh ave e nded u pt h e re .

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3 /A no the rp o ten t ia l f o rm o fe v idence o fh af t ing i sb u lba r t h inn ing . T h i s i ss ugge s ted t ob e am e thod o ft h inn ing t h e h af ted e nd o f af l ake s ot h a t i tw i l l f i tm o re r e ad i ly i n to a h af t ( Bey r ie s 1 988 ) . B u lba r t h inn ing , t h ough n o t av e ry f r equen t p r a c t ice , i sn o t u ncommon . S eve ra l i t em s f r om t h e s amp le a s semb lage s u s ed h e re h ad o bv iou s b u lba r t h inn ing ( s ee p l a te s4 ,5 ,a nd 6 ) .

i sn o t ac on s t ra in t ,t h en i tw ou ld b ee a sy t os imp ly d i sca rd t h et o o l w hen t h et a sk a th and i sc omp le te o rt or e p la ce i t w i th a no the r w hen i tb ecome s t o o d u l l . I f , h oweve r , o ne h a s t a ken t h e t ime t om anuf ac tu re ah a l t a nd s e cu re t h e f l ake t o o l i ni t( e ven as imp le h af t l i ke m o lded b i tumen ) t h en i tn ow r e p re sen t s am o re s i gn if ican t i n ve s tmen t a nd c anno tb es oe a s i ly d i sca rded w i thou tw a s ted e f f o r t . At o o l l i ke t h is w ou ld b e k ep t a nd r e u sed o ve r a nd o ve r , w i th m a in tenance a nd r e sha rpen ing w hen n eeded , u n t i l i tw a s t o o s ma l l o r t o o s t eep t o r e sha rpen . O nce i tc ou ld n o l o nge r b e m a in ta ined i tw ou ld b e r emoved f r om t h e h a f t , d i sca rded , a nd r e p laced w i th an ew f l ake . S uch as c ena r io i s ,i nf a c t ,w e l ls uppo r ted b yD ibb le 's ( 1 987 )i n te rp re ta t ion o f Mou s te r ian s c rape r v a r iab i l i ty . T he se h af t ed t o o ls w ou ld h ave t ob e c a r r ied a r ound f r om s i t et os i t e a nd s o , f o r p ede s t r ian h un te r -ga the re r s , c ou ld b ecome f a c to r s a s m a te r ia l p o s se s s ion s i n mob i l i ty c on s t ra in t s . T he f u nc t iona l a dvan tage s o fh a f t ing w ou ld b e c on s t ra ined b y t h e e x t ra w e igh t t h a t t h e se t o o ls w ou ld a dd d u r ing t r ave l . T o m ake p r a c t ica l s e n se , h af t ing w ou ld h ave t o p r ov ide n e t b enef i t s o ve r t h e t r an spo r t o ff u nc t iona l ly e qu iva len t v o lume so fr aw m a te r ia lf o rh and -he ld f l ake s t ra teg ie s .

4 /S t anda rd iza t ion o ft o o l w id th s a mong s ome c onve rgen t s c rape r s h a s b een s ugge s ted t ob e a n i n d ica t ion t h a tt h e se w e re h af t ed ( Bey r ie s 1 988 ) . B a sed o n t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e w ea r i d en t if i ed b y B eyr ie s , t h e se t o o l s w ou ld h ave p r e sumab ly b een i n se r ted i nt h e e nd s o fn o tched w ooden h and le s . T h ieme ( 1 997 :808 ) r e cove red t wo s ho r t ( 2 0 -30 c m ) w ooden s haf t s f r om t h e s i te o fS chön ingen t h a t l o ok v e ry m uch l i ke t h e i re nd sw e re i n ten t iona l ly n o tched ,w i th t h e m o s t l o g ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion b e ing t h a t t h e se w e re t o o l h af t s( f lake sw e re f ound i nc l o se a s soc ia t ion ) . A long t h e se s ame l i ne s , L imace s , o cca s iona l t o o l s i n Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s , v e ry c l o se ly r e semb le a dze ' s lug s ' ( e xhau s ted a dze b l ade s ) f r om h a f ted a dze s i nA u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ina lt o o lk i t s . 5 /T he f i na ll i ne o fe v idence i n vo lve sr e cen td i scove r ie si n b o th E a s te rn E u rope a nd t h e M idd le E a s t ( Boöda e t . a l . 1 998 ) o fs ma l l , b u t s ub s tan t ia l M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p i ece s o f t r ee s a p r e s in a nd b i tumen . S eve ra l p i ece s w e re r e cove red f r om t h e s i t e o f K ön ig saue i n G e rmany , o ne w i th f i nge rp r in t s a nd t h ei n den ta t ion o rm o ld l e f tf r om t h e f l ake t o o lt h a th ad b een i n se r ted i ni t( G rünbe rg 2 002 ) .

H af t ing i s ar e a l i s t ic a nd e f ec t ive s t ra tegy f o r a dd re s s ing c e r ta in t o o l r e qu i remen t s . I ti su sed b y m ode rn g roup s , i t h a s b een u s ed v e ry e x ten s ive ly a r ound t h e w o r ld i nt h e r e cen t a nd d i s tan t p a s t , a nd t h e re i sn o r e a son t o e xpec t t h a ti tc ou ld n o th ave b een e mp loyed b yE u ropean M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le i nt h er i gh tc ond i t ion s .T he e v idence i n f a vou r o f h af t ing , a s p r e sen ted b y B eyr ie s ( 1 988 ) , A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( 1990 ) , a nd A nde r son -Ge rf aud a nd H e lme r ( 1 987 ) i sn o t c onc lu s ive , a s Is e e t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h en a tu re a nd l o ca t ion o ft h ed amage t h ey a t t r ibu te t o h af t ing w ea rc ou ld b e e xp la ined i no t he rw ay s . H oweve r , w hen t h e i rr e su l t sa r ev i ew ed i nc on junc t ion w i th D ibb le 's ( 1 987 )i n te rp re ta t ion o f Mou s te r ian s c rape rm o rpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty ap a t te rn e me rge st h a ts t rong ly s ugge s t st h eu s e o fh af t ing o fs c rape r s , a tl e a s t . A l though t h e r e su l t s f r om B ey r ie s ' ( 1 988 , 1 987 ) u s e -wea r a na ly s i s , r e la t ive t ot o o l t y pe sa nd f u nc t ion s , a r et e n ta t ive ( due t oh e r s ma l l s amp le s i ze s f o r e a ch t o o l t y pe ) , s ome p o ten t ia l ly s i gn if i can t p a t ter n s a r e s ugge s ted . S he f o und s i gn if ican t e v idence o f h af t ing o n t h e s ymme t r ica l c onve rgen t s c rape r s , b u t n o e v idence o f h af t ing o n t h e a s ymme t r ica l c onve rgen t s c rape r s o r o n t h e n on -conve rgen t s c rape r s . I n l i gh t o f D ibb le 's ( 1 987 ) i n te rp r e ta t ion t h a t c onve rgen t a nd t r an sve r se s c rape r s s imp ly r e p re sen t l a t e r s t age s i n a c ommon p roce s s o fu s e a nd r e sha rpen ing o ff l ake t o o l s , B ey r ie s ' r e su l t s may r ef l ec t ac ommon p r a c t ice o fh af t ing t h e se t o o l s . I tw ou ld b e l o g ica l t o e xpec t t h a t o nce t h e e f o r th ad b een m ade t oh af t af l ake i tw ou ld t h en t e nd t o b e m o re e x ten s ive ly r e u sed a nd r e sha rpen ed . S i ng le -edge a nd d oub le s c rape r s ( n on -conve rgen t ) w ou ld r e p re sen t f l ake s t h a t h ad e i the r b een e mp loyed u nhaf t ed ( a nd t h u s w e re m o re e a s i ly d i sca rded a t a ny p o in t i n t h e u s e / re sha rpen ing p roce s s )o re l se h ad b een d i sca rded f r om t h e h af tb ef o re e x ten s ive r e sha rpen ing m od if i ed t h e p l an v i ew o ft h et o o l( t owa rd sc onve rgence o ft h e l a te ra le dge s ) a nd , a s r ef l ec ted b y B ey r ie s ' o b se rva t ion s , b ef o re w ea r

I fw e a c cep t t h a t N eande r ta l s d i d h af t s ome t o o l s t h en , d epend ing o n t h e t y pe o f h af t , t h is may i mp ly c e r ta in c on s t ra in t s o n t o o l f o rm . A s d i scu s sed a bove , w i th m anuf a c tu r ed w ooden h af t s i ti st y p ica l ly t h e h af t , r a the r t h an t h e s t one t o o l ,t h a tr e p re sen t st h eg r ea te s t i n ve s tmen t o ft i me a nd l a bou r .T h i sw ou ld b ee s pec ia l ly t r ue w hen t h e s t one t o o l sa r es imp le ,u nmod if ied ( o rl i m i ted ly s o )f l ake s . P roduc ing o r mod if y ing f l ake st h a tc an b er e ad i ly f i tt oa n e x i s t ing h af tw ou ld b ee a s ie rt h an p roduc ing an ew h af t ,o r s i gn if i can t ly mod if y ing au sed o ne , t of i t an ew f l ake . I f h af t ing w a s ac ommon ly e mp loyed p r a c t ice w i th M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f l ake t o o l s t h en a c e r ta in d eg ree o f s t anda rd iza t ion a mong s ome f l ake s p r oduced w ou ld b e a r e a sonab le e xpec ta t ion ( I f , h oweve r , h af t s w e re mo r e c ommon ly p roduced b y s imp ly m o ld ing b i tumen o ve ro ne e nd o ft h e t o o l a nd l e t t ing i td ry , t h en c on s t ra in t s o n t o o l f o rm m ay b e f ewe r ) . T he a ppea rance o f ac e r ta in l e ve l o f s t anda rd iza t ion ( ` regu la r i ty ' may b e ab e t te rt e rm ) h a s , i n f a c t , l o ng b een s ugge s ted t o b e ac ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic t h a t d i s t ingu i she s i tf r om t h e L owe r P a la eo l i th ic .T h is l e ve lo fg ene ra l iza t ion s hou ld b ev i ewed w i th c au t ion , h oweve r , b ecau se , a mong o t he r t h ing s , i t s a c cu ra cy m ay d epend e n t i re ly o n w he re o ne p l a ce s t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e L owe r a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod s( a no the ri s sue l a ck ing c on sen su s ) . T he u s e o f h af t ing t e chno logy a l so b r ing s w i th i to t he r i mpo r tance c on s ide ra t ion s . I fo ne u s e s u nmod if i ed f l ake t o o l si na nu nhaf t ed s t a te ,a nd r aw m a te r ia le conom iza t ion

4 4

I ft r an sve r se s c rape r sh ad b een h af t ed , i tw ou ld m ake m o re s e n se h af t ed i n am anne rt h a tw ou ld a low t h em t ob eu sed a s a dze s o r f o r s c rap ing h a rde r m a te r ia ls o r i n am anne r s im i la r t ou l u s u sed b y mo re r e cen t g roup s i nt h e N o r th Ame r ican A rc t ic .

a ccumu la ted o n t h e p rox ima l p o r t ion o f t h e f l ake f r om c on tac tw i th t h eh af t . Wh i le B ey r ie s f ound n o e v idence o fh af t ing w ea r o n a ny o t he rt oo lt y pe s , i ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tw i th s ome t ype so f h af t ed t o o l s t h e r e m igh t b e l i t t le o r n o m ovemen t o ft h e t o o l i n t h e h af t t o p roduce i d en t if iab le w ea r . S i tua t ion s w he re t h is l a ck o fm ovemen t m igh tb e e xpec ted a r e w hen t h e l e ve l o fp r e s su re a pp l ied w i th t h et o o l i sl i m i ted a nd i n t o o l s w he re m o re o f t h e f l ake i si n t h e h af t t h an o u t , r e duc ing t h e a moun t o fl e ve rage t h a t w ou ld b e a pp l ied t o t o o l i nt h eh af td u r ing a pp l ica t ion . F o rt o o l si nw h ich mo re o ft h e f l ake i sp ro t rud ing t h an i ss e cu r ed i nt h e h af t , t h e a moun t o fp o ten t ia l l e ve rage , w hen p r e s su re i sa pp l ied t o t h e w o rk ing e dge , w ou ld b e s i gn if ican t ly i n c rea sed . S uch m ay h ave b een t h ec a se w i th t h es c rape r sd i scu s sed a bove .

Wh i le u se -wea ra na ly s t s h ave s o f a r f ound n o e v idence o f h af t ing o n o t he r Mou s te r ian t o o l t ype s , l i ke n o tche s o r d en t icu la te s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e se t o o ls w e re h af ted i na m anne rt h a t d i dn o tp roduce w ea r( e .g . ,t h eh af t ing w a s s o s e cu re t h a t t h e r e w a s n o m ovemen t o f t h e b l ank i nt h e h af t ) : t h is m igh t b e e xpec ted w i th t h e u se o fr e s in s l i ke b i tumen o r s p in if ex . H oweve r , n o tche s a nd d en t icu la te s a r e v e ry s im i la rt ou nha f ted , e xped ien t , s ho r t l ived , h and h e ld t o o l s u sed b y A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l g roup s a nd a r e u n l ike ly t oh ave b een h af ted .

S a t i sf y ing H af t ing C on s t ra in t s

P hys io log ica lC ons tra in ts -Hand S treng th

T he n a tu re o f t h e h af t ing u sed w ou ld h ave v a r ied s omewha t ,a tl e a s ti nt e rm so ft h ed i f f e r en tf unc t ion so ft h e s t one t o o l s . T oo l t y pe s r e p re sen ted b y d oub le -edge a nd c onve rgen ts c rape r sw ou ld s e em t oh ave b een h af t ed a tt h e e nd o f a[ wood ] s haf tr e su l t ing i n at o o lc l o se ly r e semb l ing amode rn k n if e ( f ig . 5 . 2 ) , a nd i ns u ch af o rm c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r c u t t ing . F o r t h i s t y pe o f h a f t t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t mo rpho log ica l f e a tu re o f t h e b l ank i st h a t i t s h af t ed e nd i so f as i ze a nd s hape t h a t m a tche s , a sc l o se ly a s p o s s ib le , t h e e nd o ft h e h af t i n to w h ich i t mu s t f i t . I t d oe s n o t h ave t om a tch p e rf ec t ly t ow o rk , b u t t h e c l o se r t h e m a tch t h e g r ea te rt h e p o ten t ia l t oa ch ieve as o l id h af t . I n g ene ra l t e rm s , i fw e a r e t a lk ing a bou t a n e l onga ted w ooden h and le ( of p e rhap s t wo t ot h r ee c m i nd i ame te r ) t h en t h eh af ted e nd o ft h ef l ake b l ank s hou ld p r ef e rab ly b e a bou tt h i ss ame w id th o ve re nough o ft h el e ng th o ft h ee nd i n se r ted i nt h eh a f ted s ot h a t al a rge e nough p o r t ion o ft h e b l ank f i t s i n to t h e h af t t oh o ld t h e b l ank s e cu re ly . I ft o o much o ft h e b l ank p ro t rude s f r om e i the r s i de o ft h e h af t t h en i tb ecome s mo re d if i cu l tt op rope r ly s e cu re . F o rt h i s t y pe o fh af t , b l ade l ike f l ake s ( o ra tl e a s t e l onga ted f l ake s ) w ou ld b e mo s t s e rv iceab le . R ough ly p a ra l le l s ided b l ank s o ft h e s ame w id th a st h e h af t w ou ld a low t h e m ax imum p o r t ion o ft h eb l ank t ob ee nc lo sed i nt h eh af t .

T h i s i s ac on s t ra in t w h ich h a s s e en l i t t le s c ru t iny b y p a s t r e sea r che r s . T he s ugge s t ion h e re i sn o tt h a tt h is i s af a c to r t h a t w ou ld l i ke ly d i c ta te w he the r i n d iv idua ls c ou ld o r c ou ld n o t s u cce s sf u l ly p r a c t ice s pec if ic t e chno log ie s . R a the r , i ti ss ugge s ted t h a tv a r iab i l i ty i nh and /a rm s t reng th a nd m anua ld ex te r i ty m ay a f ec tt h el e ve lo fe ff ic iency a nd r e l iab i l i ty w i th w h ich d if e ren tt e chno log ie sc an b ec a r r ied o u t , a nd t h a t i fc e r ta in l e ve ls o fe ff ic iency a nd r e l iab i l i ty c ou ld n o t b e a ch ieved d ue t ot h i s c on s t ra in t t h en c e r ta in t e chno log ie s m igh t n eed t o b e mod if ied o r r e p laced . I n d iv idua lh and s t reng th m ay b eo ne o ft h el e a s te xam ined f a c to r s i n s t one t o o l t e chno log ie s ( bu t s e e T r inkau s a nd V i l lemeu r 1 99 1 ; N iewoehne r e t . e l . 1 997 ) . I nd iv idua l s w i th r e la t ive ly l i t t le h and s t r eng th m ay w e l l a pp roa ch a t a sk w i th d if e r en t s t ra teg ie s t h an s omeone w i th g r ea te r h and s t reng th . W i th r e spec t t ot o o l mo rpho logy w e c ou ld e xpec t t h a t a n i n d iv idua l w i th g r ea te r r e la t ive s t reng th t o b e l e s s c on s t ra ined b y f l ake s i ze . T he se i n d iv idua l s w ou ld b e b e t te r a b le t oe mp loy s ma l le r a nd l a rge r f l ake s t h a t a n i n d iv idua l o f l e s se r s t reng th w ou ld f i nd i mpo s s ib le t o m a in ta in as e rv iceab le g r ip o n . T he p o ten t ia l i n f luence o f v a r iab i l i ty i n h and s t reng th o n o t he r a s pec t s o f t o o l m o rpho logy n eed st ob ef u r the ri n ve s t iga ted . B ecau se w e t e nd t o u se AMH 's a s b enchma rk a na log s ( whe the r t h e d a ta c ome s f r om p r eh is to r ic c on tex t s , e t hnog raph ic s ou rce s , o ri n d iv idua l r e sea rche r e xpe r ience ) f o r o u r g ene ra l p e rcep t ion s a nd o p in ion s a bou t l i t h ic t e chno logy , w hen w e e xam ine t h e b ehav iou r o f o t he r h om in id s pec ie s w e s hou ld t a ke p o ten t ia l , s i gn if ican t p hy s ica l d i f f e rence s i n to a ccoun t . Wh i le i n c rea sed h and s t reng th d oe s n o t e qua l i n c rea sed d ex te r i ty , n o r d oe s i t m ean d ec rea sed d ex te r i ty a nd t h e r e i s ap o ten t ia l f o r g r ea te rs t reng th t oa low b e t te rc on t ro l i nt h ea pp l ica t ion o f f o rce . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly n o tab le i nf l in tk napp ing . Wh i le i n d iv idua ls w i th l e s se r ha nd / a rm s t reng th a r e c e r ta in ly n o t p r even ted f r om s ucce s sf u l ly p rac t ic ing k napp ing t e chn ique s , a n i n d iv idua l w i th g r ea te r h and /a rm s t reng th w i l l h ave ag r ea te r c ho ice i nt h e r a nge o ff o rce s a pp l ied w i th a p e rcu s so r a nd , p e rhap s e ven m o r e i mpo r tance i mpo r tan t ly , w i l l h ave b e t te r c on t ro l a nd c ho ice i nh ow t o

F igure 5 . 2 T ype o fh af ti n wh ich b l ank w id th i sa n i mpor tan tc ons idera t ion .

4 5

r emove f l ake s f r om s ma l le r c o re s . B a sed o n p e r sona l e xpe r ience w i th d i rec tp e rcu s s ion k napp ing , i tc an b ev e ry d i ff icu l t t or emove f l ake s f r om as ma l l c o re o rt o o l e dge w hen t h ec o re o rt o o l i sh e ld f r ee -hand ( k nappe r sc an , a nd s ome t ime s d o , c hoo se t o b r a ce t h e o b jec t b e ing s t ruck a ga in s ts ome th ing [ o ne 's l e go ra na nv i lo fs ome t y pe ] ,b u t t h is c an d r a s t ica l ly c h ange t h e m echan ic s o ft h e f l ak ing p r oce s s a nd i sn o t a lway s a n o p t ima l s o lu t ion -H ayden [ 1 98 l b ] n o ted t h i sa mong A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l g roup sa s w e l l ) . When h o ld ing f r ee -hand ac o re o rt o o l a nd t r y ing t o r emove f l ake s f r om i t ,t y p ica l ly , much o ft h e f o rce o ft h e i mpa c t f r om t h e p e rcu s s ion t o o l i s a b so rbed b y t h e i n adve r ten tm ovemen to ft h ea rm h o ld ing t h eo b jec tb e ing s t ruck . T h i s i sn o t a s much a n i s sue w i th s of thamme r p e r cu s s ion b ecau se t h e s p eed w i th w h ich t h e se p e rcu s s ion t o o l s c on ta c t t h e c o re o r t o o l i s much g r ea te r t h an w i th h amme r s tone s a nd s o a tt h e p o in t o fi mpa c t t h e re i sl e s s t ime f o r t h e e ne rgy o f t h e b l ow t o b e t r an s la ted i n to m o t ion . A l so ,w i th l a rge c o r e s o rt o o l st h i s i sn o ta n i s sue b ecau se t h e m a s s o f t h e se o b jec t s p r even t s t h em f r om m ov ing e a s i ly a nd s o t h e e ne rgy o f ab l ow , e ven w i th a l a rge , s l ow m ov ing h amme r s tone , i s n o t s o r e ad i ly t r an s la ted i n to movemen t a nd f l ake s a r e mo re e a s i ly f o rmed . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t as i gn if i can ti n c r ea se i na rm a nd h and s t r eng th w ou ld a low a k nappe r t o h o ld a s ma l l o b jec tm o re s o l id ly ,w h i le t r y ing t or emove f l ake s f r om i t , a nd t h e reby r e duce t h ed eg ree o fe ne rgy l o s ti ni n adve r ten t m ovemen t .

a low t h e i t em b e ing s t ruck ( c o re o rt o o l ) t oa b so rb t h a t f o rce . S ucce s sf u lk napp ing d epend so nt h ec ho ice o fa ng le a nd a moun t o ff o rce a pp l ied , a nd t h e d if e rence b e tween s u cce s s a nd f a i lu re i sm ea su red i nv e ry s l igh t d eg ree s o f a ng le a nd f o rce . H and S t r eng th i nM idd l eP a la eo l i th ic SW F rance I ti sm o re d if i cu l tt oi mag ine t h i sa s af a c to ri nt h ec ho ice o fr e duc t ion t e chno log ie st h an i tm igh tb ea s af a c to ri nt h e c ho ice o ft o o l f o rm s . Many o ft h e l i t h ic s t ra teg ie s c a r r ied o u t b y N eande r ta l s : b i f a ce p roduc t ion , a mo rphou s c o re r e du c t ion , v a r iou s t y pe s o f p r epa red c o re r e duc t ion ( Leva l lo i s , d i sc , b l ade ) , a nd b i po la r c o re r e duc t ion w e re c a r r ied o u ti ns im i la rm anne r sb ym o rpho log ica l ly m ode rn p eop le i n l a te r t ime p e r iod s . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t N eande r tha l sw e re n ol e s sd ex te rou st h an mode rn h uman s , a tl e a s ti nt h ec on tex to fs t one t o o lp roduc t ion .T h i si sa l so s uppo r ted b y c u r ren t r e sea rch o n N eande r tha l s k e le ta l mo rpho logy w h ich i n d ica te s t h a t , c on t ra ry t o p a s t a s se r t ion s( Bou le 1 9 11 -13 ; S a ra s in 1 931 ; Mu sg rave 1 973 ) , t h e r e i sn o r e a son t o s ugge s t t h a t N eande r tha ls d i d n o t h ave t h e s ame r a nge o fm an ipu la t ive p o s tu r e s a s moder n p eop le ( N iewoehne r e t . a l . 1 997 ; T r inkau s & V i l lemeu r 1 99 1 ) . H oweve r , e v idence h a s b een p r e sen ted o n N eande r tha l s ke le ta l mo rpho logy t h a t d oe s i n d ica te t h a t , a s w i th t h e i r l i mb s i n g ene ra l , N eande r tha l s h ad m o re p owe rf u lh and sa nd t h a tt h i sr e la t ive i n c r ea se wa sr e a l ized i nb o th t h e i r p owe r g r ip a nd p r ec is ion g r ip ( T r inkau s & V i l lemeu r 1 99 1 :259 ) w h ich w ou ld a low m o r e p owe rf u l s t roke a nd t o o l movemen t s .

Raw Ma ter ia l Qua l i ty D if f e ren t r aw m a te r ia l s f r om w h ich t o o l s a r e m ade c an p l ace d if e ren t c on s t ra in t s o n t o o l f o rm . W i th c oa r se r g r a ined m a te r ia l s c u t t ing e dge s m ay n eed t ob ee ven m o re a cu te , i no rde r t o f u nc t ion p rope r ly , t h an t o o ls o f f i ne r g r a ined m a te r ia l s .I ft o o l sf u nc t ion l e s se f ec t ive ly b ecau se o fr aw m a te r ia l q ua l i t ie s , l a rge rt o o l s m ay b e n ece s sa ry s o t h a t g r ea te r f o rce c an b e b rough t t ob ea r . S ome m a te r ia l s m ay b e l e s s d u rab le a sw e l l , w h ich m ay m ake t h em l e s s s u i tab le f o rs ome t a sk s( s ee H o r sf a l l 1 987 f o r ad i scu s s ion o ft h i s i sue w i th r e spec tt og r ind ing t o o l s ) . R aw m a te r ia l q ua l i ty l i ke ly p l ayed l i t t le o r n o r o le i n s t one t o o l s t ra teg ie sa tt h ef ou rs amp le s i te s . T he s i z e o fp i ece s o fa va i lab le r aw m a te r ia l c an h ave a v e ry s e r iou se f ec to nt o o lf o rm . I ft h er aw m a te r ia li so n ly a va i lab le i ns ma l lp ebb le s i ze sa nd s hape s ,t h en o n ly s ma l l f l ake s a nd s ma l l p ebb le t o o l s w i l l b e p o s s ib le . R aw m a te r ia l s i ze a nd s hape l i ke ly d i d p l ay s ome r o le i nl i t h ic s t ra teg ie sa tt h ef ou rs i t e s .

G rea te r g ene ra l h and s t reng th a nd a m o re p owe rf u l p r ec i s ion g r ip w ou ld p o ten t ia l ly a low a n i n d iv idua l t o b e t te rm an ipu la te av e ry s ma l l ,u nhaf t ed t o o lt h a ts omeone w i th l e s se r s t reng th c ou ld n o t e f ec t ive ly u s e u n le s s , p e rhap s , i t wa s h af t ed . A mo re p owe rf u l g r ip o n as ma l l f l ak e t o o l w i l l a l so b e t te r p r o tec t t h e i n d iv idua l 's h and f r om p o ten t ia l d amage f r om s ha rp e dge s . F rom t h i s p o in t o f v i ew w e m igh t e xpec t t o s e e t h e u s e o f s ma l le r , u nhaf t ed f l ake s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . We m igh t s u rm i se t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e s ma l l t o o l s t y p ica l o ft h e l a te r U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic w e re u sed i n c ompo s i te t o o l f o rm s . H oweve r , g r ea te r o ve ra l l s t reng th w ou ld a l so a low t h e mo re e ff i c ien t w ie ld ing o f l a rge r t o o l s a s w e l l , i n w h ich c a se w e m igh t e xpec t t o s e e a g ene ra lt r end t owa rd sl a rge rf l ake t o o ls ,w hen c ompa red t o l a te rp e r iod s ,t os u i tt h ec apab i l i t ie so fN eande r ta ls . A dze s c ou ld h ave b een l a rge r a nd u s ed w i th g r ea te r f o rce f o r w oodwo rk ing . I tm u s t a l so b e n o ted t h a t , w h i le g r ea te r h and s t r eng th m ay a low a n i n d iv idua lt oe f ec t ive ly u se a v e ry s ma l l t o o l t h a tw ou ld o t he rw i se b e u nu sab le w i thou t h af t ing ,t h i sw ou ld n o tp r even tt h a ti n d iv idua lf r om h af t ing s ome o ft h e i rt o o l s i no rde rt of u r the r i n c rea se t h e l e ve l o f p r e s su re t h a t c ou ld b e a pp l ied w i th t h em , a nd t h e i r p o ten t ia lr a nge o fa pp l ica t ion s .

Raw Ma ter ia l P a laeo l i th ic

L im i ta t ions

i n t he

M idd le

F o rt h em anuf ac tu re o fs imp le , s e rv iceab le s t one t o o l s t h e o n ly r e qu i r emen t sa r et h a tt h er aw m a te r ia l c ome s i nl a rge e nough n odu le s , i s f i ne -g ra ined e nough t o p r oduce s u i tab ly s h a rp e dge s , t h a t i ti s h omogeneou s i n b o th c ompo s i t ion a nd s t ruc tu r e , a nd t h a t i ti sb r i t t le e nough t o f r ac tu re a pp rop r ia te ly u nde ra pp l ied p r e s su r eo rf o rce . T he v a s t m a jo r i ty o f s t one t o o ls r e cove r ed f r om M idd le

I ti sd if i cu l t t o i mag ine ( b e s ide s b e ing v e ry d if i cu l t t o t e s t ) e xa c t ly i fa nd h ow g r ea te r a rm a nd h and s t reng th w ou ld h ave a f ec ted t h e i rk napp ing a b i l i t ie s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h i s w ou ld a low a k nappe r t o mo re s u cce s sf u l ly

4 6

P a la eo l i th ic c on tex t s i n We s te rn E u rope , a nd i n SW F rance i n p a r t icu la r , a r e o f r e la t ive ly h i gh q ua l i ty c r yp toc ry s ta l l ine p r ec ip i ta te r o ck s , i . e . f l i n t s . S uch f l in t i s r e ad i ly a va i lab le a lmo s t e ve rywhe re i n SW F rance ( Hayden 1 980 :2 ; B o rde s a nd d e S onnev i l le -Bo rde s 1 970 7 1 , 6 7 ; s e ea l so F eb lo t -Augu s t in s 1 999 ) .T h is r aw m a te r ia l h a s f ew , i fa ny , l i m i ta t ion s i n t e rm s o f p o ten t ia l t o o l mo rpho logy . A lmo s ta ny t y pe o ff l aked s t one t o o lt h a th a s b een m anuf a c tu red c an p o ten t ia l ly b em ade f r om t h ef l in t s t y p ica l o f SW F rance . T he re a r e s i te s w he re o t he r ( l owe r q ua l i ty ) t y pe s o f r aw m a te r ia ls , s u ch a s q ua r tz i te , h ave b een r e cove red . Q ua r tz i te d oe sh ave r e a l i s t ic l i m i ta t ion s i n w ha t c an b e m ade f r om i t . T he se l i m i ta t ion s d o n o t , h oweve r , p r even tt h em anuf ac tu r eo fb i f a ce s( a t l e a s tl a rge o ne s , a l though e ven v e ry d e l ica te , p r e s su re f l aked p ro jec t i le p o in t sa r em ade f r om q ua r tz i te i ns ome r e g ion se . g . , t h e Ame r ican P l a in s a nd S ou thea s t ) , o r s imp le f l ake t o o l so fa ny s i ze ( w i th in t h el im i t so ft h es i ze o ft h ec o r eo r n odu le ) . P roduc ing s t anda rd ized b l ade s , e spec ia l ly s ma l l o ne s , f r om q ua r tz i te w ou ld b e d if i cu l t a nd w ou ld l i ke ly h ave av e ry h i gh r a te o ff a i lu re .

w i l l n ece s sa r i ly h ave t o d eve lop d if e ren t s t ra teg ie s o f s t one t o o l p roduc t ion a nd u s e . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t o n ly r a re ly w e re g roup s f a ced w i th s uch s imp l if ied s c ena r io s o fr aw m a te r ia l a cce s s . I n r e a l i ty , w hen w e t a lk o f a va i lab i l i ty a mong h un te r -ga the re r s , w e mu s t c on s ide r mo re t h an j u s t t h e s imp le d i s tance f r om t h e r aw m a te r ia l s ou rce t o t h e l o ca t ion o ft o o l p roduc t ion a nd u se . O the r c on s ide ra t ion s i n c lude : t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f a l p o ten t ia l r aw m a te r ia l s ou rce s t o t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l p a t te rn s o f g roup movemen ti n ar e g ion ; s e a sona lv a r iab i l i ty i nr aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty ( e .g . , d im in i shed a cce s s d ue t os now c ove r o r f r ozen g round ) ; t h e a moun t o f r aw m a te r ia l ( e i the r i n c obb le , c o re , o rt o o l f o rm ) t h a t ag roup c ou ld c a r ry w i th t h em ;w he the rg roup sh ad t or e ly s o le ly o np r ima ry /na tu ra l s ou rce so fr aw m a te r ia l( i . e . ,e xpo sed g eo log ic s ou rce s ) ,o r w he the r t h ey c oun ted i n p a r t o n h av ing a cce s s t o m a te r ia ls ,f o rt o o l s , l e f ta ts i te sb yp r ev iou so ccupan t s .T he r o le t h a t e a ch o ft h e se f a c to r s p l ay s i n as pec if ic g roup s i tua t ion w i l l i nf luence t h e n a tu re o f t h a t g roup 's s t one t o o lp roduc t ion s t ra tegy . I n t e rm s o f c a tego r iz ing d i s tance s b e tween s ou rce s o f l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l s a nd s i te sw he re t h ey w e re d i sca rded , I h ave e mp loyed G ene s te 's t h ree l e ve ls ( 1988 ; s e e a l so G amb le 1 993 :35 -36 ) , w h ich h e n o ted f r om M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s i n SW F rance a s c a tego r ie s o fd i s tance t h a t h ad ac ommon , d i rec t ly i n ve r se r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e p e rcen tage t h a t ar aw m a te r ia l s ou rce w a s r e p re sen ted i n a na s semb lage .

I n t h e f ou r s amp le a s semb lage s f r om t h e s t udy s i te s e mp loyed h e re , e xo t ic r aw ma te r ia l s a r e a lmo s t n on e x i s ten t . E s sen t ia l ly 1 00% o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l s i n t h e s amp le a s semb lage s o fP ech d e l ' Aze I V , C ombe C ape l le B a s , a nd J i bou i a r e i mmed ia te ly l o ca l ( < 1km ) . A t l e Mou s t ie rt h e r aw m a te r ia l s c ome f r om u p t o 1 0 k m a way , b u t e xo t ic r aw m a te r ia l s a r ev e ry r a re . I nt e rm s o fq ua l i ty , f o ra l f ou rs t udy s i te s ,t h ea va i lab le f l i n ti so fg ood t ov e ry g ood q ua l i ty .T h is c on s t ra in tw ou ld n o th ave p l ay m uch o f ar o le a tt h e se s i te s .

l o ca l = w i th in 5km r eg iona l = 5 20 km e xo t ic = 3 0 -80+ km

2 / P o ten t ia lC on s tra in t so n T oo lB lank P roduc t ion

R aw Ma t er ia lA va i lab i l i ty i n SW F rance

T he p r ev iou s s e c t ion a dd re ssed t h o se c on s t ra in t s t h a t i nf luence t h e f o rm o f t h e t oo l b l ank s t h em se lve s . T h is s e c t ion a dd re s se s t h o se f a c to r s t h a t d i r ec t ly c on s t ra in b l ank p roduc t ion s t ra teg ie s . S ome c on s t ra in t s s p ec if ica l ly a f f ec t t h e w ay i n w h ich l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia ls c an b e o p t ima l ly r e duced ; t h ey l i m i t t h e a va i lab le o p t ion s i nt h e a c tua l p roduc t ion p r oce s s . T he se i n c lude r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty , r aw m a te r ia l q ua l i ty , r aw m a te r ia l s i ze a nd s hape , p hys io log ica l c apab i l i t ie s , a nd a va i lab le t e chno log ie s .

A s m en t ioned a bove , g ood q ua l i ty r aw m a te r ia l s a r e a va i lab le i n r e la t ive a bundance i n d r a inage s y s tem s t h roughou t m o s t o f S ou thwe s t F rance . S eve ra l r e cen t , e x ten s ive s t ud ie s h ave e xam ined t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia ls r e cove red f r om s i te s a nd t h e i r s ou r ce s i nt h is a nd o t he r r e g ion s o f We s ter n a nd C en t ra l E u rope ( e .g . , F eb lo t -Augu s t in s 1 999 ; D ibb le & L eno i r 1 995 ; G ene s te 1 985 ; T u rq 1 992 ) . T he d a ta c o l lec ted b y t h e se r e sea r che r s c on t r ibu te s i gn if ican t ly t o t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o fM idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i f eway p a t ter n s , t h e d eg ree o f c on sc iou s e conom ic p l ann ing a nd f o r e s igh t a b i l i t ie s ,a nd e s tab l i shed t r ad i t ion so fl a nd -u se .T he o ve ra l l n a tu re o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic m ob i l i ty p a t ter n s i s i l u s t ra ted b yt h es im i la rg ene ra ln a tu re o fl i t h ic a nd f a una l r ema in s r e cove red f r om m o s t o f t h e m a jo r s i te s i n ve s t iga ted t o d a te . A l though t h e re w a s a n o bv iou s a ccumu la t ion o f l i t h ic a nd f a una l m a te r ia l s i n M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s ,w hen s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t sa tt h e se s i te sa r e e xam ined i n d iv idua l ly i ti sa ppa r en t t h a t e a ch o ccupa t ion o f o ne o f t h e se s i te s w a s o f v e ry s hor t d u ra t ion . T he r e la t ive ly s ma l l q uan t i t ie s o f l i t h ic s a nd f a una l r ema in s r e cove red f r om i n d iv idua l s t ra t ig raph ic l e ve ls , t h a t m u s t

Raw Ma ter ia l Ava i lab i l i ty A cce s s t o s u i tab le r aw m a te r ia l s h a s b ecome a p opu la r a r ea o f r e sea rch o ve r t h e p a s t d ecade ( e .g . , K uhn 1 992 ; F eb lo t -Augu s t in s ; G amb le 1 993 ; D ibb le 1 985 ; G ene s te 1 988 ; B ran t ingham a nd O l sen 2 000 ) . I ti su nde r s tood t h a t , a t i t s m o s t b a s ic l e ve l , t h is p o ten t ia l c on s t ra in t w i l l i nf luence t h e l e ve l o f n ece s sa ry e conom iza t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l s . T he o bv iou s e x t r eme s o f s i tua t ion s a r e t ho se w he r e e i the r t h e r e w a s r e la t ive ly e a sy a c ce s s t o l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f ma te r ia l o r t ho se w he re a cce s s t o e ven l i m i ted a moun t s o f m a te r ia l w a s r e s t r ic ted . I ti sr e ad i ly a ppa r en t t h a t g roup s f a ced w i th o ne o rt h e o t he r s i tua t ion

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g ene ra l a va i lab i l i ty o f s u i tab le l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l s i n S ou thw e s t F rance ( Bo rde s a nd d e S onnev i l le -Bo rde s 1 970 -7 1 ; Hb lo t -Augu s t in s 1 999 ; T u rq 1 988 , 1 989 ; W i l son 2 003 ) , f i t t ing o r e mbedd ing t h e a cqu is i t ion o f t h e se m a te r ia l s i n to m o s t p a t te rn s o fm ob i l i ty s hou ld n o t r e p re sen ta ny s e r iou s d i ff icu l ty i n mo s tr e g ion s .T h i s i sn o t t os a y t h a tt h e re w ou ld b en o v a r iab i l i ty b e tween d i f f e ren t M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i te s i n t h e n eed t o e conom ize r aw m a te r ia l s . S ome s i te s w e re s i tua ted v e ry n ea r s ou rce s . A t t h e se s i t e s ,e conom iza t ion o fr aw m a te r ia lw ou ld b el e s so f a n i s sue . O ne w ay t o d e te rm ine d eg ree o f r aw m a te r ia l e conom iza t ion i st h rough t h e e xam ina t ion o ff l ake t oc o re r a t io s ( D ibb le & L eno i r 1 995 : C hap te r 1 2 ; R o l land a nd D ibb le 1 99 1 ; D ibb le 1 988 ) . U nde r c i rcum s tance s w he r e e conom iza t ion i sr e qu i red ,c o re sw i l lt e nd t ob er e duced t o ag r ea te rd eg ree t h an i nc i rcum s tance s w he r e t h e re i sl e s s c once rn f o r r aw m a te r ia l . T h i s i n c rea se i n r e duc t ion i n ten s i ty w i l l r e su l t i n al a rge r n umbe ro ff l ake s p roduced p e r c o r e ( D ibb le 1 988 :193 ; R o th a nd D ibb le 1 998 : 5 2 ) . H en ry ( 1 989 :147 ) r e f e r s t o t h i s a s e x tend ing t h e p r oduc t ive l i f eo f ac o re . A lso , f r equency o fr e touch ,w h i le p o ten t ia l ly r e la ted t ot o o l f u nc t ion a nd t a sk t y pe s t os ome d eg ree , m igh t a l so s e rve a s am ea su re o f r aw m a te r ia l e conom iza t ion ( e .g . , R ie l -Sa lva to re a nd B a r ton 2 004 ) . F i gu re 5 . 3 b e low p l o t s f r equency o f r e touch a ga in s t f l ake :co r e r a t io s w i th t h e p r e sump t ion t h a t h i ghe r v a lue s o fb o th l i ke ly r ef lec t l e ve l s o fr aw m a t e r ia l e conom iza t ion t os ome d eg ree .

r e p re sen t h und red s o r t h ou sand s o f y ea r s , p r ec lude t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t o ccupa t ion s , e ven i fg roup s w e re v e ry s ma l l , c ou ld h ave b een o fa ny s i gn if ican t d u ra t ion ( Bu tze r 1 986 ; R o l land 1 999 ) . T he i n d ica t ion i s t h a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic m ob i l i ty o ccu r red a sf r equen tm ove s o f ab a se c amp f r om w h ich t a sk g roup s ( whe the r s pec ia l ized a nd f o cu sed o n as p ec if ic g oa l o r mo re o ppo r tun is t ic a nd g ene ra l ized i n i t s g oa l s ) w ou ld c ome a nd g o , i n d ica t ing mo re o f af o rage rs e t t lemen ts y s tem . I t i s i n l a rge p a r t , t h e n a tu r e o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic mob i l i ty , a si tr e la te s t ot h e p rocu r emen t o fa l r e sou rce s , t h a t w i l l d i c ta te t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l s ( a s sum ing t h a t t r ade w a s a n i n s ign if ican t f a c to r i n r aw m a te r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion ) . I fs u i tab le t y pe s a nd q uan t i t ie s o f r aw m a te r ia ls a r ea va i lab le c l o se t o(

60 ° a nd < 85° ( b a sed o n modem w oodwo rk ing t o o l s a nd A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l d a ta - G ou ld 1 980 ; H ayden 1 981b ) . I np l an ing o rw h i t t l ing w ood t h e p o r t ion o f t h e t o o l e dge t h a t c on ta c t s t h e m a te r ia l i sg ene ra l ly q u i te s ma l l a nd s oe dge l e ng th a nd f l ake c u rva tu re a r en o t s e r iou s c on s ide ra t ion s . R obu s t ic i ty i s , h oweve r , a n ece s sa ry c on s ide ra t ion b ecau se o ft h es i gn if ican tp r e s su re t h a ti st y p ica l ly u sed i na pp ly ing t h e se t o o l s . Whe the rt h ey a r e h af t ed o r h and h e ld , m o s t w oodwo rk ing f l ake t o o ls n eed t ob er obu s tt os t and u pt ot h et a sk .

A s b u t che r ing a nd w oodwo rk ing w e re t h e d om inan t t a sk s f o rw h ich f l ake t o o l s w ou ld h ave b een u s ed i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o fE u rope , r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s w ou ld h ave t o b e d e s igned t h a t p roduced f l ake b l ank s s u i tab le f o r t h e se a pp l ica t ion s . F lake s i ze w a s n o t l i ke ly a c r i t ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic i n t h e g ene ra l d e s ign o r s e lec t ion o f t o o l b l ank s a mong M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p eop le i n SW F rance . T h i si sd emon s t ra ted b yt h ei n ten t iona l p r oduc t ion a nd u se o f v e ry s ma l l f l ake s ( e .g . , K ombewa a nd f l ake s f r om A s s in ipod ian c o re s ) a ts ome Mou s te r ian s i te s . H oweve r , f o r m o s t t a sk s l a rge r f l ake s w e re l i k e ly p r ef e r r ed a nd , o t he rc ha ra c te r is t ic sb e ing e qua l , w e re l i ke ly t h e f i r s to ne s s e lec ted f r om a c o l lec t ion o f p o ten t ia l t o o l b l ank s . T h i s b ehav iou r i s r e f lec ted i n t h e e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re . Whe re r e sea rche r s h ave h ad t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o o b se rve t o o l b l ank s e lec t ion , s i ze o f ten p l ay s ar o le i n i n i t ia l s e lec t ion ,b u te ven tua l ly f l ake so f aw ide r a nge o fs i ze sa r e u sed ( w i th in p ra c t ica l l im i t s ) ( e .g . , S i l l i toe a nd H a rdy 2 003 :559 ; H ayden 1 98 1b : 2 6 ; Wh i te 1 968 :512 13 ; M i l le r 1 979 :402 -3 ; S t ra them 1 969 ) . I ti sl o g ica l t h en t oe xpec t a c on s i s ten t a t temp t t o max im ize f l ake s i ze ( t o a n u ppe r l i m i t o f p e rhaps 1 0 c m ) d u r ing p roduc t ion , b u t a lways w i th in t h e l i m i t s s e t b y o t he r c on s ide ra t ion s s u ch a sc o re s i ze a nd t h e i mpo r tance o f ma in ta in ing a v i ab le c o re mo rpho logy . Ak nappe rw i l l o f t en h ave t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o r emove ap a r t icu la r ly l a rge f l ake f r om ac o re b u tw i l lh ave t of o rgo i tb ecau se a tt h a tp o in ti nt h er e duc t ion o ft h ec o r e i tw ou ld c omp rom i se t h e i r a b i l i ty t o r emove s ub sequen t s u i tab le f l ake s w i thou t s i gn if ican t c o re r e pa ra t ion t h a t w ou ld b e w a s tef u l o f r aw m a te r ia l . I n g ene ra l , l a rge r f l ake s a r e b e t te r , b u t g r ea te r s i ze mu s t o f t en b e c omp rom i sed d ue t oo t he rc on s ide ra t ion s .

T oo lB lank P roduc t ion I n SW F rance r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty a nd r aw m a te r ia l q ua l i ty a r e n o t m a jo r c on s ide ra t ion s , e spec ia l ly i n t h e P e r igo rd . G ood t o v e ry g ood q ua l i ty f l in t s a r e r e ad i ly a va i lab le a lmo s t e ve rywhe re . W i th in t h i s r e g ion , t h e m ax imum d i s tance t h a to ne m igh th ave t ot r ave lt oa cqu i re g ood q ua l i ty f l in t i s p e rhap s 5 k m . S ome o f t h e se m a te r ia l s , h oweve r , o ccu r i n s ma l l s i ze s a nd i regu la r s hape s t h a t m igh t m ake t h e a pp l ica t ion o fs ome r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s d i ff icu l t . A t s i te s w he re o n ly s u ch m a te r ia ls a r e i mmed ia te ly a va i lab le , g r oup s w ou ld h ave t o c hoo se t o e i the ra cqu i re t h e i rr aw m a te r ia l s f r om m o re d i s tan ts ou rce o ra dap tt h e i rr educ t ion t e chno log ie st os u i tt he ma ter ia l s i ze sa nd s hape sa th and . F o r M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p eop le p hy s io log ica l c apab i l i t ie s a nd a va i lab le t e chno log ie s w ou ld n o t a ppea rt oh ave b een s i gn if ican t c on s t ra in t s . N eande r tha l g roup s i n M idd le P a la eo l i th ic E u rope s e em t oh ave h ad k now ledge o fm o s t f l ake t o o l r e duc t ion t e chno log ie s a nd t h e a b i l i ty t o c a r ry t h em o u te f f ec t ive ly .

F o r b u tche r ing t a sk s , e dge a ng le , e dge l e ng th , t h e p o r t ion o f af l ake 's e dge s t h a t a r e u sab le , a nd f l ake v en t ra l c u rva tu r e s hou ld b e t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t c on s ide ra t ion s i n b l ank s e lec t ion . F o r c u t t ing m ea t l ower e dg e a ng le s a r e r e qu i red ( < 6 0° , b a sed o n A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l d a ta [ Hayden 1 98 1b ] , b u t p r ef e rab ly m uch s ha rpe r t h an t h i s b a sed o n mode rn b u tche r ing t o o l a t t r ibu te s ) . W i th as of t e r t a sk m a te r ia l l i ke m ea t , t o o l e dge s c an b e r e la t ive ly d e l ica te w i thou t e dge -b reakage b e ing a s e r iou s p rob lem , b u tm o r er obu s tf l ake sw i l lb ej u s ta ss e rv iceab le a sl o ng

I n t e rm s o f t o o l n eed s , c on s ide r ing t h e d i f f e ren t m o rpho log ica l r e qu i remen t s f o r b u tche r ing a nd w oodwo rk ing t o o ls , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le e i the r h ad t os e lec tr e duc t ion s t ra teg ie sw h ich c ou ld p roduce b l ank s s u i tab le f o r e ach t oo l t ype , o r u se a s i ng le r e duc t ion s t ra tegy t h a t c ou ld p roduce t oo l b l ank s t ha t s a t i sf y t he morpho log ica lr equ iremen t sf o rb o th a pp l ica t ions .

5 7

T he a s sump t ion h e re i st h a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le d e s igned t h e i r r e duc t ion t e chno log ie s a r ound t h e se r e qu i remen t s . A t t h e 4s t udy s i te s ( a nd o ve r m o s t o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic E u rope a nd t h e M idd le E a s t ) t h ey u sed b o th a mo rphou s c o re r e duc t ion a nd L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion ( o r s ome r e la ted f o rm o f s i ng le su rf ace c o re t e chno logy l i ke D isc /Cen t r ipe ta l C o re ) t o a ch ieve t h e se e nd s .

a nd t o p o ten t ia l ly t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e se o t he r d e s ign c on s ide ra t ion s : P roce s s ing V o lume s Too l L if e span Po r tab i l i ty o fT echno logy Ma in ta inab i l i ty o ft o o l sd e s igned f o rl o ng u s e l if e

S a t i sfy ing T he se D es ign E xpec ta t ion s

O ther D e s ign C ons idera t ions

T echno log ie s Emp loy ed a tt h eS tud yS i te s

A l though b u tche r ing w ou ld h ave b een a c ommon , e s sen t ia l ly d a i ly p ra c t ice , w i thou t l a rge sca le c ommuna l k i l ls ( f o r w h ich e v idence i sr a re ) o r s i gn if ican t s t o rage p r ac t ice s ( f o r w h ich d i r ec t e v idence i sr a re ) t h e d emand s o n s t one t o o l s , i nt e rm s o f q uan t i ty , w ou ld b e r e la t ive ly l ow . T he s ame c ou ld b e s a id f o r h i de p roce s s ing . Woodwo rk ing w ou ld h ave p r e sen ted t h e h i ghe s t d emand s o n s t one t o o l s . A s w i th m o s t r e cen t g ene ra l ized h un te r g a the re r g r oup s , i n g ene ra l , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t a sk p roce s s ing v o lume sw ou ld h ave b een l ow .

B a sed o n t h e t y pe s o f c o r e s p r e sen t , t h e d i f f e ren t m a jo r l i t h ic t e chno log ie s t h a t h ave b een r e cogn ized i n t h e a s semb lage so fa l t h et h ree s t udy s i te sa r ea mo rphou sc o re r e duc t ion , d i sc c o re r e duc t ion , a nd L eva l lo i s c o re r e duc t ion : a l c a r r ied o u t w i th h a rdhamme r p e r cu s so r s . T he se c a tego r ie s o f c o re r e duc t ion a r e n o t a lway s o bv iou s ly d i sc re te . Wh i le t h e re a r e c o re s t h a t , b a sed o n t h e i r m o rpho logy a nd t r ad i t iona l d ef in i t ion s , a r e r e ad i ly c l a s s if ied a s L eva l lo is a nd t h e re a r e c o re s t h a t , a l ong s im i la rl i ne so fr e a son ing , c an b er e ad i ly c l a s s if ied a sd i sc , t h e r e a r ea l so an umbe ro fc o re st h a ta r ed if i cu l tt oa s s ign t oo ne c a tego ry o rt h eo t he r( s ee t h e d i scu s s ion i nC hap te r 1 f o r m o r e o n t h i s ) . T h is s ame p r ob lem o f t en o ccu r s w hen d i s t ingu ish ing b e tween t h e se r e duc t ion a pp roa che s a nd a mo rphou s c o re r e duc t ion . I nm any c a se s t h e a na lys t c anno t b e s u re i f as pec if ic c o re w a s r e duced i n ar a ndom m anne r a nd i tj u s t h appen s t oh ave s ome s im i la r i t ie s t oa m o re m o rpho log ica l ly p a t ter ned r e duc t ion a pp roa ch , o r i f t h e k nappe r 's i n ten t ion w a s t o r e du ce i tf o l low ing a L eva l lo i s o rd i sc c o re r e duc t ion a pp roa ch , b u t , d ue t or aw m a te r ia l p rob lem s o r k napp ing m i s take s , e nded u p p r oduc ing a mo re a mo rphou s l o ok ing c o re . T he re i s a lway s ad eg ree o f s ub jec t iv i ty i n c a tego r iz ing c o re s i n t h e se a s semb lage s .

B ecau se o ft h e h i gh m ob i l i ty r a te s o fM idd le P a la eo l i th ic g roup s , t h e p o r tab i l i ty o f t h e i r t e chno logy w ou ld h ave b een ac on s ide ra t ion . H af t ing a s aM idd le P a la eo l i th ic d e s ign c on s ide ra t ion i s d i ff icu l t t o w e igh . Wh i le i ts e em s q u i te a ppa ren t t h a t i t w a sp r a c t iced ,t h ed eg ree t ow h ich i tp l ayed ap a r ti ns t one t o o l s t ra teg ie s i su nc lea r , t o s a y t h e l e a s t . I tc an b e s a id , h oweve r , t h a t t h e c ha rac te r is t ic t h a t f l ake b l ank s c ou ld h ave t h a t w ou ld b e m o s t b enef ic ia l t o h af t ing w ou ld b e s t andard iza t ion o fs i ze a nd s hape .

S ummary I ti ss ugge s ted h e re t h a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic g roup s l i v ing i nt h i s a r ea w ou ld t e nd t oe mp loy r e duc t ion t e chno log ie s o r s t ra teg ie s t h a t w ou ld p roduce t o o ls t h a t w ou ld s a t isf y t h e se m o rpho log ica l c on s t ra in t s :

A tl e Mou s t ie ra nd ,t o am uch l e s se rd eg ree ,P ech d el ' Azd I V , b e s ide s t h e se d i f f e ren t t y pe s o fc o re r e duc t ion , t h e re w a s a l so b i f a ce p roduc t ion . Wh i le a tP ech d e l ' Azé I V t h e r e w e re v e ry f ew ( a nd m o s t ly v e ry p oo r ly m ade ) b i f ace s , a tl e Mou s t ie r b i f ace s w e re n ume rou s a nd m o s t ly o fv e ry h i gh q ua l i ty ( r egu la r a nd s ymme t r ica l ) . Wh i le t h e b i f a ce s t h em se lve s w e re u ndoub ted ly t o o l s o fs ome s o r t , t h e f l ake s r e su l t ing f r om t h e i r m anuf a c tu r e a l so h ave t h e p o ten t ia lt ob eu sed a st o o l s .

l owe re dge a ng le s( f o rc u t t ing m ea t ) r e la t ive ly l o ng ,r e gu la re dge ( f o rc u t t ing m ea t ) l ow v en t ra lc u rva tu re ( f o rc u t t ing m ea t ) s omewha th i ghe re dge a ng le s( f o rw oodwo rk ing ) r obu s t ic i ty ( f o rw oodwo rk ing )

A no the r r e duc t ion t e chno logy t h a t w a s p ra c t iced a tt h e se s i t e sw a sK ombewa f l ake p r oduc t ion . K ombewa c o re s a nd f l ake s , h oweve r , g ene ra l ly m ake u p a v e ry m ino r c omponen t o f t h e l i t h ic a s semb lage s . Q uan t i t ie s a r e n o t t y p ica l ly r e co rded i nt h e l i t e ra tu re a st h ey a r e n o t a mong B o rde st y pe l i s t ,b u ta mong t h e l e ve l sa tP ech d el ' Azé I V , f o re xamp le , K ombewa f l ake q uan t i t ie sr a nge f r om a lmo s t n on -ex is ten t i n l e ve l F 2 t o 1 2% o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o f c o re s i n l e ve l J 3a ( D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 :14 ) , a l though t h e l a t te r q uan t i ty m u s t b e v i ewed a v e ry a t yp ica l . Wh i le t h is t e chno logy u ndoub ted ly s e rved a s p ec if ic p u rpo se , i td oe s n o t r e p r e sen t am a jo r f l ake p r oduc t ion s t ra tegy a nd c anno t b e s e en a s a m a jo r

a nd s a t i sf yt h e se p r oduc t ion c on s t ra in t s : max im ize f l ake s i ze d u r ing p roduc t ion s u i t r e duc t ion s t ra tegy t o t h e s i ze s a nd s hape s o f a va i lab le r aw m a te r ia l s p roduce s pec if ic b l ank s i n d iv idua l ly s u i tab le f o re a ch m a jo rt o o l t y pe ( c u t t ing m ea t a nd w oodwo rk ing ) , OR p r oduce g ene r ic b l ank s t h a t a l h ave t h e p o ten t ia l t o s a t i sf y t h e mo rpho log ica l r e qu i remen t s o f b o th a pp l ica t ion s s ome l i m i ted? s t anda rd iza t ion o f p roduc t s i ze a nd s hape ( f o rp o ten t ia lh a f t ing )

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c omponen to fM idd le P a la eo l i th ic l i t h ic a dap t ive s t ra teg ie s i nt h i sr e g ion .

H igh -ang led e dge s mo re s u i tab le f o r w oodwo rk ing , t h ough n o t u ncommon , m igh t n o t b e c on s ide red at y p ica l t r a i ta mong s i ng le su rf a ce c o re p roduc t s( a sb o rn o u ti nt h e a na ly s i s i nC hap te r9 ) , a l though s ome s i ng le su rf ace c o re s a r e r e duced , a ppa ren t ly i n ten t iona l ly , t h rough t h e r emova l o fn o tab ly t h ick f l ake s , w h ich w i l l t e nd t oh ave s omewha t h i ghe re dge -ang le s ,e . g . , ' c la t sD jbordan t s .

T he re i sa l so s ome d i rec t e v idence t h a t s ugge s t s h af t ing w a sp ra c t iced t os ome d eg r ee a ts ome o ft h es t udy s i te s . I n t h e s amp le a s semb lage f r om P ech d e l ' Az6 I V t h e re w e re s eve ra l f l ake t o o l s w i th t h inned b u lb s o fp e rcu s s ion . T h i s t e chn ique w ou ld s e em t ob e o n ly u sef u l i ft h e t oo l w e re h af t ed i n as l o t ted h and le o rs p l i t b ranch , a nd n o t i ng um o rr e s in h and le s .

W i th s ome s i ng le su rf a ce c o re a pp roache s av e ry g ene ra l d eg ree o f s t anda rd iza t ion m igh t b e e xpec ted . Wh i le i n r e a l i ty t h e d eg ree o f s t anda rd iza t ion a mong p e r iphe ra l f l ake s w i l l n o t b e r ema rkab le , i n a n o p t ima l m ode l o f s i ng le su rf ace c o re r e duc t ion , a l t h e f l ake s r emoved f r om a r ound t h e p e r iphe ry o f ap r epa red c o re s u rf ace w i l l m ee t a tt h e c en t re ( o r o ve r lap t h e c en t re t o t h e s ame d eg ree ) w h ich w ou ld r e su l t i nt h e i r a l b e ing o f as im i la r s i ze ( i f n o t s hape a s w e l l ) . I tw ou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t t h e c en t ra l f l ake s r emoved f r om L eva l lo i s c o re s w ou ld e xh ib i t t h i s s ame s u i te o fc ha rac te r is t ic s ,b u ta l so , i ng ene ra l ,w ou ld b e l a rge r a nd h ave e ven l o nge r c u t t ing s e dge s t h an o t he r p r oduc t s .

How Wou ld T he se R educ t ion S tra teg ie s S a t isf yP ro jec ted D e s ign R equ iremen t s? Amo rphou sC or eR ed uc t ion W i th r e spec t t oo p t ima l f l ake t o o l m o rpho logy , a ny c o re r e duc t ion a pp roach c a r r ied o u t w i th h a rdhamme r p e r cu s s ion t e nd s t o p roduce r e la t ive ly f l a t , r obu s t f l ake s ( Hayden a nd H u tch ing s 1 989 ) . A s sum ing a r e a sonab ly s i zed c o r e , a t l e a s t s ome o f t h e se w i l l a l so l i ke ly b e r e la t ive ly l a rge , a l though w i thou t as p ec if ic r e duc t ion s t ra tegy o ne c anno t m ax im ize t h e s i ze p o ten t ia l o fa l t h e p roduc t s . F u r the rmo r e ,t h eo dd sa r eh i gh t h a ta tl e a s ts ome w i l l h ave o ne o r mo re l o ng , r e gu la r e dge s s u i tab le f o r c u t t ing m ea t a nd s ome w i l l h ave o ne o r mo re r e la t ive ly h i gh -ang led e dge s s u i tab le f o rw oodwo rk ing . H oweve r , i f n oa t temp ti sm ade t op r e -p lan a nd o rgan ize t h ep roce s so f f l ake r emova ls f r om ac o r e( i . e . a mo rphou sc o re r e duc t ion ) t h en , w h i le t h e k nappe r m igh t b e a b le t o c oun t o n p roduc ing s ome f l ake s s u i tab le f o r s ome t a sk s , t h e re i sn o g ua ran tee o ft h is a nd t h e o dd s a r e h i gh t h a t m any o ft h e f l ake s p r oduced w i l l n o tb e p a r t icu la r ly l a rge o rh ave a ny s u i tab le e dge s . I td oe s s e em q u i te p robab le t h a tt h e re w i l l b e aw ide r a nge o fv a r iab i l i ty a mong t h ef l ake si nt e rm so f s i z e a nd s hape . P re sumab ly , a ch iev ing s ome c on t ro l o ve r t h e n a tu r e o fe nd -p roduc t s i so ne o ft h e b a s ic r e a son s f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o fp r epa red c o re s t ra teg ie s . B e s ide s t h is , w i th n op r ep lann ing ac o re c an e a s i ly b ecome u nwo rkab le ( i . e . , l a ck s u i tab le s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s a nd /o r s u rf a ce s s u i tab le f o r r emov ing a f l ake f r om ) a f te r o n ly a f ew r emova l sa nd i t sp o ten t ia l ,t h e ref o re ,w a s ted .

S i ng le su rf a ce c o re s h ave n o tab le a dvan tage s i nt e rm s o f s a t i sf y ing p roduc t ion c on s t ra in t s . I no rde rt om ax im ize t h e s i ze o fa l l t h e f l ake s t h a t o ne c an p roduce f r om at y p ica l s ub sphe r ica l , i regu la r n odu le i t s f o rm m u s t b e m od if ied ( p repa red ) s o a st oe xpo se a s l a rge a n e xp lo i tab le s u rf ace a s p o s s ib le . T he re a r e o n ly t wo g ene ra l g eome t r ic f o rm s t h a t t h e v o lume o f am a s s c an t a ke t h a t p rov ide s uch e xp lo i tab le s u rf a ce s ( g iven t h e m echan ica l c on s t ra in t s o f f l ak ing s t one ) , w i th a n a d ja cen t s u rf a ce t h a t c an s e rve a s s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s , a nd w ho se f o rm c an b e r e ad i ly m a in ta ined t h roughou tt h e r e duc t ion p roce s s . O ne g ene ra l f o rm i s ac y l inde r ( w i th in t h i s g ene ra l c a tego ry c an b e i n c luded c one a nd w edge s hape s a sw e l l ) f r om t h e s i de o f w h ich l o ng , n a r row f l ake s c an b e r emoved i n a l o ng i tud ina l d i r ec t ion , u s ing t h e e nd ( s ) o ft h e c y l inde r a s t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm . T h is i st h e a pp roa ch t h a t mo s tb l ade c o re s f o l low . T he o t he r g ene ra l f o rm t a ke s a dvan tage o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a rge s t , ±f l a t s u rf a ce t h a t c an b e f ound w i th in t h e v o lume o f as ub sphe r ica l m a s s i s ap l ane c u t t h rough i ta ti t s max imum d i ame te r . T he r e su l t ing a ng le b e tween t h is p l ane a nd t h e a d ja cen t e x te r io r s u rf a ce r e ad i ly a low s t h e e x te r io r s u rf a ce t o s e rve a s as t r ik ing p l a tf o rm .

I nt e rm s o fp o r tab i l i ty o ft h e t e chno logy ( i n t e rm s o fa ny n eed f o r c a r ry ing s p ec ia l r e duc t ion e qu ipmen t ) a nd t o o l l i f e span s , a mo rphou s c o re r e duc t ion w ou ld n o t a ppea r t o h ave a ny a dvan tage s o rd i sadvan tage s o ve r s i ng le -su rf a ce c o re a pp roache s . T he g r ea te rw a s tef u lne s s o fr aw m a te r ia l a s soc ia t ed w i th a mo rphou s c o re r e duc t ion w ou ld , h oweve r ,t r an s la te i n to g r ea te rt r an spo r tc o s t s .

T h i s i st h e a pp roa ch t h a t s i ng le su rf a ce c o re s f o l low . A n odu le o fr aw m a te r ia l i sp r epa red s o a st oc r ea te s u ch a p l ane f r om w h ich f l ake p roduc t s c an b e r emoved . T he o ppo s i te s u rf ace i ss em i sphe r ica l a nd i so f t en t h e a c tua l o r ig ina l c o r t ica l s u r f a ce o f t h e n odu le . B y c r ea t ing t h e l a rge s t e xp lo i tab le s u rf ace p o s s ib le i n an odu le o f a ny g i ven s i ze , ak nappe r c an t h en c on s i s ten t ly max im ize t h e s i ze o f t h e f l ake s r emoved t h rough t h e c ou r se o f t h e r e duc t ion o ft h a tn odu le . G iven t h e s i ze o ft h i s e xp lo i tab le s u rf a ce , t h e o n ly o t he r l i m i t s t o t h e s i ze o f t h e f l ake s r emoved f r om i ta r e : t h e s pec if ic m o rpho logy o f t h a t s u rf ace t h a t m ay l im i t h ow much o fi tc an b e r emoved i n t h ef o rm o f as i ng le f l ake ; a nd t h ec ho ice o ft h ek nappe rt o e i the r p roduce a l i m i ted n umbe r o f t h e l a rge s t f l ake s

S i ng l e -Surf ace C or e s T h is i s a m o re g ene ra l c a tego ry u nde r w h ich b o th L eva l lo i s a nd D isc /Cen t r ipe ta l c o re s c an b e s ub sumed . L ike a ny c o r e r e duc t ion c a r r ied o u t w i th a h a rdhamme r , s i ng le su rf ace c o re s p roduce r e la t ive ly f l a t a nd r obu s t f l ake s . P e r iphe ra l ( o r c en t r ipe ta l ) f l ake s , r e ga rd le s s o f w he the rt h ey a r e r emoved f r om aL eva l lo is c o re o r aD isc c o re , w i l l a l so a lmo s t a lway s h ave a tl e a s t o ne r e la t ive ly l o ng , r e gu la r , l ow -ang led e dge s u i tab le f o r c u t t ing t a sk s .

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t o s i t e . Whe the r t h ey c ou ld a s sume t h a t t h e re w ou ld b e r aw m a te r ia l s f o r s t one t o o l p r oduc t ion i s ad if e ren t q ue s t ion , b u t a cce s s t o r aw m a te r ia l d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b e en as i gn if ican ti s sue i nS ou thw e s tF rance ,a tl e a s t .

p o s s ib le , w h ich w ou ld r e qu i re r e pa ra t ion o ft h e s u rf a ce b e tween r emova ls ( a nd s i gn if i can t w a s tage o fm a te r ia l i . e ." c l a s s ic L eva l lo is" ) , o rt r y t ob a lance f l ake s i ze w i th r aw m a te r ia l e conom iza t ion . I n t h i s l a t te r a pp roa ch t h e s i ze o ft h e f l ake s c an b e max im ized t ot h e p o in t t h a t t h e r emova l o fa ny o ne f l ake d oe s n o t r e su l t i nt h e n eed t o r ewo rk t h e c o re s u rf a ce t o e nab le f u r the r r emova l s . O p t ima l ly , f l ake s w ou ld b e r emoved f r om a r ound t h e p e r iphe ry o ft h ec o re s u rf ace i n ar a d ia lf a sh ion ,e a ch f l ake o ve r lapp ing t h e c en t re p o in t o ft h e s u rf a ce e nough s ot h a t t h ec en t ra l ma s so ft h es u rf ace i sr emoved a tt h es ame r a te a st h e p e r iphe ra l e dge o ft h e s u rf a ce . T h i s w ou ld t e nd t o r e su l t i n ag ene ra l s t anda rd iza t ion o fs i ze a nd s h ape o fa l t h e f l ake s . A l ter na t ive ly , o ne c ou ld c omb ine t h e se a pp roache s a nd r emove as e r ie s o fs omewha t s ma l le r , b u t s t i l l u sab le , f l ake s f r om a r ound t h e p e r iphe ry , b u t w i th l i t t le o rn oo ve r lap i nt h e s u rf ace c en t re . T h i sw ou ld r e su l t i na ni n c rea se i nt h em a s so ft h es u rf a ce ,w h ich c ou ld t h en b er emoved a so ne o rm o re l a rge rf l ake s .

B if a ce sa sT oo l s T yp ica l , w e l l made Mou s te r ian b i f a ce s w ou ld g ene ra l ly s a t i sf y m o s t o f t h e m o rpho log ica l c on s t ra in t s o u t l ined a bove f o r b u tche r ing a nd w oodwo rk ing t a sk s . T hey h ave l o ng , r e gu la r , r obu s t e dge s w i th e dge s a ng le s u sua l ly s omewhe re b e tween 4 5° a nd 7 0° . Wh i le c l a im s h ave b een m ade a bou t t h e i r ef i ca cy i n c u t t ing m ea t ( e .g . J one s 1 980 ) , a nd u ndoub ted ly t h ey w i l lw o rk i nt h i s c apa c i ty , i n t e rm s o f t h e s ha rpne s s o f t h e i r c u t t ing e dge t h ey a r e d i s t inc t ly i n f e r io r t ou nmod if ied f l ake s ( Sandga the 1 998 ; F r ison 1 989 ) . A ny a dvan tage t h ey m igh t h ave o ve r u nmod if i ed f l ake s f o rc u t t ing m ea tw ou ld b e i nt h e l e ng th o ft h eu sab le e dge a nd i nt h ee a se w i th w h ich t h ey c an b e g ra sped a nd g r ea te rp r e s su re a pp l ied w i th t h em . U se -wea r s t ud ie s h ave t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if i ed e dge -wea r o n Mou s te r ian b i f ace e dge s f r om c u t t ing o r s c rap ing b one , w h ich h a s b een t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if i ed a s b e ing f r om b u tche r ing ( e .g . , S o re s s ia nd H ay s2 004 ) ,a l though p e rhap s t h i s i s j u s t r ef l ec t ing s p ec ia l b u tche r ing t a sk s , l i ke s e pa ra t ing j o in t s . H oweve r ,t h er obu s t ic i ty a nd e dge a ng le w ou ld m ake b i f a ce s p a r t icu la r ly e f ec t ive f o r w oodwo rk ing a nd , i nf a c t ,t h i sw a st h em o s tc ommon t y pe o f e dge -wea r f ound b y S o re s s i a nd H ays ( 2 004 :10 ) . B e s ide s b e ing s u i tab le f o r s hav ing w ood s u rf ace s , Mou s te r ian b i f ace sw ou ld b ee f ec t ive a dze s , e i the rh af t ed ( a l though t h e re i sn o e v idence f o rt h i s )o rs imp ly a sh and h e ld c hopp ing t o o l s . Among A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina l g r oup s a dze s a r e t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t w oodwo rk ing t o o l ( Hayden 1 981b , 1 977 ;G ou ld 1 980 ;G ou ld e t .a l .197 1 ) .

T h i s r e duc t ion a pp roa ch c an b ea pp l ied t oa lmo s ta ny s i ze a nd f o rm o f r aw m a te r ia l ( a s d emon s t ra ted b y A s s in ipod ian c o re s a tP ech d e l ' Az6 I V ) . Mo re i regu la r ly f o rmed n odu le s w i l l r e qu i re m o re p r epa ra t ion , b u t t h is w ou ld b e t h e c a se f o r a ny r e duc t ion a pp roach . S i ng le s u rf a ce c o re r e duc t ion i sp a r t icu la r ly a pp l icab le t o t h e s ma l l ' p u s tu l e s ' c ommon o n s ome f l in tn odu le s . A l though t h ey t e nd t ob ev e ry s ma l l( c . 2t o5 cm i nd i ame te r ) ,w hen b roken of t h e m a in n odu le t h e se p u s tu l e s a r e a l r eady i n t h eo p t imum s hape f o r as i ng le su rf a ce c o re . L ikew i se ,t h e i regu la r , c y l ind r ica l -shaped l i mb s , t h a t a r e a l so c ommon o n s ome f l in tn odu le s , a r e e a s i ly p r epa red s ot h a to ne e nd c an b ee xp lo i ted a s as i ng le s u rf a ce . T h i s i se s sen t ia l ly t h e " s au sage s l ice" t e chn ique m en t ioned a bove . H ow eve r , t h e a dvan tage o f r e duc ing s u ch s ma l l c o re s a nd u s ing a p r epa red c o re t e chn ique i su nc lea r .

B if ace s , i ng ene ra l , a l so r e p re sen t av e ry p o r tab le t o o l a nd t e chno logy ( a l though t h e i r m anuf a c tu re a nd m a in tenance m ay r e qu i re c u ra ted b i l le t s ) . C ompa r ed t o u nmod if i ed f l ake s , t h ey a r e v e ry l o ng l ived t o o l s ( e .g . H ayden e t . a l . 1 996 ;K e l ly 1 988 ) .

t c la t s DMordan t s p roduc t ion i s as p ec if ic v a r ian t o f s i ng le su rf a ce c o re r e duc t ion ( d e sc r ibed i nC hap te r2 )a nd i s c ommon i n m any F r ench M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T he t e chn ique r e su l t s i nr a the rs t ubby f l ake s w i th p l a tf o rm s t h a t i n c lude a l a rge p o r t ion o f t h e c o re e dge . T he i n tended p u rpo se o ft h e se i sn o t c l ea r , b u t t wo u n ique c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o ft h e se f l ake s a r e : t h e l o ng p o r t ion o fc o re e dge ( wh ich c ou ld s e rve a sp ro tec t ion f o rt h eh and w h i le t h e o ppo s i te e dge w a s b e ing u sed i nc on ta c tw i th a t a sk m a te r ia l ) ,a nd t h eh i gh a ng le sa l ong t h ee dge b e tween t h et wo o ppo s ing c o re s u rf a ce s( s ee f i gu re 2 . 4a nd p l a te s 1 &2 ) . T he r emova l o ft h e se f l ake s d oe s r e su l t i n ar a p id a nd d r ama t ic i n c rea se i n t h e c en t ra l ma s s o f t h e c o re s u rf ac e o f d eb i tage , w h ich mu s t b e a dd re s sed a t s ome p o in tt om a in ta in t h eu s ef u lne s so ft h ec o re .

B if ace sa sC or e sa nd B if ace F lak e sa sT oo l s I n t h e i r g ene ra l m o rpho log ie s a nd v o lume t r ic c on s t ruc t ion s , b i f a ce s a r e v e ry s im i la r t o s i ng le su rf a ce c o re s( i nf a c t ,w i th s ome i t em si n Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s , i tc an o f t en b ed if i cu l tt od ec ide i ft h ey a r e ap oo r ly m ade b i f a ce o r ap a r t icu la r ly t h in , d i sc c o re ) . H ow eve r , i f b i f a ce s a r e u s ed a s c o re s ( i . e . f l ake s r emoved f r om t h em f o r u se a s t o o l s ) , t h e i r l e n t icu la r s ymme t ry m u s t b e r e ta ined w i th t h e r emova l o f f l ake s e qua l ly f r om b o th s u rf a ce s . F u r the rmo re , i ft h e b i f ace 's p r opo r t ion s a nd s u i tab le e dge -ang le s a r e t ob e m a in ta ined t h e f l ake s m u s t b e r emoved w i th a s o f thamme r . S of thamme r s w e r e p r e sumab ly a dop ted s ome t ime i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f o r b i f ace p r oduc t ion / reduc t ion b ecau se o f t h e f a c t t h a t h a rdhamme r f l ake s a r e t h icke r a nd m o re w edge shaped a nd r e su l ti n amo re r a p id l o s so fm a te r ia l a l ong t h eb i f a ce e dge w i thou t ac ompa rab le l o s so fm a te r ia la tt h ec en t re o f t h eb i f a ce . T h i s r a p id ly r e su l t s i n as ma l l , t h ick c o re w i th

I n t e rm s o f p o r tab i l i ty o f t h e t e chno logy , s i ng le su rf a ce c o re r e duc t ion c an b een s e en t o h ave s i gn if ican t a dvan tage s . T he t e chn ique i st y p ica l ly c a r r ied o u t u s ing o n ly a h amme r s tone ; n o o t he r r e duc t ion t o o l s a r e n ece s sa ry . I n mo s t r e g ion s o ne c ou ld a s sume t h a t s u i tab le h amme r s tone s w ou ld b e r e ad i ly a va i lab le a nywhe r e a nd t h a tt h e re w ou ld b en o n eed t oc a r ry o ne a r ound f r om s i t e

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F l ake s p roduced t h rough b i po la r r e duc t ion o f s ma l l p ebb le s d o t e nd t ob e f l a t a nd f a i r ly r obu s t , w h ich w ou ld b ef a vou rab le q ua l i t ie s . A l so ,t h e i rm a rg in st e nd t oi n c lude al a rge p o r t ion o f c o r tex w h ich c ou ld s e rve a s h and p r o tec t ion f o r t h e u se r . B ipo la r r e duc t ion h a s b een o b se rved e t hnog raph ica l ly , a mong h un te r -ga the r e r g roup s i nS ou th We s tA f r ica , i nw h ich c a se t h er e su l t ing q ua r tz i te f l ake s w e re u sed f o r a v a r ie ty o f t a sk s i n c lud ing b u tche r ing a nd w oodwo rk ing ( Ma cCa lman a nd G robbe laa r 1 965 )

v e ry h igh e dge a ng le s , w h ich i su nu sab le ( Hayden a nd H u tch ing s 1 989 ; S andga the 2 004 ) . B if a ce r e duc t ion w i th as of thamme r b i l le t d oe s a low t h e c on s i s ten t m ax im iza t ion o f f l ake s i ze . W i th s ome m ino r p l a tf o rm p r epa ra t ion , a nd b y m a in ta in ing t h e r e gu la r i ty o f t h eb i f a ce f o rm b y c on s is ten t ly r emov ing f l ake s f r om b o th f a ce s a nd f r om a r ound a l t h e m a rg in s , as k i l led k nappe r c an e a s i ly a nd c on s i s ten t ly r emove f l ake s t h a t s pan t h e w ho le w id th o f ab i f a ce . T he m a jo r r e s t r ic t ion i n s i ze w ou ld b e i na t temp t ing t om a in ta in t h e s t anda rd , t e a rd rop p l an shape o ft h e b i f a ce . T h i s m ay l i m i tt h e s i ze o ff l ake s r emoved f r om s ome l o ca t ion s o n t h e b i f a ce ( McPhe r ron 2 000 , 1 999 ) a nd m ake s t anda rd iza t ion o fs i z e a nd s hape m o r ed i ff icu l t .

B lad eC or eR educ t ion T rad i t iona l ly , b l ade p roduc t ion s t ra teg ie s a r e n o t a s soc ia ted w i th t h e E u ropean M idd le P a la eo l i th ic . H oweve r , r e sea rch o ve rt h el a s td ecade o rt wo h a sb rough t t o l i gh t an umbe r o f b l ade a nd b l ade l ike a s semb lage s f r om M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s ( e .g . , C ona rd 1 990 ; T uf f reau 1 982 ) . A l though t h e c l a s s ic p r isma t ic b l ade c o re t e chno logy a s soc ia ted w i th l a te r t ime p e r iod s i nv a r iou s p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld a r e n o t f ound i n M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c on tex t s , t h e re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a t k nappe r s i n t h i s t ime p e r iod h ad a cce s st ob a s ic b l ade p roduc t ion t e chno logy .

T he d om inan t c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f b i f a c ia l r e duc t ion f l ake s ( p roduced w i th a s of thamme r ) a r e : v e ry a cu te e dge s , t h inne s s , a nd n o tab le v en t ra l c u rva tu re ( Hayden a nd H u tch ing s 1 989 ) . T h is s u i te o ft r a i t s t e nd s t om ake t h em l e s s t h an o p t ima l f o r e i the r c u t t ing m ea t o rw oodwo rk ing . Wh i le t h e v e ry s ha rp e dge s w ou ld w o rk w e l l i nc u t t ing s of t m a te r ia l s , l i ke m ea t o r f r e sh h i de , t h e v en t ra l c u rva tu re m ean s t h a t s t ra igh t c u t t ing e dge s , p r ef e rab le f o r c u t t ing t a sk s ( a l though , p e rhap s n o t a sc r i t ica l f o r c u t t ing s k in s ) , w i l l b e l e s s c ommon t h an a mong h a rdhamme r f l ake s . T he t h inne s s r e su l t s i n ah i gh l e ve l o f f r ag i l i ty , w h ich , a l ong w i th t h e v e ry l ow e dge a ng le s , m ake s t h e se p oo rw oodwo rk ing b l ank s( Kee ley 1 977 :122 ) .

B lade s c an w e l l s a t i sf y t h e m o rpho log ica l c on s t ra in t s i n m y mode l . T hey t e nd t o h ave l ow e dge -ang le s , c an b e p r oduced i nv e ry f l a t f o rm s , a nd b y d ef in i t ion h ave t wo r e la t ive ly l o ng , r e gu la r e dge s . I n t e rm s o fw oodwo rk ing c on s t ra in t s , b l ade s m ay n o t t y p ica l ly h ave e dge -ang le s i n t h eh i ghe rr a nge a s soc ia ted w i th t h is t y pe o ft a sk , b u tt h ey c an b ep roduced w i th h a rdhamme rr e duc t ion a nd s oc an b e r a the rr obu s t .

P roduc ing b i f ace s o f a ny p r a c t ica l s i ze r e qu i r e s q u i te l a rge p i ece s o fr aw m a te r ia l t ob eg in w i th . As i gn if ican t a moun t o fw a s te i sp roduced i nt h e r o ugh ing o u t o ft h e s ymme t r ica l , l e n t icu la r s hape w h ich m ean s t h a t o ne mu s t s t a r t w i th av e ry l a rge n odu le i no r de r t oe nd u p w i th a s omewha t l a rge b i f a ce . T he ref o re , r aw m a te r ia l s hape a nd s i z e i s as i gn if ican t r e s t r ic t ion i nt h e a pp l ica t ion o fb i f a ce p roduc t ion a nd b i f ac ia lc o re r e duc t ion .

A s d i scu s sed a bove w i th s i ng le -su rf a ce c o r e s , b l ade r e duc t ion i st h e s e cond o ft wo p o s s ib le a pp roache s t h a t a low s t h e k nappe r t oe xp lo i t t h e l a rge s t p o s s ib le s u rf a ce ( g iven t h e c on s t ra in t s o f t h e m echan ic s a nd p hys ic s o f f l ak ing s t one ) a nd t h u s m ax im ize p roduc t s i ze . B lade s a r e a l so p a r t icu la r ly v e r sa t i le a st oo l b l ank s a nd c an g ene ra l ly u sed u nmod if ied o r c an b e m od if ied i n to m a jo r t o o l s t y pe s . Am a jo ra dvan tage o fb l ade p roduc t ion i st h ea b i l i ty t o p roduce v e ry s t anda rd ized f o rm s , i n b o th s i ze a nd s hape .

How Wou ld O ther MP R educ t ion S tra teg ies S a t i sfy t he P ro jec ted D e s ign R equ iremen t s? B ipo lar C or eR educ t ion

O ne m a jo rl i m i ta t ion o fb l ade p roduc t ion i si nt h es i ze a nd f o rm o fr aw m a te r ia l s t h a t w i l l e f f ec t ive ly w o rk w i th t h i s s t ra tegy . A k nappe r h a s t o s t a r t w i th f a i r ly l a rge , t h ick n odu le s i no rde rt op roduce e f f ec t ive b l ade c o re s . T h is c an a l so t y p ica l ly i n vo lve al o s s o f as i gn if ican t p or t ion o ft h e n odu le i nt h ei n i t ia lp r epa ra t ion s t age s .T he re i sa l so ah i gh r i sk o fr u in ing t h ec o re .

B ipo la rr e duc t ion t e nd st oh ave m o re l i m i ted a pp l icab i l i ty . T h is m e thod o ff r ac tu r ing s t one s a low s v e ry l i t t le c on t ro l o ve r t h e n a tu re o f t h e e nd p roduc t s a nd h ow a n odu le f r a c tu re s w i th t h i s a pp roa ch i sg ene ra l ly u np red ic tab le . T he c i r cum s tance w he re i ti s mo s t a pp l icab le i sw i th t h e i n i t ia l r e duc t ion o f s ma l le r , r ounded p ebb le s t h a t a r e e s sen t ia l ly i mpo s s ib le t o r e duce w i th a ny o t he r m e thod . Whe re r aw m a te r ia l i so n ly a va i lab le i n s ma l l , r ounded p ebb le f o rm , b i po la r r e duc t ion m ay b e t h e o n ly o p t ion . T h is i s , h oweve r , n o t g ene ra l ly t h e c a se i nF rance , w he re i n mo s t r e g ion s t h e re i sn o s ho r tage o fb e t te rr aw m a te r ia l f o rm s ( Hayden 1 980 :2 ) . T h is w a s as t ra tegy e mp loyed i n M idd le P a la eo l i th ic I t a ly i n s ome r e g ion s ( Kuhn 1 995 ; S t ine ra nd K uhn 1 992 ) .

A no the r p o ten t ia l c on s t ra in t o n t h is s t ra tegy i st h a t , w h i le b l ade s c an b e p roduced t h rough b a s ic d i rec t , h a rdhamme r p e rcu s s ion , s u ch a pp roache s d o n o t t y p ica l ly p roduce t h e l e ve l o f s t anda rd iza t ion t h a t c an b e a ch ieved w i th m o r e s oph i s t ica ted r e duc t ion m e thod s , s u ch a s p unch t e chn ique s . H oweve r , t h ea dop t ion o fs u ch t e chn ique sw i l l r e su l t i ns ome l o s s o fr obu s t ic i ty i nt h e p roduc t s a nd w i l l l i ke ly m ean t h a tt h ek nappe r w i l l b e o b l iged t ot h en c a r ry t h e i rr e duc t ion t o o ls w i th t h em f r om s i te t os i te .

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b een t a ken a way , o r i n c i rcum s tance s w he re a g roup c anno ta lways c oun t o n h av ing t h et ime o rr aw m a te r ia l t o p r oduce s u i tab le t o o l sa tt h et ime t h ey a r en eeded .

R e sharp en ing /M a in tenance T echno log i e s Wh i le r e sha rpen ing s t ra teg ie s w ou ld n o t t y p ica l ly b e c on s ide red ' r educ t ion s t ra teg ie s ' , t h ey d o s e rve a s i mpo r tan t s t ra teg ie s f o r i n f luenc ing t h e e ff icacy o fa c tua l r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s b y a low ing t h e m od if ica t ion a nd m a in tenance o f v a r iou s r e duc t ion p r oduc t s . R e touch ing c an p l ay l i t t le o rn or o le i nt h er e duc t ion p r oce s sa nd ,t h u s , i n t h e f o rm o f t h e b l ank s p roduced , b u t b i f a c ia l ( h a rdhamme r o r b i l le t ) r e sha rpen ing , e nd sc rape r r e touch , b a ck ing r e touch , n o tch ing , a nd e xped ien t k n if e r e touch c an a l a low t h e mod if ica t ion o ff l ake b l ank s i n to s pec if ic t o o lt y pe sa nd t h ey c an e x tend t h el i f e span o ft o o ls .

3 /T he r educ t ion t e chn ique i t se lf , r a the rt han t h ef orm o f i t s p roduc t s , r epre sen ted a l og ica l r e spon se t o o t he r c on s t ra in t s ( e .g . , r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty , r aw ma te r ia l s i ze a nd s hape , p roce s s ing v o lume s ) t ha t w e re e ncoun te red a td i f f e ren tt ime sa nd i nd if e ren tl o ca t ion s . i t r ep r e sen t s ar aw m a t er ia l e conom i za t ion s o lu t ion a nd , t h u s , a l o g ica l r e spon se t o r aw m a t er ia l a va i lab i l i ty c on s t ra in t s . I ft h i s w e r e t h e c a se t h en w e w ou ld e xpec tt h e s t ra tegy t o b e e mp loyed m o s t c on s is ten t ly u nde r c ond i t ion s o f r e s t r ic t ed r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty , w h ich c ou ld i n c lude a n umbe r o f d i f f e r en t c i rcum s tance s . R aw m a te r ia l e conom iza t ion w ou ld b e r e qu i red a ts i te s w he r e s u i tab le r aw m a te r ia l s a r e n o t a va i lab le l o ca l ly ; d u r ing c e r ta in s e a son s w hen , d ue t o s nowcove r , g r ound f r o s t , o r w a te r l e ve l s , r aw m a te r ia l s ou rce s a r e i n a cce s s ib le ; a nd w h i le a g r oup i si nt r an s i t b e tween s ou r ce s o fr aw m a te r ia l ( e .g . , m ov ing b e tween b a se c amp s o ro n l o nge r h un t ing f o ray s ) a nd mu s t e x tend t h e l i f e o ft h o se m a te r ia ls t h ey h ave i n h and .

R e touch ing c an b eu sed t oc r ea te l o nge r , m o re r e gu la rt o o l e dge s . D if f e r en tt y pe so fr e touch c an a l so b eu sed t oe i the r c r ea te o r m a in ta in l ow e dge a ng le s ( e .g . , b i f ac ia l , e xped ien t k n if e , a nd Q u ina r e touch ) o r t o c r ea te o r m a in ta in h i ghe r e dge a ng le s ( no tch ing a nd b a s ic s c rape r , e nd sc rape r ,a nd b a ck ing r e touch ) .

Hypo the se s S eve ra l s p ec if ic e xpec ta t ion s a bou t t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s i ng le su rf ace r e duc t ion , i n g ene ra l , a nd L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion , m o re s p ec if ica l ly , c an b e p r opo sed . T hey d epend s t rong ly o n t h e p ropo sa l t h a t Mou s te r ian t o o l k i t s ( i n SW F rance ) s hou ld b e d om ina ted b yt wo m a jo rc l a s se s o f t o o ls : t ho se u sed f o r b u tche r ing a nd t h o se u sed f o r w oodwo rk ing . W i th t h i s i nm ind , an umbe r o fh ypo the se s c an b e f r amed a bou t w hy L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion o ccu r s w he re i t d oe s . T he L eva l lo i s r e duc t ion s t ra tegy , a nd p e rhap s s i ng le su rf a ce r e duc t ion a s ad i sc r e te c a tego ry , w ou ld b ee mp loyed b ecau se :

i tp r es en t as t ra t egy f o rm o r ee f f ec t iv e ly o re f i c ien t ly r ed uc ing r aw m a t er ia l so fv a r iou ss i ze sa nd s hape s . I n s u ch a c a se t h e s t ra tegy w ou ld b e c on s i s ten t ly a s soc ia ted w i th s pec if ic r aw m a te r ia l f o rm s ( e .g . , l a rge , r e gu la rn odu le so rs ma l le r , i regu la rn odu le s ) . i ti s ar e spon s e t oi n cr ea sed p roce s s ing v o lume s a nd t h e n eed t op rod uce m or e t o o l s a t as pec i f ic t i me o r p lace . T he s t ra t egy p rod uc es m o r e t o o l b l ank s ( o r c u t t ing e dg e s ) o fa n a pp ropr ia t ef orm p er v o lume o f r aw m a t er ia l : i tr ep r e sen t s ama x im i za t ion s t ra tegy i n t o o lb l ank p roduc t ion .

1 / T he r e su l t ing p roduc t s s a t i sf i ed t h e s pec if i c mo rpho log ica l r equ i remen t s o f o ne m a jo r a pp l ica t ion OR t he o t he r , a nd s o w ou ld b e e mp loyed i n s i tua t ion s w he re t ha ta pp l ica t ion ( e .g . , b u tche r ing o rw oodwo rk ing ) w a st h ed om inan tt a sk . T he p roduc t s :

I nt h i s c a se t h e s t ra tegy w ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th s p ec if ic e ven t s , s u ch a s ap a r t icu la r ly l a rge k i l l e ven t , w h ich m igh t b e a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu la r ly s e a son s w hen ag r oup m ay h ave g r ea te r a c ce s s t o ar e sou r ce ( e .g . , m ig ra t ing c a r ibou o rb i son h e rd sp a ss ing t h rough t h e i rr e g ion ) .

a re r e la t ive l y r obus t w i th e dge s mo re s u i tab le f o r w oodwork ing ( e .g . ,E c la t sD dbo rdan t s ) , o r have r e la t ive l y l ow e dg e a ng le s , c ons i s ten t l y l ong , r egu lar c u t t ing e dge s , a nd a re c ons i s ten t l y f la t m ak ing t h em p ar t icu lar l y s u i tab le f o r b u tche r ing ( e .g . , more c l a s s ic L eva l lo i sp roduc t s )

4 /T he p roduc t s o ft h e s t ra tegy p re sen t ac e r ta in d eg ree o f s t and ard i za t ion ( w i thou t h av ing t o e mp loy mo re d i ff i cu l t r educ t ion s t ra teg ie s - e . g . , b l ad e p roduc t ion ) t ha t make s t h em m o re s u i tab le f o r h af t ed t o o lf orm s . Wh i le t h e i n i t ia l m anuf ac ture o fh af t ed t o o l s r equ i re s g rea te ri n ve s tmen t o ft ime , t he i r m a in ta inab i l i t y e x tend s t h e i r u se l if e a nd r educe s r i sk i n t ha t as u i tab le t o o l i s a lway sa va i lab le w hen i ti sn eed ed

I n t h is c a se w e w ou ld e xpec t t h e r e duc t ion s t ra tegy t o o ccu r i n c i rcum s tance s ( s i te s o r c omponen t s ) w he re s p ec if ic t a sk sd om ina ted t h ea c t iv i t ie sc a r r ied o u tt h e re . 2 /T he r educ t ion t e chn ique p roduce s al im i ted n umbe ro f l a rge rb l ank sw h ich w ou ld s e rve b e t te ra sl ong l ived t o o l s i np o r tab le t o o lk i t s o r a s mo re ma in ta inab le t o o lf o rm s i nc i rcum s tance sw he re t ime s t re s s/ con s t ra in s tp lay s ome r o le i nt a sk s chedu l ing

A s w i th H ypo the s i s # 3 , i nt h i s c a se w e w ou ld e xpec t t h e s t ra tegy t o h ave b een a r e spon se t o e i the r t h e n eed f o r l o nge r l ived t o o l s , w h ich w ou ld e i the r b e a s soc ia ted w i th e x tended m ob i l i ty e ven t s ( e .g . , h un t ing f o ray s ) , o r i n c i r cum s tance s w he r e , t or e duce r i sk , ag roup n eed s t ob e a b le t oc on s tan t ly m a in ta in t o o ls f o rr e ad ine s s .

I n t h i s c a se w e w ou ld e xpec t t h e s t ra tegy t o h ave b een e mp loyed i n p r epa ra t ion f o r l o nge r h un t ing /f o rag ing f o rays a nd i n r e too l ing s i tua t ion s , s u ch a s a t q ua r r ie s w he re j u s t b l ank s ( a nd n o t n odu le s o r c o re s ) w ou ld h ave

6 2

5 / I t r ep re sen t s c u l tura l t r ad i t ions , i n w h ich c ase w e w ou ld e xpec tt os ee b o th t empora la nd s pa t ia lp a t tern ing i ni t sd i s t r ibu t ion . T he c u r ren t ly a va i lab le d a ta d o n o t s uppo r t t h is a nd t h is h ypo thes i s w i l l n o t b e a dd re ssed i n t h e s ubsequen t a na lys i s o ft h ed a ta .

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Chap ter 7 :D a ta Co l lec t ion a nd A s semb lage Ana ly s i s I n troduc t ion T he se t h ree s i te s w e re s e lec ted i np a r t icu la r b ecau se t h ey h ave a s semb lage s ( o r p o r t ion s o ft h e i r a s semb lage s ) t h a t w e re r e la t ive ly r e cen t ly e xcava ted u s ing m oder n t e chn ique s a nd f o l low ing s im i la r s t anda rd s , a nd b ecau se t h e se a s semb lage s h ave b een w e l l c u ra t ed ( bo th t h e l e Mou s t ie r a nd P ech d e l ' Azé I V a s semb lage s h ad b een r e o rgan ized a nd r e ca ta logued w i th in t h e l a s t f i ve y ea r s ) . O the r f a c to r s i nt h e i r s e lec t ion i n c lude t h e f a c tt h a tt wo o f t h em ( P ech d el ' Aze I V a nd C ombe C ape I le B a s )a r eg ood e xamp le so fs i te sw he re t h es ou rce f o rt h er aw m a te r ia l s i s i mmed ia te ly a th and , w h i le f o rt h et h i rd s i t e ( l e Mou s t ie r ) t h em a te r ia l sc ame f r om s ome d i s tance a way ( 5t o1 5k m ) . T h i s a low s t h e a na ly s i s o fr aw m a te r ia l a c ce s s a s af a c to r i nl i t h ic t e chno log ica lc ho ice s .

T he p r ima ry t h ree s i te s f r om w h ich d a ta w a s c o l lec ted , P ech d e l ' Aze I V , l e Mou s t ie r , a nd C ombe C ape I le B a s , a r e a l s i tua ted i n t h e D o rdogne r e g ion o f S ou thwe s t F rance ( f igu re 7 . 1) . T h i s r e g ion i sw e l l k nown f o ri t s l a rge c oncen t ra t ion o f L owe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te s t h a t h ave b een w e l l i n ve s t iga ted . I th a s b een am a jo r f o cu s o fP a la eo l i th ic r e sea rch o ve rt h e p a s t 1 50 y ea r s a nd t h e t h ree s i te s h e re a r e a mong s ome o ft h e mo s t w ide ly k nown , w i th , i nf a c t , l e Mou s t ie r b e ing t h e o r ig in f o r t h e t e rm Mou s te r ian . Mo re i mpo r tan t ly , m any o ft h e s i te s i n t h e r e g ion w e re t h o se u pon w h ich P a la eo l i th ic c h rono log ie s , t e chno log ica l s c heme s , a nd a g ene ra l u nde r s tand ing o ft h e We s ter n E u ropean P a la eo l i th ic ( a nd t h e P a la eo l i th ic i n g ene ra l ) h ave b een c on s t ruc ted a nd mod if ied o ve rt h ey ea r s .

F igure 7 . 1 Map o fF rance s how ing t he l o ca t ion o ft he f our s i te se mp loyed i nt he s t udy ( u se b y p erm i s s ion o f D ibb le a nd L eno ir 1 995 ) .

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T he l e ve ls a te a ch s i te t h a tw e re s amp led w e re s e lec ted f o r t wo r e a son s . T he f i r s t i st h a t t h ey a r e a l o fs im i la r a ge s ( a round 5 0 t o 6 0 k y ) , w h ich c on t ro l s f o r c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s ( wh ich , i nf a c t , d o n o t a ppea red t oh ave b een a f a c to ri nt h eu se o fL eva l lo is t e chno logy ) .T h is t ime p e r iod c o inc ide s w i th t h e b eg inn ing o fO I s t age 3 ,a n i n te r s tad ia l w i th in t h e l a s t g l a c ia l c yc le , b u t s t i l l ac o ld , d ry c l ima t ic r e g ime d om ina ted b y s t epp ic v ege ta t iona l c ond i t ion s ( f ig . 7 . 2 ) .

o f t h e se t wo t e chno log ie s a nd p o ten t ia l ly c ompa re h a rdhamme r a nd b i l le t f l ake m o rpho log ie s ( a s i tt u rned o u t , v e ry f ew b i l le tf l ake sw e re r e cove red f r om t h e s amp le l e ve l st h a th ad c on ta ined b i f ace s ) . A f ou r th s i te w a s a l so i n c luded i n t h e s t udy h e re f o r m a in ly o ne r e a son . T he t h ree p r ima ry s i te s a r e a l l o ca ted i n r e la t ive ly c l o se p rox im i ty a nd s o w ou ld h ave a lway s s ha red c e r ta in c ommon g eog raph ic a spec t s , r e ga rd le s s o f a ny c l ima t ic c hange s , s uch a s l a t i tude a nd a l t i tude . T h i s l a t te r a spec t i s o f p a r t icu la r i n te re s t . W i th s i gn if ican t c hange s i n a l t i tude c ome s i gn if ican t c hange s i n c l ima te , s e a sona l i ty , v ege ta t ion , f a una , a nd a c ce s s t o o t he r i mpo r tan t r e sou rce s . I tw a s f e l t t ob e o fs ome i mpo r tance t oe xam ine aMou s te r ian s i te l o ca ted a th i ghe r e l eva t ion s f o ra ny n o tab le d i f f e rence s i nt o o lk i t s o rt e chno log ie st h a t m ay s hed m o r e l i gh t o n t h e c ons t ra in t s t h a t w e re i nf luenc ing t h e d e s ign o f t h e se . T he s i te o f J i bou i i s l o ca ted i nt h e Ma s s if d uV e rco r sr e g ion o ft h eF r ench A lp s d i rec t ly e a s to fV a lence a nd d i rec t ly n o r th o f Ma r se i l le s . I t w a se xcava ted f r om 1 997 t o1 999 .

T he s e cond r e a son w a sd ue t ot h e Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie st o w h ich t h e c omponen t s a r e a s soc ia ted . T he c omponen t s t h a tw e re s amp led f r om P ech d e l ' Az e I V a nd l e Mou s t ie r w e r e a s s igned t o t h e MAT , w i th t h e f o rme r h av ing f ew h andaxe s ( MAT t y pe B ) a nd t h e l a t te r h av ing a n o tab le p r e sence o f h andaxe s ( MAT t y pe A ) . T he c omponen t f r om C ombe C ape I le B a s t h a t w a s s amp led w a s a s s igned t ot h e T yp ica l Mou s te r ian f a c ie s . T he f a c t t h a t i na tl e a s t o ne o fm y s amp le sb o th L eva l lo i sa nd b i f a ce r e duc t ion h ad b een p ra c t iced ,a nd i na tl e a s to ne s amp le t h el a t te rh adn ' t , w ou ld a low m e t o mo re c l o se ly i n ve s t iga te a ny d i f f e r ence si nt h eu sage

C L IMAT IC S TATE

D eg lac ia l t e rm ina t ion

E ST IMATED S UMMER S EA-SURFACE T EMPERATURE ( CORE V 23-82 ) ( °C ) 5 1 0 1 5

P RESENT 1 NTERGLAC IAT ION

A GE , Y EARS —0 1 0 000

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t r an s i t ion

a ge -r ange o ft h es i t e c omponen t s y ed i e m t h i p l sos t udy n

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I SOTOP IC E ARLY WURM G LAC IAT ION

G l ac ia l i n cep t ion

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e lSOTOP I C S TAGE 6

F igure 7 . 2 O xygen I s o tope S tage sf r om t he l a s tg l ac ia lc yc le w i th t he a ge r ange o ft he f our s amp le s i te ss hown . ( u sed b yp erm i s s ion o fB rad ley 1 995 ) .

6 5

T he A rchaeo log ica l S i te s b ank ) o ft h e D o rdogne R ive r v a l ley i n SW F rance . I ti s a bou t 5km s ou thea s to ft h em a jo rr e g iona lt own o f Sa la t , a nd i sl o ca ted o n t h e e a s t s i de ( l ef t b ank ) o fa n o l d , d r y t r ibu ta ry o ft h e A nea , as ma l l t r ibu ta ry o ft h e D o rdogne ( f igu re 7 . 2 ) .

P ech d e l 'Azé IV P ech d e l ' Azd I V i s ac o l lap sed c ave s i t et h a t i sp a r t o fa c omp lex o f 4 Mou s te r ian -occupa t ion c ave s i t e s a l ong a s t eep l i me s tone e s ca rpmen to nt h en o r th s i de ( r igh t

F igure 7 . 3 Map s how ing t he r e la t ive l o ca t ions o ft he P ech d el ' Azi c omp lex o fs i te s . ( unpub l i shed f i gure u sed b yp erm i s s ion o fD ibb le a nd McPherron 2 001 ) . T he P ech d el ' Azj C omp lex o fS i tes

I n 1 948 F ranco i s B o rde s , a l ong w i th Mau r ice B ou rgon , c a r r ied o u t s ome e xcava t ion s a tt h e c ave , a l though t h e re w e r ef ew i n ta c td epo s i t sl ef t . I nt h i s ,h i sf i r s tp r o jec ta tt h e s i t e , h e w o rked t i l l 1 951 , a nd e a r ly o n i nt h e e xcava t ion s d i scove r ed as e cond o pen ing ( on t h ew e s ts i de o ft h er i dge t h rough w h ich t h e c ave s y s tem r un s ) i n to t h e r e a rp o r t ion o ft h e s y s tem , n ow c a l led P ech d e l ' Aze I .T h i s e n t rance h ad b een f i l led t ot h e c e i l ing w i th ac one o fn a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s , a nd t h e d epo s i t s i n t h i s c ave w e re c omp le te ly i n ta c t . B o rde s r e tu rned a nd e xcava ted a tP ech d e l ' Azi Ia nd I a ga in b e tween 1 967 a nd 1 969 , b u t t h e c oncen t ra t ion w a s o n P ech I . I tt u rned o u t t h a t t h e d epo s i t si nt h i sc ave i n c luded much o l de ro ccupa t ion st h an i n P ech d e l ' Aze I ,w i th B o rde s a t t r ibu t ing t h e d eepe s t l a ye r s ( l eve l s 5-9 ) , w i th A cheu l ian t y pe a s semb lage s , t o t h e e a r ly R i s s g l ac ia t ion ( R i s s It o I I -B o rde s 1 975 ) . S ub sequen tE SR d a t ing o na n ima lt e e th f r om t h e s i te t e nd t os uppo r tB o rde s 'g ene ra li n te rp re ta t ion .

P ech d e l ' Azi Ia nd I a r e t wo c la s s ic Mou s te r ian c ave s i te s a to ppo s i te e nd s o ft h e s ame c ave s y s tem . T he P ech d e l ' Aze Io pen ing f a ce s s ou thea s t a nd t h e c ave e x tend s b a ck ,h o r izon ta l ly ,a bou t2 7m e t re si n to t h ec l if f a ce ,w i th a1 4m e t re ,n a r row s e c t ion a tt h eb ack w h ich c onnec t si tt o t h e s e cond c ave w h ich i sa bou t 2 5 m e t re s l o ng a nd o fa s im i la rh e igh t .C u r ren t ly ,t h eo pen ing o fP ech d el 'Azi Ii s a bou t 1m e t re sw ide b yt h ree a nd o ne h a lf m e t re st a l la nd i sn i ce ly a r ched . I tw a sn o ted i nt h e e a r ly 1 800 s ,b u t wa s f i r s td e sc r ibed b y a r chaeo log i s t si n1 864 w hen t h ep r eh i s to r ian s , a nd a u tho r s o f C a ve s o f t h e P er igo rd , E doua rd L a r te t a nd H en ry C h r i s ty , v i s i ted i t .I n 1 908 t h eF rench p r eh i s to r ian s , L ou i s C ap i tan a nd D en i s P ey rony , c onduc ted ab r ief e xcava t ion t h e re a nd f o und t h ec r an ium o f an eande r ta lc h i ld .I n1 929 3 0 R aymond V auf rey c onduc ted m o re c on t ro l led e xcava t ion s t h e re , n o t ing a mong o t he r t h ing s t h a t t h e w ho le s e quence i n t h i s c ave b e longed t o t h e MAT i n du s t ry .

P ech d e l ' Aze I i s av e ry s ma l l c ave f o und b y B o rde s i n 1 9 51 a nd s i tua ted j u s tt ot h en o r th o ft h e P ech d e l ' Azi I

6 6

e v idence a nd t h e g eo logy t h a t t h ey h ave e s sen t ia l ly b een d i sm is sed a nd a r e n o t r e f e r red t oi na ny c u r ren t l i t e ra tu re o nt h es i te . F o re xamp le ,t h eu ppe rmo s td a te , f r om l e ve lF , w a s 1 9 .6± 1 .6 k ya , w h ich i sa tl e a s t 1 5 ,000 y ea r s y ounge r t h an w ou ld b er e a sonab le . B owman e t . a l . ( 1982 ) f e l tt h a t , i nf a c t , a l o ft h ed a te sw e re s i gn if ican t ly m o re r e cen tt h an t h ey s hou ld b e .

e n t rance . B o rde s a nd B ou rgon ( 1 951) f ound a s equence h e re t h a t c o r re sponded t o t h e l owe r l e ve ls o f P ech d e l ' Aze I . P ech d e l ' Azj I V I n 1 952 i nt h e c ou r se o fB o rde s ' f i r s t p ro jec t a tP ech d e l ' Aze I ,w h i le c onduc t ing s u rf a ce s u rvey s a nd s hove l t e s t s a l ong t h e e s ca rpmen t , h e d i scove red t h e f ou r th s i te i nt h e c omp lex . B o rde s n o ted s i gn if ican t q uan t i t ie s o f l i t h ic a r t if a c t s e r od ing o u t o ft h e t a lu s s l ope a tt h e B a se o ft h e c l if f a bou t 1 00 m e t re s s ou thea s t o ft h e P ech d e l ' Az6 I e n t rance . B ecau se h ew a sb u sy h im se lf w i th P ech d e I ' Aze I ,a nd l a te r P ech d e l ' Aze I a nd C ombe G r ena l , h e w a s n o t a b le t o b eg in w o rk h e re h im se lf , b u t h e d i d t a lk a f r iend ,B . Mo r tu reux ( al o ca l d en t i s t ) , i n to b eg inn ing s ome l i m i ted w o rk t h e re . B e tween 1 953 a nd 1 956 Mo r tu reux d ug a 1m e t re w ide t r ench p e rpend icu la r t ot h e c l if ff a ce a nd e x tend ing 9 m e t re s o u t f r om i t .H e f ound t h e g o ing d i ff i cu l t , h oweve r , b ecau se o ft h e l a rg e p i ece s o fe bou l is ( f a l len r o ck ) , many o fw h ich w e re m uch w ide rt h an h i s 1 m e t r ew ide t r ench .

C urren tR e search I n 1 996 a n ew p ro jec t ( McPhe r ron a nd D ibb le 2 000 ) b egan a tP ech d e l 'Aze I Vt h a t w a s d e s igned t om ake t h e s ub s tan t ia l c o l lec t ion o fa r t if ac t s a nd f a una l r ema in s t h a t B o rde s h ad c o l lec ted ( c . 9 0 ,000 l i t h ic a r t if a c t s a nd 4 0 ,000 a n ima lb one s )m o re u sab le f o rc u r ren tr e sea rche r s . Mo s to f t h e c o l lec t ion i ss t o red a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fB o rdeaux a nd , i nt e rm so fu sef u lne s sf o rr e sea rch ,h ad s uf e red f o rl a ck o f p rope r c u ra t ion a nd f o r l a ck o f g ood d a te s a nd s i te f o rma t ion d a ta . I n i t ia l ly t h ep ro jec ti n vo lved r e ca ta logu ing a l o f B o rde s ' c o l lec t ion , c l ea r ing u p p rob lem s o f m is labe l ing , m i sp la cemen t , a nd mu l t ip le I D n umbe r s . A l l t h e p roven ienced i t em s w e re a l so i n pu t i n to a c ompu te r d a taba se .T h is w o rk w a sf i n ished i n1 999 .

I n 1 970 B o rde s w a s a b le t ot u rn h i s a ten t ion t oP ech d e l ' Aze I Va nd h ew o rked t h e re f o r 8s e a son s ,u n t i l 1 977 .H e o pened a7b y 7m e t re s qua re t h a t s t radd led Mo r tu reux 's t r ench a nd e xcava ted mo s t o f t h i s s qua re d own t o a r e la t ive ly f l a tb ed rock s h e lf .

T he p ro jec t a l so i n c luded al i m i ted a moun t o fe xcava t ing i no rde rt oc o l lec tg ood d a te so nt h es e quence a nd t oa r r ive a t ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e s i te f o rma t ion p roce s se s . E xcava t ion b egan i nt h e s umme r o f2 000 a nd f i n ished i n t h es umme ro f2 003 .

B o rde s p ub l ished a p r e l im ina ry r e po r t o n P ech d e l ' Aze I V , b u t d i ed b ef o re h e c ou ld f i n i sh h i s a na ly s i s . H is i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e s i t e w a s t h a t i tw a s t h e c o l lap sed r ema in s o f as ha l low r o ck s he l te r ( a br i ) w i th m u l t ip le Mou s te r ian c omponen t s , b u t n o e v idence o f a ny e a r l ie r , A cheu l ian , o r l a te r , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , c omponen t s . H e i d en t if ied 1 8 d if e ren t l a ye r s t h a t c on ta ined Mou s te r ian l e ve ls ( f ig . 7 . 3 ) t h a t w e re d i s t ingu i shed o n b o th g eo log ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l c r i te r ia ( Bo rde s 1 975 , 1 978 ) . T he u ppe rmo s t 4l e ve l s ( F 1 , F 2 , F 3 , F 4 ) h e a s s igned t o t h e MAT ,t h ef i f th ( G ) h ew a sn ' ta b le t oa s s ign t oa ni n du s t ry , a nd t h e l owe r 1 3 ( H1 , H 2 , I i , 1 2 , J 1 , J 2 , J 3 , J 3a , J 3b , J 3c , X , Y , a nd Z ) h e a s s igned t o t h e T yp ica l Mou s te r ian i n du s t ry . B o rde s a l so a t temp ted t o c o r re la te t h e s t ra t ig raphy b e tween P ech d e l ' Azd I ,P ech d e l ' Aze I , a nd P ech d e l ' Aze I V ( Bo rde s 1 978 ) . H e p u t t h e l owe r l e ve ls o fP ech d e l ' Aze I V ( G t o Z ) i nt h e Wü rm Ia nd c on tempo raneou s w i th t h e u ppe r p o r t ion o ft h e s equence a tP ech d el ' Az e I( l eve l s 2t h rough 4 ) .A nd h ep l a ced t h e u ppe r MAT l e ve ls i n P ech d e l ' Azi I V a s c on tempo raneou s w i th t h e w ho le s e quence a t P ech d e l ' Azi I ( a l l MAT a s w e l l ) . B e t te r a b so lu te d a te s a r e r e qu i red t ot e s t t h e p o ten t ia l a ccu ra cy o ft h i s c o r re la t ion . A lso , s i nce B o rde s ' w o rk o n t h e se s i t e s t h e c l ima t ic s equence s t y p ica l ly e mp loyed i n SW F rance a nd t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t o a b so lu te d a te s h a s b e en s i gn if ican t ly r e vamped .

O ne o f t h e i n i t ia l m a jo r c on t r ibu t ion s t h a t t h is c u r r en t r e sea rch h a s p rov ided i st h e d i scove ry t h a t P ech d e l ' Aze I Vw a s n o t ar o ck she l te r , b u tw a s i nf a c t ac ave . B a sed o n t h e n a tu re , s ou rce , a nd d i r ec t ion o fo r ig in o f much o ft h e s i te s ed imen t s ( e spec ia l ly i n t h e e a r l ie r l a ye r s ) r e cen t g eomo rpho log ica l r e sea rch ( D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 ) h a s d e te rm ined t h a tt h e s i te i si nt h e m ou th o f ac o l lap sed c ave t h el o ng i tud ina l a x i so fw h ich w a so r ien ted S E -NW . I ti sq u i te a ppa ren t n ow , l o ok ing a tt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a r t if a c t s i nc r o s s sec t ion , t h a t s ucce s s ive o ccupan t s a tt h e s i te h ad t om ove f u r the r a nd f u r the r i n to t h e c ave a st h e c ave mou th g radua l ly r e ceded t h rough c o l lap se p roce s se s a nd e ven t s . C u r r en t ly i ti su nc lea rw he the rP ech d e l ' Aze I V i sp a r to f ac ave s y s tem s epa ra te f r om P ech d el ' Aze Ia nd I ,o ri fi t w a s a c tua l ly c onnec ted a to ne t ime d i rec t ly t o P ech d e l ' Azd I .T he l o ng i tud ina l a x i so ft h eP ech d e l ' Az6 Ia nd I c ave s r un s r ough ly p a ra l le l t ot h e f a ce o ft h e c l if fa nd i s o r ien ted a l ong t h i s f a ce i nt h e d i rec t ion o fP ech d e l ' Aze I V . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t P ech d e l ' Aze I V r e p re sen t s t h e e a s ter n e x t rem i ty o f w ha t w a s o nce a n e x tended c ave s y s tem t h a t i n c luded P ech d e l ' Aze Ia nd I . I ft h is i s a ccu ra te i ts e em s u n l ike ly t h a t t h i s s y s tem w ou ld h ave b een i n ta c t w hen p eop le f i r s t b egan i n hab i t ing t h e r e g ion . Mo re l i ke ly , t h a t p o r t ion o ft h e s y s tem t h a t w ou ld h ave j o ined P ech d e l ' Aze I V t o P ech d e l ' Az 6 Iw ou ld h ave c o l lap sed l o ng b ef o re t h is ,c r ea t ing t h ee n t rance a tP ech d e l ' Aze Ia nd l e av ing as em i in ta c t c ave m ou th a tt h e P ech d e l ' Aze I V l o ca t ion t h a tw ou ld h ave s e rved a ss he l te r f o r

As equence o ft h u rmo lum ine scen t d a te s w a s p roduced , o n b u rn t f l i n t s , f o r t h e w ho le P ech d e l ' Aze I V s equence i n 1 982 ( Bowman e t . a l . 1 982 ) . H oweve r , t h e se w e re s o o bv iou s ly o u t o f l i ne w i th b o th t h e a r cha eo log ica l

6 7

s ome t ime b ef o re McPhe r ron 2 003 ) .

i t c o l lap sed

a s w e l l

( D ibb le

l e ve l 7 ,o f t en p u sh d own i n to 7a nd h ave f u r the r d i s tu rbed i t . T h is l a ye r m u s t r e p re sen t ap e r iod o f m a jo r r oof c o l lap se . T he s e d imen t s b e tween t h e se l a rge s l ab s a r e m a in ly a b r own s andy s i l t a nd t h e l i t h ic c omponen t i n c lude s t h e A s s in ipod ian I n du s t ry . L eve l 6 a i sr e a l ly a c on t inua t ion o ft h e s ame f i ne s e d imen t s , b u t w i th f ewe r p i ece so fe bou l i s , e spec ia l ly f u r the ri n to t h ec ave , a nd w i th w e l l p r e se rved f a una l r ema in s . T he A s s in ipod ian i n du s t ry c on t inue s i n 6 a a s w e l l , b u t t h e l i t h ic s r e cove red a l so i n c lude a s i gn if ican t n umbe r o f l a rge , b l adey , L eva l lo i s f l ake s ( w i th n o a s soc ia ted c o re s p r e sen t a nd l i m i ted d eb i tage o ft h es ame r aw m a te r ia ls ) .

a nd

D epo s i t iona lS equence T he s t ra t ig raph ic i n te rp re ta t ion d eve loped d u r ing t h e c u r ren t r e sea r ch h a s m a tched B o rde s ' q u i te w e l l f o r m uch o f t h e d epo s i t iona l s e quence . T he re h ave b een s ome s i gn if ican td ev ia t ion s , h oweve r , a nd w he re B o rde s s aw 1 8 m a jo r l a ye r s , t h e c u r ren t p ro jec t h a s i d en t if ied 1 5 ( D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 - s e e f i gu re 7 . 3 ) . T he m a jo r p roce s se s t h a t t o ok p l a ce a tt h e s i te a nd w h ich h ad t h e m o s t i n f luence o n t h e n a tu re o fi t s f o rma t ion i n c lude : t h e g r adua l e r o s ion a nd r e ced ing o f t h e c ave m ou th i n a n o r thea s te r ly d i rec t ion i n to t h ec l if ff a ce ( w i th t h i sp roce s s s ome t ime s o ccu r r ing a s m a jo r , d i sc r e te c o l lap se e ven t s ) a nd d epo s i t ing aw ide r a nge o fe bou l i s c l a s t s i ze s o n t h e c ave f l oo ra nd a ti t se n t rance ; t h e i n f lux a nd a ccumu la t ion o f n a tu ra l s e d imen t s , i n i t ia l ly o r ig ina t ing m a in ly f r om i n s ide t h e c ave , b u t l a te r f r om o u t s ide t h e c ave e n t rance a nd m ov ing i n ; t h e a c cumu la t ion o f a n th ropogen ic s e d imen t s , a r t if ac t s , a nd f a una l r ema in s . T he re a r e n o m a jo r s t e r i le l a ye r s e v iden t f r om t h e i n i t ia l d epo s i t s r i gh t u pt ot h et o po ft h e Mou s te r ian l e ve ls , a l though t h e re i sa n o bv iou s u nconf o rm i ty a nd p e r iod o fe r o s ion o n t h e v e ry t o p o f t h e se . I ti sa l so e a s i ly p o s s ib le t h a t t h e r e w e re p r ev iou s o ccupa t ion s o f t h e s i te t h a t w e re c omp le te ly e r oded a way b ef o re t h e l a y ing d own o fl e ve l 8d i r ec t ly o n t h e b ed rock , a l though n o e v idence o ft h i s h a s b een f ound a sy e t .

L eve l 5( Bo rde s ' J 1 a nd J 2 ) i sa l so d i v ided u p i n to 5 aa nd 5 b . 5 b i s al a ye ro fs ub rounded p i ece so fg rave l a nd s ma l l c obb le s . I ti sa ppa r en t ly s o r ted t o as ma l l d eg ree , w i th t h e l a rge r , l e s s rounded c obb le s n ea re r t h e t o p o ft h e l a ye r . I t i se i the r ac r yo tu rba ted o r s o lu f luc ted l a ye r , w h ich , l i ke l e ve l 7 ,m u s t a l so h ave b een r e depo s i ted f r om i n s ide t h e c ave . 5 a i s at h inne r l a ye r o fs ma l l f r agmen t s o fb ur n ed a nd u nbur n ed b one t h a tc ap s5 b . L eve l 4( Bo rde s ' l e ve ls G , H , a nd I )i sd i v ided u p i n to t h ree s ub leve l s ( wh ich d on ' t n ece s sa r i ly c o r re spond t o B o rde s ' l e ve l s ) . 4 c i n c lude s h i gh c oncen t ra t ion s o fl i t h ic s a nd r e la t ive ly l a rge p i ece s o f b one . 4 b i s al a ye r o f r e la t ive ly e x ten s ive r o of c o l lap se , c on ta in ing m any s ma l l , m ed ium , a nd l a rge e bou l i s , e spec ia l ly t ot h e S E ( t owa rd s t h e c ave e n t rance ) . 4 ah a s s i gn if ican t ly f ewe r a nd s ma l le r p i ece s o f e bou l is . I t h a s s i gn if ican t c oncen t ra t ion s o f l i t h ic sa nd b one s ,b u tm o s t ly i nd i sc re te l e n ses .

T he i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion s , l e ve l 8( Bo rde s ' l e ve ls X , Y , a nd Z ) , w e re i mmed ia te ly o n t o p o ft h e b ed rock . T he se i n i t ia l d epo s i t s a r e n o tab le f o r t h e i r s i gn if ican t c ha rcoa l a nd a sh c omponen t s . T h is c ha rcoa l o ccu r s a s b o th u b iqu i tou s , d i spe r sed c l a s t s t h roughou t t h e d epo s i t s , b u t a l so f r equen t ly a s o bv iou s , d i sc r e te p a i red l e n se s o f c ha rcoa l a nd a sh t h a t m u s t b e , f o r l a ck o f a ny v i ab le a l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion s , t h e r ema in s o f c u l tu ra l b ehav iou r -i . e . h ea r th s . U nde r s tand ing t h e n a tu re o ft h e se i so ne o ft h e r e sea rch g oa l s o ft h e c u r r en t p ro jec t . T he n ume rou s b u rn t f l in t s i nt h e se d epo s i t s s hou ld a l so a low t h e a cqu is i t ion o f g ood a b so lu te d a te s . Among t h e l i t h ic s i nt h i s l a ye r a r e m any b l ade s o r b l ade l ike f l ake s r em in iscen t o f e a r ly U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re s .

L eve l 3( Bo rde s ' Fl e ve ls ) i n c lude s3 aa nd 3 b .3 bi s al a ye r o fs a ndy s i l t s w i th v e ry h i gh c oncen t ra t ion s o fl i t h ic s a nd b one ( ma in ly i ns ma l le r f r agmen t s ) . Many o ft h e a r t if a c t s a nd b one a r e s i gn if ican t ly i n c l ined a nd t h e re i s a p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h is l a ye r h a s b een r e depo s i ted t o as ma l l d eg ree ( p e rhap s moved d own s l ope ,b u tn o tv e ry f a r ) . 3 ai s v e ry s im i la r t o 3 b , b u t i sf i ne r g ra ined a nd h a s f ewe r a r t if a c t s a nd b one s . L eve l 3 a h a s b een t r unca ted i n t h e s ou th h a lf o ft h e s i te . T h is a ppea r s t ob e t h e r e su l t o ft h e f i na l c o l lap se o ft h e s ma l l p o r t ion o fc ave r oof , r ema in ing a tt h e e nd o ft h e Mou s te r ian u se o ft h e s i t e , w h ich l e f tt h e s ou th h a lf o ft h e s i te e xpo sed . T h is a lowed s ome o ft h e s u rf ace d epo s i t s t o b e e r oded a way a nd o t he r s t o b e d i s tu rbed e nm a s s .

L eve l 7i s at h in , r e depo s i ted l a ye r , p r obab le ar e su l t o f s o lu f luc t ion , t h a t i sn o tab le f o r i t s s a nd a nd g rave l m a t r ix a nd t h e h eav i ly e r oded l i t h ic s i ni t .I ts e em s m o s t l i ke ly t h a t t h i s l a ye r r e p re sen t s a r e depo s i t ion ( f low ) o f s e d imen t s a nd a r t if a c t s f r om f u r the r i n s ide t h e c ave . B o rde s h ad n o ted t h e se f e a tu re s , b u t h ad n o t s e tt h i s l a ye r a pa r tf r om e i the rt h eo ne a bove i to rt h eo ne b e low i t .

L eve l 2i s al a rge , i s o la ted p ocke t o fs l umped l i me s tone s l ab s w i th s e d imen t s t h a t r e semb le l e ve l 3 ,b u t w h ich a r e v e ry o bv iou s ly n o t i ns i tu . I nt h e s ou th h a lf o ft h e s i t e , b e tween l e ve l 3a nd 1 ci sa n u nconf o rm i ty r e su l t ing f r om a p e r iod o fe r o s ion . L eve l s l at oI da r eo fH o locene a ge .

L eve l 6( Bo rde s ' J 3 , J 3a , J 3b , a nd J 3 c ) i sd i v ided u p i n to t wo s ub leve ls , 6 a a nd 6 b . 6 b i sc omp r ised m a in ly o f m ed ium t o v e ry l a rge s l ab s o fe bou l i s ( r oof f a l l ) , w h ich o ccu ra tv a r iou sa ng le so fi n c l ine .T ho se s l ab st h a ta r en ea r t o v e r t ica l i n o r ien ta t ion , a nd t h a t a r e i mmed ia te ly a t op

6 8

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F igure 7 . 4I lu s tra t ion o ft he s t ra t igraphy a tP ech d el ' Azi I V . w i th B orde s ' o r ig ina ll e ve ld e s igna t ions ( u sed b yp erm i s s ion o fD ibb le a nd McPherron 2 000 ) .

( e xc lud ing s t age 5 e w h ich w a s t h e l a s t i n te rg la c ia l a nd w ou ld h ave b een w a rm ) , b u t s t age 5 i n c luded mo re m a rked f l uc tua t ion s i nt empe ra tu re a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion a nd d u r ing t h is t ime p e r iod t h e re w e re a tl e a s tt wo p e r iod st h a t w e re s i gn if ican t ly w a rme r a nd w e t te r . S t age 4 w a s o f much s ho r te rd u ra t ion , b u tw a sm uch c o lde ra nd d r ie r , a nd i t s f l uc tua t ion s i nt empe ra tu re a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion w e re l e s s e x t reme .

D a te s , O xyg en I s o tope S tag e s , a nd C l ima t ic R eg ime s A sm en t ioned a bove ,B o rde sh ad a s s igned t h el owe rl e ve l s o ft h e s i te ( l eve l s Zt o G o r 8t o 4 ) t o t h e Wü rm Io r O xygen I s o tope S t age 5 d t o 5 a ( no t 5 e ) a nd t h e u ppe r l e ve l s ( l eve l sF 4t oF l o r3 )t o Wü rm I o rO xygen I s o tope S t age 4 . Whe the rt h e se c o r re la t ion s h o ld u p i nt h e c u r ren t r e sea rch r ema in s t o b e s e en . T he a ge s , i n y ea r s b ef o re p r e sen t ,a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se

F auna lS equence

s t age s , w h i le s t i l l i nq ue s t ion , h ave c hanged s i gn if ican t ly s i nce B o rde s ' r e sea rch . F o r e xamp le , s t age 5 d n ow a ppea r s t o h ave b egun a r ound 1 20 ,000 y ea r s a go , w h ich w ou ld m ake t h ei n i t ia lo ccupa t ion sa t P ech d e l ' Az6 I V m uch o l de r t h an B o rde s h ad t h ough t . H oweve r , f o r t h e p u rpo se s h e re B o rde s a s s igna t ion s w i l l b e e mp loyed . I n g ene ra l , b o th s t age s 5a nd 4 w e re c o ld

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R ang if er t a randu s B o s /B ison B os p r im igen iu s

6 2 1 2

Megacero ss p . D icerorh inu ss p .

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MAT

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4 A

Mou s te r ian?

R ang if e rt a randu s C ervu se l aphu s

1 89

B o s /B i son

6

E quu sc aba l /u s C .c apreo lu s

6 2

V u lpes v u lpes C arn ivore ?

1 1

C er vus e l aphus

1 83

R ang if er t a randu s

2 16

C .c apr eo lu s

C ervu se l aphus B o s /B ison

7

E quus c aba l /u s

2 6 2 4

E quu sc aba l /us

7 2

S us s c rof a B o s /B i son

1 5 4

C .c apreo lus

8 C er vus e l aphu s

1 25

R ang if er t a randu s

3 32 19 1

C .c apr eo lu s E quus c aba l lus S u ss crof a

6 0 1 7

B o s /B i son

1 0 1 7 1 2

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1

C ervus e l aphu s C .c apreo lu s

5 2

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4 B

T yp ica l

7 4 C

T yp ica l

B o s /B i son B os p r im ig en iu s C er vus e l aphu s E quu sc aba l /us E .h yd run t inu s C .c apreo lu s R .r up icapra C an i sl up is V u lpes v u lpes

5 A

T yp ica l

T yp ica l

8

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3 1

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1 1

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1

L eva l lo is P resence T he d eg ree o fL eva l lo is p re sence a t as i te o ri ni n d iv idua l c omponen t s i s t yp ica l ly i n d ica ted b y c ompu t ing a " Leva l lo is I ndex" . T h is i st h e t o ta l n umbe r o f L eva l lo is f l ake s ,b l ade s ,&p o in t s( i nc lud ing r e touched p i eces ) d i v ided b y t h e w ho le o ft h e n on -b if ace a s semb lage ( f lake s a nd r e touched t oo ls ) a nd mu l t ip l ied b y 1 00 ( Debena th a nd D ibb le 1 994 ) .

1 2

C ervu se l aphu s C .c apreo lus

5 83 4 12

1

T he v a s t ma jo r i ty o ft h e r aw ma te r ia ls r e cove red f r om t h e c omponen t s a tP ech d e l 'Azd I V a r e o f S enon ian f l in t o f r e la t ive ly l o ca l o r ig in ; w i th in 1km o ft h e s i te . A l though t h is f l in t i so fg ood t o v e ry g ood q ua l i ty , i nt e rms o f i t s f l akab i l i ty , i to ccu r s h e re a s r e la t ive ly s ma l l ( 5 t o2 0 c m ) r ognon s , a nd t e nd s t o b e mo re i regu la r , t w is ted , a nd c omp lex i ni tn a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing mo rpho logy .

2 1 1

V u lpes v u lpes

2 1

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1 2 8

2 2

8 4

I n g ene ra l , t h e f auna i n d ica te s a ma jo r c l ima t ic c hange f r om w a rm , i nt h e l owe s t l e ve ls ( 8t h rough 6 ) , t o c o ld i n t h eu ppe rl e ve ls ( 5t h rough 3 ) .

1

E quus c aba l /u s

Megacero ss p .

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6

1

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1 1 7 1

1

1

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6 A

T yp ica l

C rocu ta s pe laea

B o s /B ison B os p r im ig en iu s

5 B

T yp ica l

1

7 0

f o r a l t h e Jl e ve l s i ti sb e tween 1 5 a nd 2 5 , f o rt h e Il e ve l s i ti sb e tween 1 3 a nd 1 8 , f o rH 1 a nd H 2 i ti sa r ound 6 ,f o r Gi ti s7 ,a nd f o rt h e Fl e ve l si tr a nge sf r om 4t o8 .

T he L eva l lo i s I ndex v a r ie s c on s ide rab ly a mong t h e c omponen t s a tP ech d e l ' Aze I V . A tt h i s t ime i th a s o n ly b een c ompu ted f o r e a ch o fB o rde s ' l e ve l s a nd n o t f o r t h e l e ve l d e s igna t ion s o ft h e c u r ren t p r o jec t . F o r t h e l owe s t l e ve ls ,X ,Y ,a nd Z ,t h eL eva l lo is I n dex i sa r ound 1 3o r1 4 ,

l e Mous t ier t h e s ma l l Mou s t ie r R ive r . l e Mou s t ie r i sa bou t 1 0 k m u p s t ream f r om t h e t own o fL e s E yz ie s a nd a bou t 2 2 k m s t ra igh tn o r thwe s to ft h eP ech d eL 'Aze s i te s( f igu re 7 . 4 ) .

T he s i t e o fl e Mou s t ie r i n c lude s t wo m a jo r r o ck s h e l te r s l o ca ted i nt h ev i l lage o fl e Mou s t ie ro n ap rom inen t r o cky s pu r f o rmed b y t h e c on f luence o f t h e V eze re R ive r ( a m a jo rt r ibu ta ry o ft h eD o rdogne )a nd

Le M ous t ier , abr i supd tr ieur

Le M ous t ier , abr i i nfi tr ieur

0

1

2

km

F igure 7 . 5 Map o fl o ca t ion o ft he u pper a nd l ower r ock she l ter so fl e Mous t ier . ( u sed b y p erm i s s ion o fS ore s s i 1 997 ) .

t h is s i te t h a t d e Mo r t i l le t n amed t h e i n du s t r ie s o f t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h e "Mou s te r ian" . S ub sequen t e xcava t ion s b y P ey rony a nd o t he r s ( e .g . B ou r lon 1 9 11 , 1 9 10 , 1 906 , 1 905 ) i nt h e e a r ly 1 900 s c omp le te ly r emoved a l t h ed epo s i t sf r om t h eu ppe rs he l te r .

T he s he l te r s , o ne d i rec t ly a bove t h e o t he r , a r e i nt h e c l if f a ce o ft h e r o cky s pu r . T he l owe r s h e l te ri sa tt h e l e ve l o f t h e p r e sen t v i l lage a nd c an b e v i ewed f r om t h e s t ree t . I t s r oof ( o r w ha t i sl ef t o fi t ) f o rm s p a r t o ft h e b ench , 1 3 .5 m e t r e sa bove t h eb ed rock o ft h e l owe rs h e l te r , u pon w h ich t h ed epo s i t so ft h eu ppe rs h e l te rh ave a c cumu la ted .

T he l owe rs he l te rw a sf i r s te xcava ted b yt h e G e rman , O t to H au se r , i n1 907 . H au se rh ad ar e pu ta t ion a s af o s s i l h un te r r a the r t h an a s as c ien t is t c onduc t ing l e g i t ima te r e sea rch , a nd w a s n o t s e en t o c a r ry o u t e xcava t ion p rac t ice s c on s ide r ed u p t op a r a tt h e t ime . B ecau se o ft h i s , a nd t h e p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s o ft h e d ay , h e w a s g ene ra l ly d e sp ised

T he f i r s te xcava t ion s a tl e Mou s t ie rw e re c a r r ied o u t i nt h e u ppe rs he l te r( of t en r e f e r red t oa st h e " c la s s ic" Mou s te r ian r o ck s he l te ro ra b r i ) i n1 863 b y L a r te ta nd C h r is ty ( Lav i l le e t .a l . 1 980 ;P ey rony 1 930 ) . I tw a s f r om t h i si n i t ia lw o rk a t

7 1

b y F rench r e sea rche r s ( T r inkau s & S h ipman 1 994 ) . D u r ing H au se r 's e xcava t ion s h e r e cove red t h e r ema in s o f an eande r ta li n d iv idua l" i n ab u r ia l" . I n 1 9 10 P ey rony w a s a b le t o t a ke o ve r t h e s i te f r om H au se r a nd c on t inued e xcava t ing t h e re i n te rm i t ten t ly i n to t h e 1 930 s .D u r ing t h i st ime h ee xcava ted mo s to ft h es i t e 's d epo s i t s , l e av ing o n ly as ma l lb l ock a s ac on t ro l s amp le ( a t dmo in o r ' w i tne s s ' ) f o r l a te r r e sea r che r s . P ey rony a l so r e cove red t h e r ema in s o f an eande r ta l i n d iv idua l . T he se r ema in sw e re o f an ewbor ni n f an ta nd ,u nf o r tuna te ly ,w e re l o s t f o r m any y ea r s , b e ing o n ly r e cen t ly d i scove red ( i n 1 996 ) a mong t h e c o l lec t ion s s t o r ed a tt h e Mu s6e N a t iona l d eP r6h i s to i re i nL e sE yz ie s( Mau re i l le 2 002 ) .

r ra k e " ` Z t e l ; ? e , j . . ....

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I n 1 961 F ranco i s B o rde s a nd E ugene B on if ay d i d s ome l i m i ted w o rk o nt h i sb l ock ,a nd t h en i n1 969 H en r iL av i l le a nd J e an -Ph i l ippe R igaud , i nt h e c ou r se o f c l ean ing t h e s i te u pa f t e rf l ood ing ,c o l lec ted s ome mo re u p to -da te d a ta o nt h es i t e .

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T he m o s t r e cen t w o rk a tt h e s i t e w a s i n1 982 w hen J ean M iche l G ene s te e xcava ted a3 0x40 c m c o lumn f r om t h e r ema in ing b l ock o fs e d imen t si no rde rt oc o l lec tb u rn tf l in t s amp le sf o rT Ld a t ing .

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A l though i tw a s t h e e xcava t ion s i nt h e u ppe r s h e l te r t h a t i n sp i red t h e u se o f t h e s i t e n ame f o r a l Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s , t h e e xcava t ion s c a r r ied o u t i nt h e l owe rs h e l te r w e re f a r mo re m e thodo log ica l ly r i go rou s a nd i ti st h e d a ta f r om t h el owe rs h e l te rt h a ta r eu sed t o day b yr e sea rche r s .

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T he d epo s i t iona l s e quence ( f igu re 7 . 6 ) , a s i ti sc u r ren t ly u nde r s tood , c ome s ma in ly f r om L av i l le a nd R igaud 's w o rk i n 1 969 , b u t f o l low s P ey rony 's o r ig ina l w o rk c l o se ly . T hey r e cogn ized P ey rony 's o r ig ina l 1 2 s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s( f rom A a tt h eB a se t o La tt h es u rf a ce ) , t h a t w e re d i s t ingu i shed B a sed o n t h e i r g eomo rpho log ie s , a nd f o r mo s t o f t h em ( e spec ia l ly t h e u ppe r 6l e ve l s ) L av i l le a nd R igaud i d en t if ied f u r the r s ubd iv i s ion s . T hey a l so r e cogn iz ed t wo d i s t inc t b l ock s o fd epo s i t s . L eve l s A t o F w e re p r edom inan t ly w a te r d epo s i t ed s ed imen t s , p r e sumab ly f r om r e gu la rf l ood ing o ft h es i t eb yt h eV 6ze re R ive r , w h ich s t i l l o ccu r s t o day , a l be i t a ppa ren t ly l e s s r e gu la r ly . S ub sequen t l e ve l s Gt o Lw e re d om ina ted m o re b ys e d imen t so fc r yoc la s t ic o r ig in .

F igure 7 . 6 S t ra t igraphy o ft he l ow er r ock she l ter a tl e Mous t ier . Wi th l e ve ld e s igna t ion su sed b yP eyrony a nd L av i l le & R igaud ( adap ted f r om P eyrony 1 930 ) .

7 2

u ppe rb l ock p l ace i ta s aw ho le w e l l w i th in O IS 3 .L av i l le a nd R igaud 's i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t t h e se u ppe r l e ve ls w e re d epo s i ted i n a c o ld c l ima te l i ke O IS 4 i s s l igh t ly i n cong ruen t a sO IS 3i s ar e la t ive ly w a rm s t age , a l though i tw a s s t i l l v e ry c o ld a nd d r y b y t o day 's s t anda rd s . A r e exam ina t ion o ft h e c o r re la t ion b e tw een t h e w ho le o ft h e s i te 's d epo s i t s a nd s p ec if ic c l ima t ic p e r iod s i so bv iou s ly r e qu i red .

L eve l

L i th ic I ndu s try

T ab le 7 . 2 F auna la s semb lage b yl e ve l ,l e Mou s t ier ( f rom P eyrony 's e xcava t ion s , c our te sy o f S t ephane Made le ine a t J e Mu see N a t iona l d e P reh i s to ire , l e s Ez i e s ,F rance. L eve l

L i th ic I ndu s try

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2 2 4 6 1 1 1

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B o s /B i son C ervu se l aphu s E quu sc aba l /u s C rocu ta s p e la ea

1 6 1 8 1

B o s /B i son R ang if er t a randu s E quu sc aba l /u s C apra i b ex E .h yd run t inu s C er vu se l aphu s C .c ap reo lu s C ap ra i b ex C an i sl u pu s

2 98 1 3 6 6 1 4 6 8 1 2 2

B o s /B i son E quu sc aba l /u s E .h yd run t inu s R ang if er t a rand u s C er vu se l aphu s C .c ap reo lu s C ap ra i b ex S u ss c rof u s D icerorh inu ss p .

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5 6 1 1 2

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B o s /B i son E quu sc aba l lu s

3 3

Mou s t er ian I nd u s t r ie s O ccupa t ion si nt h el owe rl a ye r s , At oF ,s e em t oh ave b een g ene ra l ly s po rad ic a nd t h e se d epo s i t s m ay h ave b een a f f ec ted b y r e gu la r f l ood ing , r e su l t ing i n " s ca t te red p ocke t s" o f a r t if ac t s a nd f a una l r ema in s ( Lav i l le e t . a l . 1 980 : 1 75 -77 ) . H oweve r , t h e a s semb lage s i nl e ve ls B a nd F w e re l a rge e nough t o a s s ign t h em t o t h e T yp ica l Mou s te r ian a nd t h eD en t icu la te r e spec t ive ly .

N ISP

L

N ISP

F

F auna lS equence Am o re d e ta i led q uan t if ica t ion o ft h e l e Mou s t ie r f a una l a s semb lage i sa va i lab le , c ompa r ed t ot h e o t he rf ou r s t udy s i te s .

S pe c ie s

T he r i che r u ppe r l a ye r s , G , H a nd J ,w e re mo re r e ad i ly i d en t if iab le t os pec if ic i n du s t r ie s : l e ve l Gt ot h e MAT t y pe A ; Ht ot h e MAT t ype B ; a nd Jt ot h eT yp ica l Mou s te r ian . B o rde s a s s igned L eve l It o t h e D en t icu la te Mou s te r ian . L eve l s Ka nd L a r e p r edom inan t ly U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic i n c on ten t , a l though K i n c lude s s ome a b raded Mou s te r ian i t em s m ixed i n w i th i t s f r e she r look ing C ha te lpe r ron ian a r t if a c t s ( P ey rony 1 930 ; L av i l le e t . a l . 1 980 ; S o re s s i 1 997 ) . L eva l lo i sP r e sence R aw n umbe r s f r om w h ich a L eva l lo is i n dex c ou ld b e c ompu ted a r e n o t a va i lab le f o r e a ch l e ve l . P ey rony d oe s n o tp rov ide t h e se c oun t s . H oweve r ,t h ed eg ree o fL eva l lo is p r e sence h a s b een c ompu ted f o rL eve lG ,t h e f o cu s o ft h i s s t udy ( L I =1 0 . 1) . R aw Ma t er ia l s A lmo s t 1 00 p e r cen to ft h el i t h ic r aw m a te r ia lu sed a nd l ef t a tt h e s i te i sS enon ien f l in t . T h i s f l in t c an h ave ar a nge o f t e x tu re s a nd q ua l i t ie s , b u t i st y p ica l ly f i ne -g ra ined a nd o f g ood t o v e ry g ood q ua l i ty f o r k napp ing . T he p r ima ry g eo log ica l l o ca t ion o ft h i s f l in t i s ab ed t h a t t r ave r se s t h e w ho le P e r igo rd r e g ion f r om n o r thwe s t t o s ou thea s t , a nd m o re t h an t wo d ozen o u tc rop sa r ek nown t oe x i s tw i th in 5 k i lome t re s o ft h e s i te o f l e Mou s t ie r . T yp ica l ly t h i s f l in t o ccu r s a s " r ognon s" ; t h a t i si ni regu la r , ' k idney shaped ' n odu le s , c ommon f o r f l in t s f o rmed i nm a r ine s ed imen t s . W i th in s ome m a r ine b ed st h e se n odu le s c an b e q u i te l a rge ( >4 0o r5 0c m i na ny d imen s ion ) ,b u tS enon ian f l in tt e nd s t o o ccu r i n n odu le s n o l a rge r t h an 1 5 c m i n d i ame te r ( So re s s i 1 997 ;G ene s te 1 985 ;D ema r s 1 982 , 1 994 ) . A lmo s t 8 0p e rcen to ft h em a te r ia l

7 3

a tl e Mou s t ie r a ppea r s t o b e f r om w ea the red n odu le s o r c obb le s , a nd s o i sf r om s e conda ry d epo s i t s ( e .g . ,a l luv ia l ) i nt h e r e g ion . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e re a r e /we re f a r m o re

p o ten t ia l s ou r ce s i n t h e r e g ion t h an j u s t t h e p r ima ry g eo log ic o u t c ropp ing s .

C ombe C ape l le B as

c omp lex o f s i te s . R oc d e C ombe C ape l le a nd A b r i P ey rony a r e s i tua ted n ea rt h et o p o ft h e v a l ley e dge a tt h e B a se o f ac l if f . C ombe C ape l le a nd C ombe C ape l le B a s a r ea tt h eb o t tom o ft h ev a l ley s l ope o ve r look ed b yt h et wo u ppe r s i te s . T h is c omp lex o f s i te s i n c lude s d epo s i t s t h a t s pan t h eL ow e r ,M idd le ,a nd U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic .

C ombe C ape l le B a s i s ar o ck s he l te r l o ca ted i nt h e v a l ley o f as ma l l s t r eam , t h e C ouze , a no the r t r ibu ta ry o f t h e D o rdogne R ive r , e n te r ing i tf r om t h e s ou th . I ti sa bou t 3 0 k mw sw f r om t h eP ech d el ' Azé s i te sa nd a bou t3 0k m sw f r om l e Mou s t ie r ( f igu re 7 . 7 ) . A s w i th P ech d e l ' Azd I V , C ombe C ape l le B a s i so ne o fa

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( 1 9 434 .

F igure 7 . 7 Map o ft he l a you to ft he s i te o fC ombe C ape l le B a s o nt h en or th b ank o ft h er i ver C ouze . (used b yp erm i s s ion o fD ibb le a nd L eno ir 1 995 ) .

H oweve r , t h e u n t ime ly d ea th s o fb o th Am i a nd B ou rgon m ean t t h a t t h e w o rk w a s n eve r p ub l i shed i n i t s e n t i r e ty , a l though t h e p o ten t ia l i mpo r tance o ft h e s i t e d i d b ecome a ppa ren t .

E xcava t ion s a tt h e C ombe C ape l le s i t e s b egan i nt h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry , b u t l i t t le o ft h i s w o rk w a s e ve r r e po r ted o n . T he s i te o f C ombe C ape l le B a s i t s e lf w a s i n i t ia l ly d i scove red a nd e xcava ted b y L ande sque i n t h e 1 880 s ( Cha s ta ing 1 905 ; L ande sque 1 887 ; Men s igna cand C habanne 1 890 ) . T he G e rman p r eh i s to r ian , H au se r , w ho h ad e xcava ted a t l e Mou s t ie r a nd o t he r w e l l k nown Mou s te r ian s i te s , w o rked a tR oc d e C ombe C ape l le i nt h e e a r ly 1 900s a nd i n 1 909 r e cove red a s ke le ton , b u t e s sen t ia l ly r emoved t h e e n t i re s i te 's d epo s i t s i n t h e p roce s s . I n 1 9 10 D en is P ey rony b egan m o re s y s tema t ic w o rk a t C ombe C ape l le B a s , a nd t h en i n 1 925 , w h i le P ey rony w a s e xcava t ing t h e s i t e o f H au t d e C ombe C ape l le , h i s f r iend , H en r i -Ma rc Am i , a n a ma teu r p r eh i s to r ian , t o ok u p f u r the r e xcava t ion s a t C ombe C ape l le B a s . I n 1 926 , Am i c a r r ied o u t e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s a t C ombe C ape l le B a s t h a t e nded w i th h i s d ea th a t t h e s i te i n 1 931 . P ey ronyand t h en Mau r ice B ou rgon t o ok o ve r w r i t ing u p a nd r e po r t ing Am i 's w o rk .

I nt h e m id 1980 s H a ro ld D ibb le a nd M iche l L eno i rb egan am u l t i -yea r p ro jec t a t C ombe C ape l le B a s . T he m a in g oa ls o ft h e p r o jec t w e re t og e t ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e l i t h ic i n du s t ry s e quence a tt h e s i t e a nd t o i n ve s t iga te r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty a s af a c to r i n Mou s te r ian l i t h ic i n du s t ry v a r iab i l i ty . T hey b egan w i th a n e x ten s ive r e exam ina t ion o ft h ee x is t ing c o l lec t ion s a nd f o l lowed t h i s u pi n1 9 87 w i th f ou rs e a son so fe xcava t ion sa tt h es i t e . I n o rde r t o g e t g ood c ove rage o f t h e s i t e , D ibb le a nd L eno i r i n i t ia l ly d i v ided t h e l e ng th o f t h e s i te ( wh ich i s o ve r 3 0 m e t r e s ) , i n to t h ree s e c to r s ( Ia tt h e B a se o ft h e s l ope , Ii nt h em idd le ,a nd I a tt h et o p ) .T hey t h en p u ti n b l ock s o f 1 x l m u n i t s a l ong t h e e dge o f Am i 's t r ench i n

7 4

e a ch o ft h e se s e c to r s . S i nce mo s to ft h es i te i ss i tua ted o na s l ope a nd t h e s t ra t ig raphy r uns p a ra l le l t o t h i s s l ope ( e xcep t i n S ec to r Iw he re t h e b ed rock a nd o ve r ly ing s ed imen t s a r e mo re o r l e s s h o r izon ta l ) , t h is s amp l ing o f t h ree d i f f e r en t p l a ce s a l ong t h e s l ope a lowed t h e e xcava to r s t ov i ew t h e w ho le s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence w i th t h ef ewe s tn umbe ro fl x 1 m e t re u n i t s .

B ed s1 4a nd 1 3 w e re e xpo sed o n ly i n as ma l ls ondage a nd s oo n ly as ma l l s amp le o fa r t if a c t s w a s r e cove r ed f o re ach ( 173 f l ake s a nd t oo l s f o r 1 3 , a nd 4 3 f o r 1 4 ) a nd o n ly a l i m i ted v i ew o f t h e s ed imen t s w a s h ad . B ed 1 4 i sw e l l s o r ted a nd i n c lude s o bv iou s r i ve r d r if t s a nd s o a ppea r s t o b e a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly f l uv ia l i no r ig in . B ed 1 3 d epo s i t s a r e n o t s o r ted o r w e l l r ounded a nd a r e i n te rp re ted t o b e s l ope -de r ived s ed imen t s t h a t h ave b een r ewo rked t os ome d eg ree b y f l uv ia la c t ion s .

D epo s i t iona lS equence S i nce t h es amp le u sed f o rt h i sr e sea rch w a st a ken f r om t h e S ec to r Ia s semb lage , c oncen t ra t ion w i l l b e o n t h e s t ra t ig raph ic s equence f o rt h is l owe rp a r to ft h es i te .

B ed 1 2 i n c lude s i n te r s t ra t i f ied s l ope a nd f l uv ia l d epo s i t s . I tw a s s ubd iv ided i n to l e ve l s I 2B a nd I 2A B a sed m a in ly o n ac hang ing c on ten t a nd s i ze o fl i me s tone b l ock s , w i th l a rge r b l ock s mo re c ommon i n t h e u ppe r , L eve l I 2A . A bou t 7 80 f l ake s a nd t o o l s w e re r e cove red f r om I 2A a nd a bou t4 50 f r om I 2B .

D ibb le a nd L eno i r i d en t if ied f ou r m a in ' b ed s ' i n t h e s t ra t ig raphy o f S ec to r I .T hey a l so r e cogn ized f r om t h e o u t se t t h a t t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e s i te w ou ld h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly c omp lex d ue t ot h e s l oped n a tu re o f much o f t h eu ppe rp o r t ion s o fi t .D own s lope m ovemen tm u s th ave b een af a c to r ,a nd p e rhap s as i gn if ican to ne .T he s e d imen t s i nS ec to r Ia l so i n c lude s ome f l uv ia t i le d epo s i t s i n d ica t ing t h a tt h e C ouze w a s h i ghe r a tt ime s a nd c on t r ibu ted t ot h e s i te f o rma t ion . I nf a c t S ec to r Ic an b e g ene ra l ly s e en a sa p o in t o f i n te rf a c ing o f t h e se t wo s ou r ce s o f s ed imen t s , e spec ia l ly i nt h eu ppe rmo s tb ed ( I 1) .

B ed I 1 s t ra t ig raphy w a s e ven m o re c omp lex w i th t h e i n te r s t ra t if ica t ion o f s l ope a nd s t ream d epo s i t s b ecom ing m o re a ppa ren t . 7s ubd iv i s ion s w e re r e cogn ized , i n c lud ing I 1E ,I 1D 1 , I 1D ,I 1C2 ,I 1C1 ,I 1B ,a nd I 1A .

S ector I I

S ec tor I

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1 0 I Il

Hor izon ta l S ca le ( me ters ) F igure 7 . 8I lu s tra t ion o ft he s t ra t igraphy a tC ombe C ape l le B as . ( u sed b yp erm i s s ion o fD ibb le a nd L eno ir 1 995 ) .

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S i t eF o rma t ion

F auna lS equence

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t T ex ie r a nd B e r t ran ( 1 996 ) c a r r ied o u ts ome s e d imen to log ica l a na ly s i sa tC ombe C ape l le B a s a nd h ave a r gued t h a t t h e s i te d epo s i t s w e re o r ig ina l ly d epo s i ted i n as i te n ea r t h e t o p o ft h e s l ope a nd h ad a t s ome p o in tb een t r an spo r ted d own t h ef a ce o ft h es l ope b y e i the r s o luf luc t ion o r d eb r i s f l ow o r b o th . D ibb le a nd L eno i r( 1 995 ) a g ree t h a tt h e re w a s o bv iou s ly s ome d own s l ope m ovemen to ft h ed epo s i t s ,b u tt h a ti tw a sl i m i ted a nd t h a t t h e v a r iou s s t ra t ig raph ic l a ye r s a r e d i sc ree t a nd i n te rna l ly c on s is ten t a nd , t h e r ef o re , t h e o b se rved c h rono log ica l p a t te rn ing i sr e a l . D ibb le a nd L eno i r l a y t h e i r ( c onv inc ing ) a r gumen t o u t i n f ou r m a jo r p o in t s ( 1 995 : 2 56 -57 ) . F i r s t , s u ch m ovemen t w ou ld h ave p r oduced d epo s i t s w i th i n du s t r ie s o f ah omogeneou s n a tu re , w h ich d oe s n o t a ppea r t ob e t h e c a se , i nt e rm s o f t e chno log ica l d i f f e rence s . S econd , T he r e d oe s n o t a ppea r t o b e a ny u p s lope s ou rce f o r t h e se d epo s i t s . T he s i t e o f A b r i P ey rony , d i rec t ly a bove t h e C ombe C ape l le e xcava t ion s h a s a n MAT i n du s t ry r i ch i n B if a ce s a nd L eva l lo i s . T h i rd , t h e l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s d o n o t e xh ib i t t h e l e ve lo fw ea ra nd d amage t h a to ne w ou ld e xpec tf r om s u ch t r an spo r t ( a s o b se rved e l sewhe re a nd p roduced e xpe r imen ta l ly ) . F i na l ly , t h e s u rf a ce t o pog raphy o n e i the r s i de o f t h e d epo s i t s e xh ib i t t h e s ame t e r ra ce s o b se rved b e low su rf a ce w i th in t h e s i te d epo s i t s . S uch ma s s m ovemen ts hou ld h ave s moo thed t h e se o u t .

F auna lr ema in sw e re v e ry s c a rce i nt h e s i t e d epo s i t s . O n ly a bou t 5 0 b one f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red f r om t h e w ho le s i t e a nd t h e se h ave y e tt ob e a na lyzed ( D ibb le p e r . c omm . 2 004 ) . Mou s t er ian I ndu s t r ie s A l though t h e r ew a ss ome Q u ina r e touch n o ted a nd s e ve ra l Q u ina s c rape r s w e re r e cove red , t h e Q u ina i n dex ( p e r cen t o fs c rape r s w i th Q u ina r e touch ) i sq u i t e l ow a s w a s t h e g ene ra l p e rcen tage o f s c rape r s f o r t h e s i te a s aw ho le . F o l low ing B o rde s 't y po log ica lc r i te r ia a l t h e l e ve l s o f t h e s i t e t e nd t o f a l l i n to t h e T yp ica l Mou s te r ian c a tego ry , a l though a l l e ve l sw e re n o tab ly r i ch i n d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s . B if ace s w e re e s sen t ia l ly a b sen t a sw e re b i f ac ia l r e duc t ion f l ake s . T he f ew b i f ace s t h a t w e re r e cove red f r om t h e s i te w e re f ound o n t h e g r ound s u rf a ce a nd t h e re a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e u nde r ly ing d epo s i t s i sn o t c l ea r . T he u s e o fL eva l lo i s m e thod s a tt h e s i t e i sa l so q u i te l ow , w i th a n a ve rage L eva l lo i s I n dex o f 2 . 35 . F ew t y p ica l L eva l lo i s f l ake s w e r e r e cogn ized i nt h e l e ve l a s semb lage s , a nd t h em a jo r i ty o ft h e c o r e sr e cove red w e re a mo rphou s w i th r emova l s f r om mu l t ip le s u rf ace s , a l though t h e re w e re s ome o f a ppa ren t L eva l lo i s a nd d i sc mo rpho log ie s ( D ibb le a nd L eno i r 1 995 :C hap te r5 ) . R aw Ma t er ia l s

D a t e s

T he s i t e o fC ombe C ape l le B a s s i t sd i rec t ly o n as ou rce o f C ampan ian f l in t . T h i s i s af l in t f o rmed i nl a te C r e ta ceou s f o rma t ion s a nd w h ich c an o ccu r i nv e ry l a rge ( 4 0 t o 6 0 c m ) s l ab so rn odu le s .A bou t9 3% o ft h es i te a s semb lage i s c omp r i sed o f t h i s m a te r ia l . T he r e i s a l so a no the r C ampan ian f l i n t w h ich m ake s u p a no the r 3% o f t h e a s semb lage , b u t i t s e xa c t o r ig in i sn o t k nown . T he se m a te r ia l s a r e c on s ide red t o b e o f m ed ium t o v e ry g ood k napp ing q ua l i ty ( a l though i ti st h eb e t te rq ua l i ty m a te r ia l s t h a t t e nd t o b e s e lec ted f o r u se ) . T he r ema in ing 4% i n c lude s C ampan ian f l in t s f r om a luv ia l s ou rce s ( p e rhap s t h e r i ve rd i r ec t ly b e low t h e s i te ) , S enon ian f l in t f r om n ea r B e rge ra c , a nd o t he rm o re m ino rt y pe s ( D ibb le a nd L eno i r 1 995 :261 a nd 3 22 t o2 3 ) .

R ecen t ly s e ven d a te sf r om t h em idd le l e ve l s( I -2B t oI 1D ) w i th in t h e s t ra t ig raphy o fs e c to r Iw e re o b ta ined ,w i th 6o f t h em l ump ing b e tween 5 0 a nd 6 0 k y , w i th am ean a ge o f 5 1 .8 ± 3 . 0k y( t he s e ven th p roduced ad a te o f3 7k y ) . T h i s p u t s t h e se d epo s i t s a tt h e b eg inn ing o fO I s t age 3 o rt h e e a r ly Wü rm i n te rp len ig la c ia l . T h i s p e r iod s aw f r equen t c l ima t ic o s c i l la t ion s , b u tw a s g ene ra l ly v e ry c o ld a nd d r y , w i th s t epp ic c l ima t ic r e g ime s d om ina t ing . H oweve r , b ecau se t h i ss i t ei sl o ca ted i n ar i ve rv a l ley , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t s t and s o f t r ee s ( p ine , b i r ch , a nd p o s s ib ly a l de r ) w e re a c ommon c omponen to ft h ei mmed ia te e nv i ronmen t .

7 6

A bove t h i s i s al a ye r o fH o locene d epo s i t s a bou t 9 0 c m t h ick . T h is i n c lude s n ume rou s l i me s tone b l ock s a nd a bou t 2 0 p i ece s o f N eo l i th ic d eb i tage . T he t o p o f t h is l a ye r i n c lude s s ome b ur ned d epo s i t s , a nd o n t o p o ft h is i sa n o rgan ic A l a ye ra tg round s u rf a ce ( T i l le t2 00 1 :95 -96 ) .

J ibou i J i bou i i sl o ca ted i n as ma l l n o r th sou th o r ien ted c o l a ta n e l eva t ion o f 1 620 m e t re s i nt h e Ma s s if d u V e rco r s o ft h e N o r the rn A lp s o fF rance . Moun ta in p eak s i nt h is r e g ion r a nge b e tween 1 800 a nd 2 800 m . J i bou i i sa n o pen -a i rs i te w i th av i ew o ft h em a jo rp a s sb e tween t h eV e rco r sa nd t h e D io i sr e g ion i nt h ea d ja cen tS ou the rn A lp so fF rance .

D a te s A l a rge n umbe r o ft h e Mou s te r ian a r t if a c t s w e re b ur n ed a nd p rov ided t wo t h e rmo lum ine scen t d a te s o f 4 8 ,600 ± 3000 ( BDX 6 0 13 ) a nd 5 ,200 ± 3500 ( BDX 6 190 ) y ea r s b p( g iv ing ar a nge o f4 5 .6 t o5 8 .7 t h ou sand y ea r sb p ) .T h i s p u t st h eo ccupa t ion o ft h es i te i nt h es ame g ene ra l c l ima t ic p e r iod , e a r ly O IS 3 , a s t h e p r ima ry t h ree s i te s amp le s ( T i l le t2 00 1 :97 ) .

I tw a s d i scove r ed i n1 989 a nd f r om 1 997 t h rough 1 999 1 0 s q . m o f i t w e re e xcava ted , u ncove r ing P l e i s tocene d epo s i t s w i th h eavy c oncen t ra t ion s o f a r t if ac t s ( T i l le t 2 001 :94 -97 ) . S i te F o rma t ion

F auna lS equence

C u r r en t ly , ad e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e f o rma t ion o ft h e s i te i s n o t a va i lab le . I n g ene ra l , t h e a r chaeo log ica l c omponen t s a r e l y ing a bove o f3 . 3 m e t re s o fc l ay , t h et o p o f w h ich i s c apped b y a l a ye r o f c r yoc la s t ic r o ck f r agmen t s .

T he f ew b one s t h a tw e re i n c luded t wo i t em s , i d en t if ied a s m a rmo t (M a rmo ta s p . ) , f r om t h e t o p o f t h e Mou s te r ian l a ye r , a nd 5o t he ru n iden t if ied f r agmen t s( bu tp robab ly n o t m a rmo t )f r om t h eb o t tom o ft h el a ye r( T i l le t2 00 1 :97 ) .

A bove t h is a r e t h e 1 . 5 m e t re s o f y e l low c o lou red P l e is tocene d epo s i t s w i th a pp rox ima te ly 2 0 ,000 Mou s te r ian a r t if ac t s r e cove red f r om j u s tt h e 1 0 s q . m e t re s e xcava ted . T he se mu s t r e p re sen t m u l t ip le w a rm s ea son o ccupa t ion s f o r , a s t h e e xcava to r s s a y , i ti sd i ff icu l t t o c once ive t h a t s uch a ccumu la t ion s c ou ld o ccu r i nj u s t o ne s ea son , a nd w in te r o ccupa t ion s a t s u ch a n e l eva t ion ( e spec ia l ly o pen -a i r )a r en o tl i ke ly .

T he s t rong s c rape r c oun t , v e ry l ow n o tch a nd d en t icu la te c oun t , l a ck o fh andaxe s , a nd s t rong L eva l lo i s c omponen t o f t h e a s semb lage l e ad t h e e xcava to r s t o c l a s s if y i ta s C ha ren t ian Mou s te r ian o f t h e F e r ra s s ie t ype ( T i l le t 2 001 :97 ) .

A na ly s is o ft h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e a r t if a c t s i n d ica te s s ome s l igh t p a t te rn ing ( l ike ly d ue t o s e a sona l g round su rf ace w a sh ing f r om r a in a nd s now -me l t ) , b u t n o t s i gn if ican t e nough t os ugge s ta ny n o tab le p o s t -depo s i t iona l a l te ra t ion o ft h e s i te . T h i s i sf u r the r s uppo r ted b y an umbe r o fr ef i t s t h a ts ugge s tl i t t le r e a lv e r t ica l movemen t .

W i thou t a ny d oub t , t h e r aw m a te r ia ls c ome f r om av e ry l o ca l s ou rce . E a s i ly e x t ra c tab le f l in t n odu le s , o f g ood q ua l i ty , c an b e f ound i nt h e T u ron ien l e ve l s a tt h e f oo t o f t h e moun ta in o fB e l le Mo t te , w h ich m ake s u pt h ew e s ter n s i de o ft h ec o l( T i l le t2 00 1 :97 ) .

Mou s t er ian I ndu s t r ie s

R aw Ma ter ia l s

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A s semb lage S amp le s T ab le 7 -3 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t oo lt ype s f o r l e ve l F -2 o fP ech d el ' Aze I V . N T ype D e scr ip t ion T ype 2 4 1 T yp ica l L eva l lo is F lake 5 A typ ica l L eva l lo is F lake 2

P ech d el ' Aze I V T he s amp le a s semb lage u sed i nt h is s t udy w a s t a ken f r om l e ve l F 2 o fB o rde s ' c o l lec t ion a nd s t ra t ig raph ic s equence . T h is l e ve l c o r re sponds t o l e ve l 3 A o f D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 's s t ra t ig raph ic s equence ( D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 ) . T h i s p a r t icu la r c omponen tw a s s e lec ted f o r a na lys is b ecau se i ti s , c u r ren t ly , b e t te r d a ted t han t h e r e s t o ft h e c omponen t s , i ti so f ac ompa rab le a ge t o t h e o t he r a na lys is s amp le s , a nd i t i n c luded a f a i r ly l a rge a s semb lage f r om wh ich a s amp le c ou ld b e t a ken . F u r the rmo re , l i ke t h e s amp le f r om l e Mou s t ie r , i t r e p re sen t sa n MAT i n du s t ry , b u t , u n l ike l e Mou s t ie r , i th ad f ew h andaxe s . T hu s i tm igh tp rov ide s ome i n s igh t i n to t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e u se o f b i f ace t e chno logy a nd o the rr educ t ion s t ra teg ie s .

3

L eva l lo is P o in t

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R e touched L eva l lo is P o in t P seudo -Leva l lo i s P o in t S ing le S t ra igh tS c rape r

1

9 1 0

I n c ou r se o f t h e ir e xcava t ion s D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron p roduced f i ve T L d a tes o n b u rn t f l in t s w h ich r a nged f r om 4 7 ,000 1 6000 t o 6 0 ,000 1 8000 y a , w i th a ve rage s o f 5 0 ,000 1 3000 ( EU ) a nd 5 2 ,000 1 5000 ( LU ) . T he se d a te s c o r respond t o t h e s t a r t o f O xygen I s o tope s t age 3 ( e a r ly Wü rm i n te r s tad ia l -s e e f i g . 2 . 3 ) . T he c l ima t ic r eg ime o ft h is s t age i n c luded v e ry c o ld a nd d ry , s t eppe tund ra c ond i t ion s . T he f a una l r ema in s f r om t h is l e ve lw e re d om ina ted b y B o s /B ison . B o rde s a s s igned t h is l e ve l t o t h e Mou s te r ian i n dus t ry MAT (B )b ecau se o ft h ea lmo s tc omp le te l a ck o fh andaxe s , b u t r e la t ive a bundance o fb a cked k n ive s ( s ee D ibb le a nd L eno i r 1 994 ) , a nd t h is a s s ignmen t i s s uppo r ted b y t h e mo s tr e cen te xcava t ion s ( D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron 2 003 ) . A s w i th t h e s i te a s aw ho le , t h e L eva l lo is p r e sence i sl ow ( D ibb le a nd McPhe r ron c a lcu la ted a L I o f4 . 9 ) . A nd , a s w i th mo s t o ft h e o t he r l a ye r s , i nt h is l e ve l t h e a s semb lage w a s p roduced f r om t h e l o ca l , r e la t ive ly s ma l l c obb le s o r p u s tu le so fm ed ium t og ood q ua l i ty f l in t .

1 9 3

1

S ing le C oncave S c rape r

8 4

1 7 1 8

D oub le C onvex -Concave S c . S t ra igh tC onve rgen t S c rape r

2 1

2 4 2 6

C oncave T ran sve r se S c rape r Ab rup tS c rape r

1 2

2 8 3 0

S c rape r wB if ac ia lR e touch T yp ica lE nd sc rape r

2 1

3 2

T yp ica l B u r in

3 4

T yp ica l P e rc o i r T yp ica l B acked K n if e

5 4

S ing le C onvex S c rape r

1 9

3 6 3 7 3 8

A typ ica l B a cked K n if e Na tu ra l ly B acked K n if e

4 0 4 2

No tch

5 4

4 3 4 5

D en t icu la te F lake w I r reg R e to n I n te r io r

6 4

4 6 -49 5 0

F lake w A b rup t&A l te r . R e t .

5 4

E nd -no tched F lake

1 7 6 9 1

T runca t ion

1 2 9 5 1

B if ac ia l ly R e touched F lake

3 35

T o ta l

T ab le 7 -4 B as ic s ummar ie so ft he l e ve lF -2 s a mp le a s semb la e . 3 35 R ea l C oun t 2 77 E s sen t ia lC oun t C omp le te & P rox ima l F lake s F lake F ragmen t s

3 36 4 7

9 6 8 14 S amp le A ssemb lage T o ta l * Componen ta s semb lag et o ta l N =1 9 02

C o re s

T he t o ta l n umbe r o f i t ems i n c luded i nt h e s t udy s amp le w a s 8 14 ( 335 t oo ls , 3 36 c omp le te a nd p rox ima l f l ake s , 4 7 f l ake f r agmen t s a nd 9 6 c o re s ) o u t o f at o ta l o f1 902 p i ece s r e cove red b y B o rde sf r om t h is l e ve l .

T ab le 7 -5 S ummary o fi nd ice s f o rl e ve lF -2 . 6 . 9( r ea l ) , 8 . 3 ( e ssen t ia l ) S c rape rI ndex 3 . 9 L eva l lo is I ndex T yp L eva l lo is . I ndex 9 . 6 ( s amp le i n c lud ed at o ta lo f3 2L eva l lo i sf l ak e s ,r e touched o rn o t )

7 8

l e Mous t ier

T ab le 7 6 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t oo lt ype s f o rl e ve l Go fl e Mou s t ier . N T ype T ype D e scr ip t ion 1 T yp ica lL eva l lo is F lake 3 7 3 3 L eva l lo i sP o in t 3 5 P seudo -Leva l lo i sP o in t 1 3 9 S ing le S t ra igh tS c rape r 8 1 0 S i ng le C onvex S c rape r 1 S i ng le C oncave S c rape r 3 1 8 S t ra igh tC onve rgen tS c rape r 1 2 2 S t ra igh tT ran sve r se S c rape r 1 S c rape ro nI n te r io rS u rf a ce 2 2 5 3 0 4 T yp ica lE nd sc rape r A typ ica lE nd sc rape r 1 3 1 T yp ica lB u r in 2 3 2 3 A typ ica lB u r in 1 T yp ica lP e rw i r 2 3 4 T yp ica lB a cked K n if e 7 3 6 3 7 A typ ica lB a cked K n if e 1 0 N a tu ra l ly B a cked K n if e 3 8 2 6 1 4 0 T runca t ion 4 2 5 6 N o tch 2 3 D en t icu la te 4 3 F l ake w I r reg . R e t . o nI n t 1 4 4 5 F l ake w A b rup t &A l te r . R e t 1 7 4 6 -49 1 5 0 B if ac ia l ly R e touched F l ake 5 4 E nd -No tched F l ake 7 1 5 H acho i r 6 2 M isce l laneou s 1 8 T o ta l 2 63 * Compon en ta s s emb lag et o t a l =1 8 50

T he s amp le a s semb lage u sed i nt h i s s t udy w a st a ken f r om l e ve l G o f t h e s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence e s tab l i shed b y P ey rony ( 1930 ) a nd l a te r f o l lowed b y L av i l le & R igaud ( 1976 , 1 973 ) . T h i s c omponen t w a s s e lec ted f o r a na ly s is h e re b ecau se , a s w i th l e ve l F 2 a tP ech d e l 'Az6 I V , i ti s w e l l d a t ed ( a nd o f ac ompa rab le a ge a st h eo t he rs amp le s ) , b u t a l so b ecau se i th ad j u s t r e cen t ly b een e mp loyed i n a no the r s t udy ( So re s s i 1 997 ) w h ich m ean t t h a t t h e a s semb lage i t se lf w a s i n ag ood s t a te o fo rgan iza t ion a nd much o ft h eb a ckb round i n f o rma t ion o nr e sea rch a tt h es i te h ad b een c omp i led b y S o re s s i a nd w a s a va i lab le t o m e . L eve l Ga l so r e p re sen t sa n MAT i n du s t ry i nw h ich b i f a ce s w e re n ume rou s , w h ich m ean t t h a t Iw ou ld h ave t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o i n ve s t iga te t h e r o le t h a t t h is l i t h ic s t ra tegy m igh th ave p l ayed a tt h i ss i te . L av i l le & R igaud p roduced t wo t h e rmo lum ine scence d a te s o n b u rn t f l in t s f r om l e ve l G : 5 0 ,300 ± 5500 a nd 5 ,800 ± 5000 y ea r s b p . , w i th a n a ve rage o f5 3 ,000 ( Va l lada s e t . a l . 1 986 ) . A s w i th t h e P ech d e l ' Az6 I V l e ve l F 2 d a te s , t h e se d a te s c o r re spond t o t h e s t a r t o f O I s t age 3 ( e a r ly Wü rm i n te r s tad ia l ) . A s w i th P ech d e l ' Azé I V , t h e f a una o f l e ve l G w a s s t rong ly d om ina ted b yB o s /B i son ( t ab le 7 . 1 a bove ) . P ey rony a nd L av i l le a nd R igaud a s s igned t h i s l e ve l t ot h e Mou s t e r ian i n du s t ry MAT (A ) b ecau se o f t h e n ume rou s a nd w e l lm ade h andaxe s . F o rt h is l e ve l , a sw i th t h e s i te a s aw ho le , t h e L eva l lo i s p r e sence i sf a i r ly h igh ( So r e s s i c a lcu la ted a L I o f3 6 .7 ) . T he L eve l Gl i t h ic a s semb lage w a s p roduced f r om t h e r e g iona l ly a va i lab le , m ed ium t o l a rge s i z ec obb le so fm ed ium t og ood q ua l i ty f l in t .

T ab le 7 -7 B as ic s ummar ie sf o rt he a s semb lage o fl e ve lG . 2 63 R ea lC oun t E s sen t ia lC oun t 1 91 C omp le te a nd P rox ima l F lake s 3 28 F l ake F ragmen t s 6 1 4 1 C o r e s S amp le A s semb lag eT o ta l 6 93

T he t o ta l n umbe r o f i t em s i n c luded i nt h e s t udy s amp le w a s 6 93 ( 2 63 t oo ls , 3 28 c omp le te a nd p r ox ima l f l ake s , 6 1 f l ake f r agmen t s a nd 4 1 c o re s ) o u to f at o ta l o f1 7 11 p i ece s r e cove red b yL av i l le a nd R igaud .

T ab le 7 -8 S ummary i nd ice sf o rl e ve lG . S c rape rI n dex 1 0 .6 ( r ea l ) , 1 4 .7 ( e s sen t ia l ) 1 0 .1 L eva l lo i sI n dex T yp L eva l lo is . I ndex 2 6 .7 ( s amp l ei n c lud ed at o t a lo f6 9L eva l lo i sf l ak e s ,r e touch ed o rn o t )

7 9

C ombe C ape I le B a s

T ab le 7 -9 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t oo l t ype s , l e ve l I 1D o fC ombe C a e l le B as . T ype T ype D e scr ip t ion N 1 T yp ica l L eva l lo is F lake 1 4

T he s amp le a s semb lage f o r t h is s i te w a s t a ken f r om l e ve l I D o fS ec to r Io ft h e s t ra t ig raph ic s equence a nd e xcava t ion l a you t e s tab l ished b y D ibb le a nd L eno i r ( 1995 ) . S ec to r I r e f e r s t ot h e p o r t ion o ft h e s i te t h a t w a s e xcava ted t ha t i s l owe s t d own o n t h e s l ope u pon w h ich t h e s i te i ss i tua ted . T h is c omponen tw a s s e lec ted f o ra na lys is b ecau se i ti so fa c ompa rab le a ge t o t h e o t he r s amp le s a nd b ecau se i tw a s t h e l a rge s t a s semb lage o ft h e c omponen t s i nS ec to r Ia nd c ou ld p rov ide al a rge s amp le .

2 5

A typ ica lL eva l lo is F lake P seudo -Leva l lo is P o in t

1 2

8 9

L ima ce S ing le S t ra igh t S c rape r

1 8

1 0 1

S ing le C onvex S c rape r

2 0

S ing le C oncave S c rape r

1

1 3

D oub le S t ra igh t -Convex S c r . D oub le C onvex S c rape r

1 3

1 5 1 9

T hermo lum ine scence d a te s w e re p roduced b y V a l lada s e t . a l . ( 2003 ) f o r l e ve l 1 D o n 6p i ece s o fb u rn t f l in t . T he se r anged b e tween 5 0 a nd 6 0 ,000 y ea r s B P , w i th a n a ve rage o f5 1 ,800 ± 3000 y ea r s b p ( a t 1s i gma l e ve l ) . A s w i th t h e P ech d e l 'Azé I V l e ve l F 2 , a nd l e Mou s t ie r L eve l G , t h e se d a te s c o r re spond t o t h e s t a r t o f0 1 s t age 3 ( e a r ly Wü rm i n te r s tad ia l ) . A s m en t ioned a bove , v e ry l i t t le f a una l ma te r ia lw a sr e cove red .

2 2 2 3 2 5 2 6 2 8 3 0 3 1

D ibb le a nd L eno i r a s s ign t h is l e ve l ( a s w i th a l l t h e d epo s i t s ) t o t h e T yp ica l Mou s te r ian I ndus t ry , w i th r e la t ive ly h i gh p e rcen tage o f d en t icu la te s . T he L eva l lo is p re sence i sv e ry l ow ,w i th aL eva l lo is I ndex o f2 . 0 .

3 2 3 3 4 3 8 3 9

O ve r 9 6% o ft h e r aw ma te r ia ls a r e o ft h e v e ry l o ca l , l a rge s l ab so rn odu les a sd e sc r ibed i nt h es i te d e sc r ip t ion a bove .

C onvex C onve rgen t S c rape r S t ra igh tT ran sve r se S c rape r

1

C onvex T ran sve r se S c rape r

4 1 3

S c rape ro nI n te r io rS u rf ace A b rup tS c rape r

7 3

S c rape r wB if ac ia l R e touch T yp ica l E nd sc rape r A typ ica lE nd sc rape r

3 1 1

T yp ica l B u r in

1 2

A typ ica lB u r in T yp ica l P e r9o i r

3

N a tu ra l ly B acked K n if e

3

4 0

R ou le t te T runca t ion

1 6 1

4 2

No tch

9 5

4 3 4 4

D en t icu la te A l ter na te R e touch B ec F lake w I r reg R e t . o nI n te r io r

3 2 1

F lake w A b rup t &A l te r . R e t E nd -no tched F lake

1 1 2

4 5 4 6 -49 5 4 6 2 6 4

8

M isce l laneou s

1 6

T runca ted -Face t ted P i ece

3 2 88

T o ta l

T ab le 7 10 B as ic s u mmar ie sf o rt he a s semb lage o f l e ve l I 1 -D . R ea l C oun t 2 85 E s sen t ia l C oun t 2 51 C omp le te a nd P rox ima l F lake s F l ake F ragmen t s

1 59 1 9

C o re s

6 6

S amp le A s semb lage T o ta l 5 32 * Compon en ta s s emb lag et o t a l= 1400 T ab le 7 11 S ummary i nd ice sf o rl e ve l I 1 -D . 2 2 .2 ( r ea l ) ,2 5 .5 ( e s sen t ia l ) S c rape rI ndex L eva l lo is I ndex 3 . 6 T yp L eva l lo is . I ndex 6 . 7 ( a s semb lag e i n c luded at o ta l o f1 9L eva l lo i s f l ak e s , r e tou ched o r n o t )

8 0

T ab le 7 14 S ummary i nd ice so ft he Mou s ter ian c om o nen to fJ ibou i . S ummary I nd ice s S c rape rI ndex 2 4 .7 ( r ea l ) , 5 7 .9 ( e s sen t ia l ) L eva l lo is I ndex 4 . 0* 5 7 .1 T yp L eva l lo i s . I n dex * t h i s n umbe r w i l l b en o t ab ly d ef l a t ed b e cau se o n ly f l ak e s < 2 .5 mm w e r e e x c lud ed f r om t h e o t h e r s amp l e s , w h i le f l ak e s < 2 .0 mm w e r e e x c lud ed h e r e m ak ing t h e a s s emb lag e t o t a l h i gh e r r e la t iv et ot h eo t h e rs amp le s .

J ibou i N o s amp le s w e re t a ken f r om t h i s s i t e a s semb lage . T he e n t ire l i t h ic a s semb lage ( l e s s t ho se f l ake s < 2 .0 mm i n m ax imum d imen s ion ) i si n c luded i nt h ea na ly s is . A na ly s i s o f t h e l i t h ic a s semb lage w a s c a r r ied o u t b y S eba s t ien B e rna rd -Gue l le a nd t h e r e su l t ing d a ta w a s g ene rou s ly p rov ided t om e . T ab le 7 12 C oun t so ft e chno log ica la nd t oo lt ype s f o rJ ibou i . T ype T ype D e scr ip t ion N 1 3 L eva l lo is F l ake s 1 78* Mou s te r ian P o in t 7 6 9 S ing le S t ra igh tS c rape r 4 2 4 1 0 S i ng le C onvex S c rape r 4 1 S i ng le C oncave S c rape r 2 1 3 D oub le S t ra igh t -Convex S c r D oub le C onvex S c rape r 2 1 5 1 7 D oub le C onvex -Concave S c r 1 1 8 3 S t ra igh tC onve rgen tS c rape r 1 1 9 C onvex C onve rgen tS c rape r 2 0 C oncave C onve rgen tS c rape r 6 2 1 9 D e je te S c rape r 2 2 2 S t ra igh tT ran sve r se S c rape r C onvex T ran sve r se S c rape r 3 2 3 3 2 6 A b rup tS c rape r S c rape r wT h inned B a ck 3 2 7 3 0 T yp ica l E nd sc rape r 1 3 1 A typ ica lE nd sc rape r 6 3 2 T yp ica lB u r in 1 2 3 4 T yp ica lP e r co i r 3 7 A typ ica lB a cked K n if e 1 1 4 0 T runca t ion 4 2 4 N o tch 4 3 D en t icu la te 9 E nd -no tched F l ake 5 5 4 1 5 6 R abo t 6 2 T runca ted -Fa ce t ted P i ece 2 1 3 12 T o ta l * d a t a w a s n o t c o l l e c t ed f o r a l f l ak e s i nt h e a s s emb lag e . Wh i ch m ean s , f o r e x amp l e , t h a t w h i l e t h e r e a r e 1 7 8 ( Cen t r a l )L eva l lo i sf l ak e si nt h ea s s emb lag e ,f r om w h ich a L eva l lo i sI n d ex c a nb ec ompu t ed ,n o ta l1 7 8f l ak e sc a nb e i n c lud ed i na ls u b s equ en ta n a ly s e s .

S e lec t ion o fS tudy S amp le s I n t e rm s o f n umbe r s a l one , m y s amp le s r e p re sen t r e la t ive ly l a rge p e rcen tage s o f t h e e n t i re p opu la t ion o f e a ch c omponen t a s semb lage ; 4 7% f o r P ech d e l ' Az6 I V , 3 8% f o r l e Mou s t ie r , a nd 3 8% f o r C ombe C ape l le B a s ( s amp l ing e xc luded a l h i gh ly f r agmen ted f l ake s b ecau se t h ey w ou ld n o th ave b een s e rv iceab le a st o o lb l ank si ft h ey h ad b een b roken p r io r t o b l ank s e lec t ion a nd c anno t b e p rope r ly a na lyzed i ft h ey w e re b roken s ub sequen t t oa ny u se . S ha t te rw a sa l so e xc luded . ) . S uch l a rge p e rcen tage s m ean t h a t t h e re w ou ld b e l i t t le q ue s t ion , j u s t i n t e rm s o f n umbe r s , t h a t a ny p a t te rn s o b se rved i nt h e s amp le s w ou ld b e r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e p opu la t ion s . H oweve r , t h e s amp le s t h a t w e re a na lyzed w e re n o t , a s aw ho le , s e lec ted r a ndom ly . F o r e ach c omponen t a s semb lage t h a t w a s s amp led f r om t h e t h ree d i f f e r en t s i te s , a l t h e r e touched t o o l s w e re a na lyzed , b u t o n ly ap o r t ion o ft h ed eb i tage , a l be i t ar e la t ive ly l a rge o ne ( a pp rox ima te ly 2 9% , 2 2% , a nd 2 6% r e spec t ive ly ) , w a s i n c luded . T h i s l a t te r s e lec t ion , h oweve r , w a s e n t i re ly r a ndom . T h is m ean s t h a t m y s amp le , a s aw ho le , i sb i a sed , b u tt h e t wo c a tego r ie s , r e touched t o o l s a nd d eb i tage , c an b e v i ewed a si n d iv idua l s amp le s o ft wo s epa ra te p opu la t ion s . T he d eb i tage c an b e v i ewed a s t h e o r ig ina l p opu la t ion f r om w h ich t h e p opu la t ion o fr e touched t o o ls w a s p u l led ( b y t h e t o o l u se r s ) . Is amp led 1 00% o f t h is l a t te r p opu la t ion , a nd t o ok a r a ndom s amp le o f t h e f o rme r p opu la t ion .

T ab le 7 10 .2 B a s ic s ummar ie sf o rt he Mous ter ian c om o nen to fJ ibou i . 3 12 R ea lC oun t 1 33 E s sen t ia lC oun t 4 294 C omp le te & P rox ima lF l ake s C o re s 1 97 S amp le A s semb lag eT o ta l 4 624

8 1

A verage S p ine -P lane A ng le -F o r e a ch f l ake , b e tween t h ree a nd s i x m ea su remen t s w e re t a ken w i th a c on ta c t g on iome te ro ft h es p ine -p lane a ng le o ft h ef l ake 's m a rg in s . T he r e a son f o ru s ing s p ine -p lane r a the rt h an e dge a ng le i s t h a t , w h i le t h e s ha rpne s s o f af l ake 's e dge ( e dge a ng le ) w ou ld b e a n i mpo r tan t c on s ide ra t ion i n t o o l -b lank s e lec t ion , m uch o f t h e a na lys is h e re i n vo lve s i s sue s o f f l ake r obu s t ic i ty , s t r eng th o f e dge , a nd t h e d i f f e rence b e tween d i f f e ren t r e duc t ion p roduc t s . S uch c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a r em o r ec l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th s p ine -p lane a ng le .

Ana lys is o fT he P r imary S amp le s n umbe r o f d i f f e ren t v a r iab le s w e re r e co rded a nd e mp loyed i nt h e a na ly s i s i nt h is s t udy . T he v a r iab le s w e re s e lec ted f o r t h e i r p o ten t ia l t o i l um ina te p o ten t ia l ly d e s i rab le c ha ra c te r i s t ic sf o ru s e . A

F or a l lf l ake s( u sed o ru nused a st oo l s ) : L eng th -f l ake l e ng th w a s m ea su red a s t h e m ax imum d imen s ion o f t h e f l ake a l ong a n a x is p a ra l le l t o t h e d i rec t ion o ft h e r emova l i mpa c t . T h i s o r ien ta t ion w a s n o t a n t ic ipa ted t ob e s pec if i ca l ly i n f o rma t ive o ve r o t he r s , b u t w a s s e lec ted s imp ly a s as t anda rd t ob em a in ta ined s ot h a t a l s u ch m ea su r emen t s w e re c ompa rab le . ' Leng th ' , c oup led w i th o t he rm e t r ic m ea su remen t sb e low ( w id th a nd t h ickne s s ) , w a s i n tended t o a low a na lyse s o f f l ake d imen s ion s b e tween s amp le s a nd t e chno log ica l p roduc t s , a nd a l so t oa low t h ec ompu ta t ion o fo t he ra t t r ibu te s( f lake a r ea a nd f l ake r obu s t ic i ty ) f o r s im i la r a na lyse s . T he a na ly s is o f f l ake m o rpho logy , a s m ea su red i n t e rm s o f m e t r ic d imen s ion s , w a s a n t ic ipa ted t op rov ide s i gn if ican t i n s igh t i n to b l ank s e lec t ion b ehav iou r a nd d i f f e rence s b e tween t e chno log ica l p r oduc t s f r om v a r iou s r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s s uch a s C en t ra l L eva l lo i s f l ake s , P e r iphe ra l L eva l lo is f l ake s ,a mo rphou sc o re f l ake s ,b i po la rc o re

F o r m o s t f l ake s , p o in t s w e re s e lec ted a r ound t h e f l ake m a rg in f o r m ea su re a te i the r r e gu la r i n te rva ls ( a vo id ing m a jo r r e gu la r i t ie s ) , o r i nt h e c en t re s o fn a tu ra l ly i s o la ted , d i sc re te e dge s . Mea su remen t s w e re n o t t a ken a t p o in t s w he re e dge s h ad b een s e ve re ly m od if ied b y r e touch o r p o s t reduc t ion f r a c tu re s . F o r e ach f l ake a m ean w a s c ompu ted f o r t h e se m ea su remen t s a nd t h i s i sw ha t w a s r e co rded . V en tra l C urva ture . T he d eg ree o f v en t ra l c u rva tu re o f e a ch f l ake w a sd e te rm ined b y h o ld ing i tu pf o rc ompa r i son t o as e r ie s o fa r c s d r awn o n p ape r . T he se i n c luded 7l i ne s o fd i f f e r en t f o rm s , s t a r t ing w i th as t ra igh t o ne ( g iven t h e d e s igna t ion s ' S ' ) a nd f o l lowed b y 6 o t he r s o f e ve r d ec rea s ing r a d i i ( g iven t h e d e s igna t ion s ' C l ` C2 ' , ` C3 ' , e t c . ) . T he c u rva tu re o ft h e se l i ne s w a s b a sed o n t h e r a d i i p r oduced b y c u rve s d r awn o n a n 8c en t ime t re l o ng l i ne w i th t h e c en t re o f e a ch s u cce s s ive c u rve b e ing t wo m i l l ime t r e s f u r the r f r om t h e s t ra igh t l i ne t h an t h e p r eced ing c u rve . T he l i ne d e s igna ted C l , p roduce s a n a r c t h a t d ev ia te s 2 mm f r om t h e c en t re o f t h e 8c m l o ng s t ra igh t l i ne . C u rve C 2 d ev ia te s 4mm f r om t h e c en t r e o f t h e 8c ml i ne ( f ig .7 . 11 ) .

Wid th - f l ake w id th w a s m ea su red a s t h e m ax imum d imen s ion p e rpend icu la rt ot h ef l ake L eng th . A rea -f l ake a r ea w a s c ompu ted , a f t e r the -f ac t , b y mu l t ip ly ing L eng th xW id th . T h ickne s s -f l ake t h ickne s s w a s m ea su red a tt h e t h icke s t p a r t o f t h e f l ake ( b e tw een d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l s u rf a ce s ) r e ga rd le s so fw he r et h is w a sr e la t ive t os p ec if ic m a rg in so r f e a tu re s .

F o r t h e m a jo r i ty o ff l ake s w i th a ny v en t ra l c u rva tu re t h i s s u rf a ce i sc oncave a nd w i l l b e r e co rded a s C1o r C 2 f o r e xamp le . F o r s ome r a re f l ake s , h oweve r , t h e v en t ra l c u rva tu r e i so ppo s i te a nd t h e v en t ra l s u rf a ce i sc onvex , i n w h ich c a se t h ey a r e g i ven t h e a pp rop r ia te r a d ia l d e s igna t ion p r eceded b y aV , r a the rt h an aC -e . g .V 1 ,V 2 , V 3 ,e t c .

R obu s t ic i ty - t h e ` r obu s t ic i ty ' o f a f l ake w a s a l so c ompu ted a f t e r the -f ac t b y d i v id ing t h e a r ea o fe a ch f l ake b y i t st h ickne s s . Mo re r obu s t f l ake sw i l lt e nd t ob et h icke r r e la t ive t o a r ea , w h ich m ean s t h a t t h e m o re r obu s t t h e f l ake t h es ma l le rt h er e su l t ing n umbe r . We igh t -t h ew e igh t o fe a ch f l ake w a s m ea su red i ng ram s ( t o t h e n ea re s t 1 0 th o f ag r am ) u s ing a n e l ec t ron ic s c a le ( Sa r to r iu s BA 2 00 i nt h eU n ive r s i ty o fB o rdeaux l a ba nd a Me t t le r T o ledo S Bg200 1 a t t h e Mu sde N a t iona l d e P rdh is to i re i nL e s E yz ie s ) . A s w i th m e t r ic d imen s ion s , i t w a s a n t ic ipa ted t h a t w e igh t m igh t a l so p rov ide i n s igh t i n t h e m o rpho log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f d i f f e r en t c l a s se s o f f l ake s .

Oi l

F igure 7 . 9 Gu ide u sed f o rc a tegor iz ing t he v en tra l c urva ture o fe ach f l ake . F l ake S hape . T he p l an s hape o fe a ch f l ake w a s e xam ined a nd c a t ego r ized a t t wo l e ve ls . T he f i r s t l e ve l w a s t h e s imp le r e gu la r i ty o ft h e s hape . A' Regu la r ' s hape w a s o ne w i th n o ( o rv e ry f ew ) m inu te c hange s a l ong t h e l e ng th s o f m a jo r , d i sc r e te e dge s . F l ake s w i th ' I r regu la r ' s h ape s a r e t h o se w i th d i sc re te e dge s t h a t a r e i n te r rup ted b y n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing n o tche s ,b r eak s ,o rp ro tube rance s .

B ord ian T ype - E a ch f l ake w a s e xam ined f o r mo rpho log ica l c ha ra c te r is t ic s a nd e dge m od if ica t ion s t h a t w ou ld p l ace i ti no ne o ft h e 6 4 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t y pe s e s tab l ished b y F ran9o is B o rde s( a nd s ub sequen t ly c l a r if ied a nd a dded t ob yo t he r s -s e eD ebdna th a nd D ibb le 1 994 ) .

8 2

T he s e cond l e ve l i n vo lve s a s s ign ing a b a s ic ' t ype ' o f s hape t o af l ake . T he se ' t ype s ' i n c lude : c i rcu la r , o va l , s qua re , r e c tangu la r , t r iangu la r , a nd p o lygon . T he re w e re a l so t wo v e ry s pec if ic f l ake s hape s t h a t w e re n o ted . ' B lade s ' w e re r e c tangu la r o r s ub r ec ta ngu la r f l ake s t h a t w e re a tl e a s tt w ice a sl o ng a st h ey w e r ew ide , a nd t e nded t ob e t r iangu la r o rt r apezo ida l i nc r o s s sec t ion . " Luna te s ' ( s o -ca l led b ecau se t h e m a jo r i ty a r e s em i luna r i n b a s ic s hape ) w a s t h e t e rm u s ed t o r e f e r t o e c la t s d ebo rdan t s . T he se a r e f l ake s r emoved f r om a l ong t h e p e r iphe ra l m a rg in o f as i ng le su rf a ce c o re w i th a n o b l ique b l ow t h a t r e su l t s i nt h e f l ake h av ing a l o ng , n a r row p o r t ion o ft h e c o re e dge r u nn ing t h el e ng th o ft h ef l ake .

T ype o fE dg e Mod if i ca t ion . E ach e dge o fe ach f l ake w a s c a ref u l ly e xam ined f o r a ny i n ten t iona l mod if ica t ion o r d amage t h a t c ou ld c onf iden t ly b e a t t r ibu ted t ou se o ft h a t e dge . F o r i n ten t iona l ly mod if ied e dge s , t h e r e touch w a s f i r s t c a tego r ized a s r e gu la r o r i regu la r ( d epend ing o n t h e c on s i s tency i n s i ze a nd p l a cemen t o f t h e f l ak ing ) . T he r e touch w a s t h en c a tego r ized b y t y pe : s c rape r , Q u ina , e xped ien t k n if e , n o tch ing , b a ck ing , a b rup t ( i . e . , n o t l i ke ly t ob eb ack ing ) ,b i f a c ia l , b u r ina t ion , o rs imp le i n va s ive . A n e xamp le o f at y p ica l a na ly s is s hee t e n t ry w ou ld b e RRS ( r e touch ,r e gu la r ,s c rape r ) .

F lake s hape w a s a n t ic ipa t ed t o p rov ide s ome m ea su re o f r e gu la r i ty o rs t anda rd iz a t ion o fd if e r en tp roduc tt y pe s .

A l l u n re touched e dge s w e r e e xam ined u nde r l ow -pow e r m agn if ica t ion ( O lympu s S Z60 w i th 1 0x o cu la r s a nd 1 xt o 6 . 3x v a r iab le o b jec t ive s ) f o r a ny o bv iou s u se -wea r . U s ing ap r ev iou s d eve loped m e thodo logy ( Sandga the 1 998 ) , a ny o b se rved e dge d amage w a s o n ly c on s ide red a c tua l u se w ea r w hen i te xh ib i ted o bv iou s p a t ter n ing t ha t m a tched t h a t o b se rved a mong a c o l lec t ion o f e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced f l ake t o o l s . T he se u nmod if ied f l ake s w e re a pp l ied , i n c on t ro l led c ond i t ion s , t o ar a nge o f t a sk m a te r ia ls a nd i n ar a nge o f d i f f e ren t m o t ion s t h a t w e re d e s igned t o m im ic t h o se t a sk s g ene ra l ly a s soc ia ted w i th P r eh i s to r ic h un te r -ga the re rl i f eway s .

N umber o f U sab le E dge s P er F lake . T he n umbe r o f d i sc re te e dge s o n e a ch f l ake , t h a t c ou ld c once ivab ly b e u sed a s at o o l , ( we r e s ha rp , a nd r e gu la r e nough ) w a s r e co rded . A ' d i sc re te ' e dge i so ne t h a t i si s o la ted f r om o t he rp o r t ion s o ft h e f l ake p e r ime te rb y a b rup t c hange s i n t h e d i rec t ion o ft h e e dge w h ich u sua l ly c o r re spond w i th t h e i n te r sec t ion o f ad o r sa l f l ake s c a r r i dge w i th t h e f l ake p e r ime te r . L eng th o f E ach U sab le E dge . T he l e ng th o f e a ch d i sc re te ,u sab le e dge w a sr e co rded .

T he d om inan t f o rm o f o b se rvab le e dge -damage w a s m ic roch ipp ing , b u t r ound ing a nd p o l i sh ing w e re a l so n o ted . I n o rde r t o b e c on s ide red a c tua l u sewea r , m ic roch ipp ing h ad t oi n c lude am in imum as i x c on t iguou s f l ake s t h a t w e re a l v e ry s im i la r i ns i z e a nd mo rpho logy ( s hape , d eg ree o fi n va s ivene s s , a nd t y pe o ft e rm ina t ion f e a the r , s t ep ) . T he d amage a l so h ad t ob e i n al o ca t ion o n t h e f l ake t h a t m ade s en se i nt e rm s o fp r a c t ica l a pp l ica t ion o ft h e f l ake a s at o o l . U se -wea r w a s c on s ide red ' Regu la r ' o r ' I r regu la r ' d epend ing o n t h e e x ten t o ft h e d amage a nd t h e l e ve l o f s t anda rd iza t ion o ft h e d amage ( wh ich c ou ld a f ec t t h e d eg ree o f c onf idence t h a t i tw a s a c tua l ly u se w ea r ) . A n e xamp le o f at y p ica l a na ly s is s h ee te n t ry w ou ld b e U IS ( u se -wea r , i regu la r , s t ep t e rm ina t ion ) . P ho tog raph ic e xamp le s o ft h e t ype o fu se -wea r o b served a r ep rov ided i nA ppend ix A .

Morpho logy o fE ach U sab le E dge . A s w i th f l ake s hape , e a ch u sab le e dge w a s c a tego r ized a s e i the r ' Regu la r ' o r ' I r regu la r ' . I tw a s a l so g i ven a b a s ic s hape d e sc r ip to r : ' s t ra igh t ' , ' c oncave ' , ' c onvex ' ,o r' s inuou s ' . T ype o f L eva l lo i s F lake . T h rough v i sua l a na ly s i s o ft h e d o r sa l s c a r p a t te rn o f e ach f l ake , a n i n f o rmed j udgmen t w a s m ade a s t o t h e n a tu r e o ft h e t e chno logy w h ich w a s u sed t o p r oduce i t . I fi tw a s r e cogn iz ed a s ap roduc t o f L eva l lo is ( o r r e la ted s i ng le su rf a ce c o r e ) r e duc t ion , t h en t h en a tu re o fc o re s u rf ace t h a ti tw a sr emoved f r om a nd t h e l o ca t ion o nt h ec o re s u r f a ce t h a ti tw a sr emoved f r om w e re u sed a s i n d ica t ion s o f t h e s pec if ic t y pe o f L eva l lo i s p roduc t i tr e p re sen t s ( Cen t ra l o r P e ryphe ra l f l ake ) . I ft h e d o r sa l s c a rp a t ter no f af l ake i n d ica te st h a t i tr e p re sen t st h e r emova l o f t h e c en t re m a s s o f ac o re s u rf ace t h en i ti s c on s ide red a C en t ra l L eva l lo i s f l ake . I f i t s s hape a nd d o r sa l s c a r c onf igu ra t ion i n d ica te t h a t i tc ome s f r om t h e p e r iphe ry o ft h e f a ce o f ac o re a nd i ti n c lude s as i gn if ican t p o r t ion o f t h e p e r iphe ra l e dge o f s ub -c i rcu la r s haped , s i ng le su rf a ce c o re t h en i ti sc on s ide red aC en t r ipe ta l o r P e r iphe ra l L eva l lo is f l ake ( s ee V an P ee r 1 992 ) o r p o ten t ia l ly amo re g ene r ic D i sc c o re f l ake ( s ee f i gu re s2 . 1 , 2 . 2 , a nd 2 . 3 ) . Ec l a t s Dao rdan t s a r e v e ry d i s t inc t ive p roduc t s o f a s p ec if ic D isc c o re a pp roach a nd w e re r e co rded a s s uch ( s ee f i gu re 2 . 4 ) . F l ake s t h a t d i d n o t e xh ib i t c ha rac te r i s t ic s t h a t s ugge s ted t h ey w e re e i the r C en t r a l o r P e r iphe ra l L eva l lo i s f l ake s , o r Ec l a t s D jbo rdan t s w e re r e co rded a s n on -Leva l lo i s o r ' Amo rphou s ' c o re f l ake s ( t h i s w a s t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e f l ake se xam ined ) .

S ome f l ake s i n c luded b o th r e touched e dge s a nd u n re touched e dge sw i th u se -wea r . T he se a r e r e f e r red t oa s e i the r " Bo th" o r " Re touch a nd U sewea r" i n t h e t e x t , t a b le s , a nd f i gu re s . D u r ing t h e a na ly s i s , i ns uch c a se s i t w a st h en a tu re o ft h er e touch ,r a the rt h an t h eu sewea r ,t h a t w a s r e co rded i nd e ta i l i nt h er e gu la rd a ta c o lumn s . D e ta i ls a bou tt h eu se -wea ro nt h e se f l ake sw i th b o th t ype so fe dge d amage w e re e n te red i nt h eC ommen t sc o lumn . E x ten t o fE dge Mod if ica t ion . E a ch s e c t ion o fr e touch o r u s e -wea r w a s m ea su red a nd t h is w a s r e co rded . I ft h e m od if ica t ion w a s i n te rm i t ten to n a n e dge n o m ea su remen t w a sr e co rded .

8 3

A ng le o f E dge Mod if ica t ion . T he a ng le o f a l r e gu la r r e touch w a s m ea su r ed w i th a c on ta c t g on iome te r a nd r e co rded .

p r oduc t s o fo t he r a va i lab le t e chno log ie s , l i ke s of thamme r r e duc t ion , a s soc ia ted w i th b i f ace p roduc t ion . Wha t w e re t h e c ha r a c te r i s t ic s o f t h e p r oduc t s p r oduced a t t h e f o u r s i te s t h a t w ou ld h ave p l ayed ar o le i nt h e s e lec t ion o ft h e s pec if ic r e duc t ion t e chno log ie st h a tw e r ee mp loyed?

S p ine /P lane A ng le o fR e touched /U sed E dge . T he s p ine p l ane a ng le o fe dge s w i th r e touch o rr e gu la ru se -wea rw a s r e co rded a st h i s p rov ided a ni n d ica t ion o ft h en a tu re o ft h e o r ig ina l m o rpho logy o f t h o se e dge s t h a t w e re b e ing s e lec ted f o ru se .

T o t h is e nd , a n e xpe r imen ta l a s semb lage o f s of thamme r f l ake s ( n= 120 ) w a s p roduced a nd a na lyzed . B a s ic m e t r ic d imen s ion s , r o bu s t ic i ty , a ve rage e dge a ng le , a nd v en t ra l c u rva tu re w e re r e co rded f o rc ompa r ison t ot h o se c o l lec ted f o rt h ea r cha eo log ica la s semb lage s .

D egree t ow h ich t he t oo l b l ank h a s b een e xhau s ted . A v i sua l d e t e rm ina t ion w a s m ade o fh ow m uch o ft h e t o o l m a rg in s h ad b een l o s t t o r e touch , u se , a nd r e sha rpen ing . T h is w a s e xp r e s sed a s ap e rcen tage o fr ough ly h ow m uch t h e m a rg in s c ou ld h ave b een m od if ied i nt o ta l b ef o re t h e f l ake c ou ld n o tb e e f f ec t ive ly r e touched a ny mo r e . I nf a c t , v e ry f ew o ft h e f l ake s i na ny o ft h e s amp le s a ppea red t o h ave e ven b een e xhau s ted b y 1 0% .

T he se f l ake s w e re p roduced t h rough t h e m anuf ac tu re ( b y t h e a u tho r ) o ft wo l a rge b i f a ce s s im i la r i nf o rm t ot y p ica l Mou s te r ian h andaxe s . O ne w a sp roduced f r om o b s id ian ( a t S imon F ra se r U n ive r s i ty ) a nd o ne f r om a f l in t n odu le a cqu i red i nt h e C ha ren te i nF rance ( a nd m anuf ac tu red i n F rance d u r ing t h e 2 002 f i e ld s e a son ) . I nb o th c a se s , a f t e r i n i t ia l r e duc t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t w i th a q ua r tz i te h amme r s tone t o f o rm l a rge , r ough b i f a ce b l ank s , s ub sequen t r e duc t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t w i th a b i l le t m ade f r om t h e t i ne o f t h e a n t le r o f aN o r th Ame r ican e l k ( Cer vu s e l aphu s ) . T he d eb i tage f r om t h e se t wo r e duc t ion e ven t s ( i nc lud ing o n ly t h a t p r oduced w i th t h e b i l le t ) w a s c omb ined i n to a s i ng le a s semb lage ( d if f e r ence s b e tw een t h e t wo i nt h e r e co rded c ha rac te r is t ic s a r e n eg l ig ib le ) . A s o n ly t h o se f l ake s >2 . 5 c m h ad b een i n c luded i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s , o n ly t h o se f l ake s o f t h e s ame m in imum s i ze w e re i n c luded f o r a na ly s is i n t h e s of thamme rf l ake a s semb lage .

S of thammer F lake D a ta O ft h e f o u rs i te s s amp le s i n c luded h e re , b i f a ce t e chno logy w a s o n ly p r e sen t i nt h e l e Mou s t ie r s amp le ( a nd e ven i n t h is s amp le s of thamme r f l ake s w e r e e s sen t ia l ly a b sen t , a l though i tm igh t b e e xpec ted t h a t m any o f t h e se q u i te s ma l l a nd w e re n o t c ap tu red i nt h e s c r een s i ze u sed d u r ing t h e o r ig ina l e xcava t ion o r w e r e b e low t h e s i ze -cu tof f e mp loyed f o r l i t h ic i t em s t h a t w e re p roven ienced ) . H oweve r , i n o rde r t o a t temp t t o a r r ive a t a ny u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s ough t -af t e r c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e f l ake p r oduc t s p roduced a tt h e f ou r s i te s , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o c ompa r e t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o f t h e se p roduc t s t o t h e

8 4

Chap ter 8 :B lank S e lec t ion Ana ly s i s F lake T oo lA t tr ibu te s

T h i s c hap te r a dd r e s se s h ow t h e s amp le d a ta m a tch t h e d e s ign e xpec ta t ion s? T he i n i t ia l s e c t ion ( 8A ) e xam ine s p a t te rn s o fb l ank s e lec t ion a nd u se w i th in t h e p oo led d a ta f o r a l l f ou r s i te s amp le s . T h i s i s f o l lowed ( 8B ) b y a n e xam ina t ion o f b l ank s e lec t ion t e ndenc ie s w i th in e a ch i n d iv idua l s amp le . I n C hap te r 9b l ank s e lec t ion p a t te rn s b a sed o nd if e ren tt e chno log ica lp roduc t sa r ee xam ined .

I nC hap te r 6as umma ry w a s p rov ided o ft h e a t t r ibu te s o r c ha ra c te r i s t ic s t h a t , b a sed o n m y M idd le P a laeo l i th ic l i f eways mode l , Is ugge s t w ou ld h ave b een d e s i red b y M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p eop le i nt h e i r t o o l b l ank s . T he r e a r e t wo d if e r en t p o in t s i nt h e c ou r se o fl i t h ic r e duc t ion / too l p r oduc t ion a t w h ich p r eh i s to r ic f l ake t o o l u se r s w ou ld h ave t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o s e lec t d e s i r ed t o o l b l ank c ha ra c te r i s t ic s . O ne i sa tt h ep o in to fp roduc t ion w hen t h e k nappe r c an h ave s ome i nf luence o ve rt h e r e su l t ing s hape o fm any o ft h e f l ake s p roduced . T he d eg ree o fi nf luence d u r ing b l ank p roduc t ion d epend s o n s eve ra l v a r iab le s i n c lud ing ; r aw m a te r ia l t y pe , r aw m a te r ia l s i ze , r e duc t ion s t ra tegy ( e .g . , L eva l lo is , b i po la r ) , r e duc t ion t o o l ( t ype o f p e rcu s so r u sed ) , a nd i n d iv idua l s k i l l . W i th in s u ch c on s t ra in t s M idd le P a la eo l i th ic k nappe r s w ou ld h ave d e s igned t h e i r r e duc t ion t e chn ique s t o p roduce f l ake s w h ich e xh ib i ted d e s i red a t t r ibu te s a s m uch a s p o s s ib le , g i ven o t he rc on s t ra in t s ( a s o u t l ined i nC hap te r 5 )o n f l ake f o rm a nd r e duc t ion a pp roa che s .

S umma ry o fH ypo the s e s ( f rom C hap t er 6 ) L eva l lo is r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s ( a nd p e rhap s s i ng le su rf a ce r e duc t ion a s ad i sc re te c a tego ry ) ) w ou ld b e e mp loyed b ecau se e i the r : 1 / T he p roduc t s o f t h e L eva l lo i s/ s ing le surf ace c o re r educ t ion s t ra teg y s a t i sf i ed t he s pec if i c morpho log ica l r equ i remen t so fo ne ma jo ra pp l ica t ion OR t he o the r , a nd s o w ou ld b e e mp loyed i n s i tua t ion s w he re t ha t a pp l ica t ion ( bu tche r ing o r w oodwo rk ing ) w a s t h e d om inan tt a sk . 2 /T he r educ t ion s t ra teg yp roduce s al im i ted n umbe r o f l a rge r b l ank s , w h ich w ou ld s e rve b e t te r t han o t her p roduc t s a s l ong l ived t o o l s i np o r tab le t o o l k i t s , o r a s mo re ma in ta inab le t o o lf orm s i n c i rcum s tance s w he re t ime s t re s s/ con s t ra in tp lay ss ome r o le i nt a sk s chedu l ing .

T he s e cond p o in t a tw h ich s p ec if ic b l ank a t t r ibu te s c an b e s e lec ted f o r i sa f t e r t h e r e duc t ion o f an odu le w hen t h e c o l lec t ion o f r e su l t ing f l ake s c an b e s o r ted t h rough a nd t h o se f l ake s w i th g r ea te r u se -po ten t ia l c an b e c ho sen . T he i n ten t ion i n t h i s c hap te r i s t o t r y t o d e te rm ine w h ich a t t r ibu te s w e re s e lec ted f o r i n t h e c ou r se o f b l ank s e lec t ion . A n u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion i st h a t , w h i le t h e t e ndency o f M idd le P a la eo l i th ic k nappe r s w ou ld h ave b een t ot r y t op roduce a s semb lage s i nw h ich d e s i red t o o l a t t r ibu te s w e r e d om inan t , o r a tl e a s t c ommon , a ny s u ch d e s i rab le c ha ra c te r i s t ic sw ou ld a l so h ave b een s e lec ted f o r a tt h et ime o fb l ank s e lec t ion .T hu si ts hou ld b ep os s ib le t o d e tec t t h e d e s i r ed t r a i t s b y c ompa r ing u s ed f l ake s w i th u nu sed f l ake s .

3 / T he r educ t ion t e chn ique i t se lf r ep re sen ted a l o g ica l r e sponse t o o t he r c on s t ra in t s t ha t w e re e ncoun te red a t d if eren t t ime s a nd i n d if e ren t l o ca t ions . I t e i the r r ep re sen t s ar aw ma te r ia l e conom i zadon s o lu t ion a nd , t hu s , al og ica l r e spon se t o r aw ma te r ia l a va i lab i l i ty c on s t ra in t s , o r as t ra teg yf o r mo re ef ec t ive l y r educ ing r aw ma t e r ia l s o f v ar iou s s i ze s a nd s hape s , o r i ti sa r e spon se t oi n c rea sed p roce s s ing v o lume s a nd t he n eed t op roduce mo re t o o l s .

I no rde rt od e te rm ine t h ed e s i red c r i te r ia i nt o o lb l ank sw e n eed t ob e a b le t od i s t ingu ish w h ich f l ake s w e re s e lec ted f o r u se a nd w h ich w e re n o t w i th in f l ake a s semb lage s . E dge mod if ica t ion s , i nt h e f o rm o fr e touch a nd u se -wea r , p rov ide ad i rec ti n d ica t ion o ft h is s e lec t ion p roce s s .T h i s i s n o t c omp le te ly a ccu ra te s i nce , w h i le r e touch i sg ene ra l ly n o t p rob lema t ic t oi d en t if y , u se -wea r o ccu r s w i th v a r iou s d eg ree s o fi d en t if iab i l i ty . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t h e c a se h e re w he re o n ly m a c ro scop ic a na ly s is w a s e mp loyed . W i th t h i s i nm ind , d u r ing t h e u sewea r a na ly s i s as t rong e f f o r t w a s m ade t o e r r o n t h e s i de o f c on se rva t i sm i n a ccep t ing w he the r o b se rved e dge d amage w a s a c tua l u sewea r . H oweve r ,e ven t hough s ome u sed f l ake su ndoub ted ly w en t u n recogn ized a nd w e re m ixed i nw i th t h e u nu sed d u r ing t h e a na ly s is , a ny s i gn if ican t p a t ter n s i n t h e d i f f e r ence s b e tween t h e a t t r ibu te s o fu sed v e r se s u nu sed f l ake s s hou ld s t i l lb ea ppa ren t .

4 /T he p roduc t s o ft he s t ra teg yp re sen t ac e r ta in d eg ree o fs t and ard i za t ion t ha t m ake s t hem m ore s u i tab le f or h af ted t o o lf o rm s a nd r e su l t s i n am o re ma in ta inab le t oo lk i t / techno log y .

8 A P a t terns i nB lank S e lec t ion i nt he C omb ined S amp le Da ta T h i ss e c t ion i si n tended t oe xam ine g ene ra lb l ank s e lec t ion p r ef e rence sa mong t h es amp le a s semb lage s .T he d a ta f r om t h e t h ree p r ima ry s i te s ( a nd t h e f ou r th s i te w hen s p ec if ic d a ta a r e a va i lab le ) a r e , t h e ref o re , p oo led i no rde rt oa low t h ei s o la t ion o ft h o se p a t ter n so fs e lec t ion t h a ta r ec ommon a mong t h e se a s semb lage s . I n t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion ( 8B ) a na lys i s w i l l f o cu s o n t h o se p a t ter n s o fs e lec t ion t h a t a r e u n ique t oe a ch s i te s amp le a nd , t h e ref o re , i nt h a t s e c t ion t h ed a ta f r om e a ch s amp le a r ea na lyzed s e pa ra te ly .

8 5

0 . 358 ,w ec an s a yt h a ta bou t3 6% o ft h ev a r iab i l i ty i nf l ake l e ng th i sd ue t of l ake w id th a nd v i se v e r sa . T h is s ugge s t s t h a tt h e re i ss ome c o r re la t ion b e tween t h et wo ,b u ti ti sn o t as t rong o ne . F o r l e ng th a nd e dge a ng le , a nd w id th a nd e dge a ng le t h e s t reng th o f t h e c o r r e la t ion s i sq u i te l ow ( a bou t 5% a nd 9% r e spec t ive ly ) .

Ana lys is o fP ropo sed B lank S e lec t ion C r i ter ia S t a t i s t ica lA na ly se s Ab r ief b a ckg round o nt h en a tu re o ft h ev a r iab le sa nd t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip s t h a t a r e a na lyzed b e low i s n ece s sa ry t o p r ov ide af r amewo rk f o rt h es t a t i s t ica la pp l ica t ion st h a ta r e e mp loyed .

T he s t reng th o f s ome o f t h e se r e la t ion sh ip s s e em q u i te i n tu i t ive . T he s t rong r e la t ion sh ip b e tween f l ake d imen s ion s a nd w e igh t s e em s l o g ica l ( l onge r o r w ide r o r t h icke r f l ake s w i l l t e nd t ob e h eav ie r ) , a sd oe s t h e r a the r w eak r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e t h ree b a s ic d imen s ion s ( l eng th , w id th , w e igh t ) a nd e dge a ng le . T he r e la t ive ly s t rong r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ickne s s a nd e dge a ng le a l so s e em sq u i te l o g ica l .

T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s is i nt h is c hap te r a nd C hap te r 9 i n vo lve s t h e c ompa r i son o f t h e m ean s o f d i f f e r en t v a r iab le s . T h is i s b a sed o n t h e u nde r s tand ing t h a t ,p r e sum ing c e r ta in a t t r ibu te sw e re m o re d e s i rab le t h an o t he r s i nt h e s e lec t ion o fs t one t o o l b l ank s , t h e m ean s o f a tr ibu te m ea su remen t s s hou ld a c cu ra te ly r e f lec t s e lec t ion p a t te rn s . T he r ef o re , i fa n a t t r ibu te w a s i mpo r tan t e nough i nt h e s e lec t ion c r i te r ia , i t s m ean s hou ld b e s i gn if ican t ly d i f f e ren tf r om t h em ean o ft h o se i t em sn o ts e lec ted f o ru s e .

S i ze Wh i le t h e a na ly s is w i l l f o cu s o nt h o se a tr ibu te s t h a th ave b een p r opo sed a sb e ing o fm o s t i mpo r tanc e , a sd i scu s sed i n p r ev iou s c hap te r s , i t i s e xpec ted t h a t o t he r b a s ic a t t r ibu te s , l i ke s i ze , w ou ld h ave p l ayed s ome r o le i nt o o l b l ank s e lec t ion . We c an a n t ic ipa te t h a t , w he re g i ven t h e c ho ice , ap e r son w i l l , i nm o s t s i tua t ion s , l i ke ly s e lec t f i r s t t h e l a rge r o ft wo f l ake s . T h i s p a t te rn i ns e lec t ion a ppea r s t o b e b or n o u t b y p r ev iou s a na lyse s o f Mou s te r ian f l ake t o o l s ( e .g . , R o l land 1 972 ) . We c an t e s t p o ten t ia l p r ef e r ence s i ns i ze w i th t h e c omb ined d a ta f r om t h et h r ee p r ima ry s amp le s , a nd w i th t h e i n d iv idua l s i te d a ta . ( No t e : i nt h ef o l low ing t a b l e s ' U sed F lak e s ' i n c lud e s t h o se w i th r e touch a nd t h o se w i th u s ewea r .)

T he v a l id i ty o fa ny c ompa r ison o fm ean s t h a t i si n tended t od e tec tn on random p a t ter n s o rr e la t ion sh ip s ( t ha tc an b e i n f e r red t or e p re sen t h uman b ehav iou r ) a l so r e l ie s o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e r e i sn o t a l ready a ny n a tu ra l o r d i rec t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e v a r iab le s : t h e v a r iab le s b e ing t e s ted m u s t b e i n dependen t f o r a ny a na lys i s t ob e v a l id i n t h i s r e spec t . AP ea r son 's C o r re la t ion C oeff ic ien t a na ly s i s w a s a pp l ied t ot h em e t r ica l d a ta a nd w e igh t ( c omb ined f o r t h e t h ree m a jo r s i te s ) . T he r e su l t ing c oeff ic ien t s a r e g i ven i nT ab le 8 . 1 . T ab le 8 . 1 P ear son 's C orre la t ion C oef f ic ien t v a lue sf o rt he ma jor m e tr ica la t tr ibu te s a sw e l la ss p ine -p lane a ng le ( SAS a na ly s i sb yI . B ercov i tz ,S ta t i s t ic sa nd A c tuar ia lS c ience s ,S imon F raser U n iver s i . S p ine -P lane W id th T h i ck ne s s We igh t A ng l e r =0 .598 r =0 .605 r =0 .7 17 r =0 .2 18 L eng th r 2= 0 .358 r 2= 0 .366 r 2= 0 .514 r 2= 0 .048 t = 31 .9 t =25 .9 t =44 .0 t =9 .6 W id th

T h i ck

We igh t

r =0 .648 r 2= 0 .42 t = 36 .4

r =0 .776 r 2= 0 .602 t =52 .6

r =0 .198 r 2= 0 .039 t =8 .6

r =0 .765 1 . 2= 0 .585 t =50 .8

r =0 .522 r 2= 0 .272 t =26 .2

T ab le 8 . 2 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rt h e p r imary s amp le s( c omb ined )b yu se e v idence . d imen s ion si n mm a nd w e igh ti n r am s. U sed F lake s U nused F lake s n = 1427 n =405 Mean L eng th

4 1 .8

3 5 .5

Mean W id th

3 4 .4

3 0 .0

Mean T h ickne s

1 0 .9

9 . 8

Mean We igh t

1 8 .6

1 2 .7

T wo samp l e t e s t s w e r e a p p l i ed t o e a ch d im en s ion c ompa r ing t h em ean so ft h eU s ed a n dU nu s ed f l ak e s . T h e tv a lu e s f o r e a ch d im en s ion i n d ic a t e av e ry h i gh l e v e l o f s i gn if i c anc e a nd c o nf id enc e ( L eng th : t= 7 . 6 , w id t h : t= 7 . 3 , t h i ckn e s s : t=3 . 67 , w e igh t : t=4 . 4 ) i nt h e d i f f e r en c e b e tw e en t h e se m ean s . S e et a b l e 1i nA pp end ix B .

r =0 .302 r 2= 0 .09 1 t = 13 .6

T ab le 8 . 3 Mean d imen s ions a nd w e igh tf o r P ech d e l ' Aze I V ,l e ve l F -2 ,b yt ype o fu se e v idence U sed F lake s U nu sed F lake s n =521 ( n= 186 )

T he r i s t h e n a tu r e o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t wo v a r iab le s ( whe the r p o s i t ive o rn ega t ive ) , r =i st h e s t reng th o ft h er e la t ion sh ip , a nd ti n d ica te sw he the rt h er e la t ion sh ip i ss i gn if ican t o r n o t ( whe the r o r n o t i ti sd ue t o r a ndom f a c to r s , s u ch a ss amp l ing b i a se s ) . W i th l a rge s amp le s i z e s ( s uch a s Ia m u s ing h e re ) i ti sd i ff icu l t n o t t o h ave a s i gn if ican t c o r re la t ion ( t ) , b u t t h e s t reng th s o f t h e se c o r r e la t ion s o bv iou s ly v a ry ( Ande r son e t . a l . 1 99 1 : 4 95 9 7 ) . F o r e xamp le , f o r l e ng th a nd w id th , w i th a n r 2 o f

Mean L eng th

3 8 .0

3 6 .9

Mean W id th

3 0 .5

2 9 .4

Mean T h ickne s s

1 0 .7

1 0 .5

Mean We igh t

1 3 .0

1 .3

L eng th : t= 1 . 07 , w id t h : t= 1 . 34 ,t h i ck n e s s : t=0 . 54 ,w e igh t : t= 1 . 5

8 6

T ab le 8 . 4 Mean d imens ion sa nd w e igh tf o rl e Mou s t ier ,l e ve lG ,b yt ype o fu se e v idence U sed F lake s U nu sed F lake s n =50 1 n = 152 Mean L eng th

3 9 .6

2 9 .9

Mean W id th

3 2 .1

2 5 .1

Mean T h ickne s s

9 . 0

7 . 2

Mean We igh t

1 3 .7

6 . 5

T ab le 8 . 7 Mean d imens ions f o rt he f our s t udy s i te s c omb ined d a ta . R e touched U nr e touched F lake s F lake s n =40 17 n =845 Mean L eng th

T ab le 8 . 5 Mean d imen s ions a nd w e igh tf o r CC ape l le B a s ,l e ve lI 1D ,b yt ype o fu se e v idence U sed F lake s U nused F lake s n =398 n =67 4 9 .2

4 4 .2

Mean W id th

4 2 .0

4 2 .7

Mean T h ickne s s

1 3 .4

1 4 .1

Mean We igh t

3 1 .9

3 0 .8

4 9 .3

3 1 .5

Mean W id th

3 8 .8

2 6 .8

Mean T h ickne s s

1 .6

7 . 8

2 7 .3

Mean T h ickne s s

1 2 .5

8 . 2

T he d a ta i n T ab le s 8 . 2 t o 8 . 7 i n d ica te a g ene ra l t r end t owa rd s t h e u se o fl a rge r f l ake s i nt h e se a s semb lage s , a s t h e m ean s o ft h e m ea su remen t s f o r t h e r e touched f l ake s a r e c on s is ten t ly g r ea te r t h an f o r t h e u n re touched f l ake s ( w i th t wo e xcep t ion s , w id th a nd t h ickne s s i nt h e C ombe C ape l le B a s d a ta ) . F o r t h e P ech d e l ' Aze I V a nd C ombe C ape l le B a s a s semb lage s t h e d i f f e rence i n s i ze b e tween t h e u sed a nd u nu sed f l ake s i sn o t p a r t icu la r ly s t rong ( a s s hown b yt h et -e s tr e su l t s ) . H oweve r , i th a s a l so b een d i scu s sed a bove t h a t ( a bove s ome p rac t ica l m in imum ) s i z e p robab ly d oe s n o t p l ay a n o ve r ly d om inan t r o le i nb l ank s e lec t ion ( on ly 1f l ake < 11 mm i n max imum d imen s ion e xh ib i ted a ny u se -wea r , a l though n o t a l s ma l l f l ake s w e re p roven ienced d u r ing e xcava t ion o ft h e se s i te s ) .

T ab le 8 . 6 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh tf o rJ ibou i U sewea r d a ta a re n o t a va i lab le f or t h e J ibou i a s semb lag e . T he ref o re , r e touch i su sed h e re t o d ef ine c a te o r ie so fu se . . U nr e touched R e touched F lake s F lake s n =2963 n =65 Mean L eng th

3 2 .8

3 8 .2

L eng th : t=2 7 .0 ,w id th : t=2 5 .3 ,t h i ckn e s s : t=2 3 .9 ,w e igh t :n / a

L eng th : t=7 . 5 ,w id th : t=7 . 4 ,t h ickn e s s : t=4 . 6 ,w e igh t : t=5 . 5

Mean L eng th

4 6 .3

Mean W id th

8 7

0% o fF l akes U nused

F requency o f u se i ne ach s ize c a tegory

1 00

3% o fF l akes U sed

9 0 8 0 7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 15

1 6 -30

3 1-45

4 6 -60

6 1-75

7 6 -90

9 1105

F lake s ize c a tegor ies ( l ength ) F igure 8 . 1 P ercen tage o ff l ake sw i th e v idence o fu se ,b yc a tegor ie so f max imum s i ze ( l eng th i n mm ) .( f or a l lt hree p r imary s i te s amp le s )

F igu re 8 . 4i lu s t ra te st h a t ,w h i le t h e re w a s as t rong t r end t o s e lec t t h e l a rge r f l ake s f r om a n a s semb lage , s ome s ma l l f l ake s w e re u sed a nd s ome o ft h e l a rge s t f l ake s w e re n o t . S i ze w a s o bv iou s ly a f a c to r , b u t a ppa r en t ly d i d n o t c omp le te ly s upe r sede a l o t he rc on s ide ra t ion s .

u nu sed a nd r e touched f l ake s , a l though i na pp ly ing at wo s amp le t -e s tt ot h e p oo led d a ta f o rt h et h r ee p r ima ry s i te s ( f o r w h ich u sewea r d a ta a r e a va i lab le ) w e s t i l l s e e a s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t d if e rence i n t h e m ean o f s ome , t h ough n o t a l , d imen s ion s ; t =0 .29 f o r w id th ; t = 3 .0 f o r t h ickne s s ; a nd t =2 .4 f o r w e igh t . T h i s i n d ica te s t h a tw hen i tc ame t o t h e s e lec t ion o ff l ake s f o r u se i nu nmod if ied f o rm ,s i zed w a s much l e s so f c on s ide ra t ion .

T he d if e rence i ns i ze b e tween t h eu nu sed f l ake sa nd t h o se w i th j u s t u sewea r i s s i gn if ican t ly l owe r t h an b e tween

T ab le 8 . 8 B as ic m e tr ic d a ta f o rf l ake sw i th j u s tr e touch ,j u s tu se -wear ,a nd f l ake sw i th b o th f o rt h eD r ima ry s a rn l es i te s. J u s tR e touch B o th R e t&U sewear J u s tU sewear n =526 n=2 53 n =649 Mean L eng th 4 5 .7 4 6 .8 3 6 .7 Mean W id th 3 8 .7 3 7 .0 2 9 .8 Mean T h ickne s s 1 .2 8 . 9 1 3 .2 Mean We igh t 2 1 .3 2 7 .6 1 0 .3 Two samp le T te s t sw e r e a pp l ied t oe ach d imen s ion c ompa r ing t h em ean so ft h er e touched f l ake sw i th b o th t h e f l ake s w i th j u s t u se -wea r a nd w i th t ho se w i th b o th r e touch a nd u se -wea r . T he T -va lue s f o r t h ej u s t r e touch v e r se sj u s tu se -wea rm ean s i n d ica te v e ry h igh l e ve l o fs i gn if icance a nd c onf idence ( L =1 0 .8 , W = 1 2 .5 , T h =1 4 .7 , a nd W = 1 2 .2 ) . T he T -va lue s f o rt h ej u s tr e touch v e r se s b o th r e touch a nd u se -wea rm e an s i n d ica te s ome s i gn if icance a nd c onf idence ,t h ough a tl ow l e ve l s ,f o rL eng th ( T =0 . 89 )a nd W id th ( T =1 . 62 ) , b u th i ghe rl e ve l so fs i gn if icance a nd c onf idence f o rT h ickne s s( T =4 . 68 )a nd We igh t( T =2 . 73 ) .

8 8

T ab le 8 . 9 B as ic m e tr ic d a ta f o ru sed f l ake sf o rP ech I V . J u s tR e touch B o th R e t&U sewear n =164 n =79 3 8 .9 4 3 .3 3 2 .3 3 3 .5 1 2 .2 1 2 .0 1 6 .0 1 8 .5

J us tU sewear n =278 3 5 .9 2 8 .6 9 . 5 9 . 6

Mean Mean Mean Mean

L eng th W id th T h ickne s s We igh t

Mean Mean Mean Mean

T ab le 8 . 10 B a s ic m e tr ic d a ta f o ru sed f l ake sf o rl e Mous t ier . J u s tR e touch B o th R e t&U sewear J u s tU sewear n = 140 n =97 n =265 L eng th 4 2 .2 4 6 .6 3 5 .0 W id th 3 5 .3 3 7 .2 2 8 .2 T h ickne s s 1 0 .9 1 0 .2 7 . 7 We igh t 2 0 .5 1 9 .5 8 . 2 T ab le 8 . 11

Mean Mean Mean Mean

L eng th W id th T h ickne s s We igh t

B a s ic m e tr ic d a ta f o ru sed f l ake sf o r CC a e l le B a s . J us tR e touch B o th R e t&U sewear J us tU sewear n = 106 n =264 n =35 5 1 .2 5 .3 4 2 .8 4 4 .0 4 3 .9 3 7 .0 1 4 .7 1 3 .2 1 0 .4 3 7 .4 3 4 .6 1 7 .6

m ea su re o ft o o l s e lec t ion b ehav iou r , a s f l aked s t one t oo l u se r s m ay o r m ay n o t h ave m ade ac on sc iou s d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e se t wo t r a i t s , a nd t y p ica l ly ,t h ough n o ta lway s , t h ey a r ev e ry s im i la r . H oweve r , Id ot h ink t h a ts p ine -p lane a ng le i st h e m o re i n f o rma t ive c ha ra c te r is t ic f o r a na lyz ing t oo l s e lec t ion b ehav iou r i nw h ich t h e s t reng th o ft h e t o o l e dge s a nd t o o l r obu s t ic i ty l i ke ly p l ay i mpo r tan t r o le s . S p ine -p lane a ng le p rov ide s amo re a ccu ra te d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e m o rpho logy o f t h e f l ake a s aw ho le . I t i s a l so n ece s sa ry t ou se s p ine -p lane a ng le w hen m ea su r ing e dge s t h a t e xh ib i t m ic rowea r , a s i ti s o f ten n o t p o s s ib le t o a ccu ra te ly m ea su re t h e a ng le o f s u ch w ea r w i th j u s t a r e gu la rc on ta c tg on iome te r .

T he s ame g ene ra l p a t te rn s c an b e s e en i nt h e i n d iv idua l s i te s amp le s a s w e l l , a l though t h e re a r e s ome a ppa ren t d i f f e r ence sb e tween t h em i nt h eo ve ra l lm ean d imen s ion s . A n o bv iou s p a t te rn i st h a t t h e m ean d imen s ion s f o r t h e f l ake s w i th j u s t u sewea r i sv e ry s im i la r t o t h o se f o r t h e u nu sed f l ake s i nt a b le s 8 . 2 t o8 . 5 . T h is m igh tb e r e f lec t ing s eve ra l d i f f e ren t a spec t s o f b l ank s e lec t ion . I tm ay b e r ef lec t ing t h a tf l ake st h a tw e re u sed i na nu nmod if ied f o rm t e nded t o b e s e lec ted i n am o re r a ndom m anne r f r om a mong r a ndom w a s te f l ake s . I tm ay a l so b e ar ef lec t ion t h a t , o fa l f l ake s s e lec ted f o ru se , i ti st h e l a rge ro ne s t h a t t e nd t ob eu sed m o re e x ten s ive ly a nd a r em o re l i ke ly t ob e r e sha rpened r a the rt h an r e p laced .

Ih ave p ropo sed t h a t a ng le o ft h e t o o l e dge ( e xp re s sed a s s p ine -p lane a ng le h e r e ) w ou ld b e o ne o f t h e mo re i mpo r tan t c r i te r ia i n s e lec t ion o f b l ank s f o r t oo ls . H oweve r , T ab le 8 . 12 b e low i n d ica te s l i t t le d if e rence i n t h e m ean s p ine -p lane a ng le b e tween u nu sed f l ake s a nd u sed f l ake s ( r e touched a nd u sewea r ) . T he re i s s ome a ppa ren td if e rence ,h oweve r ,b e tween r e touched t oo ls a nd f l ake st h a tj u s te xh ib i tj u s tu se -wea r .

S p ine-P lane Ang le s A ni n i t ia l n o te : " ave rage s p ine -p lane a ng le" w a sc ompu ted a s am ean o f f ou r t o f i ve d i f f e ren t m ea su remen t s t a ken a r ound t h ep e r ime te ro fe ach f l ake , b u tn o td i rec t ly o n a ny e dge d amage . T h is w a s am ea su re o f" sp ine -p lane" a ng le , r a the r t h an " edge a ng le" . I ti sn o t a r gued h e r e t h a t o ne w ou ld n ece s sa r i ly b e ap r io r i am o re o r l e s s e f ec t ive

8 9

T ab le 8 . 12 Means f o rt h ea verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake o n u s ed a nd u nused f l ake s a l t h ree n r ima ry s i te s am l e s . C a tegor ie so fU se E v idence Mean S D U nu sed F lake s ( n=388 ) 4 0 .3 1 2 .9 A l lU sed F l ake s ( n -1390 ) 3 9 .1 1 0 .7 f l ake sw i th j u s tr e touch ( n=495 ) 4 2 .1 1 0 .7 f l ake sw i th b o th r e touch & u sewea r ( n=249 ) 3 8 .7 9 . 6 f l ake sw i th j u s tu sewea r ( n=646 ) 3 7 .0 1 0 .6 W i th c od eg ree so ff r eedom ,t h et va lue f o rt h em ean so ft h eU nu sed a nd A l lU sed i s3 . 4i n d ica t ing ah i gh d eg ree o fs i gn if i cance ( 99 .9% ) . T he 2 -Samp le t va lue f o rt h e m ean s o ft h e J u s t R e touched a nd J u s t U se -wea r i s8 . 1 a nd t h e 2 -Samp le t va lue f o rt h e m ean s o fB o th R e touched & U se - Wea r v e r se s j u s t U se -wea r i s6 . 9 , b o th o f w h ich i n d ica te v e ry h i gh d eg r ee s o f s i gn if icance ( 0 .1 % )a nd ah i gh d eg ree o fc onf idence ( >99 .9% ) .

5 0 .0 4 5 .0 C ) " E n c 4 0 .0

4 0 .3

4 2 .1

3 9 .1

3 8 .7 3 7 .0

C ) C 3 5 .0 3 0 .0 e L 2 5 .0 a ) g c ) 2 0 .0 > 1 5 .0 4 1 • 9 0 .0 2 5 . 0

0 . 0 A l l U nused F l akes

A l l U sed F l akes J us t R e touched

F l akes w B o th

F l akes w J us t

R e t & UW

U se Wea r

F l akes T ype o fU se E v idence

F igure 8 . 2 Mean o ft h ea verag es p ine -p lane a ng le s a mong c a tegor ie so fu se e v idence . T he se d a ta i n d ica te t h a t , i nf a c t ,t h e re w a s s ome c on sc iou s s e lec t ion o fb l ank s b a sed o n s p ine -p lane a ng le s , a tl e a s t b e tween f l ake s t h a t a r e r e touched a nd t h o se u sed u nmod if i ed . H ow eve r , w hen v i ew ing t h et o o l s ( r e touched a nd f l ake sw i th j u s tu se -we a r )a s aw ho le ,t h em ean s p ine p l ane a ng le a pp roa che s v e ry c l o se ly t h e m ean f o r a l l t h e u nu sed f l ake s , b ecau se t h e i n d iv idua l m ean s f o r t h e r e touched a nd u se -wea r f l ake s b r ack e t t h e m ean f o r t h e u nu sed f l ake s .

e dg e w i th a r e la t ive ly l ow s p ine -p lane a ng l e c an , p o t en t ia l ly , h a ve a r e la t ive ly h i gh e dg e a ng l e . H owever , t h e t wo a r e t y p ica l ly d if er en t b y d eg ree s r a ther t h an m agn i tud e a nd ap er son l o ok ing f or h i gher o rl ower e dg e a ng l e s c ou ld e f ec t ive ly r e ly o n s e l ec t ing f l ak es b a sed o n s p ine -p lane a ng l e , w h ich i sm or e v i sua l ly o bv iou s ) w h i le w oodwo rk ing , t h e o t he r d om inan t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t a sk , g ene ra l ly r e qu i re s g r ea te r s p ine -p lane a ng le s . S i nce t h e t wo d om inan t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t a sk s e a ch r e qu i re p o ten t ia l ly d if e ren t r a nge s o f e dge a ng le s w e c anno t s imp ly e xam ine t h ed a ta o ns p ine -p lane a ng le sf o r as i ng le p r ef e rence a mong t h eu sed f l ake s . T he r a nge o fr e spec t ive e dge / sp ine -p lane a ng le s f o r c u t t ing a nd w oodwo rk ing t o o l s i nt h e e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re ( Gou ld 1 980 ; H ayden 1 981b ) d o o ve r lap , b u t ar e a sonab le c u tof fp o in t b e tween t h e se t wo r a nge si sc . 5° ,a nd t h i si ss uppo r ted b yt h ed a ta i nF i gu re 8 . 6 .

I ti sn o t s u rp r i s ing t h a t t h e re i ss ome d if e rence i nt h e f l ake s s e lec ted f o ru se w i th r e touch a nd t h o se s e lec ted f o r u nmod if ied u se . B a sed o n a va i lab le e t hnog raph ic d a ta , t o o l e dge ( s p ine -p lane o r e dge a ng le ) p r ef e rence i s g ene ra l ly t a sk s p ec if ic . C u t t ing t a sk s , o fw h ich b u tche r ing w a s t h e d om inan t M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o ne , r e qu i re l owe r e dge a ng le s ( n o t e : e dg e a ng l e h a s t o b e e qua l to o r g r ea ter t h an i t s a s soc ia t ed s p ine -p lane a ng l e , s o af l ak e

9 0

2 00 1 74 1 60

1 45

e dge a ng le c a tegor ies

1 40 15

1 20

8 0

12

9 9

1 00

1

9 3

8 5

8 1 6 1

6 0

4 1

4 0 2 0

1 38

I

1

1 5

1 1

0

1

2 0 ° 2 5 ° 3 0 ° 3 5 ° 4 0 ° 4 5 ° 5 0 ° 5 5 ° 6 0 ° 6 5 ° 7 0 ° 7 5 ° 8 0 ° 8 5 ° 9 0 ° 9 5 ° C a tegor ies o fU se E dge A ng le ( measured t o n eares t 5d egrees )

F igure 8 . 3 Ah i s togram o ft he f r equency d i s tr ibu t ion o fu sed f l ake sb ya ng le o ft he u sed e dge . T h i s i si n tended a s ap r oxy m ea su re o ft h e d e s i r ed a ng le o ft h e t o o l e dge . T he r ef o r e , i nt h e c a se o fr e touched e dge s t h e a c tua l a ng le o ft h e r e touch w a sm ea su r ed , a nd i nt h e c a se o fe dge sw i th u s ewea rt h e s p ine -p lane a ng le w a sm ea su r ed .T h i s i sb a sed o nt h e i d ea t h a tt h er e touch w a s i n tended t om od if y t h e e dge t os u i t t h e t a sk ( n o t a c tua l ly e s tab l i shed y e t ) a nd t h a t u nmod if i ed f l ak e s w e r e s e lec t ed ( i n p a r t ) f o r t h e n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing a ng le o ft h ee dge . T he n a tu ra l a ng le o ft h eu nmod if i ed t o o le dge i n c lude sb o th a n ' e dge a ng le ' a nd a' s p ine -p lane a ng le ' , e i the r o fw h ich s hou ld p r ov ide ar e a sonab ly a c cu ra te i d ea o ft h e d e s i red e dge m o rpho logy . A ccu racy i nt h e m ea su r ing o ft h e a c tua l e dge a ng le o fu s ew ea ri sd i ff i cu l t a nd , t h ough i tw a s i n c luded i nt h e a na ly s i s , i tw a s n o tr e co rded f o r a l o ft h e f l ak e s w i th u s ewea rb ecau se t h e r e su l t sw e r eo f t en q ue s t ionab le . S p ine -p lane a ng le w a sr e co rded f o ra l f l ake sa nd , i t si ss ugge s ted h e re ,w ou ld b et h em o r er e l iab le i n d ica to r o ft h et o o lu s e r 's p r ef e r ence a nyway a st h ea ng le o ft h eu s ewea ri t s e lf i st h er e su l to fi n c iden ta l ,r a the rt h an i n t en t iona l ,m od if ica t ion .

F i gu re 8 . 6 d emon s t ra te s as i gn if ican t b imoda l i ty a mong t h ea ng le so ft h ea c tua lu se e dge sa nd t h ed i v i s ion b e tween t h em i s c l ea r ly a r ound t h e 5° p o in t . A l though t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t o o l f unc t ion a nd t y pe o f e dge m od if ica t ion ( r e touch o r u se -wea r ) i sn o t c l ea r a t t h i s p o in t , i ti sn o t u n r ea sonab le t o e xpec t t h a t t h e re i ss ome r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t a sk t y pe a nd t h ec ho ice t or e touch o r n o t . S pec if ica l ly , r e touch t e nd st oi n c rea se t h e a ng le o fa n

e dge ( a l though t h e re a r e e xcep t ion s o fn o te ) a nd s o m igh t b e m o re r e ad i ly a s soc ia ted w i th s c rap ing t a sk s ( e spec ia l ly w oodwo rk ing ) w h i le u nmod if ied , a nd t h e r ef o re s ha rpe r , e dge s a r e m o re l i ke ly a s soc ia ted w i th c u t t ing t a sk s . T h i s r e la t ion sh ip b e tween i n ten t iona l e dge m od if ica t ion ( r e touch ) a nd a ny a s soc ia t ion w i th h i ghe rt o o l e dge a ng le s i sf u r the r e xam ined i nt h e f o l low ing f i gu re u s ing t h e 5° c u tof fp o in t .

9 1

8 0 7 0 .3 7 0

E l< 55 ° •>55 °

5 1 .5

4 8 .5

2 9 .7

3 0

1 0

F l akes w i th R e touch

F l akes w i th U se Wea r

C a tegor ies o fE dge Mod if ica t ion F igure 8 . 4T he f r equency w i th w h ich t o o le dge sw ere r e touched r e la t ive t os p ine -p lane a ng le (

55 ° ) o f e ach e dg e -f o r p r imary s i te s amp le s . ( Ch i squared v a lue x2 = 1 3 .2 , d egree s o f f r eedom = 1 ,w h ich i nd ica te s as i gn if i cance l e ve lo f 9 9 .9 % ) .

Wh i le f i gu re 8 . 6 u sed b o th a ng le o f r e touch a nd s p ine p l ane a ng le s o fu s ed e dge s d epend ing o n w he the r i tw a s r e touched o rn o t , f i gu re 8 . 7 e xam ine sj u s tt h e s p ine -p lane a ng le s f o r a l u sed e dge s . B a sed o n t h i s , t h e re i s a n a ppa ren t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e i n i t ia l s p ine -p lane a ng le o f at o o l e dge a nd a ny s ub sequen t d ec i s ion t or e touch o r n o t . Wh i le t h et e ndency t or e touch f l ake e dge sw i th s p ine p l ane a ng le s 55° ( 7 0 .3 :29 .7 ) . T he i n i t ia l q ue s t ion i s w he the r t h is r e touch s imp ly r e p re sen t s t h e r e sha rpen ing o f ad u l led e dge o r t h e i n ten t iona l p r e -u se m od if ica t ion o f t h e a ng l e o f t h e e dge t o s u i t as pec if ic t a sk . T he f a c tt h a t t h e re w e re an umbe r o fd i f f e ren t t y pe s o f r e touch e mp loyed i n t h e P a laeo l i th ic ( e .g . , s c rape r r e touch , Q u ina r e touch , e xped ien t k n if e r e touch ) t e nd s t o s uppo r t t h e l a t te r . I fe dge a ng le w a s n o t a n i s sue t h en t h e t y pe o f r e touch e mp loyed s hou ld h ave b een g ene r ic . F u r the rmo re , i fj u s t s ha rp e dge s w e re r e qu i red t h en l e s s a b rup tf o rm s o fr e touch ( e .g . Q u ina r e touch a nd e xped ien t k n if e r e touch ) w ou ld h ave b een c on s is ten t ly e mp loyed . I t s e em s m o s t l i ke ly t h a t t h e a ng le o f e dge s e mp loyed i n s pec if ic t a sk s w a s a n i mpo r tan t c on s ide ra t ion . B a sed o n t h i s , i nm any o ft h et a b le sp r e sen ted b e low ,t h eu s ed f l ake s

a r es epa ra ted i n to t h o se t h a tw e re r e touched a nd t h o se t h a t e xh ib i ted u se -wea r o n ly , w i th t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h i s d i cho tomy l i ke ly r e p re sen t s ,t os ome e x ten t , c u t t ing v e r se s s c rap ing t o o ls ( a l though t h i si sc e r ta in ly n o te s tab l ished ) . T h i s t e ndency t o a l te r s ome t o o l e dge a ng le s i n d ica te s s p ec if ic t o o l -f o rm p r ef e rence s , a nd f i gu r e 8 . 7 s ugge s t st h a t t h e se d e s i red m o rpho log ica l p r ef e r ence s w e re a l so s e lec ted d u r ing b l ank s e lec t ion a nd n o tj u s t a dded t ot h e b l ank f o l low ing s e lec t ion .T ab le s 8 . 13 t h rough 8 . 18 b e low , f u r the r e xam ine p a t te rn s o fe dge m od if ica t ion r e la t ive t o a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le s . T he s p ine -p lane a ng le d a ta i n t h e f o l low ing t a b le s a r e d i v ided i n to t wo c a tegor ie s o fs p ine -p lane a ng le s s t a r t ing w i th ac u tof fo f3 5 d eg ree s .T h i si ss omewha ta r b i t ra ry a nd o ne c ou ld j u s t a se a s i ly h ave s t a r ted a t2 0 d eg ree s , b u tt h e i n ten t ion i st o l o ok f o r p a t te r n s o f s e lec t ion b a sed o n s p ine -p lane a ng le s , a nd t h e c a tego r ie s u s ed b e low ( b e tween 3 5 a nd 6 0 d eg ree s ) s hou ld s pan t h ee t hnog raph ic r a nge o f t a sk spec if ic r e qu i remen t s ( i f n o p a t ter n s h ad b een d e tec ted u s ing t h e se c a tego r ie s o ne c ou ld t h en h ave e xam ined aw ide rr a nge o fs p ine -p lane a ng le c a tego r ie s ) .

9 2

T ab le 8 . 13 D i s tr ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge mod if ica t ion i nt wo c a tegor ie ss e ta t3 5° ( f rom a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake ) . C h i -squa red v a lue f o rU sed v e r se sU nu sed x2 =4 . 51 ,a nd f o rr e touched v e r ses u se -wea r x2 = 3 8 .5 . T o ta l U nu sed F lakes F l ake s wj u s tU sewea r

3 88 6 46

F lake s wR e t & UW F l ake s wj u s tR e touch

2 49 4 96

53 5 ° 1 67 3 54 1 33 1 81

° A )o fT o ta l 4 3 .0 5 4 .8 5 3 .4 3 6 .5

>3 5 ° 2 21 2 92 16 3 15

° Ao fT o ta l 5 7 .0 4 5 .2 4 6 .6 6 3 .5

T ab le 8 . 14 D is tr ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge mod i f ica t ion i nt wo c a tegor ie ss e ta t4 0° ( f rom a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake ) . C h i squa red v a lue f o rU sed v e r se sU nu sed x2 =9 . 7 , a nd f o rr e touched v e r se su se -wea r x2 = 3 6 .4 . U nu sed F lake s F l ake sw 'u s tU sewea r F l ake s wR e t & UW

T o ta l 3 88 6 46 2 49

54 0 ° 2 24

F l ake sw 'u s tR e touch

4 96

2 70

% o fT o ta l 5 7 .7

4 63 1 70

>4 0° 1 64

7 1 .7

1 83

6 8 .3 5 4 .4

7 9 2 26

' ) / 0o fT o ta l 4 2 .3 2 8 .3 3 1 .7 4 5 .6

T ab le 8 . 15 D is tr ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge mod if ica t ion i nt wo c a tegor ie ss e ta t4 5° ( f rom a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake ) . C h i -squa red v a lue f o rU sed v e r se sU nu sed x2= 8 . 9 ,a nd f o rr e touched v e r se su se -wea r x2 = 3 3 .2 . T o ta l 3 88

54 5 ° 2 76

F lake s wj us tU sewea r F lake s wR e t & UW

6 46 2 49

5 36 2 00

8 3 .0 8 0 .3

F lake s wj u s tR e touch

4 96

3 39

6 8 .3

U nused F lakes

% o fT o ta l 7 1 .1

>4 5° 12 10

% o fT o ta l

4 9

2 8 .9 1 7 .0 1 9 .7

1 57

3 1 .7

T ab le 8 . 16 D is tr ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge mod if ica t ion i nt wo c a tegor ie ss e ta t5 0° ( f rom a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake ) . C h i -squa red v a lue f o rU sed v e r se s U nu sed x2= 1 0 .0 ,a nd f o rr e touched v e r se s u se -wea r x2 = 1 9 .7 . U nu sed F lakes F lake s wj u s tU sewea r F lake s wR e t & UW

T o ta l 3 88 6 46 2 49

55 0° 3 23 5 92 2 27

F lake s wj u s tR e touch

4 96

4 11

% o fT o ta l 8 3 .2 9 1 .6 9 1 .2

>5 0° 6 5 5 4 2 2

8 2 .9

8 5

' Y oo fT o ta l 1 6 .8 8 . 4 8 . 8 1 7 .1

T ab le 8 . 17 D i s tr ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge mod if ica t ion i nt wo c a tegor ie ss e ta t5 5° ( f rom a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake ) . C h i -squa red v a lue f o rU sed v e r se sU nu sed x2 = 1 3 .5 , a nd f o rr e touched v e r se su se -wea r x2 = 7 . 7 . U nused F lakes F lakes w j us tU sewea r F lake s wR e t & UW F lake s wj u s tR e touch

T o ta l 3 88

55 5 ° 3 46

6 46 2 49

6 20

8 9 .2 9 6 .0

2 37 4 57

9 5 .2 9 2 .1

4 96

% o fT o ta l

>5 5° 4 2 2 6 1 2 3 9

% o fT o ta l 1 0 .8 4 . 0 4 . 8 7 . 9

T ab le 8 . 18 D is tr ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge mod if ica t ion i nt wo c a tegor ie ss e ta t6 0° ( f rom a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake ) . C h i -squa red v a lue f o rU sed v e r se sU nu sed x2 =4 . 3 , a nd f o rr e touched v e r se su se -wea r x2 = 6 . 5 . T o ta l 3 88

56 0 ° 3 67

F lake s wj us tU sewea r F lake s wR e t & UW

6 46 2 49

6 39 2 45

F lake s wj u s tR e touch

4 96

4 80

U nu sed F lake s

' ) / 0o fT o ta l 9 4 .6 9 8 .9 9 8 .4 9 6 .8

T he se d a ta f u r the r s ugge s t af a i r ly s t rong r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ea ve rage n a tu ra l f l ake e dge ( s p ine -p lane a ng le ) a nd t h e t ype o fe dge mod if ica t ion i tu l t ima te ly a cqu i red .

>6 0° 2 1

% o fT o ta l 5 . 4

7 4

1 . 1 1 . 6

1 6

3 . 2

T he r e levan t p a t te rn i s i n t h e d i f f e rence b e tween t h e r e touched f l ake s a nd t ho se w i th j u s tu se -wea r , a nd t h a tt h is p a t te rn i s s t ronge r w hen t h e s p ine -p lane a ng le d a ta i s

9 3

s e pa ra ted a t al owe rc u tof fp o in t . I np a r t icu la r ,t h e re s e em s t o b e ap r ef e rence f o r f l ake b l ank s w i th l owe r a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le s t o b e u sed a s u nmod if ied t o o l s . I t w ou ld s e em m o s t l i ke ly t h a t t h e se t o o l s w e re u sed f o r b u tche r ing ( o ro t he rc u t t ing t a sk s ) a st h i s w ou ld b e i nl i ne w i th t h e e xpec ta t ion , o u t l ined a bove , t h a t f l ake s s e lec ted f o rc u t t ing t a sk s w ou ld , g ene ra l ly , h ave l owe re dge a ng le s ( a nd s p ine -p lane a ng le b y a s soc ia t ion ) a nd w ou ld b e l e s s l i ke ly t o b e r e touched ( a t l e a s t i n i t ia l ly ) . T he r e touched t o o l s e xh ib i t a ve rage n a tu ra l s p ine -p lane a ng le c ha ra c te r is t ic ss im i la rt ot h eu nu sed f l ake s .

t h ef l ake sw a s s e ta tt h ep o in to fp r oduc t ion a nd t h a ti tw a s f r om t h i s e s tab l i shed c o l lec t ion o fb l ank s t h a t t o o l s w e re s e lec ted . T he ref o re , a ny p a t te rn s i np r ef e rence s f o r t o o ls c anno t b e a b so lu te . F o r e xamp le , e ven i ft h e re w a s a g ene ra l p r ef e rence t ou se c omp le te ly f l a t f l ake s , 1 00% o f t h e t o o l s u sed c anno t b e c omp le te ly f l a t b ecau se i tc an b e a n t ic ipa ted t h a tt h e n umbe r o ff l ake s r e qu i r ed f o r u se w i l l b eg r ea te rt h an t h en umbe ro fc omp le te ly f l a tf l ake s i nt h e p r oduced a s semb lage .

O ff u r the r i n te re s t i st h e f a c t t h a t t h o se f l ake s w i th b o th r e touch a nd u s e -wea r ,w h i le f a l l ing b e tween j u s tr e touched a nd j u s tu se -wea rf l ake s , a r e much c l o se ri nd i s t r ibu t ion t o t h ef l ake sw i th j u s tu se -w ea r . N o te : I nv i ew ing t h ed a ta p r e sen ted h e re i tmu s tb ek ep t i n m ind t h a t , b e s ide s s p ine -p lane a ng le o ft h e u se -edge , t h e r a nge o fv a r iab i l i ty i nt h e m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s o fa l

Wh i le f l a tne s s i sn o t an ece s sa ry c ha ra c te r i s t ic f o r f l ake s u sed f o r w oodwo rk ing , i ti s ad e s i rab le c ha ra c te r i s t ic f o r f l ake t o o ls u sed f o r mo s t c u t t ing t a sk s , e spec ia l ly b u tche r ing . T he ref o re w e m igh t e xpec t ag ene ra l s e lec t ion b i a sf o rf l a t te rf l ake s( l owe rv en t ra l c u rva tu re )c on s ide r ing t h a tb u tche r ing w a s l i ke ly o ne o ft h et wo d om inan tM idd le P a laeo l i th ic t a sk s .

V en tra l C urva ture -" F la tne s s"

[0 P e rcen t U sed

3P e rcen t U nused

9 0

7 8 .3

7 6 .8

2 1 .7

8 0 .2

7 6 .6

2 3 .2

2 3 .4

1 9 .8

0

F l a t

S l igh t ly C u rved

N o tab ly C u rved

V e ry C urved

C a tegor ies o fd egree o fv en t ra l c urva ture F igure 8 . 5 T he f r equency o fu se o ff l ake sb yg enera lc a tegor ie so fv en tra lc urva ture f o ra l lt hree s i te ss amp le s( e ach p a ir o fc o lumns c omb ined e qua l s 1 00 % ) .

9 4

7 0 .0 5 9 .0 5 7 .4

•

6 0 .0

• e l c ' 1 3

5 0 .0

C U U 2

4 0 .0

>

r . = • L I 4 t i) > , c

I Unused

C 6 . 1

• 5 • o 0

0 Used

3 0 .0

2 4 .7 2 6 .2

▪ 2 0 .0 1 .4 1 2 .2 •

1 0 .0

4 .9

4 .2

0 . 0 % F la t

% S l igh t ly C u rved % N o tab ly C urved

% Ve ry C u rved

C a tego r ies o fd egree o fv en t ra l c urva ture F igure 8 . 6 P ercen td i s tr ibu t ion o fu sed a nd u nused f l ake si n to c a tegor ie so fv en tra lc urva ture . ( a l lt he ' U sed 'c o lumns c omb ined e qua l 1 00 % ,a nd a l lt he ' Unused 'c o lumns c omb ined e qua l 1 00 % ) . C on t ra ry t oe xpec ta t ion s ,t h e se d a ta i n d ica te t h a tt h e re w a s n oo bv iou sp r ef e r ence f o rf l a tne s sa mong t o o lb l ank sa sa n a linc lu s ive c a tego ry ( i . e . a l t o o l s r e ga rd le s s o ft y pe o f u se ) a s f l ake s o f a l c u rva tu re s s e em t o h ave b een u sed w i th a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame f r equency . I n F igu re 8 . 9 b e tween 7 5 a nd 8 0% o f t h e f l ake s i n a l l c a t ego r ie s o f v en t ra l c urva tur e w e re u sed . A s w e l l , i nF igu re 8 . 9 u sed

a nd u nu sed f l ake s a r e e qua l ly r e p re sen ted i ne a ch o ft h e d i f f e ren tg ene ra l c a tego r ie s o fv en t ra l c u rva tu re . I tm ay b e t h a t h a rdhamme r f l ake s , r e ga rd le s s o f t h e i r s pec if ic t e chno log ic p roduc t ion m e thod , a r e f l a t e nough s o t h a t f u r the r s e lec t ion f r om a mong t h em f o rt h i s a t t r ibu te i sn o t n ece s sa ry . We c an e xam ine t h is i n c ompa r ison t o t h e e xpe r imen ta l s of thamme rf l ake d a ta .

7 0 6 0

•F la t

5 8 .6

1 3C1 N 1 ▪C 2 N2

oCN3-8 4 0 2 6 .7

3 1 .7

2 6 .7

2 5 .1 1 5 .0

1 .5 4 . 7

H a rdhamme rF l akes ( n= 18 15 ) S of thamme rF l akes ( n= 120 ) C a tego r ies o fd egree o fv en t ra l c urva ture F igure 8 . 7C ompar i son o fv en tra lc urva ture o fh ardhammer a nd s of thammer f l ake s ( e xper imen ta l ly p roduced ) .( C1/V 1 =' s l igh t ly c urved ' ,C 2 /V2 = ' no tab ly c urved ' , CN3 -8 = ' v ery c urved ' )

9 5

F igu re 8 . 7 i n d ica te s as i gn if ican t ly h ighe r d eg ree o f c u rva tu re a mong t h e s of thamme r f l ake s t h an t h e h a rdhamme r f l ake s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s . T h i s i s n o t s u rp r i s ing a nd w a s d i scu ssed i n t h e c hap te r o n c on s t ra in t s . T he p e rcep t ion t h a t b i l le t f l ake s a r e mo re c u rved i sc onf i rmed h e re . T he g ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e h a rdhamme r f l ake s i s a n e xponen t ia l d ec rea se i n t h e n umbe r s o f f l ake s o f i n c rea s ing v en t ra l c u rva tu re , w i th c l o se t o6 0% o ft h e f l ake s b e ing e n t i re ly f l a t . Among t h e s of thamme r f l ake s t h e re i s a mo re g r adua l f a l l o f f i n n umbe r s w i th i n c rea sed c u rva tu re ( t he g r ad ien t w ou ld b e m o re n o tab le i ft h e C /V3 -8 c a tego ry w e re b roken u p i n to i t s o r ig ina l i n d iv idua l o ne s ) . A lmo s t a t h i rd o f t h e

s of thamme r f l ake s w e re " ve ry c u rved" . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t a mong t h e s of thamme r f l ake s t h e re w e re n one i nt h e ' V ' c a tego ry . T ha t i st os ay t h a t n one o ft h em w e re ' n ega t ive ly ' c u rved ,w i th ac oncave d o r sa l s u rf ace . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t f l a tne s s w a s s e lec ted o n ly f o r t h o se f l ake s i n tended f o r b u tche r ing ( o r s im i la r c u t t ing t a sk s ) a nd t h a t b y v i ew ing a l l u sed f l ake s ( r e touched a nd u se w ea r f l ake s ) a s ag roup t h i s p r ef e rence i sb e ing m a sked . T he ref o re , b a sed o n t h e r e a son ing o u t l ined a bove ( s ugge s t ing t h a tt h eu nmod if ied f l ake t o o l s l i ke ly r e p re sen t c u t t ing t oo l s ) , t h e u sed f l ake s a r e d i v ided b e low i n to r e touched f l ake s a nd f l ake sw i th j u s tu se -wea r .

7 0 •

6 0

•

5 0

C I J

4 0

U nused 4l

C J

>

' J us tU se -Wea r

t a n ig i r m n i »Jus tR e touch R e touch & U se Wea r

3 0 • 2 0

c i J

s 'N e

1 0

F l a t

S l igh t ly C u rved

N o tab ly C u rved

V e ry C u rved

C a tegor ies o fd egree o fv en tra l c urva ture F igure 8 . 8 P ercen tage o fu nu sed a nd u sed f l ake s b ys pec if ic c a tegor ie so fv en tra lc urva ture f o ra l lt hree p r imary s i te s . ( 'Re touch & U se - Wear ' r ef er s t ot ho se f l ake st ha te xh ib i t b o th )

9 6

U nused

A l l U sed

J us t R e touch

F lakes

J us t U se -

R e touch a nd

Wea r

U se -wea r

C a tego r ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 9 T he p er cen tage o fu nused a nd u sed f l ake sb yc a tegor ie so fv en tra lc urva ture . I n t h i s ( ba sed o n d a ta f r om t he t hree p r imary s i te s ) G raph ' F la t ' c omb ine s t he o r ig ina l a na ly s i s c a tegor ie so fS ,C l ,a nd V i ; ' Curved ' i n c lude sC 2 /V2 t oC /V3 -8 ) . ( Ch i squared v a lue sh ere i nd ica te n o s i gn if icance b e tween t h e U nused a nd U sed f l ake s , b u t t here i ss ome s i gn if i cance ( x2 = 3 . 98 ) b e tween r e touched f l ake sa nd f l ake sw i th j u s tu se -wear .

v e r se s w oodwo rk ing t o o ls . T he se s hou ld , t h e ref o re , b e e xam ined t o ge the r .

B a sed o n f i gu re s 8 . 11 a nd 8 . 12 , t h e re i s n o n o tab le d i f f e rence b e tween a ny o ft h e u se -ev idence c a tego r ie s i n d eg ree o f v en t ra l c u rva tu re . I f t h e re i s a ny p o ten t ia l p r ef e r ence f o rf l a tne s sa ta l l , i tw a sa mong f l ake st h a tw e re r e touched . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t f l a tne s s , a tl e a s t o n i t s o wn , w a s n o t s pec if ica l ly s e lec ted f o r a mong p o ten t ia l t o o l b l ank s . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly e v iden t i nt h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e u nu sed f l ake s , ac o l lec t ion t h a t s hou ld r e f lec t u nde s i rab le t r a i t s t h e s t ronge s t , i sv e ry s im i la rt ot h e u sed f l ake d i s t r ibu t ion s , a nd i nf a c t h a s ag r ea te r w e igh t ing i n t h ef l a tc a tego r ie st h an t h ef l ake sw i th u se -wea r .

F o r m o s t r e touched f l ake s t h e a ng le o f t h e r e touch w a s r e co rded a nd f o r f l ake s w i th u se -wea r , o rf o r r e touch t h a t w a s t o o s ma l l t o g e t ar e l iab le m ea su re , t h e s p ine -p lane a ng le w a s r e co rded f o r t h e u sed e dge . T he e xpec ta t ion h e re i s t h a t f l ake s i n tended f o r b u tche r ing w ou ld b e s e lec ted f o r l ow v en t ra l c u rva tu re a nd a r e la t ive ly a cu te e dge ( t ha t w ou ld n o t b e m od if ied ) , w h i le f o r f l ake s i n tended f o r w oodwo rk ing , f l a tne s s w ou ld n o t b e i n t h e s e lec t ion c r i te r ia a nd e i the rf l ake sw i th am o re o b tu se e dge w ou ld b e s e lec ted o rt h e e x i s t ing e dge w ou ld b er e touched t og i ve i t ag r ea te r a ng le a nd g r ea te r s t reng th . T hu s , i ti s h ypo the s ized t h a t t h e re s hou ld b e ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween v en t ra lc urva tu re a nd t h ea ng le o fu se -edge s .

E dge A ng le a nd V en t ra lC u rva tu re Wh i le t h e re d oe s s e em t ob e ap r ef e rence f o r f l ake b l ank s w i th l owe r a ve rage e dge a ng le s f o r t o o l s t h a t a r e n o t r e touched , i ti sa l so a ppa ren tt h a tt h e r e a r e o t he ra t t r ibu te s t h a tw i l lt e nd t ob eu n ique ly s e lec ted f o ra mong b u tche r ing

9 7

1 00 .0 Z C I J

^ 2 e n = " c s c u t n C J

"0 0

C U

7 1 ) =

9 0 .0

e s > z c g n .

8 0 .0

e t

7 0 .0

, C U = • „ T . ;

6 0 .0

e l , ; . . e c c i s e . i . ,

5 0 .0

c : 1

O

> , c u = c u =

C J

> e t : e . 0 , . )

4 0 .0 3 0 .0

. . . •r, • C U

*

2 0 .0

t

t im

a s )

C U C . J i « 4 , J : le

C e c j

1 0 .0

0 •

0 .0

F l a tf l akes < 55 °

F l a tf l akes > 55 °

C u r ved f l akes < 55 °

C u r ved f l akes > 55 °

F la t( S ,C ,C2 )f l akes a nd c urved ( C ,V2 -6 )d iv ided i n to c a tegor ies b ased o n a verage s p ine -p lane a ng les

F igure 8 . 10 P ercen tf r equency d i s tr ibu t ion o ff l a ta nd c urved f l ake s i n to c a tegor ie so fa verage s p ine -p lane a ng le .

F igu re 8 . 13 i l u s t ra te s t h a t t h e re i s e s sen t ia l ly n o d i f f e r ence b e tween f l a t f l ake s ( S , C l , a nd V I) a nd c u rved f l ake s ( C ,V2 -6 ) i n t h e i r r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le s i nt h et wo c a tego r ie s< 55° a nd > 55° . I n C U

v s a n 0 e n 0

9 0

• c u 0 c e C I ä 4 . c u 0 0 . — 0 a 0 l

8 0

C I C i

t h e f a ce o ft h e p r ev iou s d a ta o n v en t ra l c u rva tu re t h is w a s a n e xpec ted p a t te rn . We c an n ow e xam ine t h e p a t te rn s o f u se o ff l ake s i nt h e se t wo c a tego r ie s o fv en t ra l c u rva tu re a nd a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le .

l

7 0 6 0

• Z :

0 = . -

3 0 2 0

U nused

U sed

R e touched

R e t&U \N

U sewea r

C a tegor ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 11 P ercent f r equency d i s tr ibu t ion i n to c a tegor ie s o fu se e v idence o fa l l f l ake s < 55 ° i n a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le ,d iv ided i n to f l a ta nd c urved f l ake s .

9 8

F igu re 8 . 14 i n d ica te s t h a t a mong f l ake s t h a t h ave a n a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le o f< 55° t h e re i se s sen t ia l ly n o d if e rence i np a t te rn s o fs e lec t ion f o r u se a st o o l s . I nf a c t

6 3 .4

t h ey h ave e xa c t ly t h e s ame f r equenc ie s o f s e lec t ion f o r u se . T he d i f f e r ence s i nf r equenc ie s o ft y pe o fu s e w ou ld a ppea rt ob er a the rn eg l ig ib le .

6 5 .2

6 0 .0

0F l a t C urved

5 0 .0

( : 1 )

4 0 .0 * 6 13 4 .8

L . • c s

3 0 .0

A •

2 0 .0 1 0 .0

•

0 .0 U nused

U sed

R e touched

R e t&U W

U sewea r

C a tegor ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 12 P er cen tf r equency d i s tr ibu t ion i n to c a tegor ie so fu se e v idence o fa l lf l ake s> 55° i na verage s p ine -p lane a ng le ,d i v ided i n to f l a ta nd c urved f l ake s . F igu re 8 . 15 i n d ica te s a s im i la r g ene ra l p a t te rn o f f r equency o fu se a mong f l ake st h a th ave a na ve rage s p ine p l ane a ng le > 55° .T he f r equency o fs e lec t ion f o ru se o ft h e f l a ta nd c u rved f l ake sr ema in sa lmo s ti d en t ica l .

t o o l s ( t ho se i n tended f o rc u t t ing )w i l l r e qu i r e l o nge r , mo re r e gu la r e dge s , i t c an b e e xpec ted t h a t , a mong t h e u n re touched u sed f l ake sa s aw ho le ,t h e r ew i l lb e ag ene ra l b i a s t owa rd s t h e s e lec t ion o ff l ake s w i th r e la t ive ly l o ng , r e gu la re dge s .

T he re a r e t wo m a jo r d i f f e r ence s b e tween t h e g raph s . T he f i r s ti st h a tt h e re i s as omewha tg r ea te rf r equency o fu se o f t h e f l ake st h a th ave a n a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le o f< 55° . T h is i sl i ke ly j u s t ar e f lec t ion o ft h e g ene ra l ly h i ghe r u se o ff l ake s w i th l owe r a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le s , a nd h a s n or e a lc onnec t ion t ov en t ra lc u rva tu r e .

N umber o fU sab l eE dg e sP er F lak e I n t h e c o l lec t ion o f d a ta o n t h e s amp le a s semb lage s a " u sab le" e dge w a s d ef ined a s ad i sc re te s e c t ion o f f l ake m a rg in w i th c on s i s ten t , r e gu la r m o rpho logy a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h a t s e c t ion . T he l e ng th o ft h e s e c t ion w a s n o t a m a jo r c on s ide ra t ion a nd d a ta o n u p t o f i ve s uch s e c t ion s p e r f l ake w e re r e co rded ( t he l im i ted o ff i ve w a s s imp ly a f u nc t ion o f a na ly s is t ime a nd r e co rd ing s pa ce , a l though v e ry f ew f l ake s h ad a s m any a s f i ve u sab le e dge s ) . T he ref o re , a so ne m ea su re o fr e gu la r i ty , s i nce t h e n umbe r o ff l ake s w i th n o u sab le e dge s a ta l i sn eg l ig ib le , w e c an u s e t h e n umbe r o fu sab le e dge s p e r f l ake a s am ea su re o f t h e o ccu r rence a nd p o ten t ia l p r ef e rence o fe dge r e gu la r i ty i nf l ake sa s aw ho le .

T he s e cond i st h a t t h e re i s an o tab le d i f f e rence i n t h e p a t ter n s o fs e lec t ion b e tween r e touched f l ake s a nd t h o se w i th j u s t u sewea r . Wh i le n o t d r ama t ica l ly d i f f e ren t , t h e re d oe sa ppea rt ob e at e ndency t os e lec tf l a t te rf l ake s f o ru se a su nmod if ied t o o l s a nd m o re c u rved f l ake s f o r r e touched t oo l .

R egu lar i ty o fE dge s N umbe ra nd L eng th o fU sab le E dge sp e rf l ake A s d i scu s sed p r ev iou s ly , t h e l e ng th a nd r e gu la r i ty o f a f l ake b l ank 's e dge a r e e xpec ted t o h ave b een i mpo r tan t a t t r ibu te s f o r f l ake s i n tended f o r c u t t ing t a sk s , b u t n o t f o r w oodwo rk ing f l ake s ( whe re t y p ica l ly e i the r o n ly a s ma l l p o r t ion o fa n e dge i su s ed o rt h e e dge i sm od if ied p r io rt o u se ) . T he ref o r e , b ecau se a tl e a s t t h e o ne m a jo r c l a s s o f

9 9

T he s l igh t ly h i ghe r a ve rage n umbe r o fu sab le e dge s p e r f l ake a mong t h e u sed f l ake s i n d ica te s t h a t e dge r e gu la r i ty w a s a tl e a s t o fs ome c on s ide ra t ion i nb l ank s e lec t ion . B y b r eak ing t h e se d a ta d own i n to c a tego r ie s o f a c tua l n umbe r so fu sab le e dge s p e rf l ake w ec an g e t ab e t te rl o ok a tt h i sb l ank s e lec t ion t e ndency .

T ab le 8 . 19 N umber o fu sab le e dge s p er f l ake b yu se e v idence f o ra l ls i te s . U sed F lake s U nu sed F lake s ( n =4 03 ) ( n =1 4 17 ) 1 . 8 2 . 3 Mean # o f e dge s W i th 0 d eg ree s o f f r eedom , t wo samp le t va lue = 2 . 56 , w h ich i n d ica te s as i gn if icance l e ve l o f1 %a nd c onf idence l e ve lo f9 9% .( d a ta e xc lude b r oken f l ake s ) .

P ercen tf r equency d i s tr ibu t ion b y u se

1 20 .0 1 00 .0

0U sed F lakes 1 00 .0

•Unused F l akes

8 9 .4

8 0 .6

9 1 .0

8 2 .3

8 0 .0

6 0 .0

4 0 .0

2 0 .0

9 .0

1 0 .6

0 . 0 0 .0 0 *

1

2

3

4

4 +

N umber o fu sab le e dges p er f l ake F igure 8 . 13 N umber o fu sab le e dge s p er f l ake b yu se -ev idence ( pr imary s i te s ) . *t h e re a r e s ome f l ake s o n w h ich n one o ft h e e dge s c ou ld t y p ica l ly b e c on s ide red u sab le , b u t y e t h ad b een r e touched o rh ad i regu la rm a c ro scop ic u s e -wea r -t h e se a r e , n o t s u rp r i s ing ly , q u i te r a re -t h e re w e r e o n ly f i ve o u t o f at o ta l o f 1 4 16 u sed f l ake s i nt h et h r ee p r ima ry s i te s . T he n umbe r o ff l ake s w i th m o re t h an f o u r e dge s w a sa l so l ow ,f ou r ) . T he n umbe r o f u sab le e dge s p e r f l ake i sn o t , h oweve r , s t rong ly c o r re la ted w i th f l ake s i ze , a s d emon s t ra ted b y

f i gu re 8 . 17 : as ma l l f l ake h a s e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame n umbe r o fd i sc re te e dge sa s al a rge rf l ake .

1 00

Mean n umber o fu sab le e dge s p er f l ake

2 . 36

2 .5 2 . 0 4 2. 02

2 . 13

2' 1 9 2

. 1 8 2 . 28

2 . 14

2 . 4 2 . 43

2 .35 2 ,38

2 . 5

2 .33 2 . 29

2 . 2 2 . 07

2

1 .5

1

0 .5

0

D t( ott t t 4 p4 p

t

t ( f pt

t

.e . (§ e . e .t b i .e . e .9 1 ‘ • e .s e .e . r e Y ee r g o 't : s rb e )e r4 P " e , \ < 0 't b s z Y4 0 -s . , v( P i 5 .

•

S ize c a tegor ies ( l eng th ) i n 5mm i ncremen ts

F igure 8 . 14 Mean n umber o fu sab le e dge s p er f l ake c a tegor ized b yf l ake s i ze . ( l eng th i ni n cremen t so f 5mm ( mean =2 . 35 . S D =0 . 14 ) . u nf o r tuna te ly n oe xamp le so ft h e se w e re r e cogn ized i nt h e f o u rs i te s amp le su sed h e re . I tm igh t a l so b e u sef u l t ot r y t oe xam ine t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween b l ank s e lec t ion b a sed o n t h e n umbe r o f u sab le e dge s p e r f l ake a nd t y pe s o ft a sk s . A s w oodwo rk ing t a sk s t e nd n o t t o r e qu i re a s l o ng o r r e gu la r e dge s a s c u t t ing t a sk s , i tc ou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t f o rt h e f o rme rt h e a ve rage n umbe r o fu sab le e dge s p e r f l ake w i l l b e l e s s . G iven t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t e dge r e touch ing ( a t l e a s t i n g ene ra l ) i s l i ke ly a s soc ia ted m o re w i th w oodwo rk ing a nd u nmod if ied f l ake s a s soc ia ted m o re w i th c u t t ing t a sk s , w e c an u se t ype o fe dge mod if ica t ion t og e ta tt h i sr e la t ion sh ip .

T he re i s ad ef in i te t e ndency t o s e lec t , m o re f r equen t ly , t h o se f l ake s w i th ag r ea te r n umbe r o fu sab le e dge s ( t h i s m igh t i n i t ia l ly s e em l i ke a n o bv iou s s e lec t ion c r i te r ia , b u t k nappe r s c ou ld a l so s e lec t o t he r c ha rac te r i s t ic s , l i ke l o nge s t i n d iv idua l e dge , w h ich w ou ld n o t n ece s sa r i ly c o inc ide w i th n umbe r o fu sab le e dge s o n a ny o ne f l ake ) . Wh i le t h e p e rcen tage o fu sed t ou nu sed f l ake s i sa l ready h i gh ,t h e re i s as t eady r i se i nt h ef r equency o fu se o ff l ake s a st h e n umbe r o ft h e i r u sab le e dge s i n c r ea se s . T h i s l i ke ly r e f lec t s t h e g ene ra l t h ink ing d u r ing t o o l b l ank s e lec t ion t h a tb y s e lec t ing , a tl e a s t i n i t ia l ly , ab l ank w i th a ppa ren t ly mo re u sab le e dge s , t h e c hance t h a t i tw ou ld h ave o ne o r m o re e dge s s u i tab le f o rt h e t a sk a th and w ou ld o bv iou s ly b eg r ea te ra nd t h ec hance t h a tt h ei n d iv idua lw ou ld h ave t o d i sca rd i ta nd l o ok f o r a mo re s u i tab le f l ake w ou ld b e d ec r ea sed .

T ab le 8 . 20 Mean n umber o fu sab le e dge sp er f l ake b y t ype o fe dge d amage f o ra l lt hree n r imary s i te st oge ther . R e touched F lake sw U sewear F lake s ( n =3 265 e dge s ) ( n =7 19 e dge s ) Mean # 2 . 4 2 . 3 o fe dge s Two samp le T -va lue = 3 . 13 w h ich i n d ica te s as i gn if icance l e ve lo f< 0 .2% a nd ac onf idence l e ve lo f >9 9 .8% .

G rea te r n umbe r o f u sab le e dge s i s at r a i t t h a t w e c ou ld e xpec t w ou ld b e c on s ide red m o re i mpo r tan t f o r l o nge r l i ved t o o l s . I tw ou ld b e i n te r e s t ing t oe xam ine t h is a mong t o o l s t h a t a ppea r t o h ave b een b rough t t o as i te i nf l ake f o rm ( p roduced e l sewhe re ) , a n o ccu r r ence t h a t i s n o t u ncommon a mong Mou s te r ian a s semb lage s , b u t

1 01

7 0 .0 P ercent f rec ine .ncv o fr etouch a nd n sewear

0 Re touched

5 7 .6

6 0 .0

5 4 .7-

5 3 .0

5 0 .3 4 9 .7

4 7 .0

5 0 .0 —

•U se - Wea r

4 5 .3

4 2 .4

4 0 .0 3 0 .0 2 0 .0 1 0 .0 0 . 0 2

3

4

N umber o fu sab le e dges p er f l ake F igure 8 . 15 P ercen tage o ft ype o fu se e v idence b y n umber o fu sab le e dge s p er f l ake (j us tp r imary s i te s ) ( t he s um o fe ach p a ir o fc o lumn s i s1 00 % ) . The ' 0 ' a nd ' 4+ ' c a tegor ies a re e xc luded h ere a st hey c on ta ined o n ly f i ve a nd f our f l ake s r e spec t ive ly .

I nd iv idua lE dge Mo rpho logy

Wh i le t h e re m ay b e as l igh tt r end t owa rd s s e lec t ing f l ake s w i th m o re u sab le e dge s f o r u se a s u nmod if ied t o o l s ( c u t t ing t a sk s? ) , i n t h i s t a b le i t i s n o t p a r t icu la r ly s i gn if ican t . B a sed o n t h e se d a ta i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t i nt h e c ou r se o f b l ank s e lec t ion i ti sj u s t n o rma l b ehav iou r t o a t temp t t o s e lec t b l ank s w i th h i ghe r n umbe r s o f u sab le e dge s ,r e ga rd le s so ft h et y pe o ft a sk i mmed ia te ly a th and .

T o f u r the r i n ve s t iga te t h is I e xam ined i n d iv idua l e dge m o rpho log ie si nr e la t ion t ow ha tt y pe o fe dge m od if ica t ion t h ey i n cu r red . T he i n i t ia l a na lys i s i n c luded t h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f a l u sab le e dge s o n e a ch f l ake i n to ' r egu la r ' a nd ' i r regu la r ' , b a sed o n t h e p r e sence , a b sence a nd s i ze o fa ny i regu la r i t ie s . F i gu re 8 . 19 b e low i n d ica te s t h e p e r cen tage i n e a ch c a tego ry o f u s e o f r e gu la r a nd i regu la re dge s .

0 Regu la r E dges U I regu la r E dges

8 0 .0

7 2 .4

6 8 .1

3 1 .9

7 5 .8

6 7 .2

3 2 .8

2 7 .6

2 4 .2

U nused F l akes

A l l U sed F l akes

R e touched F l akes

F l akes w J us tU se Wea r

C a tegor ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 16 P ercen tage o fr egu lar a nd i r regu lar e dge s o u to ft o ta ln umber o fu sab le e dge s ( n=3217 )f o ra l lf l ak e sb yt ype o fu s ee v idence ( p r imary s i te s ) .C h i squar ed v a lue sa r e7 . 3f o rU nu s ed v er se sA l lU sed ,a nd 2 .7 f o rR e touched v er s e sU se - Wear .

1 02

Edge L eng th T he l e ng th f o r e a ch u sab le e dge a nd t h et o ta l l e ng th o fa l u sab le e dge s w e re r e co rded f o r e a ch f l ake . T he se v a lue s w i l l , h oweve r , b e d i r ec t ly c o r re la ted w i th f l ake s i ze ( i n g ene ra l , t h e l a rge r t h e f l ake , t h e l o nge r t h e i n d iv idua l e dge s ) a nd s oj u s t e xam in ing m ean e dge l e ng th s m ake s i t d i ff icu l t t os epa ra te s e lec t ion f o r e dge l e ng th f r om s imp le s e lec t ion f o r l a rge r f l ake s . T he ref o re , a n e xam ina t ion w a s m ade o ft h e f r equency t h a t t h e l o nge s t u sab le e dge w a s s e lec ted f o r u se w hen f a ced w i th t h e o p t ion o f m u l t ip le u sab le e dge s o f v a ry ing l e ng th s o n af l ake . T h i s i s s umma r ized i nt a b le 8 . 2 1 .

Wh i le t h e re i s as l igh t ly h i ghe r o ccu r rence o f r e gu la r e dge s a mong t h e u sed f l ake s , i t i s n o t p a r t icu la r ly s i gn if ican t . O fs l igh t ly g r ea te r s i gn if icance i st h e t r end t o s e lec tb l ank sw i th m o re r e gu la re dge sf o rt o o l st h a ta r en o t r e touched . T he m o s ts i gn if ican ta spec to ft h e se d a ta i st h a t t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ff l ake sw i th r e touch i sv e ry s im i la rt ot h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e u nu sed f l ake s . I t m u s t b e n o ted , h oweve r , t h a t t h e r e touch i t se lf w i l l h ave a l te red t h e n umbe ro fr e gu la ra nd i regu la re dge s i nt h ea s semb lage t o s ome e x ten t .

T ab le 8 . 21 .F requency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge leng th sr e la t ive t ot he o p t ion sa va i lab le o n af l ake . T h i sd a ta i sf o ra l lt hree u r imary s i te s t h i sd a ta i sn o ta va i lab le f o rJ ibou i. Number o f

% o fT o ta l

S um mary

E xamp les

E xamp le s

Group ing s

L onge s to ft wo

2 17

3 4 .6

L onge s to ft h ree

1 22

1 9 .4

L onge s to ff ou r

2 5

4 .0

S econd l onge s to ft wo

1 23

1 9 .6

S econd l onges to ft h ree

6 5

1 0 .4

S econd l onge s to ff ou r

8

1 . 3

T h ird l onges to ft h ree

4 1

6 .5

T h ird l onges to ff ou r

1 2

1 . 9

F ou r th l onge s to ff ou r

1 5

2 .4

6 28

1 00 .0

Edge S e lec ted f or U se ( f rom u sab le e dges p er f l ake )

T o ta l

T he d a ta i nT ab le 8 . 2 1 s ugge s t s ome p r ef e r ence f o r f l ake b l ank s b a sed o n l e ng th o fe dge . Mo re o f t en t h an n o t t h e l o nge s t a va i lab le e dge i ss e lec ted f o r u se o ve r t h e o t he r o p t ion s . H oweve r , 5 8 .0% i sn o t a n o ve rwhe lm ing t r end , a nd i ti sa ppa ren tt h a tt h e l e ng th o ft h eu se -edge w a sn o ta s t rong f a c to r i n e dge s e lec t ion . T h i s i s p a r t icu la r ly a ppa ren t i n t h a t a lmo s t 3 0% ( 2 8 .5% ) o f t h e t ime t h e s ho r te s ta va i lab le e dge w a ss e lec ted f o ru se .

5 8 .0 %

4 2 .0 %

1 00 .0

H oweve r , a cco rd ing t om y m ode l , e dge l e ng th s hou ld n o t b e a ss i gn if ican t ac r i te r ion i nt h e s e lec t ion o fb l ank s f o r w oodwo rk ing t a sk sa si tw ou ld b ef o rc u t t ing t a sk s . F l ake s i n tended f o r c u t t ing t a sk s g ene ra l ly n eed t o h ave l o nge r ( a nd m o re r e gu la r ) e dge s . T he r ef o re , w i th t h e c on t inued t e n ta t ive a s soc ia t ion b e tween r e touch a nd s c rap ing a nd u nmod if ied f l ake s w i th c u t t ing , t h e se c a tego r ie s o ft o o l s a r ee xam ined f o re dge leng th d a ta b e low .

1 03

T ab le 8 . 22 . F requency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge leng ths f or u se , among f l ake sw i th j us tu sewear , r e la t ive t o t he o p t ion s a va i lab le o n e ach f l ake . T h is d a ta i sf or a l lt hree p r imary s i te s t h is d a ta i sn o ta va i lab le f or J ibou i.

E dge S e lec ted f or U se ( f rom u sab le e dge s p er f l ake )

N umber o f E xamp le s

% o fT o ta l E xamp le s

L onge s to ft wo

6 8

3 0 .9

L onge s to ft h ree

3 8

1 7 .3

L onge s to ff ou r

3

1 . 4

S econd l o nge s to ft wo

5 2

S econd l o nge s to ft h ree

2 5

2 3 .6 1 .4

1

0 . 5

T h ird l onge s to ft h ree

S econd l o nge s to ff ou r

2 0

9 . 1

T h i rd l onge s to ff ou r

5 8

3 .6

2 20

1 00 .0

F ou r th l onge s to ff ou r T o ta l

S ummary Group ing s 4 9 .5 %

5 0 .5 %

2 . 3 1 00 .0

T ab le 8 . 23 . F requency o fs e lec t ion o fe dge leng th f or u se , among f l ake st ha tw ere r e touched , r e la t ive t o t he o p t ions a va i lab le o n e ach f l ake . Th is d a ta i sf or a l lt hree p r ima r ys i te s t h i sd a ta i sn o ta va i lab le f or J ibou i.

E dge S e lec ted f or U se ( f rom u sab le e dges p er f l ake )

N umber o f E xamp le s

% o fT o ta l E xamp le s

L onge s to ft wo

1 49

3 6 .5

L onge s to ft h ree

8 4

2 0 .6

L onges to ff ou r S econd l onge s to ft wo

2 2

5 . 4

7 1

1 7 .4

S econd l onge s to ft h ree

4 0

9 . 8

S econd l o nge s to ff ou r

7

1 . 7

T h i rd l onge s to ft h ree

2 1

5 . 1

T h i rd l onge s to ff ou r

7

1 . 7

F ou r th l o nge s to ff ou r

7

1 . 7

4 08

1 00 .0

T o ta l

T ab le s 8 . 22 a nd 8 . 23 i n d ica te t h a t t h e r e i s n o tab le d i f f e r ence i np a t te rn s o f s e lec t ion o f l e ng th o fu se e dge b e tween r e touched f l ake s a nd f l ake s w i th j u s t u sewea r . I n f a c t , a mong u n r e touched t o o ls , s e lec t ion r e la t ive t o e dge l e ng th a ppea r s r a ndom , w h i le t h e re i s ad ef in i te t e ndency

S ummary Group ing s 6 2 .5 %

3 7 .5 %

1 00 .0

f o r s e lec t ion o f l o nge r e dge s f o r r e touched f l ake s . T h i s r e la t ion sh ip b e tween r e touched t o o l s a nd t h e s e lec t ion f o r l o nge re dge si sf u r the rd emon s t ra ted i nf i gu re 8 . 20 .

1 04

8 0 .0

0L onges te dge

7 2 .0

I Ss hor tes te dge

7 0 .0

5 7 .7

6 0 .0 5 0 .0

4 2 .3 z e t . 1 0 C I J

4 0 .0 — 2 8 .0

3 0 .0 ▪

2 0 .0 1 0 .0 0 .0 R e touched F l akes ( n=353 )

F l akes w i th j u s t U sewea r( n= 189 )

C a tegor ies o fU se E v idence F igure 8 . 17 A s soc ia t ion b e tween o ccurrence o fr e touch a nd t he l e ng th o ft he s e lec ted e dge . F or t he t hree p r imary s i te s . C h i s qua red a na ly s i s o ft h is r e la t ion sh ip , x2 = 1 .4 , w i th 1d eg r ee o ff r eedom , i n d ica te s as i gn if icance o f< 0 .1 % a nd ac onf idence o f< 99 .9% .

T h i sw ou ld s ugge s tt h a t , c on t ra ry t om y i n i t ia la s sump t ion , f l ake si n tended f o ru se i nt a sk sw h ich d i dn o tr e qu i re e dge r e touch d id n o t g ene ra l ly r e qu i re l o nge r e dge s t h an t h o se t h a t w e r e r e touched . Wh i le t h e s p ine -p lane a ng le d a ta a bove s uppo r t t h e i d ea t h a t t h e re w a s u n ique s e lec t ion c r i te r ia e mp loyed f o r b l ank s t h a t w e r e u sed u nmod if ied a nd b l ank s t h a t w e re r e touched , t h e d a ta b r ing s i n to q ue s t ion t h e a s soc ia t ion Ih ave b een s ugge s t ing b e tw een u nmod if ied e dge s a nd c u t t ing t a sk s a nd r e touched e dge s a nd s c rap ing t a sk s . I tm ay b e t h a t e dge r e touch ing w a s e mp loyed o nc u t t ing a sw e l la ss c rap ing t o o l s .

w ou ld b e p i cked u p a nd u sed f o r b u tche r ing , w i th l i t t le p r io r c l o se e xam ina t ion , a nd i fi t s p e rf o rmance w a s l e s s t h an s a t i sf ac to ry i tc ou ld r e ad i ly b er e p la ced . I tm ay , t h e ref o re , b e u sef u l t o e xam ine t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e l e ng th s a nd m o rpho log ie s o f u sed e dge s . B lank s e lec t ion m ay b e m o re c l o se ly t i ed t o t h e r e cogn i t ion o fa pp rop r ia te c omb ina t ion s o f s u i tab le e dge a t t r ibu te s . T he f o l low ing t a b le e xam ine s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween e dge mo rpho logy a nd w he the r t h e e dge w a s s e lec ted f o ru se o rn o t .

A no the r p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t , i n f a c t , t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t u nmod if ied f l ake s w e re u sed f o r b u tche r ing i sc o r r ec t , b u t s u ch t o o l sw e re e s sen t ia l ly s e en a ss od i spo sab le t h a t l i t t le t ime w a s s pen t i nt h e s e lec t ion p r oce s s . A lmo s t a ny f l ake

T ab le 8 . 24 R e la t ion sh in b e tween t he r eu lar i tv o fa va i lab le e dge sa nd t he ir s e lec t ion f o ru se . Of t hose f l ake s among st wh ich t he l onges t

F or f l akes among s t wh ich o ther t han t he

a va i lab le e dge was s e lec ted

l onges ta va i lab le e dge was s e lec ted

E dges s e lec ted

Edges s e lec ted

7 0 .2 % r egu la r

Edges n o ts e lec ted 6 9 .9 % r egu la r

6 7 .6 % r egu la r

I ti ss e em s a ppa ren t f r om t h e se d a ta t h a t r e gu la r i ty o ft h e e dge p l ayed l i t t le r o le i nt o o l b l ank s e lec t ion ( a l though a no the r p o s s ib i l i ty i s t h a t t h e c r i te r ia I e mp loyed f o r

Edges n o ts e lec ted 7 2 .9 % r egu la r

d e s igna t ing a n e dge u seab le o r n o t w a s t o o r i go rou s a nd r e su l ted i n my c a tego ry " u sab le" b e ing o ve r ly i n c lu s ive . My c a tego ry m igh t h ave i n c luded ag r ea te r p o r t ion o fa l l 1 05

t h e t o o l e dge s t h an t h e t o o l -u se r s t h em se lve s m igh t h ave c on s ide r ed u sab le , w h ich m ean s m y c a tego r iza t ion m igh t f a i l t o d e tec t a ny p a t te rn s o f s e lec t ion b a sed o n t h is a t r ibu te ) .

Robus t ic ity O ne o ft h e m a in e xpec ta t ion s , b a sed o n m y c on s t ruc ted m ode l , w a s t h a t r obu s t ic i ty w ou ld h ave b een a n i mpo r tan t a t t r ibu te f o rM idd le P a laeo l i th ic f l ake t o o ls b ecau se o ft h e i mpo r tance o f w oodwo rk ing t a sk s a nd t h e s i gn if ican t s t re s s p u t o n t oo l -edge s i nt h e se t a sk s . S t ronge r , ' b eef ie r ' t o o l s w ou ld s t and u p t o s i gn if ican t p r e s su re s a pp l ied t o t h e i r e dge s a nd s o s hou ld b e p r ef e rab le . T he ref o re , Ih ad a n t ic ipa ted t h a t r obu s t ic i ty w ou ld h ave b een g ene ra l ly s e lec ted f o r i nP a laeo l i th ic t o o ls , a nd g i ven t h e s ugge s ted a s soc ia t ion b e tween r e touched t o o l sa nd w oodwo rk ing a nd u nmod if ied t o o ls a nd c u t t ing , g r ea te rr o bu s t ic i ty m igh t b e m o re c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th r e touched f l ake s .

T he d a ta i n d ica te t h a t e i the r l o nge r e dge s w e re p r ef e r red f o rt o o ls t h a t w e re r e touched , m o re s o t h an f o r t h o se t h a t w e re u s ed u nmod if ied ,o ri tm ay a l so b et h a tt h et r ad i t iona l a s sump t ion h o ld s t r ue : t h a t r e touch ing ( o r a tl e a s t s ome t y pe so fr e touch ing )w a s s imp ly e dge r e sha rpen ing a nd n o t p r e -u se e dge m od if ica t ion t o s u i t a n a pp l ica t ion . I n t h is t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion ,r e touch o n at o o l i n d ica te st h a ti t , u n l ike f l ake s t h a t s imp ly a cqu i red s ome u se -wea r , w a s u s ed f o r am o re e x tended p e r iod o ft ime a nd s o r e qu i red o cca s iona l r e sha rpen ing . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w ou ld e xp la in t h e c o r re spondence b e tween r e touch ing a nd l o nge r t o o l e dge s a s ag ene ra l t e ndency t o s e lec t f l ake s w i th l o nge r e dge s a sb l ank st h a ta r e i n tended t ob e mo re p u rpo sef u l o r l o nge r l ived i mp lemen t s .

1 60 .0

H oweve r , b ecau se o f t h e d i rec t m echan ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween r o bu s t ic i ty ( e xp re s sed h e r e a s t h e r a t io o f t h ickne s s t oa r ea ) a nd s p ine -p lane a ng le , a nd b ecau se t h e d a ta e xam ined a bove i n d ica te ap r ef e rence f o rb l ank sw i th l owe rm ean s p ine -p lane a ng le s ( e .g . , T ab le 8 . 12 ) , Ie xpec t t h a t ,i ft h e re a r ea ny p a t ter n si nt h ed a ta h e re ,t h en c on t ra ry t o m y e xpec ta t ion s , t h ey s hou ld i n d ica te a s e lec t ion f o r l e s sr obu s tf l ake b l ank s .

1 52 .0

1 44 .2

1 34 .9

1 40 .0

Mean d egree o f r obus t ic ity

1 21 .2 1 20 .0 1 00 .0 8 0 .0 6 0 .0 4 0 .0 2 0 .0 0 .0 U nused F lakes

A l l U sed F lakes

R e touched F lakes

F lakes w J us t U se - Wea r

C a tegor ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 18 R obu s t ic i ty b y U se E v idence f o ra l lt hree p r imary s i te s ( l owe rn umbe r s = more r obu s t ) . ( da ta e xc lude s t wo o u t l ier s , 7 . 6 a nd 6 44 .0 b o th u sed ) . Two samp le T -va lue s a re : 6 . 1 f o r U nused v s A l l U sed , a nd 4 . 6 f o rR e touched v s U se - Wear . C on t ra ry t o m y o r ig ina l e xpec ta t ion s , b u t i n a g reemen t w i th t h e e dge -ang le d a ta , i ti sa ppa ren t t h a t t o o l b l ank s e lec t ion f a vou r ed l e s s r o bu s t f l ake s i n g ene ra l . F u r the rmo re , r e touched f l ake s , w h ich I h ad b een t e n ta t ive ly a s soc ia t ing w i th w oodwo rk ing t a sk s , a r e l e s s

r o bu s t t h an t h o se w i th j u s t u se -wea r . P e rhap s , i fh af t ing w a s c ommon ly e mp loyed f o r r e touched t o o l s , t h i s w ou ld t e nd t ol i m i ted t h ed e s i red t h ickne s so fb l ank s .

1 06

S p ine -p lane A ng l e :

I n a dd re s s ing t h e g ene ra l p a t te rn f o r t h e s e lec t ion o fl e s s r obu s t f l ake s , i tc ou ld b e s ugge s ted t h a t , a sw i th f l a tne s s , w h i le r obu s t ic i ty w a s ad e s i rab le a t t r ibu te f o r f l ake t o o l s , h a rdhamme rf l ake sa r ea s aw ho le r obu s te nough a nd t h e re w ou ld b e n o n eed t o f u r the r s e lec t , f r om a mong t h e se , f l ake b l ank s t h a t w e re m o re r obu s t . T he m ean r obu s t ic i ty o f t h e e xpe r imen ta l s of thamme r f l ake s i s 4 14 .7 . T h i s i n d ica te s am uch l owe r d eg ree o fr obu s t ic i ty c ompa r ed t o a l t h e a r cha eo log ica l s amp le s ( wh ich a ppea r t o i n c lude o n ly h a rdhamme rp roduc t s ) .

when a ng le o fr e touched e dge s a nd s p ine -p lane a ng le o f u nmod if ied u se -edge s a r e a na lyzed t oge the r w e s e e a b imoda l d i s t r ibu t ion i n d ica t ive o ft wo g ene ra l c l a s se s o f t o o l s . -a mong u nmod if ied t o o ls a l one , t h e re w a s c on s is ten t s e lec t ion f o rl owe rs p ine -p lane a ng le s . V en t ra lC ur va tur e : t he re w e re n o a ppa ren t p r ef e rence s b a sed o n v en t ra l c u rva tu re .

H oweve r , t h e re i sn o g e t t ing a r ound t h e d e s i rab i l i ty o f w oodwo rk ing t o o ls t ob e m o re r obu s t t h an t h o se u sed f o r b u tche r ing m ea t , a nd s o i ti se v iden t t h a t t h e a s soc ia t ion t h a t h a s b een made h e re b e tween r e touch ing a nd w oodwo rk ing t o o ls , o n t h e o ne h and , a nd t h e l a ck o f r e touch a nd c u t t ing t o o l s o n t h e o t he r c anno t b e a s sumed . B lank s w i th n a tu ra l ly h i ghe r a ng led e dge s m ay h ave c ommon ly b een e mp loyed ,u nmod if ied ,i nw oodwo rk ing .

R egu la r i ty o fE dg e s : N umbe ro fu sab le e dge sp e rf l ake -t o o l b l ank s w e r e s e lec ted f o r b a sed , i n p a r t , o n t h e n umbe r o f u sab le e dge s , b u t t h e re i s n o o bv iou s c o r re la t ion b e tween t h i s a nd t y pe o fu se e v idence ( r e touch o ru sewea r ) . E dge L eng th t he re i ss ome i n d ica t ion t h a t f l ake st h a tw e re s e lec ted f o r u se a sr e touched b l ank st e nded t oh ave l o nge ru se e dge s .

S ummary : B lank S e lec t ion T endenc ie s C ommon t ot he P r imary S i te S amp le s

R egu la r i ty o fe dge s t he re i sn o a ppa ren t t e ndency , b a sed o n m y c r i te r ia , t o s e lec t mo re r e gu la re dge sf o ru s e .

S i ze /D imen s ion s : -l a rge rf l ake sa r ep r ef e r red , b u ts i ze d oe sn o td om ina te t h e s e lec t ion c r i te r ia . mo re c on s i s ten t ly , u nmod if ied t o o l s .

r e touched

t o o l s

a r e

l a rge r

R obu s t ic i ty :

t h an

t he re i s ap r ef e r ence f o r l e s s r obu s t f l ake s a mong t h e r e touched t o o ls .

t oo ls w i th b o th r e touch a nd u se -wea r h ave t h e g r ea te s t a ve rage l e ng th . I n i t ia l ly t h is m igh t b e t a ken a ss imp ly a n i n d ica t ion o f d eg ree o f i n ten s i ty o f u s e o f l a rge r f l ake s , w i th u nmod if ied f l ake s r e p re sen t ing t h o se t h a t w e re u sed f o rt h es ho r te s tp e r iod o ft ime a nd f l ake sw i th b o th r e touch a nd u se -wea r r e p re sen t ing t h o se t h a t w e r e t h e mo s t i n ten se ly u sed . H oweve r , t h e re a r e m a rked d i f f e rence s i n t h e m ean a ve rage s p ine -p lane a ng le s b e tween r e touched a nd u n re touched t o o l s , w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se w e re t r ea ted a s t wo d i f f e r en t c l a s se s o f t o o l s a tt h e p o in t o f b l ank s e lec t ion .

T h i s h i gh l igh t s a n i n te re s t ing c on t rad ic t ion . Wh i le t h e re i s a n a ppa ren t p r ef e rence f o r l e s s r obu s t f l ake s a mong t h e r e touched t o o l s , t h e re i sa l so ap r ef e rence f o r l owe r e dge a ng le s a mong t h e u nmod if ied t o o ls , w h i le , i n g ene ra l , l owe re dge a ng le s a nd l owe rr obu s t ic i ty s hou ld b ed i rec t ly c o r re la ted . T he i mp l ica t ion i st h a t t h e re a r e t wo s pec if ic , s epa ra te s e lec t ion c r i te r ia a f f ec t ing t h e n a tu re o f t h e a s semb lage so fu sed f l ake s .

1 07

S i ze

8 B S amp le -Spec if ic P a t terns i nB lank S e lec t ion

T he c omb ined d a ta f o r t h e t h ree s i te s amp le s a bove i n d ica ted a c on s i s ten t t e ndency ( f o r a l m e t r ic a tr ibu te s : L eng th , W id th ,T h ickne s s ,a nd We igh t )f o rl a rge rf l ake st o b e s e lec ted f o r u se m o re f r equen t ly t h an s ma l le r f l ake s . T he re i sa n o bv iou s p r ef e rence t os e lec t t h e l a rge r o ft wo f l ake s f o r u se , w hen g i ven t h e c ho ice . H oweve r , i ti sa l so a ppa r en t t h a t t h i s i sn o t a n a b so lu te a s i n d ica ted a bove . T he t a b le b e low p r e sen t st h i sd a ta f o re a ch o ft h et h r ee s i te s amp le s .

I nt h i s s e c t ion Iw i l l e xam ine t h e d a ta f o re a ch s i te s amp le i n d iv idua l ly i no rde rt od e tec t a ny s i te -spec if ic p a t te rn s i n b l ank s e lec t ion c r i te r ia . T h i s w i l l a low s ome d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h o se a t t r ibu te s t h a t w e re s ough t a f te r i ng ene r ic Mou s te r ian f l ake t o o l s , a nd t h o se a tr ibu te s t h a t m igh t h ave b een mo re s e n s i t ive t o s p ec if ic c i rcums tance s . T he a t t r ibu te s w i l l b e d ea l t w i th i nt h e s ame o rde r a s i nt h e p r eced ing s e c t ion .

T ab le 8 . 25 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e igh t sf o rt he f our s i te s amp le sb yu se e v idence ( w i th t va lue s ) . U se -wear a nd w e igh t d a ta a re n o t a va i lab le f o r J ibou i . ( d imens ion s i n mm a nd w e ich ti nm i l l i r ams .

P ech d el 'Aze I V

L e1 V Ious t ier

No t L

W T h Wt

No t

C ombe C ape l le B a s N o t

J ibou i No t

U sed

u sed

t=

U sed

u sed

t=

U sed

u sed

t=

R e t ,

r e t

t=

3 8 .0 3 0 .5 1 0 .7 1 3 .0

3 6 .9 2 9 .4 1 0 .5 1 .3

1 . 1 1 . 4

3 9 .6 3 2 .1

2 9 .9 2 5 .1

7 . 5 7 . 4

4 9 .3 4 2 .1

4 4 .2 4 2 .7

2 . 3 0 . 3

0 . 5 1 . 5

9 . 0 1 3 .7

7 . 2 6 . 5

4 . 6 5 . 5

1 3 .5 3 2 .0

1 4 .1 3 0 .8

0 . 7 0 . 2

4 8 .9 3 8 .5 1 .5 n / a

3 1 .5 2 6 .8 7 . 7 n / a

2 . 7 0 . 2 0 . 4 n /a

T he a t t r ibu te s L eng th a nd We igh t i nT ab le 8 . 25 a bove d o i n d ica te ag ene ra lt r end t owa rd st h eu s eo ft h el a rge rf l ake s i nt h e se a s semb lage s a st h e a ve rage s o ft h e m ea su remen t s f o r t h e u sed f l ake s a r e c on s is ten t ly ( t hough n o t a lway s m a rked ly )g r ea te rt h an f o rt h eu nu sed f l ake s .

B a s f l ake s a r e t h e l e a s t b l adey , w h ich c ou ld , h oweve r , r e su l t i nt h e n eed t o s p ec if ica l ly s e lec t l o nge r , n a r rowe r f l ake si ft h i sc ha rac te r i s t ic w e re d e s i rab le f o rs ome t o o ls . T he s i gn if ican t ly h i ghe r tv a lue s f o r a l t h e l e Mou s t ie r d imen s ion s w ou ld s e em t o i n d ica te t h a t t h e s e lec t ion p r oce s s a tt h is s i te w a sm o r er i go rou st h an h ad o ccu r red a t t h eo t he rt h r ee s i te s .

T he f i r s t i t em o fn o te i st h a t a mong t h e J i bou i f l ake s w e s e e t h e g r ea te s t o ve ra l l d i f f e rence b e tween t h e t wo c a tego r ie s o ff l ake s . T h i s i sl i ke ly d ue m o s t ly t ot h e l a ck o fu se -wea r d a ta a nd t h a t i nt h i s t a b le w e a r e s e e ing f o r J i bou i o n ly t h e d i f f e rence b e tween r e touched a nd u n re touched f l ake s . T he i n c lu s ion o f u se -wea r d a ta m ay b r ing t h ed i f f e r ence d own t ob em o re i nl i ne w i th t h eo t he r s i te s amp le s .

I ti sa l so n o tab le t h a t i nt a b le 8 . 25 t h e d a ta f o r P ech d e l ' Azé I V i n i t ia l ly s t and s o u t i nt h a t t h e a ve rage s b e tween t h e u sed a nd u nu sed f l ake s a r e n o t s i gn if ican t ly d if e ren t f o ra ny o ft h e a t t r ibu te s . T h i s c an b eb e s te xp la ined b y t h e f o rm o ft h e r aw m a te r ia l a va i lab le a tt h i s s i te . A cce s s t o o n ly s ma l le r , i regu la r s haped n odu le s w ou ld m ean t h a t t h e r a nge o fs i ze s o ff l ake s t h a t c ou ld b e p roduced w ou ld b el owe rc ompa r ed t ot h eo t he rt wo s i te s .T h is i ss uppo r ted b y c ompa r ing t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s a nd t h e s t anda rd e r ro r s o ft h e se a tr ibu te s f o r a l f l ake s ( u sed a nd u nu sed ) a c ro s st h ef o u rs i t es amp le s( t ab le 8 . 26 ) .

A s e cond i t em o f n o te i st h a t t h is t r end t owa rd h i ghe r a ve rage sa mong t h eu sed f l ake sd oe sn o tr ema in c on s is ten t f o rt h e W id th a nd T h ickne s s m ea su remen t s . I nt h e C ombe C ape l le B a s s amp le t h e a ve rage s f o rt h e se t wo d imen s ion s f o r t h e u nu sed f l ake s i s s l igh t ly h i ghe r t h an t h e u sed f l ake s . H oweve r , t h e d i f f e rence i nt h e m ean s b e tween t h e U sed a nd U nu sed i sn o t p a r t icu la r ly s t rong . I nf a c t , u s ing l e ng th ± w id th a sa n i n dex f o rb l adeyne s s , C ombe C ape l le

1 08

T ab le 8 . 26 S tandard d ev ia t ion ( SD ) a nd s t andard e rror ( SE ) o f t he l e ng th , w id th , t h ickne s s , a nd w e igh t so fa l lf l ake sf o re ach s i te s amp le . d a ta o nw e igh tf o rJ ibou iw a sn o ta va i lab le. L eng th

Th ickness

We ight

SD

SE

Wid th SD

SE

SD

SE

SD

SE

P ech d e l 'Az6 I V

1 2 .1

0 .45

9 .6

0 . 36

4 . 3

0 . 16

1 3 .6

0 .51 0 .57

L e Mous t ier

1 4 .6

0 . 57

1 0 .7

0 .42

4 . 3

0 . 17

1 4 .5

Combe Cape l le B as

1 7 .1

0 .79

1 5 .5

0 .71

6 .6

0 . 30

3 7 .3

1 . 72

J ibou i

1 2 .3

0 .22

9 .9

0 . 18

3 .7

0 .07

I l ia

I l ia

I ti sa ppa r en tt h a tt h e d imen s ion s o ft h e f l ake s i nt h eP ech d e l ' Az 6 I V s amp le a s semb lage a s aw ho le w e re l e s s v a r iab le t h an t h e o t he r t wo p r ima ry s amp le s , a nd r aw m a te r ia l f o rm m o s t e a s i ly e xp la in st h i s . T he s i ze a nd f o rm o ft h er aw m a te r ia l d on o ta low f o r as i gn if ican td eg ree o f v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e d imen s ion s o ff l ake p r oduc t s . B a sed o n t h i s , i f s im i la r p a t te rn s o f u nmod if ied t o o l u se w e re p r ac t iced a tJ i bou i , t h en , c on s ide r ing t h e s im i la r l a ck o f v a r iab le i nt h eJ i bou i

s amp le a s aw ho le ( i . e . ,s t anda rd d ev ia t ion ss im i la rt oP ech d e 1 ' Az i I V ) , w e m igh t e xpec t t o s e e as im i la r l a ck o f v a r iab i l i ty b e tw een a l u sed a nd u nu sed f l ake s( i fu se -wea r d a ta w e re a va i lab le ) . T ab le 8 . 27 b e low c ompa r e s t h e d imen s ion s o f t h e r e touched a nd u n re touched t o o l sf o rt h et h ree p r ima ry s i te s ( d a ta i sn o t a va i lab le f o r J i bou i o n u n re touched t o o ls ) .

T ab le 8 . 27 Mean d imen s ion sa nd w e i h t sb yt vne o fu se -mod if i ca t ion f or e ach s i te s am l e C ombe C ape l le B a s P ech d el 'Az6 I V L e Mous t ier B o th R e t B o th UW R e t B o th UW R e t UW n = 164 n =79 n =243 n =97 n = 139 n =236 n =264 n =35 n =299 4 2 .2 4 2 .8 L 3 8 .9 4 3 .3 3 5 .9 4 6 .6 3 5 .0 5 1 .2 5 .3 2 8 .6 3 5 .3 3 7 .2 2 8 .2 4 4 .0 4 3 .9 3 7 .0 W 3 2 .3 3 3 .5 1 2 .2 1 2 .0 1 0 .9 1 4 .7 1 3 .2 1 0 .4 T h 9 . 5 1 0 .2 7 . 7 1 6 .0 2 0 .5 1 9 .5 8 . 2 3 7 .4 3 4 .6 1 7 .6 Wt 1 8 .5 9 . 6 tv a lue s tv a lue s tv a lue s a l l J u s t a l J u s tR e t R e t J u s tR e t R e tv s a l R e t J u s tR e t J u s tR e t R e t J u s tR e t v su w v su w v sb o th u w v su w v sb o th v su w v su w v sb o th 4 . 8 L 2 . 7 4 . 2 2 . 4 4 . 6 8 . 0 2 . 3 4 . 5 1 . 3 W 4 . 1 4 . 1 4 . 1 0 . 04 5 . 0 0 . 9 6 . 3 9 . 2 1 . 3 T h 1 . 6 0 . 3 6 . 5 7 . 6 1 . 2 6 . 0 5 . 8 1 . 3 7 . 6 4 . 8 Wt 5 . 2 6 . 2 0 . 6 7 . 4 9 . 1 0 . 4 4 . 7 0 . 4 S ee S tuden t std i s t r ibu t ion t a b le ,A ppend ix B ,t os e et h es p ec if ic l e ve lo fs i gn if icance a nd c onf idence f o re ach o f t h e se v a lue s . F o r a l o f t h e se r e la t ion sh ip s ( d eg ree s o f f r eedom = c o ) av a lue o f >3 . 3 i n d ica te s a s i gn if icance l e ve l o f< 0 .1 % a nd ac onf idence l e ve l o f> 99 .9% . Av a lue 1 . 3 s t i l l i n d ica te s as i gn if icance l e ve l o f< 20% a nd ac onf idence l e ve lo f> 80% . O ne b a s ic p a t ter ni st h a tt h er e tou ched t o o l sa r el a rge rt h an t h e u nmod if ied t o o l s . T h is i sc on s i s ten t a c ro s s a l t h ree d imen s ion s ( a nd b y w e igh t ) . A s w i th t h e u sed v e r se s u nu sed d a ta , t h e P ech d e l ' Aze I V s amp le h a s t h e l e a s t d eg ree o f d i f f e rence b e tween t h e r e touched a nd u nmod if ied t o o l s .

t h a t h ad mu l t ip le e dge s u sed ( bo th r e touched a nd u nmod if ied o n as i ng le t o o l ) r e p re sen t o p t ima l t oo l -b lank f o rm s ,t h is s ugge s t st h a t l o nge r , n ar row e r( b lade l ike ) , a nd t h inne rb l ank sw e re m o s ts ough ta f t e r .

P e rhap s o f mo re s i gn if icance , h ow eve r , i st h a t t h e t o o l s w i th b o th r e touch a nd u se -wea r h ave t h e g r ea te s t a ve rage l e ng th o f a l t h ree c a tego r ie s , b u t t h ey d o n o t s how a c o r re spond ing ly e qua l i n c rea se i nt h eo t he rd imen s ion s ( o r i nw e igh t ) ,w h ich w ou ld b et h ec a se i fb l ank sw e r e s imp ly s e lec ted b a sed o n g r ea te r s i ze . E i the r t h e c o r re spond ing d imen s ion s ( w id th a nd t h ickne s s ) i n c r ea se o n ly a s ma l l a moun t , o r e l se t h ey r ema in l owe r t h an a mong t h e r e touched t o o ls . B a sed o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h o se t o o ls

E xam ina t ion o f c r o s s -samp le s p ine -p lane a ng le d a ta ( Sec t ion 8 A a bove ) d oe s i n d ica te a g ene ra l a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e n a tu ra l s p ine -p lane a ng le s o fb l ank s a nd t h e s ub sequen t d ec i s ion t o r e touch t h em o r n o t ( a s sumed a t t h is p o in t t o r e p re sen t t a sk spec if ic r e qu i remen t s ) . T he i n ten t ion i nt h i s s e c t ion i st os e e i ft h a ts ame p a t ter ne x is t s i nt h ed a ta f o rt h et h r ee s i te si n d iv idua l ly .

S p ine-P lane Ang le s

1 09

T ab le 8 . 28 P ercen t d i s tr ibu t ion b yt ype o fe dge mod if i ca t ion i nt wo c a tegor ie s o fs p ine -p lane a ng le s s e ta t 5 5 °f o re ach s i te s am l e . f r om a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le p er f l ake. P ech d e l 'Aze I V T ype o fu se

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D a ta f o rt h e u sed f l ake s ( r e touched a nd u sewea r ) c ome s f r om t h e s p ine -p lane a ng le o n t h e u sed e dge . D a ta f o r t h e u nu sed f l ake s i st h e m ean s p ine -p lane a ng le ( a ve raged f r om s e ve ra l e dge s ) . T o d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e re i sa r e a sonab le d eg ree o fc ompa rab i l i ty o ft h e se t wo d a ta se t s , t h e m ean s p ine -p lane a ng le s f o rt h et h ree s i te s amp le s a r e : P ech d e l ' Aze I V , 4 0 .3 ° f o rj u s t u sewea r a nd 4 5 .6 ° f o rj u s t r e touch ; l e Mou s t ie r , 3 3 .3 ° f o rj u s tu sewea r a nd 3 8 .5 ° f o rj u s t r e touch ; a nd f o r C ombe C ape l le B a s , 3 7 .5 ° f o rj u s t u s ewea r a nd 4 1 .0 ° f o rj u s t r e touch . T he se a r e v e ry s im i la rt ot h ev a lue si nt h is t a b le .

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C a tegor ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 19 P ercen tage o ff l ake sw i th a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 55° o r> 55 °i ne ach c a tegory o fu se f o rP ech d el ' Aze I V .

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C a tego r ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 20 P ercen tage o ff l ake sw i th a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 55° o r> 55 ° i ne ach c a tegory o fu se f or l e Mous t ier .

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F igure 8 . 2 1 P ercen tage o ff l ake sw i th a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le s o f< 55° o r> 55° i ne ach c a tegory o fu se f or Combe Cape l le B as .

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F igure 8 . 22 P ercen tage o ff l ake sw i th a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 35° o r> 35° i ne ach c a tegory o f u se f or P ech d eI 'Azi I V .

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C a tego r ies o fu se e v idence F igure 8 . 23 P ercen tage o ff l ake sw i th a verage s p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 35° o r> 35 ° i ne ach c a tegory o f u se f or l e Mous t ier .

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C a tego r ies o fu se e v idence ( Combe C ape l le B as ) F igure 8 . 24 P ercen tag eo ff l ake sw i th a verag es p ine -p lane a ng le so f< 35 °o r> 35 °i ne ach c a tegory o f u se f o rC ombe C ape l le B as .

F igu re s 8 . 22 , 8 . 23 a nd 8 . 24 i n d ica te t h a tt h e re m igh t h ave b een a s l igh t p r ef e r ence t o u se f l ake b l ank s w i th l owe r a ve rage e dge a ng le s f o r u nmod if ied t o o l s , b u t t h e d i f f e rence sb e tween t h et h ree c a tego r ie so fu se e v idence i n a l t h r ee s i te s amp le s i s f a i r ly c on s i s ten t . H oweve r , s omewha t s t ronge r p a t te rn s a r e a ppa ren t w hen t h e e dge a ng le d a ta i s s epa ra ted a t al owe r a ng le c u tof f p o in t ( f igu re s8 . 25 , 8 . 26 a nd 8 . 27 ) .

p e rcen tage o f u nu sed f l ake s i n t h is c a tego ry ( w i th o ne e xcep t ion b e ing P ech d e l ' Az6 I V i nt h e 3 5° t a b le w he re t h i s p e rcen tage i ss i gn if ican t ly l owe r ) , w h i le i n C ombe C ape l le B a s t h e p e rcen tage o f r e touched f l ake s i n t h e l owe r a ng le c a tego ry i s s i gn if ican t ly h i ghe r t h an t h e p e rcen tage o fu nu sed f l ake s i nt h is c a tego ry . T h is s e em s b e s t e xp la ined b y at e ndency t o g ene ra l ly s e lec t l owe r e dge a ng le sf o rb o th u nmod if ied a nd r e touched t o o l b l ank s a tC ombe C ape l le B a s . T he p r eva i l ing p r ef e rence i sf o r l owe re dge a ng le sf o ru nmod if ied t o o lb l ank s .

T he re a r e t wo p o in t s o f d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e t h ree s amp le s i n t h e 3 5 ° c u tof f t a b le s . F i r s t o f a l , t h e p e rcen tage s o fa l f l ake s