Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries : the role of universities 9781466628465, 1466628464

Table of contents :
Title Page
Copyright Page
Editorial Advisory Board
Table of Contents
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgment
Section 1: Corporate Education, Knowledge Economy, and Higher Education
Chapter 1: Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education
Chapter 2: Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education
Chapter 3: Evolving Corporate Education
Chapter 4: Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research
Chapter 5: NGOs and Corporate Education
Chapter 6: Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education
Section 2: Human Capital Development
Chapter 7: Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration
Chapter 8: Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises
Chapter 9: Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India
Chapter 10: Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education
Chapter 11: Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education
Chapter 12: Corporate Education in Universities in India
Section 3: Preparing Professionals
Chapter 13: Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs
Chapter 14: Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector
Chapter 15: Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy
Chapter 16: Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry
Chapter 17: University Outreach in Management Education
Chapter 18: Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry
Chapter 19: Power System Operator Certification
Section 4: Higher Education Institutions and Corporate Education
Chapter 20: Corporate-University Partnerships
Chapter 21: Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education
Chapter 22: Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning
Chapter 23: Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education
Chapter 24: Internalizing Quality Culture
Compilation of References
About the Contributors
Index

Citation preview

Evolving Corporate Education Strategies for Developing Countries: The Role of Universities B. PanduRanga Narasimharao Indira Gandhi National Open University, India S. Rangappa Kanchugarakoppal Karnataka State Open University, India Tukaram U. Fulzele Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Managing Director: Editorial Director: Book Production Manager: Publishing Systems Analyst: Development Editor: Assistant Acquisitions Editor: Typesetter: Cover Design:

Lindsay Johnston Joel Gamon Jennifer Yoder Adrienne Freeland Austin DeMarco Kayla Wolfe Christina Henning Nick Newcomer

Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2013 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries: the role of universities / B. PanduRanga Narasimharao, S. Rangappa Kanchugarakoppal and Tukaram U. Fulzele, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “This book presents the theories and abilities of integrating corporate education into traditional universities as well as highlighting the professional development in different subject areas”--Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-4666-2845-8 (hbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-2846-5 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-2847-2 (print & perpetual access) 1. Business and education -- Developing countries. 2. Education (Higher)--Developing countries. 3. Professional education--Developing countries. 4. Labor supply--Effect of education on--Developing countries. I. Narasimharao, B. PanduRanga, 1957- II. Kanchugarakoppal, S. Rangappa, 1955- III. Fulzele, Tukaram U., 1954LC1085.4.D44E96 2013 378.1’035091724--dc23 2012032997 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

Editorial Advisory Board J. Shashidhara Prasad, University of Mysore, India L. R. Sandmann, University of Georgia, USA Ram M. Vemuri, Intel Corporation, USA N. Anand, VELS University, India V. V. Kutumbarao, Gokaraju Rangaraju Educational Society, India H. P. Dikshit, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Rajsekhar Vangapati, Fashion Institute of Technology, USA V. S. Prasad, National Accreditation and Assessment Council, India Chambi Puranik, Karnatak State Open University, India Asha Kanwar, Commonwealth of Learning (COL), Canada Rajat Baisya, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), India Scheldon Schuster, Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, USA C. Kameswara Rao, Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education, India B. M. Subraya, INFOSYS Technologies Limited, India R. Sarada, Central Food Technological Research Institute, India

List of Reviewers C. Bharadwaj, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, India H. R. Bhojwani, EdCIL, India Chambi Puranik, Mysore Maharaja Institute of Higher education, India G. S. L. Devra, Kota Open University, India Elizabeth C. Wright, Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, USA S. N. Hegde, University of Mysore, India Jyoti S. A. Bhat, Department of Scientific & Industrial Research (DSIR), India Keshava Nireshwalia, JSS University, Mysore, India V. V. Krishna, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Mukesh Bansal, The Institute of Company Secretaries of India, India P. Nagabhushan, University of Mysore, India G. R. Naik, Women’s University, India Neeta Baporikar, Salalah College of Applied Sciences, Sultanate of Oman

V. B. Negi, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), India V. S. Prasad, National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), India K. L. Radhakrishnan, All India Food Processors’ Association, India G. Ravishankar, Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), India Richard Joseph, CFTRI, India R. Sarada, CFTRI, India J. Sashidhara Prasad, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, India N. S. Shekhawat, Jai Narayan Vyas (JNV) University, India Sudeendra Bhat, JSS college of Phrmacy, India G. Venkateswaran, CFTRI, India V. Venkkaiah, Krishna University, India Vikas Singh Chauhan, CFTRI, India In addition to above, authors of the chapters also acted as reviewers.

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xxi Section 1 Corporate Education, Knowledge Economy, and Higher Education Chapter 1 Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education...................................................................................... 1 Ram M. Vemuri, Intel Corporation, USA B. PanduRanga Narasimharao, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Chapter 2 Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education: A Case Study in Accountancy from Turkey.................................................................................................................................................... 21 Evren Dilek Şengür, Istanbul Universitesi, Turkey Aslı Beyhan Acar, Istanbul Universitesi, Turkey Chapter 3 Evolving Corporate Education: Relevance of Management Education................................................ 39 Rajat Kanti Baisya, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India Brane Semolic, University of Maribor, Solvenia Chapter 4 Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research: Strategies for Corporate Bodies in Pharmaceuticals..................................................................................................................... 56 P. Yogeeswari, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, India D. Sriram, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, India Chapter 5 NGOs and Corporate Education: A Case Study from Jharkhand.......................................................... 67 Ravi Sinha, Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya, India Mrinal Gaurav, Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya, India

Chapter 6 Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education: Challenges and Strategies........................... 79 Om Prakash, National Law University, India Archie Mathur, National Law University, India Section 2 Human Capital Development: Bridging Academia–Industry Divide Chapter 7 Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration.................................................................................. 90 K Guruprasad, TCS BPO, India Chapter 8 Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises: A Case Study on Human Capacity Building for the Indian Power Sector.................................................................................................. 103 B.N. Balaji Singh, KEC International, India V. V. Kutumbarao, Gokaraju Rangaraju Educational Society, India Ram B. Koganti, LPG Equipment Research Centre, India Chapter 9 Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India: Bridging the Academia-Industry Divide................................................................................................................................................... 119 C Kameswara Rao, Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education, India Seetharam Annadana, An Employee of a Multinational Agribiotech Company, India Chapter 10 Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education: Opportunities and Obstacles.............. 138 Mahendra Rai, SGB Amravati University, India Shivaji Deshmukh, SGB Amravati University, India Chapter 11 Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education: Assessment of Shifting Paradigms............................................................................................................................................. 154 M. M. Salunkhe, Central University of Rajasthan, India N. V. Thakkar, Central University of Rajasthan, India R. K. Kamat, Shivaji University, India Chapter 12 Corporate Education in Universities in India....................................................................................... 173 N. Anand, University of Madras, India

Section 3 Preparing Professionals: Some Case Studies Chapter 13 Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs: A Case Study........................................................................................ 180 Sandesh Kamath B., BioGenics, India Gireesh Babu K., BioGenics, India Chapter 14 Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector................................................................... 186 Prabodh Halde, Marico Ltd., India Subhaprada Nishtala, International Standards Certifications Pty Ltd., India Uday Annapure, Institute of Chemical Technology, India K A Anu Appaiah, Central Food Technology Research Institute, India D. N. Kulkarni, Jain Irrigation, India Chapter 15 Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy: A Case Study of Programmed Cell Death..................... 200 Shiv Shanker Pandey, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Vivek Ambastha, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Budhi Sagar Tiwari, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Chapter 16 Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry.......................................................................... 209 K. K. Pal, Directorate of Groundnut Research, India R. Dey, Directorate of Groundnut Research, India K.V. B. R. Tilak, Osmania University, India Chapter 17 University Outreach in Management Education: A Case from India for Meeting the Needs of Professionals in the Field..................................................................................................................... 228 Yashavantha Dongre, University of Mysore, India & Vijayanagar Krishnadevraya University, Bellary, India B. PanduRanga Narasimharao, University of Mysore, India & Indira Gandhi National Open University, Jodhpur Chapter 18 Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry......................................................................... 247 Onkar Nath, Central Bank of India, India Tukaram U. Fulzele, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Chapter 19 Power System Operator Certification: A Case Study for India............................................................ 263 K. Balaraman, Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd., India B. R. Lakshmikantha, Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology and Management, India R. Nagaraja, Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd., India Section 4 Higher Education Institutions and Corporate Education Chapter 20 Corporate-University Partnerships: The Outreach and Engagement Model....................................... 270 Brandon W. Kliewer, Florida Gulf Coast University, USA Lorilee R. Sandmann, The University of Georgia, USA B. Panduranga Narasimharao, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Chapter 21 Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education....................................................... 285 Subraya B M, Infosys Limited, India Chapter 22 Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning................ 306 B. PanduRanga Narasimharao, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Chapter 23 Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education: The Experience of Open University Malaysia............................................................................................................................. 321 Anuwar Ali, Open University Malaysia, Malaysia Chapter 24 Internalizing Quality Culture: Professionalizing University Education.............................................. 339 Ganesh A. Hegde, National Assessment and Accreditation Council, India

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 353 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 373 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 386

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xxi Section 1 Corporate Education, Knowledge Economy, and Higher Education Chapter 1 Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education...................................................................................... 1 Ram M. Vemuri, Intel Corporation, USA B. PanduRanga Narasimharao, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India The chapter discusses the importance of corporate education for developing knowledge based economy and the crucial role higher education institutions can play. The authors identify the issues and challenges higher education institutions may face and the major areas they need to focus upon to meet the demands of knowledge economy. Some of the sectors where higher education institutes in India and their research have contributed are taken as examples to suggest how universities can contribute to the knowledge economy through their reorientation. The chapter also takes some examples from Western countries to show how their universities have a crucial role to play in knowledge economy. Chapter 2 Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education: A Case Study in Accountancy from Turkey.................................................................................................................................................... 21 Evren Dilek Şengür, Istanbul Universitesi, Turkey Aslı Beyhan Acar, Istanbul Universitesi, Turkey While the role of corporate training is to develop the operational competency of individuals, the purpose of corporate education is to promote the development of capability of both individuals and their organisations. The chapter explains difference between corporate education and corporate training and discusses growing importance of corporate education for Turkish business life with some examples from accounting education.

Chapter 3 Evolving Corporate Education: Relevance of Management Education................................................ 39 Rajat Kanti Baisya, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India Brane Semolic, University of Maribor, Solvenia Forces of globalization have forced organizations to face new challenges of global competition that require new knowledge and new technology for corporate education. This chapter discusses some of those relevant and very important issues in corporate education for new generation workforces as well as for new order organizations. Chapter 4 Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research: Strategies for Corporate Bodies in Pharmaceuticals..................................................................................................................... 56 P. Yogeeswari, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, India D. Sriram, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, India The chapter discusses the importance and the essentiality of basic research for sustainable development taking the example of Pharmaceutical education. The chapter includes various strategic thoughts and implementation plans based on various university initiatives and ideas on executive development programs in the areas of pharmaceutical education. Chapter 5 NGOs and Corporate Education: A Case Study from Jharkhand.......................................................... 67 Ravi Sinha, Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya, India Mrinal Gaurav, Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya, India Nongovernmental organizations (NGO) have developed as powerful sources for change in the context of developing countries. The authors identify some of the major challenges/issues an Indian state faces discuss the possible role NGOs can play, including strategies for corporate education by NGOs for rural development and the need for interface with universities. Chapter 6 Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education: Challenges and Strategies........................... 79 Om Prakash, National Law University, India Archie Mathur, National Law University, India Integrated and corporate learning can have several dimensions and purposes including to serve societal or employment needs, facilitate innovation, new thinking and ideas, and to create humane entrepreneurs. The chapter reviews various approaches and dimensions of integrated and interdisciplinary learning. It also looks into the various outcomes and situations of integration and corporate learning. It argues that the quality of higher education in India would remain dismal unless it develops a symbiotic link with the society, university, and industry.

Section 2 Human Capital Development: Bridging Academia–Industry Divide Chapter 7 Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration.................................................................................. 90 K Guruprasad, TCS BPO, India This chapter examines ways in which industry and academia collaboration can happen, keeping in mind the current generation of graduating students, current business needs, and global market competition. Current best practices are mentioned and recommendations suggested. In addition, the benefits of collaboration to both industry and academia, challenges involved in implementation, and exceptions to some of these approaches are all discussed. Case studies are explained in detail. Chapter 8 Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises: A Case Study on Human Capacity Building for the Indian Power Sector.................................................................................................. 103 B.N. Balaji Singh, KEC International, India V. V. Kutumbarao, Gokaraju Rangaraju Educational Society, India Ram B. Koganti, LPG Equipment Research Centre, India In this chapter, status of engineering education in the country is briefly reviewed. The problem faced by the industry in regard to the quality of the engineering graduates, of whom 70 to 80% are considered “unemployable,” is examined. Various on-going efforts in government and academia to rectify this situation are described. Measures that could be adopted usefully by the corporate sector are identified. Example of Indian Power sector is taken to explain the human capital challenges. Chapter 9 Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India: Bridging the Academia-Industry Divide................................................................................................................................................... 119 C Kameswara Rao, Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education, India Seetharam Annadana, An Employee of a Multinational Agribiotech Company, India Modern biotechnology made an explosive entry about three decades ago, taking advantage of elegant and ingenious new protocols that promised very precise and highly refined products in every sector. However, there is hype created in the society and there are even false claims about biotechnology. Two fundamental errors contributed to the hype: a) the explosion of teaching shops that pretended to impart education without properly trained faculty and appropriate and adequate laboratory facilities, with the acquiescence of university administration and the government, which created a chasm between the poor manpower generated and sophisticated needs of the industry, with enormous campus enrollments(?) compounding the damage; and b) treating biotechnology as single subject, to be taught from the degree level itself, when modern biotechnology is a collaborative effort between and among experts of a dozen cognitive disciplines. This chapter examines certain problems and possible remedial measures, in order to deliver to the society the full benefits of the myriad developments in modern biotechnology.

Chapter 10 Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education: Opportunities and Obstacles.............. 138 Mahendra Rai, SGB Amravati University, India Shivaji Deshmukh, SGB Amravati University, India Nanotechnology (NT) is considered to constitute the basis of next technological revolution. It is a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary subject covering physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering. The present chapter discusses various applications of Nanotechnology with respect to the relation with industries and to development of human resources in nanotechnology. The chapter is focused on revolution generated by Nanotechnology due to its applications in different fields like electronics, agriculture, and medicines. It discusses the opportunities and obstacles that one may face in dealing with this highly application oriented subject and in professionalizing university education. Chapter 11 Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education: Assessment of Shifting Paradigms............................................................................................................................................. 154 M. M. Salunkhe, Central University of Rajasthan, India N. V. Thakkar, Central University of Rajasthan, India R. K. Kamat, Shivaji University, India In post-globalization, internationalization, marketization, and the era of professionalism, education is perceived as a good on par with all other professional services. Thus, there is a dire need to make it more relevant to the needs of its stakeholders. In this chapter, the authors discuss some of the initiatives at a rural centric state University and a newly commenced Central University, wherein they could join the reforms to rework the model of the higher education. Chapter 12 Corporate Education in Universities in India....................................................................................... 173 N. Anand, University of Madras, India In recent years, the requirement of University education was not just knowledge acquisition but orientation toward employment. Separation of the professional courses like engineering, medicine, law, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and management studies was a step towards job oriented education. The need to introduce job oriented courses in humanities and sciences became imminent as the number of job seekers increased several folds as years passed by. The 157 year old University of Madras has made great efforts in the past decade to make the University education more meaningful and useful. Citing specific examples where corporate education has been a case of mutual benefit to the university and the industry, the chapter provides some practices in use by an Indian university to promote corporate education benefitting all stakeholders including students.

Section 3 Preparing Professionals: Some Case Studies Chapter 13 Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs: A Case Study........................................................................................ 180 Sandesh Kamath B., BioGenics, India Gireesh Babu K., BioGenics, India Planned and informed guidance, mentoring, and hand-holding are required for graduate students to inculcate the passion for an enterprise. The well coordinated efforts of industry heads, university professors, corporate associations, and governmental departments could bring about radical and far-reaching changes in setting-up industries by fresh bio-graduates. This case study sheds light on how the existing system can modify its course work to achieve this goal and how an industry-academia-government alliance can play a significant role towards this initiative on entrepreneurship. The authors took up biotech research, completed Ph.D., then chose the unusual path of self-employment (in Indian condition) to set up a biotech enterprise. They discuss issues of bio-entrepreneurship and how the present bio-education system, both at the post graduate and doctorate levels, can facilitate starting up new firms. Chapter 14 Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector................................................................... 186 Prabodh Halde, Marico Ltd., India Subhaprada Nishtala, International Standards Certifications Pty Ltd., India Uday Annapure, Institute of Chemical Technology, India K A Anu Appaiah, Central Food Technology Research Institute, India D. N. Kulkarni, Jain Irrigation, India Food processing sector is one of the largest sectors in India in terms of production, growth, consumption, and export. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the importance of education for manpower development in the food industry and how it can be used to convert unemployable graduates into employable graduates for the food industry. It covers various aspects including the present status of the food industry and its scope in India, and the current education system of food science and technology, the gaps between capacity and industry needs, and a way forward. Chapter 15 Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy: A Case Study of Programmed Cell Death..................... 200 Shiv Shanker Pandey, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Vivek Ambastha, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Budhi Sagar Tiwari, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Universities and research institutes are playing a major role in progress of cancer research. Cancer is currently the second biggest cause of death in the Western world. It is necessary to evolve strategies to bridge the gap between knowledge and its action or application. It is of broad interest to make a bridge or to start collaborations among basic researchers and medical oncologists as well as with pharmaceutical companies. Taking the example of programmed cell death and its application in cancer therapy, the authors discuss these aspects, including preparing graduates from different disciplines in this area.

Chapter 16 Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry.......................................................................... 209 K. K. Pal, Directorate of Groundnut Research, India R. Dey, Directorate of Groundnut Research, India K.V. B. R. Tilak, Osmania University, India Microbial technology finds innumerable applications in different sectors of biotechnology industry. The scope and potential of microbiology education in different sectors is vast and has direct relation to societal benefit. Microbiologists have great demand in the industries like pharmaceutical, food, and biotechnology industries preparing enzymes, etc. The different stakeholders in biotechnology, i.e. university, industry, society, etc. all have to work together in areas of meaningful partnership and have to work in tandem to reap the maximum benefits from microbial technology. In this chapter, some of the new approaches that can be adopted for integrating education and research in microbial technology with biotechnology industry are discussed. The chapter also discusses strategies on how one can prepare graduates for employment. Chapter 17 University Outreach in Management Education: A Case from India for Meeting the Needs of Professionals in the Field..................................................................................................................... 228 Yashavantha Dongre, University of Mysore, India & Vijayanagar Krishnadevraya University, Bellary, India B. PanduRanga Narasimharao, University of Mysore, India & Indira Gandhi National Open University, Jodhpur The chapter demonstrates the necessity and the importance of offering a specialized course on non-profit management at field level in close collaboration with the stakeholders. The approaches followed are relevant as there is a need for integration of management knowledge with that of other subject fields in almost all functional areas of civic society. The authors argue that the model of adopting bidirectional interactions, reciprocity, and participatory approaches may help addressing different issues in Indian higher education system by bringing the change from within the institutions and individuals. The case also demonstrates how using a leading NGO and university outreach centre as linking units, the outreach concept can be made successful in Indian context. Chapter 18 Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry......................................................................... 247 Onkar Nath, Central Bank of India, India Tukaram U. Fulzele, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India As a result of knowledge explosion, besides other factors, in the last two decades banks in India have witnessed a transition from traditional banking to modern technology driven banking. Exposure to competition has made these banks re-engineer and re-structure their processes, systems, and product line. We need to prepare not only qualified people for banking sector but also knowledge workers with professional approach. The chapter examines the issue of preparing our graduates from universities for banking sector taking into consideration the fact that many of them are unemployable and not trained for working in non academic sectors.

Chapter 19 Power System Operator Certification: A Case Study for India............................................................ 263 K. Balaraman, Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd., India B. R. Lakshmikantha, Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology and Management, India R. Nagaraja, Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd., India The increasing number of companies with diverse interests participating in the electricity supply business leads to a shift from traditional tasks of power system operation among these companies to new additional job duties or even a complete new job as system or market operator. This case study examines the critical changes that have taken place in the commercial environment of power system operators, both at the system operation level as well as in generation operations and how the changes affect their day-to-day employment. This case study analyses the international scenario along with performance targets that have already been implemented world-wide and describes their impacts on the job performed by system operators in India. The training needs of system and market operators personnel both at the system operation and generation operation where these entities are separated are pointed out, focusing on the new points that have arisen because of the new commercial environment. The case may be an example to evolve strategies in other fields. Section 4 Higher Education Institutions and Corporate Education Chapter 20 Corporate-University Partnerships: The Outreach and Engagement Model....................................... 270 Brandon W. Kliewer, Florida Gulf Coast University, USA Lorilee R. Sandmann, The University of Georgia, USA B. Panduranga Narasimharao, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India Corporate-university partnerships have the potential to create a myriad of mutually beneficial and reciprocal outcomes that support a larger public good. Within the various expressions of engagement, this chapter situates the outreach and engagement model historically and politically in the United States. A case study of a successful corporate-university partnership in the US is provided and is analyzed using the tenets of community engagement. The discussion of the case features three lessons that have the potential to inform corporate-university partnerships in contexts outside the US. Finally, approaches for implementing university outreach and engagement in the Indian context are proposed. Chapter 21 Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education....................................................... 285 Subraya B M, Infosys Limited, India In the recent past, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has impacted human lives in multiple dimensions. No aspect of human life is untouched by ICT, and the education domain is no exception to this. Universities need to leverage ICT to improve the quality and standards of higher education, which would positively impact the corporates. In this context, this chapter provides an innovative model which the universities could adapt and revolutionize the higher education. The best practices being followed by Infosys Limited, the IT corporate giant, narrated in this chapter could be leveraged by the universities in the interest of the learning community, the corporate sector, and the society at large.

Chapter 22 Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning................ 306 B. PanduRanga Narasimharao, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India The knowledge based economies put emphasis not simply on skill development but on developing professional skills. There is a need to produce graduates in Natural sciences with the ability of applying the knowledge gained. Traditionally, the Master’s degree in the natural sciences has tended to be single-discipline in orientation. However, in work life the graduates need to address issues that require integration of science content. The chapter examines various approaches and strategies for professionalizing natural science education. The chapter discusses how a multipronged open distance learning program incorporating various developments that are happening in the tertiary education system can facilitate professionalizing natural science education. Chapter 23 Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education: The Experience of Open University Malaysia............................................................................................................................. 321 Anuwar Ali, Open University Malaysia, Malaysia This chapter will detail how corporate education has taken shape specifically from the viewpoint of Malaysia and OUM, in light of various developments in higher education, ICT and ODL. This chapter will also detail the history behind the emergence of corporate education and briefly describe higher education in Malaysia. This is followed by a quick look at the country’s current corporate education scenario, examples of corporate education provision via ODL as exemplified by OUM as well as the role of universities in sustaining and enhancing university-corporate partnerships. The chapter also explores how universities can contribute to the success of university-corporate partnership for further development of the corporate education cause. Chapter 24 Internalizing Quality Culture: Professionalizing University Education.............................................. 339 Ganesh A. Hegde, National Assessment and Accreditation Council, India In the Indian context, higher education institutes vary widely in the standards and quality of education imparted. The chapter discusses some quality concerns and how to bring in quality culture from within. It explains how the ecology of an institute influences its quality. It also discusses how internal quality culture can help these tertiary education institutes to tune themselves to the needs of knowledge society including corporate education.

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 353 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 373 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 386

xvii

Preface

EVOLVING CORPORATE EDUCATION STRATEGIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES The book is inspired partly from my experience in university outreach programmes, open distance learning, corporate education, natural science education and research; partly from some of the observations made by experts on Indian University education like - though one can see the rapid developments that are taking place in the society around the university in India, the universities themselves changed little and even declined in their academic environment; universities producing unemployable graduates; rigid disciplinary boundaries; university education not being relevant to the civic society issues; need for preparing the students for real world issues and the like; and partly from the literature on developments in tertiary education systems and some models already developed like outreach and engagement, triple helix, centres of excellence, professional education programmes of USA, community colleges, regional innovation systems and the like. The purpose of the book is to propose strategies for professionalizing university education gearing them to suit the needs and demands of the 21st century knowledge society just like the evolution of education institutes of 19th century according to the experience and need of that century’s society. There is a need to develop suitable models for a particular country or even for a particular context. It is in this context this book titled ‘Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries – Role of universities’ can be claimed to be highly relevant and useful for developing countries that may be planning to rejuvenate and renovate higher education to the present century’s needs and demands. The overwhelming response to the call for chapters and the people who contributed suggests the interest in the topic. The scope is far wide and there are many things which are not covered in the book. However, the readers can benefit when they understand the concept behind each chapter or chapters of their interest and apply for their own situation. For instance, a non-biologist may also be able to derive some benefit when he reads the chapter on preparing professionals in natural sciences and multi pronged distance education as the concept behind the chapter is very general and applicable to other fields as well. I acknowledge the cooperation and enthusiasm shown by all contributing authors. I am also grateful to them for agreeing to get their chapters reviewed and for taking advantage from the reviewer comments. Each chapter was blind reviewed by 2-3 experts and all the chapters underwent at least one revision. The book is divided into four sections. The first section, consisting of six chapters, intends to provide a basic conceptual background to set the tone for other sections. It explains the concept of corporate education and knowledge economy in brief. The academia can have wider debate on corporate education since corporate education often misconstrued as part of management education. Other concepts like the difference between corporate training and corporate education and use of management education for evolving corporate education

xviii

are discussed in separate chapters. Since universities and academia have to take a leader role and treat corporate education in a holistic way just like university education, the book discusses the importance and the essentiality of basic research for sustainable development in higher education and its relation to corporate education taking the example of pharmaceutical education. Another important concept which is useful for both corporate bodies and universities is interaction and collaboration with other players in the society. This concept is discussed taking the example of NGOs for developing corporate education to benefit a region including rural areas. The last chapter reviews various approaches and dimensions of integrated and interdisciplinary learning which is necessary for real corporate education. The second section deals with the topic of bridging academia and industry divide in human capital development. The first chapter of the section sets the tone by discussing multifaceted industry-academia collaboration. It examines ways in which industry and academia collaboration can happen keeping in mind the current generation of graduating students, current business needs and global market competitions. Chapter 8 analyses the human capital challenges of power sector while giving a general account of preparing engineering graduates. This may give the reader an idea of how and what strategies one can follow to overcome the problem of unemployable graduates. It is applicable to other fields as well. Another important aspect of academia-industry divide is non-delivery of desired results by highly promising fields like biotechnology. The chapter on biotechnology education and training examines certain problems and possible remedial measures, in order to deliver to the society the full benefits of the myriad developments in modern biotechnology. Similarly nanotechnology, an upcoming and exciting field with application in wide array of sectors crossing many disciplinary boundaries forms a suitable example for discussion. The chapter on nanotechnology explores the various applications in different fields like electronics, agriculture and medicine. It discusses the opportunities and obstacles that one may face in dealing with this kind of highly application oriented subject and in professionalizing university education. The next two chapters of the section discuss some of the examples of universities taking initiatives in professionalizing education. One chapter discusses some of the initiatives at a rural centric state University and a newly commenced Central University, wherein they could join the reforms to rework the model of the higher education. The last chapter of the section discusses corporate education initiatives in one of the oldest university of India. The chapter provides some practices in use by an Indian university to promote corporate education benefitting all stakeholders including students. Some of these examples show how universities can play a crucial role in bridging industry-academia divide. People from various backgrounds and various industries/universities can take the benefit of the chapters covered in this section. One of the advantages of the countries like India and developing countries is the huge manpower available in the country. However, this resource is not used by them very effectively as these countries often encounter with many issues in higher education and wrongly focus on numbers than on the professionalization of education. In order to suit the demands of knowledge society and knowledge economy, the universities need to prepare the manpower not only for academic fields but also for non-academic fields. The next section of the book focuses issues related to preparing professionals for various fields. The section specifically focuses on some case studies of industries and academia. The section starts with a chapter on the experience of fresh PhD graduates in starting their own enterprise. They discuss the issues a fresh biotechnology graduate (with PhD) may face to establish his own enterprise. It is an interesting case study in the context of developing countries. Similarly, skill development of manpower for food industries is crucial in Indian context (as food processing industry is one of the major industries of the country). It covers various aspects including the present status of the food industry and

xix

its scope in India, and the current education system of food science and technology, the gaps between capacity and industry needs, and a way forward. The case can help other industries as well in developing strategies for skill development. The chapter on preparing professionals in cancer therapy is a case study which other researchers and educationists in different fields can take a cue for preparing the large pool of unemployable graduates from different disciplines for working in a specialized area. Similarly the chapter on microbiology for biotechnology industry discusses strategies on how one can prepare graduates for corporate education for working in non-academic sectors (like industries). The chapter on university outreach in management education is an example to show how linker units at field and at university (NGOs at field level and outreach centre at university level) help in successfully preparing professionals at field level. Another example from which any industry and academics of any field can derive benefit is preparing graduates for banking industry. The case study on power system operator certification is a specific case. It provides an example of how the critical changes that have taken place in the commercial environment of power system operators, both at the system operation level as well as in generation operations, affects their day-to-day employment. The whole section gives a number of examples from which the reader can derive benefit by analyzing his/her own situation. Another important aspect of knowledge society is the growing realization of the changing paradigm of knowledge production. Knowledge is not produced at one place or by one player. In other words, universities cannot consider themselves as the sole players of knowledge production. They (universities) need to interact more closely with all the stakeholders of higher education. They need to play a captain’s role. Section four of the book focuses on this aspect by discussing some of the developments in tertiary education system which can help in evolving strategies for corporate education. It covers outreach and engagement model, ICT for corporate education, multipronged distance education for professionalizing natural science education, integrating corporate education in Malaysian higher education, and professionalizing university education through internalization of quality culture. The first chapter of the section proposes approaches for implementing university outreach and engagement for corporate education in the Indian context. It provides an example of how a backward area is turned into a prosperous area using the tenets of community engagement using outreach and engagement concept. The discussion of the case features three lessons that have the potential to inform corporate-university partnerships in contexts outside the US. The next chapter taking the experience of Infosys Limited, the IT corporate giant of India, discusses the role of universities in using modern technologies like ICT for evolving corporate education. It provides an innovative model which the universities could adapt and revolutionize the higher education. The chapter on integrating corporate education in Malaysian higher education discusses the experience of a Malaysian University (Open University of Malaysia) giving a clear example of how universities particularly open universities can play a crucial role in evolving corporate education. The chapter on professionalizing Natural Science education explains how various developments in tertiary education can be used for a multipronged distance education which in turn can help in evolving strategies for corporate education. The need for integrating various disciplines, attitudes, and attributes is also discussed. Another important strategy discussed in this section is developing internal quality culture for professionalizing higher education. It explains how the ecology of an institute influences its quality. It also discusses how internal quality culture can help these tertiary education institutes to tune themselves to the needs of knowledge society including corporate education. The book covers both theoretical and practical aspects in evolving strategies for corporate education with particular reference to the role of universities. The book will be of immense practical use for the

xx

university authorities who wish to prepare their students professionally in different fields covering arts, science, humanities, and engineering. It is useful to industry personnel who wish to have close interaction with academia for developing their workforce. Similarly, the book will be helpful for the policy makers to develop a policy for a new model for their particular country or context as it covers various developments in higher education which can help in alleviating some of the long standing problems. The academics in general may get an idea on treating their subjects differently to make the disciplinary boundaries more porous and to prepare the students professionally to deal with the real world issues and preparing them for both academic and non-academic careers. They can take the help from the examples and subjects discussed in the book. The fact that the contributors of the book are highly placed and senior people covering both academia and industry ensures that it deals with some of the relevant practical and field level realities with a strong theoretical background. While some of the contributors have both industry and academia experience, some others introduced some innovations in university education to reach out to society. The contributors include professors, researchers, vice chancellors, pro-vice chancellors, vice presidents of industries, Senior Engineers, Chief executive officers, and self employed entrepreneurs. B. PanduRanga Narasimharao Indira Gandhi National Open University, India October, 2012

xxi

Acknowledgment

This kind of big project cannot be completed successfully without the Divine grace. I experienced His unseen hand while doing this project. Things were falling in line as per plan and things moved in the right direction. When initially in 2010 the proposal for a book on professionalizing university education was initiated and when I started approaching people for chapters, there was good response. Prof. K.S. Rangappa, Vice Chancellor of Karnataka State Open University (KSOU) responded with willingness to publish the book. However, since I wanted a professional publisher of international standard to publish this important work, I requested him to be co-editor of the book. He kindly accepted to render his name as co-editor. Similarly Prof. Tukaram Fulzele showed much enthusiasm when I discussed the proposal with him. This tempted me to invite him to be one of the co-editors with a view that his management background would help in the project. I thank both the co-editors for giving me free hand and allowing me to prepare the book as per my idea. I am immensely indebted to the members of Editorial Advisory Board (EAB) of the book who kindly accepted my invitation without any hesitation. I am very much grateful to all the authors of the chapters who took my view points in preparing their chapters. If the chapters have come out well it is also due to the fact that the reviewers I approached took the task seriously and gave their objective and candid opinions and suggestions on the chapters. I am thankful to the reviewers as well as authors for taking so much interest in the project. I am also thankful to those authors whose chapters were rejected for their interest in the project. The rejection does not reflect anything on their abilities or on their scholarship as some of the rejections included those given by some of the vice chancellors. It simply meant that they do not fit into the overall objective of the book. I will be failing in duty if I do not acknowledge the sacrifices made by my children Ananya Sai, B. and Baladitya, B. in allowing me to work on the project. As I sit for long hours before the lap top during my vacation period for working on the project, they used to wonder what I am doing for such long time without spending time with them. Sometimes they used to joke that may be I am playing some computer games. I am thankful to Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) authorities who posted me around 2000 kilometers away from where my family stays allowing me to spend long hours on the project and forcing my wife Dr. R.Sarada to take all the pressures of family commitments besides her scientific work. Last but not least I have to acknowledge the cooperation extended by the editorial assistants of IGI Global, particularly Sri Austin M. DeMarco. He always assured me that he is there to help me. I thank IGI Global for taking interest in this project and publishing the book. B. PanduRanga Narasimharao Indira Gandhi National Open University, India October, 2012

Section 1

Corporate Education, Knowledge Economy, and Higher Education

1

Chapter 1

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education Ram M. Vemuri Intel Corporation, USA B. PanduRanga Narasimharao Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

ABSTRACT From the time a technological need is recognized to the time that it takes academia to produce graduates coming out of colleges with those skills already developed takes a long time, and if academia reacts to the needs of the technology then academia will always be playing a catch-up game since technology does not stand still while academia is working on churning out graduates with the requisite skills. This is a key reason why industry and academia should work together to have a vision of where technology is headed and design academic programs that will train the graduates for the future needs of technology. While this chapter has provided some examples where collaboration between universities and industry has lead to development of technology, there are a myriad of others covering various fields and disciplines. In a small chapter like this, it is not possible to cover all of this. With the advent of affordable telecommunication and transportation, the world is a lot smaller today than it was a few decades back. Retaining homegrown talent and nurturing the homegrown talent to contribute towards growing even more talent while attracting talent from across the globe will contribute significantly towards a knowledge economy that will be self-sustaining.

INTRODUCTION Knowledge economy (KE) and knowledge society are the two key words used in much of the literature related to the development of corporate world. Knowledge has always been an essential

force for development activities of human beings. However, the difference between now and the earlier time is the pace at which knowledge grows and to the extent to which the need to integrate this knowledge into a region’s social, economic and political development. Knowledge economy

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch001

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

often wrongly attributed as ICT revolution (Information and Communication Technologies) or evolution of high technology industries. But as World Bank report (2007) identifies it is rather a process of generating relevant knowledge and putting that knowledge to work to generate further growth in terms of economic, political and social development. Obviously, various types of knowledge including the most traditional knowledge or basic simple knowledge base or basic application of a simple technology or use of highly advanced technologies can become a major resource for generating wealth and jobs. This implies that in the whole process the higher educational institutions play a central and crucial role. As Gunasekara (2004) observes the 21st century universities need to be increasingly linked to place with enabling partnership role with industry, government and communities. There is much literature on university-industry interaction, triple helix (University-industryGovernment linkages), corporate universities, university–corporate partnerships and the like. All this points out the need for good corporate education strategies at universities to strengthen the four pillars of Knowledge Economy as identified by World Bank (Narsimharao 2010b). Though corporate education concept is not new and was existent in one form or other throughout the history of organizations, the era of knowledge based economy demands for more systematic and organized way of corporate education. Some of these ideas can further be explained with the help of the literature on how information technology giants like Infosys, Wipro, and Intel have evolved over the years with the help of knowledge power (application of knowledge, training initiatives, manpower development practices/commitments, partnerships with other organizations, interactions with university departments and faculty of universities, research funding to universities etc.). The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the importance of corporate education for developing

2

knowledge based economy and the crucial role higher education institutions play. Prior to this discussion it is necessary to give a brief account on knowledge economy and corporate education in the context of the chapter.

Knowledge Economy (KE) and its Constituents The World Bank (2007) in its study on ‘Towards Knowledge Economies – Advanced Strategies for Development’ identified four pillars of knowledge based economy. They are: 1. Education, including building a skilled workforce; 2. National innovation systems, including science and technology, research and development (R and D); 3. Building networks, including ICT infrastructure and social networks; 4. Policy and regulatory environment. As per the report the knowledge economy meaning is broader than that of high technology or the new economy and even broader than the often used information society. It foundations are the creation, dissemination, and the use of knowledge. The report states that ‘A knowledge economy is one in which knowledge assets are deliberately accorded more importance than capital and labor assets, and where the quantity and sophistication of the knowledge pervading economic and societal activities reaches very high levels’. We may list the knowledge economy indicators which may give a fair idea of how the four pillars of KE can be strengthened. There are five major indicators knowledge jobs, innovations, globalization, Economic Dynamism and Digital Economy (Table 1). How we prepare the communities to use these components will finally determine the development of KE of a region. The four pillars must be balanced and coordinated so that they support

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Table 1. Knowledge economy indicators

Knowledge Jobs Information Technology Jobs

Ample supply of jobs in information technology related industries (telecommunications, computer systems design, information services including data processing services and cable networks).

Workforce Education

Innovative and well trained workforce – university degree as a measure.

Management and Professional Jobs

Managerial, professional and industry related knowledge based occupations.

Innovations High Technology Jobs

Jobs in industries that rely on advance technologies (Computer & Electronic product manufacturing, Software publishers, cable net works, telecommunications, information services, computer system design, Scientific R&D).

Venture Capital

Fiscal capacity for supporting innovative business enterprises (number of venture capital firms).

Patents

innovation and intellectual capital (number of patents for 100,000 population).

Engineers in the Workforce

Professional engineers per 10,000 workers.

Bioscience Jobs

Total number of employees in Bioscience firms (Medicals/Botanicals, Pharmaceuticals, Diagnostic substances, Biological products, R&D in Life Sciences).

Digital Economy Internet Use

Extent to which internet is used in a community for social and commercial purpose.

Digital Government

Local governments using website for governance and other activities.

Cable Modem Access

Access to a high speed information and communication infrastructure (geographic extent of cable modem access).

Globalization Firms with Foreign Parents or Investments

Number of firms with foreign investors in the region.

Exporting Firms

Number of firms engaged in production of export.

Economic Dynamism Manufacturing Employment Change

Absolute percentage change in jobs in manufacturing sector during last five years.

Service Employment Change

Absolute percentage change in jobs in service sector during last five years.

Sole Proprietorship Employment Change

Percentage change in number of jobs in firms classified as sole proprietorship.

Source: Compiled from LaMore and Supanich-Goldner, http://www.municipaltoolkit.org/UserFiles/LaMore&Supanich-Goldner_EN.pdf (accessed on 18th Sep. 2012)

each other as per the developmental stage of the country to yield results greater than those obtainable from their independent operations. A knowledge economy requires more number of highly educated people, not simply a population with

basic education. How the four pillars of KE can be strengthened through corporate education centres at tertiary education institutes is discussed by Narasimharao (2010b).

3

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Corporate Education As knowledge production becomes socially distributed with application and trans-disciplinary orientation under the influence of knowledge society, universities need to define new boundaries to scholarship. Drucker (1994) points out that the changes that are happening in the present day knowledge society are far more than a social change but a change in human condition. There is a need that the universities reformulate the concept of education as per the experience of the society in the present century as was done by the education experts of 19th century. As Narasimharao and Nair (2010) observed there is absolute necessity for the two major systems of the society – knowledge generating and knowledge utilizing systems – to work in close association not only for manpower requirements but also for knowledge integration through collaboration. They suggest that the universities in developing countries should take the responsibility of developing and evolving corporate education models covering all aspects of social and economic concerns. Corporate education should not be narrowly defined in terms of the needs of corporate world or as management education. It needs to encompass a big picture of the society where each player has to contribute for economic, cultural and social development (see Narasimharao, Nair and Naidu, 2011). It is essential that universities cater to the entrepreneurial role as well as the traditional role without limiting their purpose. The corporate education concept at universities needs to be viewed from this angle. The four pillars of KE can be strengthened by establishing corporate education centres at universities and tertiary education institutes (Figure 1) (Narasimharao, 2010b). The figure shows the need for connecting knowledge sources (including universities) with traditional knowledge of the society on one hand and to innovations from diverse sources on the other. It depicts the need for knowledge linkage, transfer and use in relation to industry players and industry

4

products and processes. Industry can be replaced with any other stakeholder of higher education of the society and figure redrawn.

Knowledge Economy in a Developing Country like India The potential for India to become one of the global leaders in knowledge economy is well recognized as there are certain positive factors to its credit (Jacob, 2006). As one can list a good number of strengths, there are also a number of weaknesses for KE in India. While there are many opportunities to overcome the weaknesses and use the strengths, the policy makers and other players of KE have to take care of the threats that may be hanging over. Table 2 lists major strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) for India in relation to the four pillars of KE. India needs to develop explicit strategies to make the effective development and use of knowledge resources for its social and economic development taking SWOT analysis in each case. As per Houghton and Sheehan (2000), the key resource for a knowledge economy is knowledge itself and they go on to compare with other economies like agrarian economy being dependent on land as the key resource, and natural resources such as coal and ores, and labor as the key resources for an industrial economy. The basic tenet of this is that without the availability of the key resources, such an economy cannot thrive. India being predominantly agrarian based economy it is important to note that even this age old agrarian economy is now very dependent on knowledge for the expanding need to generate more food from limited resources. Another concern for India and other developing countries may be that the crucial role the higher education institutions play in knowledge economy is still to be realized by the people concerned. Though the Prime Minister of India stated the 11th five year plan (the five year plans are used for economic and social development in India since

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Figure 1. Ecosystem for knowledge linkage and integration–Corporate education centres at universities/ collages for KBE (Narasimharao 2010b)

1951) as India’s educational plan (or knowledge investment plan) keeping in tune with knowledge economy, the education institutes themselves have yet to give due importance to KE. The very fact that the reforms recommended by Kothari commission of 1966 are still valid and useful (Sam Pitroda, 2007) suggests the difficulty in bringing changes in tertiary education institutions to connect them to the society around. The importance of this is also highlighted in a recent report of a commission on rejuvenation of higher education (Yash Pal 2009). The National Knowledge Commission of India (NKC 2006-2009) recommended establishment of at least 1500 more universities in the country.

But more important are their recommendations like revitalizing and expanding the reach of knowledge in society, developing models for community colleges, increasing the flexibility of vocational education within the main stream educational institutions. Another important KE need is that the universities and other educational institutions need to reorient themselves to connect to the real world issues. There are many developments to make higher education institutions to connect to their place. Some of these developments are mode 2 thesis (Gibbons et al., 1994), University-industry linkages (Schiller & Brimble, 2009), Triple Helix (Etzkowitz et al., 2007), Regional Innovation 5

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Table 2. Knowledge economy in India-SWOT analysis KE attribute

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Basic attributes

Large population, Large domestic market Natural resources

Sharing of resources by large population Quality consciousness Diversity of languages, regional culture etc

Potential for economic development Unity in Diversity

Unemployable graduates Quality in education and services

Education and Skills

Large number of qualified people Large number of English speaking population Large number of teachers/ trainers Large number of Engineering and science graduates

High levels of Illiteracy Rural Education development Low secondary and tertiary attainment Under development of lifelong learning and opportunities with poor quality Brain drain with limited brain gain

Compulsory primary education Large rural population Potential for expansion of secondary and higher education Evolving lifelong learning as an essential system for KE Large diasporas who can be used for high quality education and developing skills

Large financial resources needed Diverse Indian states Maintaining quality at higher education level to professionalize Change in mindset and bringing change from within Large marginalized population with limited resources

Innovation System

Critical mass of scientists and engineers doing R&D Government supported R&D infrastructure High technology Jobs Large number of patents Bioscience firms Large number of Universities/Higher education institutes Private business firms and venture capitalists

Knowledge transfer to the real world very limited Private participation in R&D to a limited way Development of innovation systems The numbers versus the utility value Preparing the life science graduates for real life situations Poor R&D at universities and lack of integration between research, teaching and outreach

Strengthen knowledge transfer mechanisms Strengthen domestic and foreign knowledge and innovation linkages Developing national innovation systems to develop appropriate high technologies Tap the Indian Diaspora more systematically for developing good Indian models Preparing the pure science graduates professionally for non-academic pursuits Developing strategies and models for integrating research, teaching and outreach

Increasing knowledge divide between advanced and developing countries Availability of qualified people with professional approach Large numbers to be trained and retrained Imparting new skills and new knowledge among work force Industries not viewing innovation as a profit oriented approach

Building Net Works

Effective telecommunication systems Capabilities in software industry Huge net work of universities/colleges Many private players in education, industry NGOs working in different fields Reputation in providing outsourcing services globally Digital economy – large number of internet users,

Low penetration rates of ICT especially in rural areas Low application of ICT for domestic needs Universities/colleges working in isolation without much concern for societal issues Many Private players seeing education as a commercial venture Lack of networks with involvement of all stakeholders of higher education Ineffective use of ICT for education and training

Expand opportunities for local communities to benefit from ICT Expand ICT for domestic use – developing relevant applications Use of ICT for more effectively deliver social services Developing corporate education concept at higher education institutes Taping the potential of private provision and open distance learning Access to high speed information and communication particularly at education institutes and community development centres

Fear in using modern technologies Knowledge divide between urban and rural areas Infrastructure availability in rural areas Low levels of education particularly in rural areas Open distance learning following the beaten path of traditional face to face education without much innovation ICT being used as a fashion or for publicity rather than use of technology as per requirement in education

continued on following page

6

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Table 2. Continued KE attribute Regulatory Environment

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Autonomous status of universities Government support for education and training Macrostability Dynamic private sector both in education and industry Developed market institutions

Political interference Weak fiscal position and poor financial support at state level Weak integration into global economy Weak investment climate, too many regulations and red tapism Low productivity of state enterprises

Provide autonomy to education system in real sense starting from appointments Involve private players including corporate in the education and training Encouraging firms with foreign investment Increase domestic competition, lower trade barriers Exploiting export firms Reduce bureaucracy regulation

Coming out of established traditions Development of education as per urban needs rather than rural needs Lack of interest in new global models/ dev in education and training like outreach, corporate education, triple helix etc. Fears in allowing foreign players Very uncertain global situation

systems (Gunasekara, 2006), higher education for sustainable development (Barth et al., 2007), Centres of excellence (Beerkens, 2009), National Innovation systems (Nelson, 1993), University engagement (Sandman, 2008), University Outreach (Boyer, 1996). However, Indian higher education institutions have yet to take advantage of these developments. Though there are some developments which may suggest that the universities are using some of these developments (Narasimharao, 2009), they are not comprehensive enough for relating them to KE or not followed in the true spirit of the concept. A committee headed by Naryanamurthy of Infosys on ‘Corporate participation in Higher Education’ (Narayanamurthy, 2012) while identifying some of the issues higher education in India is facing including funding gaps, low academic standards, employability; suggested a number of measures for collaboration between academia and corporations. Their suggestions include public-private participation (PPP) models, developing knowledge hubs and centres of excellence, establishing a nodal agency to develop common agenda for enhancing business and academia collaboration and like.

Major Areas to be Addressed Some of the major areas to be addressed for coping with knowledge society are (Narasimharao, 2013) • • •

• • • • •

•

Knowledge explosion vs. knowledge management; Designing subject areas in isolation vs. multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary trends; Universities as knowledge houses vs. increasing tendencies to treat teaching & research as separate activities; Learning across disciplines vs. specialized studies; Convergence of technologies and knowledge; Globalization of knowledge vs. regional/ local/traditional knowledge; Vocational education vs. university education; Sustainable and integrated development vs. temporary and compartmentalized development; Commoditization of knowledge vs. community development.

7

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Some of the major challenges in addressing these areas are listed below: •

•

•

•

•

8

In the transition towards a knowledge economy and knowledge society, universities and in turn academics need to produce more knowledge, relevant knowledge, and also become responsible for the transfer of that knowledge to those parties who need it. As Beerkens (2009) states the knowledge society resulted in the evolution of new paradigm of knowledge production that was socially distributed, application-oriented, tans-disciplinary, and subject to multiple accountabilities. This also means universities are no longer are the only places where knowledge production takes place. Guzzetta (1982) argues that though we in higher education sincerely think that we have been responding to the perceived public needs, we have not met the challenge in reality. He says that we have interpreted all needs in our own image: more courses, credit hours, campus classes and classical curricula. Within the paradigm of modernity each discipline continuing to distance itself from other disciplines, continuing to fragment into sub-disciplines (which eventually become new disciplines in their own right), and continuing to legitimate each as a discrete discipline without regard to the legitimation of other parts of the business environment (Crowther & Carter, 2002). There is a concern among many leading educationists about the universal malady of knowledge being broken up into narrower and narrower cubicles and not integrating different disciplines or failure to look beyond the boundaries created by the disciplines (Yash Pal, 2009; Cech, 1999; Ruthnaswamy, 1955; Ghose, 2006; Schuster, 2008).

•

•

•

•

•

Scholarly engagement that incorporates reciprocal practices of civic engagement into the production of knowledge (Barker, 2004). This means the faulty have to integrate teaching, research and outreach for taking on world problems through disciplinary means. In other words the ability to apply the academic knowledge in practice and becoming professionals in that sense. As per the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCEAR), India has more than 12 million science and engineering graduates of which only 10 per cent are employable. Using ‘whole’ university and integrating the recent trends in higher education. Also integrating entrepreneurial and traditional functions needed for the well being of the society (Narasimharao and Nair, 2010). Combining good science with the complexities of business, intellectual property protection, social sciences and a regulatory environment. Developing the ability to tap intellectual and other resources available with all stake holders of higher education.

Addressing Knowledge Economy in Indian Context This section is meant only to give a suggestive idea on the kind of issues and developments that may play a part in addressing knowledge economy in Indian context. It is not a comprehensive account covering all aspects. The points are discussed under the four broad heads of KE four pillars for convenience. It is also necessary to take note of the SWOT analysis shown in Table 2.

Education and Skill Development Knowledge based economy raises the educational bar of a person in order to be employable. Employability of a person is an important aspect to

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

be highlighted in the knowledge era and as such there is more number of unemployable graduates in countries like India (out of 12 million science and engineering graduates only 10% are employable). How we can improve the employability of graduates? In the first place it is necessary to overcome the primary problems of-focusing on certification rather than on knowledge; and focusing more on numbers rather than on the kind of products we are bringing out. In the second place the educational institutes should be able to turn out students who can apply their knowledge in non-academic sectors. For instance Vijyendra and Narasimharao (2011) discussed how to prepare professional microbiologists for food industry. The whole issue is how one design and treat the subject matter. Narasimharao, Sashidhara Prasad and Nair (2011) discussed how natural sciences need to be oriented for professionalizing university education. They argued that preparing science graduates (or any other graduate) towards a professional orientation will enable them to apply their knowledge in real world situation (ability of using a particular knowledge in practice). In knowledge era this is an essential trait for contributing to the development of society. For instance a person who can apply his or her knowledge of physics, chemistry or biology will be able to address serious issues faced in civic bodies (health related issues, water treatment, unhygienic practices, water conversation, promoting good cultural practices etc). Professional orientation is different from applied in that it orients the person to be able to take up activities and relationships that cross boundaries between departments/disciplines and between the higher education institutes and corporate organizations. Each discipline may have to be treated in different ways. Preparing professionals in different fields like agriculture, biotechnology, engineering, microbiology industries, food industries, chemi-

cal industries, medical therapy, banking, service industry, and civic society organizations may be important from KE point of view. A detailed discussion on some of these is done in separate chapters in this book. Another important aspect in addressing knowledge economy is developing local capacity. In this connection it may be relevant to mention here that the report on renovation and rejuvenation of higher education in India (Yash Pal, 2009) emphasizes the need for universities to be able to guide and lead the vocational education growth so that they become part of higher education. In knowledge economy, improving the quality of vocational education by removing the stigmas attached (taking it only as a last resort in education or taking it by people who scored less marks in plus two level or social status attached to it) is essential for more people adopting it for developing local capacity. The local skill development may be clubbed with training and preparing the unemployed arts, science and humanities students in vocational jobs by integrating their disciplinary knowledge with skill development.

Innovations The scientific developments that influenced our civilization are mostly the result of scientific innovations from universities. In the last decade or so the concept of National Innovation system (NIS) is emerging where all the players of society interact with each other. Metcalfe (1995) refers to the NIS as ‘a system of interconnected institutions to create, store and transfer the knowledge, skills and artifacts which define new technologies’. One of the problems developing countries face is compartmentalization of major actors and their acting in isolation of each other (Yokakul and Zawdie, 2009). Universities have to take a lead role by adopting models and concepts that help in more collaborations and cooperation for innovation.

9

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Building Networks This is one of the great tasks the developing countries like India face. It is not only creation of knowledge networks including ICT infrastructure and social networks but also using tacit and explicit knowledge available. The transfer of knowledge can happen through socialization, externalization, internalization and combination (Sveiby, 1997). There are various efforts for building knowledge networks for transfer of knowledge between different players. Some of them are Japanese Regional innovation system (RIS) through ‘industrial cluster initiative’ and ‘knowledge cluster initiative’ (Kitagawa, 2009); Centre of excellence and relevance for specific spectrum of technologies (NBIC – nanotechnologies, biotechnologies, biomedicine, information technologies and cognitive neuroscience) and integrating research, development and commercialization (Beerkens, 2009). The concepts like outreach programmes, corporate education, cluster concept, community colleges etc may help in building knowledge networks. The outreach and engagement model is discussed in one of the chapters in this book. Similarly the Open Distance Learning and its potential for corporate education are discussed in another chapter.

Regulatory Environment Though the regulatory environment relates to all players of KE, we focus more on regulatory environment in relation to higher education. There are several papers published on the issues faced by Indian higher education system. Though there are many positive developments that are happening in Indian higher education system these are eclipsed by some of the major issues listed by Balaram (2005) – universities appearing to be sinking with politicization (as evident in the appointments of vice chancellors), negligible importance given to academic performance, professors who do no

10

research and do little teaching, fall in scholarly output as evident from the quality and quantity of papers published, mechanization of education with hard steel moulds of syllabuses and examinations, deadly routine of formal teaching, and administration that dominates the outlook of the universities. Narasimharao (2008) discussed how the outlook in a university changes once the vice chancellor was changed after a prescribed term and how whatever innovative and new programmes he started were stalled. This kind of regulatory environment may not be able to support innovations, collaborations in the education system. There is a need to bring change from within.

Becoming a Global Leader in Knowledge Economy This section brings some live examples on how to become a global leader in KE relating them to some issues of higher education in India.

Improving Products and Processes The products and processes are to be optimized using the knowledge (competition, reducing production costs of high tech products, purchasing power of the public etc.). We need to prepare the people towards this end. This is evident from every industry and especially so in the technology industry. In the late 1980s to early 1990s a personal computer would end up costing a consumer something in the range of $1500 for a desktop machine and a laptop would cost even more. Even in the face of inflation, the cost of a personal computer has gone south due to the competition between corporations as well as improved productivity in all aspects of making a computer. This is but one example amongst several in various different industry sectors. Productivity, competition, and technological advances have ensured that what used to be a luxury at one time is becoming a thing of common with time. This is also com-

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

monly known as the trickle-down effect; where the latest technology is initially available only to the rich people in society, but with time and the above stated effects, these luxuries start becoming the norm even for the common man. India has the potential to be a global technology leader in software and even in such areas as automobiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and even engineering equipment. One of the critical issues for the future success of Indian industry is the improvement of science and engineering education. While the academic institutions and private sector can work towards improving the situation in India, it is also crucial that the government policy makers are also aware of the needs and dependence of the Indian economy on the upliftment of the overall educational levels of science and engineering in the country.

Establishing Good Communication and Interactive Mechanisms Another important area for knowledge economy is establishing good communication and interactive mechanisms among those who are concerned. Universities can take cue from what is happening around. In this the role of media may be important. For instance, Media played a key role in the Korean turn around after the financial crisis of Mexico in 1995 (http://web.worldbank.org/ WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/WBIPROGRAMS/ KFDLP/0,,contentMDK:21014147~menuPK:2 500572~pagePK:64156158~piPK:64152884~t heSitePK:461198,00.html). For many Koreans the financial crisis in Mexico was just an event in a remote part of the world, but for the Maeil Business Newspaper (MBN), one of the major media groups in Korea, it was a strong wakeup call indicating that a similar crisis was possible in Korea. MBN created a Knowledge Project Team (KPT) to cover knowledge economy issues on a regular basis. The KPT proposed to representa-

tives of the global media and knowledge intensive companies within Korea to cooperate and build up the infrastructure for building Korea into knowledge based economy. Though India has developed different ICT technologies they are not fully tapped in the higher education context as well as KE context. The different possibilities of the potential of technologies can be seen from developments like use of mobile media learning (Squire, 2009), world wide web, online virtual higher education, telematics in education and the like (Alessi and Trollip, 2001). Strategies for using ICT for corporate education are discussed in another chapter.

Knowledge Production and Other Players of KE The role of other players in knowledge economy cannot be neglected by the universities. The universities should develop appropriate strategies and approaches to have a close partnership with government, industry and other players of the society. A few decades back the telecommunication industry in India was suffering and was far from becoming independent let alone becoming a leader in the telecom sector. Recognizing the need for the country to have self-reliance in the telecommunications sector, Mr. Sam Pitroda gave a proposal to the then Prime Minister of India, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi to set up an R&D organization for the design and development of indigenous telecom technologies. This was the origin of C-DOT and a revolution in the telecom sector in India. Creation of C-DOT (Center for Development of Telematics) as an autonomous entity was due to an amalgamation of political organizations with independent research organizations such as the TIFR (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). C-DOT is one initiative to show how education and knowledge can make a difference.

11

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

C-DOT is evident as a predecessor of how political organizations, educational institutions, and private sector can join forces for a much larger charter such as making India into knowledge based economy in many sectors other than just telecommunication. As Magrath (2006) observed universities of 21st Century are great educational enterprises with lot of knowledge pool available within its faculty and staff. They should use this great talent to serve society by just not serving university needs but community needs as well. In the knowledge economy the paradigm of knowledge production changes to multi-contextual, socially distributed, multidisciplinary and also subject to multiple accountabilities. That means universities cannot work in isolation but through various engagements with local economy covering infrastructure development, education and training, effective partnerships with community/ industry, technological innovation and community development. There should be systematic effort by the university and society for sharing knowledge in close association.

Knowledge Integration Elements In Knowledge integration all players have to take active role. In Figure 2 knowledge integration elements in relation to Biotechnology is given (Narasimharao, 2010a). There are five broad categories identified – knowledge parameters, knowledge creators or producers, knowledge integration facilitators, human capital development, and knowledge integration mechanisms. The importance given to degree awarding (counting the numbers) by universities resulted in producing students without appropriate knowledge (Lal, 2009, Vijyendra and Narasimharao, 2011). For instance, Narasimharao (2010a) points out that the overall work of the academy need to be more relevant to the nation’s most pressing civic, social, economic and moral problems and there is urgent need to have a fresh look at the approaches followed in biotechnology education

12

and training. This is true for all other disciplines. The issues in biotechnology education and training are discussed in a separate chapter. Universities need to work more closely with various stake holders of higher education to recognize the present and future requirements and to be able to mutually share the explicit and tacit knowledge available.

KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY AND CORPORATIONS In this section with the help of some of the statistical data available from literature with regard to software industry on points like man power requirements, technology advances and their introduction in the industry, different kinds of jobs available in the industry and their knowledge and skill requirements are discussed. How corporations try to cope up with the knowledge society demands are discussed. Some of these include training their staff through internal mechanisms, establishing corporate universities, establishing partnerships with universities/colleges, investing in the communities, in which they do business for development of skills among youth, funding for research or educational programmes etc. The technology industry is itself going through some revolutionary changes with the computer industry leading the way. We take here the example of transistor though we can take many recent developments as the entire digital revolution started from here and can be dated back to the late 1940s. A transistor is the crucial component of any electronic device and can be viewed similar to a faucet, which controls the flow of water through pipes. Similarly, the transistor controls the flow of electrons through devices and wire in a certain order to accomplish a desirable function. The three people credited with the invention of the transistor are William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell Labs which is the research wing of the large American corporation AT&T. The Field

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Figure 2. Knowledge integration elements in biotechnology (Narasimharao 2010a)

Effect Transistor (FET) very quickly replaced its predecessor which was the bulky and power hungry vacuum tube transistors. Very soon, the industry got into the act and the first one to start using the FET or junction transistor was Texas Instruments, which began using them for the production of portable radios. In the 1960s Sony Corporation began to manufacture television sets using transistors and soon after that the vacuum tube technology became obsolete. Along with the invention of the junction transistor came the desire for miniaturization and to convert everything from analog to a digital world. The trend for converting an analog world into a digital world is still continuing and the changes are still very evident in our current society. The driving force behind the miniaturization and conversion to a digital world is due to something

called an integrated chip. The early transistors were manufactured as individual devices which could then be assembled onto a printed circuit board (PCB) to make complex devices out of the simple transistors. A combination of several simple transistors in a given order can be formed to create complex designs. An example of such a complex device can be the transistor radio which constituted several transistors, capacitors, and resistors, amongst other devices, to capture signals out of the air and convert them to voices on the radio. Even radios that were made from these transistors were quite bulky compared to the radios that that we see today. Today’s radios use integrated circuits (ICs) and have a lot more functionality and consume a lot less power than what their predecessors had.

13

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

An integrated circuit, or IC as it is commonly known, is a small semiconductor chip that can hold anywhere from hundreds to millions of transistors, resistors, and capacitors on a semiconductor die that is no more than 1cm by 1cm or even smaller. One of the most complex integrated circuit is the microprocessor which contains millions of transistors and can perform very complex computations in the matter of a fraction of a second. A microprocessor or CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the heart of every computer. It is this CPU along with the software that sits on the CPU that allows scientists to perform extremely complex calculations to determine the exact path that a space shuttle should follow, as well as the very mundane tasks of delivering email messages and surfing the World Wide Web. Integrated circuits can singularly be credited with the exponential growth in the progress of technology and along with it the economic growth that is being seen across the world. In this section we will delve into four different areas where computer technology or integrated circuits have brought about rapid change, and then look into what the educational institutions can do to enhance this effect. The way that the transistor was developed in conjunction with researchers from AT&T Bell Labs (William Shockley and Walter Brattain) and researchers from the University of Minnesota (John Bardeen) is a great example of how collaboration without competition can lead to innovation which can sometimes change the way the world works. It is this kind of collaboration that needs to be encouraged and developed. This requires a change of mind-set in both industry and academia – managers in corporations typically view working with academia as beneficial only to the extent that it advances the company towards its near term goals, and researchers in academia typically view large corporations and government only as funding organizations which are a necessary evil which are required for them to continue their research. After all, industries look for timely results and research does not always lead to timely outcomes that can provide immediate 14

benefit to the industry. It is important to develop a long-term context and relationship and define the strategic goals of the collaboration instead of the near term benefit to the industry or university. The prime example of a knowledge economy at work is the way in which the research done at academic institutions transitions from the academic world into the business world. There are many examples of companies that had their first seed in the academic world and went onto become successful commercial ventures. Some very well known companies that had their genesis in the academic world are Google, Sun Microsystems, Yahoo, Facebook, and Genentech. These are but a few corporations that are well known names amongst several dozens of startup companies that spring up every year. There is a separate chapter on preparing bio-entrepreneurs. One can say the science of business in biotechnology started with the establishment of Genentech in 1976 by venture capitalist, Robert Swanson and professor of a University, Herbert Boyer who co-invented recombinant DNA technology. One interesting fact to note is that many of the startup companies that are founded each year have a tendency to be located in small sectors such as the Silicon Valley in California which also happens to be the place where prominent universities such as Stanford University are located. It is not just by coincidence that this has happened; this is a prime example of how the knowledge economy works. While discovering new methods and widgets is great for academia, it doesn’t stop there. The forcing function for converting that into corporations is the forcing function that comes into play to take it to the next step of converting an idea into dollars for the originators of the idea, and also providing jobs for technologists. The key factor is that when an idea transforms into a corporation it attracts other smart people through jobs who in turn take the idea to the next level and continue to make something useful into something even more useful. Kleiwer et al., (2013) discusses on how Southside Virginia developed into a prosperous state through establishing ties with Virginia tech.

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

While it is easy to see the transition from academia to the corporate world, there is the other side to the coin that information and funding flows back from the corporations to the academic world also and breeds the knowledge required for the next generation. The changing nature of the technology has also dictated changes to the academic world. While a few decades back there were no courses in computer technology, now every engineering college boasts of several degrees in various fields of computer technology. Most engineering colleges have degree offerings in computer science and computer engineering to distinguish the focus on software and hardware respectively. More recently, universities are offering courses focused on computer networking and other niche areas within the overall computer technology. This phenomenon is not unique to computer technology; similar is the case with many other areas such as bio-technology, nano technology, material science, mechanical engineering, etc. There are detailed discussions on biotechnology and nanotechnology and microbiology in separate chapters. As noted by the February 2, 2012 edition of the San Francisco Business Times, the intellectual property (IP) developed by the University of California at Berkeley was a prime reason for the startup of more than 140 companies in the last two decades. The article goes on to list some of the companies such as Affymetrix Inc., Chiron Corp., Biosciences Inc. etc. that were started by researchers from UC Berkeley. One other such company is Dust Networks Inc. which was started by electrical engineer Kris Pister, who has also gone on to quote that starting this company also made him into a better teacher and in his own words “Now, when I interact with students, I impress upon them the importance of thinking of research in the context of how the technology will fit into the real world.” This kind of a situation is a win-win situation for both academia and industry. Startup companies that are short on cash need not invest large amounts in their own R&D labs and can access readily available IP for their products which generated revenue and

the universities benefit by selling the IP as well as their alumni giving back to their alma mater towards further research. While there are many fields like biotechnology, pharmacy, food science, agriculture, and plant science in which the corporate world interacts with the academic world, we will focus on telecommunication that has seen significant impact due to knowledge expansion and explosion of discoveries through interaction between universities and corporations. The telecommunication industry has seen exponential change in the last decade. It was not too long back when making a telephone call to someone required advance planning and standing in line to make out of state long distance calls. Inhome telephones were a luxury that was affordable only by the wealthy in India not too long back. In the late 1990s due to liberalization on the part of the government, India’s telecommunication industry underwent a high pace of growth. Today India has the second largest cellphone subscriber base with over 800 million people. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, a big part of this growth can be attributed to the excellent collaboration between government agencies, corporations and academia. The government played a critical role in the way the policies have been changed in the country to become more liberal and open to foreign corporations to do business in India, the technology has seen great changes in several forms that have come from the academia and industry together, and finally one cannot leave out the fact that the competition between corporations has helped to significantly bring down the price of not only owning a cell phone but also making a phone call or accessing the internet via smart phones. In many of the Western countries, it is common to see the engineering colleges and every university that offer an engineering degree offer courses in VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) Engineering (the technology for designing and manufacturing of integrated circuits), courses in networking, communications, computer architecture/hardware, and computer software. Telecom15

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

munication technology is an amalgamation of all these and other areas of engineering. Knowledge in all these areas along with a vision is the key for development and proliferation of new technology in the telecommunication industry. Once the technology is in place, it is left to a different kind of visionaries to package all this in the form that will capture the fancy and pocket book of the masses. One such visionary was the late Steve Jobs who as CEO of Apple Inc. was credited with the concept of bringing in touch technology to the smart phones (iPhone) from where it has become common place for every smart phone to have a touch interface. Similar kind of developments in other fields is possible through collaborations and cooperation between different players. In this the concept of corporate education for KE may help.

CONCLUSION Though India is poised to become one of the world leaders in knowledge economy it has much to do to achieve this goal. There is an urgent need to evolve strategies to beneficially use the several advantages India has. In the whole process universities are crucial players and they should not act like Ivory towers of higher education. They not only have to prepare the young graduates in the right direction to be able to contribute to knowledge economy but also have to use the great educational talent available with them to contribute to the knowledge society. Though there are examples where universities and research they carryout has contributed immensely to develop certain sectors like telecommunications, and computer science; there is much desired to be done. It may be said that universities need a different approach as explained by Narasimharao et al., (2011) with regard to natural sciences. Some of the examples given in this chapter indicate how universities contribute towards knowledge economy in some of the western countries. Though India need not copy them, it does need to develop its own model of education 16

as emphasized by Yashpal committee (2009) on Renovation and Rejuvenation of higher education. Similarly the NKC (2006-9) gave several suggestions for making Indian universities more responsive to knowledge society. There is much work need to be done in this direction. The universities need to evolve or adopt strategies not only for meeting the needs of corporate bodies but also for making the ‘whole’ university work towards societal goals. Knowledge Economy and Corporate education are to be seen in a holistic view and the universities should not lose the concept of ‘University of Culture’ as explained by Readings (2006). The academics of the university need to be prepared to incorporate both entrepreneurial and the traditional role of the university by evolving appropriate strategies. As Liyanage and Diaz Andrade (2012) points out universities have responsibilities to provide intellectual leadership in shaping knowledge economy for sustainable futures and environmentally responsible entrepreneurial nations—not as institutions just awarding academic degrees. In this the concept of corporate education at universities combining the cultural and entrepreneurial role may help.

REFERENCES Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn&Bacon. Balram, P. (2005). Reinventing our universities. Current Science, 88, 529–530. Barker, D. (2004). The scholarship of engagement: Taxonomy of five emerging practices. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 9(2), 123–137. Barth, M., Godemann, J., Rieckman, M., & Stoltenberg, U. (2007). Developing key competencies for sustainable development in higher education. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 8(4), 416–430. doi:10.1108/14676370710823582

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Beerkens, E. (2009). Centres of excellence and relevance: The contextualisation of global models. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 153–175. doi:10.1177/097172180801400106 Boyer, E. (1996). The scholarship of engagement. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 9(1), 11–20. Cech, T. R. (1999). Science at liberal arts colleges: A better education? In Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Distinctively American (pp. 195–216). The Residential Liberal Arts Colleges.

Guzzetta, D. J. (1982). Education’s quiet revolution: Changes and challenges. Change, 14(6), 10–11, 60. Houghton, J., & Sheehan, P. (2000). A primer on the knowledge economy. Melbourne City, Australia: Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Victoria University Publication. Retrieved from http://www.cfses.com/documents/knowledgeeconprimer.pdf Jacob, K. K. (2006). Why India can be global knowledge economy leader. Retrieved from http:// www.rediff.com/money/2006/nov/11guest.htm

Crowther, D., & Carter, C. (2002). Legitimating irrelevance: Management education in higher education institutions. International Journal of Educational Management, 16(6), 268–278. doi:10.1108/09513540210441227

Kitagawa, F. (2009). Universities-industry links and regional development in Japan: Connecting excellence and relevance? Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 1–33. doi:10.1177/097172180801400101

Drucker, P. (1994, November). The age of social transformation. Atlantic (Boston, Mass.), 54.

Kliewer, B. W., Sandmann, L. R., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2013). Corporate – university partnerships: The outreach and engagement model. In Narasimharao, B. P. R., Rangappa, K. S., & Fulzele, T. U. (Eds.), Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries – Role of universities. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Etzkowitz, H., Dzisah, J., Ranga, M., & Zhou, C. (2007). The triple helix model of innovation. Asia Pacific Tech Monitor, 24(1), 14–22. Ghose, T. K. (2006). Academic realities of biotechnology education in India. Indian Chemical Engineering Section B, 48, 201–206. Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotony, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., & Trow, M. (1994). The new production of knowledge: The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London, UK: Sage Publications. Gunasekara, C. (2004). Universities and communities: A case study of change in the management of a university. Prometheus, 22(2), 201–211. doi:10.1080/0810902042000218373 Gunasekara, C. (2006). Academia and industry – The generative and developmental roles of universities in regional innovation systems. Science & Public Policy, 33(2), 137–150. doi:10.3152/147154306781779118

Lal, R. (2010). Microbiology and biotechnology education in India. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 50, 251–252. doi:10.1007/s12088-010-0064-3 LaMore, R. L., & Supanich Goldner, F. (n.d.). Capacity in the global knowledge economy – Assessment and steps to take. Retrieved September 18, 2012, from http://www.municipaltoolkit.org/ UserFiles/LaMore&Supanich-Goldner_EN.pdf Liyanage, S., & Diaz Andrade, A. (2012). The changing role of research and education in New Zealand universities. Science, Technology & Society, 17(2), 201–232. doi:10.1177/097172181101700202

17

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Magrath, C. P. (2006). Outreach now: Inventing the future through engagement. VA: The Inn at Virginia Tech and Skelton Conference Center Blacksburg. Metcalfe, S. (1995). The economic foundation of technology policy: Equilibrium and evolutionary perspectives. In Stoneman, P. (Ed.), Handbook of the economics of innovation and technological change. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2008). India as a global leader in knowledge economy. Current Science, 95(6), 704–706. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009). Knowledge economy and knowledge society – Role of university outreach programmes. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 119–151. doi:10.1177/097172180801400105 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010a). Biotechnology education and societal demands – Challenges faced by biotechnology and human resources development. Social Responsibility, 6(1), 72–90. doi:10.1108/17471111011024568 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010b). Tertiary education institutions for corporate education – Need and relevance of corporate education centres. SRRNet, Discussion papers in social responsibility, No.1003. Retrieved from www.socialresponsibility.biz Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2013). Strategies for developing academic abilities for corporate education – Relevance of outreach and engagement for developing countries. In Ahmed, A., & Crowther, C. (Eds.), Education and corporate social responsibility: International perspectives. UK: Emerald publishers.

18

Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Nair, P. R. R. (2010). Universities and corporate education, 21st century social responsibility of developing countries. SRRNet, Discussion papers in social responsibility, No.1002. Retrieved from www.socialresponsibility.biz Narasimharao, B. P. R., Nair, P. R. R., & Naidu, C. G. (2011). Corporate education in universities: Expanding the boundaries of scholarship. University News, 49(12), 10–18. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Shashidhara Prasad, J., & Nair, P. R. R. (2011). Corporate education in natural sciences – A professional approach for universities. Current Science, 101(11), 1421–1424. Narayanamurthy, N. R. (2012). Report of the Committee on Corporate participation in Higher Education. Planning Commission of India. Retrieved from www.sarkaritel.com/tag/corporateparticipation-in-higher-education National Knowledge Commission (NKC). (20062009). National Knowledge Commission Report to the nation, 2006-2009. Government of India, New Delhi. Retrieved from http://www.knowledgecommission.gov.in Nelson, R. R. (1993). National innovation systems: A comparative analysis. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Pitroda, S. (2007). Address to delegates of CALIBER (Convention on Automation of Libraries in Education and Research) and interaction from Chicago, 5th International CALIBER, 2007 organised by INFLIBNET Centre, Ahmedabad in collaboration with Panjab University, Chandigarh, 9–10 February 2007.

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

Readings, B. (1996). The university in ruins. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Ruthnaswamy, M. (1955). The new idea of a university. Journal of the Annamalai University, February, 1955. Sandmann, L. R. (2008). Conceptualization of the scholarship of engagement in higher education: A strategic review, 1996-2006. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(1), 91–104. Schiller, D., & Brimble, P. (2009). Capacity building for university-industry linkages in developing countries: The case of Thai higher education development project. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 59–92. doi:10.1177/097172180801400103 Schuster, S. M. (2008). Critical skills in biotechnology education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 36(1), 68–69. doi:10.1002/ bmb.20158 Squire, K. (2009). Mobile media learning: multiplicities of place. Horizon, 17(1), 70–80. doi:10.1108/10748120910936162

Sveiby, K.-E. (1997). The new organizational wealth: Managing and measuring knowledge based assets. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Vijyendra, S. V. N., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2011). Preparing microbiology professionals for food industry. Indian Food Industry, 30(5 & 6), 32–43. World Bank report. (2007). Building knowledge economies – Advanced strategies for development. Washington DC: World Bank Institute, Knowledge for Development Program (K4D). YashPal Committee. (2009). Report of ‘The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education.’ Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, India. Retrieved November 7, 2009, from http://www. education.nic.in/ Yokakul, N., & Zawadie, G. (2009). The role of triple helix for promoting social capital, industrial technology and innovation in the SME sector in Thailand. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 93–117. doi:10.1177/097172180801400104

19

Knowledge Economy and Corporate Education

APPENDIX Knowledge parameters: • Applied (practical) knowledge, basic knowledge, • Specialized knowledge • Tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge Knowledge creators: • Joint Education and training programmes • Universities run enterprises, spin-offs, and incubators • Science parks, new high-tech industrial parks • Joint Research Labs, Joint Research Projects • Industry outreach, University outreach • Professional education • Research labs at Universities, Research institutes, MNCs Knowledge integration facilitators: • Manufacturing Clusters • University outreach programmes and outreach research • Co-development – interdisciplinary curricula, skills and education • Joint committees to discuss the issues of production, human capital and social capital • Pedagogical exchange, • Networks and spaces for Knowledge exchange • Education and communication technologies, Education systems Human capital development: • Domestic unskilled labor migrants • Entrepreneurship courses • Skills education • Special Interest Groups (SIGs) • Transnational technology community • Job specific special courses Knowledge integration mechanisms: • Knowledge transfer, knowledge exchange • Knowledge integration communities • Thinking along, Localized interactive learning • Rules and directives • Sequencing and routines and Group problem solving

20

21

Chapter 2

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education: A Case Study in Accountancy from Turkey Evren Dilek Şengür Istanbul Universitesi, Turkey Aslı Beyhan Acar Istanbul Universitesi, Turkey

ABSTRACT Corporate education is centred on introducing learning techniques to stimulate employees to think about what their organisation does, where it is heading, potential new opportunities for the organisation, and new and better ways of doing things. While the role of corporate training is to develop the operational competency of individuals, the purpose of corporate education is to promote the development of capability of both an individual and their organisation. Organizations operating in knowledge economies require a workforce that has knowledge about other business functions along with their specilized area. In the last decade corporate training turned into corporate education in Turkey. As an important business function, accounting is one of the most preferential training subject in Turkey. The purpose of the chapter is to identify differences between corporate education and corporate training. Additionally, the study explains growing importance of corporate education in accounting area for Turkish business life.

INTRODUCTION Over the past several decades, a number of scholars and commentators have argued that the leading edge of the economy in developing countries has become driven by technologies based on knowl-

edge and information production and dissemination. There is some consensus that a mismatch exists between certain workers’ skills and the types of jobs that typify a knowledge economy. Technological change is often painted as one of the culprits for the growing wage inequality and

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch002

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

increasing educational wage differentials in the U.S. labor market. Researchers generally agree that technological change has increased the demand for highly skilled labor relative to the demand for low-skilled labor (Powell & Kaisa, 2004). Perceptions of the role of human interventions in economic transactions have changed. Appreciation of an individual’s physical labour and ability to regulate and co-ordinate has given way to an emphasis on potential contribution to the production and application of knowledge. As knowledge will play a dominant role in organisations, not only at the top but at all levels, the day to day work environment should favour learning processes that support, it’s can be described as the process of ‘knowledge productivity’ (Kessels, 2001). The concept of management science is best understood within the framework of post-modern learning theories. The post-modern notion that all existence is interrelated can be applied to organizational learning by way of management science-purposing toward a new awareness. Peter Pawlowsky (2003) defines this organizational learning approach as the “transformation of informational and knowledge resources in integrated work systems.” He adds that innovation, growth, and productivity gains do not result from separating tasks in the workflow of a knowledge-intensive operation but rather from integrating and combining knowledge in order to develop new ideas and jointly develop solutions through problem-solving processes (Dierkes et al., 2003). In the postmodern marketplace, there is no ‘’best practice’’ to be followed, and new things need to be invented and discovered. That is why organizations need to become adaptive, to become ‘’learning organizations” capable of getting information from the changing environment and to develop the most appropriate solutions to address new problems (Crocetti, 2002). Knowledge has become a commodity as a consequence of industrialisation and society’s entry into the post-modern age. The new knowledge

22

economy in which it is the role of universities to train new knowledge workers to serve nation states in order to make them globally competitive (Thornton, 2001). The education and skills of the workforce has become the key competitive weapon for the 21st century. Peter Drucker (1993) also stated that knowledge becomes the critical resource in wealth creation of society in this post-industrial era. The foundation of the post-industrial society is built on managing knowledge and continuous learning. The effectiveness and efficiency of the public service is an important element in this global competition (Malek Shah Bin Mohd). Corporate leaders must keep in mind that the proper implementation of the learning organization will definitely bring tangible and measurable results. Several empirical studies on the practice and effectiveness of the learning have been done. The researchers found a positive correlation between the company’s financial performance and the learning organization concept (Ermakov, 2010). Industries undergoing technological change increase their demand for educated workers because education increases an individual’s ability to learn new things and to adapt to environmental changes (Bartel, 1989). Learning organization concept requires key personnel (such as accounting, marketing or purchasing manager) to gain knowledge in all functions of business and perform continuous improvement in their tasks through analysing several functions of business. As one of the most important functions of a business, accounting provides information to help in making decisions about organisations by linking other information systems such as marketing, personnel, research and development, purchasing and production. In line with the learning organizations, accountants should expand their knowledge and expertise in other functions of business through training and education. To be successful an accountant must have organizational and business knowledge that helps accountants to understand work environment

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

and economic forces that affect organizations. An accountant must also bring to the practice several general skills such as communication skills, intellectual skills, and interpersonal skills (American Accounting Association, 1989). As a consequence, the importance of education in accounting area has been increasing drastically. Increasingly complex business transactions, global economic integration, activities of multinational corporations, and the convergence of financial reporting standards increased demand for intelligent and well educated accountants. To meet these challenges, accountants should develop and maintain their competence through corporate education (Feucht et al., 2011).

Corporate Training Training and development are important components of human resource development in an organization. It is necessary to maintain and improve the capability and capacity of the workforce to deliver their services. Continuous staff training based on the training needs is critical to adapt skills for future organizational needs, improve individual job satisfaction, redeploy staff, enhance career and employment prospects and to take advantage of technological progress (Malek Shah Bin). Training does not only belong to the human resources and training department of an organization. Training processes are part of most company activities, and training needs arise within different company branches. A knowledge management integrated perspective makes training really effective (Crocetti, 2002).

Corporate Education Corporate education refers to a system of professional development activities provided to educate employees. It may consist of formal university or college training or informal training provided by

non-collegiate institutions. The simplest form of corporate education may be training programs design “in-house” for an organization that may wish to train their employees on specific aspects of their job processes or responsibilities (Ryan, 2010). The traditional significance of education as a means to impart information and to provide skills has become secondary. Henceforth, educational programmes in organisations shall emphasise learning as a means of improving internal knowledge productivity. This evolution is already in progress following the introduction of concepts such as ‘the learning organisation’ and ‘the intelligent organisation’. In this context the role of corporate education can be described as the course of action open to an organisation, for influencing the necessary competencies of managers and employees, that contribute to goal-oriented changes in their performance and in their work environment, thus striving for a desired impact on the organisation, by applying planned learning activities and the resulting learning processes (Kessels, 2001). Today the system of supplementary professional education (SPE) the main institutionalized subunit that is oriented toward “adult learners”. In addition to educational institutions for such learners, in which the founders are state structures and major enterprises and corporations, there are a number of nonstate educational institutions or autonomous noncommercial organizations, whose main charter activity is the provision of educational services to the adult population (Kliucharev, 2010). The corporate sector can be of much help in the reduction of poverty by taking initiatives in the development of education and skill formation in the rural Indian economic sector (Raj, 2008). Like India, the companies, especially operate in rural areas of Turkey, aim to develop their workers’ competancies by offering them corporate education programs.

23

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Employers such as businesses, hospitals, social service agencies and government offer a tremendous amount of education to their employee (Cervero, 2001). We can say that in Turkey one of the most demandable corporate education program in organizations is corporate management education. Corporate management education can be defined as “any award or non award-bearing programme of study that is developed and run by a university with the involvement of a company or group of companies” (Prince & Stewart, 2000). There is growing discussion in the literature on education partnerships being formed between universities and corporations to deliver customised corporate education programmes. This corporate education trend was first quantified by Bedar (1999) who found more than 50 percent of corporations world-wide with corporate universities were planning to use existing or future partnerships with accredited universities to grant degrees. According to Bedar (1999), the primary streams for corporate education are in the areas of business and management, engineering, computer science, and finance/accounting. Furthermore, about two thirds of those surveyed already had some form of alliance with a university (Ryan, 2009).

The Differences between Corporate Training and Corporate Education Training is usually what a company, corporation, or an institution may offer to its employees to update their skills in performing a specific task, such as learning particular or new aspects of a software title, or acquiring new specific skills. Training usually takes place during short and intensive sessions. Usually training is not indented to educate individuals to achieve high levels of performance. Education goes further than training, as it introduces you to general fundamental concepts. In a manner that may be applicable to more than just one particular program or environment. Education spans a much longer time frame than training, such as a life time. Education can also

24

include training, or “how to” sessions, addressing specific technical issues aside from its main constitution of theoretical knowledge (Northern Virginia Community College). Education is the process, then, of setting oneself free. Education is the means by which the dynamic quality of human nature seeks to call the static order into question. When humans are engaged in education, education then becomes the means by which humans learn to call the existing order into question (Hale, 2007). Professional education interventions aimed at facilitating the achievement of organizational goals, while at the same time ensuring the full utilization of the knowledge and skills of employees (Garavan et al., 1995). Corporate education focuses on developing the capability of an organisation to be able to do things and, in particular, the right things in order to be a sustainable and successful organisation. Corporate training programs are often competency based and related to the essential training employees need to operate certain equipment or perform certain tasks in a competent, safe and effective manner. Corporate education, adds some dimension and depth to training by involving learners as participants in generating new knowledge that assists an organisation to develop and evolve, rather than maintain the status quo (Ryan, 2010).

The Development of Corporate Education in Turkey A new interpretation of lifelong learning emerged, which enlarged the conception of education in turn. In order to adapt to all these transformations, the most important educational institutions –universities– have gone through restructuring processes and gained new entrepreneurial features. To deal with the above explained transformations, universities created several innovative tools one of which is the unit of university continuing education (UCE) (Celik, 2007).

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

In developing countries, universities may need to define new boundaries to scholarship so that the old paradigm of internally driven taxonomy of disciplines give place to a new paradigm of knowledge production that was socially distributed, application-oriented, trans-disciplinary, and subject to multiple accountabilities (Narasimharao, 2010). As a developing country, in Turkey nearly 90% of the companies are family-owned company and many of these are in the process of institutionalisation. In this process many companies need corporate education programs from universities or other education institutions such as consultancy firms. Almost all universities in Turkey have “continuing education centers“ and their in-house education programs can be way to educate employees or managers and CEOs in the process of institutionalisation. Continuing Education Center’s advisers in universities are usually academic staffs and they follow the economic, social developments and changes that have impact on business environment. As a difference from MBA, corporate educational programs offer more specific and customized programs in order to meet the demand of corporations. There are 169 universities in Turkey and many of them organize corporate education programs by their Continuing Education Centers. These programs sometimes organize medium-term certificate programs for companies as “in house” programs. They include all framework of business such as finance, accounting, human resources management, organizational behavior, management, marketing, production etc. As different programs from open education programs, these can be designed particularly for a company. So companies have oppotunity to discuss their own cases during the programs with academic view. Different departmants’ workers join the programs and this brings interdisciplinary qualification to the programs.

MOVING FROM CORPORATE TRAINING TO CORPORATE EDUCATION University-Business partnership has being common in Turkey since 2000s. As a result of this, the demand of corporate education espicially in business area is increasing. Globalization and transition to knowledge-based economy, has the effect on this tendency. Today’s business world is more dynamic and complex than ever before. Advancing technology, proliferating regulations, globalization of commerce and complex transactions make the environment in which organizations operate extremely challenging. As a consequence of such developments employees must gain and apply a wide range of capabilities to serve the businesses. In this context, in Turkey, there is a rapid transformation form corporate training to corporate education with the purpose of meeting the increased demand of business environment.

Reasons In a compatitive business enviroment, sustainibility is important for organizations. Globalization, knowledge-based economy, some of socioeconomic factors like unemloyment problem, adjust the demand of corporate education. These main reasons are mentioned below:

Globalization There are three distinct waves of globalization: The first wave involved students traveling to a host country to study at a chosen institution. The second wave, termed a process of “forward integration,”involved institutions establishing a presence in international markets. The emerging third wave involved the creation of branch campuses in foreign markets and the development of on-line delivery of courses for an audience that was geographically dispersed. There are several

25

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

reasons for this change in the pace of internationalization of higher education, including: increased levels of competition, expanding global markets, and application of new technologies. The AsiaPacific region is currently riding the third wave of globalization in the higher education sector (Mazzarl et al., 2003).

The Impact of Knowledge– Based Economy Our society is gradually moving towards a knowledge economy: an economy in which the application of knowledge replaces capital, raw materials, and labour as the main means of production. Permanent improvements and innovations at and around work quickly depreciate expertise achieved upon completing a programme for vocational education. The need for staff with broad and versatile abilities demands ongoing continuing education. Understanding that technological and other forms of knowledge quickly become obsolete highlights the importance of knowledge assets as well as the need to update knowledge (Kessels, 2001).

Unemployment Problem As in many developing countries, the official definition of unemployment does not require active job search. Specifically, the T&T Central Statistics Office (CSO) defines the unemployed as not only those non-employed that are active job seekers who want to work, but also includes those non-active job seekers that looked for work during the 3- month period preceding the interview and who at the time of interview did not have a job but still wanted work (Byrne & Strobl, 2004). The correlations between education and unemployment incidence and duration found in the studies, are likely to be confounded by the endogeneity of education, and do not necessarily represent the causal effect of education. Positive correlations between the probability of re-employment and education based on ordinary 26

least squares (OLS) estimates may overestimate the effects of education on re-employment and fail to accurately portray the causal link between the two (Riddell &Song, 2011). So we can say for a high level perspective, corporate education contributes to reduce long-term unemployment by giving opportunities to increase re-employment rate. Turkey has one of the highest unemployment rates among developed and developing countries. The last ten year unemployment rates of Turkey is shown in Table 1. If we add informal unemployment rates to this table approximately 18-19% of the country workforce is unemployed. So corporate education is a big opportunity to reduce this high level unemployment.

The Foundations of Organized Corporate Educations The leaders of workplaces, professional associations, universities and governments have both a tremendous opportunity and a clear responsibility to further develop the systems of continuing education for the professions (Cervero, 2001).

Universities and Institutes The traditional job of the nation’s institutions of higher education has changed. Learning has given way to a new model of blending learning and work into one activity. Adults or “non-traditional students’’ want convenience and accessibility (Nixon & M. Helms, 2002). University Continuing Education (UCE) units are an example of the innovative tools developed by universities in order to adapt global transformations within the context of knowledge economy. Therefore, as a unit within university and a lifelong learning course provider, they stay at the intersection of increasing importance of lifelong learning and restructuring process of universities (Celik, 2007).

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Table 1. Unemployment rates in Turkey Country Turkey

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

7.3

5.6

10.8

10.8

10.5

9.3

10.2

10.2

10.7

14.1

12.4

Source: http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=tu&v=74

Organizations need to have a highly skilled workforce. Corporate education is a system of professional development activities provided to educate employees. Corporate education links industry with universities. Universities provide quality education programs that assist in developing the skills and capabilities of corporate employees. Corporate education programs are increasingly being adopted as a strategic initiative to assist in the corporate development of organizations.

Corporate Universities Mid-19th century educational pioneers used the need for industrial education in support of their advocacy for establishing a system of free public schools and the opportunity for adult education. The increased desire for access to education was closely associated with industrial growth and progress as well as with an increased awareness that education provided an egalitarian means for opportunity and upward social mobility. Individual companies began to develop and offer job-specific instruction which was basically education for productivity. World War I made industrial education a national priority and as the need for improved management became evident several colleges and universities initiated coherent professional level management education programs (Cranch, 1987). As a result of globalization, knowledge-based economies, technological changes, a new concept occurs in higher education systems is titled “corporate universities”. The interest in the concept of a corporate university intensified in the 1980s when leading players in the computer and high technology industries began to develop significant educational initiatives which they labeled cor-

porate universities. These industries were facing intense competition in the global marketplace and wanted to provide intensive, specific training to large segments of their employed population (Figure 1) (Amone, 1998). Although the concept of the corporate university was American in origin, it is becoming increasingly popular in many enterprises throughout Europe (Watling et al., 2003). In recent years many developing countries such as Turkey and India, corporate universites gain importance. As an example in Turkey main univesity render corporate education service to the compaines, espicially in business management area. In last years, so many laws were enacted in Turkey for convergence to European Union acquis communitaire. Some of these laws were concerning the certification of vocations. These laws, obliged members of certain professional occupations to join some adult education courses to be eligible to work in specified fields. To organize these courses the government has specified qualified institutions (Celik, 2007).

Consultancy Firms Consulting activity is essentially based on the capacity of specialised companies with highly qualified staff to solve their clients’ business problems. They are occasionally asked to carry out specific missions inside the firm in order to advise decision makers involved in a complex business environment. Consultancy firms which operate in Turkey organize business management education programs with trainers especially experienced in business life. Some of these programs, university lecturers

27

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Figure 1. Distribution of UCE units according to total number of participants (Celik, 2007)

assigned as trainers. As different from corporate universities, consultancy firms organize short term (2-3 days) programs. Corporate universities usually organize more specific subjects about business management functions and middle term sertificate programs include all of the business administration subjects like marketing, HRM, finance, accounting etc. Thanks to lecturers academic and practical knowledge, education programs can provide more competancy to the participants. It is observed that, due to the globalization and increased competition the demand of corporate education programs have been increasing drastically in Turkey. Beside professional association and universities, there are many consultancy firms that operate with the purpose of meeting the demand of corporations’ needs. Such consultancy firms also offer specified corporate education programs on demand of companies.

The Advantages of Corporate Education Given by Universities The mission of higher education is to contribute to the sustainable development and improvement of society as a whole by: educating highly qualified graduates able to meet the needs of all sectors of human activity; advancing, creating and disseminating knowledge through research; interpreting, preserving, and promoting cultures in the context of cultural pluralism and diver-

28

sity; providing opportunities for higher learning throughout life; contributing to the development and improvement of education at all levels; and protecting and enhancing civil society by training young people in the values which form the basis of democratic citizenship and by providing critical detached perspectives in the discussion of strategic choices facing societies (Narasimharao, 2010). University lecturers can raise issues that might otherwise go unchallenged by corporations and provide a level of objectivity to corporate education discussions to question assumptions and the traditional self-validating thinking patterns of executives involved in the programmes. A university is also able to provide objective research input to a corporation in contrast with input with a specific agenda (Ryan, 2009). Universities are educational institutions that employ academic staff each of whom are professional in their area. For example, corporate education program curriculums generally link several subjects that are related to different disciplines of business functions such as strategic management, organizational behavior, statistics, accounting and finance. It is difficult for a person to have knowledge in all of those fields. Universities are employing academicians who are professionals in each of those functions of a business. Therefore, universities are capable of offering corporate education programs with academicians who are professional in their interested field. Another advantage of universities is employing academicians who are believed to posses contemporary theorical developments in their fields. Since Business Schools recruit professors and academicians who are preponderant to theorical knowledge in a particular subject, universities are the most convenient institutions to offer corporate education programs that covers contemprorary developments. Furthermore, professors are people who have broad range of experience to integrate their theorical knowledge into practical applications. They are able to understand the issues of practitioners and offer solutions from theorical

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

perspectives. Additionally, professors have intense teaching experience which enables them to develop new learner friendly teaching styles and techniques. While some of the institutions or consultancy firms may intend to gain profit, the main purpose of universities is offering high quality of education programs. In this context, in Turkey most of the universities have enough facilities to offer education programs. Universities are the most convenient institutions for corporate education with their technological or physical facilities and professors.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CORPORATE EDUCATION IN ACCOUNTANCY Accounting is an information system that measures, processes and communicates financial information about an economic entity. Accounting is one of the primary vehicles of decision making process. All economic decision making processes are based on sound analysis of financial statement which is a product of accounting information system. Accounting information is like a map of organization that helps decision makers to determine where they are, where they have been and where they are going. Rapid change has been the main characteristic of the business environment. Accountants are now expected to serve the needs not only of investors and creditors but also the information needs of many other users of financial and nonfinancial information. Increasingly complex business transactions are giving rise to new responsibilities for accountants. Global economic integration, the transnational activities of multinational corporations, and the convergence of financial reporting standards are internationalizing the accounting profession. This internationalization comes with an increased demand for intelligent, well educated, highly versatile accountants that can quickly adjust to the dynamics of today’s modern global

business environment. To meet these challenges, accountants should develop and maintain their competence through corporate education. Exhibit 1 shows a model that conceptualizes the relationship between the changing world economy, its impact on the accounting role, and the pressure both of these put on accounting education (Feucht et al., 2011; Albrecht & Sack, 2000).

Expanding Role of Accountants In 1984, the American Accounting Association’s Executive Committee founded the Accounting Education Change Commission (AECC) to analyze of the future structure, content and purpose of accounting education. Two years later, in 1986, AECC issued the Bedford Report-Future Accounting Education: Preparing for the Expanding Profession. In the report, the committee noted several distinguishing features of the expanding accounting profession (AAA, 1986):

Accounting Services are Becoming Both Broader and More Specialized Corporate managers prefer the advice of accounting information experts who understand the organization as a whole and the strategic and tactical problems of senior management. Technical knowledge of financial reporting continues to be required, but in addition, the more capable accounting executives need to know how to design, diagnose, and monitor systems for planning and controlling operations and for evaluating proposals submitted by others (AAA, 1986).

Many of the New Accounting Services are More InnovativeIntensive than Standard-Intensive Standard-intensive services entailed large numbers of people performing tasks that can be reduced to routine procedures based on experience and practice. On the other hand, innovative-intensive

29

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Exhibit 1. Impact of modern business on accounting education (Albrecht and Sack, 2000)

•

•

•

services are those calling for highly skilled specialists to establish new approaches or techniques for meeting management needs. Current trends suggest that, expanding demands are being met by individuals who are innovative and who have hands-on experience with relatively new services and technologies (AAA, 1986).

Accountants who Remain Narrowly Educated Will Find it More Difficult to Compete in an Expanding Profession Individuals who lack an understanding of how various accounting information systems coordinate and guide complex organizations cannot provide professional quality services involving those systems. Future practicing accountants need a broader education in order to meet this challenge (AAA, 1986). The committee also determined that the expansion of the accounting function requires accountants to be beter and more broadly educated in the following areas (AAA, 1986): 30

Accountants must know how to design and diagnose comprehensive information systems of their organization. A key indicator of accountants’ success will be how well the systems and reports serve both managers and external users. Knowledge of the general management of organization will become more important to the relative achievement and functions of accountants. Accountants must acquire, maintain, and continuously enhance higher levels of competence to meet expanding and increasingly diverse demands of their companies. Accountants must pursue lifelong learning as a means of adjusting to change. For example, they must learn to adapt to the development and use of increasingly complex information technologies in their companies. Corporate education programs will thus become even more important in the coming years.

In 1989, the top eight multinational companies in the field of accounting published the study: “The Big 8 White Paper-Perspectives on Education: Capabilities for Success in the Accounting Profession” (AAA, 1989) regarding the skills required for attaining success in the accounting area. The study points out the fact that, to be successful an accountant must bring to the practice several general skills such as communication skills, intellectual skills, and interpersonal skills. An accountant must also have organizational and business knowledge that helps accountants to understand work environment and economic, social, cultural and psychological forces that affect organizations. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants’ (AICPA) “CPA Horizons 2025” shows that accountants will need to respond quickly and competitively to the shifting ground on political, economic, social, technological and regulatory fronts. According to the study, participants believe that enhancing core competencies

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

is key to be a successful accountant. Those core competencies are: communications skills, leadership skills, critical-thinking and problem solving skills, anticipating and serving evolving needs, synthesizing intelligence to insight and integration and collaboration. The research also highlights the importance of understanding technology, evolving the educational framework to keep pace with the changing dynamics of business, and promoting accountant as the trusted advisor who develops solutions to complex problems by integrating knowledge, expertise and resources from multiple disciplines (AICPA, 2011).

CURRENT ACCOUNTING EDUCATION IN TURKEY In Turkey business schools offer financial accounting, intermediate accounting, cost accounting, managerial accounting and auditing courses in both undergraduate level and graduate level. Accounting knowledge, along with other courses such as management, human resources and organizational behavior, stimulates students understanding of all functions of business. In Turkey accounting courses are being offered not only by business schools but also by other faculties of universities. For example, engineers are frequently required to be conversant with the terminology and statements that accountants use. Thus, engineering faculties offer principles of accounting or managerial accounting courses with the aim of developing students understanding of financial data of companies. Technical expertise in projects, service delivery, production or other areas can only be fully realised if engineers understand the accounting and reporting that drives businesses. Formal accounting education fundamental but not sufficient for success. A successful professional career in accounting requires additional specialized training, continuing education and professional development. For graduates who are willing to specialize in accounting profession,

accounting associations, universities and public sector consultant companies are offering wide range of education and training programs. Some of the specialized programs are an organization specific, while others are task specific (Kranacher, 2008). Task specific training programs are generally for entry level staff that help them achieve the required level of competency for a particular task. Accounting software training programs can be given as an example of task specific training programs. Organization specific programs can be classified as corporate training programs and corporate education programs. A corporate accounting training programs instruct an attendee on generally accepted accounting principles, and how they affect financial statements of a company. Corporate accounting training programs also improve the effectiveness of organization’s accounting systems and staff. For instance, during the corporate training entry level accountants can learn about principles of accounting, fundamental of financial reports, financial analysis or basic accounting software programs. Additionally, a corporate accounting training curriculum helps an experienced accountant to stay up to date with the latest financial reporting rules and regulations. Corporate accounting training topics vary, depending on the company’s activities, the industry and regulatory requirements. For example, an insurance company may select a topic covering accounting rules in the insurance industry and international financial reporting standards. Generally, such corporate training programs might be related to application of new standards on accounting and auditing, updating of industry related policies and regulations, maintenance of effective internal control functions, improvement of accounting and internal control systems. A company that sponsors a corporate accounting training program can benefit from such a program because well trained employees are more likely to perform their tasks more accurately and effectively. On the other hand, corporate education programs not only develop accountants in the field of accounting but also improves their knowledge in the other disciplines 31

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

of business. Especially experienced accoutants are required to possess a range of skills, including technical and functional skills, organisational and business management skills, personal skills, interpersonal and communicational skills, a variety of intellectual skills and skills in forming professional judgements. Corporate education programs comprise courses such as strategic management, human resources and organizational behaviour. Accountants who have knowledge in all functions of the business add value to corporations they are working for. Adding value can be done through providing information for decision making, and proactively participating as part of the management team and planning processes; assisting managers in directing and controlling operational activities; motivating managers and other employees towards the organization’s goals; measuring the performance of activities, managers and other employees within the organization; and assessing the organization’s competitive position and working with other managers to ensure the organization’s long run competitiveness in its industry (Hilton, 2005). The Union of Chambers of Certified Public Accountants and Sworn-in Certified Public Accountants of Turkey (TURMOB), is the national professional body in Turkey. TURMOB Fundamental Training and Practice Center (TESMER), the first professional asssociation training and education center for accountants in Turkey,(Sengel, 2010) was founded in 1993 to reinforce the know-how of the candidates for the profession. Another training and education center that is founded by TURMOB is Istanbul Chamber of Certified Public Accountants Academy. The Academy was founded with the aim of offering education programs to accountants and also offering corporate education programs to companies. Forensic accounting, internal auditing, process management, International Financial Reporting Standards, strategic management accounting, company and brand valuation, Computer Assisted Audit Techniques (CAATs) and data analysis are

32

only some of the courses that is being offered by the Academy. As of 2010, there are 48.714 CPAs and 3.851 Sworn-in Certified Public Accountants in Turkey. The number of professionals demonstrates the importance of training and education programs offered by TESMER and the Academy (Sengel,2010). The advantages of universities in corporate education are explained in previous sections. The same advantages are also valid for corporate education programs in accounting. Thus, while The Union of Chambers of Certified Public Accountants and Sworn-in Certified Public Accountants of Turkey (TURMOB) offer acounting education programs, Business Schools of universities have more advantages than those institutions. In Turkey most of the universities founded continuing education centers that offer open education programs and corporate education programs (Sengel,2010). Corporate education programs of business administration faculties offers educations in entire field of business. In Turkey, one of the most demandable subject for corporate education is related to International Financial Reporting. Parallel with the IFRS convergence in European Union, Turkish public companies have been reporting according to IFRS since 2005. Moreover, with the enactment of Turkish Commercial Code, all of the companies (whether public or not) in Turkey will be required to report comply with IFRS as of December 31, 2013. With the passage of Turkish Commercial Code most of the accountants encounter the need of IFRS education. As a consequence of such developments in the last years IFRS is one of the most demandable corporate training subject in Turkey.

Challenges of Corporate Accounting Education in Developing Countries The trend toward an expanding accounting role raises a number of crucial issues for corporate education in developing countries. Increased specialization of organizations requires special-

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

ized educators in a particular field. Educators should develop their knowledge in a specific subject or industry. In developing countries the number of specialized educators is not sufficient to meet the needs of companies. There is a rapid change in the nature and extent of corporations in developing countires. To meet the competitive challenge, accountants need more knowledge in basic economics, marketing, management, and the uses of information technologies. Another major question facing accounting education in a developing country is the extent of coverage that should be given to the constantly expanding body of standards and rules. Generally in developing countries regulations and standards are being developed and amended so often. Thus, the curriculum of education should be revised in comply with such amendments. Low ethical values and ineffective litigation support in developing countries ensure opportunities for companies to commit financial statements fraud. Accountants and managers must be familiar with underlying legal concepts and must acquire an understanding of the social consequences and implications of litigation arising from accounting practice (AAA,1986). Widespread computerization raises another major challenge for corporate education. High technological and expensive devices are needed for education of accountants and managers to deal with the growing use of computers of software programs. Eventhough such devices are commonly used for corporate educations in developed countries, sources are generally scarce in developing countries. According to a survey that is conducted by Teksen, Tekin and Gencturk (2010), in Turkey the most common device that is used in accounting education is boardmarker (% 67,7), on the other hand the least used device is computer (%5,8) (Teksen et al., 2010). The result of the study also supports the statement that using technological devices as an education method is another major issue in corporate education in Turkey. Additionally, due to the economical interests in developing countries, some non-university organizations, if their programs become profitable,

may begin developing offerings in accounting education. These sources of education need to be constantly monitored to assure the quality of education.

Suggestions for Development of Accounting Education in Turkey Accounting knowledge cannot focus solely on the construction of data. Accountants must be able use the data, exercise judgments, evaluate risks and solve real world problems (AAA, 1989). Passing the professional examination should not be the goal of accounting education. The focus should be on developing analytical and conceptual thinking versus memorizing rapidly expanding professional standards (AAA,1989). Strong technical accounting knowledge will continue to be a foundational requirement but it alone will not be sufficient. Accountants must also develop problem solving, communication, leadership and other interpersonal skills. Accounting knowledge must also be supplemented by broader business knowledge encompassing finance, economics and technology. Increasing globalization will require accountants to obtain more knowledge about the international marketplace. Accountants will also need to stay up-to-date on changing regulations and standards. Accountants must continue to evolve as strategic partners of clients, business and employers, applying multidisciplinary and integrated problem solving to expand traditional services and enhance nontraditional offerings and the perception of trusted advisor. Emerging opportunities for specialization will allow accountants to strengthen their expertise and provide additional value to their employers and business (AICPA, 2011). Corporate education will take on greater importance as a way for accountants to stay up to date as the pace of change accelerates. Efforts to change education for accounting in Turkey require consideration of three major components of education: curriculum, teaching methods, educators.

33

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Curriculum For accountants to obtain and maintain the needed knowledge, the educational framework will need to change. In their study Teksen, Tekin and Gencturk have concluded that %12,9 participants believe that updated curriculum increases the effectiveness of accounting education in Turkey (Teksen et al., 2010). The development of an efficient curriculum requires attention to integration of broader aspects of business such as marketing, production, business law, statistics, industrial relations, and finance (Weiser, 1966). Reengineering the curriculum should include a careful evaluation of topical coverage in all subjects (AAA, 1989). A curriculum that includes social psychology will help accountants understand how to motivate people and resolve conflict. Additionally, accountants’ familiarity with strategic planning, value chains, and enterprise systems spotlight relevant frameworks for achieving excellence success and improvement in an organization. Coverage of finance will enhance the accountants’ capability in financial and economic analyses. An introduction to information technology will reveal approaches to computer information systems and internal controls. Accountants’ understanding of supply chains and logistics will also add value to the operations of organisations. Consequently, accountants need to acquire an understanding of the primary functional areas within the businesses and how they can effectively provide services to assist these key organizational processes. Without this understanding, accountants will not be prepared to add value to their organisations (Siegel et al., 2010).

Teaching Methods A program of corporate accounting education needs to go beyond the traditional approach. A survey conducted in Turkey concludes that 85% of accounting teaching methods is performing through textbook based and lecture style. (Teksen

34

et al., 2010). The current textbook based, rule intensive and lecture style should not survive as the primary means of teaching methods. New methods must be explored. Some of the alternatives might include seminars, simulations, extended written assignments and case analyses. Teaching methods must also provide opportunities for participants to experience the kinds of work patterns that they encounter in the business. Additionally, the curriculum should encourage working in groups (AAA, 1989). Through active modes of learning, such as case studies, presentation and small group interactions, participants should actively involve in education. Furthermore, examples should be chosen carefully to stimulate the integration of theorical knowledge and practical experience. Examples or cases utilized during education should enable participants to apply their theorical and practical knowledge.

Educators A vital, knowledgeable, creative professoriate is an essential part of the educational process. Social science is a particularly difficult discipline to maintain a high level of understanding of practice because there is no common way of gaining information about practice for educators or faculty. Some disciplines (for example, most health-related fields) use clinical model, where faculty are simultaneously practitioners and teachers (AAA, 1989). In developing countries some of the business administration faculties do not have opportunity to involve in practice actively. Thererfore, even they possess perfect theorical knowledge, they may lack of information about the realities of the practice environment. Most of those faculties base their course content on information gained through secondary sources like textbooks. The challenge for the corporate accounting education is to develop new ways to maintain practice oriented faculty and educators (AAA, 1989).

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Innovative methods to increase interaction between the participants and the educator must be created. Educators may need to be encouraged to use a broad range of learner centered teaching methods. An educator may increase the effectiveness of corporate education by using case studies and projects to simulate work situations. Adapting materials to the changing environment in which the accountant works is another way to attract the attention of participants and improving the effectiveness of education.

CONCLUSION In the recent years, one of the greatest changes in the field of management is increase of demand for institutionalization in family owned companies. Because of family owned companies’ require improving and institutionalization and also corporate companies’ want to keep their competitive advantage, the demand for the education is growing. If we compare previous practices about companies’ training tendency, we can see the growing demand to the corporate universities. To improve their business processes and functions, the companies want to collabrate with universities by more scientific methods. Related to the demand of institutionalization, globalization, technological changes etc., corporate education is overreached to corporate training. So more comprehensive education programs are needed to achieve continous improvement of business operations. As one of the most important business functions, the importance of corporate education in accountancy is also increasing drastically in the last years. Accounting adds value to organization through providing useful financial data for strategic decision making. However, the tasks and skills that are required of accounting practitioners in today’s global business environment have changed significantly. No longer are accounting practitioners required merely to undertake the

tasks necessary for information provision, such as bookkeeping, data analysis and tax preparation. Managers expect accountants to exhibit a wide range of personal attributes and core skills in addition to the acquisition of a vocationallybased body of knowledge (Morgan, 2007). In the current climate, the acquisition of technical accounting skills is still relevant, but there is an increasing need for accountants to have business management knowledge and skills, a well developed knowledge of information technology, and greater interpersonal skills (French and Coppage, 2000). Verbal and written communications, leadership, Information Technology (IT) proficiency and the ability to understand, design and communicate new systems become the predominant skills for modern accountants (Senik & Broad, 2011). Expanding role of accounting increases the responsibilities of accountants and requires them to continously improve their competencies. Corporate education programs enables accountants to maintain and enhance higher level of competence to meet expanding and increasingly diverse demand of companies. Corporate education programs develop accountants’ abilities to integrate knowledge from various disciplines in order to identify, formulate, develop and distribute information for decision making.

REFERENCES Albrecht, W. S., & Sack, R. J. (2000). Accounting education: Charting the course through a perilous future. accounting education series, Vol. 16. Sarasota, FL: American Accounting Association. Retrieved from http://aaahq.org/pubs/AESv16/ chapter2.pdf American Accounting Association. (1986). Special report: Future accounting education: Preparing for the expanding profession. Retrieved from http://aaahq.org/AECC/future/cover.htm.

35

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

American Accounting Association. (1989). The big 8 white paper - Perspectives on education: Capabilities for success in the accounting profession. Retrieved from http://aaahq.org/AECC/ big8/cover.htm. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. (2011). CPA horizon 2025. Retrieved from http://www.aicpa.org/Research/CPAHorizons2025/Pages/CPAHorizonsReport.aspx. Bartel, A. P. (1989). Formal employee training programs and their ımpact on labor productivity: Evidence from a human resources survey. NBER Working Paper Series, Working Paper No. 3026, Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/ w3026.pdf?new_window=1 Bedar, S. (1999, October). Corporate universitiesFor better or worse? Engineers Australia, 70. Byrne, D., & Strobl, E. (2004). Defining unemployment in developing countries: Evidence from Trinidad and Tobago. Journal of Development Economics, 73(1), 465–476. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2002.12.005 Celik, G. (2007). In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of science in urban policy planning and local governments. Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University, Turkey. Cervero, R. M. (2001). Continuing professional education in transition, 1981-2000. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(1-2), 16–30. Cranch, E. T. (1987). Corporate classrooms. European Journal of Engineering Education, 12(3), 237–252. doi:10.1080/03043798708939367

36

Crocetti, C. (2002). Corporate learning: A knowledge management perspective. The Internet and Higher Education, 4, 271–285. doi:10.1016/ S1096-7516(01)00066-5 Dierkes, M., Berthoin Antal, A., Child, J., & Nonaka, I. (2003). Handbook of organizational learning & knowledge. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Drucker, P. (1993). Post-capitalist society. New York, NY: Harper Business. Ermakov, V. (2010). Corporate training culture in the companies listed on the Micex Russian stock exchange: A review of current status, perspectives, and what lessons Swiss companies can learn from ıt. Social Responsibility, Professional Ethics, and Management: Proceedings of the 11th International Conference, 24–27 November 2010, Ankara, Turkey, (pp. 467-485). Feucht, F. J., Imhof, M. J., Smith, L. M., & Wang, K. (2011). The call for ıncreasing the ınternational component of accounting education. Academy of Accounting and Financial Studies Journal, 15(3), 133–147. French, G. R., & Coppage, R. E. (2000). Educational ıssues challenging the future of the accounting profession. The Ohio CPA Journal, 59(3), 69–73. Garavan, T. N., Costine, P., & Heraty, N. (1995). The emergence of strategic human resource development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 19(10), 4–10. doi:10.1108/03090599510095816 Hale, W. B. (2007). Education vs. training in the twenty first century. Forum on Public Policy: A Journal of the Oxford Round Table. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_6908/ is_2007_Spring/ai_n31182300/pg_2/

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Hilton, W. R. (2005). Managerial accounting – Creating value in a dynamic business environment. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing. Istanbul Chamber of Certified Public Accountants Academy. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ismmmoakademi.com.tr/html.asp?id=10959 Kessels, J. W. M. (2001). Learning in organisations: A Corporate curriculum for the knowledge economy. Futures, 33, 479–506. doi:10.1016/ S0016-3287(00)00093-8 Kliucharev, G. A. (2010). Characteristics, effectiveness and prospects of supplementary professional education. Russian Education & Society, 52(9), 3–20. doi:10.2753/RES1060-9393520901 Kranacher, M. J., Morris, B. W., Pearson, T. A., & Riley, R. A. (2008). A model curriculum for education in fraud and forensic accounting. Issues in Accounting Education, 23(4), 505–519. doi:10.2308/iace.2008.23.4.505 Malek Shah Bin Mohd, Y. (2012). Globalization and human resource development in the Malaysian public service. Retrieved from http://unpan1. un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/eropa/ unpan014373.pdf Mazzarol, T., Soutar, G. N., & Sim Yaw Seng, M. (2003). The third wave: Future trends in ınternational education. International Journal of Educational Management, 17(3), 90–99. doi:10.1108/09513540310467778 Morgan, G. J. (2007). Communication skills required by accounting graduates: Practitioner and academic perceptions. Accounting Education, 6(2), 93–107. doi:10.1080/096392897331514 Narasimharao, B. P. (2010). Universities and corporate education: 21st century social responsibility for developing countries. Discussion Papers in Social Responsibility, No: 1002, 3.

Nixon, J. C., & Helms, M. M. (2002). Corporate universities vs higher education institutions. Industrial and Commercial Training, 34(4), 144–150. doi:10.1108/00197850210429129 Northern Virginia Community College (NOVA). (n.d.). Training versus education. Retrieved from http://www.nvcc.edu/home/nvportg/education_versus_training.htm Pawlowsky, P. (2003). The treatment of organizational learning in management science. In Dierkes, M., Berthoin Antal, A., Child, J., & Nonaka, I. (Eds.), Handbook of organizational learning & knowledge (pp. 61–88). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Powell, W. W., & Snellman, K. (2004). The knowledge economy. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 211–212. doi:10.1146/annurev. soc.29.010202.100037 Prince, C., & Stewart, J. (2000). The dynamics of the corporate education market and the role of business schools. Journal of Management Development, 19(3), 207–219. doi:10.1108/02621710010318783 Raj, K. (2008) Corporate education for poverty reduction in rural India. The IUP Journal of Higher Education, 72-78. Riddell, W. C., & Song, X. (2011). The ımpact of education on unemployment ıncidence and reemployment success: Evidence from the U.S. labour market. Labour Economics, 18(4), 446–454. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2011.01.003 Ryan, L. (2009). Exploring the growing phenomenon of university-corporate education partnerships. Management Decision, 47(8), 1313–1322. doi:10.1108/00251740910984569

37

Moving from Corporate Training to Corporate Education

Ryan, L. (2010). Corporate education: A practical guide to effective corporate learning. Australia: Griffin Press. Sengel, S. (2010). The ımportance of constant accounting training (education) and an evaluation. The Journal of Accounting and Finance, 47, 81–94. Senik, R., & Broad, M. (2011). Information technology skills development for accounting graduates: Intervening conditions. International Education Studies, 4(2), 105–110. doi:10.5539/ ies.v4n2p105 Siegel, G., Sorensen, J. E., Klammer, T., & Richtermeyer, S. B. (2010). The ongoing preparation gap in management accounting education: A guide for change. Management Accounting Quarterly, 11(4), 29–39.

38

Teksen, O., Tekin, M., & Gencturk, M. (2010). Evaluating of accounting education: A research on the students of vocational colleges ın Mehmet Akif Ersoy University. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty, 46, 100–111. Thornton, M. (2001). The demise of diversity in legal education:globalisation and the new knowledge economy. International Journal of the Legal Profession, 8(1), 35–56. doi:10.1080/09695950120103172 Watling, D., Prince, C., & Beaver, G. (2003). The changing dynamics of the corporate education market. Strategic Change, 12, 223–234. doi:10.1002/jsc.635 Weiser, H. J. (1966). Accounting educationPresent and future. Accounting Review, 41(3), 518–530.

39

Chapter 3

Evolving Corporate Education: Relevance of Management Education Rajat Kanti Baisya Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India Brane Semolic University of Maribor, Solvenia

ABSTRACT University education in traditional environment serves a very limited purpose in terms of the requirement of skill and knowledge in a specific job to deliver performance as expected in a highly competitive and dynamic environment. The traditional knowledge as given in university setup provides basic modules as per curriculum structure and content, and much depends on the teachers’ ability to impart knowledge and also on students’ ability to assimilate the same. Although that helps students to develop thinking abilities and also independent learning after completing the university programme, knowledge is expanding and becomes double almost every two to three years and our university education and academic programme are seldom revised. As such traditional learning is grossly inadequate to meet the demand of knowledge and skill to perform in a highly competitive commercial world. Besides, the quality of such education is also a big question mark. The traditional university system thus only creates unemployable educated manpower in our system. While corporations try to take students and graduates from the better known institutions and that too after thorough screening but for delivering the performance in business a constant learning, training and re-training are essential. In knowledge economy, organizations with better knowledge and skill are the only ones to survive; skill and knowledge level, therefore, are required to be upgraded continuously.

INTRODUCTION It has been observed by the practitioners that traditional class room learning has limited utility. When salesman needs to know how his product provides competitive advantage in the market

place in relation to other products available and offering similar benefits, he needs to understand consumer behavior, consumer expectations, product characteristics and benefits it offers over the other competitive products in the market and how his product differentiates from the rest in the

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch003

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Evolving Corporate Education

market to enable him to communicate effectively the superior value proposition of his products over others to his target consumers. This requires constant exposure of all products available in the market and constant training, re-training and role playing and therefore, training programme has to be more holistic. This cannot be done in typical classroom. In class room lecture we can train limited number of participants. Training these days are required to be delivered to large numbers of employees engaged in diverse locations. Organizations are therefore, spending good amount of their budget for the training of their manpower to keep workforce relevant in the context of the market environment. The chapter deals with the processes of identifying the training needs of the employees and deciding on the training modules. The chapter also discusses the importance of training programme using technology in virtual environment while employees are on their work place which is learning while working in their own work environment. This gives better learning. The focus now thus have shifted to learners rather than the trainers. The learning has to happen while working in the employees work environment. Forces of globalization has compelled organizations to face new challenges of global competition that requires new knowledge and new technology for corporate education. In this chapter we discussed some of those relevant and yet very important issues in corporate education for new generation workforces as well as for new order organizations. Management education is required to impart knowledge and learning the analytical skills and decision criteria to be applied in one’s own area of influence to make best use of the resources available to produce the desired results and objectives. The history of management education in India is not very old. It all started with the initiation of three premier Management Education Institutions, namely Indian Institute of Management in Calcutta, Bangalore and Ahmedabad about four

40

decades ago. Today we have over one thousand management institutes in the country but about fifty of those have some standard and the rest are of questionable standard. Initially, engineering education was thought to be sufficient for managing any corporate function and engineers were thus seen to occupy successfully CEO’s position of many large corporations and more particularly in the public sector enterprises. In sixty’s and seventy’s there were production oriented culture and the production was less than the demand. The focus of the business was therefore on efficient production and operations management. The management education therefore, evolved from production and operations management and industrial engineering where emphasis was on product and cost optimization and as competition increased focus shifted to customers. As the competition increases the management students are required to learn how to survive the competitive forces. Today in the era of globalization we need to learn to work in a cross cultural environment. Many thinks that corporate education and corporate training is one and the same thing but in reality it is not. Corporate training is normally competency based and often relates to the kind of training employees need to operate a particular equipment to perform tasks under specific environment in a competent, safe and effective manner. The outcome of corporate training program is thus an employee, post training, is able to operate a specific equipment or is able to perform a specific task, as required according to a pre- determined training criteria. Fundamentally therefore, corporate training is centered on the knowledge transfer with a specific instructor demonstrating a particular function and students learn how to apply that in their own work environment. Corporate education, however, adds yet another dimension and depth to the training by involving learners as participants in generating new knowledge to assist the organization to gradually develop and evolve

Evolving Corporate Education

rather maintain only the status quo. Corporate education thus helps the organization to do things on their own in a sustainable manner. Corporate education will help organization to evolve whereas corporate training only helps to impart a specific skills to run or operate a particular function or tasks. Corporate education thus needs a facilitator rather than just an instructor. A facilitator engage participants and encourage them to think about what, why and how they are doing and also to challenge the current paradigm. While role of corporate training is to improve operational efficiency of individuals but corporate education helps improve the development capability of the organization as such and therefore, knowledge is no longer individual specific but has been internalized (Ryan, L 2010). In competitive environment and in knowledge economy corporate education is increasingly being used as an incentive to retain key managers and employees in the organization.

Globalization and its Impact on Corporations It is an undeniable fact that, in the modern world, we are faced with global competition at our own door. This has been true for some years now. Recently we also witnessed the global crisis, which has sharpened the conditions of global competitiveness even more. The intensified globalization processes that we witnessed in the 1990s and which culminated in this decade have touched and influenced all companies – small, medium and large. Global competition is here. This might be in the offer of different services and products, or in competition on the labor market. The fast development of increasingly useful and user-friendly modern information and telecommunication technologies enables business cooperation and collaboration between partners from different parts of the world. New innovative business models are being generated, enabling the needs of clients and business partners to be more competitive. They are changing the eco-

nomic order and we are witnessing huge global cultural changes. National borders are no longer an obstacle to company operations. Under such circumstances, small and medium-sized companies where innovations are not managed well are the most vulnerable, as they are confronted on the global market by bigger and smaller competitors that are more innovative and thus have a greater developmental and operating market power. This business environment requires different competencies from both, organizations and individuals. For a conventional organization to succeed, the productivity of its individuals and organizational units within the company were to be important. In the organizations of the 21st century, this success depends increasingly on interpersonal and inter-organizational productivity (including cooperation with other companies, organizations and individuals) with an agile workplace at its core. People working in an agile workplace, often titled “knowledge workers”, need to be flexible and to partake in and co-create the real or virtual business environment of the company’s business network. The individual knowledge worker’s general competencies relate to (Semolic 2009): • • • • • •

Specialized knowledge and skills for an individual work area, A wide horizon of business and technological literacy, Work in multidisciplinary project teams, Competencies of working in a multicultural environment, Competencies of adapting to fast changes, and Project management and leadership competencies.

The post-globalization business environment thus requires competencies that are substantially different from those typical of the industrial age of the 20th century and which we still unfortunately see in the practice of numerous companies.

41

Evolving Corporate Education

Figure 1. Value migration of business drivers (Semolic 2009)

The product value creation process was driven by suppliers in the industrial age (Figure 1). Significant for the industrial culture was the absence of customers’ inclusion in product development processes. The most important issue for this phase is ability to produce quality and competitive products. Many modern organizations are in the development phase of the transaction culture. The main characteristic of this phase is creation of wealth by business transactions. Organizational excellence is one of the main drivers in this stage which has been present in last twenty years. The business excellence is in search of organizational excellence, where extrinsic organizational rewards are often still more important than real intrinsic personal satisfaction of all stakeholders of the organization. Nowadays, when we are entering the knowledge based economy, real intrinsic personal satisfaction becomes one of critical success factors of global competitiveness. Inclusion, collaboration, co-creation, customer satisfaction and “win-win” approaches are the main characteristics of this phase and organizational culture. The key factors in this development stage are the people involved. Competent and highly motivated people (internal and external) can provide results which reach beyond owners, managers or client expectations. This can be achieved by utilization

42

of personal excellence and satisfaction of all involved parties. In this post globalized world, organizations are facing constant competition from both regional and the global markets; demanding to increase their pace to innovate, produce and provide at higher quality with a higher degree of customization of their products and services. In order to secure sustainable competitiveness, the leading organizations have recognized the need to shift from classic organizational structures to being more diverse and distributed internally as well as externally, mainly depending on collaboration as a basis for competitive advantage in innovation (Mertins 2003, Firestone 2002, Tapscott 1999). For organizations, this change is driven by directed and sustainable collaboration with their complementing entities holding relevant knowledge. This concept of work is supported by the idea of an open innovation environment (Chesbrough, 2003) which says that nowadays organizations needs to collaborate with their business partners and all other relevant stakeholders, to secure permanent inflow of new information, ideas and proposals to support the internal innovation processes. For this reason supporting the right position of knowledge, information sources and their

Evolving Corporate Education

interaction to optimize the collective view of all the stakeholders is of key importance. The bigger impact of such a structure could be foreseen in the virtual associations that are mostly objective and are based on knowledge resources (Byrne 1993, Pettigrew 2003). Thus far these professional associations are mostly conceptualized in theory as knowledge workspaces that are established based on similar knowledge focuses, facilitating from professional clusters to expert groups. In practice the virtual professional platforms have proven short-lived and one of the main reasons identified is the lack of sustainable and scalable governance mechanisms. That fact changes and produces new forms of economic and non-economic activities, whose main features are increasing responsiveness to customer requirements – users and flexibility of business units. The key flexibility dimensions are increasing labor flexibility, the ability to quickly respond to changes in global markets, capacity building and project team working. It is a process of changing values, which are crystallized into the formation of a new organizational culture in post globalized era. Values that will be increasingly associated will include, improving the level of responsiveness to customer requirements-user on the global market changes, the degree of innovation, the rise in the inter-organizational collaboration culture and interpersonal cooperation, co-creation and creativity. Global knowledge market is one of the most important components of existing new business environment. Capability to create a new knowledge with related innovative technology and to speed its commercialization is one of the crucial competences of a modern knowledge based organization. The permanent access to the global premium knowledge resources is becoming one of the key elements of business success. A global market does not care, if you are a small or a big company/organization. What counts are affordable premium products and services only? We need the new breed of business models and leadership in

order to achieve this. The »magic key words« are organization’s leaders with a global mind set, key competences, global competitiveness, outsourcing, sustainable collaboration, trustful business networks, personal excellence and satisfaction supported by a new leadership styles (Semolic, 2010). These organizations are coming from knowledge generators, providers, users or business supporting environment side. Together they are creating a knowledge market (Figure 2). They are creating different national and international business value chains and networks which are the essence of a new economy business models (Semolic, 2011).

SCIENCE-KNOWLEDGETECHNOLOGY-PRACTICE Knowledge The basic definition of term knowledge can be found in different dictionaries. For example, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, where we can read the following explanation: “Knowledge comprises “the facts, information, understanding and skills that a person has acquired through experience or education.” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Figure 2. Knowledge market

43

Evolving Corporate Education

Dictionary, 1995). This explanation shows that knowledge can be acquired on different ways, either from praxis or education. The traditional way of knowledge acquisition was through practice and related experiences, supported by different levels of education. This is a classical way, which was present for centuries and dominated until the beginning of the Second World War. Since then we are recognizing the growth of importance of knowledge, which is based on science. Science has been starting to play an important role in a development of all industries and in society as whole. This trend accelerated in 90’s. Today we have reached a point where we cannot imagine the world without products and services which are based on the findings of a modern science. We can recognize different types of knowledge according to described fact, as follows: • •

Knowledge based on previous experiences and Scientific knowledge.

The first type of knowledge is typical for the needs of industrial age organizations. The second type is significant for the knowledge based organizations which are dominating in this emerging globalized knowledge based economy. We could not imagine products, services and systems related to internet, different computing platforms, telecommunications, e-commerce, e-banking, new materials, virtualization of our work places and lifestyle, without outputs of modern science.

Science Monk with his co-authors claims (Monk & Co, 1988) that words “science” and “scientific” are used in three principal ways. Firstly, they are referring to knowledge amassed in books and papers by practitioners of science; this is scientific knowledge. Secondly, they are used to describe the activity of scientific community; they practice science. Thirdly, by the same authors, the word

44

“science” and “scientific” may be used to describe the individuals, groups and institutions known as the scientific community, who are practitioners of science. We can find the basic definitions and conventions of science work in Frascati Manual, published by OECD (OECD, 2002). The main purpose of this manual is to establish basic standards for measuring and comparing scientific outputs on national and international levels and provide related statistics for governmental policy makers. According to Frascati Manual research and experimental development (R&D) comprise creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications. Frascati manual recognize (OECD, 2002): •

•

Basic Research: Is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge on the underlying foundation of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or us in view and Applied Research: Is also original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective.

Modern scientific community covers formal, informal and occasional R&D research organizations or individuals which can be part of academic or non-academic (industrial) organizations. Nations and organizations which can afford more investments into R&D achieve better competitiveness on global markets. In most cases scientific knowledge stays in books and scientific papers and is not suitable for the practical use immediately. The practical use of new scientific knowledge is achieved by development and introduction of a new technology. The modern, globalized scientific communities produce extreme amount of a new knowledge

Evolving Corporate Education

Figure 3. Technological competence

permanently. This knowledge is codified in the different forms of so-called explicit knowledge. Its diffusion into the daily practical use is one of the main challenges of today’s business world. How much of this knowledge people can internalize and can this become a part of their so-called “tacit knowledge”? This is one of the key questions and challenges of organizations of today and their competitiveness. The tacit knowledge is related to people’s skills and their competences needed to handle codified knowledge. The Figure 3 illustrates the concept of technological competence, which tells how much of a global knowledge base we are using in our daily practice.

Technology Technology presents the link between science and practical use of its knowledge. Galbraith presented one of the first generic definitions of the term “technology” in his book “The new industrial state”, published in 1967. He said that technology is the systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical tasks (Galbraith, 1967). We can make a conclusion that technology is generic phenomena which can be

found in any knowledge area as its application for the practical use. Technology presents the know-how of transformation of existing or a new knowledge gained from research and practical experience, which is directed to producing new materials and products, to installing new processes, systems and services, or to improving substantially those already produced or installed. According to Mitchem the term “technology” comprises the entire system of people and organizations, knowledge, processes, and devices which are related to the process of creating and operating of technological artifacts, as well as the artifacts themselves (Mitchem, 1994). Technological artifacts are outputs of human efforts and to this related activity. Technology is not related to technical disciplines only. We can find wide scope of technology applications in different working domains, from engineering, medicine, management, etc. Modern society is increasingly dependent on a variety of technologies. We live in a technological society where we are dealing with different technologies in our working environments and daily life. Technological literacy is becoming

45

Evolving Corporate Education

Figure 4. Networks, digital working places and life style (Semolic, 2009)

one of the key success factors for our daily lives and businesses. The concept of technological literacy (Pearsons & Young, 2002) is defined by the ability to understand the functioning, role and impact of modern technologies in our work, our work environment and life in a broader sense. It is an understanding of the state of technology at the time, in which we live, as well as development trends and related impacts on the human environment. Technological change raises the relative marginal productivity of capital through education and training of the labor force, investments in research and development and the creation of new managerial structures and work organization (OECD, 1996). All these processes are strongly supported and facilitated by the fast development and related artifacts of modern information and telecommunication technologies. The trend of work place digitalization and digital life style is present in all areas worldwide (Figure 4). Virtualization of our working place and daily activities needs new competences. Organizations are searching for a new business models and co-creation of new emerging local, regional and global business eco-systems.

46

Management Issues of 21st Century Organization Modern globalized organizations are permanently analyzing their business activities and the global market, and searching for opportunities to improve competitiveness of their businesses by introduction of new emerging technologies and related innovative business models. Trans-national research, development and production valuechains are being formed. The world is becoming a more and more intertwined network consisting of a series of different national and trans-national value-chains, consisted by portfolio of different specialized and interconnected organizations. IBM made a survey, in which they asked CEOs how they see organization of the future. Here are highlights of the survey (IBM, 2008): •

Hungry for Change: The organization of the future is capable of changing quickly and successfully. Instead of merely responding to trends, it shapes and leads them. Market and industry shifts are a chance to remove ahead of the competition;

Evolving Corporate Education

•

•

•

•

Innovative Beyond Customer Imagination: The organization of the future surpasses the expectations of increasingly demanding customers. Deep collaborative relationships allow it to surprise customers with innovations that make customers happy and business more successful; Globally Integrated: The organization of the future is integrating to take advantage of today’s global economy. Its business is strategically designed to access the best capabilities, knowledge and assets from wherever they reside in the world and apply them wherever required in the world; Disruptive by Nature: The organization of the future radically challenges its business model, disrupting the basis of competition. It shifts the value proposition, overturns traditional delivery approaches and, as soon as opportunities arise, reinvests itself and its entire industry and Genuine, not just Generous: The organization of the future goes beyond philanthropy and compliance and reflects genuine concern for society in all actions and directions.

The outputs of this survey show the complexity and depth of incoming changes which are evolving quickly. Modern organization needs to be highly innovative with the ability of making strategic transformations and sustainable continuous improvements. All this activities need to be integrated and well orchestrated on all areas of its’ technical, organizational and behavioral performance. The Figure 5 shows the illustration of the needed accelerated organizational learning curve. Modern organizations are very often integral parts of a global supply and value chains. The classical functional organization does not give the proper support for such working environments and their needs. The answers are in different modalities of networked, process based organiza-

Figure 5. Illustration of the needed accelerated organizational learning curve (Semolic 2011)

Figure 6. Components of governance system of value chain in networked and process based organization

tions. Figure 6 shows components of governance system of a value chain in such networked and process based organization. Superior strategic leadership has become an important competitive tool and is the basis on which leading organisations provide services or goods better than their competition can, resulting in enhanced value-add and high volatility is experienced both in the internal and external environments of organisations (Steyn, 2010). Steyn says that globalization and the information age have also impacted heavily on the way that organisations are led and managed. Knowledge and knowledge workers are becoming the most important resource in the 21st century knowledge based organization. This statement is underpinned by the following facts:

47

Evolving Corporate Education

•

•

•

•

Globalization and intensified international competition have lead to decrease market needs for low skilled workers in developed countries. However, this fact is relevant for all knowledge based organizations, no matter from where they are coming from; Technological change and emerging new technologies need skilled workers with continuous improvements and learning capacities; Growing potential of information technologies and telecommunications creates opportunities for improvements of interpersonal and inter-organizational collaboration and productivity. This gives organizations opportunities to create different modalities of value chains and differentiate themselves on the markets by creation of unique business models; Changes in organization behavior need more knowledgeable workers and inflow of permanent improvements and novelties to organization’s products and processes. Organizations with the high involvement of knowledge based working places need open-eyed knowledge and technology literate creative workers with the attitude of self-initiative, self-motivation, collaboration, openness and willingness for permanent changes.

Needs for permanent improvements of existing competences and inflow of new technologies and connected competences are critical elements for a global competitiveness. The critical success factors and related processes are illustrated in Figure 7. The critical role in these processes is played by organization’s management. Globalized and technology advanced business environment requires from managers, beside industry specifics, also the following general competences:

48

Figure 7. Critical success factors of 21st century organization behavior

•

•

•

• •

To be technologically literate and visionary–to understand technologies and see future trends, To understand organization’s portfolio of technologies which are needed for organization’s value chains performance and take care for its harmonic and sustainable development; To understand new business models and business eco-systems and be able to find and develop the competitive position for the organization which is responsible; To ensure permanent inflow of new knowledge, technologies and ideas and To be a leader–have a capacity for creation of a highly positive energetic business environment for knowledge and other workers (internal and external) and creation of high performance teams and organization as a whole.

Investment into the human capital is not prestige or corporate bonus for managers and employees anymore; it is becoming a need for corporate survival on the market.

Evolving Corporate Education

Figure 8. Development of forms of knowledge and technology transfer in practice

Lifelong Education and Learning The history of modern higher education systems started in Paris in or around year 1000 and in Bologna in the 1200’s. Higher education institutions often look like medieval cloisters. The reason for this is that the scholars, who were the keepers of knowledge and often the only persons in that vicinity who knew about a certain subject, had to be protected from warring factions in the countryside in Europe. The scholar’s role was to hand down the knowledge to the students; hence the lecture is often the standard pedagogical method worldwide. Each institution often had just one scholar in one finite discipline. This continues to this day. (Higher Ed 101, Northeastern University, 2011). Described education systems were sufficient for centuries until the end of sixties in previous century. Sharples noted that a new approach to education has been recognized in the seventies of the previous century. This new approach neither embraces nor challenges institutional education, but is complementary to it. The approach of lifelong learning has gained currency through attempts to harness it as a means of providing people with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in a rapidly-changing world (Sharples, 2000). Figure 8 illustrates a development of different forms of knowledge and technology transfer

in practice. This process has been sensitive of the speed of technological development and dramatically accelerated in last two decades. These processes have been heavily influenced by artifacts of modern information and telecommunication technologies. These technologies created environment where we have access to the global knowledge and technology sources from literally every corner of this world. How we are exploiting these possibilities and opportunities? This essential question stays with us, our organizations and regional governments. Innovativeness and collaboration between all regional knowledge market actors become an essential competence for the business success on all levels and areas. Organizations and regions which are able to understand these processes better and create adequate business eco-systems can achieve better positions on the global market. The process of permanent acquisition of new knowledge and technologies is the critical element of these efforts. This is one of the biggest challenges for small and medium sized organizations. One of the potential solutions lies in co-creation of regional competence centers.

Competence Centers There is no unique definition of competence centers, sometimes also called centers of excel49

Evolving Corporate Education

Figure 9. Competence centers and collaborative partners

and potential research and development projects is also a very important issue of this training aspect. Other characteristics of competence centers: • • • • •

lence. The bottom line to all definitions is that competence centers are places to support long-term and sustainable collaboration between academic organizations, industry and representatives of public sector. This new organizational forms should be the answer to the needs of globalized knowledge based business environment. They should close the gap between academy and industry and speed up the processes of creation of a new knowledge with related technologies for the specific needs of involved industrial actors. The modern competence centers should include representatives of all stakeholders who are active in research, development, education and training processes on specific areas which are important for involved industries (Figure 9). Competence centers should be able to support industrial strategic development and transformational processes by holistic approach which includes technical, organizational and behavioral view of such transformations. Important parts of this approach are adequate education, training and coaching programs. These programs have to provide transfer of technical, organizational and behavioral competences to all involved stakeholders in an industrial organization needed, for planned or performed strategic transformation processes and related changes. To organize permanent inflow of global industrial trends, emerging technologies, new concepts and facilitated open places for a new collaborative initiatives

50

•

•

•

Research projects and program for the future needs of involved industries, Multidisciplinary collaborative research and development projects, Regional “knowledge hub” for the identified technologies, Knowledge base creator and developer, Initiator of a new knowledge based spinoff products, services and businesses, Program/project office services to support collaborative research and development projects, Providing specialized education, training, coaching and competence certification services, Integral part of different national or international research and technology development networks.

Competence centers can have a classical organizational form, or can be organized by principles of virtual organization, as a network of existing organizations. Competence center initiators can be representatives from the industry, academy professional associations, and business associations like industrial clusters, or any other interested parties.

CORPORATE EDUCATION Corporate education refers to a system of professional development activities provided to educate employees in an organization. It may consist of formal college or university education or even informal non-collegiate education. The simplest form of corporate education is the ‘in-house’ training program designed for employee development. Sometimes, employees are sent on short term or even long term training or even for degree or diploma program to universities and management

Evolving Corporate Education

institutes to make select employees more effective in the functions he or she is responsible for. Sometime trainings are designed and imparted to select employees to make them ready for higher responsibility. These days executive development program is very common. Management institutes run regularly program for senior and junior level executives. Executive MBA programme are designed to attract executives to complete condensed courses in a flexible mode. Many institutions and trainers offering corporate education as part of holistic human resources effort to determine the performance of the employees and as part of their review system. A formal system also exists in many organizations for corporate education. For example, in United Breweries Group few top level managers were sent routinely to Harvard for attending program on leadership and strategy. A formal relationship may therefore, exist with the academic institutions who may award credits either at the institution or a system of continuing education unit (CEUs). As the knowledge is ever increasing and as the businesses are increasingly fighting based on their accumulated knowledge within the organization and not on the basis of resources, continuing education has assumed significant importance for satisfying the ongoing need to corporate education.

Challenges of Corporate Education In the past during difficult times corporate training of workforce was considered a luxury. Normally, training budget was drastically curtailed whenever organizations were passing through any economic crisis. But today in spite of lay offs and restructuring organizations are rethinking rather than totally discarding their efforts to build workers capabilities. The belief that human capital management and more particularly the employee training can help create competitive advantage and support corporate agenda has not been more compelling before. There are several reasons for that. First of all organizations are now becoming

more leaner with less number of people to perform the organizational tasks. Downsizing invariably necessitates re-training. The other compelling reasons include – acceleration of organic growth initiatives, movement into new and adjacent markets, and adoption of new business and operating models such as increased offshoring and outsourcing. Continuous learning program also help improve employee morale by sending out the signal that the company is going to be there for a long haul,train and re-train employees and managers for the future. The strategic importance of corporate education is driven by the other trends. The dramatic rise to the service economy has made business more complex. Employees are called to provide all kinds of service which did not exist earlier. Providing service is now part of the total product offering. Even in India service sector contributes over 64 percent of the GDP. Service driven economy requires knowledge which led to training. Global economic liberalization, new regulatory environment, and other changes in the world at large requires employees to be sufficiently knowledgeable to perform a variety of tasks. Technological changes have forced workers to stay up-to-date on increasingly advanced equipments and business practices. Information and communication technology are challenging employees to do things in a newer way which requires new learning. The brain drain is shrinking the availability of talent pool and bringing in new untrained workforce has given additional challenge to corporate education.

How Companies are Responding to these Challenges To explore how corporations are responding to these challenges Booz & Company has conducted 40 in depth interviews in late 2008 with senior corporate Learning managers of Fortune 1000 businesses in United States. Although all of the companies surveyed are making changes to their learning program in response to the downturn

51

Evolving Corporate Education

and new business realities, some businesses, are however taking a more sophisticated approach. They are seeking maximizing value of their effort rather than learning at reduced costs. The core principle is alignment, explicitly ensuring that all corporate learning is tailored to match their strategic business priorities which is in a way redefining the role of corporate learning is playing in their businesses. Because of their large workforce and highly competitive environment, Fortune 1000 companies are more committed to their learning program and in fact they account for more than half of total spend in corporate learning program in the United States despite representing only one percent of the total business. Many of those interviewed firmly believe that much value can be gained from the strategic approach to learning and that they have not made enough progress in that direction as yet to achieve their goal. Nonetheless, each businesses are implementing learning initiatives based on their own experience and best practices to have better human resource which will provide them a significant competitive advantage.

Align Learning with Strategy The first task is to identify the critical learning requirements of the enterprise. In many companies today learning is highly fragmented and adhoc. It normally happens by recommendations of the seniors in the department or based on the appraisal process. The appraisal process itself is not very scientific in many organizations and therefore, it would be difficult to trace the decisions on spending about learning in these organizations. Hence, in most of the companies they simply don’t know whether this learning is happening to most strategic learning challenges (Prince, C 2000). Learning managers should begin by engaging leaders throughout the business in an explicit discussion about the company’s corporate, business, functional and talent strategies,

52

These strategies should then be translated into a set of learning priorities and investment. In most of the companies program to develop the executives and line managers do not exist or inadequate. According to American Society For Training and Development(ASTD) only three out of ten companies currently make knowledge transfer a core part of their program. Meanwhile demographic shift including aging workers are adding to the difficulties many companies face as they try to fill their skill gap.

Some Initiatives in Corporate Education In this dynamic business environment and India being at the center stage of global economy, corporations like Hewlett Packard, IBM have taken the first move to providing the platform as well as contents to the corporate education initiatives. As people or professionals are more particularly judged based on their ability to apply knowledge in practical field rather only on what they know, providing on line e- learning platform to get lessons from the practitioners with real life cases to learn from and that too at one’s own convenience is really beneficial. There is always a big gap between what students learn from a typical university degree or diploma programs and what is required to be done in practical real life world. Many surveys have revealed that what is being taught at universities and colleges in the form of formal education, most of which are not relevant when relates to work life in the chosen profession. There are therefore, institutions which offers different kind of certification programmes to make the aspirants better suited for industry. For example, we have chartered financial analyst and other forms courses which now has become more popular among students who specialize in finance discipline. They therefore, take these courses on-line in an e- learning mode. There are professional associations such as International Project Management Associations (IPMA in Eu-

Evolving Corporate Education

rope) or Project Management Institute (PMI in USA) offer certifications on project management to make aspirants qualified for various levels of responsibility. Hewlett Packard corporate education in offers e-learning platform for continuous education in many subjects related to tax, law, accountancy and finance. These platform also serves the purpose of having experience sharing with experienced professionals on topics of interest. This platform provides on line training and regular updates through videos which can be accessed at ease and convenience, anywhere across the globe through internet. IBM offers corporate training on a very wide range of subjects and disciplines with very specific focus modules which even can be customized and organization specific. Their on-line programs cover all functional disciplines such as IT, Health care, Transportation and Travel, Chemicals and Petrochemicals, Energy, Supply chain management, finance and marketing etc. They can tailor the programme based on organizational needs and claim to have the ability provide the entire training need of the workforce. Before launching these program IBM carried out surveys to understand the gap between structured university education and industry needs. These program has an unique advantage that any one can start or enroll at any time and take the courses of one’s choice and at one’s convenience to acquire additional learning while already on job. These education not only help in increasing the knowledge horizon of the learners but also make them more effective in their own jobs to become more efficient which in turn helps in the career growth. As they say to learn new things sometime you need to unlearn first. Corporate education helps in building and developing real life work and profession related knowledge which only can supplement the formal knowledge. IBM training professionals specialize in assessing training needs, designing, developing, delivering, administering and even evaluating

the corporate training need solutions. Blending technology with the traditional methods, these customized IT training solutions is expected to bolster the knowledge base within the organization. There are many Indian companies now operating in this domain and offering several on –line training modules. For example, Aptech is a company with presence in all major cities in India offers a range of popular programme on line for retail and other sectors and is quite popular amongst students who are looking for very specific knowledge which are flexible to fit into their own schedule and convenience. There are even institutes offer very domain specific knowledge, for example National Institute of Sales (NIS) which is in existence for couple of decades now and couple of years ago Reliance Industries have acquired that organization. NIS offers only sales related focused modules and is well sought after by the industry as they found this as a very cost effective method of building knowledgeable sales team capable of working in a highly competitive environment.

FUTURE DIRECTION OF CORPORATE EDUCATION Management education is changing drastically now. There are increase in demand in short term management program. Traditional management program is also now being offered in shorter duration. There is significant rise in executive MBA program now and demand for traditional 2 years post graduate program now is on the decline. As knowledge is growing at a very fast pace, organizations are required to acquire those knowledge which will redefine the prospect of their products and services, corporate education is the only solution to bring workforce in line with the latest development taking place around the product, process and technology. E- learning now is an established process and technology is working well. The question can be only related

53

Evolving Corporate Education

to the contents of the programme. Organizations are now a days more demanding and they want education for solution to their specific problems and therefore, customized corporate education will be on rise rather than the general program which competes with the traditional class room lectures. In course of time we can see the growth of in company program. There will be learning modules which will be played within the premises, say in shop floor where workers will pick up new knowledge while working in their own work stations and that too in an interactive manner. Large global organizations will be partnering with corporate education providers to get their workforce trained in identified and approved training modules. Unilever has such tie up with Accenture who are again outsourcing those modules to numerous other training companies and facilitators globally. Etisalat, a telecommunication firm operating in 17 countries across Middle East, Asia and Africa has teamed with Duke corporate education for leadership program. Some of these companies even have tie up for very specific objective. For example, Novartis, developed female leadership program with Duke Corporate education and so on. Corporate education therefore, is emerging as separate sector in the field of education. Then there are institutes which offer graduate program such as U21 global which offers business management courses on line.

CONCLUSION Workforce education on a continuous basis can be filled by organizing and participating in identified programs. Organisations will eventually have to decide what kind of program have strategic fit with their need and also meet their budgetary constraints. With competition increasing corporate education will be the only answer to make workforce contemporary in terms of functional as well as work related knowledge. Well meaning educationists should be involved in discharging this role for the country failing which the corporate 54

education will eventually will go in the hands of few investors in education where making profit will be a serious concerns rather than providing quality education on line at affordable cost. On quality front there is no regulatory body now for those who provide only vocational courses and modules. It exists only for graduate program. In India it is controlled by Distance Learning Council. But their reach is only for universities and other approved and recognized institutions offering such programs. Whereas a large part of corporate education is in the hands of private initiatives. It is only the end users who can say how they are benefitting from the programs of the existing players.

REFERENCES CREST Working Group. (2008). Industry-led competence centers. Brussels, Belgium: Author. Department of Information Systems. (2011). History of higher education outline. Boston, MA: Northeastern University. Galbraith, J. K. (1976). The new industrial state. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. IBM. (2008). The enterprise of the future. Hampshire: Global CEO Study, Executive Summary. Jonker, J., & Eskildsen, J. (2009). Management models for the future. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. Lucas, C. (1996). American higher education. Harvard Educational Review, (Spring): 1996. Monck & Co. (1988). Science parks and the growth of high technology firms. London, UK: Croom Helm. OECD. (1996). The knowledge-based economy. OCDE/DG (96)102, Paris. Pearson, G., & Young, T. (2002). Technically speaking. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Evolving Corporate Education

Porter, M. E. (1998). Competitive advantage. New York, NY: The Free Press. Prince, C. (2000). Strategic change: The role of in-company management education. John Wiley & More, C. (2010). Business process pros hold the key to 21st century business transformation. Cambridge, MA: Forrester Research Inc. Sons. Ryan, L. (2010). Corporate education: A practical guide to effective corporate learning. Griffin Press. Scharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mobile technologies for lifelong learning. Pergamon. UK: Elsevier Science.

Schmikl, E. D. (2011). Evolution of our educational system. Gauteng, South Africa: Cranefield College. Semolic, B. (2011). Smart machine collaborative R&D program. Celje, Slovenia: INOVA Consulting, LENS Living Lab. Semolic, B., & Kovac, J. (2008). Strategic information system of virtual organization: Pervasive collaborative networks. Poznan, Poland: IFIP, Springer. Steyn, P. G. (2010). The need for a chief portfolio officer (CPO) in organizations. PM World Today, 12(7).

55

56

Chapter 4

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research: Strategies for Corporate Bodies in Pharmaceuticals

P. Yogeeswari Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, India D. Sriram Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, India

ABSTRACT Basic research in Universities is essential for a sustainable development. Recent developments in higher education have seen the inclusion of curiculum redesigned to serve the concept of developming young minds in the intrepretation, execution, and use of basic science research. The challenge for educators is to “demystify” research and teach in ways that are professionally meaningful as well as intellectually acceptable. The objective of this chapter is to bring in various case studies to prove the essentiality of basic research in higher education with specific concern over pharmaceutical industrial growth plans. Data on R&D in higher education can be broken down by field of science (natural sciences, engineering, medical sciences, agricultural sciences, social sciences, and humanities), by type of costs (current expenditures, capital expenditures), and by source of funds (business enterprise, government, higher education, private non-profit, and funds from abroad). Measures of R&D performance in the higher education sector are often estimated by national authorities, and evaluation methods are periodically revised. It is necessary to review the design and conduct of higher education R&D surveys to improve the comparability of these indicators.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch004

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

INTRODUCTION Especially in the field of Pharmaceuticals, there are perceptions that the pace of new drug development has slowed down and the pharmaceutical industries with high profit have sparked concerns of the future drug development. Pharmaceutical manufacturing lags far behind the manufacturing techniques of the 21st Century and the science required to transform a new discovery to a marketable new drug has definitely not kept pace with advances on the drug discovery side. This is mainly attributed to lack of basic scientific research training. Universities like Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani have taken initiatives way back in 1970s to involve corporate leaders in their curriculum design and implementation. The present chapter would include various strategic thoughts and implementation plans based on various universty initiatives and some ideas on executive development programs in the areas of pharmaceutical education. This book chapter would raise question among the readers to what the mission and value of basic research in higher education means in the field of pharmaceutical sciences and how corporates could get an impact or value-addition in the light of changing biomedical research and healthcare environments globally. The questions, and the views presented in this chapter are intended to promote discussion among all of the many stakeholders in pharmacy education. In the history of education, contribution by various eminents including Prof. Schroff in the harmonisation of pharmacy education in the global arena is worth mentioning. Prof. Schroff on the call of Pundit Madan Mohan Malavya, the then Vice-Chancellor of the prestigious Banaras Hindu University started the regular B.Pharm course of three years duration in the year 1937. These graduates were expected to be efficient in quality control and standardization of drugs for pharmaceutical industries. Consistent

with the changing society and development of health care system, there is an incessant redesigning of the quality of undergraduate-level courses (Commission to Implement Change in Pharmaceutical Education, 1993). In the year 1944, Dr. Khem Singh Grewal introduced pharmacology as a subject in the curriculum and a mandatory three months. Since then the pharmacy education is making progressive strides in India. Pharmacy education is in the cross roads of chemistry and biology and now integreated with information technology.Later on research dimension is also added constituting an important instrument for the creation of new knowledge. From handful of 50 degree institutions 50 years ago, we now have more 300 degree colleges training more than 10-20 thousands of students. The number of M.Pharm and Ph. D. aspirants has also quite significantly increased in the past 2 decades. Although, graduate education and research programs have made significant contributions to the profession of pharmacy, to science, and to society, changes in today’s research, education, and health care environments are stimulating the need for evaluation of whether some of these programs have outlived their usefulness. To understand the effectiveness of our need to revolutionize higher education in India, we need to understand the current status and changing scenario with regard to industrial expectations. In various nature India forums the problems of basic science research in India has been discussed and debated and the root problem has been indicated to the basic science education system in India. With regard to the courses in pharmacy, these are not well defined and mostly directed to the conventional needs of the industry (Etzkowitz, and Leydesdorff, 2000). The elements of the course have become outdated and provide no or little interaction with the status and growth of the pharmaceutical industries. It becomes necessary to follow the rapid and continuous changes in

57

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

pharmaceutical industry, which makes academiaindustry interaction a necessity. In the current curriculum, interaction with the pharmaceutical industries is hard to witness, which ultimately creates a gap between the academia and industries.

CURRENT STATUS OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND BASIC RESEARCH IN INDIA A disquieting tendency in India and in many of the developing countries is the increasing disinterest in science among the younger generation. Many colleges are closing down science departments because students prefer to take courses in management, commerce, and related areas. And there are fewer bright students studying for careers in science and engineering research or higher education. This situation has to be remedied by promoting talent and by offering incentives. It is likely that the vast population of India and other developing countries harbors more than a few geniuses, possibly future Faradays and Newtons. But we have to find them and encourage them to pursue science. From the school days a child opting science stream is destined to take utmost pressure and struggle to attain a seat in medicine, engineering or information technology. Today these three streams are considered by most of the children and parents to be the most sought for as if these only form the whole tree of science. This is because there is a strong gut feeling among school children that it is easy to get jobs with engineering, medicine, computer science and allied fields. Although some are able to make into these fields, a majority of good budding science students count themselves as failures. And by chance some students end up in basic science education or pharmacy with lot of frustrations. And when such frustrated and demoralized failure cases enter into higher education and then research, how would we expect

58

India to compete in Modern Science. This is extremely debate-provoking scenario. One of the major problems facing youth of our country which dissuades them to take up science or pharmacy as a career is the requirement to understand the concerned subject at deepest possible level. The proportion of the population with a 10th (high school) and 12th (higher secondary) degree has increased significantly, from 8.2% (69.7 million) in 1991 to 23% (246.9 million) in 2004. Those with graduate degrees and above have risen from 2.4% (20.5 million) of the population in 1991 to around 4.5% (48.7 million) today. The proportion of diplomas has risen more than ten times and is currently around 0.4% (3.9 million) of the population. In 2004, about a fourth of those qualified to the level of graduate and above had a background of science education. There are 39.2 million graduates in all (22.3% of whom are from the science stream), 9.3 million postgraduates (19.4% of whom are from the science stream), and 0.3 million doctorates (one-third from the science stream). While both the central government and the state governments spend around four per cent of GDP on education each year, there has been a sharp hike in private spending on education. Between 35% and 40% of government expenditure gets spent on elementary education, another fourth on secondary education while just a tenth goes to university and higher education. Though private spending is higher in the richer states, where government spending also tends to be high, private spending as a proportion of the total spending on education in the state tends to be higher in poorer areas. For instance, in Punjab, the government spent Rs 845 per person in 2000–01 and the state’s citizens reciprocated by spending 30% less. In Bihar, where the government spent only Rs 44 per person in 2000–01, the average citizen spent Rs 168 in 2001–02 on education. Interestingly, it is states like West Bengal and Punjab, not Kerala, which emerge as states with the highest per capital expenditure on education.

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

Science and technology (S&T) are the drivers of economic growth and science education the backbone of all S&T efforts in any country. It is being realised that further improvement in the nation’s competitiveness is possible by having a better-educated population. Within the broad umbrella of human capital, the role of scientific manpower is critical, and there is a close relationship between human resource in science and technology and economic growth. For better socio-economic growth, it is important to know how this pool of skilled manpower is being utilized (Stone, 2012). As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance, the access to higher education measured in term of gross enrolment ratio increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 1960–61. By 2006/7 the GER increased to about 11 percent. By 2012, (the end of 11th plan objective) is to increase it to 15%. The current growth in education is clearly depicted in numbers as shown in Table 1. India’s higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (UGC) (India), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state. Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission.

PHARMACEUTICAL GLOBALIZATION AND DRUG DISCOVERY RESEARCH Pharmaceutical drug discovery is considered to be a major key for any country’s national security, public health and economic development. Domestic drug development is very challenging and depends on the status of basic research in our country. United States has the largest world

Table 1. Growth of higher education based on UGC report published in March 2012 S. No.

Sector

Fold increase

1.

Universities

18.8

2.

Teaching staff

34.69

3.

Student enrollments

42.76

4.

Colleges

47.52

market for drug market due to the fact that the country has the world’s strongest patent protection, absolute expenditures on R&D and due to no price control by the government. If our country does not produce drugs on its own, then it will have to purchase essential medicines from foreign countries at a higher cost (Wadwa et al., 2008). This could be prevented by domestic production by inculcating training at the level of higher education. The major advantage of developing drugs on our own would drive tax revenues and would yield foreign currency from exports. India adopts agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS) to protect product patents and which had many failure cases including that of Novaritis’s product Gleevac which made the CEO to comment as follows, Unfavourable patent ruling is not an invitation to invest in Indian R&D. Company will redirect hundreds of millions of dollars in investment to countries where it has greater IP protection. These are a major concern for our country to revisit issues related to drug discovery and production domestically to become an economically well-driven country. In 2006, revolutionary improvements started taking place in the drug innovation sector. About 5.5 percent of all global pharmaceutical patent applications (WIPO PCT applications) named one inventor or more located in India, and 8.4 percent named one or more located in China. This increase accounts for a four-fold from 1995. Through interviews with executives of 16 pharmaceutical firms in China and India 59

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

on their business models, value-chain activities, partnerships and technology capabilities, the researchers found that: •

•

•

•

Indian and Chinese companies are making strides in the most lucrative segments of global value chains. In less lucrative segments, such as preclinical testing, animal experimentation and manufacturing, Chinese firms appear to be more prevalent. India is regarded as a more mature venue for chemistry and drug-discovery activities than China. Domestic Indian and Chinese firms rarely have the capital and the regulatory expertise to develop a drug beyond phase II clinical trials. Their commercial development of new intellectual property therefore necessitates relationships with major multinational corporations. Pharmaceutical multinationals have begun partnering with Indian firms to conduct fixed dose-eruption skin-reaction tests. Competition has now significantly reduced the cost of this work, from USD 80,000 to approximately USD 30,000.

According to the study, because Indian drug companies have the most experience in selling generic drugs that meet FDA standards, India is playing a more strategic role in early discovery. Companies such as Ranbaxy, Aurigene, Advinus, Nicholas Piramal and Jubilant have negotiated long-term deals with Western pharmaceutical companies to discover and develop new chemical entities.

PHARMACY EDUCATION AND IMPACT ON PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES The history of pharmacy education in India is as old as when the country was being gravitated towards British Emperorship. As mentioned ear60

lier, the epicentre of pharmacy education started with Banaras Hindu University at Varanasi at the heart of India. Globalisation has revolutionised the educational process across the globe. Pharmaceutical education plays a very prominent role in attaining sustainable and equitable development of a country. The curriculum of the degree in some developed countries (B. Pharm.) usually requires 5 academic years of study. In most of the European countries successful completion of a university degree leads to a one-year internship. The formal pharmacy education in India (3 year degree in BHU) dates back 1932, and since then, there has been a continuous growth in number of such institutions. As per Pharmacy Council of India (PCI) 2005 diary calendar, the total numbers of recognized degree institutions are 220 with intake of 12506 students. And as per All India Council of Technical education (AICTE), the total number of degree colleges is 445 with the intake of 24672 students as well 30 institutions for the post graduation in various fields (Suresh, 2012). There is no doubt that currently there is enormous gap existing between education and practice of pharmacy. Most of the academic institutions providing education in pharmacy are away from practice environment. The overall basis of pharmacy education is still extrabiological synthesis, physicochemical studies, analysis, and manufacturing aspects of drug. It is a common feeling that the medical practitioner is better placed for pharmacists’ job than the pharmacists themselves. The dispensing services are poor. The syllabus and duration of the two-year diploma course in pharmacy education in India is completely outdated and irrelevant in the present industry context. Pharmacy as a nascent science developed like this in the last century (Yeole and Puranik, 2005). During 1940s and 50s, hospitals and industries were established in large numbers in India. Consequently, pharmacists and pharmaceutical chemists were required in huge numbers. Hence pharmacy education was developed in such a way to satisfy the requirement of industry and hospital. Short-term compounders and or D.

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

Pharm. course to satisfy the needs of hospital and medical shops and B. Pharm. course for the industry were started. This is proved by the fact that in the last few decades D. Pharm. holders are not employed by the industry and B. Pharm. holders are not in many numbers in hospitals or medical shops. In the West, pharmacy education is patient-oriented and is responsible for Healthcare Management, while in India pharmacy education is industry-oriented. Nearly 55 per cent of the jobs are available in the industry sector while 30 per cent in education. The approach of carrying both the aspects of pharmacy practice and industrial pharmacy together hasn’t shown success as the course structure for practicing pharmacy is not relevant to the requirements of an industry and vice-versa. Hence, it is pertinent and relevant to have separate degree courses of education in practicing pharmacy and industrial pharmacy.

NEED FOR INDUSTRY-ORIENTED TRAINING FOR PHARMACIST Pharmacy courses are not well defined and not even updated in most of the universities in our country. With the evolving scenario of more multinationals setting up their research facility in India, pharmacy education in India need to redesign curriculum to introduce course more relevant to the industries. Moreover like an internship program for doctors, pharmacy students should also have an internship in industry to understand the application of the knowledge relevant to the need of the industry (Fischli, 1999). The elements of the course have become outdated and provide no or little interaction with the status and growth of the pharmaceutical industries. It becomes necessary to follow the rapid and continuous changes in pharmaceutical industry, which makes academia-industry interaction a necessity. This could be facilitated by more industry-institute interactions and collaborations. This definitely strengthens the ties for organizing

campus placement services for the graduates and to generate resources for research and development also through consultancy services. In the current curriculum, interaction with the pharmaceutical industries is hard to witness, which ultimately creates a gap between the academia and industries. Our academic area is that end which has been at a fixed place for a long time while the industry on the other end has continuously made rapid advancements in technology. If this gap keeps on widening then industries will no longer prefer pharmacy students in their companies as they will not be able to fulfill their current requirements. Academic institutes with a focus on industryoriented curriculum will be a better place to generate expertise in patentable ideas and industries would be benefitted by collaborating with such institutes. In turn, institutes are benefitted by sending students and faculty for internship program to acquire the latest technological know-how from the industry. Benefits of these mutual exchanges of ideas and symbiotic relationship are multifold. To achieve these, regular upgradation of curriculum will generate manpower in ready to-use mode that could be utilized and absorbed by industries (Friedman, 2010). More value should be given to projects/assignments, conceptual and practical approaches of teaching so that students can spend more time on understanding the subject and develop specific skills. Involvement of industry experts in framing the syllabus is yet another way to get updated with industrial developments. In the new millennium due to technological innovation and improved communication, drastic changes are taking place in every field. The field of pharmacy education cannot keep away from these changes. Harmonisation of pharmaceutical education has to be made a global agenda that will encompass the development that have taken place in basic, medical, and pharmaceutical sciences in serving the needs and expectations of industry and universities.

61

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE BASIC SCIENCE RESEARCH IN THE CONTEXT OF HIGHER EDUCATION In our rapidly expanding global scientific research enterprise, good science anywhere is good for science everywhere, provided that there exists an open flow of information with transparent processes to promote rigorous peer review and scientific integrity. Basic sciences in the area of pharmacy include the traditional areas like pharmacology, medicinal chemistry and pharmaceutics. The end of the Cold War, the rapid growth of international competition in technology-based industries, and a variety of constraints on federal research spending have altered the market for PhD-trained scientists. Although the demand for scientists has remained strong (as evidenced by low and stable unemployment rates), the three areas of primary employment for PhD scientists—universities and colleges, industry, and government—are undergoing simultaneous change. Two compelling indicators of problems for the science work force, particularly in academia, are the growing postdoc population and the declining grant approval rate. Recognizing and promoting excellence, so as to discover and access new frontiers of knowledge, is an imperative which should be possible for all countries whatever their level of economic development. Yet these frontiers are often in the fields of science, technology and engineering, health care, agriculture and economics where highly-educated and skilled human capital, along with large-scale investment, is essential to appropriate context of enquiry. The research function of academia remains a prime source of knowledge and innovation at national, regional and international levels. Yet, over the past decade, most industrialized states have been obliged to address the double challenge of providing wider access to postsecondary education and training and ensuring adequate investment in high-level research. This is proving to be a delicate balancing act, which hinges on visionary policies and a more

62

diversified funding base. Governments pursue reforms to build world-class systems of higher education, which assure quality in both research and teaching. In contrast, the term “World-Class University” tends to denote research-oriented institutions, although this should also recognize those who achieve excellence through innovative approaches to learning. For universities wishing to enhance their research reputations, the challenges continue to grow. Today, some twenty-two of the world’s elite twenty-five research universities (known as “Super RUs”) are located in one country, the United States of America (USA). While American higher education deserves full credit for the breadth and resourcing of this sector, this monopoly cannot be expected to meet global needs in terms of research (Williard, 1996). For this reason support for research universities, notably those with science, technology and innovation strengths, has become an important priority in OECD (Organisation of Economic Co-operation Development) Member countries. The rise in status and influence of various ranking systems (aiming to evaluate excellence in academic research) has influenced this situation. Investment in research is increasing in emerging economies including India (Shukla, 2005). Postgraduate education and training has assumed new importance as an underpinning to this policy approach, and a dual agenda must be adopted: resources should be made available at this level, even where countries currently struggle with the provision of basic and secondary education. Even the poorest nations require research capacity, or access to research findings, to progress; and so it could be argued that support for the principle of a research university in these contexts is more urgent than ever before. Reaching this goal, and maintaining the quality and relevance of these essential institutions, requires national commitment and must remain a major objective for international cooperation in the years ahead. Current issues facing the research function and its environment include equity; quality; relevance; ownership; and inter-

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

national networking. An ever-growing number of nations of varying size have now given priority to developing their knowledge base through higher education, research and innovation, and to commit the necessary resources to this goal. Success stories are becoming more common in all regions, and they are characterized by specific indicators (Meek e al., 2009): •

• • •

Innovative policies in higher education and research and in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI). A will to improve and profile the necessary infrastructure, including universities. Efforts to train and retain and attract highly-skilled human capital. Increased levels of investment in research and higher education.

The mandate of the UNESCO Forum is to chart these important processes and help promote their replication and adaptation worldwide, in order to render the global knowledge society a more level playing field. It seems reasonable to assert that graduate education, research, and/or scholarly activity of faculty is necessary for the maintenance of a high level of excellence in professional education in pharmacy. The essential question seems to be what types of graduate education; research and/or scholarly activity in the pharmaceutical sciences are likely to promote a high level of excellence in professional pharmacy education today and in the future? Although graduate education cannot exist without research, research can exist without graduate education. Pharmaceutical education is responsible to the profession and to society for generating new knowledge about drugs, drug products, drug therapy, and drug use through the conduct of basic and applied research. This would promote the pharmaceutical sciences by fostering graduate education and research within its

schools and colleges. Pharmaceutical education is responsible for both professional education and graduate education for research. At the recent Indian Science Congress held in January 2012, our Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh pledged to hike R&D expenditures from around $3 billion last year to $8 billion in 2017 (Jogalekar, 2012). The windfall is meant to turbocharge initiatives to create elite research institutions, bring expatriate Indian scientists home, enrich science education, and equip smart new laboratories. Indian scientists in Universities would be cheering the government’s new initiative.

ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATING BASIC SCIENCE RESEARCH PROGRAM Science and Technology have played a very decisive role in the overall development of mankind. Scientific knowledge has led to remarkable innovations that have been of great benefit to humankind. Rapid advancements in science and technology have brought the subject to a centre-stage. The global scientific knowledge and information are increasing at a very fast rate. The doubling time of knowledge has drastically reduced from decades to years and from years to a few months (Khar et al., 2011). The economic growth critically hinges on inputs from science & technology of the highest kind and this gets linked to the doctoral programme ion Universities. What are the contributions of research programs in basic sciences to professional education? How significant are these contributions? Are the contributions essential and unique or are there other means of achieving them? There are primarily two ways in which basic science research departments are seen to contribute to the mission of the pharmacy profession. The first is that the faculty in these departments provides instruction

63

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

in basic science coursework to the professional students (Meek et al., 2009). The second is that the graduate education and research enterprises in basic sciences create directions and opportunities for the professional enterprise. In addition to contributions to the profession, basic science research programs make contributions to the overall national research enterprise.

SCOPE FOR IMPROVEMENT AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES Universities should realistically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their basic science research programs, the ways in which basic science programs are contributing to and detracting from the professional mission, and new organizational paradigms for professional education that best serve the evolving needs of the professional mission. The issues associated with evaluating whether basic science research programs should be strengthened, downsized, or eliminated are different for each institution and need to be considered on an individual basis (Rao, 1999). Universities should re-examine what course work in basic sciences is critical and explicitly relevant to professional training and practice today. The organizational framework in which such course work is offered should be re-evaluated to determine to what extent instruction needs could be met by faculty and departments outside departments of pharmacy or by alternative organizational structures (Report of the Task Force for Basic Scientific Research in Universities, 2005). Next, the quality and competitiveness of research programs in each university should be evaluated based on criteria such as amount of research funding received and number of publications in peer-reviewed journals (both inside and outside pharmacy). Science research should be made the key activity of the Universities with greater emphasis on research leading to PhD degree without which quality teaching is not sustainable. Access to sci-

64

entific research journals and related resources must be strengthened and its scope should be widened through Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Science research should mean research in Basic Sciences, engineering, medicine and applied interdisciplinary sciences. The system needs to be made more flexible to strengthen research in interdisciplinary needs. Improvements in the education system could be achieved by the some of the following steps. There are a large number of sanctioned faculty positions in Universities that have been lying vacant for a prolonged period. These positions should be expeditiously filled in by inducting talented faculty with a view to strengthening the research base. There is a need to create networking centres in Basic Sciences in leading Departments of Universities in different parts of the country to promote collaborative research, access to advanced facilities and imparting training in frontier areas. These centres should be supported on a long term basis in a substantial manner to enable them to realize internationally competitive status. Formal linkage between the Universities and national level institutions including CSIR laboratories be promoted through joint research project and training. Linkages of Universities and their faculty with industries and user organizations should be encouraged. There should be a provision for joint appointments/ visiting professorship to stimulate collaborative research. The system of both Winter and Summer Schools must be supported. Each subject area of Basic Sciences may offer upto ten programmes a year. There should be a provision for visiting Fellowships for faculty within the country. In order to promote quality scientific research in Universities, infrastructural facilities ought to be upgraded by providing development grants for modern laboratories, physical infrastructure including uninterrupted power supply, water, safety requirements of international standards, high level equipment with built-in maintenance mechanism, exclusive research students’ hostel and a research starter fund etc. The number of

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

PhDs from Indian Universities should increase five-fold within a span of ten years with proper standards. This should be seen in the context of extremely low fraction of PhDs in India in relation to B.Pharm/M.Pharm., as compared to what it is in USA, UK, Germany, Japan etc. The emphasis for research will clearly emerge if we have Universities with only departments and separately Universities having affiliated colleges.

CONCLUSION The funding scenario for science in India is better than ever, with lots of infrastructure, startup funds and facilities provided to young aspiring professors. A major recent initiative has been the creation of the Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs) whose primary goal has been to meld undergraduate education with research, something that’s traditionally been almost completely missing in India. Expensive new centers including a neutrino observatory, a clean nanotechnology lab and most impressively, an open-source tuberculosis drug discovery project are highlighting India’s ambition and capabilities to focus on relevant and cutting edge fields. For a developing country India has always been pretty big on science. Nobel Prize winners like H. G. Khorana (who died a few months back) and C. V. Raman emerged from the old education system which was modeled after the British system. In some fields like statistics India has consistently produced world-class researchers. After India became independent in 1947, science was one of the top priorities for the country’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, a Cambridge-educated lawyer. Even today Nehru remains India’s most scientifically literate leader and he was instrumental in establishing both the well-known Indian Institutes of Technology and several leading federal research laboratories. To draw a meaningful conclusion, opinion from leaders from academia, industries, government funding bodies and of course the student

feedback would be fruitful in implimentation of research policies to facilitate basic research in universities offering pharmacy courses to attract industries for various activities including placement opportunities.

REFERENCES Commission to Implement Change in Pharmaceutical Education. (1993). The papers of the Commission to Implement Change in Pharmaceutical Education. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 57, 366–398. Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L. (2000). The dynamics of innovation: From national system and mode 2 to a triple helix of university industry government relations. Research Policy, 29, 109–123. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(99)00055-4 Fischli, A. E. (1999). Chemical education and the pharmaceutical industry. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 71(5), 865–879. doi:10.1351/ pac199971050865 Friedman, Y. (2010). Location of pharmaceutical innovation: 2000-2009. Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery, 9, 835–836. doi:10.1038/nrd3298 Government of India. (2005). Report of the Task Force for Basic Scientific Research in Universities. Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Secondary & Higher Education Government of India, New Delhi. Jogalekar, A. (2012, March 1). Science in India: Moon shot or bust? Critical Twenties, Science & Technology. Retrieved from http://www.criticaltwenties.in/sciencetechnology Khar, R. K., Ahmed, F. J., & Jain, G. K. (2011) Pharmacy education: Gearing up to meet industrial needs. Pharmacology Times, 43(3). Meek, V. L., Teichler, U., & Kearney, M. L. (2009). Higher education research and innovation: Changing dynamics. UNESCO Forum Report, INCHER-Kassel. 65

Sustainability in Higher Education through Basic Science Research

Rao, C. N. R. (1999). Science in the future of India. Science, 286, 1295. doi:10.1126/science.286.5443.1295 Shukla, R. (2005). India Science Report. National Council of Applied Economic Research. Stone, R. (2012). India Rising . Science, 335, 904–910. doi:10.1126/science.335.6071.904 Suresh, S. (2012). Cultivating Global science . Science, 336, 959. doi:10.1126/science.1224580 UGC. (2012). Report on higher education in India. Retrieved from UGC.ac.in

66

Wadwa, V., Rissing, B., Gereffi, G., Trumpbour, J., & Engardio, P. (2008). Globalization of innovation. Can India and China Cure the Global Pharmaceutical Market? Kauffman- The Foundation for Entrepreneurship. Pharmaceuticals (Ottawa), 3–5. Williard, R. (1996). The changing biomedical research and health care environments: Implications for basic science graduate education and research in pharmacy. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 60, 308–314. Yeole, P. G., & Puranik, M. P. (2005). Pharmacy in India: At crossroads. Express Pharma Pulse.

67

Chapter 5

NGOs and Corporate Education: A Case Study from Jharkhand Ravi Sinha Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya, India Mrinal Gaurav Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya, India

ABSTRACT Knowledge development at the regional level is basic to the strengthening of knowledge economy. Though there are many examples of universities taking up community service learning (CSL), they are alarmingly preoccupied with student outcomes and institutional interests. They focus more on achieving academic aims and bolstering the interests and power base of the academy, rather than fulfilling the goals of knowledge economy. Chandra and Mahato (2011) opine that in recent years, Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have emerged as powerful sources for social change within developing countries. Since the vast majority of them exist outside of the government, their programs emanate more from the expressed needs of the people rather than from governments. The participation of local level bodies including NGOs in establishing partnerships with universities is crucial for knowledge economy development. This can help in developing research networks that serve as a basis for regional level business or entrepreneurship that can be in tune with global economy. In the present chapter, the authors take a case study from Jharkhand (one of the states in India) to discuss how NGOs can help in corporate education and the role of Universities to promote their activities.

INTRODUCTION The pivotal role NGOs can play in the development of Jharkhand1 and its populace may be understood in a better way only if we have some basic knowledge of the state. Therefore, the case is presented

giving a short analysis on the status of Jharkhand state to identify some major challenges/issues it faces followed by a discussion on the possible role NGOs can play, some strategies for corporate education by NGOs for rural development and the need for interface with universities

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch005

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

NGOs and Corporate Education

Jharkhand State and Challenges/Issues The name “Jharkhand” means “The Land of Forests”. The state was carved out of the southern part of Bihar on 15 November 2000 (See Figure 1). The people in Jharkhand have the advantage of being culturally vibrant, as reflected in the diversity of languages spoken, festivals celebrated, and variety of folk music, dances, and other traditions of performing arts. The state is unique in having more percentage of Scheduled tribes2 (28% of total) and Scheduled castes (12% of total), Census, 2011. This largely tribal state ranks very low on development indices despite its rich natural resources – 40% of population live below the poverty line; literacy rate around 67.63%; institutional delivery rate around 19% (Jharkhand Development Report, 2010). Agriculture is the principal source of livelihoods, with more than 60% of the main workers classified as cultivators. The main issue here is they depend on monsoon resulting in many non working days. Jharkhand’s gross state domestic product for 2011 is estimated at $20 billion at current prices (Jharkhand Development Report, 2010)

Industrial Status Another important feature of Jharkhand is its industrial status. Jharkhand has a concentration of some of the country’s highly industrialized cities such as Jamshedpur, Ranchi, Bokaro Steel City and Dhanbad. These industries produce various products with large requirement for skilled man power (Table 1). Tata Steel, an S&P CNX 500 conglomerate and one of the biggest players in the steel industry worldwide has its corporate office in Jharkhand. NTPC will start coal production from its captive mine in state in 2011-12, for which the company will be investing about Rs 1,800 crore.

Educational Status There is an acute shortage of quality educational institutions3 in Jharkhand and the major institutions offering higher education/technical and professional courses are depicted in in Table 2. However, Jharkhand cannot be rated as a well developed educational hub as the concentration of the best institutes is in Ranchi and in one or two other cities. Most of the cities lack good educational institutes. Further, all the reputed

Figure 1. Jharkhand, “The Land of Forests” (http//:www.mapsofindia.com)

68

NGOs and Corporate Education

Table 1. Key industrial units of Jharkhand Sl. No.

Name of Industry

Year of Establishment

Production Details

Manpower Employed (approx)

1.

Bokaro Steel Plant, Bokaro

1964

Hot rolled coils, plates, sheets, Cold rolled coils, sheets, tin mill black plates, galvanized plain and corrugated sheets

24,000

2.

Tata Iron & Steel Company Ltd., Jamshedpur

1907

Steel, flat steel products, long steel products, wire products, plates

81,000

3.

Tata Motors, Jamshedpur

1945

Automobiles and automotive parts

53,000

4.

Tata Cummins, Jamshedpur

1919

Engines, filtration, power generation, turbo technologies

40,000

5.

Tata Robins Frazer (TRF) Ltd., Jamshedpur

1962

Material handling equipment and processing systems required in the infrastructure development sector

20,000

6.

British Oxygen Company (BOC) Gases, Jamshedpur

1998

All types of industrial and process gases like liquefied oxygen, nitrogen, argon etc.

3,000

7.

Lafarge Cement, Jamshedpur

1999

Cement, gypsum, concrete and aggregates

5,000

8.

Heavy Engineering Corporation (HEC) Ltd., Ranchi

The largest foundry and forging complex in India produces a vast variety of products for steel sector, mining sector, machine tools, crushing equipments, mineral processing, casting and forging, space research, cranes etc.

28,000

9.

Tenughat Thermal/ Hydro Power Station, Bokaro

1995

Thermal/hydro electricity

3,000

10.

Jindal Steel Plant, Patratu

2010

TMT Bars and wire rods

2,500

11.

Usha Martin, Ranchi

1961

Wire rods, bright bars, steel wires, specialty wires, strand, wire ropes, cable machine, conveyor cord etc.

10,000

12.

Central Coal Fields Ltd., Ranchi and other parts of Jharkhand

1975

Coal mining specially Coaking coal and NonCoaking coal

15,000

13.

Eastern Coal Fields Ltd., Dhanbad, Jharia, Chandrapura and other parts of Jharkhand

1973

Non- Coaking coal

20,000

14.

Damodar Valley Corporation’s Thermal power plants at Bokaro, Chandrapura, Talaiya and Mainthan

1948

Power Generation and water management

11,000

Source: Official websites of all these organisations

institutes take students on all India basis, leaving less scope for students from Jharkhand, a tribal dominated state. Though Jharkhand is having rich natural resources and many industries, it appears that the people from the state are ill prepared to take up any advantage of this. For instance, though four hundred odd students in one of the Universities

in Jharkhand appear during a campus selection interview against over 100 openings in a prestigious company. Just three students are shortlisted while the rest are found ‘unsuitable’ for the job due to lack of employability skills (Prabhat, 2011). If the dropout rate in universities is any indication of the utility of education it is 37% in Jharkhand. More than 70% students graduating

69

NGOs and Corporate Education

Table 2. Major higher education/technical/professional courses offered in Jharkhand Major Institutions

Year of Establishment

Intake Every Year

Courses offered

Ranchi University, Ranchi

1960

22,000

Traditional courses and vocational courses in management, computer application, bio-technology etc

Central University, Ranchi

2009

500

MBA, life science, applied mathematics and applied physics Law (to start 2012- 2013 onwards)

Kolhan University, Chaibasa

2010

15,000

Traditional courses and vocational courses in management, computer application, bio-technology etc

Neelambar- Peetambar University, Daltonganj

2009

8,000

Traditional courses and vocational courses in management, computer application, bio-technology etc

Vinoba Bhave University, Hazaribag

1992

20,000

Traditional courses and vocational courses in management, computer application, bio-technology etc

Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi

1981

5,500

Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry and veterinary sciences

Sidhu Kanhu University, Dumka

1992

7,000

Traditional courses and vocational courses in management, computer application, bio-technology etc

ICFAI University (Private), Ranchi

2010

500

BIT Mesra (Deemed University), Ranchi

1956

10,000

Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences (RIMS)

2002 (after up gradation of RMCH established in 1960)

2225

Different disciplines of medical science

Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ranchi

2010

150

Management program

Indian School of Mining, Dhanbad

1926

1250

Mining and management

Central Institute of Psychiatry (CIP), Ranchi

1918

600

Psychiatry

Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Medical College, Jharkhand

1961

1200

Different disciplines of medicine

Management and Computer application Engineering in different disciplines, management

Source: Official websites of these institutions

from the state owned Universities of Jharkhand have failed to get a job in the past decade. Only 3, 497 out of 1, 14, 234 graduates and post graduates registered at the employment exchange in the state capital of Jharkhand have been able to find a job for themselves (Jharkhand Development report, 2010). This may be related to the fact that the syllabus of most of the Universities in Jharkhand is more than obsolete (Prasad & Sharma 2010). There is need to develop skills useful for the society4.

70

NGOs AND THEIR ROLE IN JHARKHAND Non Government organizations (NGOs)/Voluntary organization/Civil Society Organization is not a new phenomenon in our country. Voluntary effort has always been an important part of our culture and social tradition. The need for organizing people into accredited associations and their involvement and participation in rural development have now been fully recognized. In recent years, they have increased in considerable number,

NGOs and Corporate Education

acquired greater importance and significance and put up many new experiments in the field of rural development. Their importance can be understood from the slogan “A-Sarkari Asarkari” meaning nongovernmental are effective. Development practitioners, government officials and foreign donors consider that Non-Governmental organizations by the virtue of being small- scale, flexible, innovative and participatory, are more successful in reaching the poor and in poverty alleviating, (Gupta, 2010). According to the estimates of the working groups of NGOs, there are about 30,000 NGOs in India. A rapid growth took place in the 1980s and the early 1990s. With the SHG linkages program introduced in 1989, the NGO sector has been recognized as a crucial partner, recognizing the strengths of the NGOs in organizing the community and the potential in savings and credit programs both under the linkage program and other credit delivery innovations. The revival and strengthening of Panchayati Raj Institutions, consequent upon the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992- the NGO’s role has become more significant5. There are 189 NGOs in Jharkhand with various activities (See Table 3). As can be seen from the table, NGOs in Jharkhand have different roles to play in the development of the state. They may include educating rural population, empower women both socially and financially, provide appropriate training, mentoring as per local needs/local resources to the rural masses, mobilization of local resources, supplement government policies and programs, promote appropriate and modern technology, identify people with entrepreneurial abilities and foster innovation and rural leadership and the like.

CORPORATE EDUCATION AND NGOs: THE CASE OF KGVK Krishi Gram Vikas Kendra (KGVK), a corporate social responsibility arm of Usha Martin Ltd6., was established in 1972 and acclaims to be an

NGO with difference which touches the lives of more than one and a half million people. KGVK undertakes various development initiatives, following a public-private-people’s partnership (P4) approach. These initiatives build both natural and human capital, with a distinctive focus on enterprise development and sustainable income generation. Usha Martin and KGVK have proactively sought out and achieved sustainable partnerships in this endeavor. Reputable and vibrant partners include UNDP, USAID, International Finance Corporation (World Bank Group, Washington), Austrian Development Agency, United Kingdom, India Canada Environment Facility, Sir Ratan Tata Trust, India, Child in Need Institute, India, ISRO and many others. The $1 billion Usha Martin Group is the corporate anchor of KGVK, while other knowledge and funding partners include Village Communities/local governance structures, Government of Jharkhand, Government of India, United States Agency for International Development (USAID India is partnering with India to develop. Test and deploy innovative technologies to address global challenges of food security, climate change and health), Oxfam India (It is the 15th member of Oxfam International Confederation and works on the mission to create a just, fair and equitable society), Sri Ratan Tata Trust (SRTT was established in 1919 and is one of the oldest philanthropic and charitable institutions of India), International Finance Corporation (IFC is a member of the World Bank Group and is the largest global development institution focused on the private sector in developing countries and works to create opportunities for people to escape poverty and improve their lives), Jhpiego (It is an international non-profit health organization affiliated with the John Hopkins University and is working in over 150 countries, mostly developing nations, to provide health care to women and their families), to name a few. Three broad strategies are followed – Total Village management, TVM Gurukul and entrepreneurship development programmes.

71

NGOs and Corporate Education

Table 3. A few prominent NGOs in Jharkhand with their respective areas of operations Sl. No.

Name of the NGO

Year of Establishment

Districts Covered

Education with emphasis on corporate education, rural empowerment, agriculture, health

Key Role

1.

Krishi Gram Vikas Kendra

1972

Ranchi, East and West Singhbhum, Gumla, Lohardaga and Hazaribagh

2.

Society of Rural Industrialization

1984

Ranchi

Rural development

3.

PRAYAS

1991

Ranchi, Khunti

Education, empowerment of women and children

4.

Catholic Charities

1967

Ranchi

Education, tribal welfare

5.

Birsa Kala Kendra

1981

Ranchi

Tribal welfare

6.

Manthan Yuva Sansthan

1989

Ranchi

Education

7.

Prerna Bharti

1987

Ranchi, Gumla

Women and child welfare Tribal welfare

8.

Akhil Bhartiya Adivasi Vikas Parishad

1973

Ranchi and other districts of Jharkhand

9.

Bhartiya Kisan Sangh

1968

Ranchi

Welfare of Farmers

10.

Deepshikha

1992

Ranchi

Education and social security of women

11.

ASRA

1996

West Singhbhum, Saraikela

Women empowerment

12.

Mahila Kalyan Kendra

1988

Chaibasa

Women empowerment and their heath security

13.

Tribal Research and Training Center

1969

West Singhbhum and Ranchi

Tribal education and sill development

14.

Navyuvak Kala Manch

1969

Bokaro

Youth empowerment and encouragement to traditional arts

15.

Indian Rural Association (IRA)

1978

Bokaro, Dhanbad

Rural upliftment

16.

Ankuran

1987

Chatra

Child welfare

17.

Welfare point

1986

Chatra

Social welfare

18.

Vikalp

1996

Deoghar

Rural empowerment

19.

Mahila Kalyan Avam Manav Uthan Sadbhawana Samiti

1979

Deoghar

Women welfare, education and social peace

20

Grameen Samudayik Vikas

1970

Dhanbad

Rural empowerment

21.

Adivasi Kalyan Parishad

1983

Dumka

Tribal development

22.

Society for Participatory Action and Reflection (SPAR)

1999

East Singhbhum

Human rights

23.

Vikas Bharti

1983

Ranchi and Santhal Pargana

Social welfare and health

24.

Nehru Bal Vikas Kendra

1989

Giridih

Child Welfare

25.

Dalit Sena

1985

Garhwa

Welfare of Schedule castes

Source: Data obtained from welfare department, Govt. of Jharkhand and Jharkhand Tribal Development Society (JTDS), Ranchi

Total Village Management (TVM) Total Village Management (TVM)7 model was developed on the lines of Total Productivity Maintenance model implemented in Usha Martin 72

plants successfully. It identifies eight key areas for village development and poverty alleviation – natural resource management, education, health-hygiene-sanitation, livelihoods, capacity building, infrastructure, resource mobilization

NGOs and Corporate Education

and renewable energy. TVM is based on strong business principles adapted to the rural setting, community ownership and grassroots entrepreneurship; eventual goals being meeting and surpassing the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) over many years. KGVK operates in 6 districts of Jharkhand, a largely tribal and one of the least developed States in India, has a Public-Private-PEOPLE-Partnership (4P) to mobilizing resources, and has over 175 full-time employees that form the KGVK family; KGVK’s social enterprises have an operational reach across many States of India. For achieving its objective under TVM, the NGO used various approaches like developing women’s self help groups (SHGs) for planning and resource management process of watershed development; running research and training institute to provide high quality hands-on training through extension work for duplication of successful models; training in various agricultural, crafts, health and related areas in an integrative way; and promoting concepts like social forestry, non-conventional energy sources, livestock management through various integrative methods. KGVK’s work touches nearly 90 villages and 8,000 families8, 9. TVM is the brainchild of Mr. Jhawar and is at a very initial stage. Therefore, much data on TVM is not available. The model is still in the stage of experimentation and the results have been highly encouraging. One such experiment is TVM Gurukul.

TVM Gurukul One of Mr. Jhawar’s pioneering experiments in creating social infrastructure has been the creation of TVM Gurukul in 2006, which is what Mr. Jhawar calls a “barefoot B-school” offering auxiliary nurse and midwife courses, health worker courses and vocational training for rural youth. Gurukul facilities include classrooms, library, dairy and demonstration farm, virtual classrooms powered by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)

and residential hostels. TVM Gurukul is a oneof-its-kind institute that unlocks the potential of rural students, linking them to dynamic India.

KGVK’s Entrepreneurship Development Programs KGVK has gone through a paradigm shift and has replaced its livelihood generation program with Entrepreneurship Development Program (EDP). It has build up a diversified team of youth from different walks of life. Professionals from Entrepreneurship Development Institute (EDI), Ahmadabad, Post graduates in rural development from XISS, Ranchi and other institutions and key members from the rural areas constitute this team. The key responsibility of the team members is to conduct EDP in rural areas and bring in as many people as possible to attend these programs. During the programs the entrepreneurial potential of the participants is tested through a series of interesting games, quizzes and other activities. Another key responsibility of the team members is to identify entrepreneurial opportunities based on the local resources. The team includes local members who play a key role and help other team members in identifying any such opportunity. These local members are thoroughly trained for this purpose. After identifying the potential, the team charts out a proper layout of the proposed enterprise with the selected participants and help them with preparation of Preliminary Project Report (PPR) and then with procuring finances for the project. The team mentors the entrepreneur during the establishment of the enterprise and provides all information and training required for the purpose. The KGVK team helps the entrepreneurs with the marketing of the products and mentors till smooth functioning of the enterprise. The following two illustrations explain further the effectiveness and usefulness of this strategy for rural development through corporate education.

73

NGOs and Corporate Education

The Fly Ash Brick Projects: In 2007, KGVK helped five rural entrepreneurs from Ramgarh district to set up their individual fly ash brick projects at two different locations in the rural areas of Ramgarh. These individuals were identified and selected in one of the KGVK’s Entrepreneurship Development Programs organized at Ramgarh and were trained and mentored by the KGVK team. They were also helped with the preparation of their project and procurement of finances from local banks. This fly ash brick project was based on a local resource “fly ash” which is an industrial waste of steel plants and thermal power plants and is therefore abundantly available at Bokaro Steel Plant in adjacent Bokaro and Hazaribagh districts for no cost as such. These bricks8 are in huge demand since the start of the project. KGVK has helped setting up of many small and medium sized enterprises in its different areas of operation Solar LED Charging stations: As of the 2001 Census, only 43.5% of the rural households in India had access to electricity while for Bihar and Jharkhand states, most rural areas have a village electrification rate of only 15%. KGVK has empowered the tribal community in the Ranchi district of Jharkhand through clean and affordable alternate energy solutions based on a social entrepreneurship model (solar LED charging stations). This project was started to create more sustainable lighting opportunities in rural villages by setting up solar-powered LED charging stations run by entrepreneurs. The project has facilitated local distribution and servicing of solar lanterns to rural communities where kerosene is predominant fuel, not only in households but also in small enterprises, shops, and cottage industries. Rural entrepreneurs (chosen by the program) are trained to manage the solar charging station/distribution center where lanterns will be charged during the day and rented in the evening. KGVK conducts training for potential entrepreneurs to run the stations11 (2 entrepreneurs share each station) as well as training and awareness camps for community groups on why solar lanterns 74

(and the rental option) may be better than purchasing kerosene. The entrepreneurs are required to put a share of their earnings into a fund managed by the local bank (which is also contributing to the initial cost of the project); this fund is being used to set up more charging stations to fulfill the growing demand12.

Need for Interface with Universities and Colleges As discussed earlier the universities and colleges where there is rich source of knowledge does not concern themselves with the challenges faced by the society in general. Though Jharkhand state is rich in natural resources with some prominent industries of the country, it is low in development index. We attribute this mainly to the lack of proper development of talent. As can be seen from the efforts of KGVK, there is lot of potential to develop the human resources. In this regard universities and colleges have a pivotal role to play by preparing the students with appropriate skills and knowledge. We can categorize these into 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Domain Specific Knowledge Creative Thinking Ability Problem Solving Ability Soft Skills Social Skills

The teaching methodology adopted in most of these institutions doesn’t allow the students to acquire any of the skills mentioned above. Opportunities are in plenty but our Universities are unable to present the required talent which could grab these opportunities. We need to design and device methods for a paradigm shift in the field of education to match up the requirements of the society. In this one can take cue from some of the efforts by NGOs like KGVK. Industrial need is the sum total of skills, aptitude and attitude required to suit the different job requirements of any industry. The future of industry depends upon the availability of highly

NGOs and Corporate Education

trained graduates not only for its day-to-day working but for innovative approaches on which the growth of industry finally depends. There must be planned and organized efforts to bring about a closer contact with these two facets (the University and Industry). NGOs can play a prominent role in this whole process as is evident from the strategy adopted by KGVK for entrepreneurship development programmes. Narasimharao (2010) discussed the challenges faced in development of human resources for biotech industries. He suggested the necessity for university to plan their programmes as per the requirements of industry. They have to cover knowledge as well as industrial attributes. One of the concepts promoted for making education relevant to society is community colleges. In Jharkhand also there are few such colleges are set up but due to lack of proper awareness and promotion they have not been able to substantially fulfill their purpose of establishment. Several NGOs have initiated livelihood programs in the rural areas of the state. These livelihood programs are confined to occupations such as piggery, poultry, sericulture, aquaculture, carpentry, etc. All these occupations are age old and don’t excite and attract the present day youth with higher aspirations. The spread of television and other mediums of mass communication have definitely propelled the dreams of Indian youth with even minimal literacy. Their aspirations don’t match these occupations and there won’t be many buyers of these programs. The NGOs need to break the shackles and identify the opportunities to design their livelihood programs. They may approach the local Universities for certification of their training programs so that the trainees don’t face problems in procuring finances for their project. Similarly universities should break their traditional rigidness in offering academic programs and working in isolation. Narasimharao et al., (2011) discussing corporate education in natural sciences argued the need for preparing science graduates towards a professional

orientation for fulfilling the needs of the students who require a different graduate experience for the work place: banks, insurance & financial companies, SMEs, large firms needing financial and industrial mathematics; biotechnology companies needing middle level managers who have both scientific knowledge and broader business skills; services corporations needing employees with depth in science and breadth in business and customer skills; government employers (particularly military, intelligence, security, various science based departments) that have an increasing need for science- and technology-savvy staff; nonprofit organizations and nongovernmental organizations working in various fields needing people having science based knowledge with other fields like culture, political science etc; civic service organizations needing people having knowledge in science as well as in sociology, economics etc. The universities can move beyond just offering vocational courses. Vocational courses are having limitations like isolating them from main stream of knowledge, running them as self finance courses, poor payment to teachers, seeing these courses as second grade courses and thus fail to attract good students etc. We need to integrate vocational component into many traditional subjects to give them a professional orientation. Another important strategy for corporate education as adopted by the NGO, KGVK can be identified as establishment of alliances of all stake holders. Narasimharao (2009) proposed a model where university outreach programmes through partnerships and collaborations with other stakeholders of higher education can help community development.

CONCLUSION The potential of an NGO in the rural development is clearly demonstrated through various efforts of KGVK. The different strategies like total village management, TVM Gurukul, entrepreneurship

75

NGOs and Corporate Education

programs provides models for universities to adopt for promoting corporate education. The NGOs can play a pivotal role in spreading the vocational training at the rural level and identifying the entrepreneurial opportunities with the local resources. Universities can integrate this vocational training with the traditional disciplines to give need based knowledge and skills. There is an urgent need to use the vast knowledge potential available at universities and other tertiary education institutes. The concepts like corporate education, University outreach programmes and community colleges will help in this effort. NGOs can play a pivotal role in implementing these concepts in association with universities at village/rural level.

Prabhat Khabar. (2011, May 23). Hindi Daily. Ranchi, India: Neutral Publishing House. Prasad, B. K., & Sharma, S. (2010). Employment opportunities in Jharkhand: A case study of Ranchi District. Anusandhanika, 16, 21–27.

ENDNOTES 1



2



3



REFERENCES Chandra, S., & Mahato, R. (2011). Social change and NGOs (Vol. 22, pp. 42–47). Gupta, C. (2010). Role of NGOs in social mobilization. Anusandhanika, 27, 34–45. Jharkhand Development Report. (2010). Prabhat Khabar. Hindi Daily. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009). Knowledge economy and knowledge society – Role of university outreach programmes. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 119–151. doi:10.1177/097172180801400105 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Biotechnology education and societal demands: Challenges faced by biotechnology and human resource development. Social Responsibility Journal, 6(1), 72–90. doi:10.1108/17471111011024568 Narasimharao, B. P. R., Shashidhara Prasad, J., & Nair, P. R. R. (2011). Corporate education in natural sciences: A professional approach for universities. Current Science, 101(11). Prabhat Khabar. (2007, December 18). Hindi Daily. Ranchi, India: Neutral Publishing House.

76

The state has 24 districts, 212 blocks and 32, 620 villages out of which only 45% are electrified while only 8,484 are connected by roads. It is a state blessed by nature with vast forest resources and with vast variety of minerals like iron ore (1st), Coal(3rd), copper ore(1st), mica (1st), bauxite (3rd), Manganese, limestone, chinaclay, fireclay, graphite (8th), kainite (1st), chromite (2nd), asbestos (1st), thorium (3rd), sillimanite, uranium (Jaduguda mines, Narwa Pahar) (1st) and gold (Rakha Mines) (6th) and silver and several other minerals. Jharkhand has 32 tribal groups. These are the Asur, Baiga, Banjara, Bathudi, Bedia, Binjhia, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, ChickBaraik, Gond,Gorait,Ho, Karmali, Kharia, Kharwar, Khond, Kisan, Kora, Korwa, Lohra, Mahli, Mal-Paharia, Munda, Oraon, Parhaiya, Santal, Sauria-Paharia, Savar, Kol Bhumij, and Kanwar. In some of the districts of Jharkhand, the tribal population is predominating. Jharkhand has some of the highly reputed engineering colleges like Indian School of Mines (ISM) University, Dhanbad; National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur; Birla Institute of Technology (BIT), Ranchi; Birsa Institute of Technology Sindri, Dhanbad; and the National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology (NIFFT). Similarly it has some of the best business schools of India-the Xavier Labour Relations Institute (XLRI), Jamshedpur; Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ranchi; Xavier Insti-

NGOs and Corporate Education

4



5



6



tute of Social Service (XISS), Ranchi well known for its Personnel management and Rural Development courses. The state has 9 universities including a central University, an agricultural University and a National law University. There are ITIs and polytechnics to provide vocational training to the students of the state but unfortunately without any liaisoning with the industry. For instance, in May 2008, Government of Jharkhand employed 40,000 barbers at a cost of 40 million rupees (1 million US dollars) for giving free haircuts to poor students, Prabhat Khabar. In the VII plan (1992-97), a greater emphasis has been laid on the role of voluntary organizations in rural development. The plan document states: “A nation-wide network of NGOs will be created. In order to facilitate the working of this network, three schemes relating to the creation/replication/ multiplication and consultancy development have been worked out by the planning commission. The company was founded by Mr. Basant Kumar Jhawar, in 1960 in Jharkhand as a major private sector investment. Partnering Martin Black, a Scottish wire rope company, Mr. Jhawar envisaged a globally flat business model in the pre-liberalized Indian economy. Today, Usha Martinis one of the world’s largest steel wire rope manufacturers. It has a trans-continental presence with strategic activities in manufacturing, marketing, distribution and services in USA, UK, Australia, Singapore, Bangkok, Baku, Vietnam, Thailand, Dubai and South Africa. The Group has continued to increase its relevance in the dynamic global economic environment by diversifying into information technologies, telecom billing solutions and business process outsourcing.

7



8



9



KGVK has expanded TVM’s ambit by positioning it as a global model for poverty alleviation along with partners Ashoka-Innovators for the Public. KGVK has set a goal of $10 million to be committed, over a 10 year period covering at least 350 villages at The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) 14 Summit in October 2008. Since 2008 KGVK India has mobilized $3 million through public & private donors and through community involvement while the Usha Martin Group has contributed $2 million. 5 villages were selected from within the command areas in 2009 to test the model; an additional 16 villages added in 2010; end of 2011 will see another 100 villages added, and the rest of the 350 to be added in 2012. KGVK also started its UK-based arm (www.bridgesbeyondboundaries.co.uk) in late 2010 to engage a broad-based audience of corporate partners, knowledge organizations, and others onto the TVM engagement model. KGVK runs more than 110 SHGs. It works in areas of agriculture, horticulture, social forestry, soil conservation, livestock management, health, sanitation, cottage industries, education and non-conventional energy. Trains voluntary health workers (140 women) who travel to remote villages and impart information on prevention of common diseases. It recommends that every household maintain cattle, pigs and poultry; milk and eggs are sold for cash; their manure is used as a source of fuel and an inexpensive disinfectant. It also trains residents in insemination, de-worming and disease control. Some of the achievements of KGVK-Use of traditional water harvesting structures and lift irrigation schemes to improve the State’s agricultural productivity; improved farming practices in 132 acres by more than

77

NGOs and Corporate Education

10



11



12



13



78

1000 farmers; water conservation structures benefitting more than 8864 families; 100 women groups participating in community development programs covering education, health, watershed development and bio-diversity conservation; formation of 469 women-led Self-Help Groups involved in savings and credit, gradually shifting to Micro Enterprise Groups through various income generating activities. The cost of these bricks was 40% less than the local red brick. The texture of these bricks is smooth in comparison to local red bricks and increases the labor productivity by at least 25%. Two solar charging stations (approximately 10W each) have been set up—each able to charge about 50 solar lanterns (these charging stations are modular and their capacities can be increased depending on the community demand for services). The rental lantern will be able to be used 5 – 6 hours at night (using LED lamps on a full battery). The lantern being portable can be used both indoors (for daily or economic activities) and outdoors (for field supervision/village roads/small enterprises). The project estimates that the lantern (if used in place of kerosene and having a 10 year life) can displace the use of about 400 – 500 liters of kerosene. The mission of the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) is to inspire, connect, and empower a community of global leaders to forge solu-

tions to the world’s most pressing challenges. By fostering partnerships, providing strategic advice, and driving resources toward effective ideas, CGI helps its membersorganizations from the private sector, public sector, and civil society-maximize their efforts to alleviate poverty, create a cleaner environment, and increase access to health care and education. Established in 2005 by President Bill Clinton, the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) convenes global leaders to create and implement innovative solutions to the world’s most pressing challenges. CGI Annual Meetings have brought together more than 150 heads of state, 20 Nobel Prize laureates, and hundreds of leading CEOs, heads of foundations and NGOs, major philanthropists, and members of the media. To date CGI members have made more than 2,100 commitments, which are already improving the lives of nearly 400 million people in more than 180 countries. When fully funded and implemented, these commitments will be valued at $69.2 billion. CGI’s Annual Meeting is held each September in New York City. CGI also convenes CGI America, a meeting devoted to economic recovery and job creation in the United States, and CGI University (CGI U), which hosts an annual meeting for undergraduate and graduate students. The 2012 CGI U will be hosted by the George Washington University in Washington, D.C.

79

Chapter 6

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education: Challenges and Strategies Om Prakash National Law University, India Archie Mathur National Law University, India

ABSTRACT Since the advent of globalization, interdisciplinary learning has gained wide currency against the orthodox systems of mono-discipline or specialized learning and research. The emergence of the knowledge society demands a person to be able to integrate the various disciplines of knowledge for innovation and effectiveness in learning, application and research. The real integrated learning would be achieved only when educational institutions such as universities are not confined to the walls of their campuses but maintain an interface with the society and social groups. One of the objectives of the chapter is to highlight that integrated approach is not merely a methodology and process but is a concept, a way of knowing and understanding and a philosophy. There are misnomers about Interdisciplinary approach. It has been generally misunderstood as rejection of the disciplines. On the contrary it is not only firmly rooted in the disciplines but also offers a corrective to the dominance of disciplinary ways of knowing and specialization. This chapter is an attempt to address these problems. Integrated and corporate approach can have several dimensions and purposes including to serve societal or employment needs, facilitate innovation, new thinking and ideas, and to create humane entrepreneurs. The chapter looks into various approaches and dimensions of integrated learning as also various outcomes and situations of integration and learning. There are various challenges in the teaching learning process in an interdisciplinary environment which the faculty and students face but there are ways to tackle these challenges. The quality of higher education in India would greatly benefit from a symbiotic link amongst the society, university, and industry. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch006

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

INTRODUCTION Since 1990s, when globalization was making significant change in the world order and also in the people’s perspective, the educators realized that interdisciplinary approaches are essential for meeting the challenges arising due to these developments. Educators began to experiment with interdisciplinary approaches, which laid the groundwork for inter-disciplinary learning as it exists today. (Heidi Jacobs, 1989) David Ackerman and D.N. Perkins’(1989) research focuses on the integration of thinking and learning skills across the curriculum. The importance of this kind of integration is very well recognized in the context of India in what Yashpal committee on higher education (2009) says. They recognized the need for treating knowledge in a holistic manner so as to create exciting opportunities for different kinds of interfaces between the disciplines. As pointed out by Narasimharao (2009) the needs of the society in general and the needs of industries or corporate in particular cannot be bounded by disciplinary boundaries. The chapter is placed in this context and suggests different ways that can be adopted for developing integrative approach. One of the important aspects of corporate education and corporate learning is the ability to use knowledge in real life. In a project on Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo), OECD identified the individual competencies required for a well functioning organization. If we take this as a base, the corporate learning may include developing the abilities to use cognitive, socio-cultural and physical tools interactively; learning to develop social capital or ability to interact in heterogeneous groups. (Narasimharao and Nair, 2010)

Approaches and Dimensions of Integrated Learning Integrated learning is the synthesis of disciplines. Here scholars work together to pool their interests, insights, and methods, usually with the hope of 80

gaining and presenting new understandings. (Davis, 1995) Integrated approach can have several dimensions and purposes. (Klein, 1990) The term integrated approach is a methodology and process for integration of knowledge and perspectives. In recent years there is growing importance for the integrated approach. For instance University of Melbourne in 2008 phased out 96 old undergraduate courses in favour of six new broad first programmes. Similarly University of Australia is set to reduce the number of undergraduate courses from more than 70 to six. Yashpal Committee, (2009) in its report emphasized the importance of interdisciplinary approaches. It has pointed on the cubicalization of knowledge in higher education. The universities with the knowledge capital at their disposal should develop curricula that combine good science with the complexities of business, intellectual property protection, social sciences and a regulatory environment that is largely political (the real interface between science and liberal arts). The Noble Laureate Cech emphasizing the importance of interdisciplinary knowledge states that scientists need the same skills as humanists to cut through misleading observations and arrive at a defensible interpretation, and intellectual cross-training in the humanities exercises the relevant portions of the brain.’ (Cech, 1999). As Narasimharao et al., (2011) states in the transition towards a knowledge economy and knowledge society, universities need to produce more knowledge, relevant knowledge, and also become responsible for the transfer of that knowledge to those parties who need it. Multiple intelligence theory by Howard Gardner says that intelligence is not a unitary phenomenon but contained several elements, each of which could predominate in a given individual depending on a variety of factors, more related to nature than nurture. This is an important aspect for corporate organizations as they can benefit by bringing out the natural talent hidden in each individual and integrating it with the knowledge available.

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

Multiple Intelligence research has confirmed that all our intelligences work independently of each other, and that each individual has their own unique intelligence profile. This has real implications for assessment, as there can be no absolute measurement of intelligence. A talent profile for each person (student) working or related to corporate organization can be developed based on the following categories elaborated by Gardener (See Table 1) Gardener failed to recognise moral and spiritual intelligence i.e., ability to work for the sake of work without having any material expectation, where motive is to please the divine. Karma Yoga description in Bhagvad Gita illustrates this beautifully.

CASES OF CORPORATE INNOVATION For illustrating how multiple intelligence can work for organizations these two cases are worth mention. Kani tribals are known for their traditional knowledge system. In 1995 Tropical Botanical Gardens Research Institute (TBGRI) was able to make a drug ‘Sanjeevni’ based upon their knowledge system. TBGRI ensured that 50 per cent of the commercial benefits would go to the tribal community. (Mashelkar, 2001) This drug is considered as having great use in a variety of physical problems including its rejuvenation and anti-fatigue qualities. Now as a result of patent the benefits are going to be reaped by the entire community and also educational institutions have shown their keen interest in research and development (R and D) in their knowledge system. Mitticool, a clay refrigerator that works without electricity has turned the world’s attention to its creator Mansukhbhai Prajapati, a school drop-out craftsman based in Gujarat. Mitticool is an ecofriendly product which has no maintenance costs and retains the original taste of vegetables. He

holds a patent for Mitticool. Besides, the low-cost fridge, he has developed a water filter, non-stick pan and a pressure cooker all made of clay. The refrigerator can store water, fruits and vegetables for eight days and milk for one day. The Gujarat Grassroots Innovation Network and professors at Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad and the National Innovation Foundation, extended their help in the form of grant and guidance for getting the patent and lab testing of products. (nifindia.org) It has been argued by Narsimharao, Nair and Naidu (2011), “The traditional knowledge of the society is to be linked to various knowledge sources like universities, research institutes, vocational training and proactive corporate which in turn focus on development of human resources with domain specific knowledge, transferable skills, managerial and interpersonal skills and social skills with the capability of creating social capital.”

Process of Integration Integration requires methods which can include collaborative/cooperative learning, discovery and problem-based learning and methods of assessment that are multi-dimensional, including qualitative and quantitative measures, and self-assessments. One method can be by allotting assignments, which may ask students to analyze a problem using different disciplinary frameworks? The process is designed to increase awareness of the tools through which we seek and perceive information and through which we construct knowledge. Similarly take home assignment can also bring rich dividends. The field projects have the potential to impart empirical knowledge to the learners. The process of integration does not mean rejection of disciplines. It is firmly rooted in them but offers a corrective to the dominance of disciplinary ways of knowing and specialization. Democratic classrooms can cultivate a learning community and collaborative learning in which

81

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

Table 1. Categories of intelligence Linguistic Intelligence

Ability to read, write and communicate with words.

Logical Mathematical Intelligence

Ability to reason and calculate

Visual Spatial Intelligence

Ability to think in pictures and visualize things. Imagine in minds eye.

Musical Intelligence

Ability to make and compose music.

Bodily – Kinematics

Ability to move body skillfully

Interpersonal Intelligence

Ability to work with others and to be empathetic

Intra-personal Intelligence

Ability for self-analysis and self-reflection

Naturalist Intelligence

Ability to recognize flora and fauna and interest in nature and natural history

students develop both independence as investigators and the ability to collaborate with each other and with teachers to raise questions, investigate issues, and solve problems. Students should be encouraged to assume increasing responsibility for their learning so that they can gain confidence in their abilities to find information, understand and articulate ideas, and make decisions. Collaborative interaction among students who differ in abilities, perspectives, experiences, ethnicity, and interests promotes learning in an integrative way. By keeping a fast learner with an average or slow learner or a privileged one with less privileged team mate in a group exercise can enhance the different potential of both. As a result a slow learner will get benefit from the experiences of his erudite team mate, while the fast learner will also learn the culture of cooperation and humaneness. As industries do not work on discipline basis there is a growing trend towards establishment of corporate universities. Tata Institute of Social Sciences, OP Jindal Global University, Azim Premji University are a few important names in India in this direction. Narasimharao argues (2010), “Establishing a centre for corporate education in universities not only help in acting as a coordination unit between industry and university but also help in integrating the activities and studies of various disciplines.”

82

Aspects of Applicability Corporate and integrated education necessarily involves collaborative learning, discovery and problem-based learning, use of technology, distance learning and web-based instruction etc. In interdisciplinary service learning, students from different fields, disciplines or professions share service and learning objectives. Academic institutions have traditionally emphasized and rewarded discipline-specific teaching and research instead of collaboration across disciplines. However such orthodox trends have to change for the needs of the changing world and society. Team-taught classes are increasing along with learning communities in which students co-register for integrated coursework across disciplines. (Gabelnick et al, 1990) It is important for students to develop familiarity with the knowledge, assumptions, and methods of inquiry used in many subject-matter areas in order to be able to select that which is most appropriate for any given situation. Major concepts and methods from the various disciplines should be taught as part of integrated units and at times that are appropriate to students’ interests and cognitive and social development. What is new in the recent focus on interdisciplinary learning is the intentionality with which these initiatives seek to promote connected learning beyond the discipline as a primary goal--pursuing knowledge that integrates and synthe-

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

sizes the perspectives of several disciplines. The key competencies required for well functioning of organization as recognized by Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) project of OECD can only be developed through these integrative approaches. In an integrated learning system program, each student studies at their level, because an adaptive testing places every student at a level appropriate for the instructional process. In a number of offthe-shelf, drill-and-practice programs, no adaptive testing occurs, and the student works at the desired “level” of the program. (Daiute et al, 1995) So integrated learning systems may be understood, not as “drill-and-practice” programs but as “testing and practice” programs. (Osin et al, 1996) Integrated learning systems require a significant commitment of implementation, time, and effort. Researchers remain divided on their long-term value. Although these systems have been shown to teach a breadth of procedural skills, it is not clear that they teach depth of content or foster complex thinking skills required in debate or composition. Further, although advocates claim this self-paced form of instruction increases student motivation initially, many students soon lose their fascination with it. (Healy, 1998)It is also true for corporate education. Instead of integration people may chose to use simple ways of corporate education like training, projects, inviting specialists and the like. Corporate education may require bridging the disciplines while simultaneously creating a thoroughfare between industry/students’needs and the content (curriculum development), allowing each to inform the other (in a way industry and university) for knowledge integration. This way we can make university education near to real life needs as recommended by Yashpal committee (2009). Introducing an interdisciplinary element into a curriculum encourages all involved to develop meaningful links among the fields and push any learner toward more powerful thinking

and the ability to make comparisons that bridge disciplines, and encourage the application of knowledge. An interdisciplinary curriculum helps the student realize the behavioral and performance objectives. Students engaged in interdisciplinary learning often find the content more exciting and relevant, especially, if teacher can connect the disciplines and relates to students’ lives. Interdisciplinary element in a curriculum encourages all involved to develop meaningful links that intrigue and motivate both teacher and students. It gives a purpose to study that goes far beyond the evaluation and memorization of information related to a topic. It can push the teacher and the taught toward more powerful thinking and the ability to make comparisons that bridge disciplines, and encourage the application of knowledge. Corporate education thrives on such integration. Vincent Kavaloski (1979) argues that integration of knowledge, freedom of inquiry, and innovation are important outcomes of an interdisciplinary education. One study showed that students in the interdisciplinary program had greater tolerance for ambiguity than their counterparts in traditional majors. (Barnes, 1990) After attending a class on interdisciplinary design, Doris Madden, a teacher from Redmond, WA, said, “I realized . . . I was teaching facts for the sake of knowing facts. I now know I must go back and redevelop my own way of thinking and revise my lessons. This class was a real eye-opener; I think it . . .will make me more excited about teaching.” (Erickson, 1998) Ackerman and Perkins (1989) developed the idea of a “meta-curriculum,” or a curriculum for skills development that shadows the teaching of content, in order to integrate the two. This is an important strategy which can be adopted for corporate education. The key competencies like using the tools interactively (cognitive, socio-cultural and physical tools), the ability to act within the big picture, the ability to form and conduct projects

83

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

and plans, the ability to cooperate, the ability to manage and resolve conflicts (Narasimharao and Nair, 2010) can better be addressed through the “meta-curriculum approach” where teaching of skills and content are integrated through equal importance. The process of integration can be strategically planned through various stages. In situation first, students take courses in different disciplines without formal opportunities to connect learning in these areas, e.g., distribution requirements. Situation second provides opportunities for students to share insights from different disciplines but the integration is often left to the student. (Klein, 1996) Third situation invites students and faculty to join in the process of integration as in team-taught courses but faculty often maintains their roles as representative and advocates for their discipline. And situation four provides a conscious effort on the part of students and faculty to integrate material into an intellectually coherent entity based on an understanding of disciplinary frameworks, tools, methods and the contributions of each to this new whole. In corporate education as per the need of the industry, as per its status and phase of development, as per the knowledge level of workers any one or all of these four stages may be adopted. Universities can adopt these as per the overall objective of human capital development. For instance if the university wants to prepare its students in bio-business they should be able to integrate various business strategies and life science industry needs.

SIGNIFICANCE OF INTEGRATED LEARNING APPROACH FOR CORPORATE EDUCATION Interdisciplinary courses can foster critical abilities, greater empathy for ethical, social, and other issues, greater ability to tolerate ambiguity, the ability to tolerate diverse perspectives and the

84

ability to synthesize or integrate these diverse perspectives, enlarged perspectives or horizons, more creative, original or unconventional thinking, more humility or listening skills, and sensitivity to bias. (Newell, 1990) All these are important for developing social capital and working autonomously, as suggested by DeSeCo project, results as key competencies for overall development of an organization. The issues, which communities and industries are facing in today’s knowledge society, are changing rapidly and in some ways are more complex than in the past. (Drucker, 1994) These issues demand approaches to problem-solving that draw on the skills and perspectives of diverse disciplines and professions. Employers want such employees who are prepared to meet the multidisciplinary needs of the work world, integrating what they have learned in the particular field. In order to make efficient use of resources, administrators want to share them across disciplines. There are dynamic changes in knowledge construction, demolishing disciplinary boundaries across fields. Scientific breakthroughs, research and funding patterns for research have transformed disciplines such as biophysics and bioengineering. Electronic technology and the Internet are transforming the way we organize and seek knowledge, replacing linear models with hypertext links that disregard disciplinary boundaries (See Figure 1). Students leaving undergraduate programs and entering industry or corporate face issues which require integration of content and the knowledge of ethical, economic, and legal framework in which the industry operates. An interdisciplinary education, which draws from the knowledge and processes of multiple disciplines, should encourage students to become active learners equipped with the analytical, interpretative and evaluative skills to solve real-life problems. Eliminating artificial barriers among subject areas gives students a broader context for solving real-life problems. This needs to be progressively developed and assessed throughout the course. We

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

Figure 1. Stakeholders in corporate education

may develop these graduate attributes suitable for industries taking the help of some of the modern pedagogies such as peer oriented group instruction; problem based learning and other active learning tasks. (Scoufis, 2000) In a corporate learning system integrated approach can help regulate students’ progress. Students’ work and progress are summarized in a student file for teacher review. The teacher uses this information about class progress to augment offline instruction. (Daiute et al, 1985) Research also indicates that students who participate in learning activities using integrated learning systems spend more time actively engaged in the learning tasks than their counterparts who are engaged in the same offline learning tasks in traditionally structured classrooms. (Worthen et al, 1994)However, it does not undermine the importance of classroom learning but emphasizes that offline learning can be an important instrument in corporate education system.

CHALLENGES OF INTEGRATED LEARNING The process of Integrated Learning is very complex and faces many challenges. Many of these challenges make it difficult for universities to plan integration of different disciplines or integration between content and skills, which are important

for corporate education. Some of the challenges related to integrated learning in corporate education can be identified as follows. Learners need to be at higher level of cognitive abilities to be able to grasp different subjects in an integrative way. The learners sometime are not sure of the potential or proven benefits since they are unable to develop a link between disciplines so an obvious question comes from them- “Why study this particular subject?” Use of different methodologies for better understanding among students may cause problems in correlation. For example, use of multiple and diverse source i.e., oral communication, experimentation, observations, etc., would result in adaptation to different learning styles. Another problem is while doing self-assessment of their learning in a discipline the teachers/ students find it difficult to use a standard criterion for identifying quality work and they rate their learning subjectively. Some institutional and state requirements also act as a hurdle e.g. minimum time of graduation, awarding one degree at a time, etc. Respective teaching faculties may not understand the exact linkage or integration of different subjects i.e., how to use the knowledge of one particular subject with that of the other in solving practical problems. The connections are often left to the students to decipher. Connections exist but they will have to be discovered. The philosophy, perceived mission and funding patterns of most colleges do not support integrated corporate learning. According to the market requirement, the course content has to be changed in an Integrated Learning Programme. It is mostly revision or modification or improvement and rarely withdrawal of an existing course. The student would start questioning the relevance of such a course. They would also not feel confident if they have an idea that after sometime the particular course would become irrelevant. Integrated Learn-

85

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

ing is a collaborative working. If no harmonious relationship exists between the two parties, the work would get affected. Sometimes, Integrated Learning rejects concepts like education and gives more emphasis to on-the-job learning.

Strategy to Deal with the Challenges These challenges can be tackled skillfully by various strategies: The teacher should help in the identification of new opportunities, followed by research with individuals and organizations, thereby responding to the needs of the learner. On these issues there is need to have a comprehensive counseling session for the learner. The basic integrity of the course content should be maintained and the teacher should assist the student in making connections. A balance to be maintained between studentinitiated and teacher-initiated learning experiences i.e., both sides should raise issues, questions and develop strategies to arrive at a satisfactory result/ conclusion. Focus should be on Student-Centered Activities or Democratic Classrooms. The students have two roles to perform: Firstly, learner’s role, where inputs are given to them and secondly, investigator’s role, where they have to apply these inputs/ concepts to reality. This does not mean that the teacher is not an important part of the learning environment. Here the role of a teacher is different. The teacher acts as an expert learner and a facilitator of learning, and provides content of information, whenever necessary. Harvey, Daniels and Bizar have given six basic teaching structures that make classrooms more active, experimental, collaborative, democratic and cognitive. (Pearson et al, 2002) These are: Making integrative units where interdisciplinary inquiries are co-planned with students, skills and knowledge; Small Group Activities to decentralize the classroom and individualize the curriculum; evolving ways of

86

investigating, remembering and applying information; Classroom Workshop to provide artificial problems to the students; Encouraging students to research on live problems and self-assessment. Encouragement to cross-curricular and team teaching by the faculty is needed. Use of different types of teaching strategies should be adopted as according to the Multiple Intelligence Theory, no one set of teaching strategies will work best for all the students all the time. Teaming and partnerships in the classrooms should be encouraged in the form of creating an indirect working environment e.g. simulation exercises. Students should be sent for internships i.e., directly working in an organization during summer vacation. A link should be established between the employee-market and the courses. There is a demand and market for a lot of non-traditional courses and planners and educators must keep this in the mind. There is need to provide fellowships, externships, industry experiences and peer-group discussions for the faculty. Faculty should be provided data on learning and education outcomes for students. Faculty research projects are required to be encouraged. The concept of a la Carte should be followed, i.e., a student must be given freedom to choose different subjects from different institutions and get a package of degrees from these different universities. One should have prominent national voices (from government, education and industry) to support such Integrated Learning Programmes.

CONCLUSION Life is multifaceted; therefore, the logical connections (applicatory concepts) cut across different subject areas and cannot be compartmentalized into traditional boundaries of specific subjects. University education would remain incomplete

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

without having a symbiotic relationship with the corporate aspect of education. There is need to specify why a particular course should be taught, in what way it is going to be useful for the society and nation, what is going to be the unique selling proposition of the particular course, what the learner will get out of the course? The day such a thought processes seep into the core of the education system, especially in higher education the quality is bound to take a leap. Interdisciplinary learning in corporate education system has been proven to have a positive impact on teaching styles and on relationships with both colleagues and students. It encourages creativity and creative thinking and allows for greater flexibility; it allows for teaching improvement through joint planning and mutual observations and can provide expanded opportunities for the application of theory; it helps develop tolerance of ambiguity and may enhance the ability to synthesize and integrate information. Using an interdisciplinary unit in teaching can positively influence the students. Bollywood movies such as Three Idiots are a revelation and raise finger at our higher education system. They point out the inherent flaws and necessity to think beyond for a more integrated, innovative and freedom based learning ambience. Funding higher education in India is a big challenge despite the presence of several billionaires. We patent fewer products despite a big pool of geniuses, despite having a great treasure of knowledge system which is more than six thousands year old. Time has come when we need to look for an answer for these questions. At the front of integrated learning there is need to keep aside the monotonous, rote learning approach and innovate new learning methodology. Students should imbibe the skills of critical and analytical thinking, problem solving and decision making. Only then the goal of integrated learning, and corporate education would be fulfilled. We should also not forget that we don’t just want programmed entrepreneurs but such human resource which is

ingrained in humanistic values, sensitivities and concern for others in the society- this is what the total education is all about.

REFERENCES Acerman, D., & Perkins, D. N. (1989). Integrating learning and thinking skills across the curriculum. In Jacobs, H. H. (Ed.), Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and implementation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Barnes, S. H. (Ed.). (1990). Points of view on American higher education (Vol. 2, pp. 38–43). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. Daiute, C., & Kruidenier, J. (1985). A selfquestioning strategy to increase young writers’ revising processes. Applied Psycholinguistics, 6(3), 307–318. doi:10.1017/S0142716400006226 Davis, J. R. (1995). Interdisciplinary courses and team teaching: New arrangements for learning. American Council on Education and Oryx Press. Drucker, P. (1994). The age of social transformation. Atlantic Monthly, 274(5), 53–80. Erickson, H. L. (1998). Concept based curriculum and instruction (p. 134). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Gabelnick, F., Mac Gregor, J., Matthews, R., & Smith, B. L. (1990). Learning communities: Creating connections among students, faculty and disciplines (pp. 23–25). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Government of India. (2009). Yashpal Committee report on renovation and rejuvenation of higher education. Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD). Government of India. Healy, J. M. (1998). Failure to connect: How computers affect our children’s minds--For better and worse. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

87

Integrated and Corporate Learning in Higher Education

Kavaloski, V. (1979). Interdisciplinary education and humanistic aspiration: A critical reflection. In Kockelmans, J. (Ed.), Interdisciplinarity and higher education. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Klein, J. T. (1990). Interdisciplinarity: History, theory and practice (p. 55). Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Klein, J. T. (1996). Crossing boundaries: Knowledge, disciplinarities, and interdisciplinarities (pp. 34–36). Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. Mashelkar, R. A. (2001). Intellectual property rights and the third world. Current Science, 81(8), 955. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Tertiary education institutions for corporate education – Need and relevance of corporate education centres. Indian Journal of Higher Education, 1003. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Nair, P. R. R., & Naidu, C. G. (2011). Corporate education in universities, scope and coverage: Expanding the boundaries of scholarship. University News.

88

National Innovation Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.nifindia.org Newell, W. H. (1990). Interdisciplinary curriculum development. Issues in Integrative Studies, 8, 69–70. Osin, L., & Lesgold, A. (1996). A proposal for the reengineering of the educational system. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 621–656. Pearson, D., & Barr, R. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of reading research (Vol. III, pp. 771–788). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. R e t r i e v e d f r o m w w w. o e c d . o rg / d a t a o ecd/47/61/35070367.pdf Scoufis, M. (2000). Integrating graduate attributes into the undergraduate curricula. University of Western Sydney. Worthen, B. R., Van Dusen, L. M., & Sailor, P. J. (1994). A comparative study of the impact of integrated learning systems on students’ time-on-task. International Journal of Educational Research, 21(1), 25–38. doi:10.1016/0883-0355(94)90021-3

Section 2

Human Capital Development: Bridging Academia–Industry Divide

90

Chapter 7

Multi-Faceted IndustryAcademia Collaboration K Guruprasad TCS BPO, India

ABSTRACT This chapter examines ways in which industry and academia collaboration can happen, keeping in mind the current generation of graduating students, current business needs, and global market competition. Mainly IT, ITES and BPO industries are in the scope, although BPO is given more focus owing to huge growth that is happening in Indian BPO industry. BPO work demystification and its impact on the Gen-Y workforce are addressed, which plays an important role in building paradigms that enhance academic collaboration. Some best practices happening currently are mentioned and recommendations suggested. In addition, the benefits of collaboration to both industry and academia, challenges involved in implementation, and exceptions to some of these approaches are discussed. Some case studies are explained in detail.

INTRODUCTION University-Industry interaction is not new and is in existence in one form or other for long. While it appears to be more profound in advanced countries, today it is happening in India too. But it needs to happen more and in a more systematic way as India has started figuring prominently on the world map in both the university and industry spaces.

The advent of knowledge society has seen many efforts in higher education to make it more close to societal needs. The two important aspects for this are how we prepare our students for them to fit in work and real life situation, and how we make provisions for lifelong learning. It is rather necessary that industry and academia work in close relation complementing and supplementing each other. It is in this context that the chapter discusses

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch007

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

the multifaceted industry-academia collaboration for corporate education taking the case of BPO/ KPO industries.

Need of Multi-Faceted Collaboration Let us first understand the employee life cycle in a typical corporate. Fresh hires from campus go through a rigorous long duration campus to corporate transformation training and get ready to function on the job (normally referred to as Initial Learning Program or ILP). With growing demand for trained and billing-ready resources, IT companies (includes ITES, BPO, KPO and others in the family) struggle to fulfill the customer demands at short notice. Although numbers churned out from academic institutions are high, majority of them are not directly deployable on the job. Significant amount of time, money and effort go in inducting and training these fresh hires to make them function effectively and efficiently. There is always a learning curve that is affecting the profit margins, apart from the fact that loss of business can occur if resource fulfillment does not happen on time. All this makes ILP a mandatory step in corporate, which can be completely or at least partially skipped if academia works hand in hand with industry. Universities need to revise the curricula to suit industry requirements and take the responsibility of preparing the students to face the real life on the job. ILP mainly concentrates on soft skills and behavioral abilities on one side, and actual technicalities of the job requirements on the other side. ILP will accordingly have two phases, one being a common set of modules for all streams, and then a customized set for different streams/domains. For example, the fresh hires joining a Telecom domain in BPO will go through a couple of weeks of behavioral training (common to all hires) and then a couple of weeks of domain specific training which includes overview of Telecom domain, actual work being done on the floor, tools used, processes, applications, etc. The latter phase also can include simulation labs to get a feel of actual application used by clients.

After the employees get trained and start functioning on the job, the companies need to now worry about their continuous learning (normally referred to as Continual Learning Program or CLP). CLP is critical for achieving high performance levels, ensuring high customer satisfaction, internal career growth, minimizing senior level external hiring and long-term employee loyalty. Employee engagement is a key factor in controlling attrition of high performers, enhancing performance of medium and low performers, getting high associate satisfaction index (ASI), and achieving a higher customer satisfaction. There is a strong correlation among training, career growth and attrition. An analysis of recent data on training vs. attrition in TCS BPO shows that tendency of not-trained employees to attrite is approximately 3 times more than that of those who got some form of training. Root cause analysis of attrition also shows that it is highest in the first couple of years of joining and it seems to be mainly due to career growth opportunities and learning exposures. It is always more economical and beneficial to grow people internally than externally hiring senior people. All these aspects make it imperative that the training and career development is a critical success factor for the companies. It is here that we need to find how academia can support and play a big role. Higher education for associates is another aspect, which helps enhance employee satisfaction by providing the much-desired additional/ higher qualifications while working and earning. This is what is normally thought of as one of the common areas of collaboration where industry specific certification/diploma/degree programs can be offered to working professionals. Knowledge management is becoming one of the focus areas in the corporate for setting up a “sharing and learning” culture in the organization. It helps in networking, tapping of implicit and explicit knowledge, ensuring intellectual assets are created and shared across the organization for reuse. Reuse of intellectual assets brings in a lot of savings in terms of cost and effort for both the 91

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

organization and its clients. Intellectual property creation and royalty earning are themselves areas of major focus. Internal networking, creation and protection of intellectual property and encouraging employees to present themselves and the organization in national and international forums can be achieved effectively through establishing self-sustaining Centers of Excellence (CoEs) and Communities of Practice (CoP). The other area of serious concern is the lack of awareness about opportunities that exist for non-engineering/non-technical graduates. Recent boom in BPO industry needs to be exploited properly and this requires active role of universities. Development of rural BPO, industry’s corporate social responsibility initiatives, and enhancing employability of rural graduates all need full involvement of academia in some form or the other. Thus it is required to have a multi-faceted collaboration models between university and industry, which addresses the needs of industry starting from getting the right kind of fresh hires through continuous learning, retention of top talent and career development, higher education and creation of intellectual assets, and supporting Indian rural employment needs in general. What is addressed today is mostly sponsoring some small number of managers and senior leaders for higher education programs, which is only a miniscule of actual requirement to scale up employability and productivity of India’s workforce. More than 85% of headcount in most organizations are the junior young talent whose needs of skill sets have to be addressed.

Employability of Undergraduates A FICCI-CVoter Survey on the Employability of the undergraduates in the general stream of Arts, Commerce and Science in India reveals unsettling reality that the next generation is woefully short of soft skills and vocational training to take on the responsibilities of corporate sector management.

92

The survey notes that the new undergraduates fall short of the expectations of the employers with regard to emotional attributes such as reliability, integrity, self-motivation, self-discipline, empathy for others, willingness to learn, written communication and basic computer skills. The survey reveals that 90 per cent of the respondents believe that self-discipline is a strong attribute that employees must possess. However, only 60 per cent of them believe that their present employees are self disciplined. Only 50 per cent of the respondents to the survey feel that their present crop of employees are self motivated, an attribute that 90 percent of at the campus before selection is just a tip of the iceberg. Much more in-depth collaboration them consider important at the workplace. The survey is a revelation for the Indian educational institutions and a very clear direction to the urgency of revamping curricula by including soft skills, and focus on strong emotional attributes (Source: http://indiacurrentaffairs.org/ employability-quotient-of-the-under-graduatesin-india/accessed January, 2012) “Finishing School” concept comes into relevance here where many institutes claim to be training their students for making them industryready. There are other sides to it in terms of cost, numbers who complete study in such schools, etc. Not many reputed schools work in this mode. While corporate look to reputed schools for hiring, it is imperative that these schools start working on making their students industry-ready. Making the industry’s standard Initial Learning Program (ILP) delivered should happen between the industry and academia to embed generic industry specific skills into the curricula and to ensure that the students go through this rigorous training. This training should include hands-on experience through simulation lab concept. Ultimate aim should be not only to eliminate the need for initial training at the corporate but also produce young associates (read Gen Y) who are productive, happy and stay for a long time in their first job.

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

KPO/BPO Industry The points discussed in the previous section have become more relevant in the recent years where BPO/KPO industry is growing at a very fast rate globally and in particular in India. Gartner defines BPO as the delegation of an IT-enabled business process to a third party that owns, administers and manages the process according to a defined set of metrics. Major players in India are TCS, Accenture, Genpact, IBM, Perot systems, and others (stated not necessarily in any order). There are several others who are medium and small scale. Non-engineering/non-technical graduates, students and society in general still are not aware of either the opportunities or the kind of work that goes on in this sector. Academia has a big role in demystifying this industry and gearing up to meet the industry demands as well as to increase overall knowledge base in the society at large. Rural colleges can be real big stakeholders where industry can go and train them for increasing overall knowledge base. Owing to the growth of BPO/KPO industry in India, it is necessary to delve deeper into this. Once thought of as a pure “call center”, the BPO industry has come a long way. Fine difference still exists between BPO and KPO, and the latter refers to “more intellectual/analytical” kind of work. A lot of work in BPO is to do with data entry, data validation, logical reasoning, data processing, email transactions, etc. while a good amount of KPO work deals with data modeling, analysis, analytics, programming, and other complex tasks. Part of the education needs to focus on demystifying myths about this industry and the fact that there is a clear career path available here. Those who may join the voice based processes (like a call center) can up-skill themselves and move on to non-voice kind of work, and vice versa. Domain knowledge helps them to move from IT to BPO or otherwise and opens up a completely new set of opportunities.

A lot of work that happens in BPO does not have direct correlation with what students study during their graduation. BPO (including KPO unless otherwise stated) has opened up a completely new set up of opportunities for non-engineering/ non-technical graduates and postgraduates, i.e., in the areas of Arts, Science, Commerce, Pharmacy, Law, etc. Mathematicians and Statisticians are in great demand in KPO. However, the curricula that they study are far from what is required on the floor in the industry. It does suffice neither to make them billable immediately nor to take care of further career growth. Many of them don’t know about BPO and tend not to get attracted to join the industry. Academia can play a major role in training them specific to the industry. The lab sessions should be oriented toward simulation of actual work carried out on the floor. If, for example, the work is data modeling and analysis or using a standard statistical analysis tool or a client application, such simulation labs need to be set up. Take for instance the IT industry, which is more matured. Someone going as a programmer would have studied programming, algorithms, languages, operating systems etc. as part of his/ her engineering curriculum. Still they face challenges when they join the IT industry. Similarly, whatever work happens in BPO should be part of the curricula so that it can only be a brief orientation that they require once they join a corporate. Academia can also offer certification programs specific to BPO, which will be useful for learning and career progression for those already in the industry. Coming to the specific skills needed in KPO, apart from the soft skills like in any other industry, there are “newer” ones that the students need to be equipped with. The work involves analyzing huge amounts of data and modeling using latest modeling tools. Programming is required but statistics is a must. Pure statistics, programming and database manipulation will not form a complete combination because the much needed “experience” to analyze the results churned out of the

93

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

tools need to be there. If a large company wants to know where to launch its new product, it is a critical decision to be made using data analytics, market research and retail domain knowledge, excellent feel for statistical analysis. Are these being taught in the non-engineering and/or mathematics oriented courses we have today? Our customers are global and they use so many new tools that students would have never heard of these before joining the industry. On the other hand, we see that IT is more matured and the curricula cover a lot of industry required topics. One example of training for BPO industry could be as simple as handling irate customers. In any customer-facing role, one will face unhappy and rude customers. Customer expectations are ever increasing and it is easy to lose deals because of attitudinal related issues or soft skills of employees. Training employees on interpersonal skills, customer handling, result orientation etc. enable us to quickly turn irate customers into happy customers. Other aspects of BPO could be workplace security, handling harassment, impact on health and social life etc.(NASSCOM report, 2011) In summary, skill sets of young generation need to be addressed under two main dimensions namely, employability and productivity. The first one is about basic skill set developed as part of curricula or acquiring qualifications, whereas the second one is about continuous improvement of the skill sets to enhance productivity and retain best performers. In both aspects, academia need to play a big role for the benefit for all concerned i.e. academia, industry and society as a whole.

Talent Management Talent management revolves around the aspects of continuous nurturing of talent, making available the right resource at the right time for projects, retention of top performers, management of career growth, succession planning and achieving optimum levels of utilization and performance of employees. Training function comes under this

94

big umbrella and is responsible for ensuring right training is provided at the right time to the right resources. It needs to ensure quality of training through proper training methodology, content, faculty, feedback mechanism, assessment, certification, etc.

Corporate Training Function Internal training departments of large and medium organizations have dedicated trainers, curricula and content design and development teams, reporting mechanisms, administrators who take care of logistics and reporting, dedicated infrastructure such as training rooms, servers, computers, and so on. However, it must be remembered that training function, similar to other HR functions, is a cost to the organization. It is an investment but at a cost, and the staff of this function are not billable to any client normally. Given this, and the ever-increasing demand for low cost services, organizations have a very tight control on the work force headcount and also budget for such functions. Typically, the headcount of training department of an organization does not exceed 0.3 to 0.4% of overall headcount. This is full time headcount but there will be always several other employees from operations/projects who contribute to training. Budgets are always tight for support functions such as training. Training is not a core business or competency of IT, BPO and KPO organizations and hence it is always economical to have training manpower and budgets under control, and make use of external bodies, universities and other channels for fulfilling training needs. Normally employees need about 8 to 10 days (of 7 to 8 hours each day) of training in a year. It is easy to estimate work force and training infrastructure requirements for such a need, assuming a batch size of 20 in any training. It will be apparent that the affordable manpower and budgets for internal training function are significantly lower than “required” values. It is difficult to motivate people from projects to keep training as their ad-

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

ditional responsibility, since they are otherwise extremely stretched out. For employees who want to take longer training, additional certifications, external recognized degree/diploma, it is going to be much more challenging if done through internal training departments. There are multiple shifts in the organizations and this poses another dimension altogether i.e. the training staff needs to be available round-the-clock, which is very challenging. Classrooms with simulation labs are a luxury for industry since each square foot of unbilled space is a cost to the company. Optimum usage of space calls for shifts and this means again pressure on the training staff. If the core expertise of design and development of content, and actual teaching through either web based training, CDs, or instructor led classroom training can be mostly handled by academia, and the company’s internal training department has just a minimum number of managers and a few specialized faculty, it goes a long way in cutting the overall training cost and also indirectly ensures career opportunities and benefits to the academia.

Career Management Career management is all about providing career growth for employees. It is not exactly the promotion or salary hike, which happen based on performance and annual appraisals. It is about change of role, increased responsibility, cross-skilling, job rotation, etc., which makes employees look forward to different and higher levels of work as they continue in the job. As mentioned earlier, a lot of attrition is due to lack of career growth. Employees like to know where they will be after 2 years, 4 years, etc., and don’t want to stagnate. Many of them want to learn new things as they grow in the company. Training and certification needs for talent development team come mainly from two channels. First one is the direct business need, which means needs of associates to improve their performance levels. Commonly used metrics are defects in the

code, turn-around-time for a transaction, productivity, accuracy of transactions, etc. Associates and their supervisors identify such needs. Second one is the role based programs or career development of associates, which can be planned and executed well as it is strategic in nature. Internal training departments can only look at providing the right training for up-skilling/crossskilling but the larger talent management team identifies top, medium and low performers, and identifies opportunities of growth for the top and medium performers. There are ways to deal with low performers through additional training. For the top performers, multiple career options or role movements will be identified, based on organizational needs. These career paths will be defined properly, timelines set, training and certifications required to move from one role to another defined and offered to the top performers first. To take an example, a close look at the BPO industry shows that we have mainly four levels or major roles, which are Team Member (TM), Team Leader (TL), Manager (M), and Leader (L). Each of these is a clear progression from the previous level. While these look as conventional career paths, an easy mapping can be done for other career paths with these levels. For e.g., someone choosing a Domain Subject Matter Expert (SME) career would typically move up as Process Expert (TM), Offering Expert (TL), Domain SME (M), and a Senior Domain SME (L). Irrespective of which path is chosen by the employee, clear learning paths and associated modules, assessments (examinations) and credit system based role movement should be implemented to ensure a transparent career growth. “Case Study TCS BPO – XYZ Collaboration Proposition described below touches upon this to some extent. Whether it is a managerial career path or a technical/domain subject matter expert career path, clear learning paths need to be defined. Each of these learning paths shall include required training modules, certifications (internal and external), external degree/diploma requirements, on-the-job training, and so on. Modules developed must 95

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

have credit system and should follow a university framework. Here academia must be leveraged for creation of content development of certification programs, faculty development, joint degree/diploma certifications, etc. Tie-up with a standard academic institution and obtained certification from that institution can be made one of the mandatory requirements for a role movement. Ideal situation would be to have a collaborative certification program that allows employees to continuously up-skill as per changing demands. Role movements must happen by leveraging academic expertise and at the same time, it should allow for similar benefits for those working in the academia too. Unfortunately, training departments in many cases (if not in most cases) have not been able to do much in the career progression area. They are focused more in the initial induction programs, management development programs for selected managerial cadre, and general leadership programs for senior leaders. The major chunk of the population, especially in the BPO, seems to be in the TM level (about 85%) and it is this population we need to address for career progression. It is this population that has the maximum attrition and also has a lot of Gen-Y category who need to be constantly engaged with attractive training and career growth options.

Role of Academia As mentioned earlier, it is found from various surveys that employee satisfaction and hence their retention relies on various factors, one of the major ones being career development. Employees look for excellent training and development opportunities, certifications from external reputed organizations, association with reputed academic institutions, and opportunities to study in and get certificates from external reputed bodies than just getting routine training programs internally. They also need personal development plans (PDP) created on an individual basis, and followed up to closure to enable their movement to next role. If 96

these plans are made similar to how graduation happens in a university, and credit system and proper assessment system are implemented, the employees see complete transparency and also get motivated to complete the PDP in specified timeframes. If the training and assessments happen through reputed academic institutes through evening/weekend classes (with minimal amount of stay in the institutions) then it becomes a perfect university model deployed in corporate to link to employee growth. Academia can take a completely active role in the entire talent management function of corporate. This is what is referred to here as multi-faceted collaboration rather than just a tie-up for higher education, for example. This is for mutual benefit. If corporate can keep to themselves the entire training of intrinsic client-specific nature, and move away from designing and conducting role based training programs and career development, it is a great opportunity for universities to deliver “employable” graduates, and participate in their continuous development. This also enables their faculty to be abreast of what is happening in the industry and enhance knowledge base of the society. It is a great contribution to the society in terms of increasing employability quotient and in turn to grow up as the most preferred academic institutes in the country. Academia can play a big role if and only if they understand and transform to business needs. They need to understand the entire job description at various levels, competencies required for role movement, creation and mapping of curricula to the competencies, assessments to evaluate held levels of competencies for various job roles, and ensuring a clear mechanism to measure effectiveness of training programs. While such methodology and courses may be abundantly available in various institutes, what is lacking is the alignment to business needs and mandatory enforcement of the same for achieving career progression. But this is not just the responsibility of academia but in fact more so of the corporate. The corporate needs to put the process in place, take complete ownership,

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

and drive it as an organizational level initiative. Organizations have to give complete respect and freedom to the academia through considering them as its integral part. From the industry side, this is lacking. What is being recommended and desired is much larger stake to be given to the academia by involving them in entire employee life cycle. Recall the olden days when someone from an organization (typically a Government or a Public Sector entity) used to get sponsored to doing a post graduation study in a reputed institute (for eg., defense organizations having regular well established tie-up with IITs or IIMs), and this being used to assess the eligibility of promotion of the employee. This used to happen in pockets and for selected employees. Now, why not our best private and autonomous academic institutes offer programs which are completely in accord with the corporate requirement of employee career progression? Referring to the “Case Study: IBM India – University of Mysore Collaboration”, this was an excellent model to attract meritorious B.Sc. graduates into the IT stream. This is also a great service to the society through increase of educated youth. This is like a CSR activity where we are helping the bright undergraduates to get postgraduate degree while they are working and earning. Similar programs can be easily conceptualized for BPO/KPO. One can think of hiring 12th pass (or pre-university) students and offer them a “proper” BPO-graduation degree through a tie-up with a good university. Graduates such as B.A. B.Com., B.Sc. can be hired and offered a post-graduate diploma in KPO, similar to a postgraduate diploma in management or executive MBA etc. Internal training departments cannot manage all these programs. These need proper tie-up, strong long term and mutually benefiting collaboration with reputed academic institutions. In essence, academia can and is required to play a big role in not only creation of billing-ready talent pool, but also in continuous learning of employees by enabling their career growth. Thus it is a continuous long term tie-up that we are talking

of. As business needs change over years, curricula may change. Basic curricula and modules may be same but the electives, modules for certifications, and role movement in various domains/technologies can change. So the academic board of studies and governing council should be very flexible and tuned to industry requirements.

POSSIBLE WAYS OF ACADEMIACORPORATE INTERACTION Finishing Schools Finishing school concept is good for creating industry- ready professionals and can eliminate the need for an elaborate ILP. Students graduate after completing the standard requirements and additional corporate requirements of training and assessments. The corporate modules can be part of the last semester(s) or can extend beyond the normal duration of the course but former seems ideal. With many academic institutions now becoming autonomous, it may be much easier now to modify the syllabus of the course to suit industry requirements. Large corporate must make commitment on hiring certain numbers from such institutes if they have introduced very specific curricula. Faculty can be a combination of both universities and corporate.

Corporate Education Center The dedicated corporate training center for industry will be ideal for continuous learning. The latter will be useful for enhancing performance of employees and help in their career. Corporate education centers can be part of the university; they can include real infrastructure as well as virtual learning/distance learning programs. However, it is best to have on the campus classrooms and simulation labs. This provides an academic ambience to the employees who normally do not get motivated to learn in their day-to-day work environment. The head of such a center needs to 97

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

run it as a profit center with clear deliverables of employees moving up the career path, performance improvement and overall competency growth of the organization.

Higher Education One of the most common things done by many corporate is to send their selected employees to get an advanced degree/diploma in order to enhance the knowledge base and to increase associate satisfaction. Here, regular corporate specific certification/degree/diploma courses can be run which can be either generic for all corporate or dedicated to one company if there is sufficiently large number sponsored by the company. If it is a batch meant specifically for a company, there are several advantages in terms of customizing the curricula as needed, logistics such as timings, venue, etc., and better networking. Many outreach programs run this way. Distance learning can be an option where a lot of the course work and assessment happens on-line at the convenience of the employees. Project work can be part of the work being done in the company. Thus, the organization also benefits in terms of not losing a lot of employee time and focus. Owing to the personal interest, the dedication and commitment of employee will also be higher. Involving faculty from the academia as external guides will enhance knowledge and experience base of academia.

Content Design and Development Many of the training modules required in the corporate need a lot of academic expertise, which is lacking in the conventional training departments of corporate. It could be advanced courses in finance, HR, strategy etc., or it could be technical/domain courses. Here, instead of spending a lot of time in doing research on what needs to be developed and taught, the corporate is better off by outsourcing the entire work to university professors/experts who are completely into it. With help from the subject matter experts from the industry who can 98

give requirements clearly, the university can take care of the design and development of professional teaching material.

Knowledge Management Communities of Practice (CoP) are one standard way for effective knowledge management in an organization. Wagner described them as groups of people who work together based on a common interest or passion and are based on the idea that people, learn, grow and develop through social practice. CoPs should be launched and run in sustainable way to promote creation of intellectual assets, representation in internal and external seminars/conferences and journals of repute to bring about employee satisfaction and enhance visibility and image of the organization. The CoPs are virtual network of people working in similar domains/technologies/professions. For example, there is a CoP of all Project Managers, CoP of all architects, CoP of Telecom domain, CoP of Banking domain etc. These are self sustaining bodies that work with minimum financial support from the organization. As part of the CoP, there is a core team that drives activities such as quiz/games to enhance informal knowledge development, best practice sharing sessions to motivate employees to participate in internal seminars, creation of intellectual assets for the organization, participation in external forums and so on. This brings out hidden talent in the employees and acts as a great motivator to especially the young generation. Centers of Excellence (CoE) are the bigger umbrella of CoPs and usually headed by a subject matter expert (SME) with many stakeholders in the team. They decide on the CoP activities, work on training requirements, develop content and certifications, define career paths, and so on. The academia must be represented here. At least one expert from academia should be part of such CoEs. While in many other countries, academia takes an active role in these activities, in India it is probably happening to a much lesser extent. For e.g., university professors are mandated to bring in

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

funding from corporate to support their research. In turn, the research outcome becomes part of corporate intellectual property. Joint seminars/ conferences are a regular scene there.

CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS It is sometimes quoted or felt that actual collaboration activities between industry and academia are far from being very smooth. Compared to other countries it appears that the collaboration between the industry and academia is much weaker in India. While a lot of good intention and great plans exist, actual outcomes may look dismal. Reasons for poor success of academic interface programs can be studied under broadly two categories, namely the “hard” and the “soft”. The hard ones refer to the lack of policies and procedures in the corporate, availability of budgets, lack of vision and proper plans, etc. Many times, academic interface programs are just a miniscule of the overall learning projects. They are limited to offering of higher education programs and that too to a very tiny percentage of overall population, for very valid reasons such as budgets and buy-in from employees. There is no proper long term planning of manpower requirements due to uncertainty in expected business. Owing to stiff competition, companies need to cut costs and the shortsighted vision looks only at training budgets. Companies will be interested in immediate training that enables getting more business rather than in complete career/talent management. While this cannot be stopped, they need to clearly understand the importance of long term career planning and set aside adequate budgets for the same. They got to see beyond today and look at return on investment over a period of time. There are only a few large multinationals who have done this and spent huge amounts of money to create university kind of infrastructure and learning environment.

The other reason seems to be lack of dedicated personnel on either side who have passion for doing this work. The word “passion” tells it all. For corporate, collaboration should not just become one mandatory ritual or fancy thing to do, but should be done with a lot of enthusiasm and interest. People chosen to lead such effort should be well versed with both kinds of scenario, working models, internal challenges and be able to articulate the business case effectively. It is also their brand building in the campuses over next several years. The intangible benefits of better image of the industry at the campus and vice versa, and image of both parties in the society cannot be underestimated. Same holds good for academia that need to look for long term association rather than immediate support to their activities such as campus recruitment, sponsoring seminars/conferences, creation of labs etc. Unless there are tangible benefits for both, the collaboration fails. It should be a joint win-win effort from both academia and industry if collaboration has to be successful. Cost implications need to be worked out keeping in mind strategic needs of the organization, effort spent in designing and developing the content, overall reuse copyrights of the material, reuse for other corporate, and sharing the cost across. This is just one side of the picture while the other side is all about creating policies and processes for attracting and motivating highly talented faculty who have industry experience and passionate to build future workforce. Although some work has happened in this area recently, still bright and practical oriented talent may not prefer academic positions owing to salary and working environment. When collaborative research or content/curricula creation happens, another issue could be the intellectual copyright issues (IP). Industry does not normally want to fund unless there are tangible definitive outcomes. Investment must be made in research activities, IP tools and processes, and methodologies to cash the innovation outputs.

99

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

The soft issues revolve around things such as clash of brands, personality egos, organizational culture etc. At both ends namely industry and academia, brand is seen carefully before deciding to collaborate. Collaborating with a much higher level or much lower level organization (in terms of brand) can turn out to be very negative. There can be egoistic issues at personal levels also, which need to be tackled. In a corporate, those who handle academic interface programs need to be senior, well qualified and respected managers. People should be proud of playing such a role. Sometimes, this kind of role is given least importance and hence there is no motivation to do a good job. There are perceptions that abound about both the clarity on industry’s learning requirements and the capability of academia to support them. Job descriptions appear vague and abstract; academic courses appear theoretical without implementation insights; faculty not experienced enough to understand mature professionals’ learning patterns and needs; cost implications on both sides and so on. In any matured corporate, all employees are role tagged, and each of these roles will have a set of competencies (behavioral, domain, technical, etc.) and the required proficiency levels of these competencies. The PDPs will show learning path or the set of curricula and certifications to be completed before someone can move from one proficiency level to the next in any competency. The faculty need to understand this clearly while developing the curricula and deploying the same. Behavioral modules need to have relevant activities, games, video clips, etc. while the technical and domain courses need to have practical sessions or hands-on simulation labs. Faculty need to be specially trained to handle the Gen-Y professional learning pattern as well as manager level learning preferences. All the training needs arising out of PDPs must be used to create annual training plans, which need to be further broken down into detailed

100

training schedules at the academic institutes. It is a dedicated training center that the institutes need to invest on. While the infrastructure can be easily shared across industries, the curricula and simulation labs may be very specific to a client. Governing councils and Board of Studies need to be formed with members from both industry and academia. The industry representatives are expected to be well qualified to understand the academia working patterns, pre-requisites to teaching such courses, assessment and certification plans, and be able to update/advise the board with changing business needs. Effectiveness of the program needs to be measured not just at the first or second level of Kirkpatrick’s model. Apart from feedback and assessments, on-the-job effectiveness in terms of number of successful career progressions, increase in performance metrics, performance in the new role, notional cost savings owing to internal growth vs. external hiring all need to be captured and reported. Proper ROI (Return on Investment) models need to be built around these. From academic perspective, apart from direct revenue benefits, one has to measure the impact of such tie-up on their image and attracting more students each year, faculty development and satisfaction, and other tangible and intangible benefits. Corporate also need to one important thing of supporting the academia in various other ways and not just use them as the typical training institutes. Academia deserve high respect and need a lot of support in their routine activities such as seminars/ conferences, research work, faculty development programs, internships, etc. Educational institutes are becoming autonomous and there is a lot of entrepreneurship interested in education industry. We can leverage on these institutes to mould them to create employable and productive skill sets rather than just qualified graduates and postgraduates.

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS One thing that is not yet explored in detail in this chapter is the possibility of informal and innovative techniques of learning such as mobile-based learning, social learning, virtual worlds, etc. Detailed cost analysis has not yet been done to see viability and profitability from both ends, even though it appears notionally beneficial to all the parties involved. Academic institutions must be encouraged to write proposals to bring in funding from the corporate. Similar to other countries, it must be made mandatory for senior academicians to work towards a joint funding model that benefits both academia and industry. Research students need to be funded by industry for mutual benefit. It is felt that such a model is lacking especially in the BPO and non-engineering industry. Now, with ever-growing demand for non-technical graduates, fresh effort needs to be put in for collaborative funding and research.

Case Study 1: TCS BPO–XYZ Collaboration Proposition This particular case study is yet in the proposal stage. Initial discussions are going on and we are yet to finalize the MOU (Memorandum of Understanding) and implement. XYZ (actual name has been masked owing to confidentiality agreements) is a globally reputed Certification institute for various BPO professionals. It is known for its modular learning courses and certification examinations. It has certification programs at various levels such as team member, team leader, manager and senior leader. Each certification comprises certain number of courses and stringently planned examination, which is administered with rigor. TCS BPO is investigating the possibility of linking its internal role movement to these certifications. For e.g., before a team member can move into a team leader role, he/ she needs to get certified as a BPO Team Leader

from XYZ institute. This is in addition to the usual promotion eligibility and other competency requirements from the organization (TCS BPO). It is believed that this will strengthen our process of promotion or role movement and the associates will perform much better in their new role. This also enhances the confidence and satisfaction level of the associates and this entire system is transparent. This is something that they can carry with them throughout their career, and they look forward to higher levels of certification from the same or other institutes. For training prior to the certification, TCS will be authorized to conduct the training programs that XYZ provides. TCS may do this or may outsource to another reputed institute. Reputed academic institutes can look at designing and providing such courses as part of their curricula and including such certifications before they award a degree (such as MBA with BPO specialization etc.).

Case Study 2: IBM India–University of Mysore Collaboration One particular collaboration between IBM India and the University of Mysore (UOM) happened in 2006 and was run successfully. This is referred to as the ACE program (Accelerated Career Excellence) by IBM. An MOU was signed between the two in 2006 to provide a four-year MS (Technology) degree from UOM to IBM’s employees who join with a B.Sc. degree as fresh candidates. A pilot batch was started in 2006 at Bangalore and it successfully completed the second semester in August 2007. The MOU recognized IBM India as an Outreach Center of UOM, and provided autonomy in conducting the program as suitable for IBM employees within the framework of UOM’s rules and regulations. From an employee perspective, we are talking of a non-engineering graduate getting a Masters degree in IT, and fully free of any cost. At the end of four years, the participants of this program have the rich experience of IBM

101

Multi-Faceted Industry-Academia Collaboration

topped with MS degree from a well-known and recognized university. From an industry point of view, IBM can tap the cream of talent from the non-engineering pool of resources and retain them for four years at the minimum. From academia standpoint, the teaching and research staff of the university got opportunity to interact with industry, apart from financial gains. Networking with industry would throw open opportunities to attract best students for the university’s educational programs. So it was a complete win-win situation. It was also expected that this collaboration will not be limited to providing higher education to IBM employees but will go beyond that, to research activities, faculty visits to IBM, visits of IBMers to UOM and so on. The syllabus for this ACE program was designed and finalized by IBM in consultation with UOM. The courses, scheme of examination and evaluation pattern were decided keeping industry’s requirements in mind. There are thousands of merited students across India who cannot go for engineering for various reasons. Such schemes ensure that such talent is tapped, groomed and well nurtured. More details of this case study can be found in the reference (Guruprasad, 2007).

CONCLUSION Academia can play a major role in meeting the talent requirements of IT, ITES and BPO industries both in terms of billing-ready resources through their updated industry specific curricula, and in terms of continuous learning to address professional career development of employees throughout their tenure in corporate. This seems to add a lot of value to talent management, engagement and development, and help in retention of bright performers. Volumes involved are huge and this makes it a challenge to implement it on one side but a great opportunity for the academia

102

to leverage their expertise and grow. This concept if implemented well can also relieve a lot of non-core business from the corporate and reduce overall costs in addition to having an excellent talent management to display to customers. This enhances both employee satisfaction and end customer satisfaction and confidence. Within the academia also, there will be tremendous amount of value add and satisfaction for the faculty. It enhances the two-way movement of employees in academia and industry.

REFERENCES Guruprasad, K. (2007). Industry–academia collaborations: Addressing societal needs of education and employment. In B. P. R. Narasimharao, et al., (Eds.), Changing societal demands & adopting teaching learning systems in higher education system to reach out. Centre for Outreach Programmes, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore, 2007. NASSCOM Report. (2011). Building a career in the BPO industry: BPO career guide. A NASSCOM Report.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS BPO: Business Process Outsourcing. Domain: Specific industry verticals such as Telecom, Banking, Insurance, etc. Gen-Y: Generation Y group, which is generally considered to be the last generation of children wholly born in the 20th century, typically those born after 1982 and in the range 1982-2000. IT: Information Technology. ITES: IT-Enabled Services. KPO: Knowledge Process Outsourcing.

103

Chapter 8

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises:

A Case Study on Human Capacity Building for the Indian Power Sector B.N. Balaji Singh KEC International India V. V. Kutumbarao Gokaraju Rangaraju Educational Society, India Ram B. Koganti LPG Equipment Research Centre, India

ABSTRACT The status of engineering education in the country is briefly reviewed. A problem faced by the industry in regard to the quality of the engineering graduates of whom 70 to 80% are considered “unemployable,” is examined. The mismatch between the skillset required by the industry and that provided by the academic institutions is identified as the major reason for the low employability of engineering graduates. Various ongoing efforts at the level of the government and academia to rectify this situation are described. Measures that could be usefully adopted by the corporate sector are identified. Intensive combined action by all the stakeholders involved in the academic process will only enable the country to reverse the trend of declining academic standards in higher technical education. The case of the Power Sector has been discussed at length to illustrate the points made. During the 11th and 12th plan periods, five lakh technical personnel and 1.5 lakh front end support personnel need to be recruited by the Power Sector as per published reports. There is also a huge requirement of back end staff to take up various managerial functions. Use of alternate sources of energy and efficient management of energy being inevitable, a huge pool of human resources would be required in harnessing small hydro, biomass and

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch008

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

bio-fuel, solar, and wind resources, provided they have the appropriate specialized knowledge. Moreover, demand side management, power trading, carbon credits, smart grids, etc. will also require manpower with specialized training. Salient features of the human capital challenges in the Indian power sector are discussed, and certain action plans to overcome the challenges are suggested.

A. STATUS OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN INDIA Since becoming independent in the year 1947, India has recorded a phenomenal growth of higher education institutions. The number of Universities has increased nearly 20-fold from only 20 at independence to over 400 today and the number of Colleges from less than 500 to nearly 20,000 in the same period. As a result, student enrolment has increased 100-fold from a mere 0.2 million in 1947-48 to over 20 million today. Despite this massive expansion, the GER (Gross Enrolment Ratio) is less than 15%, one of the lowest in the world. Professional courses, especially in engineering, medicine, management and education have dominated the scenario. Engineering education has witnessed its biggest growth around the turn of the millennium, when a noticeable tilt towards a services-dominated economy emerged, and the burgeoning Information Technology (IT) sector started siphoning off a large number of engineering graduates. Though the demand for engineers by the IT sector has hit disturbing lows during 2002-2003 and again during 2009-2011 due to a slump in global economy, this Sector continues to be the largest employer of engineering graduates and so the number of engineering Colleges has continued to grow unabated. Today there are approximately 5000 AICTE-approved Engineering Institutions in the country with enrolment of over a million students every year. Interestingly most of these Colleges are in the private sector, which entered the field in a big way due to the continuously decreasing government funding of higher education since the time of the Sixth Five Year Plan. However, the Government has set up separate regulatory mechanisms for each of the

104

professional courses, irrespective of whether it provides full funding, partial financial support or none at all (as it happens in most cases). While the All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) regulates engineering and management courses, Medical Council of India (MCI), Dental Council of India (DCI), Pharmaceutical Council of India (PCI) etc are responsible for the corresponding courses. The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) and the National Institutes of Technology (NITs) are directly funded and administered by the Ministry of Human Resource Development while the University Grants Commission and the State Governments together control the funding of nearly 400 Universities.

Problems and Solutions There is a large gap in the availability of skilled manpower and to bridge the gap an interface is needed between the education system and the needs of the economy. -APJ Abdul Kalam, former President of India Read “industry” in place of “economy” in the above quotation and the unenviable predicament we find ourselves in today becomes clear. It is generally believed that the quality of education offered in most of the higher education institutions (HEIs) has not kept pace with the quantity. As a result, India Inc is experiencing a workforce crunch across various sectors and different skillsets (Ernst&Young, 2008). According to one survey jointly carried out by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry and the World Bank (FICCI 2009), 64 percent of surveyed employers are “some-

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

what”, “not very”, or “not at all” satisfied with the quality of engineering graduates. In the words of Kiran Karnik, former President of NASSCOM, “Companies are able to select only eight or nine people out of 100 who apply and that’s a pretty low selection ratio…in my estimate only a third of the pool has the right skills to be absorbed into the industry right away”. (Quoted in Ernst & Young, 2008). A number of studies have been conducted by several Commissions and Committees, formed by the Government and the Industry as well as the academia and many are the Conferences and deliberations held to understand, analyze and find solutions to this problem. Some prominent ones are: Report of the National Knowledge Commission headed by Sam Pitroda (2006), Documents of the Planning Commission related to the 11th and 12th Five Year Plans, Education Summits conducted by the FICCI (2007), Report of UGC’s high-powered Committee on ‘Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education’ headed by Professor Yash Pal (2009), and Study on the ‘Profile of Engineering Education in India’ commissioned by the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2010), to name only a few. A detailed analysis of the situation may be out of place in the present article, but a summary of the observations is presented below.

1. Mismatched Skill Sets One of the major challenges faced by the undergraduate programs in engineering is this: Are these programs relevant enough to the needs of the industry that the graduates can find ready employment? While trying to find an answer to this question, we realize that a universally-agreed set of the “needs of the industry” does not exist as these are mostly sector-specific. For instance, the requirements of the services sector (mostly the Information Technology sector) cannot be the same as those of the manufacturing sector and neither of them would match the requirements of the finance sector. Then again, within each sector,

there are significant differences in the needs of different constituent industries. However, broadly speaking, for the manufacturing sector with which we are concerned here, a core set of needs would include not only up-to-date technical knowledge related to the specific manufacturing industry, but also reasonable expertise in computer technology, analytical and creative abilities as well as non- academic abilities like communication skills (written and oral), leadership qualities and interpersonal skills, among others. Add Professional Ethics and Environmental Science as social necessities, and the picture is nearly complete.

2. What the Academic Institutions Can do There is no consensus in the country as to who is the principal provider of all the above-listed required skills to the graduates. At first view, it would appear that the technical educational institutions (TEIs) have the primary responsibility to do this. However, there is very little scope at the ground level, where the actual process of converting fresh students into technically competent and employable graduates goes on namely, the individual TEIs, to bring about a major change in the situation to improve the quality of technical education. Reasons for this are many, but some of the more obvious ones are listed below: •

•

There is a plethora of regulatory bodies in the country, sometimes with contradictory requirements, that impose severe constraints on the operational efficiency of the TEIs. In the words of the National Knowledge Commission (2006), our higher education system is “over-regulated and under-administered”. Individual State Governments play a major role in controlling technical education at the state level, particularly at the stage of student admissions and fee fixation.

105

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

•

•

•

106

Further, engineering Colleges in the public as well as private domain are either the constituents of or are affiliated to some University each (except the IITs, NITs and a few others). Consequently, they are bound by the course structure, syllabus and academic calendar prescribed by the affiliating University which also conducts the examinations and declares the results. Most of these affiliating Universities each have several hundred affiliated Colleges to deal with and so any academic reform activity is necessarily slow and ponderous. The Colleges themselves have very little freedom in the entire academic process. Severe constraints are experienced by the Colleges with regard to the input resources of finance and faculty. Financial constraints are experienced because the barest minimum fees that the State Government permits them to charge yield low incomes, most of which goes into paying salaries of the employees leaving too little for development and maintenance activities. Moreover, some State Governments (notably, the Andhra Pradesh Government) are implementing a welfare measure in which the students of certain categories do not pay any fees to the Colleges, which are reimbursed by the State Government, usually after considerable gap of time, thus causing considerable imbalance in funds availability to run the Colleges. Human resource challenge arises because of the severe shortage of qualified and quality faculty, a problem that looms large at the national level due to the great mismatch in the demand-supply situation. With the best intentions but with limited resources, the pre-occupation of most technical Colleges tends to be to finish teaching the vast amounts of the ambitious and ever-expanding syllabus (prescribed by the affiliating University as a compromise of the conflicting interests of various stake-

•

•

holders) on schedule to allow the students to face the examinations conducted by an external agency (the affiliating University mostly), that too in an atmosphere beset with frequent social and political disturbances. The natural outcome of the rigid framework and the several constraints listed above has been that the quality of technical education has suffered grievously due to a lack of any scope for initiative and creativity at the ground level. Recognising this lacuna, the UGC and the MHRD have been actively pushing the case for establishing autonomous Colleges, which function independent of the affiliating University as far as their academic activity is concerned. As a result, many affiliated as well as constituent Colleges of Universities have been granted limited academic autonomy. Several of the autonomous Colleges in the private sector have also been recognized by the UGC as “deemed-to-be” Universities with the freedom to control admission of students, fix the fees, conduct examinations and grant their own degrees.

And yet, despite all these constraints, there are several ways in which TEIs can contribute to improvement in the quality of technical education. Some of the possible actions are listed below: •

•

•

Attract students of higher caliber to join various courses offered, through fee waiver and scholarship schemes for meritorious students. Motivate and mentor academically weak students by arranging bridge courses and additional instruction in difficult subjects. Enhance the employability skills of students by arranging personality development programs using internal and professional sources.

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

Enhance hands-on experience of students by involving them in innovative practical experiments over and above the prescribed syllabus, short-term creative technical projects to be executed outside regular contact hours and sending students to relevant industries for on-the-spot experience of industrial processes. Increase the usage of on-line learning resources by providing open access to ejournals, e-books and web-based technical courses. Collaborate with premier institutions like the IITs to have access to live and interactive classroom lectures by learned Professors via Video-Conferencing. Maximize usage of audio-visual equipment in classroom teaching by encouraging teachers to use instructional material in a form suitable for multimedia presentation. Enhance the entrepreneurial skills of students by conducting regular entrepreneurship training programs. Increase the caliber of teachers by helping them to improve their qualifications, training them to improve their technical knowledge and pedagogical skills, and implementing measures to retain quality faculty through various incentive schemes. Introduce postgraduate programs in areas of relevance to industrial application. Train teachers in research methodologies and also send them to premier institutions to interact with reputed researchers and absorb the practices of excellence in research. Significantly improve sponsored research by encouraging teachers to obtain research projects from governmental and nongovernmental research funding agencies like DST, DSIR, and DBT as also researchminded industries. Encourage teachers to publish their worthwhile research work in peer-reviewed journals of high impact factor by offering cash and career growth incentives.

•

•

Pursue collaborative research with premier institutions in India and abroad as also industries by identifying areas of common interest and initiating programs for mutual benefit. Augment the financial resources available for implementation of quality improvement measures by increasing Internal Revenue Generation (other than by tuition fees) by means such as conducting sponsored research, taking up industrial consultancy, organizing training programs for industry personnel and becoming an outsourcing centre for utilization of the institution’s infrastructural facilities.

3. What the Government can Do Fully cognizant of the gravity of the situation, the Central Government, through the Ministry of Human Resource Development, has come up with a Project called the “Technical Education Quality Improvement Program” (TEQIP) with partial financial assistance from the World Bank. Phase I of the Project was implemented during the years 2004-09 and Phase II has been launched in the year 2011. Among other things, this Project aims at increasing the employability of the graduates, providing opportunities to the faculty to improve their qualifications and imparting training to enhance their technical and pedagogical skills so as to make a larger pool of high quality faculty available to the system. Besides the indirect intervention in TEIs through the TEQIP program, the Government can also directly contribute to quality enhancement through sponsored training programs. Several examples of this approach are given in the subsequent sections on the Power Sector. Another way in which the Government can help is by minimizing the stifling influence of regulatory bodies which, though well-meaning, are hide-bound, rigid and non-innovative. In fact the National Knowledge Commission Report (2006) goes to the extent of recommending the dissolution 107

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

of all existing government-controlled regulatory bodies and replacing them with a Higher Education Authority consisting mainly of non-governmental persons. The existing regulatory bodies have regulations that seek to control the input parameters such as the sizes of buildings and class rooms, number of teachers and their qualifications, number of books and journals in the library, number of computers and other such numerical values. It is assumed without much proof that quality of education is determined solely by these parameters. Important as these parameters are, far more effective would be an approach based on what really matters at the end namely, the quality of the graduates and their usefulness to the society. The present pre-auditing methodology should at least be combined with, if not totally replaced by, a post-auditing process that assesses the quality of the graduates produced, thus allowing market forces to separate out the good institutions from the bad and indifferent ones. Some new trends in Government’s thinking on higher education are evident from the views expressed at a meeting held in May 2012 (The Hindu, 2012). In this meeting, Planning Commission Deputy Chairman Montek Singh Ahluwalia suggested that government funding of universities should be stopped. Instead the students should be directly funded who would then go to universities that are worth paying for. He said he was in favour of raising the fees across the board and giving scholarships that would enable students to go to universities which actually do a good job. Pitching for greater private sector participation in higher education sector, Ahluwalia said that after making allocation for primary and secondary education which are high priority areas, there will be limited resources left for higher education, therefore private sector investment would be required. Human Resources Minister Kapil Sibal extended the idea by recommending that private sector should be encouraged to invest in education by giving them appropriate environment and the fundamental requirement of sufficient land. He

108

also recommended that banks must be asked to give long term loans to educational institutions for 20 to 25 years to set up more institutions.

4. What the Corporate Sector can Do All industries have in-house training programs aimed at updating the knowledge base of its employees, usually on annual basis. However, when it comes to the employees at entry level, who have necessarily to come from TEIs, industry sources claim that only 25 to 30% of the engineering graduates today are “employable”. Regretfully, industry’s own contribution to the improvement of the quality of technical education and improving the “employability” of the graduates is miniscule. Presumably, industries look upon themselves as the reluctant consumers of goods (graduates) produced by the educational institutions. It is common knowledge that every industry would want to recruit only those graduates who have been moulded by the engineering Colleges to a fully finished and industry-ready form, tailor-made for the needs of their own particular industry. However, the undergraduate curriculum in most TEIs is so oriented as to impart basic technical knowledge in the chosen specialization to the students within a well-defined and usually non-flexible framework so that they can take up employment in any related industry. Traditionally, a given manufacturing industry, after recruiting fresh graduates as “Graduate Trainees”, would subject them to one to two years of rigorous training to make them fit for productive output in that particular industry. But it appears that in the present times where intense global competition has necessitated shrinking time schedules, the industry would like to dispense with or at least considerably shorten this expensive initial training period. They seem to prefer that this industry-readiness training should be undertaken by the educational institutions in addition to their routine academic instruction. TEIs, on the other hand, find it extremely difficult to fit in the

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

non-academic training (commonly referred to as “personality development”, “soft skills development” etc) in the limited four-year time period of the undergraduate program. Instead, the Industry can at least partially achieve their objective by recruiting students as graduate trainees in the final semester of their undergraduate program and paying them an attractive stipend to take up project work (in the College) under the supervision of a senior manager of the industry. The project should be related to the job the student will take up in that particular industry after completing the Course, such that the final semester acts as a training period. This measure will at least partly if not fully offset loss of productive time in the industry on account of training. One of the important ways of closing the large gap in our present-day employment scenario and the technical education system is for the Industry to view itself as the principal participatory stakeholder in the education system rather than as a critical consumer of the end product. Improvement of technical education could be considered as part of backward integration by the industrial sector. Industry should get together with the Government and the academia to work out mutually-beneficial arrangements with the overall aim of providing high quality industrial products to the country. It would not be a bad idea to promote Corporate Education Responsibility (CER) on the lines of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Recently a Plan Panel committee set up by the Planning Commission and headed by the Chief Mentor of Infosys N R Narayana Murthy to look in to Corporate Sector Participation in Higher Education submitted several novel suggestions to the Ministry of Human Resource Development (The Hindu, 2012). A few of them are given below: •

Award of Indian Corporate higher education scholarships, with a Rs 1000-crore corpus raised from the top 1000 corporations of the country.

•

• •

Setting up a Rs 5000-crore Indian corporate R and D Fund on the lines of the National Science Foundation in the US. 25 corporate houses and 25 eminent highworth individuals to start Universities. Establishment of Knowledge Clusters in select cities.

The committee has further recommended that such institutions of higher learning should have complete financial, academic and administrative autonomy. Financial autonomy should be inclusive of the freedom to charge board-determined fees from students, to raise and manage funds (public funding, private endowments and other resources) and to have norm based financing with flexibility to spend funds based on the institution’s specific needs (infrastructure, students, faculty, laboratories and so on), without requiring permission from Government. It makes many other suggestions as well for freeing the institutions from the yoke of governmental control. These far-reaching suggestions, if accepted and implemented, will a go a long way in elevating the standards of higher education in the country. The corporate sector could also help TEIs to find a solution to the vexatious national problem of shortage of quality teachers. This can be done in at least two ways: (1) by permitting some of their senior managers to spend brief periods of time (say, from one week up to a full semester) in selected educational institutions (not IITs and NITs, but the less endowed ones) as Adjunct Faculty to take up teaching (and possibly research) (2) by recruiting highly qualified persons and paying them sumptuous salaries in line with industry-best, but posting them exclusively to work as faculty in selected educational institutions for periods ranging from 1 to 3 years. This measure would attract those highly talented persons who have an academic bent of mind but are put off by the generally poorer salaries offered in Universities compared to those in the Industry.

109

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

The purpose of this Chapter is to discuss the importance of developing professional competencies of technical graduates and the related issues in Corporate Education. To illustrate the points made here, we take up the case of the Power Sector, a key player in the industrial development of the country.

B. POWER SECTOR: MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS AND CHALLENGES 1. Introduction India’s economic growth is projected to be at over 8% in the coming two decades (although the GDP is going through a rough patch at present, it is expected to pick up again in the near future). Massive capacity addition in the Power Sector is required in order to maintain this growth rate. India would need an installed capacity of 220 GW by 2012 and 306 GW by 2017 (Planning Commission 2006). By 2032, the installed capacity required is projected to be almost five times the current installed capacity. The increasing demand for power leads to increasing need for trained manpower. As per the Planning Commission’s Working Group on Power for 11th Plan, it is estimated that at least five lakh skilled manpower and another 1.5 lakh non-technical manpower needs to be inducted into the Power Sector in the 11th and 12th plan periods. Many thousands more would be required if we take in to account power generation by renewable sources of energy like solar, wind and bio-mass/bio-fuels. As per CEA’s assessment (CEA 2009 and 2010) the manpower available for induction in the Power Sector from different sources is shown in Table 1. Looking at the above figures it appears that adequate manpower will be available as and when the need arises. However, there is a perceptible gap between the implementation of training programs and the challenges to meet the demands of

110

appropriately educated and trained human capital ranging from attracting fresh talent to updating the skill sets of existing personnel, to bringing about attitudinal and behavioural shifts and building managerial competencies. Education in any discipline has to not only provide the knowledge but also empower the learner to use his or her education in real life situation as pointed out by a high level committee on higher education (Yashpal 2009). The education system must be such that it should provide total solution to the learner both for his knowledge, resource management, application of the knowledge and entrepreneurship by making use of all the elements of learning and teaching. There is a strong movement in this direction in many developed countries (see AUCC, 2001; Gaardhoje et al 2005). Narasimharao et al (2011) discussing corporate education in natural sciences argued the need for use-inspired model of education to professionalize university education. There is a need to follow a professional approach in educating and training the human resources to make Power Sector vibrant.

2. Major Areas of Power Sector Training The major areas in which engineering students are to be prepared professionally can be assessed from the training load projections of 11th Five Year Plan (Table 2). It can be seen from Table 2 that the training infrastructure for Power Sector in the country is grossly inadequate and caters to barely 23% of the optimal training infrastructure required. The infrastructure for Refresher Training required for upgrading skills and knowledge is worse at just 3% of the required capacity and is a key reason for inadequate availability of manpower with right skills and competencies in the sector. Importantly, there is also a huge deficit in infrastructure for managerial training, which currently caters only to 4% of the requirements.

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

Table 1. Manpower available for induction in the power sector Source

Seat Capacity

Remarks

About 1,346 Engineering Colleges in India approved by All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE)

4, 40,000

The numbers include the students who would acquire a specialised B.Tech./B.E. degree in Power Engineering (about180 nos.) from NPTI

Polytechnic Colleges

2, 65,416

---

Industrial Training Institutes

>2,00,000

Apprentices in various trades

A similar estimate on infrastructure available and required can be made for educating students in Power Sector at university level.

3. Need for Professional Preparation There is need to prepare human resources professionally treating both training and education on specialist platform. For this it is necessary to make a “KASH” Inventory: Knowledge, Attitude, Skills and Habits, to take care of the all-round requirements of the employees. The need for specialist education and training can be understood from the National Training Policy (NTP) brought out by Government of India in 2002 for the Power Sector. The NTP recommends a periodical Training Needs Analysis (say once in two years) for evolving an annual need-based training intervention agenda encompassing the following areas: • • • •

Technical Training and Skill Upgradation Personality Development Organization Development Issues Information Technology and Computer Skills

According to the NTP it is mandatory that “Every organization in the Power Sector should have a written Training Policy Document containing strategies to ensure training for a minimum period of one week annually for each employee”. The NTP requires organizations to allocate adequate funds to training and development activities for meeting the stipulated training requirement. A minimum of 1.5% salary budget may be provided

initially, gradually increasing it to a level of 5% depending on the organization’s requirement. For the purpose of preparing engineering graduates with suitable skills and employability, frequent interaction between industry, academia and government is needed. This cannot be done easily and there is need for developing appropriate strategies.

4. Education and Training to Develop Human Resources at Different Levels In Power Sector there are various sections of people needing different levels of knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is necessary to make microlevel as well as macro-level planning to decide how much knowledge goes where and how to impart knowledge depending on the level at which the concerned personnel need to work. We can separately identify the skills and knowledge required by various categories of employees for the planned training intervention for each level of transition in an employee’s career. An illustrative list is given below: 1. Technical Training and Skill Upgradation: ◦◦ Power station (thermal, hydro and non-conventional) technologies and operations and maintenance; ◦◦ Transmission systems technologies and operations and maintenance; ◦◦ Distribution system technologies and operations and maintenance; ◦◦ Handling critical emergencies like cascade tripping of grid;

111

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

Table 2. Training load projections for 11th FYP (in thousand man-months/year) Area

Training Load

Infrastructure Required

Infrastructure Available

Deficit

Thermal Induction

103.57

51.78

38.86

12.92

Hydro Induction

39.21

19.60

4.26

15.34

-

-

-

-

110.65

55.32

27.98

18.41

Nuclear Induction Power System Induction Non-Tech Induction

27.91

27.91

-

27.91

Refresher (Tech + Non Tech)

150.46

150.46

4.53

145.93

Managerial

37.60

37.60

1.50

36.10

Total

469.40

342.67

77.13

256.61

Source: CEA Manpower Projections, Nov 2009

◦◦ Energy efficiency; ◦◦ Energy-environment interface; ◦◦ Rural electrification; ◦◦ Power trading. 2. Personality Development: ◦◦ Human values and ethics; ◦◦ Attitudes and behavior; ◦◦ Executive and managerial skills; ◦◦ Customer orientation; ◦◦ Integrated personality development; ◦◦ Communication skills; ◦◦ Developing commercial/business outlook; ◦◦ Marketing skills in a competitive environment. 3. Organization Development Issues: ◦◦ Functional management areas (such as corporate planning, project management, financial management, materials management, human resource management); ◦◦ Industry best practices; ◦◦ Benchmarking; ◦◦ Total quality management; ◦◦ Industrial relations in the changed scenario; ◦◦ Rehabilitation and resettlement management;

112

◦◦ Safety and security. 4. Information Technology and Computer Skills: ◦◦ Adequate training should be provided to make the employees IT literate. The management of each power utility must emphasize bridging the gap relating to the missing skills among its personnel through training. The concept of Best Practices and Benchmarking are to be adopted while developing need- based training programs. Due emphasis should be given to training of apprentices systematically in carefully identified skills. Engineers in senior roles need to develop various managerial competencies.NTP recommends that at least one long term training opportunity/program in a career should be planned for middle and senior level officers.

5. Strategies for Developing Human Capital “Adopt-an-ITI” Scheme Initiated by the Ministry of Labour, Govt. of India The “Adopt-an-ITI” scheme has been launched by the Government of India to address the issue of skilled and trained manpower. The main

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

feature of this scheme is that the Power Sector of a locality adopts the ITI of that locality. This scheme is currently adopted by about 52 utilities in the public sector as well as in the private sector. One such collaboration is the Govt.ITI at Ashti near Amravati in Maharashtra adopted by KEC International, Nagpur. As per DG (E and T) at present there are 1896 ITIs capable of providing training to 4.03 lakh persons and 3,566 industrial training centers with a capacity to train 3.82 lakh persons besides the apprenticeship training scheme through which about 2.53 lakh people are provided training. In order to meet the skilled manpower requirement of the Power Sector, DG(E and T) has suggested (a) upgradation of ITIs, (b) establishment of new ITIs and ITCs in ITI-short states (the cost of establishing a new ITI is estimated to be about Rs. 5 crores, of which 25 per cent cost can be borne by the Government), (c) engaging apprentices, (d) providing entrepreneurship training by the organizations in Power Sector and (e) by utilizing the existing ITIs in two or three shift operation. As per DG (E and T), presently the curriculum has been finalized for about 110 trades, and if Power Sector required additional trades, curriculum can be decided by a committee of experts including experts from the industry. As per DG (E and T), out of 1896 ITIs in the Government sector, 500 were taken up for development as centres of excellence during 2005-06, of which 100 were funded from domestic sources and 400 through World Bank aid. Remaining 1396 ITIs were to be upgraded through public-private partnership at the rate of 300 ITIs per year starting from 2007-08. The following are the features of the proposed public-private partnership scheme for upgradation of ITIs: •

An industrialist selected by an apex body of industry and State Government can be an associate partner of the ITIs.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

ITI will have an Institute Management Committee (IMC) consisting of 11 members-5 from industry and 6 from the Government with the Principal of the ITI as Member Secretary of the IMC. Interest free Loan of Rs. 2.5 crores with a moratorium period of 10 years shall be available to the IMC. The loan shall be repaid in equal installments over a period of 15 years thereafter. Out of the loan available, up to 25 per cent can be utilized for building civil infrastructure and up to 50 per cent could be deposited in banks to earn interest and the additional funds so generated could be utilized for upgradation of ITIs. A Memorandum of Agreement shall be signed among the industry partner, State Government and the Central Government. IMC shall be registered as a Society i.e. to make it an autonomous body with no interference from State Government IMC shall prepare plans for development of the ITI and submit the same to the State Government Industry partner shall contribute to the ITI by way of providing machines, tools and faculty etc. Industry partner will guide the upgradation of ITI whereas running expenses shall be borne by the State Government.

The key performance indicators for the ITI shall be as under: • • • • •

Number of applications received vs number of vacancies. Percentage dropout rate. Percentage pass-out rate. Placement percentage. Average income of pass out trainees’ placement.

113

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

Adoption of ITIs close to large project sites would allow the companies to both recruit local manpower and also create goodwill by providing employment opportunities to the project affected people. This is an excellent example of what the Government, the Industry and TEIs can do if they get together for improving the quality of technical education. The model can and should be extended to the undergraduate programs in Universities and their affiliated engineering colleges.

Modules of Employable Skills (MES) Scheme of the DGET, Govt. of India Recently DGET has introduced a module on “training of power transmission line construction workers”. It has a standardized curriculum to effectively train a large number of workers. Certification standards have been developed and implemented in order to ensure consistency in quality. These programs will allow multiple specialist training service providers to offer the courses to a wider cross-section as employmentoriented programs and prepare a steady pool of qualified manpower, thus taking the burden off the limited infrastructure available.

Capacity Building by Creation of New Infrastructure New training infrastructure may be created by •

•

• •

114

Providing incentives to existing training institutions in both the public and private sectors to conduct specific programs. Encouraging the private sector to set up new training infrastructure with attractive incentives such as land at concessional rates, grants and loans. Creating Centres of Excellence which can act as resource centres for other institutions. Introducing new applied programs in existing academic and industrial institutions.

Developing Models of Public Private Partnership (PPP) KEC International and POWERGRID (PGCIL) have taken up capacity building initiative for skill development in the country for power transmission projects with the help of transmission line construction contractors under Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode through a MOU signed in January 2011. Under this MOU, KEC takes care of providing state-of-the-art infrastructure, boarding, lodging, physical training on foundation work, erection, stringing, safety etc., at its training centre at Butibori, Nagpur. PGCIL provides Stipend of Rs 3000/per month to each trainee, travel expenses and faculty support. The course consists of 140 hrs of theory and 330 and hrs of practical training at site. Such training will mitigate the shortage of skilled manpower besides enhancing the employability of the trained persons and improving the quality of construction with safety without cost and time overruns. For achieving the ambitious targets of Indian Power Sector within the limited time schedules, augmenting the power transmission projects with quality and safety, availability of adequately trained and skilled manpower in the areas of Power Transmission Tower Erection and Stringing is very much essential as huge shortage in these areas has been estimated. In this model universities and other higher education institutes can take a leading role.

Academic Intervention in Engineering Programs at Graduate and Post-Graduate Level Major developments are taking place in the tertiary education system worldwide. There is a need to tap the potential of these trends for the development of human capital for Power Sector. Aspects to be covered may include university curriculum, practices for integrating various skills/competen-

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

cies (basic, applied and professional knowledge), relevance of corporate education concept, tacit and explicit knowledge available with different stakeholders and how that can be used for preparing professionally competent graduates, crucial and central position that the universities need to take, various systems of learning and their integration for developing the competencies (online learning, virtual learning, open distance learning,, outreach programs, corporate universities, community Colleges etc). While evolving the methodologies, it is important to take into account how faculty and students will get involved for their self development toward cultivating a more professional approach. Some strategies that can be adopted are given below: •

•

• •

Introducing electives at undergraduate level and treating the subject matter from what is required by Power Sector. Introducing new post graduate degrees with professional orientation in renewable energy, environment management and energy efficiency. Introducing sandwich courses for engineering graduates. R and D centres should be established in emerging areas like solar energy and smart grids.

•

•

There should be active cooperation among all stakeholders for achieving accelerated and sustained adoption of energy efficiency measures in all sectors. Universities should update their syllabi at regular intervals to keep pace with the rapid developments in technology. The following table illustrates how several items in University curricula lag well behind technological developments (See Table 3).

Bureau of Energy Efficiency The Government of India has set up a Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) (http://www.bee-india. nic.in) on 1st March 2002 under the provisions of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. The mission of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency is to assist in developing policies and strategies with a thrust on self-regulation and market principles, within the overall framework of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. The primary objective is to reduce energy intensity of the Indian economy. This is sought to be achieved with active participation of all stakeholders by the following means: •

Orientation programs for key decision makers.

Table 3. Typical examples of phase lag in undergraduate syllabi in electrical engineering and technological developments Item

Industry Standard Technology

Technology still taught in many academic institutions

Measurement

Digital Instrumentation

Electro-magnetic instrumentation

Protection

Numerical relays

Electro-magnetic relays

Starting and Speed Control of Electrical Machines

Power electronic drives

Rheostatic, Autotransformer and Star/ Delta etc

Lighting

LEDs

Incandescent, fluorescent and discharge lamps

Electronics

Embedded Systems and VLSI Chips

Circuits of individual components

Power Systems

Information Technology; Deregulated Systems; FACTS Controllers; SCADA System

--

115

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

• • •

Mass awareness campaigns reaching out to different consumer groups. Mandatory training for operators of energy intensive processes. Incorporating energy conservation measures in school and College curriculum.

C. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Higher education in India, in particular higher technical education, is at a cross roads at the present juncture. A perplexing and paradoxical situation exists that seems to defy resolution by the traditional methods. Several conflicting factors are at work here. The uncontrolled population explosion, much maligned due to the severe pressure it exerts on the limited resources, gives the unexpected benefit of a “population dividend”, with India slated soon to become the country with the largest number of able-bodied youth in the world. Full benefit of the population dividend can be reaped only if the educational facilities keep pace so that maximum number of competent and skilled persons can contribute to the country’s growing prosperity. Despite the phenomenal growth in higher educational facilities in the country since independence, India still has a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of less than 15%, one of the lowest in the world. Paradoxically the Indian Industry is unable to absorb even the limited number of engineers that the system is producing since 70 to 80% of the engineering graduates are “unemployable”. Obviously the need of the hour is to have “quantity with quality”, a rather tough ask, considering the ubiquitous constraint of limited financial and human resources available in the country. Considerable “out-of-the-box” thinking is required to address the problem and find workable solutions. A first step in the right direction was taken by the National Knowledge Commission under the Chairmanship of Sam Pitroda. Unfortunately, the plethora of higher education regulators and Gov-

116

ernment policy makers continue to use the same old methods and structures that have been found wanting in the present milieu. Worse still, we keep looking to the West and other developed countries to find solutions to our problems, without regard to the large social, cultural and psychological differences between those countries and India. Will further privatization and globalization of higher technical education bring in better quality? Or will it only lead to even more commercialization and unethical profit making? Is less regulation better or is it that even more rigorous regulation is required? Is it not necessary for the Industry to pitch in and participate in the quality enhancement drive by implementing innovative solutions and by pumping in a small fraction of their profits (say 5 to 6%) into the education system? These and many more are the moot questions that need to be debated and answered. What is clear is that the Government, the Industry, the academia and the general public have all to join together and find solutions that would work in our country. No single institution can assume the sole authority to tell the others what to do. Similarly no single institution can be held responsible for all the ills of the system either. Responsibility and accountability have to be shared equally among all the stakeholders if higher technical education has to survive this crisis and emerge with glory. In the present Chapter the issues involved have been briefly reviewed and several existing and emergent solutions are critically examined. The case of the Power Sector has been discussed at length to illustrate the points made. Because of its rapid industrialization, India would need to increase the installed capacity for power generation by almost five times over the next twenty years. This would necessitate the induction of several lakhs of technical, nontechnical, back-end and managerial manpower. All of them require to be properly trained for the job in accordance with the National Training Policy (NTP) for Power Sector brought out by the Government of India during 2002. It is estimated

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

that the planned capacity of Engineering Colleges, Polytechnics and ITIs would be adequate to supply the required manpower. However, the training infrastructure for Power Sector in the country is grossly inadequate and covers barely 23% of the requirement. The infrastructure available for refresher training and managerial training is much worse. Some of the solutions discussed in line with the NTP are: (1) Carrying out periodical Training Needs Analysis (say once in two years) for evolving an annual need-based training intervention agenda. (2) Conducting at least one long term Management Development Program (MDP) for middle and senior level officers while they make the transition from primarily engineering roles to managerial decision making roles. Some of the strategies suggested for developing Human Capital are as under: •

•

• •

•

Awareness creation and implementing the “Adopt-an-ITI” scheme initiated by the Ministry of Labor, Govt. of India. Spreading the message about the Modules of Employable Skills (MES)scheme of the DGET, Govt. of India. Capacity building by creation of new infrastructure. Academic intervention in engineering programs at undergraduate and post-graduate level. Active participation of all stakeholders, resulting in accelerated and sustained adoption of energy efficiency measures in all sectors.

•

•

biomass and bio-fuels, solar and wind resources to productively engage millions of trained people. Similarly with specialized training in demand side management, power trading, carbon credits, smart grids etc., a large number of people may be employed. Promote various measures aimed at energy efficiency and conservation. These would include information dissemination on use of energy efficient processes, equipment, devices and systems; training of personnel and specialists; promoting research and development; strengthening consultancy services; developing testing and certification procedures and testing facilities; innovative financing of institutions for developing training infrastructure; preparing educational curriculum for implementation in schools and colleges; implementing international co-operation programs.

REFERENCES AUCC. (2001). Joint declaration on higher education and GATS. Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, September 2001. Biswas, G., Chopra, K. L., Jha, C. S., & Singh, D. V. (2010). Profile of engineering education in India – Status, concerns and recommendations. Study commissioned by Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE). Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, October 2010.

Finally the following recommendations are made for the strategies to be successful and for development of the Indian Power Sector:

CEA. (2009). Monthly review of power sector (September 2009). Retrieved 6th November 2011 from http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/annual_rep/2009-10/ar_09_10.pdf

•

CEA. (2010). Monthly review of power sector (January 2010). Retrieved 6th November2011from http://www.cea.nic.in/executive_summary.html

•

Need for developing human capital for the Power Sector must be disseminated at all levels Appropriate specialized knowledge must be provided for harnessing small hydro,

117

Preparing Engineering Graduates for Corporate Enterprises

Ernst and Young. (2008). Globalizing Higher Education in India – EDGE 2008 Report FICCI. (2007). Innovation for quality and relevance. The Higher Education Summit 2007, New Delhi, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry. FICCI. (2009). Survey jointly carried out by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and the World Bank. Indo Asian News Service. Retrieved from http://news. in.msn.com/national/ Gaardhoje, J. J., Hansen, J. A., & Thustrup, E. W. (Eds.). (2005). Capacity building in higher education and research on a global scale. Proceedings of the International Workshop on ‘How Can Manpower Needs in Knowledge Based Economies be Satisfied in a Balanced Way, May 17-18, 2005, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen, Published by The Danish National Commission for UNESCO, Denmark. Jacobs, G. (2002). Employment generation in agriculture, wasteland development, afforestation & agro-industries. Manpower Journal, 38. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Shashidhara Prasad, J., & Nair, P. R. R. (2011). Corporate education in natural sciences: A professional approach for universities. Current Science, 101(11), 1421–1424. National Solar Mission. (2009). Details. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www.pluggd.in/ national-solar-mission-india-details-297/ Planning Commission. (2006). Integrated energy policy- Report of Expert Committee (2006). Retrieved 6th November, 2011, from planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdf

118

Planning Commission. (2012). Approach document to 12th five year plan. Retrieved from planningcommission.nic.in/plans/comments/inter.htm Planning Commission. (2007-11). Documents related to 11th five year plan. Retrieved from planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/11thf.htm Report of the National Knowledge Commission. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.knowledgecommission.gov.in/ Sharma, S. K., & Bhardwaj, V. (2007). Employment generation through small hydro projects in the Himalayan states. Paper presented at the International Conference on Small HydropowerHydro Sri Lanka, 22-24 October 2007. The Hindu. (2012, 28 May). The corporate view. The Hindu, Education Supplement. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.comtodays-papertpfeaturestp-educationplusarticle3463341.ece The Per Capita Electricity Consumption-UN Statistics. (n.d.). Wikipedia. Retrieved 7th November, 2011, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India Working Group on Power for Eleventh Plan. (February 2007). Planning Commission. Retrieved 6th November 2011, from planningcommission. nic.in/about us/committee/.../wg11_power.pdf Yashpal. (2009). Report of the Committee on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education, University Grants Commission, New Delhi. Retrieved July 11, 2009, from http://www.education.nic.in/

119

Chapter 9

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India: Bridging the Academia-Industry Divide C Kameswara Rao Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education, India Seetharam Annadana An Employee of a Multinational Agribiotech Company, India

ABSTRACT Modern biotechnology made an explosive entry about three decades ago, taking advantage of elegant and ingenious new protocols that promised very precise and highly refined products in every sector of the industry. However, the claims and hype generated were highly disproportionate to ground realities. Two fundamental errors contributed to this situation: a) treating biotechnology as single subject, to be taught from the first degree level itself, when modern biotechnology is a collaborative effort between and among experts of a dozen cognate disciplines, and b) the explosion of teaching shops pretending to impart education, without properly trained faculty and appropriate and adequate laboratory and library facilities, with the acquiescence of university administration and the governments, which created a chasm between the poor manpower generated and sophisticated needs of the industry, with an enormous campus intake compounding the damage. This resulted in an anomalous situation peculiar to India. This chapter examines the problems and possible remedial measures, in order to deliver to the society in times to come, the full benefits of the myriad developments in modern biotechnology.

1. INTRODUCTION Amidst an array of definitions of biotechnology, a more widely adopted one is ‘the use of organisms and/or their products on the large industrial scale to provide goods and services’ to the society, in the

agricultural, medical, environmental and industrial fields (Kameswara Rao, 2000). Biotechnology in itself is over six millennia old with numerous and diverse uses of organisms or their products in every sphere of human life, more importantly food and medicine. Till the late 1980s biotech-

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch009

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

nology has handsomely served us providing with continuously improved products. The industry drew from the innovations from the contributions of the academic and research institutions in the public sector all the time, not overly complaining about the gap between the academic training and industry’s needs. This phase can be identified as ‘classical biotechnology’(CBT) (Kameswara Rao, 2010a). The current phase that emerged during the 1990s uses new elegant, ingenious, sophisticated, complex and but more precise modern methods of genetic engineering for product development, biosecurity evaluation1 and deployment, and provides an unprecedented diversity of goods and services. This phase constitutes ‘modern biotechnology’ (MBT) (Kameswara Rao, 2010a), which is only a small fraction of today’s biotechnology industry, which is still dominated by CBT. The application of a broad definition of biotechnology blurred the difference between CBT and MBT which is rooted in the protocols used, and this paved the way for a band wagon of players, immensely more from CBT than MBT. While the focus and benefits from the governments are rightly aimed at promoting MBT, the vast number of players in CBT hijacked the agenda and resources. MBT’s explosive entry nearly three decades ago, over-ignited the imagination of the governments, industry and the public as well. The Government of India (GoI) established the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in 1985, almost the first such government department in the world. The industry rushed to taking advantage of ingenious new protocols that delivered refined products, in the hope of unprecedented business opportunities. The public, parents and students erroneously drew a parallel with the already booming Information Technology (IT) ‘revolution’ that gave India a prominent international presence and the hope of unlimited opportunities for high paying jobs and overall development from MBT as realized from the IT.

120

The superscripted numbers refer to the Explanatory Notes given at the end of the chapter to help those readers who are not familiar with biotechnology and related issues. Benefitting from MBT needs competent teachers and infrastructure to produce adequate numbers of appropriately trained manpower to suit the diverse needs of the educational institutions, research and industrial establishments. MBT also requires precise and elaborate planning, enormous financial and time inputs, and purposeful and efficient management practices, to reach the goals and to realize the hope. In the 1990s the University Grants Commission (UGC) supported vocational under graduate (UG) courses in MBT in selected institutions throughout India. The successful candidates were expected to go into business, but failing that they came back for post-graduate (PG) education, a fundamental right that could not be denied, but which defeated the purpose of a vocational program. A number of Universities and colleges soon caught up and started both UG and PG courses in MBT, some of them being supported by the DBT. Over time the DBT has also introduced several schemes to promote research, entrepreneurship, business partnering, etc., in different areas of MBT, as detailed on DBT’s website. The GoI extended several benefits to encourage the MBT industry while the governments of most States have ended up in permitting a large number of glamorous teaching shops, though a few States have constituted Vision Groups and such other bodies to promote MBT. The private educational institutions saw a great opportunity to commercialize biotech education which resulted in an explosion of colleges particularly in the private sector, pretending to impart education at enormous financial and emotional costs to students, without properly trained faculty and appropriate and adequate laboratory and library facilities, with the acquiescence of university administration and/or the government.

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

Though huge donations and exorbitant fees were charged, barring a few honorable exceptions, the institutions did not shoulder their responsibility of providing qualified teaching staff, well equipped laboratories and library, other infrastructural facilities, and more importantly day-to-day running expenses. The net result of over two decades of hectic activity in MBT is a chasm between the poorly trained manpower generated and sophisticated needs of the industry, with an enormous campus intake compounding the damage. We have thousands of UG, PG and doctoral candidates with the stamp of MBT, but no expertise or skills needed either for teaching, research or the industry. Three decades of effort and enormous financial inputs have not seen even a single indigenously designed and developed product in the market. We have not even conscious of the mistakes we have committed, let alone implementing remedial measures. Though there are a few marketed MBT products largely based on imported technology, the hype created overshadowed the huge mismatch of aspirations, abilities and opportunities, which has hurt almost all stakeholders in a couple of decades. Students, their parents, educational institutions, government, and industrial establishments, all have their share in this misadventure. The importance of education in MBT was rightly recognized, but the academic institutions treated the issue as a business opportunity. MBT probably caused more business for the educational institutions than for the industry. The situation was worsened by the unprecedented opposition to the new technology from the political and other vested interests that hindered entrepreneur and employment opportunities which can accrue only from encouragement from the governments and acceptance of the technology by the society. The state of biotechnology education in India was reviewed in detail (Kameswara Rao, 2005), but this was largely ignored by all the concerned. Lakhotia (2008) discussed diverse issues and questioned the relevance of biotechnology degree

courses. Narasimha Rao (2009) examined the situation of biotechnology education and training and suggested the adoption of tertiary education models, such as open distance learning, internet, virtual Universities, franchise Universities, academic brokering, collaboration of Universities, consortiums and clusters and University outreach programs. While these suggestions are novel and quite useful, the paper did not focus on the peculiar Indian situation. Besides, even in district centers, adequate facilities for tertiary education models, which would involve heavy financial inputs and expertise, are largely absent. The immediate need for India is to take stock of the situation and put in place appropriate remedial measures, which is no mean task.

2. STATE OF EDUCATION IN MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY Basing on the inputs from students and teachers of biotechnology at a focused workshop, Kameswara Rao (2005) reviewed the state of biotechnology education and training in detail, pointing out the inappropriate conceptualization and imperfect execution of both the UG and PG courses, and the lack of opportunities for handson experience and post-degree training. Instead of remedying the deficiencies pointed out in the review to improve the situation, both the teachers and the managements of colleges were enraged. The following are the more serious constraints that stymied the development of MBT education and training in India: MBT is rooted in several different protocols, more particularly genetic engineering (GE), such as recombinant (rDNA or transgenic) technology2, cisgenics2, gene silencing3,, and others. The development of a product involves several protocols. For example, Golden Rice with transgenes (genes introduced from another organism) to synthesize β-carotene in the grain involved 71 patented protocols from about a dozen institu-

121

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

tions and over 30 scientists. What was ignored is that MBT is essentially a collaborative effort from diverse experts such as botanists, zoologists, breeders, pathologists, entomologists, physiologists, agronomists, microbiologists, biochemists, molecular biologists, geneticists, pharmaceutical scientists, nutritionists, software engineers, and regulatory and legal experts. All these experts are integral contributors from the genesis of ideas to product development to regulatory evaluation to commercialization. The needs of agricultural, medical, environmental and industrial technologies are different and specific, though with a baseline overlap. Over reach by some people with elementary exposure to areas biological sciences, such as basic training in tissue culture, a tool often indispensible in genetic engineering but which does not in itself constitute MBT itself, or those who have extracted DNA from tissues, led to making implausible claims to expertise in MBT. Application of complex algorithms to analyze genomes4 and other cell components opened up the area of bioinformatics, an extension of IT, which is an essential tool in analyzing, recombining, predicting in silico5 and designing new products based on new gene technologies. The major utility of bioinformatics is in data mining and in the ‘-omic’ series6 of analysis such as genomics, proteomics, glycomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics and others, which contribute to more precise analysis, designing of new products and to establish substantial equivalence7 between isogenics and their GE variants. Bioinformatics, an indispensible tool though, cannot be operative without enormous amounts of diverse basic biological data that often need to be generated contextually. Many run of the mill computer shops offer training in bioinformatics, based on free trial software that stops short of the essentials of effective training. Products of MBT are subject to a severe regulatory regime8 to ensure biosafety and environmental safety of the processes and products, which has

122

now become a contentious issue. MBT has also brought to the forefront controversial and legal issues such as Intellectual Property Rights (IPR). An agribiotech crop requires about US$ 136 million and takes about 12 to 15 years, from the idea to commercialization (James, 2011), and this estimate applies equally well to the products in the other streams. The financial and time costs of the regulatory regime are often more than the costs of development of a prototype product. Since several experts in diverse areas contribute to the development of products in MBT, and as none can function in isolation, MBT research teams are often comprised of over two dozen scientists of diverse expertise. In the context of teaching and research in MBT, a department/institution of biotechnology constituted of experts in different areas is understandable but not any single teacher/ scientist claiming to be a biotechnologist per se. Treating MBT as a single course subject to be taught from the first degree level itself, not as a collaborative effort among competent teachers from diverse disciplines, was the most serious error that hampered MBT education and training. The second major issue of mismanagement is the enormous intake flouting all norms in place for science subjects for decades. The clamor to make money in the name of MBT education led to mushrooming of private institutions offering UG and PG courses in MBT at enormous costs to the students. The Bangalore University alone has an annual intake capacity of 3,000 students in UG and 2000 in PG courses and added some 2,500 biotech seats out of 80,000 engineering seats in Karnataka, with a fair share for the Bangalore University area. The lecture classes have over 100 students, with over 40 students in the practical batches, not conducive to science teaching that needs individual attention to the students. 2.7. The multiple streams of courses supported by the UGC, DBT, All India Council for Technical Education (B.E., in MBT), run by Central, State and Deemed Universities and Autonomous Colleges, eroded parity in course content and teaching

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

standards, which are essential for quality teaching and mobility of students from one institution/ State/University to another. In IT, if a department acquired a set of computers and software it serves teaching purposes for several years. In MBT, besides expensive instrumentation, heavy financial inputs are continuously needed as each UG practical class costs around Rs. 3,000 and a PG practical class about Rs. 5,000. With the managements, including those of the Universities, being reluctant to provide these inputs, practical experience is largely nominal, affecting the student’s competence and employability. Initially, when the MBT departments were started, depending upon their influence with the management, either the botany or the zoology departments became biotechnology departments overnight, the same teachers teaching all areas of MBT. This practice was inevitable in the first few formative years, but continued all along. Only in a few institutions teachers qualified to teach genetics, microbiology, biochemistry or other subjects, are also involved. An impressive curriculum and syllabus9 largely taken from the internet, claimed to be international were in place, but without a reasonable uniformity among the institutions. Since the teachers themselves had no exposure to the subjects they teach, translating the syllabus into knowledge was seriously affected in most of the institutions. In many institutions including Universities, courses in MBT and other attractive areas such a molecular biology, are ‘self-financed’10 (by students). The courses are mostly run by ‘guest faculty’11, many of who teach in several institutions during the day. Almost everywhere, the deplorable practice of private coaching shops has taken ground, which do not help the students much, since the same teachers who teach in the institutions also run these tuition classes charging heavily. This situation was worsened by the numerous bazaar guides, often called text books and question banks, written by the same inadequate teachers.

There is no academic or performance audit of biotech departments. The inspection committees of the Universities themselves are suspect as most of them have approved introduction of courses or increase of intake year after year, when there are serious grounds for rejecting such applications. Even when the committees rejected proposals, the managements got what they wanted, with the connivance of the University administration and/ or the Government. The once in five year exercise of the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) of rating the Universities and colleges is of no consequence to MBT teaching, as whole institutions are rated by NAAC, not even the departments, let alone the courses. The annual exercise of the Biospectrum magazine of ranking biotech institutions in the country often gave dismaying rankings. In a survey that includes biotech departments of both well established universities and moffusil colleges, naturally the former will stand out. Education and training offered in MBT by most of the formal institutions is inappropriate and inadequate to serve the needs of the industry. Some courses/departments supported by the UGC and the DBT are marginally better, but acquired an air of pseudo-superiority. This does not mean that there are no competent institutions in MBT or its cognate areas, but that no single Indian teaching, training or research institution can claim to be of world class. In the recent QS World University Rankings released in September 2012 (QSWUR, 2012), the best of the Indian institutions (Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi) is found at the 212th position, although some Indian institutions may be rated higher in some specialized areas. All our institutions need to put their house in order to be globally competitive and to serve the needs of the industry and the country. In consequence of all these factors, barring a few honorable exceptions, the system became so suspect that leading biotech companies inserted riders in advertisements that candidates from particular Universities need not apply.

123

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

The other issue that seriously threatens the future of educational standards in India is related to the competence of 15 year-old students in elementary schools in mathematics and science. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a program of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris (OECD), conducted by The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER). In December 2011 the ACER released the PISA 2009+ report covering 74 countries from 10 economies (ACER, 2011). The Government of India accepted to participate in PISA, but at the end only Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh were in it. Students from both the States are at the bottom of the list of the 74 countries assessed. There are no reasons to believe that the other Indian States are much better than these two. If the school education in the country is not tightened India’s global standing in higher education is bound to suffer. Another serious consequence of the clamor for MBT education is that it has severely curtailed intake into the basic sciences of botany and zoology at both UG and PG levels. Over enthusiasm for saleable science led to such ill advised combinations as biotechnology, microbiology and genetics, at the UG level, ignoring the huge overlap of these subject areas, that gives an unfair advantage to the students over those of the other combinations. More damaging to the knowledge base of the students of this combination is the absence of chemistry from the course. Over specialization at the UG level forecloses options for the students early. They are better off with basic biological science subjects along with chemistry at the UG which provides them a choice for any biological science subject at the PG level and later on. With proficiency in any of the component areas, one can get into MBT at any time in the career. The governments of several States have not recognized candidates with M.Sc., degree in biotechnology as qualified to teach courses in basic biological sciences. So those biotechnology PG

124

candidates who could not get jobs to teach biotechnology or in the industry, are now doing PG courses in botany, zoology or microbiology, in the hope of enhancing their job opportunities. BE graduates in biotechnology are better off as about 40 per cent of them have been absorbed by the software industry (Suresh, 2012). Biotechnology does not seem to be a part of campus recruitment even in the engineering colleges, putting the candidates at a disadvantage. Conscious of this disturbing situation, the Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education, Bangalore (FBAE), appealed to various authorities throughout the country for years, to improve the situation, but to no avail. The FBAE worked with the DBT for a National Council for Biotechnology Education and Training (NCBET), on the lines of the All India Council for Technical Education, the Medical Council of India and other such national statutory bodies. The proposal for the NCBET to formulate model UG and PG curricula in life sciences and in translational science keeping in view the future needs, was included in the 11th Five Year Plan report on Science and Technology (Government of India, 2006, p 149), but nothing further seems to have happened in this regard.

3. POST-DEGREE TRAINING IN MBT Even in the best of times, a raw PG candidate is hardly employable by the industry. The employability of a candidate would certainly be enhanced with some hands on experience in the industry, during and after formal education. In the vocational UG courses of the UGC, a short period of mandatory training in the industry was included and the industry enthusiastically provided facilities in the initial years. With intake exploding, the industry could not entertain the vast numbers of UG and then the PG students seeking training, though some companies still provide training op-

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

portunities. Many institutions silently dropped the provision of practical training, without changing regulations first. Presently, co-curricular training is hardly the norm. Nevertheless, there are several institutions offering post-degree training courses in MBT, barely any one of them satisfactory, since the candidates are not assured of recognition, as these are outside the formal system. A few examples illustrate the general pattern: 1. Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Bangalore, offers postdegree diploma courses and training in bioinformatics and biotechnology, as well as in entrepreneurship. IBAB also offers M.Sc., degree courses recognized by the Indira Gandhi National Open University and PG degree and Ph.D., programs recognized by the University of Manipal. Supported by the State Government and recognized as a centre of excellence by the Department of Information Technology, GoI, IBAB is projected as a premier institution of its kind. The opportunities IBAB can provide for hands on practical training, after biotechnology degree courses at other institutions, are very limited. 2. The Biotech Industrial Training Program is being run by the Biotech Consortium India Limited (BCIL), New Delhi, on behalf of the DBT for over 15 years. BCIL is only a facilitator between the trainees and training institutions, and not an institution itself. The program is expected to provide ‘an opportunity to biotech industry for training and selecting suitable manpower’. The industry’s response to this program does not seem to be all that encouraging, as the industry needs are more focused than what is offered and the recruits have to be retrained to fulfill the needs of different streams of MBT industry. 3. SHRM Biotechnologies Pvt., Ltd., Kolkata, recognized by the DBT, offers training in 10 diverse areas, which are no different from

those in the curriculum/syllabus of the formal degree courses. 4. Ten BT Finishing Schools are proposed by the Government of Karnataka, selected by the Association of Biotechnology Led Enterprises (ABLE), Bangalore, and the Karnataka Biotech Vision Group, constituted by the State Government. These schools require both ABLE’s recognition and accreditation from a recognized University. It is not clear why the former is needed when the latter is available. The proposal, which lacks in clarity and in the end may suffer from lack of credibility, is being widely promoted. 5. Bhat Bio-tech India (P) Ltd., Bangalore, offers training courses and projects to students in diverse, but very basic areas of MBT, which are covered under formal education system. This is a good effort by a company to utilize instrument idling time. Unless recognized under the formal system such courses deny the candidates recognition and credibility. It would enhance their competence if the teachers of biotechnology also undergo such training. A training program started by one of us (SRA) under certification by the Wageningen University did not survive for long, as both the managements of educational institutions and the teachers were reluctant to bear the moderate participatory costs of this program. Efforts to put in place efficient and appropriate training programs will bear fruit only if the administrative and academic management of the training institution takes up an active involved role in formulating the program and in carrying it out diligently. One such example is the Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, Claremont, USA, (Schuster, 2012), where about 75 members of the Board of Trustees and the Advisory Council are actively involved in different phases of the program.

125

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

4. NEEDS OF THE MBT INDUSTRY The biotech industry needs to draw a position paper on its requirements from the educational system and on what it can do to enhance training opportunities. A proforma, suggested by Dr Shyam Suryanarayanan of ABLE (personal communication), to gather information on the industry’s needs is given in Annexure I. This information will help in designing courses and training programs in different streams of MBT, which will be more purposeful because of the active participation of the industry.

5. CARRYING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT STREAMS OF MBT The ‘carrying capacity’ of an industry depends upon the quality of appropriate education and training, technological competence of the personnel employed by the industry, and the resources it has to meet with the developmental challenges, but is limited by the need and demand for products in the long term, both within the country and outside. State-of-the-art technological competence and enhanced financial and material inputs and effective management practices are all essential to enlarge the carrying capacity. Expansion of the carrying capacity is possible only when all the component factors are favorable. Numerous reports that frequently appear indicate that biotechnology has an immense indigenous and export market potential. This is at the heart of the clamor of everyone to get into MBT, but only resulted in an enormous hype. The blanket application of the term ‘biotech industry’ is misleading since it does not distinguish between the classical and modern biotechnologies. Currently biotech industry is a bandwagon pining for the incentives and concessions offered by the governments to encourage MBT. If the MBT industry has been doing as well as it is projected, it has been doing so with the existing expertise and

126

manpower, and so its need for new contingents of skilled personnel is rather limited. It was estimated that biotech industry recruits about 4,000 freshers every year, while the national output is close to 20,000 (Suresh, 2012). While we believe that this estimate of output is fairly low, the recruitment volume is an indicator of the carrying capacity of the industry. Girl students constitute over 60 per cent of biotech enrolment, but the majority of them opt out of a career in preference to ‘home engineering’ mostly under family compulsions, thus considerably reducing the pressure on the job market. In India, agriculture and pharmaceutical sectors are more visible than industrial and environmental sectors. Of about 40 companies in agricultural biotechnology, only five or six are involved in R & D. Even these are functioning using imported gene constructs and the rest are ‘back crossing artists’ who use sub-licensed gene constructs and protocols to genetically transform their own varieties. In the pharmaceutical sector, not even 10 per cent of the companies are into R & D that involves modern genetic engineering protocols. Most function on the basis of imported gene constructs and protocols or age old technologies. Basically the industry’s potential for innovation and product development is fairly low, but the pretentions are very high. After three decades and a lot of expenditure, there is not even a single indigenously designed and developed MBT product on the market. Such a situation indicates that importing technology is both economical and time saving in the long run. This does not mean that innovation and product development are beyond the public and private sector scientists and industry. The private biotech industry actually has more competent scientific force and infrastructural facilities, than most of the public sector establishments. By and large, it appears that the carrying capacity of the Indian MBT industry is a matter for concern. Nevertheless, a whole lot of effort in every aspect of producing competent scientific workforce to promote industrial R & D in MBT

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

is urgently needed to cater to the future needs. The current political climate, with an over powering anti-tech activism that politicizes scientific decisions on clinical trials, field trials and commercialization, does not augur well for MBT. The industry needs to play an active role to change this situation, but the industry has not shown itself to be a serious player, surviving on false promises and wishing the problems away. So long as this situation remains, no amount of effort and expense to improve on education, training and competence will bear results.

6. INNOVATION, ENTREPRENEURSHIP, AND MANAGEMENT Innovation cannot be taught but case studies of technological innovation such as the transgenic technology2, gene silencing3, gene stacking12,, etc., or product innovation such as human insulin produced by transgenic E. coli and Golden Rice with transgenes for β-carotene, and others, serve as illustrative examples and role models The process of innovation requires an evaluation of the current situation and vision to identify the more pressing problems of the society, to design appropriate scientific solutions using improved protocols to develop better products. Innovation is what everyone clamors for but only very few can realize it. Rwigema and Venter (2004) defined entrepreneurship as the ‘process of conceptualizing, organizing, launching and through innovation, nurturing business opportunity into a potentially high growth venture in a complex, unstable environment’. The creation of new business activities is a major driver in the economy and greatly influences economic growth, job creation and general prosperity (Nicolaides, 2011). To an extent, this enhances the national competitiveness in the global

business arena. Nicolaides (2011) reviewed these issues in the context of South Africa, many of which are equally relevant to the Indian situation. Entrepreneurship too cannot be taught, but can only be guided by molding the thought process to identify opportunities and to strive to take them to fruition. There are a handful of successful MBT companies to serve as role models in India, but by and large Indian situation does not seem to be conducive to promote entrepreneurship. The Indian academia, industry and the government need to review the position to identify negative factors and influences, to remedy the situation, and this requires an enormous effort and serious commitment on the part of all the players. The DBT has launched several programs to encourage entrepreneurial activity, but without man power with appropriate scientific and technical competence, this is putting the cart before the horse. A successful entrepreneurship essentially needs top-notch education and training (Nicolaides, 2011), the absence of which is a serious constraint to industrial expansion. The Indian ‘revolution’ in MBT education and training failed to deliver. Since the formal educational system can no longer provide for a lifelong career, we essentially and urgently need other interventions to improve the situation. Several websites such as the Biotech Boulevard of Genetic Engineering and Biotech News magazine (GEN, August, 2012) publicize new biotech firms developing breakthrough products around the world, which should serve as sources of inspiration. Management skills are essential at different stages of MBT, from the genesis of an idea, through development, regulation and commercialization. A single management package for all the streams of MBT does not work. The need for different models for different streams/technologies was highlighted in the context of algal biotechnologies (Narasimha Rao et al., 2012).

127

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

7. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP IN MBT

8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The private sector has been playing a very crucial role in MBT throughout the world. The successes in agricultural and pharmaceutical MBT, such as bacterial human insulin, hybrids of Bt cotton and Bt brinjal, came from the private sector. If Bt cotton were not introduced a decade ago by the private sector, India would not have had even a single commercialized agribiotech crop even today. Development of Bt brinjal varieties and Golden Rice in the public sector institutions in India was made possible through international cooperation by way of cost free transfer of technology developed in the private sector. Unfortunately, by and large, the public sector failed to deliver. It is widely believed that a PPP would greatly help Indian MBT. Varieties of Bt brinjal and Golden Rice are both languishing to see the light of the day due to inept handling by the government and public sector establishments (Kameswara Rao, 2010b). If the past experience from these products is an indicator, there is little scope for PPP, which would work only when both the partners contribute adequately in terms of expertise, infrastructural facilities, time and financial inputs. The private sector, particularly the MNCs, have the state-of-the-art technological infrastructure, very competent scientific force, financial strength, sense of time, a determination to produce, and a fiscal responsibility, while the public sector largely lacks in most of these important pre-requisites for success. For PPP to be productive and benefit the private sector partner as well and just not draw from it, a lot of committed effort is needed on the part of the government and Indian public sector scientific institutions. The current political climate and attitudes in India are not conducive to successful PPP. This has a serious bearing on opening up new entrepreneurship opportunities and product development, both needing appropriate education and training.

India is now a decade behind the rest of the world in deriving benefits from MBT. There is evidently an infrastructure and management crisis in education and training in MBT which endangers future growth in terms of manpower generation, industrial development and services, which need to be addressed without further delay. The following conclusions and recommendations are expected to largely remedy the situation: The UG course in MBT should be discontinued, encouraging UG courses with botany or zoology with microbiology and chemistry. These combinations provide an adequate background in genetics, molecular biology and biochemistry, preparing the candidates for PG courses in MBT. Lakhotia (2008) also suggested that all school and UG stand-alone programs in biotechnology and bioinformatics should be stopped. The current PG programs in a great majority of institutions are only glorified UG programs. It is necessary to realize that the PG programs are essentially specialist in nature and large numbers of institutions and huge intake in each will only undermine the quality. The PG courses in MBT should be restricted to a dozen institutions in each State. Discontinuing UG courses and reducing intake into PG courses would not be difficult as in the face of lean job opportunities, enrolment into biotech courses already started declining during the past four or five years. There was a drop of about 11 per cent in enrolment, bringing down revenue of the educational institutions to Rs. 1,020 crore last year from Rs. 1,150 crore earlier (Suresh, 2012). This should worry only the private educational institutions which have milked the system for over one and a half decades. Encourage PG courses in botany, zoology, microbiology, genetics and biochemistry. Lakhotia (2008) also suggested the revival of PG programs in biotechnology related disciplines and to make

128

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

them integrative, to provide a more holistic biology education that stimulates the students to ask deeper questions. The Universities and other management bodies under whose aegis educational institutions function should draw lists of mandatory equipment and library books to be provided by the institutions for each course. Several institutions offering courses in biological sciences in a particular city/town should be networked to share teaching and training facilities in diverse areas, avoiding duplication and/or wastage of resources. Although thousands of management graduates are turned out each year, some with a focus on biotechnology, post-degree training in management of all aspects of MBT is important to serve the needs of the diverse streams of the industry. Entrepreneurship and management skills, for which an appropriate technological background is needed, should be a part of post-degree training programs to introduce awareness of the issues. The curriculum and syllabus for PG courses should be drawn in consultation with the industry. As we are now uncertain of the industry’s requirements, data need to be gathered as detailed in Annexure I. Separate academic, infrastructural and performance audit, both in-house and by external agencies, is essential for all the educational institutions and training centers in MBT. The audit reports should be placed in the public domain so that the students and parents would be aware of the preferable institutions. It is very important that an independent statutory body, such as the National Council for Biotechnology Education and Training (NCBET), which the DBT has already recommended to the government, is put in place to monitor and regulate biotechnology education and training. A perennial complaint is the serious lack of linguistic and communication skills, more particularly when the candidates had their schooling in

regional languages. It is also essential to inculcate a culture of communication, in which the country as a whole is deficient. An auxiliary course to fill this lacuna, along with the training courses, is a desideratum. An internet and computer based student specific off–the-class teaching program in communication will go a long way. Multi-location e-learning classes could compensate for the short comings of the educational system, but computer and internet facilities need to be greatly enhanced. While e-learning is beneficial in a way, teaching science subjects particularly MBT, without personal interaction between the teachers and the taught, has its own shortcomings. It is necessary that the degree programs are well resourced and made strong to produce measurable results for the industry, before expanding online programs. Instrumentation, computer and internet facilities are now suboptimal even in district centers. There is a great need for several central instrumentation centers in each State to provide training in instrumentation, to support project work and to provide paid facilities for research, so that work can be outsourced instead of duplicating expensive facilities whose optimal use is rarely achieved. An inventory of instrumentation facilities now available in various institutions is needed in order to put them to an efficient use and plan new instrumentation centers. The industry should provide facilities for short co-curricular training in the PG courses. Well structured and organized post-degree training programs are needed and these should be recognized under the formal system in the interests of the candidates. The following are some notable examples in this regard: 1. The Michigan State University and Iowa State University (USA) conduct one to twoweek training programs in different aspects of agricultural biotechnology and related areas, such as biosafety1, food safety, mo-

129

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

lecular plant breeding13, agroecology14 and Integrated Pest Management15, biofuels16 and bioenergy17, , and science and technology of communication. 2. The Institute of Plant Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium, offers specialized summer courses in agricultural biotechnology. 3. The Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, Claremont, USA, offers not only training programs, but also a post-doctoral professional Masters degree program (PPM) in bioscience management designed to educate in soft and hard skills needed in industry (Schuster, 2012). Such courses in all streams of MBT would go a long way in bridging the gap between academic and practical training and the industry’s needs. The need for technology/stream based approach was highlighted by Narasimha Rao et al., (2012) in the context of algal biotechnologies. The post-degree training programs should be run by the national research institutions such as the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, the National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Universities or other recognized centers, to ensure standards, credibility and recognition. Funding the institutions and financially supporting deserving participants is a critical issue. The industry’s contribution to improving education and training is the not so apparent component of corporate social responsibility (CRS). Credible and visible CRS programs which directly benefit communities would soften the negative public sentiment against the corporate sector. Technology and products are developed for public use. Without public confidence in the efficacy, safety and benefits of the products to the farmers and consumers, all efforts will go a waste and the agenda would be hijacked by the activists. Though the Universities can play a role in reach-

130

ing out to the society on promising technologies like algal biotechnology (Narasimha Rao et al., 2012), it is for the industry and the governments to be more visible and responsible players in public outreach.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors thank Dr Shyam Suryanarayanan, ABLE, Bangalore, for providing Annexure I.

REFERENCES ACER. (2011, December 16). Programme for international student assessment 2009+. Australian Council for Educational Research, Camberwell. Retrieved October 3, 2012, from http://www.acer. edu.au/media/acer-releases-results-of-pisa-2009participant-economies/ GEN. (2012, August). Biotech boulevard. Genetic Engineering and Biotech News. Retrieved August 12, 2012, from http://www.genengnews. com/biotechblvd/ Government of India. (2006). Report of the steering committee on science and technology for eleventh five year plan (2007-12) (p. 149). New Delhi, India: Planning Commission. James, C. (2011). Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops: 2011. ISAAA Brief No. 43. Ithaca, NY: ISAAA. Kameswara Rao, C. (2000). Database of medicinal plants (p. 458). Bangalore: Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka. Kameswara Rao, C. (2009). The state of biotechnology education. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from http://fbae.org/2009/FBAE/website/specialtopics_biotech_education_the_state_of_biotechnology_education.html

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

Kameswara Rao, C. (2010a). Botany, palynology and modern agricultural biotechnology. Journal of Palynology, 46, 145–164.

ENDNOTES 1.



2.



Kameswara Rao, C. (2010b). Moratorium on Bt brinjal. A review of the order of the Minister of Environment and Forests, Government of India (p. 70). Bangalore, Italy: Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education. Retrieved July 31, 2012, from http://www.whybiotech.com/ resources/tps/Moratorium_on_Bt_Brinjal.pdf Lakhotia, S. C. (2008). Are biotechnology degree courses relevant? Current Opinions in Science, 94, 1244–1245. Narasimha Rao, B. P. R. (2009). Need for new trends in biotechnology education and training. Asian Biotechnology and Development Review, 11, 89–114. Narasimha Rao, B. P. R., Anand, N., Vidyashankar, S., & Sharada, R. (2012). Algal technologies and challenges to universities: New approaches to reach out to society. Asian Biotechnology and Development Review, 14, 19–38. Nicolaides, A. (2011). Entrepreneurship-- The role of higher education in South Africa. [from http://www.interesjournals.org/ER]. Educational Research, 2, 1043–1050. Retrieved July 15, 2012 QSWUR. (2012). QS world university rankings. Retrieved October 3, 2012, from http://www. topuniversities.com/university-rankings/worlduniversity-rankings/2012 Rwigema, R., & Venter, R. (2004). Advanced entrepreneurship. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press. Schuster, S. M. (2012). The supply of postdocs. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 40, 159–160. doi:10.1002/bmb.20608 Suresh, N. (2012, August). The emerging trends in India’s biotech education system. Biospectrum, p. 9.



Biosecurity evaluation involves assessing the safety of the new products, in addition to their projected efficacy, for a) safety in consumption as food, feed and medicine, b) safety to the environment such as non-target organisms (bees, butterflies, birds, predatory organisms, etc.), and c) safety of water and soil, for which every country, including India, has a mandatory regulatory regime (see No. 8, below). Recombinant (r-DNA) or transgenic technology involves the insertion of genes from any organism into the genome (see No. 4, below) of any other organism, which was not possible earlier on account of serious genetic differences between the two organisms. Transgenic technology made it possible to insert genes for human insulin into bacteria so that the new transgenic bacteria synthesize human insulin, which is far more efficient and safer than the earlier products where insulin was extracted from cow and/ or pig pancreas for injection into the human body. On account of genetic differences between the human and bovine or porcine insulin biosynthetic systems, there are frequent complications. Bt cotton, Bt corn and Bt brinjal are examples of transgenics developed for pest tolerance using pesticidal genes from the universally occurring soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. Golden Rice contains genes for β-carotene which is used by our bodies to synthesize vitamin A, an ingenious means of ameliorating vitamin A deficiency which is a serious problem, more particularly in children. Cisgenics differ from transgenics in that the former are developed by transferring genes from a genetically related organism, such as a variety of particular crop and so are less controversial.

131

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

3.

4.





132

A gene is expressing when it facilitates the synthesis one of several thousands of proteins in organisms. Gene silencing involves the suppression of expression of selected genes and is a useful tool in preventing the expression of undesirable traits. Coffee without caffeine and a ‘tearless’ onion which does not synthesize the chemical compounds that cause the eyes to water while chopping onions, are some examples of products developed through gene silencing. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material in most organisms, and ribonucleic acid (RNA) in some viruses. Specific sequences of the components of DNA and RNA, called nucleotides, constitute and function as the genes. DNA is packaged in the chromosomes. Most organisms have two sets of genes in two identical sets of chromosomes. The genome is one set of the sum total of all nucleotides in specific sequences and so all genes, of an organism at the species level, and includes genes from all varieties of that species. The genomes in terms of a) sequence and the total number of nucleotides in the genetic material, b) the number of genes and c) the number of chromosomes, vary from organism to organism. The genomes of a number of organisms including man have been unraveled through very complex and expensive protocols. The physical size of the organism or a higher status in the evolutionary scale, is not an indication of the number of genes. The tiny water flea (Daphnia pulex) has the largest number of genes (31,000) so far known in any organism. Some examples of known genomes are: man (23,000 genes), mouse (23,000), dog (19,300), chicken (16.736), grapes (30,450), yeast (6,000) and the common intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli (3,200). Usually, related species, and sometimes even unrelated species (such as humans and their intestinal parasites),

5.



6.



share the same genes on account of similar biological processes and/or evolutionary relationships. Genome data are a very important tool in MBT, helping the choice of genes for developing novel products. Biological investigations are conventionally conducted both outside the living systems in the laboratory glassware (in vitro) and/or in the living systems (in vivo). This involves a lot of time and money before a product design is finalized, often with high failure rates. The availability of extensive biological data and bioinformatic packages makes it now possible to conduct a lot of product design work using computers simulating living models, with high predictive value. Operations performed through computer simulation are described as ‘in silico’, in reference to the silicon chips (crystals of silicon semiconductors designed to carry out electronic functions) in computer integrated circuits. This approach saves a very considerable amount of time and money during product designing, more particularly in drug design. The use of the suffix ‘-omics’ to denote areas of study is not new (e.g. Economics), but in recent times bioinformatics and molecular biology have adopted it for a wide range of analytical methods. Some common examples are, a) Genomics (the study of genomes, with several subareas such as cognitive, comparative, functional, personal, etc.), b) Proteomics (analysis of the entire complement of proteins in an organism, with subareas of structural, functional, immunological, nutritional, etc.), c) Glycomics (study of the carbohydrate profiles), d) Metabolomics (chemical fingerprinting of residual small molecules), and e) Metabonomics (metabolic responses to pathophysiological stimuli or genetic modification). Transcriptomics, the study of the set of all RNA molecules, is actually a part of genomics.

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India





7.

8.





The-omic protocols are complex and sophisticated. They require technical expertise, extensive instrumentation and heavy time and financial inputs. They are by no means routine studies. Some of them, but not all of them in any given case, are useful in establishing substantial equivalence (see No. 7, below) and safety of the new products and so should be employed on a case by case basis, if other safety evaluations warrant the need for any study in the –omic series. In general, a history of safe use of the isogenic and the absence of any adverse effects of the inserted/altered genes is adequate to consider GE products as safe as their isogenics. The demand of the activists that every GE product should be subjected to all the different –omic analyses is in fact comic, as there is no scientific basis for doing so and it is wholly unnecessary and wasteful in terms of both time and money. Substantial equivalence is a measure of identity of chemical compounds between a genetically engineered organism such as a transgenic and its parent variety (isogenic) and so is a measure of safety. Different parameters of analysis of the isogenic and its transgenic are needed to show that the transgenic is ‘substantially equivalent’ to its isogenic in terms of nutritional (or other) quality and safety when consumed. All genetically engineered products are subject to strict regulatory regime, for product efficacy and safety, unlike the conventional products. The Indian regulatory system is elaborate and more rigid than that of most other countries. The current regulatory structure is composed of four competent authorities with the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) as the apex statutory body, mandated to approve GE products for field trials and commercial release. The GoI has now tabled in the Parliament a new Act to constitute the ‘Biotechnology Regulatory

9.



10.



Authority of India’ (BRAI) providing for a three stream (agricultural, medical and industrial) regulatory structure, in a single window clearance mode for each. The GEAC was severely criticized by the activists who wanted a new system to replace it, but are now equally vehement against BRAI. The BRAI is aimed to smoothen some of the rough edges inherent in the present system and the draft Bill underwent a lengthy process of consultation and discussion. In India very few people differentiate between curriculum and syllabus, and use the two terms interchangeably. Curriculum is a course of study in a school or college and a core curriculum is the subjects a student is obliged to study. Syllabus is the abstract program of topics and subtopics to be taught in a subject. The syllabus of a particular course may vary from institution to institution but not significantly. Our educational system is based in the concept of ‘taught courses’ and so a competent teacher is essential for its success. Barring the students with scholarships or fee concessions, all students pay for their education, (but subsidized fee in public sector institutions) and so have been in the self financing mode all the time. With the governments becoming serious in curtailing capitation fee and heavy donations, the term ‘self financing courses’ has come to be used as a respectable label for the practice of students paying heavy amounts to join apparently attractive courses of study and share the costs. This unhealthy practice which makes education available only to the rich was started in the private institutions but now most Universities run self financing courses. At least 10 students are needed in a PG class to provide an atmosphere of academic and social interaction among the students. Besides, a class of less than 10 students is financially unviable. It is bet-

133

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

11.





12.



134

ter that all self financing PG courses with less than 10 students are discontinued, also because the volume of intake speaks of the popularity of the courses offered. ‘Guest Faculty’ is a euphemism for ‘hourly labor’. Teachers are paid a fixed amount per hour of teaching work they do. Some institutions pay better than many others. These teachers are not given full time work and are not paid during holidays. Such ad hoc appointments are designed to spend less on salaries and to deny the teachers any rights for regular employment after some years of service. This undesirable practice, started by the private institutions, is now adopted by many Universities as well. As the money they get from any one institution is not adequate for their survival, these teachers may teach some hours in different colleges during the same week and/or work for the tuition shops. Inspection committees often discovered the same teachers listed in the attendance registers of more than one college. On the average three out of five teachers serve as guest faculty. Without full time and/ or permanent appointments, the institutions lose on commitment and loyalty from the majority of the teachers. The ‘Guest’ practice does not end with the faculty. With the connivance of suppliers (for a consideration) there have been instances of ‘guest equipment’ and ‘guest books’ brought to impress the inspection committees and removed after the inspection, to some other college on similar terms and for the same purpose. Most products of GE on the market contain only one transgene, for pest tolerance or herbicide tolerance or other traits. In India Bollgard I Bt cotton and Bt brinjal contain only one Bt gene, the Cry 1Ac. Gene stacking (gene pyramiding) involves transferring two or more genes into the same variety. Bollgard II of Bt cotton, that contains two genes, Cry

13.



14.



15.



1 Ac and Cry 2 Ab, is more popular with the Indian farmers as it offers far greater pest tolerance. A transgenic corn developed for nutritional enhancement contains five genes to provide for vitamins A, C and B9, in a single product. GenuitySmartStax corn containing eight stacked genes, six for pest tolerance and two for herbicide tolerance, is an intellectual feat. Molecular Plant Breeding (MPB) provides an integrative overview of issues from basic theories to their applications to crop improvement that include molecular marker technology, gene mapping, genetic transformation, quantitative genetics, and breeding methodology. MPB is projected as a safer and better alternative to GE technology, though transgenic technology also comes under it. Those technologies of MPB that do not involve GE would not attract regulatory oversight. Agroecology is the application of ecological principles in the management of agricultural ecosystems for the production of food, fuel, fiber, and pharmaceuticals. The term encompasses a broad range of approaches, and there is no unanimity in principles and practices even among its advocates. Agroecology, like organic farming, is the current favorite choice of the opponents over GE technology. Both agroecology and organic farming are packages of agricultural practices and not technologies per se, promoted more from an emotional platform rather than on a solid science base. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a package of diverse practices, both conventional and modern, to control the large number of pests and diseases of crops. IPM does not exclude crop GE or the judicious use of chemical inputs. It includes the use of biopesticides and cultivation practices that discourage pests and diseases. While transgenic technology focuses on one or two

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

16.









most important of pests or diseases of each crop, IPM simultaneously addresses several of them. Biofuels are derived from biomass (whole or parts of plant or animal bodies). Mined coal, natural gas and petroleum fuels are also biological in origin; they are ‘fossil fuels’ formed hundreds of millions of years ago and are not renewable. Wood, coal made by burning wood, dung cakes, crop waste, etc., in use as fuel for ages, are biological too. Consequently, the definition of the term biofules is not precise. Bioethanol is ethyl alcohol produced by fermenting the sugars in biomass from cereal crops such as corn, sugarcane, sugar beet, agricultural residues, etc. Bioethanol is used in automobiles either in pure form or more often as a gasoline additive (10 to 20 per cent) in the US and South America. Biodiesel is made by processing oil seeds, vegetable oils and other fats. Biodiesel also is used either in pure form or as an additive to petroleum-based diesel fuel. Specifically designed processing plants are needed to produce both bioethanol and biodiesel. Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter such as sewage and municipal wastes by bacteria. Biogas





17.



has been in use as domestic fuel and in the generation of hot water and electricity for several decades. The ‘first generation’ biofuels are derived from raw materials that may be used as food and so exert some pressure on arable land and food production. The ‘second generation’ biofuels also use plants or animals, but their production is more complex as it involves the use cultured organisms such as the algae (a group of mostly aquatic green plants, which are small and do not have stems, roots and leaves as the flowering plants) and extensive fermentation and extraction processes. The main benefits of biofuels are that they are renewable, save on the use of the fossil fuels and produce significantly lower quantities of environmental pollutants. Bioenergy is the energy derived from biological sources, as detailed at No. 16 above. Barring energy produced through solar, wind, water and nuclear facilities, all energy is bioenergy. Unfortunately, the term bioenergy is also used in other contexts, as for example in the complementary and alternative systems of medicine to describe the process of healing through channeling human body’s internal energy. In consequence, there is no precise definition for the term bioenergy.

135

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

APPENDIX: INDUSTRY’S NEEDS OF MANPOWER IN MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY Questionnaire (data to be gathered separately for each stream of MBT) 1. What are the typical roles for which you hire fresh Masters level Bioscience graduates? a. Quality Control Executive (Example) b. c. d. 2. For each role mentioned above could you fill Table 1 to detail the required knowledge, skills and behaviours (Competencies) that determine success in the role.

3. What is your current selection methodology for fresh graduates? How do you screen and shortlist a resume? 4. What improvements/modifications do you recommend to the curriculum, to improve the employment readiness of a fresh graduate? 5. Do you have a new joinee training program? If so, could you highlight the key elements of the training provided for a new joinee? Prepared by Dr Shyam Surayanarayanan, Association for Biotechnology Led Enterprises, Bangalore.

136

Education and Training in Modern Biotechnology in India

Table 1. Compentencies Sl No

Role

1

Quality Control Executive

2

R&D Executive (E.g.)

3

Regulatory Affairs Executive (E.g.)

4

Production Executive (E.g.)

Desired Minimum Knowledge 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fundamental concepts required 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Desired Skills

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Desired Behaviours 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Typical Gaps observed 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

137

138

Chapter 10

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education:

Opportunities and Obstacles Mahendra Rai SGB Amravati University, India Shivaji Deshmukh SGB Amravati University, India

ABSTRACT Nanotechnology (NT) is considered to constitute the basis of next technological revolution. It is a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary subject covering physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering. The present chapter discusses various applications of nanotechnology with respect to the relation with industries and to develop the human resources in nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is progressing fast in the fields of electronics, textiles, packaging, auto and aerospace industries, sports, optoelectronics, environmental monitoring, food science, forensics, security, cosmetics, agriculture, medicines, etc. NT is impacting our daily life with fast pace, and thus can be considered as a driving force for industrial development. The science has long been working at this scale and below. Bionanotechnology or nanobiotechnology is an area in nanoscience, which is fast picking up for its application in human health and agriculture.

INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology can be defined as the technology at the one-billionth of a metre, which is nothing but the design, characterization, synthesis and application of materials, structures, devices and systems at nanometer shape and size (Stylios et al. 2005; Ochekpe et al. 2009).

Thus, the definition of nanotechnology is based on the prefix “nano” which means “dwarf” and more technically, “nano” means 10-9, or one billionth. Hence, the word nanotechnology is used to refer to materials of size ranging from 0.1 to 100 nm; however, it is also inbuilt that these materials may have different properties, such as, physical strength, chemical reactivity,

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch010

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

electrical conductance, magnetism, and optical effects from bulk materials due to their size (Institute of Nanotechnology, May 2006, www. nanoforum.org.). Hence, nanotechnology is the branch of technology dealing with working at the atomic, molecular and supramolecular levels to create materials, structures, devices and systems with new nano scale manipulation of individual atoms, molecules and molecular clusters into different materials and devices having new and totally different properties (Roco, 2003; Ochekpe et al. 2009). Scientifically, Nanotechnology includes application of materials, devices and systems with structures and components exhibiting new and significantly improved physical, chemical and biological properties (Miyazaki & Islam, 2007). Materials exhibit unique properties at nanoscale of 1 to 100 nanometre (nm). The changes in properties are due to increase in surface area to volume ratio (Williams, 2008). There are several examples for illustrating this. Macro scale opaque copper becomes transparent at nanoscale (Gao et al. 2003; Zong et al. 2005), inert platinum becomes a catalyst at nanoscale (Luo et al. 2005; Tian et al. 2007), and silicon, which is good insulator, becomes a conductor at nanoscale (Heron et al. 2007; Patel,, 2008). The chapter is focused on revolution generated by Nanotechnology due to its applications in different fields like electronics, agriculture and medicines. In addition to this opportunities and obstacles have also been discussed.

BACKGROUND The field of nanotechnology was laid by Richard Feynman of California Institute of Technology, who in 1959 stated that “There is plenty of room at the bottom” (Zong et al. 2005; Miyazaki & Islam 2007; Majumder et al. 2007). Feynman is known for manipulating materials at the scale

of individual atoms and molecules (Sahoo et al. 2007). He also presented a technological vision of miniaturization of materials, manipulating and controlling things on a small scale called “Nanotechnology”. Despite the propaganda of nanotechnology in recent years, it is not a new technology, as Romans about 1600 years ago copied the color effect of butterfly wings, and in the British Museum, due to nanoparticles of gold and silver, glass cup looks jade green in natural light and an impressive red color when a bright light shines through it (Smith, 2006). Carbon nanoparticles are used for the manufacture of car tyres, while due to presence of nanoparticles in the atmosphere, the red and yellow colors are seen at sunsets (Smith, 2006). Nanotechnology was also used by Indian craftsmen and artisans to make weapons and long lasting cave paintings about 2000 years ago. Studies confirmed the existence of carbon nanoparticles on sword of Tipu Sultan who was ancient ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, India, and at Ajanta cave paintings in India. Richard Zsigmondy in 1902, for the first time observed and measured the nanoparticles, by using an ultramicroscope. In 1974, Norio Taniguchi used the term nanotechnology to refer to the engineering materials at nanoscale (Miyazaki & Islam 2007; Sahoo et al. 2007). Gerd Binnig invented scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and Henrich Rohrer invented atomic force microscopy. Saumio Iijima discovered carbon nanotubes in 1985, and the United States government launched the (NNI) National Nanotechnology Initiative-a federal visionary research and development programme for nanotechnology based investments through the coordination of 16 various US departments and independent agencies in 2000. These developments provide the way for the progress in research and further development in nanotechnology (Roco, 2004; Matija, 2004; Miyazaki & Islam 2007).

139

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY In Agriculture More than 60% of the population in developing countries including India, is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, hence agriculture is the backbone of these developing countries. Nanotechnology is a possible way to revolutionize the agriculture with the help of nano-tools for treatment of diseases, rapid disease detection, and enhancing the nutrients absorption ability of plants, etc. In near future, the nanostructured catalysts are going to be used in the pesticide, and herbicide to increase their efficiency against pests and herbs. Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) is a widely used agricultural methodology with modern technology for crop management developed in the USA. CEA is the form of hydroponic-based agriculture system, in which plants are grown within a controlled environment so that horticultural practices can be optimized. This CEA technology can provide an excellent platform for the introduction of nanotechnology to agriculture. Nanotechnological devices are available for CEA which provide “scouting” capabilities, and improve the grower’s ability to determine the best time of harvest for the crop, crop vitality, and food security including microbial or chemical contamination (Ochekpe et al. 2009; Sharon et al. 2010).

Nanoparticles to Control Plant Diseases Current research in nanotechnology proved that the nanoparticles of carbon, silver, silica and alumino-silicates are having the potential of controlling plant diseases. The Brazilian agriculture research corporation is focusing on agricultural nanotechnology to produce carbon nano-fibers by using the fibers of the coconuts and sisal, which are implemented to strengthen natural fibers. Recently, Khodakovsky and colleagues (2000) reported the growth enhancing activity of the 140

carbon nanotubes. They planted tomato seeds in a soil containing carbon nanotubes having the ability to penetrate into the hard coat of germinating tomato seeds and observed their growth enhancing potential. They found that the enhanced growth was the result of the increased water uptake due to carbon nanotube penetration in root. They also concluded that the carbon nanotubes can be used as vehicle to deliver desired molecules/ chemicals into the germinating seeds, which also protect them from the diseases without any toxic or inhibiting or adverse effect on the plant. Silver nanoparticles have long been known to have strong inhibitory, bactericidal and broad spectrum antimicrobial activity, having high surface area to volume ratio. As many researchers demonstrated the antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles so they are stated as new generation of antimicrobials (Rai et al. 2009) and powerful nanoweapon against multi drug resistance bacteria (Rai et al. 2012). The International Center for Technology Assessment (ICTA) submitted a petition to EPA requesting to regulate nano-silver used in products as a pesticide under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) in May 2008 (Garver et al. 1998). Kanto’s group in 2004 reported that aqueous silicate solution, can be used to treat plants, and it is having excellent preventive effects on pathogenic microorganisms causing powdery mildew or downy mildew diseases in plants. They also suggested that it promotes the physiological activity and growth of plants and induces disease and stress resistance in plants (Garver et al. 1998; Kanto et al. 2004). Park and group developed a new nano-sized Silica- Silver composition of nano-silver combined with silica molecules and water soluble polymer for control of various plant diseases (Park et al. 2006). They also evaluated the effective concentration of nanosized silica-silver on suppression of fungi and found that Pythium ultimum, Magnaporthe grisea, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Botrytis cinerea and, Rhizoctonia solani showed 100% growth inhibition at 10 ppm of the nanosized silica-silver.

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

Nanoparticles as Plant Growth Promoter Role of nanoparticles in plant growth promotion was studied by Zhang and coworkers in 2005. The author observed the effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on the photochemical reaction of chloroplasts of Spinacia oleracea which induced the Hill reaction and activity of chloroplasts. He concluded that the TiO2 nanoparticles might enter the chloroplast and its oxidation-reduction reactions might accelerate electron transport and oxygen evolution. Further, they analyzed the effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on the germination and growth of Spinacia oleracea seeds by studying the germination rate, and observed that seed germination rate was increased by 0.25-4% with the treatment of TiO2 nanoparticles. Influence of metal nanoparticles on the soil microbial community and germination of Lactuca seeds was studied by Shah and Belozerova (2009). They also found that metal nanoparticles influence the growth of Lactuca seeds. This influence was tested by measuring the length of the root and shoot of the plant after 15 days of incubation. An increase in the shoot/ root ratio compared to that of the control was evidenced. Harris and Bali (2008) investigated the limit of uptake and the distribution of silver nanoparticles in Brassica juncea and Medicago sativa. In contrast to Brassica juncea, Medicago sativa showed an increase in metal uptake with a corresponding increase in the substrate of metal concentration and exposure time. The silver nanoparticles were found in the nucleus. Applying the definition given by McGrath and Zhao (2003) the authors suggested that both Medicago sativa and Brassica juncea were hyper accumulators of silver. Later, Racuciu and Creanga (2007) analyzed the effect of magnetic nanoparticles coated with tetra methyl ammonium hydroxide on the growth of Zea mays in early ontogenetic stages. They observed that the iron based nanoparticles may

have chemical as well as magnetic influence on the enzymes involved in the different stages of photosynthesis. Little concentration of aqueous ferro fluid solution added in culture medium had a stimulating effect on the growth of the plantlets while the enhanced concentration of aqueous ferro fluid solution induced an inhibitory effect. The comparative study of smaller and larger palladium nanoparticles were also done by same authors. Their result showed that palladium uptake, via the roots, depends on its particle size. The stress effects in leaves were caused by smaller palladium particles at low concentration in nutrient medium. Zhu et al. (2008) showed that Cucurbita maxima growing in an aqueous medium containing magnetite nanoparticles can absorb, move and accumulate the particles in the plant tissues, on the contrary Phaseolus limensis is not able to absorb and move particles. Therefore, the study concludes that different plants have different response to the same nanoparticles.

In Precision Farming Precision farming is a method having desired goal of maximizing crop yields, by minimizing the use of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc. by monitoring environmental variables. In precision farming, computers, global satellite positioning systems, and remote sensing devices are used to measure environmental conditions and to determine crops growing efficiency. Though tiny sensors and monitoring systems developed by nanotechnology are not fully implemented yet, these will be much beneficial in future for precision farming. Nanotechnology-enabled devices i.e. autonomous sensors linked into a GPS system for real-time monitoring can be distributed throughout the field where they can monitor soil conditions and crop growth, already being used in certain parts of the USA and Australia. The union of biotechnology and nanotechnology in

141

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

sensors are planning to increase sensitivity of the nanosensors, which allows earlier response to environmental changes. Ultimately, by the use of smart nanosensors, precision farming, will enhance agricultural productivity by providing accurate information, and helping the farmers for better decisions (Sharon et al. 2010).

gut-associated lymphoid tissue and drug release control (Jani et al. 1990; Eldridge et al. 1990). Research has proved that the nanoparticles can act as the growth enhancer of fish, in Russian Academy of Sciences; scientist reported that young carp and sturgeon when fed on iron nanoparticles, grow 25-30% faster than the normal (ETC 2003).

Aquaculture and Fisheries Development

Environment Safety

Nanotechnology can provide new tools like nanomaterials, nanosensors, nanovaccines, smart drug delivery, prevention and treatment of diseases which solve many puzzles related to aquaculture and fisheries such as nanovaccines (Rather et al. 2011). Disease susceptibility of fish is one of the main obstacles in aquaculture. Hence, vaccination is the best approach to control it. For this purpose use of oil emulsion as adjuvant is one way but it is having major drawbacks as some fish and shellfish show side-effects against it. In this situation, nanoparticles like chitosan and PLGA (poly-lactide-co-glycolide acid) can be used as a carrier (Rajeshkumar et al. 2009) of vaccine. In certain cases these nanoparticles (chitosan and PLGA) carry the antigens mixed with mild inflammatory inducers to provide high level of protection to fish and shellfish against bacterial and viral diseases. The nanocapsules containing nano-particles vaccine with short strand of DNA, and resistant to digestion and degradation, were used for the mass vaccination of fish. Oral administration of these vaccines and site-specific release of the active agent for vaccination will reduce the cost and effort of disease management, application of drug and vaccine delivery, etc., at the same cost of feeding leading to sustainable aquaculture. The purpose of using nanoparticles as carriers for drug is improvement of bioavailability of drugs (Florence et al. 1995), high dispersion at the molecular level, delivery of vaccine antigens to

142

Nanotechnology also protects the environment indirectly, during the use of alternative and renewable energy nano-supplies, and filters or catalysts to reduce pollution and clean-up existing pollutants. Lehigh University researcher of US proved that an iron nanopowder can be used for cleaning up contaminated soil and groundwater. The break down and oxidation of trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, dioxins, and PCBs are catalyzed by iron nanoparticles and converted into simpler carbon compounds which are less toxic. Research at the Centre for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology (CBEN) has also shown that nanoscale iron oxide particles are extremely effective for binding and removing arsenic from groundwater.

Water Purification Nanotechnology is also used in ground water purification. Water purifier was developed by the US Company Argonide, in which aluminium oxide nanofibres of 2 nm diameter were used for purification of water. These fibres are helpful in removal of viruses, bacteria and protozoan cysts from water. French Generale des Eaux and Dow Chemical subsidiary Filmtec, Ondeo, developed its own nanofiltration technology for water. Altairnano developed the Nanocheck which contains lanthanum nanoparticles, useful in ponds and swimming pools which effectively absorb phosphates and prevent the growth of algae.

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen The measurement of dissolved oxygen is the important part in many industrial as well as environmental applications, as oxygen is one of the major and most important metabolites in aerobic systems. Recent methods for measuring dissolved oxygen concentration are advantageous over conventional amperometric electrodes due to their faster rate. (McDonagh et al. 1998; Xu et al. 2001). To measure the dissolved oxygen optical PEBBLE (Probes Encapsulated by Biologically Localized Embedding) nanosensors have been developed in this technology and organically modified silicate (ormosil) nanoparticles are used as a matrix. The ormosil nanoparticles are prepared by sol-gel-based process. This PEBBLE sensor has a higher sensitivity and longer excitation and emission wavelengths, resulting in reduced background noise for cellular measurement. The PEBBLE sensors are excellent in terms of their reversibility and stability to leaching and longterm storage. A real-time monitoring of changes in the dissolved oxygen due to cell respiration in a closed chamber was made by gene gun delivered PEBBLE. This sensor is now being applied for simultaneous intracellular measurements of oxygen and glucose (Koo et al. 2004; Herbert & Shetty, 2005).

Water Treatment Nanoparticles can be useful to improve the water quality by using magnetic nanoparticles, nanocatalysts, nanostructured catalytic membranes, nonabsorbent bioactive nanoparticles, nanotubes, granules, micromolecules, nanoparticles and colloids. Metal nanoparticles are the most beneficial for the water treatment and applied in drinking water purification. Pesticide contaminated water have many harmful effects on human health and have

long-term impacts on the food cycle. To remove the pesticide from water, iron metal nanoparticles play the key role which depends upon the different shapes of the nanoparticles. The high surface area to mass ratios of nanoparticles can greatly enhance the adsorption capacities of sorbent materials. This leads to differences in atomic distribution across the nanoparticle surface, which in turn affects the electron transfer rate kinetics between metal nanoparticles and corresponding adsorbed pesticides. Structure of nanoparticles is also one of the important factor.It was reported that nanoparticles having tetrahedral shape have higher catalytic activity than nanoparticles with cubic and spherical shapes (Narayanan, 2007).

Nanotechnology in Biotechnology and Medicine By utilizing the nanotechnological developments in the field of biotechnology, a new applied branch was formed, known as nanobiotechnology. This is not only limited to synthesis and application of the nanoparticles and nanocomposites, but also detection and formulation of physical, chemical, biochemical nanoagents and their utilization for finding out cause and cure of various diseases. The nanotechnologiacal applications in biotechnology include:

Nano-Biosensors Biosensor is a device which can take advantage of the high specificity of biological reactions for detecting target analytes. It’s nothing but the combination of a biological recognition element highly specific to the target analyte with a physical transducer that translates the bio-recognition event into a measurable effect, such as an electrical signal, an optical emission or a mechanical motion (Rai et al. 2011) Baroreceptors are important components, which provide specificity to biosensor technologies. They allow for binding of the

143

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

specific analyte of interest to the sensor for the quantification with minimum interference from other factors in complex sampling mixtures. Clark and Lyons (1962), developed the first biosensor based on the specific catalytic interaction of the glucose oxidase enzyme with glucose. Biosensors are important research tools having their specificity to discover genetic abnormalities and physiological disease. Highly sensitive biosensors were developed with the help of applying progress in nanotechnology which can provide the additional benefit of miniaturization (Carrascosa et al. 2006). Presently, various forms of the nanomaterials such as nanotubes, nanoparticles, nanocomposites, nanowires, and nanoporous materials are tested for their biocompatibility and utilization for the biodiagnostic purpose. DNA functionalized Gold nanoparticles has been applied for the detection of proteins involved in cancers. Gold nanoparticle conjugated to DNA-probe or antibodies were applied for the detection of the specific protein and specific genes. These prepared gold nanoparticles consist of a ligand with biomolecule such as DNA of specific sequences, and mixed with the sample. If the sample contains the complimentary DNA to the target then it will bind to the gold particles. These binding will result in an aggregation and based on surface plasmon resonance, an aggregation of gold particles will result in a color change, which is easily detectable (Susan, 2005). The nano-diagnostic kits contain the antibodies labelled with magnetic nanoparticles, when exposed to a magnetic field they give a signal indicating their reaction with specific antigens. Gold nanoshells conjugated with specific tumors targeted antibodies, detect the tumors, hit by infrared light and destroy the growths selectively. The advantages of these nano-biosensors are their economical, high-throughput nature and the ability to perform real time, in vivo analysis without labeling the target (Susan, 2005).

144

Drug Delivery Nano-Devices Nanotechnology is potentially used for controllable release of therapeutic agents and is a better platform for target specific drug delivery by considering drug pharmacokinetics, non-specific toxicity and side-effects of the drug. The drug delivery by nanodevices includes various types of nanoparticles, nanomaterials, nanocomposites, nanotubes as the carriers for therapeutic agents. To avoid the side effect or damage to surrounding and non-targeted cells precise release of inhibitors is also essential. To achieve this at nanoscale drug delivery; nanoagents encapsulating the inhibitor are target specific and having the ability to prevent premature degradation and side effects on surrounding cells. This also offers direct on- site drug delivery with controlled release, and thus increases patient acceptabilty (Ulrich et al. 2006).

Nanotechnology and Industries Food Industry The role of nanotechnology in the food industry has become more noticeable over the last decades. Nanotechnology has the potential to change food processing system and to increase safety of food products, which helps to create a healthy food culture. It has also satisfied the future hope of enhancing the nutritional quality of food by using selected additives and can improve the digestion and absorption of food in human body. Nanotechnology is applied for various purposes, which includes smart packaging, on demand preservation, and interactive foods. The flavour and colour enhancers and added nutritional elements containing nanocapsules were developed, in such way that they remain dormant in the food and only are released after opening package (Garland, 2004; De-Azeredo, 2009).

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

For Food Safety and Packaging Nanotechnology can provide solutions for developing smart packaging to increase product shelflife, which is able to repair small holes/tears, and alert the customer if the food is contaminated. Nanotechnology is helpful to increase barrier properties like mechanical, thermal, chemical, and microbial, by developing active antimicrobial and antifungal nanoparticles coating on the surfaces of the packing papers. The nanotechnology has been adopted by several companies for example; plastic beer bottles incorporating nanocomposites for extending shelf- life up to 26 weeks was developed by Miller Brewing Co. Honeywell Specialty Polymers (Sekhon, 2010). Kodak is developing antimicrobial films with oxygen absorption ability, which helps to prevent food deterioration by absorbing oxygen from the contents of package. Nanobioluminescence detection spray was developed by Agro-Micron, which contains engineered luminescent protein which binds to the microbes such as Salmonella and E. coli. After binding it emits a visible glow, thus allowing the easy detection of contamination by microbes (De-Azeredo, 2009; Brody, 2006).

Cosmetics Industry In cosmetics, nanotechnology has two main applications: the first is the use of nanoparticles as UV filters. For this Titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) are mostly used. The second use is for delivery; in these Liposomes and niosomes are mostly used as delivery vehicles, to provide enhanced skin hydration, bioavailability, stability of the cosmetic agent and controlled occlusion. Nanocrystals and nanoemulsions are also being investigated for cosmetic applications (Luppi et al.2004; Thong et al. 2007) Nanotechnology has important role in cosmetics for the preparation of transparent facial creams. By utilizing nanotechnology in nutri-

tional sciences, Royal BodyCare Company, has marketed Nanoceuticals which contains particles of 5 nm size, which will scavenge free radicals. The company also developed nanosize powder combined with nutritional supplements named as NanoClusters TM. After consumption, it enhances the absorption of nutrients. The nanobased products are prepared in the form of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles which are made up of solid lipid matrix and are oily droplets of lipids which are solid at body temperature and stabilised by surfactants (Müller et al. 2002). Nanoemulsions, which are dispersions of nanoscale droplets (Mason et al. 2006) have a number of advantages over large scale emulsions. They can be stabilised to increase the time before creaming occurs, therefore increasing the shelf life of products containing them (Tadros et al. 2004). They are transparent having large surface area and higher stability and better suitability to carry active ingredients (Dingler & Gohla 2002). There are many cosmetic products available which are using nanoemulsions, such as Korres’ Red Vine Hair sunscreen (www.korres.com). Some manufacturers supply ready to use emulsifiers for creating stable nanoemulsions which includes Nanocream® from Sinerga (www.sinerga. it) and NanoGel from Kemira (www.kemira.com). They produce a product called Nanogel- UV for sun care applications. L’Oreal own several patents on nanoemulsion based technologies.

Production of Nanoparticles for Industrial Purpose Particle farming is the method developed for nanoparticles production for industrial use in which plants are grown in defined metal rich soils. These plants absorb the nanoparticles through their roots and accumulate in their tissues. Then these nanoparticles can be mechanically separated from the plant tissue following harvest. Research has shown that, when the alfalfa plants grown in

145

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

gold rich soil, gold nanoparticles are absorbed by roots. Such nanoparticles accumulate in tissues. These gold nanoparticles can be mechanically separated from the plant tissues and harvested. Globally, many countries have identified the potential of nanotechnology in the agriculture sector. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is in search of novel phenomena, processes and tools to face the challenges of agricultural sector. Developing countries like Iran also developed their nanotechnology for specific focus on agricultural applications. Iranian research developed first commercial nanotechnology product Nanocid, a powerful antibacterial having potential applications in the production of detergents, paints, ceramics, air conditioning systems, vacuum cleaners, home appliances, shoes and garments.

Construction Industry The applicability of the carbon nanotubes in the construction include carbon nano tubes composites made with existing construction materials. The carbon nanotubes composite materials are excellent reinforcing materials, due to their extremely high strength and toughness carbon nanotubes ropes are used as structural components and heat transfer systems. Polymer, cement and glass are the potential candidates for matrix materials. Carbon nanotubes are used as materials for the construction of very large, space based structures, including space elevators (Smitherman, 2000).

Carbon Nanotubes Carbon nanotubes (CNT) are the most important in nanotechnology due to their unique properties and potential commercial applications in the fields of electronics and chemical technology. Carbon nanotubes are nothing but modified form of graphite, as graphite is made up of many layers of

146

carbon atoms bonded in hexagonal pattern. Carbon nano tube is a sheet or sheets of graphite that have been rolled up into a tube structure. Depending upon the sheet of graphite, the carbon nanotubes are of type single walled nanotubes (SWNT), if a single sheet had been rolled up, and multiwalled (MWNT), if number of similar sheets rolled together. These carbon nanotubes are produced by three different approaches (Dai, 2001). The first is by using an electric arc-discharge, where a high voltage electrical current is passed through the air (or an inert or reactive gas) into a carbon electrode. Second is laser ablation, in which high intensity laser beam is directed at a carbon target, and third is chemical vapour deposition, in which carbon based gas such as methane are used at high temperatures and pressures. In all three cases free carbon atoms are obtained and given the energy necessary to form carbon nanotubes rather than graphite or amorphous carbon (Dai, 2001; Charlier & Iijima 2001). Carbon nanotubes are having the unique properties as their electronic characters vary as per their chirality. The degree of conductivity can also be controlled by doping. Changes in size change their electronic properties (Ouyang, 2001). Potential applications of carbon nanotubes include the fields of electronics, sensors, structural materials, fillers and storage materials. The highly developed application of the multiwalled carbon nanotubes is as a filler material in plastic composites and paints (Baughman, 2002), which is also an improved substitute for carbon black. The nanoscale electronics is taking the advantages of the ability of carbon nanotubes to be both metallic and semi-conductor with a change in structure, rather than a change in composition. On the basis of this, different types of transistors and logic gates have been developed by using the carbon nanotubes (Javey, 2002).

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

Paper Industry In paper making, nanotechnology helps for the enhancement of optical characteristics via pigment particles and constituents of the product at nanometer scale (Ebeling et al. 2002). In this layer optically active nanoparticles refract light and the pigments create new image effects, possibly under different light conditions. They are able to enhance paper printability, ink fixing and densities, as well as control of color bleeding. Several types of nanomaterials for paper coatings are available such as talc and calcium carbonate nanopowders. In addition to polymers, paints, pharmaceuticals, sealants, and adhesives, papermakers are benefited from the nanopowders having superior physical, chemical and mechanical properties, which improve opacity, gloss and print quality of paper (Anon 2001)

Nanotechnology Commercialization and Developing Human Resources Nanotechnology commercialization is still at an early phase. However, the use of nanotechnology products is growing rapidly hence the market for nanoproducts is growing at a rapid rate. Nanoscale materials are applied in electronic, cosmetics, automotive and medical products. There are nearly 1600 nanotechnology industries worldwide as per the records of Nanovip International Nanotechnology Business directory up to 2008 (Anand et al. 2009). Development of human resources in nanotechnology needs a multi-disciplinary orientation. The recent years offer an increasing demand for trained personnel from nanotechnology, hence for developing trained personnel in nanotechnology, countries leading in nanotechnology have addressed the need for modification of education system in their respective government documents on nanotechnology such as National Nanotechnology Initiative (USA). The US Government not only offers the degree of Master of Science, Doctorate and Associate Degrees or certificates

in nanotechnology, but has also established series of interdisciplinary centers with nanotechnology activities at many U.S. universities, creating a growing public research and education infrastructure for this field. (Anand et al. 2009)

Employment Generation There is potential impact of development in Nanotechnology on employment. Hullman, (2006) suggested that developments in Nanotechnology will have a ‘tremendous impact on the number of jobs in the manufacturing industries’ in future years. It was estimated that 2 million Nanotechnology workers would be needed globally by 2015 Roco & Bainbridge 2001) and about 5 million related supporting jobs would be created additionally (Roco & Bainbridge 2003).

Indian Scenario Department of Science and Technology (DST) is the main agency, which initiated India’s principal programme, the Nanoscience and Technology Mission (NSTM) in 2007, and allocated Rupees 1000 crores for a period of five years (TERI 2010).

Nano Mission The Nano Mission is India’s principal programme for capacity building for research and development in the field of nanoscience and technology. The main objectives of the Nano-Mission are as follows: •

•

Basic Research Promotion: (1) to provide funds for individual scientists and/or groups of scientists to carry out the basic research; (2) to create centres of excellence for pursuing studies leading to fundamental understanding of matter for their manipulation at the nanoscale. Infrastructure Development for Nano Science and Technology Research: (3) to provide the funds to purchase 147

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

•

•

•

148

the equipment required for the research purpose as the nano scale research require expensive equipments like Optical Tweezer, Nano Indentor, Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM), Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer (MALDI TOF MS), Microarray Spotter and Scanner, etc. Nano Applications and Technology Development Programmes: To catalyze Applications and Technology Development Programmes leading to products and devices, the mission proposes to promote application-oriented R and D Projects, establish Nano Applications and Technology Development Centres, and Nano-Technology Business Incubators, etc. Special effort will be made to involve the industrial sector into nanotechnology R and D directly or through Public Private Partnership (PPP) ventures. Human Resource Development: This is the main aim of the Nano-Mission that focuses on providing effective education and training to researchers and professionals in diversified fields so that a genuine interdisciplinary culture for nanoscale science, engineering and technology can emerge (www.nanomission.gov.in). Department of Science and Technology (DST): New Delhi has also set up ‘Centres of Excellence (CoE) for Nanoscience and Technology’ established under the NSTI to undertake R and D to develop specific applications in a fixed period of time. Other than DST, there are several agencies, actively engaged in supporting nanotechnology. This includes DBT (Department of Biotechnology) and CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). CSIR launched a program called New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative (NMITLI (TERI 2010).

The government of India is having the predominant role in nanotechnology research in terms of funding, establishing the scientific and technological infrastructure and developing human skills and capacity.

Nanotechnology Courses in India Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary subject which essentially combines physics, chemistry, computer, bio- informatics and bio- technology. There are many institutions which have started courses in nanotechnology, These include Jawaharlal Nehru Center for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore; Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; National Physical Laboratory, Delhi; Solid State Physics Laboratory, Delhi; National Chemical Laboratory, Pune; Central Scientific Instruments Organization, Chandigarh; Defence Materials Store Research and Development Organizations, Kanpur; Indian Institutes of Technology at Kanpur, Chennai, Guwahati, Delhi and Mumbai. In addition to this many universities are conducting research in nanotechnology (See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Application of nanotechnology in various fields

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

CONCLUSION The field of Nanotechnology is new and emerging and it’s having the tremendous scope and applications in almost all the fields. According to the scientists, 21st century would be the century of nanotechnology. On the basis of the multiple applications, nanotechnology has the ability to revolutionize every area including medicine, agriculture, engineering, industrial and technological areas. Nanobiotechnology is engaged in developing tiny medical devices and nanobiosensors having the ability of detecting the targeted analytes. It can help in detection of narcotics and fingerprinting. In the form of Nanorobots nanotechnology can carry out functions like human beings. So, this developing and applied field provides the opportunity for the development of human resources in nanotechnology which needs a multi-disciplinary orientation. In the forthcoming years there is going to be an increasing demand for trained personnels in nanotechnology. Hence, to develop trained personnel in nanotechnology, Government is providing grants and facilities to carry out the nanotechnology research as well as providing support to the educational institutes and universities to develop and start nanotechnology courses, so that students can take opportunity to get trained in nanotechnology at reputed institutes.

Baughman, R. H., Zakhidov, A. A., & de Heer, W. A. (2002). Carbon nanotubes – The route towards applications. Science, 297, 787–792. doi:10.1126/ science.1060928 Brody, A. (2006). Nano and food packaging technologies converge. Food Technology, 60(3), 92–94. Carrascosa, L. G., Moreno, M., Álvarez, M., & Lechuga, L. M. (2006). Nanomechanical biosensors: A new sensing tool. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 25(3), 196–206. doi:10.1016/j. trac.2005.09.006 Charlier, J. C., & Iijima, S. (2001). In topics in applied physics. In Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., & Avouris, P. (Eds.), LNCS, 2001 (Vol. 80, pp. 55–59). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. Clark, L., & Lyons, C. (1962). Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular surgery. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 102, 29–45. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1962. tb13623.x Dai, H. (2001). Topics in applied physics. In Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., & Avouris, P. (Eds.), LNCS, 2001 (Vol. 80, pp. 29–53). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.

REFERENCES

De-Azeredo, H. M. C. (2009). Nanocomposites for food packaging applications. Food Research International, 42(9), 1240–1253. doi:10.1016/j. foodres.2009.03.019

Anand, M., Balakrishnan, M., Batra, V. S., & Das, P. (2009). Review of international nanotechnology developments and policy concerns. Project report, 2009.

Dingler, A., & Gohla, S. (2002). Production of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN): Scaling up feasibilities. Microencapsulation, 19, 11–16. doi:10.1080/02652040010018056

Anon, G. P. (2001). NanoTechnology group limited announces placing of new shares and sale shares on the GEM Board. Retrieved from http://www. gpnano.com/eng/press1.html.

Ebeling, K. (2002). Nanotechnology- The next industrial revolution, Vol. 1, (pp. 6-9).

149

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

Eldridge, J. H., Hammond, C. J., Meulbroek, J. A., Staas, J. K., Gilley, R. M., & Tice, T. R. (1990). Controlled vaccine release in gut-associated lymphoid tissues, part I: Orally administered biodegradable microspheres target the Peyer’s patches. Journal of Controlled Release, 11, 205–214. doi:10.1016/0168-3659(90)90133-E ETC. (2003). Down on the farm: The impact of nanoscale technologies on food and agriculture. ETC Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration. Florence, A. T., Hillery, A. M., Hussain, N., & Jani, P. U. (1995). Nanoparticles as carriers for oral peptide absorption: Studies on particle uptake and fate. Journal of Controlled Release, 36, 39–44. doi:10.1016/0168-3659(95)00059-H Gao, S., Zhao, Y., Gou, P., Chen, N., & Xie, Y. (2003). Preparation of CuAlO2 nanocrystalline transparent thin films with high conductivity. Nanotechnology, 14, 538–541. doi:10.1088/09574484/14/5/310 Garland, A. (2004). Nanotechnology in plastics packaging: Commercial applications in nanotechnology (pp. 14–63). Pira International Limited UK. Garver, T. L. W., Thomas, B. J., Robbins, M. P., & Zeyen, R. J. (1998). Phenyalanine ammonialyase inhibition, auto- fluorescence,and localized accumulation of silicon, calcium and manganese in oat epidermis attacked by the powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis (DC) speer. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology, 52, 223–243. doi:10.1006/pmpp.1998.0148 Harris, A. T., & Bali, R. (2008). On the formation and extent of uptake of silver nanoparticles by live plants. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 10, 691–695. doi:10.1007/s11051-007-9288-5

150

Herbert, E., & Shetty, R. (2005). Impact of nanotechnology on biomedical sciences: Review of current concepts on convergence of nanotechnology with biology. AZojoNO, 1. Heron, J. S., Fournier, T., & Bourgeois, O. (2007). Surface effect on the phonon transport of silicon nanowire. Journal of Physics: Conferences Series, 92, 1–4. Hullman, A. (2006). The economic development of nanotechnology – An indicator based analysis. European Commission Unit: Nano S&T – Convergent Science and Technologies. Retrieved from http://cordis.europa.eu/nanotechnology Jani, P., Halbert, G. W., Langridge, J., & Florence, A. T. (1990). Nanoparticles uptake by rat gastrointestinal mucosa: Quantitation and particles size dependency. Journal of Pharmaceuticals and Pharmacology, 42, 821–826. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7158.1990.tb07033.x Javey, A., Wang, Q., Ural, A., Li, Y., & Dai, H. (2002). Carbon nanotube transistor arrays for complementary logic and ring oscillators. Nano Letters, 2, 929. doi:10.1021/nl025647r Joseph, T., & Morrison, M. (2006, May). Nanoforum report. Institute of Nanotechnology. Retrieved from www.nanoforum.org Kanto, T., Miyoshi, A., Ogawa, T., Maekawa, K., & Aino, M. (2004). Suppressive effect of potassium silicate on powdery mildew of strawberry in hydroponics. Journal of General Plant Pathology, 70, 207–211. doi:10.1007/s10327-004-0117-8 Khodakovsky, A. P., Schroder, P., & Sweldens, W. (2000). Progressive geometry compression. In Siggraph 2000, Computer Graphics Proceedings, (pp. 271–278).

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

Koo, L. Y. E., Cao, Y., Kopelman, R., Koo, S. M., Brasuel, M., & Philbert, M. A. (2004). Real-time measurements of dissolved oxygen inside live cells by organically modified silicate fluorescent nanosensors. Analytical Chemistry, 76, 2498–2505. doi:10.1021/ac035493f Luo, J., Maye, M. M., Kariuki, N. N., Wang, L., Njoki, P., & Lin, Y. (2005). Electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol: carbon-supported gold-platinum nanoparticles catalysts prepared by two-phase protocol. Catalysis Today, 99(3-4), 291–297. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2004.10.013 Luppi, B., Cerchiara, T., Bigucci, F., Basile, R., & Zecchi, V. (2004). Polymeric nanoparticles composed of fatty acids and polyvinylalcohol for topical application of sunscreens. Journal of Pharmaceuticals and Pharmacology, 56, 407–411. doi:10.1211/0022357022926 Majumder, D. D., Banerjee, R., Ulrichs, C. H., & Mewis, I. (2007). Nano-materials: Science of bottom-up and top- down. IETE Technical Review, 24(1), 9–25. Mason, T. G., Wilking, J. N., Meleson, K., Chang, C. B., & Graves, S. M. (2006). Nanoemulsions: Formation, structure, and physical properties. Journal of Physics Condensed Matter, 18, R635– R666. doi:10.1088/0953-8984/18/41/R01 Matija, L. (2004). Reviewing paper: Nanotechnology: Artificial versus natural self-assembly. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (FME). Transactions, 32, 1–14. McDonagh, C., MacCraith, B. D., & McEvoy, A. K. (1998). Tailoring of sol-gel films for optical sensing of oxygen in gas and aqueous phase. Analytical Chemistry, 70, 45–50. doi:10.1021/ ac970461b McGrath, S. P., & Zhao, F. J. (2003). Phytoextraction of metals and metalloids from contaminated soils. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 14, 277–282. doi:10.1016/S0958-1669(03)00060-0

Miyazaki, K., & Islam, N. (2007). Nanotechnology systems of innovation – An analysis of industry and academia research activities. Technovation, 27, 661–671. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2007.05.009 Nanotech Now. (2002, January 5). Nanomat first to commercially produce talc and calcium carbonate nanomaterials. Retrieved from http://nanotechnow.com/nanomat-release-05012002.htm Narayanan, R., & El-Sayed, M. A. (2004). Shape-dependent catalytic activity of platinum nanoparticles in. colloidal solution. Nano Letters, 4, 1343–1348. doi:10.1021/nl0495256 Ochekpe, N. A., Olorunfemi, O. P., & Ngwuluka, N. C. (2009). Nanotechnology and drug delivery part 1: Background and application. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 8(3), 265–274. doi:10.4314/tjpr.v8i3.44546 Ouyang, M., Huang, J. L., Cheung, C. L., & Lieber, C. M. (2001). Energy gaps in “metallic” single-walled carbon nanotubes. Science, 292, 702. doi:10.1126/science.1058853 Park, H. J., Kim, S. H., Kim, H. J., & Choi, S. H. (2006). A new composition of nanosized silica-silver for control of various plant diseases. The Plant Pathology Journal, 22(3), 295–302. doi:10.5423/PPJ.2006.22.3.295 Patel, P. P. (2008, January 14). Turning waste heat into power: Research shows that silicon is as efficient as pricier materials. MIT Technology Review, 1-2. Racuciu, M., & Creanga, D. E. (2007). TMA-OH coated magnetic nanoparticles internalized in vegetal tissues. Romanian Journal of Physics, 52, 395–95. Rai, M., Gade, A., Gaikwad, S., Priscyla, D., & Duran, N. (2011). Biomedical applications of nanobiosensors: The state-of-the-art. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, 23(1), 16–24.

151

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

Rai, M. K., Deshmukh, S. D., Ingle, A. P., & Gade, A. K. (2012). Silver nanoparticles: The powerful nanoweapon against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 112(5), 841–852. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2012.05253.x Rai, M. K., Yadav, A. P., & Gade, A. K. (2009). Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnology Advances, 27(1), 76–82. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.09.002 Rajeshkumar, S., Venkatesan, C., Sarathi, M., Sarathbabu, V., Thomas, J., Anver, B. K., & Hameed, A. S. (2009). Oral delivery of DNA constructs using chitosan nanoparticles to protect the shrimp from white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 26, 429–437. doi:10.1016/j.fsi.2009.01.003 Rather, M. A., Sharma, R., Aklakur, M., Ahmad, S., Kumar, N., Khan, M., & Ramya, V. L. (2011). Nanotechnology: A novel tool for aquaculture and fisheries development. A prospective mini-review. Fisheries and Aquaculture Journal, 16, 1–5. Roco, M. C. (2003). Nanotechnology: Convergence with modern biology and medicine. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 14, 337–346. doi:10.1016/S0958-1669(03)00068-5 Roco, M. C. (2004). The US national nanotechnology initiative after 3 years (2000-2003). Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 6, 1–10. doi:10.1023/ B:NANO.0000023243.25838.73 Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. (2001). Societal implications of nanoscience and nanotechnology. National Science Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.wtec.org/loyola/nano/NSET.Societal. Implications. Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. (2003). Converging technologies for improving human performance. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.

152

Sahoo, S. K., Parveen, S., & Panda, J. J. (2007). The present and future of nanotechnology in human health care. Nanomedicine: Biology and Medicine, 3, 20–31. doi:10.1016/j.nano.2006.11.008 Sekhon, B. S. (2010). Food nanotechnology – An overview. Nanotechnology. Science and Applications, 3, 1–15. Shah, V., & Belozerova, I. (2009). Influence of metal nanoparticles on the soil microbial community and germination of lettuce seeds. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 197, 143–148. doi:10.1007/ s11270-008-9797-6 Sharon, M., Choudhary, A. K., & Kumar, R. (2010). Nanotechnology in agricultural diseases and food safety. Journal of Phycology, 2(4), 83–92. Smith, A. (2006). Nanotechnology: Does it have a sporting chance. Chemistry International, 28(1), 8–9. Smitherman, D. V. (2000). Space elevators: An advanced Earth-space infrastructure for the new millennium. NASA. Stylios, G. K., Giannoudis, P. V., & Wan, T. (2005). Applications of nanotechnologies in medical practice. Injury, 36(4), S6–S13. doi:10.1016/j. injury.2005.10.011 Susan, A. (2005). Greenfield biotechnology, the brain and the future. Trends in Biotechnology, 23(1), 34–41. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2004.11.011 Tadros, T., Izquierdo, P., Esquena, J., & Solans, C. V. (2004). Formation and stability of nanoemulsions. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 109, 303–318. doi:10.1016/j.cis.2003.10.023 TERI. (2010). Nanotechnology development in India: Building capability and governing the technology [TERI Briefing Paper]. Canada: Supported by IDRC.

Nanorevolution and Professionalizing University Education

The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. (2004, July). Nanoscience and nanotechnologies. The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering Report, July 2004. Retrieved August 5, 2008, from http://www. nanotec.org.uk/final Thong, H. Y., Zhai, H., & Maibach, H. I. (2007). Percutaneous penetration enhancers: An overview. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 20, 272–282. doi:10.1159/000107575 Tian, N., Zhou, Z. Y., Sun, S. G., Ding, Y., & Wang, Z. L. (2007). Synthesis of tetrahexahedral platinum nanocrystals with high-index facets and high electro-oxidation activity. Science, 316, 732–735. doi:10.1126/science.1140484 Ulrich, P., Welte, T., Giersig, M., & David, A. (2006). Groneberg nanomedicine for respiratory diseases. European Journal of Pharmacology, 533(1-3), 341–350. doi:10.1016/j. ejphar.2005.12.068 Williams, D. (2008). The relationship between biomaterials and nanotechnology. Journal of Biomaterials, 1, 1–3.

Xu, H., Aylott, J. W., Kopelman, R., Miller, T. J., & Philbert, M. A. (2001). A real-time ratiometric method for the determination of molecular oxygen inside living cells using sol-gel-based spherical optical nanosensors with applications to rat C6 glioma. Analytical Chemistry, 73, 4124–4133. doi:10.1021/ac0102718 Zhang, L., Hong, F., Lu, S., & Liu, C. (2005). Effect of nano-TiO2 on strength of naturally aged seeds and growth of spinach. Biological Trace Element Research, 105, 83–91. doi:10.1385/ BTER:104:1:083 Zhu, H., Han, J., Xiao, J. Q., & Jin, Y. (2008). Uptake, translocation and accumulation of manufactured iron oxide nanoparticles by pumpkin plants. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 10, 713–717. doi:10.1039/b805998e Zong, R. L., Zhou, J., Li, B., Fu, M., Shi, S. K., & Li, L. T. (2005). Optical properties of transparent copper nanorod and nanowire arrays embedded in anodic alumina oxide. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 123, 94710–94715. doi:10.1063/1.2018642

153

154

Chapter 11

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education:

Assessment of Shifting Paradigms M. M. Salunkhe Central University of Rajasthan, India N. V. Thakkar Central University of Rajasthan, India R. K. Kamat Shivaji University, India

ABSTRACT In recent times, the higher education in India has made tremendous progress in terms of increasing the access and thereby making it reachable to larger population of the country. However, post-globalization, internationalization, and marketization the higher education has been increasingly perceived as a professional service. This necessitates reworking on various facets pertaining to the higher education domain such as academics, administration, governance, teaching-learning process, consultancy, and grants earning initiatives. Therefore without any qualm, the paradigm shift is on the agenda of our universities and the process of reflection, reworking, self-critique, action, participation, improvement, collaboration, inclusion are now the buzzword inviting the renewed attention of our academicians and administrators. Easier said than done, in this chapter, the authors discuss some of the initiatives at state university and a newly commenced central university, wherein they could become the part of the reforms in reworking the model of the higher education. The same is put forth in front of the peers and stakeholders as a sort of action research towards inculcating professionalism in our universities.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch011

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

1. INTRODUCTION The chapter is divided into different sections. At the outset, an overview of the growth of Higher Education in India is taken. This is followed by the presentation of issues and concerns pertaining to the Higher Education mainly the quality Vs Quantity paradox. Thereafter some of the initiatives taken up at a state University have been put in place as the same reap the reflections while forming the strategic framework of the Central University of Rajasthan. A brief overview of the initial efforts to seek the perceptions of the stakeholders by making use of ICT has also been described. This is then followed by the profile of the Central University of Rajasthan and the initiatives instilled therein. At the end through the reflections of the authors and their reminiscences and associations both with the state and central university in different capacities in academics and administration exemplifies that more than material resources the interest, desire and attitudinal change are the key factors in accomplishing the professional approach towards the higher education. The modern university is not outside, but inside the general fabric of our era. It is not something apart, something historic, something that yields as little as possible to forces and influences that are more or less new. It is, on the contrary, …an expression of the ages, as well as an influence operating upon both present and future. -Abraham Flexner, quoted in Clark Kerr’s famous book The Uses of the University (Kerr, 2001, p.3) In fact Clark Kerr in the above mentioned book talks essentially about the transformation of the University in Multiversity. Further notion of multiversity has been more precisely summarized in the following quote. The Multiversity is an inconsistent institution. It is not one community but several…Its edges are fuzzy. Hutchins once described the modern

university as a series of separate schools and departments held together by a central heating system…I have sometimes thought of it as a series of individual faculty entrepreneurs held together by a common grievance over parking. -Clark Kerr, (Bender, 2008, p.50) Above quotes in essence depicts the current state of affairs of our University system. The seeds of professionalism related to the institutes of higher learning seem to be sowed with the changing perception of the stakeholders which is seen never before in the life cycle of higher education. Though, the above notions ostensibly more valid for overseas scenario, the Indian Universities are also not an exception to this. Of late, especially in the first decade of the 21st century and specifically in the X and XI five year plans1, the apex bodies, Ministry of Human Resource Development and Government of India are striving hard to inculcate professionalism in the spheres of Higher Education. In the X and XI five year plans, the main thrust was to increase the access to higher education besides to make it more relevant to our social and economic needs which could be done by starting new courses and by revising curriculum regularly. Now in the XII plan, the focus envisaged is inclusive and qualitative growth of higher education. As a part of new institution building as well as strengthening the existing state Universities, Government of India has implemented noteworthy measures. Some of them appearing on the scene are in the form of National Knowledge Network2 (NKN), National Mission for Education using Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT), various consortiums for offering the e-journals and e-books, the newly launched ‘Akash’ tablet3 and so on. In the above context, the present paper reports some of the initiatives undertaken at Shivaji University, Kolhapur, a Maharashtra based state University and Central University of Rajasthan in the state of Rajasthan. These initiatives itself are indicative enough to exhibit that the infusion

155

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

of professionalism can be brought in with careful planning and execution. However, at the outset it would be appropriate to putting down the basics by taking a bird’s eye view regarding the higher education realm before detailing the inventiveness inculcated in the above mentioned Universities.

2. EMERGING SCENARIO PERTAINING TO HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA It is worth notable that never before in the history of mankind, has ‘KNOWLEDGE’ played such a prevailing and all pervading role as it is now playing across the globe. In many developed countries, more than half of the GDP is knowledge-based. We, therefore, now talk about a ‘knowledgeeconomy’. The VISION – 2020 document (Report of the Committee on INDIA: VISION 2020, 2002) recognizes the fact that the determinants of national development have changed from ‘manufacturing’ to ‘services’ and from ‘capital resources’ to ‘knowledge resources’. The role of education is crucial in this regard as it is the starting point for the other knowledge resources. In this context, pondering the past reveals rich history wherein the knowledge and organized teaching were in existence even during the Vedic period in the Ashrams. An organized system reportedly came into existence from the Buddhist period when Universities like Nalanda, Takshashila, Vikramshila and Kanchipuram became prominent as centres of great learning in different areas and attracted people from different countries visiting and learning in those ‘Viharas’ as they were then known. These universities had the essentials of the concept of a modern university, including a testing system and a systematic admission procedure. Thus the very notion of professionalism in the university system was found to be deep rooted in the ancient time. The modern university system in India dates back to 1857 when three universities were established-one each in Calcutta, Mumbai (Bombay) 156

and Chennai (Madras) covering their respective presidencies, along the lines of the University of London at that time, having only the affiliating and examining powers. However, the higher education scenario underwent a sea change over a period of time mainly because of more dependency of professions on knowledge thereby fuelling the complexity and challenges due to cross bordering. Today the world is of science, new inventions and competitions to excel over the other. We can be proud to be a part of our great country but the world has shrunk today to a common platform on the basis of higher education and learning (Mohan, 2008, ¶1). Everybody has to be ready to receive and contribute towards new ideas, thoughts and systems. With the above perception, the entire planning pertaining to higher education and the institutes of higher learning is being done by the apex bodies. The same is presented briefly just to set the further background of the paper.

3. PRESENT STATUS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA It is worthwhile to go through the figures revealing higher education scenario in India to recognize the very notion of the formation and institutionalization of new IITs, IIMs and Central Universities including the Central University of Rajasthan. Salient features of higher education in India as stated in (Annual Report, Ministry of Human Resource Development 2006-2007) and (Tilak, 2004, pp. 343-359) thereafter reiterated in many papers is as follows: •

•

India has the third largest higher education system in the world, next only to China and the United States. (FICCI Higher Education Summit, Making the Indian Higher Education System Future Ready, 2009). Number of Universities4: 634 (18 fold increase since independence).

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

• • •

• •

•

Number of Colleges: More than 33,023 (35 times increase since independence). Gross Enrollment Ratio: 8. % (SES), 10% (NSS), 14% (PC). The Working Group for Higher Education for the XIth Plan has projected a growth of GER based on SES from current 10.5 to 15.5 by the end of the Plan period as well as based on census data from 15.6 (current) to 20.6 by the end of the Plan. Net enrolment ratio (NER): More than 10 times (Annual Report, MHRD 2006-07). One third to 40% of enrolments coming from lower socio-economic strata, and women comprising of some 35%of the total enrolments. Detailing about the augmentation of higher education institutions in India in past 60 years the latest report by UGC (quoted in Anand, 2012, para. 1) says that in 1950 the total number of universities were 30 (most of them government run or funded) and the number of colleges at that time were 695 which means on an average 23 colleges per university. In 2011 the numbers of universities has grown 30 folds and are 634 while the numbers of colleges are 33,023, averaging 55 colleges per university, thus putting huge pressure on the university administration in managing these institutions.

Thus in the last decade or so, the higher education in India has taken an impressive leap, resulting in over two-fold increase in the number of universities and colleges in the country. However, by and large, the major enrolment has been in the traditional streams like B.A./B.Com./B.Sc. and M.A./M.Com./M.Sc. in the areas of languages, humanities, social sciences, commerce and conventional science subjects like botany, zoology etc. Most of these bachelors’ and masters’ degrees with conventional subjects fail to fetch good jobs for the students, one of the reasons being that these subjects with conventional contents do not prepare

the students adequately for employment, the requirements for which have undergone substantial change in recent times. Thus, there is wide gap between the quality of the University products and the societal needs. As Yashpal Committee Report has noted, mushrooming deemed universities, engineering and management colleges, with some notable exceptions, have largely become mere business entities dispensing very poor quality education. Large numbers of engineering seats in the country even remain vacant today. Over the years, the policies followed have fragmented the educational enterprise into cubicles, overlooking that new knowledge, new insights and new opportunities have often originated at the boundaries of disciplines. The present status of research leaves much to be desired, both in quality and quantity. There has been huge increase in the cost of education that denies opportunities to those who deserve. It is essential, therefore, to ensure that the students receive a complete and beneficial education experience, which does not necessarily mean spending more. This will help them to improve their employability and also achieve better avenues, whether in employment or in research. The above discussion forces us to contemplate as regards to where we are deviating from the professionalism. Therefore it is pertinent to review the issues and concerns related to higher education in India as detailed in the following section.

4. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES: WHETHER QUANTITY WORKING AS THE BOTTLENECK AT THE TOP OF BOTTLE? As the heading of the section itself, is indicative; it would be more relevant to analyze as regards to whether the universities in India are deviating from the quality issues in the quest of increasing the access. In the context of globalization, and the need to produce not only more but better quality

157

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

students who would be able to compete with the world of tomorrow, India faces the following two major challenges: 1. To raise the enrolment of higher education from the present below 10% of the total higher education age population, to at least 20%. This means doubling the present capacity of the universities and colleges, possibly by creating new ones. The funds that are required for this and the managerial inputs involved in operating them as quality institutions are enormous. It is obvious that due to paucity of funds, the Governments cannot provide the requisite funds for higher education. Therefore, viable options need to be in place to tackle this problem. 2. Tackling the problem of quantity through providing facilities for career-building among the young people is most certainly a responsibility of a Welfare State for without knowledge, there is no future in a knowledge-based society. Along with this, however, is the pressing need to raise the quality not only of the existing institutions but also of the new ones. This is indeed a real challenge, especially for the Government and calls for careful policy formulation and efficient handling. Thus as reviewed above, the important challenges before the centers of higher education today is to make the higher education more relevant to the present requirement, making the students more employable and bridging the gap between the needs of the corporate and quality of the University products. The same is seen emphasized in University education which is no longer viewed as a good in itself, but also as the stepping-stone into a higher level of the job market, where the student expects a concrete monetary return, and consequently in this perception and thus the University of today is expected to be in tune with the emerging needs of the society (Yash Pal, 2009).

158

In the backdrop of the above scenario, it is worth mentioning that the main challenges pertaining to the higher education were very well taken into the account while formulating the framework of the Central University of Rajasthan as reported in the concept paper (Salunkhe M.M., 2009) and some of the important ones are restated below: •

•

•

•

The statistics pertaining to the higher education indicate that still there is good scope for starting the Engineering and Medical schools, Agricultural Sciences in the Universities that would also ensure their integration with the other faculties. Very few Universities have oriented towards the course curriculum in the newly emerging areas such as Actuarial Science, Foreign Trade, Enterprise Management and Policy formulations, Food Science, Master of Valuation etc. It also reveals that there is a gap between what is acquired in the classroom and what is required by the industry. Absence of contemporary curriculum and involvement of stakeholder’s ion curriculum development.

In addition to the above mentioned pitfalls there were few more observations noted from other references. Few of the important ones are mentioned here. (Kapur and Mehta, 2004) in their paper examine the political economy of Indian higher (tertiary) education wherein the key argument is de facto privatization on a massive scale. The authors put forth their analysis as follows: “Further this privatization is not a result of changing ideological commitments of the key actors—the state, the judiciary or India’s propertied classes. Rather, this privatization has resulted from a breakdown of the state system. As a result, it is a form of privatization whose ideological and institutional underpinnings remain very weak. Instead of being part of a comprehensive program of education reform, much of the private initiative

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

remains hostage to the discretionary actions of the state. As a result, the education system remains suspended between over-regulation by the state on the one hand, and a discretionary privatization that is unable to mobilize private capital in productive ways. The result is a sub-optimal structuring of higher education. The most potent consequence of this is a secession of the middle class—ironically the very class whose interests these institutions were supposed to serve—from a stake in public institutions.” The new central Universities such as Rajasthan Central University have a wide scope in this scenario as there was ample scope for policy formation right from the scratch. Taking advantage of the same, the Central University of Rajasthan, a newly established central university, has taken some initiatives which are discussed later in the present chapter. However before taking a stock of the same it is worthwhile to present notable initiatives at the Shivaji University, Kolhapur.

5. PROLOGUE OF THE INITIATIVES: OUT OF BOX INVENTIVENESS AT THE STATE UNIVERSITY The Shivaji University was established in 1962 and named after the Great Maratha Warrior and Founder of the Maratha Empire, Chhatrapati Shivaji. It was inaugurated on 18th November, 1962 by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the President of India. The jurisdiction of Shivaji University extends to three districts in Maharsahtra, viz., Kolhapur, Sangli and Satara. The above referred cities figures prominently in the socio-economic, cultural and artistic life of southern part of India and have a rich cultural heritage. Kolhapur, Sangli and Satara are the cities of great antiquity, which has been able to maintain their ancient celebrity and distinction almost uninterruptedly. Thus raised in 1000 acres, in the backdrop of captivating cultural heritage, the Shivaji University itself is an achievement in the academic and scholarly spheres of the Maharashtra (About Shivaji University, 2012, para. 1).

The first author had taken immense initiatives at Shivaji University on IPR front and to protect the vital interests of the cobblers and the chappal artisans of Kolhapuri Chappal of Kolhapur by protecting their brand name. The Kolhapur Chappal is one of the major artifacts produced in this region and it is necessary that it gets GI and brand protection. The university took initiatives along with the Central Labour Institute, Chennai to provide new technological inputs to the chappal manufacturers. (Salunkhe M.M., Shivsandesh5, 2006) On the academic front, keeping the students as the central concern and ensuring all round development of the students was the sole agenda. Towards that end, the University had initiated many new schemes including placement cell, earn and learn scheme, giving them insurance cover and access to internet as well as other ICT facilities. In the era of globalization, in order to inculcate the needs of the time, the ICT facilities were also practiced for launching certain facilities for the students. On-line admission procedure through internet was introduced for the first time in this rural centric University. This has really opened a new vista by offering unique opportunity to the students even from the remote areas to take admission in the University nevertheless by saving not only their time but also their energy. The main purpose behind these initiatives is to equip the students with new skills and capacities, academically enrich them with advanced knowledge of the subject and to create awareness in their minds about emergence of competitive world. Moreover the Department of Technology of its first kind in the state of Maharashtra was instituted on the campus itself in view of the horizontal mobility and cultivation of the cross-disciplinary interaction and collaboration with the science and management science departments. In order to increase the access, the Center for Distance Education was founded to enrich and strengthen distance education activities. This was because a large number of students would like to opt for this mode and the University wanted to reach out to them by providing them with quality study material. The university had 159

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

entered into agreement with internationally famous Indira Gandhi National Open University for that purpose. Extraordinary initiatives were also taken so that the University enters into the agreements with some international institutes in order to enrich and deepen the research program and to raise the standards of out courses in the field of science and technology. Especially the Memorandum of Understanding with Hanyang University of South Korea which is situated at capital city of South Korea-Seoul turned out to be very much instrumental in research and development for the departments of Physics and Chemistry of the University. The collaboration with the Asia Institute of Technology, Thailand has yielded good dividends for the Department of Technology on the campus. Collaboration with Sabargamuva University, Srilanka enabled the Shivaji University to start teaching programs in Sinhala and Hindi in Kolhapur and Srilanka. Thus par say these international collaborations no doubt introduces the element of change in the research and teaching activities and provide much needed incentive for innovation in these areas. This also enables the students to get acquainted with research and teaching of international standards and may engender in them much needed competitiveness and the spirit of adventure. All these path breaking initiatives were the need of the hour looking at the very situate of the Shivaji University which is placed in a unique position because it has to cater to the demands of urban areas as well as rural areas and it can not confine itself to rural areas at the cost of urban areas or vice versa. In fact, a best linkage was established to bring students from the rural and urban areas on the same platform and given them intensive training so that both of them can acquire basic skills. There were certain special concerns and problems of the students from rural areas such as poor soft skills which were tackled by taking up the initiatives such as “Project Genesis” from Infosys Inc. No wonder this previous work has

160

had its reflection while forming the strategic frame work of the Central University of Rajasthan. With the background in place, the following section now deals directly with the work undertaken at the Central University of Rajasthan.

6. INVENTIVENESS OF THE CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF RAJASTHAN In its endeavor to provide education to all parts of Rajasthan, the State Government of Rajasthan has introduced many policies which facilitate higher education for the weaker and poor sections of the society, as well as for those students who reside in rural areas. There are around 118 arts and science colleges, and 27 universities in Rajasthan. As far as Higher Education is concerned, there are around 22 universities in Rajasthan at present, offering all kinds of Graduate, Post-Graduate degrees, professional and vocational courses. Most of the universities are members of the Association of Indian Universities. Some of them are the state universities, while eight others are the deemed universities. Central University of Rajasthan is one of the twelve new central universities established in 2009 by the Government of India by an Act of Parliament, The Central Universities Act 2009. It is fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India through University Grants Commission. The University presently offers 14 PG programs in various schools of studies and has planned six new PG programs from July 2012. It is a non-affiliating type residential university, with most students and staff residing on the campus. It is noteworthy here that before formulating the academic and administrative framework, feedback of the stakeholders was taken by using the ICT. A blog was launched to accomplish the same as described briefly in the following section.

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

6.1 Democratizing the Field of Higher Education ‘Blogging’-a contraction of the term ‘web logging’-is perhaps best described as a form of micro-publishing. Easy to use, from any Internet connection point, blogging has become firmly established as a web based communications tool (Williams & Jacobs, 2004). Blogs are a relatively recent Internet phenomenon, dating from the late 1990s. They have evolved along similar lines to other forms of human communication in that they are a product of convenience rather than design. Based on the reverse chronological posting of news items, invariably containing hyperlinks to third party sites, and an opportunity for readers to enter personal responses to articles, this otherwise quite organic and unstructured format of delivering information via the World Wide Web (WWW) came to be known as ‘blogging’, after ‘web log’ was abbreviated to ‘blog’ (Jacobs J., June 2004). Blogs began as primarily personal diaries, they have now morphed into powerhouses of opinion and information, as they are ideal for publishing rich information on any topic, no matter how big or how small. Blogs are used to consolidate resources that may otherwise be shared through an excessive number of emails to advocate a position or personal points of view, to cover areas of interest too small for print publishing and for news and commentary or any topic or area that requires frequent updating (Whitney, 2005). While blogs of all kinds abound today on the Internet, most are personal or journalistic. As depicted in (Godwin-Jones, 2002, pp.12-16), however, there has been increasing interest in using blogs in education. Blogs are well suited to serve as on-line personal journals for students, particularly since they normally enable uploading and linking of files. Language learners could use a personal blog, linked to a course, as an electronic portfolio, showing development over time. By publishing the blog on the Internet, the student has the possibility of writing for readers beyond classmates, not usually

possible in discussion forums. As investigated in (Dickey, November 2004), blogs afford a range of discourse opportunities for spatially distant learners, further research needs to be conducted to explore fully the potential of the use of blogs. A discourse analysis of community blog postings would likely yield information about the dynamics of learner interaction patterns. There is also a need to examine further the conceptual framework of learners in different web-based distance learning environments to determine ways in which these tools might be most effectively used. The author has expressed the need of detailed investigations of this discourse media that may provide researchers with a better understanding of how learners interact with each other and their learning environment. Further as per (Duffy and Burns, 2006), in a ‘socially mobile learning environment’, it is no longer sufficient to use online learning and teaching technologies simply for the delivery of content to students. A ‘digital literacy’ exists where flexible and mobile technologies must be explored for collaborative and (co)creative purposes, as well as for the critical assessment and evaluation of information. It is imperative to explore the educational possibilities of blogs (See Figure 1), wikis and RSS feeds, the new content development and management technologies for the benefit of learners. However, in spite of such a long developmental history and the reported usage of blogs, in various domains of higher education, there are no reported instances as regards to its exploitation for policy making of the Institutes of Higher Learning. With an aim to setup a central university in every state of the country, the Union Cabinet cleared a proposal to establish 12 new central varsities in the year 2008. Accordingly The Central University of Rajasthan was established by an Act of Parliament (Act No. 25 of 2009) on 20th March 2009 as a Central University. The “objects of the University” as envisaged in the Central Universities Act 2009 are:

161

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

Figure 1. Hits on the blogs of Central University of Rajasthan (Retrieved July 15, 2012, from http:// mmsalunkhe.wordpress.com/)

To disseminate and advance knowledge by providing instructional and research facilities in such branches of learning as it may deem fit to provisions for integrated courses in humanities, social sciences and technology in its educational programmes; to take appropriate measure for promoting innovations in teaching-learning process and interdisciplinary studies and research, to educate and train man-power for the development of the country; to establish linkages with industries for the promotion of science and technology; and to pay special attention to the improvement of the social and economic conditions and welfare of the people, their intellectual, academic and cultural development. The new Central universities were specifically created with a mandate of world class standards. These new Universities were supposed to be the model for the others to follow the suite. The other desired feature for such Universities were • • • • • • • 162

All India Admissions Course Credits Regular Syllabi Revision Incentives for Faculty Strong Linkage with Industry and Research Institutions No Affiliated Colleges Outsource Non-Teaching Functions

Thus the newly formed central universities right from their conception and inception were expected to work on the professional lines. With such diversified objectives, it was quite but natural to utilize the technological means to get the feel of the stakeholders in order to carve the policy of the new Central University. As the Central University of Rajasthan was to be built from the scratch, the blog was thought of as the only simplest measure to get the feedback of the stakeholders. With the above mentioned objective, the blog was started much before initializing the framework of the central university of Rajasthan to seek the opinion of the stakeholders. Now, the reflection of the issues discussed over the blog is definitely seen in the academic and administrative framework of the University as detailed in the following sections.

6.2 Infrastructure, Facilities, and Fee Structure The University has its temporary campus at Kishangarh, in Ajmer District of Rajasthan, the biggest state of India. It is situated on Ajmer-Jaipur highway (NH-3), at a distance of about 100 km from Jaipur, the capital of state of Rajasthan and is about 35 km from Ajmer. The permanent campus of the University is coming up on 520+ acres of land near Bandar Sindri, also on Ajmer-Jaipur Highway, at a distance of about 80 km from Jaipur.

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

Most of the presently offered PG programs are being conducted at the permanent campus. The campus has separate hostels with mess facilities for boys and girls. Smart class rooms, Computer labs, well-equipped laboratories with all modern instruments for science programs, 1 GB connectivity, on-line availability of various data bases and library resources, bank with ATM, etc are among other facilities available on the campus. The Vision of the University is to aspire to be one of India’s most dynamic and vibrant universities, responsive to the changing global trends, providing unparallel educational opportunities for the learner community, especially for those coming from the lower socio-economic strata of the society seeking quality education. In keeping with this vision and with an objective of inclusion, the fees structure for all the programs has been kept minimum. Thus for example, on an average, the fees for MA/MSc programs are Rs. 4480/- p.a. while fees for MBA/MTech programs are Rs. 13,780/- p.a. (excluding the refundable deposit) These can be compared with other Universities/ colleges where the fees are higher by 2 to 20 times. The SC/ST/PWD students are exempted from the tuition fees. The hostel fees are only Rs. 1800/- per semester, while the mess facilities are run by the students, with infrastructure and utensils provided by the University. The fee structure is thus specifically designed so that the professional education being disseminated by the Central University of Rajasthan should be affordable to the student coming from lower socio-economic strata of the society.

6.3 Some Unique, Innovative, and Futuristic Academic Programs The University has strived hard to ensure that all its academic programs are unique, futuristic in nature and have high job potential. Some of these programs are discussed here.-M.Sc. Tech. Mathematics and M.A./M.Sc. Statistics (Actuarial)

As per the mandate given by the MHRD, the University decided to launch some academic programs in 2009, in the very year of its establishment in collaboration with Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur on its campus. In view of the limitations of a newly born university, and taking into consideration the views expressed by the stakeholders on the blog and in personal consultations, the University decided to introduce two PG programs, in Mathematics and Statistics. Though PG programs in Mathematics and Statistics are offered in most Universities and many institutions, the main concern felt was that the job opportunities for students of these programs were limited, especially in organizations other than academics. On the other hand, students with background in computer science had better opportunities. It was also noted that students of computer science with sound knowledge in mathematics can do better in industries and banking institutions. Hence, it was decided to launch M.Sc. Tech. Mathematics which was a combination of mathematics and computer science. It is equivalent to M.Sc. (Maths) and M.Sc. (Computer Science). The main intention of this Programme is to educate the human resource required to deal with the problems faced by software industry through comprehension of Mathematics and scientific computational techniques. The curriculum is interdisciplinary in nature and course contents provide a broad understanding of the different aspects of mathematics and computer applications. It is a 6-sem-3-year program, which has enhanced job potential offering opportunities not only in academic institutions but also in banking and other corporate organizations. The program has an exit option at the end of two years with M.Sc. Mathematics. Actuarial science is all about application of mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries. It includes multidisciplinary and diversified branches like probability and economics. The practical component of the course comprises of application

163

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

of Stochastic Models using simulation with high speed computing in order to construct various tables. This is required to determine the premiums of different types of insurance contracts, even in the incidence of suspicions prevailing to the risk factors. In such a complex decision making process, statistical techniques play a vital role. A sound statistical background endows with a firstrate base for the integrated aspects of finance, economics, risk management and insurance. A post graduate statistics course oriented towards Actuarial Statistics is not available in many educational institutes in India. Expertise in Actuarial Statistics is globally appreciated and provides opportunities for employment in financial sector. Graduates in Statistics with adequate background in actuarial science are in greater demand globally. The University, therefore, decided to introduce M.Sc./M.A. Statistics (Actuarial) program. This course is meant to provide basic concepts of statistics, mathematics, insurance and help in acquiring analytical skills to pursue a profession in financial sector. Thus while thinking about instillation of professionalism in Higher Education, the courses such as Actuarial Science have a bigger role to play looking at the scarcity of human resource in this area. It was observed that the India had only about 800 actuaries, with many of them above the age of 60 and large number of them settled abroad. The actual number of experts in the field of actuarial science is therefore much less. (Traverso, 2012) As against this, England has nearly 6000 actuaries. The full fledged actuaries, who have cleared 14 papers of the examination of Actuarial Society of India command annual pay packages in the range of crores. Even those who have cleared less number of papers get job offers with packages in lakhs. With India going in for globalization and liberalization in a big way, there is much need of a large number of actuaries. The objective of the programme is to provide requisite knowledge of probability, statistics and actuarial science thus helping one to acquire analytical skills to pursue

164

a profession in insurance/financial sector and also prepare the students for research in actuarial statistics.The students of this program are also able to appear simultaneously for maximum of three papers of Examination of Institute of Actuaries of India (IAI) and Licentiate Examination of Insurance Institute of India.

Masters Programs in English and Hindi After reviewing the initiatives of introducing professional academic programmes in Science faculty, it is worthwhile to have a look at Masters programmes in Languages. Language is at the core of Human Consciousness and knowledge. It is all pervasive from the day to day living to academics, from passive recipient of information and entertainment to the active professional lives in offices, universities, colleges, school to media. The studies in languages over a period became more and more tilted towards literary works and the communicative aspects were relegated to the background. In recent times we have seen a growing apathy towards language studies among the college going students. Apart from its importance in literary terms, a language is multi-functional and is used in multiple contexts – communication, diplomacy, power, art and ideas amongst many others. The human being is a language animal and both memory and time (in the sense of past, present and future) are dependent on it as a medium. It is used for rhetoric, political persuasion, assertion and media. Therefore, to ensure better job opportunities for the students of MA-English, following objectives were set: 1. To impart essential knowledge of literary forms, movements and trends in contemporary theory and interdisciplinary extensions; 2. To train the students to use their expertise for careers in journalism, translation, translation for newspaper syndics, performative art and film criticism, publishing, scriptwrit-

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

3. 4. 5.

6.

ing and for academic careers in English, Comparative Literature and Cultural Studies Departments/Centers; To equip them for higher specialization in the above areas; To facilitate careers in creative writing; To equip them for research in interdisciplinary areas such as tribal, diasporic, cultural, historical and anthropological fields; To sensitize them towards contemporary areas of conflict and human rights.

The present course of MA in Hindi tries to highlight the communicative aspect of language as even after almost two decades of large scale recruitment of translators and Hindi officers, greater job opportunities in Newspapers and Television channels, the quality of language use has not improved. New policies of education are emphasizing the vocationalization of higher education. Consequently, many courses on Functional Hindi, Vocational Hindi, etc. have been introduced by many universities, but have not become as popular among students as they should have been. The Central University of Rajasthan has introduced this first of its kind post graduate programme which would be an integrated progamme having emphasis on various vocational skills and would also integrate literature and linguistics so that the students would be able to find jobs by joining various types of occupation or go for interdisciplinary higher studies/research. This postgraduate course covers several areas with the following objectives in mind: 1. To impart essential knowledge of literary forms, movements and trends in contemporary theory and interdisciplinary extensions; 2. To train the students to use their expertise for careers in journalism, translation, interpretation, advertising and corporate communication, performative art such as

3. 4. 5.

6.

news reading and theatre, Radio, television and film writing and production, publishing, as well as academic careers in Hindi language teaching, Comparative Literature and Cultural Studies; To equip them for higher specialization in the above areas; To facilitate careers in creative and professional writing; To equip them for research in interdisciplinary areas such as mass communication, language, cultural studies, comparative literature and other fields; To sensitize them towards contemporary issues.

In addition to above, the following academic programmes have also been started in the Central University of Rajasthan to nurture professionals and thus may be viewed as a part of the evolving corporate strategies in developing countries like India. •

•

MA-Culture & Media Studies: In view of the regional needs, this program of the University focuses on Rajasthan culture. However, it also prepares the students in media studies as well to improve their employability not only in areas related to culture but also in areas related to stage, films, television and print media. MSc-Chemistry program of the University has specialization in green chemistry. With global trends in finding chemical processes which are either benign or less polluting, the demand for green chemistry is bound to increase in future. To out knowledge, the University is first to introduce specialization in green chemistry at PG level in a university. The students can take relevant supplementary credits from MAEconomics and MBA.

165

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

•

•

•

•

166

MA-Economics: In tune with the underlying theme of sustainability, the emphasis of this program is on Enviro-economics. The environment friendly practices in every field have become essential and have to be made economically viable. A chemist will be better placed to advocate an environment friendly chemical process backed by strong economics. M.A. Public Policy, Law and Governance: This programme seeks to introduce students to the study of policy-making and implementation processes to create improved understanding of events happening in society. It will help students in sharpening their powers of analysis and judgment. The programme will contribute to acquisition of analytical skills that can help in informing policy choices. For this reason democratic context of policy choices will be explored foregrounding the issues of liberty and justice. In addition, the MA programme should equip the students with skills to evaluate and assess programmes and projects. MSc-Computer Science & MTechComputer Science & Engineering: The two programs are very futuristic in nature, in keeping with present global trends in the fields. MSc-CS has emphasis on Artificial Intelligence while the MTech program has emphasis on Information Security. MBA: Recent times have seen increased rush for this degree. However, the University has made conscious efforts to make this program more relevant to the present needs. In addition, the program also takes into consideration the regional needs. As everyone is aware, Rajasthan attracts maximum tourists because of its rich royal architectural heritage. Besides, its traditional music and folk dances are also a great attraction. No wonder, travel, tourism

Figure 2. Category wise distribution of students at Central University of Rajasthan

and hospitality are important industries in Rajasthan which is also known for family business. MBA program of the University therefore includes courses on entrepreneurship, tourism, and hospitality. While discussing the academic programmes, it is also worthwhile to discuss the ‘dual degree’ model adopted by the Central university of Rajasthan. For instance, in the United States, it is widely believed that today’s graduates will change profession many times before their retirement. It is also widely believed that some of these professions have not yet been created. Consequently, higher education leaders have intensified their emphasis on interdisciplinary curricula and their call for joint degree programs. The number of joint degree programs is increasing and future demands on higher education most likely will compel institutional leaders to encourage this kind of collaboration (Michael and Balraj, 2003). However, in India still the model is long way to go in the institutes of higher learning. In Central University of Rajasthan, the dual degree program is commenced for M.Sc. in Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Microbiology. The first two semesters of these three PG programs are common. The 3rd and 4th semesters have specialization related to the

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

Figure 3. Demographic profile of the students

chosen subject. After obtaining a first PG degree, a student can therefore opt for second PG degree by doing additional two semesters in another subject of specialization. Thus, the student can get two PG degrees in three years. In addition to the professional development, it is equally important for a University campus to exhibit national character. However, as a new university, it was not easy to get the students from different parts of the country. Nevertheless, by conducting admissions on all India basis, the University has succeeded to get students from 17 states for the year 2011-12. The present faculty members are from 12 different states. Further to bring in an element of healthy competitiveness amongst the students and to get the best students from all over the country, the admissions are made through Central Universities Common Entrance Test (CUCET) which is conducted at various centers throughout the country (See Figure 2 and Figure 3). Thus for example, CUCET-2011 was conducted at 32 different centers thereby offering opportunities to students from various places.

7. CONDUCT OF THE ACADEMIC PROGRAMS The Central University of Rajasthan follows Semester System and Choice Based Credit System which is now becoming a regular feature of most of the Universities in India. The advantage of this system is that it allows a student to take some courses of his choice even from other programs across disciplines. Thus a student of Environmental Science can take a few credit from MBA or even Culture & Media Studies. Besides, it also provides opportunity to fast learners to take additional credits and a slow learner to study at his own pace. However in addition to these routine features, it is sensible to evaluate the significance of the bridge courses which is highlighted in the following paragraph. The students admitted to the University come from different parts of the country and have different academic backgrounds. It is necessary to bring them on common level so that they can pursue their studies without difficulty. Immediately after admission, the faculty interacts with the students to find out in which area they are weak. They are then offered tailor-made bridge courses to help them

167

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

Figure 4. Impact of bridge course on the performance of the students

come up to common platform. Thus, for example students, especially from the Hindi belt, found weak in English, are given a bridge course in that language. Similarly, a student with background in biological sciences admitted to a program in Biotechnology/Microbiology/Biochemistry is offered a bridge course in Mathematics and Physics while a student admitted to the same programs but not having background in biological sciences offered bridge courses in biology. Figure 4 shows the impact of bridge course on the performance of the students of MA/MSc-Statistics (Actuarial). With a view to provide wide exposure in the field, the concerned departments have freedom to invite experts not only from well known institutions like JNU, IISc, IIT, IIM, TIFR, TISS and other Universities but also from corporate and industrial organizations. Thus, professionals from media are invited to teach some courses to the students of program in Culture & Media Studies. The University also appoints eminent persons under the ENCORE Scheme of UGC for a period which can be extended to one year. The Central University of Rajasthan also gives more emphasis on practical training by of-

168

fering the students opportunities to avail summer internships. The University considers practical, hands-on training to the students as an important component even in the programs in which internships are not conventionally prescribed in the curricula. It therefore takes extra efforts to ensure summer internship of about six weeks to all the PG students of the University, including the students of programs of English, Economics, MBA, etc. Thus, the University has ensured 100% summer training to all its students so far, which were placed in reputed academic, research, industrial, business organizations and media establishments through out the country. A team of faculty members, together with faculty/student representatives from each department, have been entrusted with the job. It must be admitted here that as the University is new, the number of students to be placed for summer training has so far been relatively low, in the range of few hundreds. However, the University plans to ensure 100% summer placements for all the willing students even in future. With a view of to provide wide exposure and practical training, the University has entered into Memorandum of Understanding with several or-

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

ganizations of repute. Thus, under the MoU with Institute of Social & Economic Change (ISEC), Bangalore, the students of Department of Statistics could avail training at that Institute. Some of the other organizations with whom MoUs have been signed are: • • •

A3 Logics Jaipur (Training & Placements) Gorno Altaisk State University, Russian Federation Genpact (Summer Internship and Placements)

The initiatives and attempts described above has really resulted in inculcation of professionalism amongst the students as evident from their placement scenario. It in noteworthy that 9 out of 20 students of MA/MSc-Statistics (Actuarial) in 2009 1nd 2010 were able to clear 1 to 3 papers of examination of Institute of Actuaries of India, while 6 students cleared Licentiateship Examination of Insurance Institute of India. Even the students of the first batch of Statistics were selected for international companies like Swiss Re, Edelweiss Tokyo, etc. and many national companies. The University also introduced ‘Work on Demand’ scheme to provide work experience and financial assistance to the students who are provided work of maximum 20 hrs per week on demand. Further the Students have been encouraged to participate in national/ international conferences, workshops, seminars etc. For attending national events, students are reimbursed 50% of the travel expenses. Students and faculty as well as other stakeholders of the University are also encouraged to share their experiences through the online news bulletins such as e-curaj and astitva6.Unique initiative such as ‘Tea with the Guest’ could bring even the Magsaysay award winner Mrs. Aruna Roy to the University campus (Annual Report: Central University of Rajasthan, 2011-12).

8. EPILOGUE In today’s global era of competition, change has become foreseeable and so it has also become the art of endurance and sustained advancement. The pivotal role of the University in fostering the augmentation of talents of the students has become more multidimensional and varied in the process of moulding the careers of the students, as well serving the rapidly changing needs and aspirations of the society at large. Taking into account, the challenges ahead, the authors have considered to initiate innovations and reforms in the University system in a transparent manner to make the system more flexible and adaptable to meet changing needs as well in the process and to make it more student-friendly and also to increase the access as well as quality of higher education, so as to serve the students in a manner most appropriate to the needs of the current and future requirements of the society at large. Accountability, rationality, transparency and process simplicity are the key elements of these reforms initiated. The authors through there initiatives have thus tried to inculcate professionalism in higher education paradigm by setting off number of out of box initiatives. The same is evident from the reported scholarly literature by the authors (Salunkhe & Kamat, 2009, University News), (Salunkhe, APQN, NAAC, 2006), (Pujar & Kamat, DESIDOC, 2009) and (Pujar et.al., Information & Library Review, 2008). In order to conclude, we resort to the excerpt by (Marginson, 2000). also cited by (Walker, 2001) There is no subjugation so complete as that which preserves the forms of freedom, remarked Rousseau. ‘It is thus the will itself is taken captive’. (quoted in Marginson, 2000, p.199) Thus the initiatives inculcated at Shivaji University, Kolhapur – primarily a state University and further at the Central University of Rajasthan reported through this book chapter portrays that inculcation of professionalism in the realm of

169

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

Higher Education is doable irrespective of the extent of resources and other hurdles which might be triumph over with positive mindset of the academicians and administrators. Thus looking at the growing perception of the higher education as public goods it is now utmost imperative to persuade all the stakeholders to instill the professional approach inorder to survive and compete in the era of globalization.

Godwin-Jones, R. (n.d.). Emerging technologies: Blogs and wikis: Environments for on-line collaboration. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 12-16. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/ vol7num2/emerging/

REFERENCES

Jacobs, J. B. (2004). Exploring the use of blogs as learning spaces in the higher education sector. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 20(2), 232–247.

Anand, A. (2012, May 04). Higher education in India at a glance: UGC report. India Education Review. Retrieved from http://www.indiaeducationreview.com/features/higher-education-indiaglance-ugc-report Balraja, S. O. (2003). Higher education institutional collaborations: an analysis of models of joint degree programs. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 25(2), 131–145. doi:10.1080/1360080032000122615 Bender, F. W. (2008). American higher education transformed, 1940-2005: Documenting the national discourse. USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Central University of Rajasthan. (2011-12). Annual report of the Central University of Rajasthan. Rajasthan, India: Central University of Rajasthan. Dickey, M. D. (2004, November). The impact of web-logs (blogs) on student perceptions of isolation and alienation in a web-based distancelearning environment. Open Learning, 19(3), 40–45. doi:10.1080/0268051042000280138 Ernest & Young. (2009). Making the Indian higher education system future ready. India: FICCI Higher Education Summit.

170

Jacobs, J. (June 2004). Communication over exposure: The rise of blogs as a product of cybervoyeurism. In C. Hatcher, T. Flew, & J. Jacobs (Eds.), 2003 Australian and New Zealand Communication Association Conference Proceedings.

Kamat, M. S. (2009). Democratizing the higher education ploicy formulation by exploring the use of blog. University News. Kerr, C. (2001). The uses of the university (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Marginson, S. (2000). Research as a managed economy. In Coady, T. (Ed.), Why universities matter. St Leonards, UK: Allen and Unwin. Mehta, D. K. (2004, September). India higher education reform: From Half-Baked Socialism to Half-Baked Capitalism. Retrieved from Center for International Development, at Harvard University Working Paper No. 108: http://www.hks.harvard. edu/centers/cid/publications/faculty-workingpapers/cid-working-paper-no.-108 Ministry of Human Resource Development. (2007). Annual report 2006-2007. Mohan, R. (2008, July 5). Higher education in India - Its drawbacks and suggestion for reforms. Retrieved from http://EzineArticles. com/?expert=Rajesh_Mohan Peter Duffy, A. B. (2006). The use of blogs, wikis and RSS in education: A conversation of possibilities. Online Learning and Teaching Conference, (pp. 31-38). Brisbane.

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

Pujar, S. M., & Kamat, R. K. (2009). Libraries a key to harness e-learning: Issues and perspectives. DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 29(1).

Traverso, L. (2012). The current status of the Indian actuarial profession. Retrieved from http:// www.aktuaris.org/images/upload/File/12%20 Lesley_Traverso_01.pdf

Pujar, S. M., Kamat, R. K., Bansode, S. Y., Kamat, R. R., & Katigennavar, S. H. (2008). Identifying and exploiting human needs for a people centric evolving knowledge society: A case study of Indian ICT emergence. The International Information & Library Review, 40(3), 165–170. doi:10.1016/j. iilr.2008.07.003

Walker, M. (2001, 11 October). Debates in higher education. University College London Higher Education, Critical Professionalism and Educational Action Research. Retrieved from www.ucl. ac.uk/cishe/seminars/dhe_papers/MWpaper.doc

(2002). Report of the Committee on India: Vision 2020. New Delhi, India: Planning Commission. Salunkhe, M. M. (2006). Best practices to activate students participation in quality assurance. APQN & NAAC Organized International Conference September 16-17, 2006. Salunkhe, M. M. (2006, January). Shivsandesh. Shivaji University, Kolhapur. Retrieved from http://www.unishivaji.ac.in/shivsandesh/archive/ vol5jan06/vcdesk.htm

Whitney, D.-T. (2005). Blogs and RSS: Powerful information management tools. Library Hi Tech News, 22(10), 28–29. doi:10.1108/07419050510644374 YashPal. (2009). The committee to advise on renovation and rejuvenation of higher education. India: UGC-AICTE.

ENDNOTES 1



2



Salunkhe, M. M. (2009). Concept paper on Central University of Rajasthan. Retrieved from http:// www.curaj.ac.in Salunkhe, M. M., & Kamat, R. K. (2009). Democratizing the higher education policy formulation by exploring the use of blog. University News, A Journal of Higher Education by AIU, 47(40). Salunkhe, M. M., & Kamat, R. K. (2009). Leveraging technology for value-added evaluation in institutes of higher learning. University News, A Journal of Higher Education by AIU, 47(45). Shivaji University. Kolhapur. (2012). About Shivaji University. Retrieved from http://www. unishivaji.ac.in/aboutus.htm Tilak, J. B. G. (2004). Public subsides in the education sector in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 39(4), 343–359.

The well-organized deployment of financial, infrastructural and other resources in order to establish manage and monitor the institutes of higher learning in India in order to speed up the socio-economic and academic growth is accomplished through the five year plans. University Grants Commission (UGC) being the apex body undertakes the planning exercise for the institutes of higher learning through its working group on Higher Education constituted by Planning Commission. University Grants Commission’s report titled “Inclusive and Qualitative Expansion of Higher Education” has outlined major challenges in higher education in India and also suggested reforms for the XIIth Five Year Plan. More details are available at UGC website http://www.ugc.ac.in. More information regarding the National Knowledge Network (NKN) may be seen at web URL: http://mit.gov.in/content/ national-knowledge-network.

171

Instilling Ideology of Professionalism in University Education

3



4



172

‘Akash’ is a 7″ Android based Tablet recently released by The Indian Government and Canadian company Datawind. Updated statistics regarding the Higher Education in India may be seen on the website of University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, web URL: http://www.ugc.ac.in/ ugcpdf/208844_HEglance2012.pdf.

5



6



The noteworthy initiatives related to the Shivaji University are regularly posted in its e-bulletin widely circulated all over the globe. Details may be seen at URL: http:// www.unishivaji.ac.in/shivsandesh/archive. htm. The e-bulletins are accessible from the website of the Central University of Rajasthan at http://www.curaj.ac.in.

173

Chapter 12

Corporate Education in Universities in India N. Anand University of Madras, India

ABSTRACT Universities in India were started primarily as examination conducting bodies. It took a few years when academic programmes were initiated. The objective of university education especially in colleges was to train administrative personnel for government departments while there were academic departments in universities that concentrated on pure academic research. Gradually the universities became knowledge centres imparting quality education for all those who desired to enhance their knowledge in desired fields or take up employment in industries. In recent years, the requirement of university education was not just knowledge acquisition but employment oriented. Separation of the professional courses like engineering, medicine, law pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and management studies was a step towards job oriented education. The need to introduce job oriented courses in humanities and sciences became imminent as the number of job seekers increased several folds as years passed by.

INTRODUCTION The 157 year old University of Madras has recently making great efforts in the past decade to make the University education more meaningful and useful. Changes in the system of education first to semester system, introduction of choice based credit system, modifications in the examination

and evaluation systems first made the system student friendly. Recent developments have been the inclusion of experts from industries in the academic bodies to design the course contents to suit the requirements of the respective industries. The involvement of the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) in training the faculty to train in turn the students for employment is a recent

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch012

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Corporate Education in Universities in India

landmark to make the education in Universities beneficial to the stake-holders, the students. The chapter cites specific examples where corporate education has been a case of mutual benefit to the University and the Industry. The educational system in India has been undergoing a process of evolution in the last century. One of the characteristic features of the system is its adaptability and flexibility with reference to the requirements and needs of the changing times. A distinct line of semblance can be seen in the ancient and modern systems of education since the basic concept is to inculcate discipline and knowledge. The University system came into existence in the year 1857 with the founding of three Universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The three mother Universities later gave birth to several Universities within their jurisdiction. Currently we have the Central Universities, State Universities, Private Universities and Deemed to be Universities. The development of the Universities in the past few decades from simple examination conducting bodies to knowledge imparting centres has really been phenomenal. The University of Madras is taken as case study to showcase the modifications in the curriculum to first make the system student-employable and then on the road to corporate education. Several changes in the curriculum of higher education more knowledge oriented modifications were effected at regular intervals in the process of teaching and evaluation. Firstly, the language learning based courses were made subject oriented. The burdensome annual examination system gave way to semester system demanding more focus and hard work besides better teacher-student interaction. Continuous assessment component helped the students to prepare for the final examination. Yet, there have always been apprehensions about the employability of the students doing regular courses. This resulted in evolving newer subjects like management studies, econometrics, tourism,

174

political science to name a few in the humanities and biochemistry, biotechnology, microbiology, biophysics among the science subjects. Recent additions are bio-informatics and nano-science. The recent boom in the IT and industrial sectors necessitating quality assured skilled manpower has brought several changes in the academic programmes. It is pertinent to look into some significant changes. Recognition of role of industries in framing syllabi and modifications in basic academic bodies like Board of studies, inclusion of internship programmes, special training programmes for students during summer and winter vacation period are some of the aspects that have found a place in the reformed course contents. The ultimate aim has been the employability of students. The Choice Based Credit System equivalent to the credit system in vogue at several western Universities has been a rather student friendly and skill oriented programme. This system enables a horizontal mobility of students as they are able to take credits for subjects from different faculty. Soft skills like computer knowledge, personality development, spoken English and opportunity to learn foreign languages equip the students for immediate employment. A foundation for the corporate driven academic system has been laid.

Research in the University Departments The major activity of the departments of the University is research funded generally by the Government funding agencies like the University Grants Commission, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Departments of Science and Technology, Biotechnology, Earth Sciences, Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research and respective ministries. The departments and the Universities themselves get upgraded by the UGC based on the

Corporate Education in Universities in India

Table 1. Funds generated (in lakhs) by the Science faculty from various funding agencies:* School

UGC

DST

DBT

CSIR

ICMR

DES

Min. En

BRNS

Earth and Atmospheric Sciences

32.8

23.0

-

16.0

-

60.0

21.0

8.5

Chemical Sciences

69.3

148.0

65.4

9.5

-

-

-

-

Physical Sciences

18.0

43.5

94.3

-

13.9

-

-

6.8

Life Sciences

90.0

87.2

133.4

-

17.0

-

69.0

-

*data from the Annual Report of University of Madras 2010-2011

contributions to research. University of Madras was recognized as the University with potential for excellence with substantial funding by UGC. The University has three recognized Centres of Advanced Study namely, Botany, Biophysics and Mathematics and many departments are included under Special Assistance Programme with enhanced financial support. Besides research funding for departments there have been several scholarships for students to pursue research. Interdepartmental collaborative research programmes have also been fruitfully taken up. In the recent past considerable funding was obtained by the different departments of the University which enabled each of them to develop formidable infrastructure for research and teaching. It may be worth pointing out that huge funding through the government agencies was a big boon for the departments. The Science departments under the Schools of Earth Sciences, Chemical Sciences, Physical Sciences and Life Sciences received .Rs.209 lakhs. from University Grants Commission, Rs.298 lakhs from the Department of Science and Technology, Rs.273 Department of Biotechnology, Rs. 60 lakhs from Department of Earth Sciences and considerable amounts of grants from other agencies like CSIR, ICMR, DOD, BRNS and Ministry of Environment and Forests. Some of the departments obtained funding from industries and collaborative research programmes. The details of financial assistance obtained by various science departments are given in Table 1.

The Role of University Industry Community Interaction Centre (UICIC) In order to foster community development programmes and research collaboration among research departments and industries the University of Madras created the University Industry Community Interaction Centre (UICIC) in 1997. The major objectives of the centre are creation of database on the needs of industries for Industrial associateship programmes, coordination of R & D projects between industries and University departments, assistance to develop IPR and patents and offering training programmes and specialized continuing education programmes. A senior faculty member is the Dean of the UICIC. So far, about 300 projects, courses and training programmes to the tune of Rs. 6.74 crores have been operated. The UICIC gives flexibility to offer self-supporting courses, offer training programmes and easy accessibility to industrial collaboration. A list of industries that have sponsored research in various Departments in the University is given in Table 2. The faculty can take up external consultancy services through the UICIC. Certain specialized courses like PG Diploma in Stem Cell Technology and tissue engineering, Immunology and molecular biology, certificate in Karnatic music are offered under UICIC. The UICIC also helps faculty to file patents. One of the major achievements is the obtaining of a patent on “A Pharmaceutical Formulation from the Indian Medicinal Plant, Phyllanthus

175

Corporate Education in Universities in India

Table 2. Industries having sponsored research projects in the University of Madras through UICIC S.No

Name of the Industry

University Department

1

Malladi Research Centre

CAS in Botany

2

Abl Biotechnologies Ltd.

CAS in Botany

3

Orchid Pharmaceuticals

CAS in Botany

4

Amruthanjan

CAS in Botany

5

Aban Informatics Pvt. Ltd.

CAS in Botany

6

Reliance Industries Ltd.

CAS in Botany

7

Piramal Healthcare Ltd.

Medical Biochemistry

8

World Noni Research Foundation

CAS in Botany, Biochemistry

9

Aquagri Processing Pvt. Ltd.

Zoology

10

Five-Stat Coatings

Inorganic Chemistry

11

Sakthi Masala (P) Ltd.

CAS in Botany

12

Tajmahal Agro Industries

Medical Biochemistry

amarus for the Treatment of Hepatitis B and a process for its preparation”. Commercialization of the drug has been done by M/s.Rallis India (Ltd) and M/s Phytopharm Inc.,UK for marketing in India and other countries respectively. Several other patents have been filed by the Schools of Life-Sciences and Chemical Sciences.

University and Technology Business Incubator The role of Universities has been evolving gradually from initially being responsible to conducting exams, imparting knowledge, carrying out research, starting new courses making the students employable to ultimately make them as job providers from job seekers by setting up Technology Business Incubators. The Department of Science and Technology, Government of India has launched two important programmes, Science and Technology Entrepreneur Park (STEP) and Technology Business Incubators (TBI) in the early 1990s. The main aim

176

is to promote innovation and entrepreneurship in order to commercialize the University technologies through small and medium entrepreneurs. TBI provides the technology guidance to identified entrepreneurs in not only methodology but also consultancy in the legal aspects of technology transfer and IPR related points. Several Universities and institutions have established the TBIs with the financial help of the department of science and technology. The University of Madras has established the TBI as a joint venture with the Department of Science and Technology in the year 2006 with a project outlay of Rs. 4.97 crores (Annual Report, 2006). The objective was to facilitate growth of knowledge based enterprises in the fields of herbal science and products from biotechnological research. Innovations are paramount for the economic growth of a country. The TBI at University of Madras operates another programme called TePP (Technopreneur Promotion Programme), an initiative of the department of scientific and industrial research (DSIR) which enables empowerment of individuals with ideas. To have a wider reach of this program DSIR has established TePP outreach centres across the country. University of Madras is one such centre among the 31 centres identified in the country to unearth innovation from Indian public. The funding pattern of the government has been, up to Rs. 75,000 for the proof of the concept, up to Rs. 15 lakhs for prototype development and up to Rs. 45 lakhs for scale up support. The TePP Outreach Centre at TBI University of Madras has so far identified 34 innovators, mostly individuals. Innovations at TBI include in the areas of Health Care, Devices for physically challenged, energy conservation equipment, Security Management, Automation in Textile processing machinery, Biotechnology, new mobile applications. and Mechatronics etc. The innovators with varied backgrounds like retired engineers, working professionals, entrepreneurs, scientists and students in the age group of 22 years up to 70 years have

Corporate Education in Universities in India

availed the services of TePP Outreach Centre at University of Madras... Ten of the innovators have completed their innovations and five of them have created enterprises generating hundred jobs. The unique feature of this scheme is that the innovator will get the grant straight from Govt of India. The innovator will have the benefit of availing the expert advice and guidance from the experts identified from the reputed Institutes in Chennai during the course of the project execution. TBI has so far facilitated grants to 34 innovators for the executions of their projects.

Role of Corporate in the University The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)-Tamil Nadu made a State-level Skill Mapping Study, the first ever sector-specific employability survey and found that the best choices will be from the automotive, IT and IT enabled services, textiles, leather, light engineering, construction and financial services sectors. It has been assessed that the total incremental job creation in the next ten years would be around 13 million to 15 million and to bridge the demand-supply gap all stakeholders need to take a series of initiatives with the focus on improving both quality and quantity of the manpower available The higher education apparatus could generate around 4,00,000 skilled manpower annually but among these, around 40 per cent of graduates from the engineering pool and 70 per cent from the arts and science streams may not meet employability standards. The need of the hour is that the industries and academic bodies should implement a Cluster-based Skill Development Initiative to train manpower employed by a cluster. The requirement of a huge man power for the corporate sector has awakened the all those concerned with the utilization of the potential talents from the University system. The Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) has decided

to take major initiatives to make the educated youth more employable by strengthening the foundation of higher education in terms of quality and relevance to global market to ensure employment opportunities. A consortium was formed with the University of Madras and certain corporate companies. The consortium consisting of representatives from firms, including Satyam Computers, TCS, Cognizant, Scope International and Sutherland Global Services was formed and the CEO of Scope International remarked that the students will benefit from the industry content and experience and the companies in turn can recruit manpower from the talent pool created thereby reducing training cost after recruitment. It was agreed that the consortium would provide a platform for the industry to interact with the academia for increasing employability, besides catalysing joint initiatives to launch student development programmes. The consortium would assist the University in developing a soft skills curriculum, provide expert facilities for training students, set up an assessment process and institutionalise campus recruitment. In turn the University agreed to revamp the curriculum and include soft skills like spoken English, basic computer knowledge, and personality development in the syllabus of every UG and PG course. The consortium has already conducted training programme for over 1000 teachers of affiliated colleges under University of Madras under the Training of trainers programmes and the students are the beneficiaries. Another example is the 2 days National Expo on Student Innovation – Innovation to Implementation – (TECHKNOW-2010) by All India Manufacturers Organization at Anna University, Chennai. The purpose of programme was to encourage and show case the best projects done by Engineering College students to become an SELF EMPLOYED and organize possible support from Industrialists, Financial Institutions and Bankers and attach them with Industrial partners. A total

177

Corporate Education in Universities in India

number of 600 teams of students from various engineering colleges/institutions from Tamil Nadu parfticipated. The various engineering projects were scrutinized by a panel of jury cash awards ranging from Rs. 1.0 lakh to Rs. 10, 000 were presented.

CONCLUDING REMARKS It is very heartening to note that on one hand we see the most flexible academic system of the Universities ready to bring suitable changes for the stake holders, the students and the corporate on the other hand waiting to help and make use of the man power-a very healthy state of affairs. The corporate are keen to have quality man power from the educational system and may have a bigger role to develop and modify the existing systems.

178

ACKNOWLEDGMENT I thank Prof. R. Rengasamy, Director, CAS in Botany, Dr. Gangi Reddy, Managing Director, Technology Business Incubator and colleagues of University of Madras for help in the preparation of the article.

REFERENCES Report, A. (2006). University of Madras, academic year, 2005-2006. Retrieved from www.unom.ac.in Report, A. (2011). University of Madras, academic year, 2010-2011. Retrieved from www.unom.ac.in TECHKNOW. (2010). Innovation to implementation. TECHKNOW-2010, National Expo on Student Innovation, April, 2010, Anna University, Chennai.

Section 3

Preparing Professionals: Some Case Studies

180

Chapter 13

Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs: A Case Study Sandesh Kamath B. BioGenics, India Gireesh Babu K. BioGenics, India

ABSTRACT The Indian life science industry broadly comprises manufacturers and service providers. The manpower for both these sectors has to come through the institutes of higher education, mainly the universities. In order to create newer jobs, encouraging start-up enterprises is very much essential. The present day university life science education prepares graduates to work in a pre-set and defined industrial or academic set up. Planned and informed guidance, mentoring, and hand-holding are required for graduate students to inculcate the passion for an enterprise. During their coursework, igniting a flame of entrepreneurship, motivating them to become their own boss and creating conducive environment to establish a business could significantly contribute to the socio-economic growth of a society. The wellcoordinated efforts of industry heads, university professors, corporate associations, and governmental departments could bring about radical and far-reaching changes in setting-up industries by fresh biograduates. This case study throws light on how the existing system can modify its course work to achieve this goal and how an industry-academia-government alliance can play a significant role towards this initiative on entrepreneurship.

INTRODUCTION As an interdisciplinary subject, biotechnology or applied biology has wide applications in healthcare, agriculture, industrial and environmental domains. In India, these domains heavily rely on university system of education to cater to its manpower needs. The present syllabus based

graduation and post-graduation focuses on making a person technically informed and learned. Theory and practical sessions running hundreds of hours end up with score or grade-based evaluation system. After completion of post-graduation, students generally pursue their career in one of the three areas. Firstly, research leading to doctorate degree,

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch013

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs

secondly, manufacturing industry and thirdly, marketing biotech products and services. Very small percentage opts for PG degree like Master of Business Administration or Master of Science in universities. After Ph.D., commonly, the career continues in one of the two paths, either as a postdoctoral fellow or with a position in industry or academic/ research institute. We chose to take up biotech research, completed Ph.D., then the quite unusual path of self-employment and choose to set up a biotech enterprise. Here we discuss few issues on bio-entrepreneurship and how the present bio-education system, both at post graduate and doctorate level, can facilitate starting up of newer firms.

Issues and Challenges Small chunk of fresh life science post graduates/ bioengineers with entrepreneurship zeal, coming out of universities, could contribute to phenomenal growth of bio-industries. Suitable guidance and mentoring during the postgraduate course should inspire the prospective student to start and successfully run an enterprise. When one graduates out of this system, willing to start an industry, finds him in front of a puzzle square. The terms business, finance, market, does not mean anything beyond the dictionary definitions. Choosing an area of activity, out of what one has learnt- microbiology, botany, zoology, biochemistry, immunology, enzymology, bioinformatics, biostatistics, molecular biology, genetic engineering, demands panoptic exercises.

Business Plan and Funding Making a business plan provides overall view of the business proposition and future directions. But business plan preparation needs critical evaluation of market, vision for foreseeable future and understanding of investment matters. These were never a part of our classical study in the past; hence the efforts to generate an effective

business plan are entirely different from writing a laboratory experimental report. Any financing or investment in this field was viewed as “highly risky” by the conventional bankers. Self financing was the only available choice to make things happen. Newer biotech processes always attract the industry, producing quality products and providing cost advantages. Hence it was planned to set up a research laboratory to develop costeffective microbial processes. Since this goal is longwinded and slow rewarding, this laboratory was offered to students to expand their practical skills and thus making the business plan feasible and viable. This also gave a scope for interested students to work on desired area of biotechnology where they can shape their career and, revenue model was generated to make the firm viable. Immense potential lies in the biotech area to innovate and bring out novel processes and products. This was the driving force for us to get into research and development. The advantage we had was the previous work experience in the technology development projects and training the manpower to match the present day industrial needs. However, this would not even meet half of what is required to kick start a biotech firm. Schemes of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR – www.dsir.gov.in), business incubators of Ministry of micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME – www.dcmsme.gov.in) were few of the sources of support to which we looked at for anchoring, growth and to make the ends of circle meet.

University and Industry Collaboration We strongly believe nurtured university and industry collaboration can bring about considerable changes and a new environment promoting new biotech enterprises. Although this is a long felt need, few hurdles have to be cleared. For instance, the stakeholders- biotech academic institutes, industry associations and policy makers have different and quite contradictory views on

181

Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs

biotech entrepreneurship. The academic system often ‘creates’ an employee rather than employer. Industry associations and federations play significant role in protecting the interests of existing and well-developed companies. Government agencies encourage investments in medium-large industry, and small enterprise establishment by experienced or spin-off promoters. This situation was well reflected when our firm was floated and commenced operations. We found, it is very well-to-do as an employee rather than being an employer. The financials, operations, issues with market were found very much new. A very frequently confronted condition is “egg first or chicken first situation”. Financial institutions always rely on past performances and previous balance sheets for their lending commitments. A raw entrepreneur would never be prepared with such backgrounds and hence gets discouraged. We came across this situation in the early days of our venture when working capital and equity investment were the need of the hour. Unfortunately, commercial banks do not have any schemes appropriate for start-up bio-industry. And commercial bank personnel are not equipped to distinguish between a conventional manufacturing industry and bio-industry. Bio, being a R & D centered area, most of the R & D activities are supported by government funding agencies. Again, these funds allotted for private biotech companies are very trifling and according to the caliber demonstrated by the entrepreneur and evidence of past performance. The expectations from the funding agencies for bio area were high, however, criteria to qualify for funding was not supportive for start-up firms.

JOB to YOB (Your Own Business) The present day university biotech curriculum is oriented towards building a large technical force but lacks the dimension of generating the attitude for the innovation and other skills needed for building the career of their own. Our higher

182

education system churns out ‘job seekers’ than ‘job creators’. The entrepreneurial attitude is largely influenced by the environment provided from early youth. The collective efforts to induce the innovativeness, risk taking ability and planning to build a better career, have to be taken up at all levels of higher education. This entrepreneurial training is usually not covered in any of biotech courses, which are proving a major drawback for the successful venturing by the degree holders.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Bringing Stakeholders Together As briefed above, bringing together the stakeholders could solve major issues. A well- structured university education, participative biotech associations and facilitating government agencies could boost the number of biotech firms by enterprising graduates. Though the major biotech education is centered in colleges and universities, there are number of research centers managed by central and state governments, NGOs and for-profit companies. Along with the biotech graduates and postgraduates from universities, a significant number of Ph.Ds also comes out of these institutes. The entrepreneurship development training must be a part at all these stages of learning. A mechanism has to be developed wherein an aspiring bio entrepreneur coming out of institute as a graduate, postgraduate or as a doctorate must be in a trained situation and in a position to establish a bio firm without much of hurdles. This induction could be achieved by incorporating a specially designed curriculum on bio entrepreneurship in university and doctoral education. Universities must frame industry friendly syllabus matching with the modern day corporate speed. The students admitted to bio course must be encouraged to opt for this training

Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs

and a thorough project work must be stipulated for those who show promises. The curricula should involve major focus on process delivery, emphasis on ‘know-how’ and ‘know- who’. Few R& D organizations have initiated training on entrepreneurship. Human resource development group of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) conducts a “Technology led entrepreneurship” program (www.csirhrdg.res.in) for research scholars of university and research organizations. National Chemical Laboratory (NCL), Pune, has established NCL Innovations (www.nclinnovations.org). A Student club called NCL Technology and entrepreneurship club (NCL-TEC), translates student innovations and ideas to products and services. Such training and business plans thus developed must be backed by appropriate funding mechanisms to realize the bio potential. A student undergoing such optional course or project must also undergo internship to familiarize with the business environment. Mentoring and hand-holding support must be provided by the university faculty and industrial partners. Such guidance by university professors must be recognized by statutory bodies as equivalent to producing a Ph.D. or publishing a paper. This course should not solely focus on imparting knowledge about entrepreneurship but also must assist students to develop necessary impetus and competency. Important issues such as manufacturing and service, process development, validation, patenting, quality standards, quality certifications, patenting, licensing, technology transfer, regulatory issues, market analysis, sales & export potential, taxation and financial management must be assimilated. With this grooming, the potential entrepreneur must be able to focus on technical innovation to propel the bio industry ahead. In the process, the student must also learn to win and lose, as ups and downs are quite natural in business. Plenty of opportunity exists in the area of food & agricultural biotechnology, industrial biotechnology and medical biotechnology to

innovate and commercially exploit. These areas demand huge investment in terms of dedicated facilities, imported high end equipments and technical-literature support. To overcome this, an ecosystem must be evolved and developed by the university-research institute education system to provide an infrastructural support to emerging entrepreneurs. Business incubators within the university campus is a trendy and emerging concept to cater to the needs of entrepreneurs by providing the common workplace like animal house facility, cell culture facility, centralized instrumentation facility and library. The system must be encouraging, attractive, accommodating to the promising entrepreneur within the campus. Professional corporate bodies could play a significant role in creation of new bio enterprises by fresh graduates. There are apprehensions in the mind of the existing and well operated industry about the likely competition and challenges arising out of the newer enterprises. This will not only impede the growth of the bio industry, but also create a bottleneck for innovation and creativity. In a globalized era, the market-driven and demanddriven products and services always remain ahead in a race. Industry must come forward to enter into collaboration with start-ups for mutual benefit and growth. A win-win business situation must be evolved with continuous innovation and interaction. By sharing the real world simulations and experiences, industry must see that the student possess the required theoretical and practical business knowledge, skills and competences for self-employment. With a healthy and positive mindset, the industry must actively remain on board of education of university system and must provide useful inputs from market perspective. Human resource related needs and necessities of industry must be discussed and implemented in the curriculum. Also the bio business managers must periodically identify and update the priority areas to create business entities, market demand and help the university system to recognize business pulse.

183

Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs

Government has a facilitator role by creating entrepreneur friendly policies and schemes. Presently various central and state governmental agencies like Department of Science and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Micro Small and Medium Enterprises, Technology Development Board, District Industries Centre, National Research Development Corporation, have the mandate of promoting entrepreneurship. Industrial Financial institutions like Small Industries Development Bank of India must support entrepreneurs through their schemes. The solution for government support to bio entrepreneurs lies in bringing these agencies together on a single platform. These agencies, through their wide reach and available expertise, could technically and financially support a start-up firm. A few attempts like Venture centre (www.venturecenter. co.in) and Science & Technology Entrepreneurs Park- STEP (www.nstedb.com/institutional/step. htm) are excellent initiatives to bring these agencies to reach the needy.

Commercial banks must be proactive in reaching the technology based entrepreneur and lending a supportive hand in the form of seed capital. The case of Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) with Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)-Kanpur (www.iitk.ac.in) is a good example how a financial firm and academic institute could collaborate productively. ICICI bank had initiated the concept of Knowledge Park with the support of Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, which today has transformed itself into IKP knowledge park (www. iciciknowledgepark.com) facilitating business driven research and development. There are little examples of venture capital and angel capital investor for start ups in bio sector and this may take few years since the return on investment in R& D is relatively slow. Biotech business organizations like Association of biotech led enterprises (ABLE – www.ableindia.in) and Federation of Asian Biotech association (FABA) are making effort to bring-in the required equity investment (Bio-Asia,2010).

Much Needed Funding and Investment

Role of STEP-Like Organizations

Financing a bio firm or meeting its capital needs still remains to be a herculean task. A fresh biopostgraduate or research scholar with novel business concept or willing to commercialize a new technology often finds it very difficult to convince the financer. The conventional collateral finances are not an attractive or encouraging route for a new biotechnologist. Technology development and commercialization funds from the government agencies are excellent options to fresh venture. Such lending mechanisms must be simplified to provide equity support for fresh or first generation entrepreneur. Newer schemes in line with educational loan with long moratorium period may also be useful. Indirect financial incentives by the government like subsidies on purchase of instruments will be useful. Tax holidays for specified period and exemption on custom duty for start-up firms will provide the necessary impetus. 184

Centers like STEP, being a part of professional education system and acting as a single point facilitator, could significantly change the enterprising scenario. From making a business plan, registration of firm, getting finance, approvals, till commencement and smooth functioning of operations, all activities must be guided and formalized by this centre. As mentioned earlier, bio being a laboratory oriented and R&D centered domain, entrepreneur should not be made to run from pillar to post to meet the technical, financial and regulatory requirements. Any lacuna in meeting these requirements may seriously affect the business plan implementation or enterprising spirit of the promoter. The single point facilitator like STEP must ensure handholding, mentoring and supporting in such situations and instill mutual confidence. This center must also make appropriate moves in case of serious drawbacks such as non-functionality, misappropriation of

Preparing Bio-Entrepreneurs

funds or non-viability in order to make the exit plan and winding up of the firm without seriously affecting the entrepreneur. Such centres6 have been proven successful in case of non-bio sectors. Similar incubating models must also be extended to life science business activities through existing university system.

CONCLUSION India must capitalize on its large life science human resource pool by fostering entrepreneurship spirit. It demands a strategic interplay between the university education system, bio-companies and governmental regulatory and financial institutions. Government agencies and industry federations must take initiative to realize this potential and create a contributing environment. Creation of one point facilitator like Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Parks to encompass major bioeducation centers could considerably increase the number of bio firms. This will also propel the bio innovation, new - novel technologies and growth of bio industry, at large.

REFERENCES ABLE (Association of Biotech Led Enterprises). (2011). Bioinvest 2011- A snapshot. enABLE Newsletter, 8(12). Retrieved from http://ableindia. in/admin/attachments/newsletter/enable_dec11final.html

BioAsia. (2010). International venture funds perspective of funding life science startups in India. Panel discussion, Global Bio Business Forum, FABA (Federation of Asian Biotech Association), Hyderabad, February 3-6, 2010. CSIR (Council for Science and Industrial Research). (n.d.). Programme on technology led entrepreneurship. Retrieved from http://csirhrdg. res.in/tep.htm DSIR (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research). (n.d.). Technopreneur promotion programme. Retrieved March 12, 2010, from http:// www.dsir.gov.in/tpdup/tepp/tepp.htm IIT (Indian Institute of Technology). (n.d.). Kanpur, SIDBI innovation and incubation centre. Retrieved from http:// www.iitk.ac.in/siic/ incubatee2.html IKP Knowledge Park. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.iciciknowledgepark.com/ MCMSE. (Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises). (n.d.). Support for entrepreneurial and managerial development of SMEs through incubators. Retrieved from http://www.dcmsme. gov.in/schemes/Supportforemdti.html NCL (National Chemical Laboratory). (n.d.). NCL innovations. Retrieved March 10, 2012, from http://www.nclinnovations.org/index.php Venture Centre- A CSIR Initiative. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2012, from http://www.venturecenter. co.in/index.php

185

186

Chapter 14

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector Prabodh Halde Marico Ltd., India

Uday Annapure Institute of Chemical Technology, India

Subhaprada Nishtala International Standards Certifications Pty Ltd., India

K A Anu Appaiah Central Food Technology Research Institute, India

D. N. Kulkarni Jain Irrigation, India

ABSTRACT Known as the fruit and vegetable basket of the world, India ranks second in fruits and vegetables production in the world, after China. The food processing sector is one of the largest sectors in India in terms of production, growth, consumption, and export. There, however, exists a keen lack in processing and storage infrastructure and capabilities, which are essential to reducing the waste and enhancing the value addition and shelf life of the farm products. The government has ambitious plans to increase the level of processing from 6% to 20%, value addition from 20% to 35% and share in global food trade from 1.5% to 3% by 2015 (MOFPI, 2012). This will see a spike in the requirement for qualified and trained food processing professional across the food industry sectors. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the importance of education for manpower development in the food industry and how it can be used to convert unemployable graduates into employable graduates for the food industry. The authors believe that private-public alliance between the private industry and public institutions (PPP) is the need of the hour and has the potential to create tremendous impact at the national level as the graduates coming out of the universities become more versatile with practical outlook.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION India is the second largest producer of food and holds the potential to be the biggest on the global food and agriculture canvas, according to

a Corporate Catalyst India (CCI) survey. India annually produces 205 million tones of fruits and vegetables and is the second largest country in farm production in the world. Only 6% of this is processed. In contrast, countries, like USA

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch014

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

(65%), China (23%) and Philippines (78%) are far ahead of India in reducing the wastage and enhancing the value addition and shelf life of the farm products. This is an alarming signal for India as large volume of the agricultural produce is wasted. About 35% of the fruits and vegetables are wasted annually, due to poor storage facility, amounting to a revenue loss of Rs. 500 billion and 80% of the vegetables rot due to high water content and lack of processing facility, resulting in revenue loss of Rs 125 billion. India is very ambitious to increase the processing level to 20% by 2015! (MOFPI, 2011). Between 1993 and 2006 the installed capacity of fruits and vegetables processing industry has increased from 1.1 million tons to 2.1 million tons, a meager 1 million ton increase in 13 years!! The agriculture sector is vital for any nation and in India is the principal source of livelihood for more than 58 per cent of the population. The agriculture sector reached a growth rate of 4.4 per cent in the second quarter of 2010-11, achieving an overall growth rate of 3.8 per cent during the first half of 2010-11. The area under food crops has increased from 122.78 million hectare (ha) in 2001-02 to 125.73 million ha in 2010-11 (4th advance estimate). The production of food grains has increased from 212.85 million tons (MT) in 2001-02 to 241.56 MT during 2010-11(4th advance estimates). The food grain production target for 2011-12 has been fixed at 245 MT, which is likely to be achieved with favorable weather conditions. Considering this as the most important sector, this chapter will cover various aspects including the present status of the food industry and its scope in India, and the current education system in food science and technology, the gaps between capacity and industry needs, and a way forward.

INDIAN FOOD INDUSTRY The Indian food industry is projected to grow by US$100 billion to US$ 300 billion by 2015, according to a report by a leading industry body and Technopak. During the period, the share of processed food in terms of value is expected to increase from 43 per cent to 50 per cent of total food production. The food processing industry is of enormous significance for India’s development as it has efficiently and effectively linked the nation’s economy, industry and agriculture.. The linking of these three pillars has synergized the development process and promoted the growth of the nation to a great extent. There are 25,367 registered food-processing units in the country, with total invested capital of Rs 84,094 crore (US$17.81 billion), as per a competitiveness report of the National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council. The food processing sector is presently growing at an average rate of 13.5 per cent per annum. The Vision Document 2015 envisages increasing the value addition from 20 per cent to 35 per cent by 2015. Food processing industry is one of the largest industries operating in India and is divided into several segments. The Food Processing Industry operates across various segments that include: • • • • •

Fruits and Vegetables Meat and Poultry Dairy Marine Products Grains and Consumer Foods (that includes packaged food, beverages and packaged drinking water)

The fruits and vegetables processing industry is highly decentralized, and a large number of units are in the cottage, household and smallscale sectors, having small capacities of up to 250 tones per annum. Since 2000, the food processing

187

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

industry has seen large growth in ready-to-serve beverages, fruit juices and pulps, dehydrated and frozen fruits and vegetable products, pickles, mushrooms and ready-mix vegetables. These small-scale units engaged in these segments of processing are export oriented. Value addition of food products is expected to increase from 8 per cent to 35 per cent by 2025. Fruit & vegetable processing is also expected to increase from the current level of 2 per cent to 25 per cent of total production by 2025, as per the CCI report. Dairy sector – that holds highest share in processed food market – holds large potential to be exploited. The report reveals that 37 per cent of the total dairy produce is processed, of which only 15 per cent is done by the organised sector. Hence, there are abundant opportunities for investment and development. The food processing industries in India has attracted foreign direct investment (FDI) worth US$ 1,273.96 million from April 2000 to June 2011, according to data provided by Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP).

Indian Food Processing Industry: Structure and Composition Food processing is a large sector that covers activities such as agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries (See Figure 1). It also includes other industries that use agriculture inputs for manufacturing of edible products. The Ministry of Food Processing, Government of India has defined the following segments within the Food Processing industry. Table 1 defines the status of food industry in India with its growth rate. India’s food sector vision 2015 aims at providing safe and quality food, providing dynamic food processing industry, enhancing the competitiveness of food processing industry in domestic and international markets, increasing the infrastructure facilities to enhance the production of processed food, increasing the level of perishable agricultural produce from 6 to 20%, increasing the

188

Figure 1. Major Segments in the Food Processing Industry in India

value addition from 20 to 35%, increasing the share in global trade from 1.5% to 3% by the year 2015. To achieve this vision, an estimated investment of Rs. 100,000 crores (1000 x 109) is required. Private sector is expected to invest about 45,000 crores and equal amount from financial sector and Rs 10,000 crores (100 x 109) from the Government. About 80% vegetables and fruits perish due to high water content. Due to lack of such facilities, food worth 2.5 billion US$ is wasted annually.

Current Processing Scenario India is seeking to grow its contribution to global food products from the current 1%. There are planned concurrent developments in the areas of state-of-the-art cold chain infrastructure and quality assurance measures. Apart from large investment pumped in by the private sector, public sector has also taken initiatives and with several Centers for Perishable Cargoes and integrated post harvest-handling facilities have been set up in the country. The ready-to-eat (RTE) segment stands at US$ 17 million to US$ 22 million and is growing

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Table 1. Contribution of various identified sectors in growth rate of the market

rapidly at 30 per cent per annum, as per report by the Ministry of Food Processing. •

•

•

•

Mother Dairy is one of the organizations offering the new platter of frozen snacks. From Godrej Tyson Foods’ Yummiez brand to Canadian French fries giant McCain to India Equity Partners’ newly acquired Sumeru brand, a host of players are cooking up new food offerings. The branded frozen foods category is estimated at Rs 1,000 crore (US$ 211.77 million), and industry players say it is now growing at 20-25 per cent per annum. Amul has been ranked as the first Indian Brand in the list of the top 1,000 brands in Asia by The Campaign Magazine, published from Hong Kong and Singapore. Amul is also ranked the No.1 dairy brand, ahead of leading food and dairy brands of the Asian region, including Dutch Lady, Dumex and Magnolia. Cooperative dairy giant Amul aims to expand its presence out of India. It is considering opening a processing facility in the US and subsequently in the European market. “There is a wide scope to produce and market other dairy products locally in US as brand Amul is preferred by Indians

even overseas,” as per Rahul Kumar, MD, Amul Dairy.

THE CHALLENGES Indian agriculture is again at crossroads. As we transition from a production oriented agriculture to a market driven agribusiness, some expert’s feel, and rightly so, that Indian agriculture is beginning to show signs of fatigue. Harvests and yields are not as big as they could have been. Soil erosion and depletion of water tables in areas that were the heart of the Green Revolution are reminders that there is only so much pressure you can put on a piece of land. Equitable agriculture production, processing and management of post harvest losses will be the order in the new millennium. Pocketed revolutions will not be good enough to feed a population that is not only more than 1 billion but adds one Australia to it every year. Genetic modification can make a very substantial contribution by making various crops more resistant to diseases and pests, and /or better able to cope with difficult conditions (e.g. of temperature, drought, salty soil, consequences of global warming, etc). This means that science has to do the research, and to find ways of making it work effectively and safely. Food scientists take the view that the present and future food problems

189

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

of the world food supply will not be solved by technology alone, but that they cannot be solved without technology. India faces post harvest losses, which are nearly equivalent to the total production in Australia. Lack of infrastructure to store grains fruits, vegetable and other degradable commodities add up another 10-15% loss in the output. Proper cold storages, infestation free warehouses and proper temperature and humidity control for specific produce is the need of the hour. The mismatch between agricultural production and its subsequent management is a major handicap that rural India faces. Neither of the farmers, processors, exporters and consumers could get the advantage of immense potential for value addition to agricultural produce. Farmers suffer from lack of knowledge of market-oriented production. For processors and exporters there is no assured supply of raw materials and fresh produce. Dependence on imported processing technologies is high since R&D institutions in India fail to provide these. Primitive harvesting and post-harvest handling systems, long chain of intermediaries performing only minimal functions adding to costs and losses, miniscule processing industry, all add to the sufferings of farmers, processors and consumers and act as roadblocks to agriculture and rural development. The Food and Agriculture Integrated Development Action (FAIDA) report (1997) prepared by McKinsey has estimated that, driven by changing consumer preferences, the annual consumption of ‘value-added’ foods alone would grow to Rs.225, 000 crores by 2007 - larger than the entire manufacturing sector! A more recent report has stated an absolute revenue increase of Rs. 900 billion in food manufacturing between 1993 and 2000. This is in contrast with Rs. 150 billion and Rs. 300 billion in the pharmaceutical and IT industries, respectively. Overall, the value of the Indian food industry has increased from Rs. 3.09 trillion in 1993-94 to Rs. 3.99 trillion in 2000-01. The segments with the largest growth potential have been identified as dairy, wheat, fruits and vegetables, and poultry.

190

This report has also identified some of the major challenges for the emerging food industry in India The challenges for the food preservation, distribution and processing sectors are diverse and demanding, and need to be addressed on several fronts to derive maximum market benefits. Presently, the organizations addressing the educational and R and D requirements are too few, and there is a pressing need for supplementing their efforts. In the emerging scenario, the Food Science professional needs to develop sufficient awareness and appreciation of the relevant principles of life sciences, and physical sciences, as well as of a wide variety of other topics including: nutrition, preservation and storage techniques, processing unit operations, bio-processing, waste management, distribution and supply chain management, food laws and regulations and so on. Besides, the professional needs to develop an appreciation of R&D and innovation in critical technology areas such as: newer or novel process development in preservation and storage techniques, rheology, colloids and dispersal systems, packaging-polymers and composites, sensors for detection and process control, bioprocess engineering, and so on.

Skill Development One of the main hurdles the food processing industry faces is availability of trained manpower. Preparing professionals for various levels of work in the food processing industry is a challenging task.

Quantitative and Qualitative Deficiencies in Skills The 11th Plan (2007-2012) has given a very high priority to Higher Education (see Chapter-1, Volume II, Planning Commission, 2008), with an increase in allocations to higher education by five times (in nominal terms) compared to the 10th Plan (2002-2007). Initiatives such as establishing thirty new Central universities, five new Indian

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs), eight Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), seven Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and twenty Indian Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs) are aimed at meeting the challenges of skills development The National Sample Survey (NSS) 61st Round results show that among persons 15-29 years of age, only about 2% are reported to have received formal vocational training and another 8% reported to have received non-formal vocational training indicating that very few young persons actually enter the world of work with any kind of formal vocational training. This proportion of trained youth is one of the lowest in the world. The corresponding figures for industrialized countries are much higher, varying between 60% and 96% of the youth in the age group of 20-24. One reason for this poor performance is the near exclusive reliance upon a few training courses with long duration (two to three years) covering around 100 skills. In China, for example, there exist about 4,000 short duration modular courses that provide skills more closely tailored to employment requirements. In India, skill acquisition takes place through two basic structural streams: a small formal one and a large informal one. The formal structure includes: 1. Higher technical education imparted through professional colleges; 2. Vocational education in schools at the postsecondary stage; 3. Technical training in specialized institutions; and 4. Apprenticeship training. A basic problem with the skills development system is that the system is non-responsive to the labour market, due to a demand-supply mismatch on several counts: numbers, quality and skill types. It is also observed that the inflexibilities in the course/curriculum set-up lead to over supply in some trades and shortages in others.

It is for this reason that the Government of India announced in Budget 2007-2008 the creation of a Skills Development Mission – which has since led to the creation of three institutions, the PM’s Skills Development Council, the Skills Development Board, and the Skills Development Corporation, the last on a private-public partnership (PPP) basis. The effectiveness of PPP model has been established by the IT sector in India, by companies such as Infosys who, has, in less than 5 years, knit together over 500 engineering colleges in India as well as in other countries like Malaysia, China and Mexico through a well planned exposure program that helped about 58000 students and 3000 faculty members to upgrade their skills vis-a-vis IT industry and its operations. Skills Development Corporation strategies will include the following, according to the 11th Five Year Plan: Encourage Ministries to expand existing public sector skills development infrastructure and its utilization by a factor of five. This will take the Vocational Education (VE) Training capacity from 3.1 million to 15 million. This will be sufficient to meet the annual workforce accretion, which is of the order of 12.8 million. In fact, the surplus capacity could be used to train those in the existing labour force, as only 2% thereof are skilled. The infrastructure should be shifted to private management over the next 2-3 years. State governments must be guided as stimulators in managing this transition. • •

Enlarge the coverage of the skills spectrum from the existing level. Skills Development programmes should be delivered in modules of six to twelve weeks, with an end of module examination/certification system.

For calibrating manual skills, a four to six level certification system must be established based on increasing order of dexterity of the craftsman.

191

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Education in Food Processing: Indian Scenario Food technology is a branch of applied science used for manufacturing and preservation of food products. The food technologists study the chemical, physical and microbiological makeup of the food. The food is processed, preserved, packaged and stored according to specifications by industry and government. Research and development in food technology has resulted in improvements in the production of safe and nutritious foods. The food processing industries manufacture a large variety of food products, including the primary foods like rice and wheat products, oil, sugar and pulses which are processed to convert into edible forms.

Action Plan for Higher Education The food technology courses should be structured to provide adequate training and knowledge to candidates regarding the quality analysis of raw materials, packaging standards and methodology, health and hygiene parameters, processing techniques, storage and food value. Students should be trained to develop methodologies for extracting useful byproducts from industrial and domestic waste. In the year 2008-9, various areas of food technology were identified and the broad course structure was decided by ICAR. This included the nomenclature of the degree, admission requirements, admission capacity, the number of credits required for the award of degrees, and the classification of credits and titles of the courses under major, minor, supporting, compulsory non credit courses and deficiency courses for each type of PG degree. Food Technology provides an effective and timely platform for researchers in universities, research institutions, and industries, to conduct research in cutting-edge processing technologies,

192

involved from the beginning of the food supply source to the dinner table of the consumers. The potential exists for the agri-food industry to improve process efficiency, enhance product quality and, extend shelf-life of fresh and processed agri-food products and to establish processes, innovative and emerging technologies, and trends and future research in food and bio products processing are particularly important. The scope for future research and development covers the following main areas: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Technologies for ripeness, quality, damage and disease assessment and prediction. Grading and classification techniques. Postharvest treatments, value-addition, and traceability. Agricultural and horticultural products processing technologies. Properties of foods and agricultural products. Sensors, sensing technology and process control. Mathematical modeling and simulation. Design and production of novel foods Product monitoring in the supply chain. Thermal processing, chilling and freezing. Drying technology and dehydration processes. Separation and purification processes. Non-thermal processing and emerging technologies. Preservation, storage, and distribution. Packaging and labeling. Engineering of biotechnological processes. Engineering for food safety and security. Energy efficiency and environmental friendliness of agri-food chain. Innovative IT applications in agri-food chain. Agri-food processing equipment. Agri-food waste treatment and management.

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

• •

Education of agri-food engineering. Agri-food trade and market access.

Currently, Food Science and Technology is considered as a subject allied to agriculture science. Courses in Post harvest Processing and Food Engineering are offered at the Master’s Degree level in several agricultural engineering colleges. This course is also offered as a branch of technology in several non-agricultural universities Though AICTE has streamlined the course duration and there is some uniformity in the curriculum, the quality of the products coming out of these colleges is largely different and not aligned with industry needs. An industry-academia net work involving at least four large scale industrial units spread over 4 regions in the country can consider creating a regional training program for students from nearby food technology colleges and such a program must be built into the course proper with AICTE concurrence. At least a semester must be devoted for industrial training in the industry before making them eligible for receiving their degrees. Government support through incentives to the industry and financial help for the students to cover their expenses incurred during the training can provide the necessary spark. Industry can be expected to build necessary facilities to accommodate these students for training purpose. Same must be done for the teaching faculty also through a ‘sabbatical’ program to enrich their teaching skills. Food Parks being promoted in a big way can be another ‘vehicle’ for achieving the above purpose. As a policy all food parks cleared by Government Of India should be required to have a training component, with each unit extending the processing facility for ‘hands-on’ training for the benefit of food tech students from universities.

Action Plan for Vocational Education •

•

•

•

Expand VE from 9,500 senior secondary schools to 20,000 schools. Intake capacity to be raised from 1.0 million to 2.5 million. All VE schools must engage in partnerships with employers for providing faculty/trainers, internships, advice on curriculum setting, and for skill testing and certification. Progressively move vocational education from an unviable two-year stream, commencing after Class X, to a stream that captures Class IX dropouts; Later on, this process should commence from Class VII, capturing Class VI dropouts. Give emphasis to last mile employability related to soft skills through English language skills,quantitative skills, computer literacy, spreadsheet skills, word processing, computer graphics, presentation skills, and behavioural and interpersonal skills.

The Government of India has announced Vision 2015, which lays focus on enhancing the competitiveness of the food processing industry both in domestic and international markets, along with ensuring stable income levels to farmers. Vision 2015 provides for enhancing the level of processTable 2. Distribution of employment in various areas

193

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Table 3. Skill manpower requirement in organised sector

Table 4. Profile of people employed in the dairy processing segment

Source: Primary Research and IMaCS analysis

Figure 2. Skill pyramid for food processing industry

194

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Table 5. Skill requirements and skill gaps in the fruit and vegetable processing segment

continued on following page

195

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Table 5. Continued

Source: Primary Research and IMaCS analysis

ing of perishable from 6 percent to 20 percent, enhancing value addition from 20 percent to 35 percent and increasing the share in global food trade from 1.5 percent to 3 percent, by 2015The Indian food processing industry needs at least US$ 35 billion fresh investments across sectors. Experts at FoodCon 2011, organised by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) stated that this will enable the industry to create the projected nine million jobs, stability in food prices, reasonable returns to farmers and other stakeholders, and more importantly, to increase India’s share in the world export market for processed foods from the current 2 per cent 196

Skill Set Requirement for Food Processing Sector The Food Processing Sector employed about 8.5 million persons in 2008, with about 18% of the employment in the organized sector (See Table 2 and Table 3) (Annual Survey of Industry, NSSO 62nd round) Look at Table 4 to see the example of dairy sector and how the deployment of skilled manpower is distributed.

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

NSDC: Human Resource and Skill Requirements in the Food Processing Sector (2022), p. 27 Let’s study the skill gap, found in Table 5, in Fruits and Vegetable processing sector in India as identified in NSDC: Human Resource and Skill Requirements in the Food Processing Sector (2022).

Future Requirement of Manpower in Food Sector in India Study the human resource requirements (Table 6) and the Human resource annual supply (Table 7).

Impact of FSSAR 2011 on Food Technology As per new food safety law (FSSAR 2011), every food manufacturer should have a technical supervisor for the food business to ensure food safety and quality. Due to this legal requirement, candidates with food technology background including knowledge of food safety, are very important for food business operations. Food Science educations in India cover various aspects of food technology, microbiology, food preservation techniques, genetics, food safety and food packaging. Many universities and colleges offer Degree/Diploma/Post graduate/PhD in Food Technology/Food Nutrition etc. There is no single authority that controls or accredits the food technology courses in India. We estimate that there are over 400 colleges offering Food/

Table 6. Human resource requirements in typical areas in food processing industry

Source: Primary Research and IMaCS analysis

Table 7. Human resource supply on annual basis

Source: Assessment of Requirement of Food Technologists, Managers and Entrepreneurs for the Food Processing Industire’, IAMR

197

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Nutrition degree and diploma courses in India and annually they produce more than 5000 food technologists. To understand the gaps in the current education system, we need to identify skill levels required by the food industry.

Skill Pyramid In India, approximately 80% of manpower needs in the food industry are at the basic skill level (See Figure 2). Students who are pursuing technical education will be trained at skill levels 2 and above which contributes to just 20% of total manpower requirements. As discussed earlier the total manpower requirement in food industry is 10 million (2011) and thus around 20% of this requirement, or 20 lakh (2 millions) individuals will be required to have higher-level skills (skill level 2 and above). If we consider 10% annual growth in the food industry, to meet the growing demand in India for organized and unorganized sectors, would require 20 thousand more skilled/educated manpower in food industry every year. If we consider the skill level 1 group, the requirement in the sector on annual basis would be 80 thousand candidates every year. This can only be achieved through an effective PPP model. However, corporations in India invest precious little in skill and vocational training, although they have limited apprenticeship programmes for their own staff and prospects. Unfortunately, the public sector’s hitherto supplydriven approach to vocational training has not been very successful in meeting the needs and requirements of private corporations in India. Therefore, the lack of interest among Indian corporations so far in investing in training has only undermined their long-term interests while, at the same time, underpinning by default the government’s supplydriven approach to skills development

198

CONCLUSION The size of the Indian food industry is Rs 4 lacs crore with employment generation of around 10 million. Currently in India more than 70% of food business operators are in unorganized sectors and in small-scale operations. With changes in food law (FSSAI) food safety has gained a very important position in industry and now it is compulsory to recruit technical personnel in manufacturing units. Most students who are pursuing technical education will likely attain skill level 2, which contributes to just 10% of the total manpower requirements of the food industry. Another 10% will need higher-level skills. With 10% annual growth in the food industry, approximately 20 thousand skilled/educated workers will need to be added annually for the Indian food industry to keep pace. The requirement for individuals at skill level 1 would be 80 thousand members every year. We have suggested that the Skills Development Corporation, which was created as a part of the Skills Development Mission in India in 2008, will use the Public Private Partnership (PPP) model to promote the development of food processing sector-specific councils in industry

REFERENCES Corporate Catalyst India (CCI). (2012). Survey report- Press releases: KPMG report on food processing and agri business, agriculture and processed food products export development authority (APEDA). Ministry of Food Processing Industries articles, RNCOS Research Report, Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), Media Reports & IMaCS (ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited) report, Human Resource and Skill Requirements in the Food Processing Sector.

Skill Development in the Indian Food Processing Sector

Indian Ministry of Food Processing. (2011). Report of Working Committee 12 Five Year Plan. Retrieved from http://planningcommission.nic. in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/wgrep_fpi.pdf

Planning Commission. (2008). Eleventh five year plan. Towards faster and more inclusive growth. New Delhi: Government of India.

National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector. (2008). Social security for the unorganized sector in India. Report. New Delhi: Government of India.

199

200

Chapter 15

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy:

A Case Study of Programmed Cell Death Shiv Shanker Pandey Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Vivek Ambastha Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Budhi Sagar Tiwari Jawaharlal Nehru University, India

ABSTRACT Cancer is currently the second biggest cause of death in the Western world. Cancer cells escape the normal process of programmed cell death i.e., fail to die on schedule. The ability of cancer cells to avoid programmed cell death and continue to proliferate is one of the fundamental hallmarks of cancer and is a major target of cancer therapy development. Universities and research institutes are playing a major role in progress of cancer research. The aim of this study is to attract graduates of different disciplines towards cancer research and bring together researchers from different disciplines with an interest in the role of programmed cell death in cancer therapy and exploitation of programmed cell death research for therapeutic targeting of cancer. In spite of this, it is of broad interest to make a bridge or to start collaborations in between basic researchers and medical oncologists as well as for pharmaceutical companies i.e., aim of this study is to bridging the gap between knowledge and its action or application.

INTRODUCTION Cancer is currently the second biggest cause of death in the western world. Deaths from cancer worldwide are projected to continue to rise to over 11 million in 2030. It is a group of diseases

with similar characteristics. Cancer can occur in all living cells from head to toe, and different cancers have different natural history. Epidemiological study shows that 70 – 90% of all cancers are environmental (WHO, India). At present there are about 10 million new cancer patients identi-

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch015

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

fied each year, worldwide. Out of which nearly 5.5 million are in the developing countries like India. Currently 12% of all deaths in the world are due to cancer. In forthcoming 20 years, death toll due to cancer will increase from 6 to 10 million (WHO, India). Earlier communicable diseases like cholera or malaria were considered as major health problems of India but with progression of time, non-communicable diseases like heart disease, cancer and diabetes, are emerging as the major health issues in developing countries including India. It is said that coming days will be days of cancer and heart disease. These diseases are lifestyle related, have a long latent period and needs special treatment, including proper infrastructure. It is not so easily treatable disease like malaria or cholera. The risk factors for the major non-communicable diseases are tobacco, dietary habits, inadequate physical activity and alcohol consumption (WHO, India). Data from population based cancer registries under National Cancer Registry Program indicate that the leading sites of cancer are oral cavity, lungs, oesophagus and stomach in male and cervix and breast in females, accounting for more than 50% of all cancer death in India. WHO has estimated that 91% of oral cancers in South –East Asia are directly related to the use of tobacco. If we see globally, the number one cancer is cancer of the lung, and smoking is the main cause of it. Though cancer of the lung is the leading cancer of the developed world, because of the changing life style and increasing number of smokers, it is also becoming a major cause of death, in a developing country like India. It is to be noted that between 1985 and 1990, lung cancer burden of the developing world went up by 25% (from 261,000 to 327,100), while that of the developed world went up by only 7% (from 415,000 to 444,700) (Agarwal, Yeole and Ram 2009). From this data we can assume that with rapid change of our life style, we are also inviting some unwanted cause of health problem. Another problem in India is that over 70% of patients, presented in advanced stage

of the disease, resulting in poor survival and high mortality rates. Government of India formulated the National Cancer Control Programme in 1984 with four major goals: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Primary Prevention Early Detection of Cancer Treatment Palliative Care

Primary prevention can be defined as ‘action taken prior to the onset of disease, which removes the possibility that a disease will even occur’, like health education regarding hazards of tobacco consumption and necessity of genital hygiene for prevention of cervical cancer. Educating the people regarding the disease will help to drive the fears and stigma associated with the disease. It is important to involve all levels of the population in the education process. The concept of cancer education should focus on tobacco control, physical activity and avoidance of obesity, healthy dietary practices, avoidance of sedentary life style, safe sexual practice to avoid human papilloma virus infection. Apart from the Government machinery, there is an important role of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), in this type of health program. There are many socio-cultural hurdles that complicate the cancer control process in most of the developing countries. Illiteracy, lack of any health communication strategy, fatalistic attitude of people, social stigma and ignorance about a disease like cancer prevent people to seek early medical consultation. Thus, the voluntary or Non-Government Organizations have great responsibility in creating awareness and educating people about cancer prevention, in organizing a systematic campaign against tobacco usage and in providing dedicated cancer screening and early detection services. During the last decade the concept of apoptotic cell death as a natural barrier against cancer has evolved to the widened concept of programmed

201

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

cell death as a cancer barrier. It is now largely recognised that disruption of cell death pathways not only allows cells to deal with microenvironmental stress occurring during carcinogenesis but also to escape the cytotoxic action of chemo-, radio- or immunotherapy. On the other hand, although being beneficial in limiting cancer cell proliferation, programmed cell death II (autophagy) and death by necrosis can have tumour promoting potential. Research about the diverse modes of programmed cell death and their dual role in tumour development and therapy resistance is an exciting and rapidly evolving field which has enormous impact on the development and implementation of novel therapeutic strategies.

ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES IN CANCER RESEARCH Universities and research institutes are playing a major role in progress of cancer research. These academic bodies provide research and funding support for cancer research. Cancer research institute, International agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and National Cancer Institute at National Institute of Health offers graduate research program and many fellowships and internship programs for cancer research. We are listing here few important fellowships which support cancer research and these fellowships have been proven a beacon of light in transforming graduate researchers to cancer scientists. According to the information available, since 1966 IARC alone has awarded more than 500 fellowships to junior scientists for research training in cancer and approximately 85% of the fellows returned to their home country after the completion of their training, and around 82% remain active in cancer research. 1. IARC (International Agency for research on Cancer) offers fellowships for junior scientists for research training in cancer.

202

2. Cancer Research Institute offers the Irvington Institute Fellowship Program which is a postdoctoral fellowship for graduate researchers. 3. National Cancer Institute offers many training and fellowship program for cancer research for ex., Cancer Prevention Fellowship Program (CPFP), Division of Cancer Control and Population Science (DCCPS) Behavioral Research Career Training, fellowships of Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics (DCEG), Health Communications Internship Program, Joint Fellowship Training Program of Interagency Oncology Task Force (IOTF), NCIFrederick: Employment & Training, Sallie Rosen Kaplan Fellowship and Technology Transfer Fellowship. 4. The AACR (American Association for Cancer Research) offers an outstanding array of support mechanisms for cancer researchers at various stages in their careers, from fellowships to career development awards to grants for independent investigators. 5. The European Association for Cancer Research provides funds for cancer research, travel fellowship, EACR cancer researcher awards. 6. American Cancer Society offers postdoctoral fellowships for cancer research.

Role of NGOs in Cancer Prevention and Possible Job Opportunity In developing countries, there are a very few trained personnel to tackle the problem of cancer. The number of specialists, who treat cancer patients in these countries, is less than required. A large number of non-government organizations, are working on awareness or helping in early detection by organizing camps, infrequently. They are doing everything for the cancer patients, from awareness, helping in availing treatment and most importantly helping the palliative patients. Lots of people don’t want to come to cancer institute

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

for screening because of the stigma of the disease. That can be only done with the help of NGOs, at different places, or some remote places. The impact of cancer is much more than the different data alone would suggest. Regardless of the prognosis, the initial diagnosis of cancer is still a life threatening event for the patients as well as their family and friends. More than one third of patients suffer from anxiety and depression, along with the disease. Cancer can be equally, if not more, distressing for the family, profoundly affecting both the family’s daily functioning and economic situation. The economic shock often includes both the loss of income and the expenses associated with health care costs. Though Government has announced number of schemes for the benefit of the cancer patients, it is not adequate. We should really acknowledge the service of NGOs for their dedicated service. About 70 to 80% patients present in an advance stage in India, where success of treatment is not encouraging (Rana et al., 2011). We can assume from it about the number of patients, needing palliative care. Because, the limited centers in this country, cannot afford to give service to this group of unfortunate patients. This is high time that responsible NGOs should come up and work in this area. NGOs can take active participation in prevention, early detection, and care of the palliative patients. In Table 1 we are listing the NGOs working on cancer prevention, treatment and awareness and their funding support. These NGOs are always in search of peoples who can serve society against cancer. These NGOs offers job opportunities for graduates and these are the very good options for graduate researcher.

Implementation of Programmed Cell Death Research in Cancer Therapy PCD is phylogenetically conserved and highly regulated intracellular process. PCD is an efficient method to eliminate cells that disrupt the homeostasis of the organism. Alteration in regulatory

mechanism of PCD leads to various diseases in humans (Hotchkiss, Strasser, and McDunn, 2009) especially various cancers (Cory & Adams, 2002), immune disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. Programmed cell death is the key process in tumor progression, cancer therapeutics and resistance of tumor cells therapy (Ashkenazi, 2002, Hanahan & Weinberg, 2000, Khosravi-Far et al., 2008). The ability of cancer cells to avoid apoptosis and continue to proliferate is one of the fundamental hallmarks of cancer and is a major target of cancer therapy development (Hanahan & Weinberg, 2000). PCD is closely related to anti-cancer therapy. With the discovery of key mechanisms and regulatory points that are involved in mediating PCD and in promoting resistance to therapy, design of therapeutic approaches for promoting tumor-selective cell death has dramatically risen (Khosravi-Far et al., 2008). Lot of effort is in progress to use or translate basic research finding into novel cancer therapies. (See Figure 1) Research on regulatory mechanism of PCD opens new ways in cancer treatment. For example Bcl-2 that control commitment to apoptosis but also the initiation of autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved process for maintaining cell survival (Kang, Zeh, Lotze and Tang, 2011), its overexpression was shown to prevent the death of haemopoietic cells deprived of cytokine in vitro and to cooperate with myc in immortalisation of lymphoid cells (Vaux, Cory and Adams, 1988) and in lymphomagenesis (Strasser, Harris, Bath and Cory, 1990). myc and bcl-2 exhibit striking synergy in malignant transformation (Vaux, Cory and Adams, 1988, Strasser, Harris, Bath and Cory, 1990). Programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4), an inhibitor of neoplastic transformation suppresses metastastic potential of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (Zhang, Li, Jiang, Xu and Qin, 2009). There is very urgent need to translate basic research in different streams of science for the therapeutic purposes. Particularly some of the molecules which trigger apoptosis can be used

203

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

Table 1. Major NGOs working on cancer therapy Name of organization

Major work

Collaboration/Funding Support

American Cancer Society (ACS)

ACS provides grants to researchers, runs public health advertising campaigns and organizes projects such as the Relay For Life and the Great American Smokeout. ACS publishes Cancer, CA: A Cancer Journal For Clinicians and Cancer Cytopathology.

ACS currently funds 53 projects in specific geographic areas. ACS has 12 chartered divisions, more than 900 local offices throughout the United States and Puerto Rico and a presence in more than 5,100 communities.

Breast Cancer Fund (BCF)

BCF works to expose and eliminate the environmental cause of breast cancer.

The BCF works with 7 national and regional coalitions and almost 50 individual organizations throughout the United States.

Breast Cancer Research Foundation (BCRF)

BCRF is an organization dedicated to raising funds for breast cancer research.

BCRF currently funds 166 scientists across the United States and in Canada, Latin America, the Middle East, and throughout Europe.

Breakthrough Breast Cancer

It is dedicated to saving lives by finding the causes of breast cancer, improving detection, diagnosis, treatment and services.

It has collaboration with King’s College London, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, The University of Manchester, The University of Edinburgh and Glasgow University.

Cancer Aid and Research Foundation

CARF provide financial help and free accommodation facility to the needy cancer patients.

CanSupport depends through voluntary donations.

German Cancer Aid

GCA helps to improve the equipment and personnel in hospitals and to remedy shortages and emergencies in institutions for therapy, research and rehabilitation.

The German Cancer Aid and its “Dr. Mildred Scheel Foundation for Cancer Research” support numerous innovative research projects in order to develop new methods of therapy and diagnosis against cancer.

Cancer Aid Society

CAS works on tobacco control, palliative care, prevention and control of cancer and non communicable diseases.

Cancer Aid Society relies completely on voluntary contributions from government, private companies and individuals.

Cancer Care India

CCI promote cancer care activities, awareness, public education about cancer and co-ordinate joint cancer care efforts in India and countries across the world.

There are 29 member groups of Cancer Care India (28 located in 14 states/ UTs and one in Kathmandu, Nepal).

Cancer Care

It helps more than 100,000 individuals and families each year. CancerCare helps more than 100,000 individuals and families better cope with and manage the emotional and practical challenges arising from cancer.

Cancer Care depends on voluntary contributions from government, private companies and individuals.

Cancer Patients Aid Association

CPAA working towards the total management of cancer, which includes: Spreading awareness on the dangers inherent in accepted social practices such as chewing of tobacco, early marriage, multiple pregnancies, etc, in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan.

The Cancer Patients Aid Association, Mumbai, organizes a series of events in collaboration with WHO and the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare to commemorate WNTD.

Cancer Research Institute

CRI is dedicated exclusively to the support and coordination of laboratory and clinical efforts that will lead to the immunological treatment, control, and prevention cancer. CRI is committed to translating basic discovery into real-life applications in the clinic, and is dedicated to overcoming hurdles to academically-led clinical discovery efforts.

CRI supports scientists at every stage of their careers, from graduate students to postdoctoral fellows up to heads of major university departments, hospitals, and clinics; thus, CRI funding ensures a continuum of scientific creativity all along the spectrum of experience, providing valuable support to today’s leading researchers while cultivating the next generation of pioneering minds. To date, CRI has supported the work of nearly 3,000 researchers.

continued on following page

204

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

Table 1. Continued Major work

Collaboration/Funding Support

GRAACC Grupo de Apoio ao Adolescente e à Criança com Câncer

Name of organization

Support Group for Children and Adolescents with Cancer. GRAACC receives children and teenagers from all over Brazil, providing all of them with extremely high level medical assistance and treating thousands of children per month.

Based on a university/company/ community partnership, GRAACC has aroused the interest and confidence of institutions with a wide social vision in participating in the construction of the Pediatric Oncology Institute (IOP-Instituto de Oncologia Pediátrica), the GRAACC hospital. The hospital is managed and administrated by GRAACC and the medical assistance, the teaching and research are conducted in a partnership with the Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP/EPM).

Indian Cancer Society

It works against cancer, by providing affordable and innovative solutions, for the detection and treatment of cancer, and for the post treatment rehabilitation of its survivors.

It has 6 branches and 22 affiliates covering various regions and specialisations throughout India. Internationally affiliated and recognized, it is the official delegate to the UICC (International Union against Cancer) in Geneva, and a Founder Member of the Asian Federation of Cancer.

Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center

It performs exceptional patient care, leading-edge research, and superb educational programs. It has close collaboration between its physicians and scientists that help to provide patients with the best care available today for cancer treatment.

It offers a PhD program in cancer biology through Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and also offers postgraduate clinical research fellowships. It has collaboration with The Rockefeller University, Cornell University, and Weill Medical College of Cornell University for research and training program.

Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation

It is dedicated to multiple myeloma treatment.

MMRF has helped finance eight drugs now in Phase II trials, developed a tissue bank with 1,400 bone marrow samples, and raised $92.4 million since 1988 (Groopman & Jerome, 2008). Having risen over $120 million since its inception to fund more than 120 laboratories worldwide. The MMRF is funding research into 30 compounds at the pre-clinical stage (Duxbury & Sarah, 2006).

National Breast Cancer Coalition Fund

NBCCF improve public policies surrounding breast cancer research, diagnosis and treatment. NBCCF offers an array of education and training programs designed to give advocates the information, tools and skills they need to be effective breast cancer activists.

NBCC is supported through grants, contributions from individuals, corporate sponsorships and special events. NBCC provide funding support to the Department of Defense Breast Cancer Research Program. NBCC promotes collaborative research; and collaboration with scientists and industry leaders as part of a clinical trials initiative. Collaboration with Genentech helped bring the targeted treatment Herceptin to market. NBCC also partners with the Love/Avon Army of Women to unite cancer researchers with women willing to participate in research studies on the causes and prevention of breast cancer.

ROKO Cancer

ROKO Cancer works towards the cause of creating awareness and detection of breast cancer, cervix cancer, and oral cancer among the women living in the semi urban and rural areas of India.

It’s Research Support partner is Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Institute, UK, which is the largest research Institute in UK and in Delhi it partnered with Delhi State Cancer Institute.

St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital (ALSAC)

The mission of St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital is to advance cures, and means of prevention, for pediatric catastrophic diseases through research and treatment.

It provides outstanding patient care; conducts basic, translational and clinical research designed to elucidate biological mechanisms, understand disease pathogenesis, improve diagnosis, enhance treatment outcome, prevent diseases and minimize adverse consequences of treatment and educates health care and scientific research professionals.

Susan G. Komen for the Cure

It became the largest source of nonprofit funds dedicated to the fight against breast cancer in the world, having invested more than $1.9 billion since inception in 1982.

It sponsors different fellowships, awards and grants for breast cancer research for ex. The Brinker Award, College Scholarship Award and has collaboration with ASCO, the American Society of Clinical Oncology, AACR, the American Association for Cancer Research.

The International Union Against Cancer (UICC)

UICC’s mission is to eliminate cancer as a life-threatening disease for future generations.

UICC is the largest cancer fighting organisation of its kind, with more than 400 member organisations across 120 countries.

205

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

Figure 1. Genome, heal thyself: DNA-damaging stress from various sources can initiate signal-transduction pathways, typically beginning with activation of initiating kinases, and then signaling through transducing targets that ultimately affect cellular fate. The ability of cells in multicellular organisms to undergo programmed cell death or cell-cycle arrest helps to reduce the frequency with which cellular changes contribute to malignant transformation (Adapted from Kastan, 2005).

for cancer chemotherapy. Moreover such task has to be taken by qualified people with adequate training. Several universities and research organizations including International cell death society (ICDS) are involved in training budding scientists in different aspects of apoptosis but still translational aspect of basic training to therapy is still at infancy level. It is expected in years to come several trained graduates in apoptosis will get involved in cancer diagnostics therapeutics. Prevention and early detection step of the disease is of utmost importance wherein incorporation of human resources from other disciplines can be made, particularly employment of our unem-

206

ployed youths can be used to target two issues at a time first reduce the intensity of unemployment and secondly control the disease at the initial level. With sufficient training about capturing basic signature of cancer cells, these youths can be flown in society and they can use their diagnostics to capture patients at very early stage of disease. Simultaneously, these human resources can also be used to provide awareness and impact of cancer in the society. To take up these issues government launches plans time to time and some non government organizations (NGOs) are also playing a pivotal role with aid from government as well as independently for the cause.

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS Till the recent years cancer has been considered as a disease of silent killer and due to some social reasons and lack of education particularly in developing countries, disease is detected at very later stage which makes an herculean task for therapeutics to cure the disease. The situation has led to increase in the death toll at the global level. To check the death toll through this disease, early detection and social awareness are two major steps. Simultaneously there is an urgent need for incorporation of basic research particularly in the area of apoptosis which is a phenomenon of controlled cell death in contrast to uncontrolled cell proliferation prevailing in cancer tissues. Although efforts are going on in the direction but further input from basic sciences researchers, government and NGOs are needed to incorporate more of our unemployed human resources for social awareness, early detection and cure of this disease at higher value.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work has been supported by grant from Ramlingaswami Fellowship program, Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India to BST.

REFERENCES Agarwal, N., Yeole, B. B., & Ram, U. (2009). Lifetime risk and trends in lung cancer incidence in greater Mumbai. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 10, 75–82.

Ashkenazi, A. (2002). Targeting death and decoy receptors of the tumour-necrosis factor superfamily. Nature Reviews. Cancer, 2, 420–430. doi:10.1038/nrc821 Cory, S., & Adams, J. M. (2002). The Bcl2 family: Regulators of the cellular life-or-death switch. Nature Reviews. Cancer, 2(9), 647–656. doi:10.1038/nrc883 Duxbury, S. (2006, December 8). Foundations move in where VCs fear to tread. San Francisco Business Times. Groopman, J. (2008, January 28). Buying a cure (Kathy Giusti’s Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation). New Yorker (New York, N.Y.). Hanahan, D., & Weinberg, R. A. (2000). The hallmarks of cancer. Cell, 100, 57–70. doi:10.1016/ S0092-8674(00)81683-9 Hotchkiss, R. S., Strasser, A., & McDunn, J. E. (2009). Cell death. The New England Journal of Medicine, 361, 1570–1583. doi:10.1056/ NEJMra0901217 Kang, R., Zeh, H. J., Lotze, M. T., & Tang, D. (2011). The Beclin 1 network regulates autophagy and apoptosis. Cell Death and Differentiation, 18, 571–580. doi:10.1038/cdd.2010.191 Kastan, M. B. (2005). DNA damage responses: Cancer and beyond. Scientist (Philadelphia, Pa.), 19(19), 24. Khosravi-Far, R., & White, E. (Eds.). (2008). Programmed cell death in cancer progression and therapy series. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 615(14). doi:10.1007/9781-4020-6554-5

207

Preparing Professionals in Cancer Therapy

Rana, S. P. S., Gupta, R., Chaudhary, P., Khurana, D., Mishra, S., & Bhatnagar, S. (2011). Cancer pain management: Basic information for the young pain physicians. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 17(2), 127–130. doi:10.4103/0973-1075.84533 Strasser, A., Harris, A. W., Bath, M. L., & Cory, S. (1990). Novel primitive lymphoid tumours induced in transgenic mice by cooperation between myc and bcl-2. Nature, 348, 331–333. doi:10.1038/348331a0

208

Vaux, D. L., Cory, S., & Adams, J. M. (1988). Bcl2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells. Nature, 335, 440–442. doi:10.1038/335440a0 Zhang, S., Li, J., Jiang, Y., Xu, Y., & Qin, C. (2009). Programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) suppresses metastastic potential of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research, 28, 71. doi:10.1186/17569966-28-71

209

Chapter 16

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry K. K. Pal Directorate of Groundnut Research, India R. Dey Directorate of Groundnut Research, India K.V. B. R. Tilak Osmania University, India

ABSTRACT Microbial technology finds innumerable applications in different sectors of biotechnology industry. The scope and potential of microbiology education in different sectors is vast and has direct relation to societal benefit. Microbiology is generally taught at the post-graduate levels for students having basic degree in science (life sciences with subjects like Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, etc.). Microbiology being a vast discipline with many areas like Medical-, Veterinary-, Dairy-, Agricultural-, Food-, Environmental-, Industrial-, Marine Microbiology, etc. requires specific training and development of skills for specialization in a particular area. The requirements of each sector are different and specialized training and exposure is needed to develop professionals. Microbiologists have great demand in the industries like pharmaceutical, food, and biotechnology industries preparing enzymes, etc. The microbiologists get job in product development, processing, production, and quality control. Similarly there is demand for microbiologists in food and catering industries in the areas of quality control and in maintaining hygiene.

INTRODUCTION Looking into the myriad of employment opportunities in Microbiology and related industries, pure science graduates can also be trained for developing skills and honing knowledge pertinent

to the specific needs of the industry. Science graduates can avail training facilities offered by many universities, research institutes and industries for employment opportunities in pharmaceutical, dairy, food and biotechnology industries. Many pharmacy industries give apprenticeship for 3

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch016

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

months to 1 year, before employing science graduates. Trained graduates can be self-employed or get employment in biofertilizer or biopesticide production industries. Similarly for wine and beer industries and baker’s yeast production units – science graduates can be trained and become professionals in these food and beverages industries. There is demand for these graduates in the clinical facilities available in cities and towns. Science graduates trained in Clinical Microbiology find employment in hospitals and clinics. This chapter discusses the major fields of applied microbiology, the major classes of products and processes, microbiology education in India, the training needed for getting employment in biotechnology industries, the career opportunities for graduates and the future prospects of microbiology and biotechnology education. The Microbiology and Biotechnology education should be professionalized for a knowledge economy. This will involve developing courses having equal share of knowledge, skills and values; giving more emphasis on multidisciplinary approach; involving the stakeholders of microbiology/biotechnology education in designing of course curricula and getting regular feedbacks from the industry about their requirements. This will improve the employability of the science graduates in biotechnology industry as well as provide benefit to the society at large. Microbial technology has existed since the beginning of human life on earth, without the people being aware of it. Certain changes like transformation of milk into curd, fermentation for the production of wine and beer and use of baker’s yeast for production of bread, etc. have been known to mankind for thousands of years. With the advancement of science, newer dimensions are being added to the science of Microbiology, for multiple societal benefits. Microbial biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the

210

processing of materials by microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and viruses) or plant and animal cells to create useful products or processes. The microorganisms utilized may be natural isolates, laboratory selected mutants or microbes that have been genetically engineered using recombinant DNA methods. Now-a-days the microbial technology caters to the wide range of human needs in medicine, agriculture, industry, environmental management, etc. Areas of industrial microbiology include quality assurance for the food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries. Industrial microbiologists may also be responsible for discovery of new organisms and pathways. For instance, most antibiotics come from microbial fermentations involving a group of organisms called actinomycetes. Additional groups of microorganisms form products that range from organic acids to enzymes used to create various sugars, amino acids, and detergents. Industrial microbiologists may also deal with products associated with the food and dairy industries, with the prevention and deterioration of processed or manufactured goods, and with waste disposal systems. Microbial technology has immense potential not only for developing professionals but also to cater to the need of the society. The modern universities have great educational and intellectual talents within its faculty and staff to serve society by nurturing the interests in its state and region in ways that meet, not university needs, but needs of the community as a whole (Magrath, 2006). The different stakeholders in biotechnology, i.e. university, industry, society, etc. all have to work together in the areas of meaningful partnership and have to work in tandem to reap the maximum benefits from microbial technology. In this paper some of the new approaches that can be adopted for integrating education and research in microbial technology with biotechnology industry have been discussed.

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

BACKGROUND In today’s society, microbiology plays a significant role enveloping important topics like gene therapy, vaccines and synthetic genomics. The advancement in the field of science and technology has further widened the scope of research in microbiology. But, research beneficial to the mankind banks upon an excellent teacher-studentindustry partnership that can keep pace with the rapidly advancing field. Due to the advancement in the field of science and technology, the scope of research in the field of microbiology has widened. As a result, people who have studied science as the main subject opt for building their career in the field of microbiology. A career in microbiology can be a lucrative option in India as well as in abroad. Numerous institutions all over India and abroad offer degree programs at under graduate as well as at post graduate levels in the field of microbiology. While a Ph.D or master’s degree is required for Research and Development positions, bachelor degree holders have employment potential as laboratory technicians, aids to biological scientists or as biology teachers. Attention needs to be paid by authorities to offer meaningful education in microbiology and biotechnology that can fulfill the needs of industry and also the aspirations of millions of students. The major concern facing the biotech academia is the suitability of current biotechnology education and its utility to the industry. Though in certain cases the courses are job-oriented to some extent, there are far too many graduates and postgraduates with training so inadequate that they cannot even get a job. The lack of exposure of students to laboratory bio-techniques is a serious shortcoming in the existing system of microbiology/biotechnology education in India. This is largely due to limited laboratory sessions during the course, non-availability of the necessary instruments and reagents in institutions offering this course, and

lack of sufficient expertise in the teachers in the field as mentioned above. The course contents of microbiology and biotechnology are inadequate in today’s context with regard to subject matter contents and its ever-increasing applications. They do not leave much scope for highlighting the current issues. On-the-job training is not feasible with the large intake of students that the educational institutions admit each year. As a result most of the students do not find suitable employment opportunities, with the institutions being reluctant to impart training at their own expense. With the large scale privatization in education sector, education has emerged as a very attractive business. So, a career in the biotechnology industry may remain a dream to the thousands of graduates and post-graduates in biotechnology and microbiology walking out of college each year, without the sufficient training. There is a need to offer post graduate courses in microbiology, biotechnology and bioinformatics by institutes having good faculty and adequate infrastructure. The education system has reached a point where industry – academia collaboration is no longer just a desirable thing, but an absolute necessity. An industry – academia partnership can indeed bring a revolution in India propelling education ahead (Lal, 2010). The partnership of industry and academia is needed to develop a curriculum that meets the needs of the industry. This would help in the growth of the disciplines of microbiology and biotechnology. There is a huge requirement of microbiology professionals in the food industry. Though the number of graduates and post graduates in microbiology is large they are often not skilled enough to work in the food industry (Vijayendra and Narasimharao, 2011). The Indian food industry needs to hire microbiologists in key positions to ensure food safety and to meet the requirements of Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006. There is enormous potential for India to become a leading knowledge power in the coming

211

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

years which can be realized only if our younger generation has opportunities for all-round good education and training, especially in science and technology (Lakhotia and Mukunda, 2008). The need for skill development and training opportunities has been voiced by many authors. Our education system needs to be revamped as it is churning out unemployable youth in large numbers in its present form. As a result, big corporations fail to find a capable workforce in the country (Sidhu, 2008). The requirement of vocational skills and the right attitude to work are more important in the industries, but these are found to be seriously lacking in the university graduates. The graduates are just equipped with the bookish knowledge. The universities have thus produced more unemployable graduates as they are the places where students get credentialed and teachers focus on teaching without much concern for societal problems/issues or for the economic future of students (Narasimharao et al. 2011). The universities have not educated the students for the real world of the life sciences outside of universities and over the years this has resulted in these graduates taking up jobs which are not relevant to their training or has resulted in their becoming more and more unemployable (Schuster, 2009). Many prominent authors have voiced their opinions and concerns about the standards of education and their relevance to the societal needs. The colleges and universities are still following the decades-old syllabus and there is hardly any initiative to add new vocational courses. The main emphasis of universities and colleges imparting microbiology courses is on providing degrees and preparing students for a career in academics rather than for the world outside and for societal benefits. Narasimharao (2010) felt that there was a need to protect the traditional role of universities while accommodating economic forces of the society. The concepts like corporate education can help us in this attempt. The master’s degree programme in most of the major scientific disciplines like Microbiol-

212

ogy, Botany, Zoology, etc. have tended to be single-discipline in orientation. These degree programmes are an extension of the undergraduate programmes and prepare the post-graduate students for the doctoral programmes. This tradition need to be given way to new practices and mechanisms for integrating different disciplines as there is a paradigm shift in science towards knowledge production with multiple accountabilities (Beerkens, 2009). These days the biotechnology industries look for additional qualifications in science graduates, additional skills and knowledge which add to the employability of the graduates. Schmid (2008) noted that among the major pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, 80% of positions seem to be alternative careers requiring scientific understanding of the products or services. Thus, professionals who can combine science and management, science and intellectual property management, etc. will be highly valued (Narasimharao et. al. 2011). Good communication skills are very important and are essential in the corporate world. The traditional systems of learning, particularly the disciplines in science, need large scale revamping in order to become relevant to the current needs of the society at large. Education need not be limited to the traditional universities alone but need to be extended to other educational institutions which are capable of addressing the growing need and demand of society at large. Newer concepts like triple helix, corporate education, out-reach programmes, centres of excellence, sustainable higher education, open distance learning, etc. are increasingly being heard in the corridors of education. The extensive funding that needs to be pumped into the educational sectors for extensive revamping of the set-up cannot be met by government alone but a large part can be organized from private enterprises. The universities have to play a more proactive role to develop meaningful partnership with the industries and the students should be able to transform their knowledge into skills useful for the industry.

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

EVOLUTION AND APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIAL TECHNOLOGY Microbes have existed since the beginning of life and were the first inhabitants on the planet earth. Microorganisms were exploited for useful purposes long before anything was known about their existence. Many ancient civilizations used yeast to make alcohol, bread, etc. History reveals many other applications of microbial processes that resulted in the production of foods and beverages. Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch lensmaker was the first to report his observations of microorganisms with accurate descriptions and drawings. However, it was not until the studies of Louis Pasteur in the second half of the nineteenth century that the role of microorganisms in these processes was understood. His landmark discoveries of the fermentative processes for production of alcoholic beverages (wines) and leavening of dough laid down the base of industrial microbiology. This opened up the avenues to the production of other fermented products like methanol, ethanol, butanol, citric acid, etc. through microbial processes. In the 1940s, the discovery of antibiotics, led by penicillin, initiated a major new industry built upon the products of microorganisms. Due to rapid industrialization during the 1950’s, the industrial scale manufacture of these products became possible. Techniques for efficient production, separation, purification, etc. were also developed. The manufacture of antibiotics also started during this time. During the next phase, technologies were developed for commercial production of vaccines, aminoacids, industrial enzymes and bacterial polysaccharides on a large scale, thus opened up the microbiology sectors as potential employment opportunities to educated youth and entrepreneurs. The next phase, i.e, during the 1980s-90s, saw rapid developments in microbiology and revolutionary discoveries of molecular biology, genetic engineering and process technology necessitated honing of skill of the employees to cope with the development.

At the same time educational institutes were required to upgrade the infrastructural facilities and technical skill of the teachers to keep pace with the development. As a result of the great advances in our knowledge of microbial genetics, it is possible to manipulate microorganisms genetically to produce new products. The process is called recombinant DNA technology. This development, i.e., the “engineering” of microorganisms to produce needed valuable chemical substances has revolutionized the field of industrial microbiology. The food processing industry, pharmaceutical industries, agricultural industries, etc. are some of the various industries using microbiological products and processes. Microbiology has an innate and age-old relationship with our day to day lives and some very basic discoveries in Microbiology laid the foundation of the present day biotechnology industry. Quality education in microbiology and related disciplines can cater to the need of the trained and well educated professionals in different industries and academia. The important discoveries in microbiology have revolutionized the biotechnology industry and have now ramified into areas like medicine, pharma industries, food and beverages, agriculture, environmental sciences, etc.

The Major Fields of Applied Microbiology The major fields of Applied Microbiology are listed in Table 1.

The Major Classes of Products and Processes The industries employing microbial technologies can be grouped on the basis of type of microbial products being manufactured, as listed in Table 2. The biotechnology industries require microbiologists having different levels of education to meet the needs of the different areas in the

213

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

Table 1. Different fields of microbiology and their applications Subject

Applications

Medical Microbiology

Causative agents of diseases; diagnostic procedures for identification of causative agents; preventive and therapeutic measures

Food Microbiology

Food preservation and preparation; food borne diseases and their prevention

Industrial Microbiology

Production of products such as antibiotics and vaccines; fermented beverages; industrial chemicals and enzymes; production of proteins and hormones by genetically engineered microorganisms

Aquatic Microbiology

Water purification; microbiological examination; biological degradation of wastes; ecology; fishery microbiology

Aeromicrobiology

Contamination and spoilage; dissemination of diseases

Agricultural Microbiology

Soil fertility; plant and animal diseases

Exomicrobiology

Exploration for life in outer space

Geochemical Microbiology

Coal, mineral and gas formation; prospecting for deposits of coal, oil and gas; recovery of minerals from low-grade ores

Immunology

Studying the body’s defense against disease

Parasitology

Studying the complex life cycles and adaptations made by organisms which depend on other organisms for survival

Biotechnology

Manipulate genes in order to modify microorganisms; Production of novel organisms that make new products for human use (i.e. insulin, medicine, grocery store items)

Virology

Study viruses and bacteriophages, virologists are interested in how viruses change and are always on the alert for new types

General Microbiology

General microbiology focuses on the fundamentals and basic features of micro-organisms including ecology, metabolism, genetics, physiology and structure, etc.

production chain. While the fresh graduates and post-graduates are employed in the quality control areas for regular analysis of the finished products, the doctoral degree holders are usually employed in managerial positions for overall monitoring of the whole process and are responsible for the production, quality and marketing aspects (Vijayendra and Narasimharao, 2011). The doctoral or post-doctoral degree holders are often employed in R and D positions for looking into the prospects of enhancing productivity by newer strains of microorganisms or newer processes or products. These positions need considerable expertise, experience and intellectual inputs on the part of the microbiologists. For example, one of the major product that has gone to the industrial level of production is the large scale manufacturing of biofertilizers. Different levels of production and expertise are required to make the production and marketing of biofertilizers (Figure 1).

214

MICROBIOLOGY EDUCATION IN INDIA In India, Microbiology is taught at the graduate level for B.Sc. degree; post-graduate level for M.Sc., M.Phil, and Ph.D. degrees and also for offering diploma courses in Microbiology (Table 3). Microbiology can be divided into different categories such as medical microbiology, applied microbiology, industrial microbiology, marine microbiology, agriculture microbiology and so on. B.Sc. Microbiology is a three year course, minimum eligibility for which is an intermediate (10+2) in science. The subjects usually studied under this degree are General Microbiology, Microbial Physiology, Immunology, Microbial Genetics, Molecular Biology, Genetic Engineering, Biotechnology, Bioinstrumentation, Bioinformatics, Bio-Statistics, Chemistry, Biophysics,

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

Table 2. Microbial products and processes, area, and technical knowledge required for employment Products/ Processes

Area

Technical knowledge required for employment

Alcoholic beverages

Brewing, wine making and production of other alcoholic beverages

Fermentation technology or Industrial Microbiology

Food supplements and food products

Mass production of yeasts, algae and bacteria provide a good source of proteins and other organic nutrients useful as food supplements. Lactic acid produced industrially finds application in many sectors. Large-scale production of aminoacids, food preservatives, etc. from microorganisms is also a profitable venture.

Fermentation, Food Microbiology, General Microbiology

Pharmaceutical chemicals

The most important chemicals in this category are antibiotics and steroids but other substances like insulin and interferon are now being produced by genetically engineered bacteria. Many other new products are in the offing by the use of genetically engineered microorganisms.

Industrial Microbiology

Commercially valuable chemicals

Solvents (Acetone-butanol), surfactants, enzymes (amylases, proteases, lipases, etc.), and some intermediate compounds (2-ketogluconic acid) for synthesis of other substances are produced commercially by microbial processes.

General Microbiology with special emphasis on intermediary metabolism and secondary metabolites; Industrial Microbiology

Vaccines

Certain microorganisms are grown in large quantities for use as vaccines.

Immunology

Analytical microbiology

Microbiological techniques have been developed for quality assessment of a variety of products like antibiotics, vaccines, aminoacids, etc. Microbiological methods are routinely employed to determine the potency of all antibiotic preparations at various stages of development. Many new analytical procedures are being developed for evaluation of various microbiological products.

General Microbiology; Industrial Microbiology

Hybridomas and Monoclonal antibodies

Genetic research with microorganisms, particularly at the molecular level, has provided techniques which have been applied to studies with mammalian cells. One of the important outcome of this research is the production of hybridoma cells which can be grown in vitro. The monoclonal antibodies produced by hybridoma cells can be produced on a commercial scale and are used for therapeutic purposes for combating malignant cells.

Immunology; Cell culture

Petroleum Microbiology

Microorganisms are associated with petroleum in its formation, its recovery by drilling, its decomposition and its utilization. Studies in petroleum microbiology require interdisciplinary approach.

General Microbiology; Industrial Microbiology

Mining industries

Microorganisms play a role in the recovery of minerals from ores. The microbial leaching technique improves the recovery of metal from an ore and is nonpolluting to the atmosphere

General and Industrial Microbiology

Biofertilizers and Biopesticides

Microorganisms beneficial to crop plants are used for the production of biofertilizers (Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Pseudomonas, etc.) and biopesticides (Trichoderma, Verticillium, Pseudomonas, etc.). Commercial production of the inoculants takes place through appropriate fermentation technologies

Agricultural Microbiology

Cell Structure, Microbial Growth and Reproduction, Virology, etc. At the undergraduate level the different courses offered are: • • •

Bachelor of Science in Microbiology Bachelor of Science in Industrial Microbiology Bachelor of Science in Clinical Microbiology

• • •

Bachelor of Science in Medical Microbiology Bachelor of Science in Microbiology and Microbial Technology Diploma in Microbiology

M.Sc. Microbiology program is of 2 years. For admission into master’s degree program a student must have a bachelor’s degree in the relevant subject. Those who obtain a Master’s or higher qualification in microbiology can find 215

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

Figure 1. Steps in production of biofertilizer and the required levels of expertise of microbiologists and other trained technicians

Diploma in Microbiology is a PG diploma course meant for MBBS graduates alone and this course is offered by medical colleges with approval from the Medical Council of India. This course is being offered by only a single government medical institution in India in addition to many private colleges and the name of the government institution offering this course is given below: •

job openings in research and development wings of pharmaceutical and biotech industries including multinational companies, multi-speciality hospitals, food industries, chemical or cosmetic industries and research organisations. Postgraduate and doctoral degree holders can look for research based position including that of scientific or research officer, microbiologists, or analysts. At the post-graduate level the different courses offered are: • • • • • • •

216

Master of Science in Microbiology Master of Science in Applied Microbiology Master of Science in Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology Master of Science in Clinical Microbiology Master of Science in Fermentation and Microbial Technology Master of Science in Industrial Microbiology Master of Science in Medical Microbiology

Government Medical College, Bhavnagar

When it comes to admission to Diploma in Microbiology course is concerned, candidates with MBBS and compulsory internship completion certificate are eligible to apply. Diploma in Microbiology course is designed in such a way as to equip students with modern technological skills particularly in the field of microbiology. Areas of study include the application of micro-organisms like fungi, bacteria and virus in relation to the importance to the mankind. Some of the subjects covered under the Diploma in Microbiology course are: • • • •

Cell Biology Systematic Bacteriology Basic Immunology Genetics

ROLE OF CORPORATE EDUCATION Though it is increasingly becoming obvious that development of knowledge and skills is important for gainful employment in the biotechnology industry, still the traditional role of universities needs to be sustained. The traditional universities are the fundamentals for imparting quality education to the larger part of the society. They include Central Universities, State Universities and Deemed Universities. These universities mainly offer traditional courses in Sciences, Arts, Commerce, etc. Nevertheless, the interest shown by the private sector in imparting quality education in different

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

Table 3. List of some colleges and universities offering graduate, postgraduate and diploma degrees in microbiology in India Sr. No.

Nature of Course

1

B.Sc.

2

M.Sc.

No of colleges offering courses 260

208

Names of Major Colleges A. V. M. Degree & P. G. College A. V. C. College of Engineering Swami Shraddhanand College Gargi College Jeyaraj Chelladuri College of Arts and Science Apollo Arts and Science College Asutosh College St. Xavier’s College Bharathidasan College of Arts and Science Dr. L. B. College Fergusson College Presidency College Government Arts College for Women Indo-American College J. J. College of Arts and Science K. C. College Saviour College Yashwantrao Chavan Institute of Science A. V. C. College of Engineering Ashok & Rita Patel Institute of Integrated Study & Research in Biotechnology and Allied Sciences Baptla College of Arts and Science C.G. Bhakta Institute of Biotechnology C.M.S. College of Science and Commerce Department of Life Science, Patan Dr. Zakir Hussian College Dr. L. B. College Faculty of Engineering & Technology Fergusson College Government Science College Indo-American College J. J. College of Arts and Science Sharda University St. John’s Medical College

3

Diploma

5

St. Joseph College of Arts and Science St. Thomas College St. Xavier’s College The Himalayan Institute of Medical Sciences Vellore Institute of Technology Yashwantrao Mohite College Era Lucknow Medical College, Lucknow

Names of major universities

State

Osmania University Anna University, Chennai University of Delhi

Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu Delhi

Madurai Kamaraj University

Tamil Nadu

Madras University University of Calcutta

Tamil Nadu West Bengal

Bharathiar University Andhra University University of Pune Bangalore University Periyar University Thiruvalluvar University Bharathidasan University University of Mumbai Barkatullah University Shivaji University Anna University, Chennai Sardar Patel University

Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Karnataka Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Tamil Nadu Gujarat

Acharya Nagarjuna University Veer Narmad South Gujarat University Bharathiar University Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University Alagappa University Andhra University Annamalai University University of Pune Bangalore University Thiruvalluvar University Bharathidasan University Sharda University Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences Thiruvalluvar University Kerala University University of Calcutta Himachal Pradesh University

Andhra Pradesh Gujarat

Vellore Institute of Technology Bharati Vidyapeeth Trust

Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh

Tamil Nadu Gujarat Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Karnataka Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Karnataka Tamil Nadu Kerala West Bengal Uttaranchal

continued on following page

217

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

Table 3. Continued Sr. No.

Nature of Course

No of colleges offering courses

Names of Major Colleges Government Medical College, Bhavnagar Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Wardha Pramukhswami Medical College, Karmsad Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital

Names of major universities Bhavnagar University Trust Trust Trust

State Gujarat Maharashtra Gujarat Maharashtra

Source: http://indiastudychannel.com/courses/co; www.school2college.com/diplomainmicro

spheres of education is also encouraging. It is to be accepted that for providing quality education, there is need for improved infrastructure facilities which in turn needs huge investments and private institutions such as Amity University can easily occupy the space in these aspects. Therefore, there is growing need for developing public-private partnership for revamping the educational sector for a quantum leap in improving the available basic infrastructures to provide quality education to the upcoming generation of the society. This would be one step forward for building the nation. Biotechnology industries should come forward and tie-up with universities to provide quality education and need based skills. Corporate education is widespread in the West, while it needs to pick up in India too. A large number of professional courses, diplomas, management courses, etc. are now being offered in Indian universities. New courses are being offered not only in government but also in private institutions. Both the government and private universities should come up in a big way to promote corporate education, introduce new courses relevant to the society in today’s context. The private universities are approved by the UGC. They can grant degrees but they are not allowed to have off-campus affiliated colleges. The traditional science degree courses like Botany, Zoology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, etc. will always be the backbone of science education, but degree courses are also being offered in Biotechnology, Microbiology, Bioinformatics and many other disciplines which were earlier offered in post graduate degree courses. Diplomas are

218

being offered in areas like Clinical Microbiology. Similar specialized courses and diplomas can be offered to graduates, not only of life-sciences but also for graduates in Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, etc., so as to make successful professionals out of them. The gap between pure and applied sciences is getting narrowed down. The knowledge and skills thus gained will help these graduates to seek employment in biotechnology industries and develop careers. They would do so by having the ability ‘to use the products of scholarship in their work and by being familiar with ‘the practical aspects of emerging problem areas (Tobias et al., 1995)’. The demand for professional courses is more in a developing country like India. Sitaramam and Sauna (1996) observed that both parents and students are more inclined towards a professional course, probably due to enhanced chances of getting a job. The 21st century social responsibility of universities in developing countries include developing and evolving corporate education models covering all aspects of social and economic concerns for broader involvement of universities with society (Narasimharao and Nair, 2010).

TRAINING AND EDUCATION REQUIRED TO SUCCEED IN INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY/ BIOTECHNOLOGY A graduate with a B.Sc. degree has several career options. One may begin a career in an industrial

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

or clinical entry-level position. There may also be opportunities in sales of laboratory products or instruments. Job opportunities are also there in research organizations, scientific labs, hospitals and health industries, food industries, chemical industries and pharmaceuticals, microbiology labs, etc. in India and abroad. In many organizations, employees are encouraged to continue their education. It may be possible in such an environment to obtain a higher degree while working full-time. Many organizations employing industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists will have dual career paths for advancement. This means that the scientists will have the opportunity to advance to higher levels of responsibility either by staying in their chosen technical field or by assuming administrative responsibilities in technical management. Advancement to Project Manager, Plant Manager, or Director is common. Opportunities for those with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in microbiology are expected to be better than the opportunities for those with doctoral degrees. These workers can fill jobs in science-related sales and marketing, and can take on technician roles in biotechnology or food industries. Some can become high school teachers. The present day professionals in biotechnology industries are expected to know multiple skills for a successful career in the industry. While knowledge of production process is important, knowledge of business, market competition, supply and handling of materials, intellectual property issues, management processes, etc. are equally important to survive in a competitive world. A graduate seeking employment in the area of microbial biotechnology should have knowledge not only in the core area of microbiology but also in the disciplines across the boundary like biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, immunology, marketing, etc. A recent report noted that among the major pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, 80% of positions seem to be alternative careers requiring scientific understanding of the products

or services (Schmid, 2008). An orientation in business, management, economics, etc. will be an added advantage to the professionals seeking employment in industries, government and nongovernment organizations and in various sectors. Thus, apart from the traditional degree courses, students should arm themselves with short term degree/diploma in business management, quality control, materials management and similar other courses in order to bag good jobs. Today, most of the companies prefer those candidates who are having good communication skills as well as knowledge (Sidhu, 2008). Knowledge may be overlooked if candidates have exceptionally good communication skills. Therefore, there is a need to develop the personality as well as the right attitude of the students to produce employable graduates.

Natural Sciences: Need for a Shift from Tradition Keeping pace with the emerging and changing scenario in the world economy and post cold war era, there is requirement of skilled professionals in different spheres of society. Keeping the values of the traditional natural sciences intact during the process of transition from basic aspects of science to an applied orientation, there is also need for a balancing act between the tradition and the required reforms. Paradox within paradox! Pragmatism within delusion! That is the way forward for bringing the required reforms in the educational sector. To harness the benefits of the advancement of science and technology, there is need for structural, infrastructural and tactical reforms in the present educational institutions for imparting quality education to all concerned for developing industry employable leaders and professionals. At the structural level, there is requirement of the changes at the level of setup both at management level as well as at the level of recruitment of professionals and also at the level of development of industry oriented curricula.

219

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

To keep pace with the development in the field of microbiology and molecular biology, there is urgent need of developing modern infrastructure including equipments to offer the facility for training of the young talents. The tactical reform has to come from the policy makers at the level of governments to open up the educational sector for investment and also inviting renowned foreign universities to open their campuses in India. This is not possible unless both government and private institutions join hands for a common goal. But at the same time the traditional Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology should not be overlooked as these are the foundations of knowledge. The inclusion of advanced information and knowledge in science and technology curriculum particularly molecular biology and biotechnology, will provide better flexibility to the knowledge base of the students and professionals to adapt to the need of industries. To provide better job opportunities to science graduates and post graduates in the pharmaceutical industries, the students and professionals need to be educated, in both practical and applied aspects, about latest developments in the field of bioinformatics, proteomics, genomics, transcriptomics, genome sequencing, drug trials, drug targeting, protein discoveries, protein designing and pathway analysis and related information. For broadening the knowledge base in the fermentation and other industries students should be taught about the processes, techniques about control parameters, downstream processing, quality control, upscaling of the processes, etc. Improvement of strains by genetic manipulation for enhanced production of desired products is also required to be taught. To keep the IPR issues a secret, the students and professionals should also have knowledge about intellectual property right, patenting and laws about patents and IPR. The question paradoxically remains whether we will be able to provide quality education to the future generation to keep pace with the

220

advancement in science and technology and the requirement of versatile industries? To do so all stakeholders should be taken into confidence and valuable inputs from all concerned should be invited to re-orient our present programmes of natural sciences to make them more meaningful to the students for better job opportunities (Narasimharao et al., 2011).

Capacity Building Development of the industrial workforce is equally important as development and commercialization of microbial technologies. Access to human resource in the required areas was identified as the second or third most important issue in a long list of hurdles faced by the biotechnology industries for commercialization (Dahms, 2003). Microorganisms are used mainly in pharmaceuticals, biofuels, biofertilizers, food, feed, soil reclamation, metal leaching, sewage treatment, protein supplement, secondary metabolites, genetic engineering, fermentation, etc. and there are many industries which use microbial technologies for their end products. The integration of different disciplines of biotechnology, industrial microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, etc. thus, becomes important. Microbiology courses have two different approaches. In the classical approach the aspects like morphology, taxonomy, phylogeny, microbial diversity, economic importance of microorganisms, etc. may be a paper or part of a paper in the programme of study. In the modern approach the students may have more than one paper on microbiology and cover a wide area of applied microbiology. Special courses like Molecular Biology and Genetics of Microorganisms, Applied Microbiology, Molecular Phylogeny, Bioinformatics, Molecular Environmental Microbiology, Microbial Evolutionary Genetics, Marine Biotechnology, Environmental Biotechnology, Aero-Microbiology, Metabolic Engineering, etc. may be offered as electives. Minor electives

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

on Biofertilizer technology, etc. may be offered. The universities may offer a Diploma programme which focuses on skill based components along with their post-graduate degree. At North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, courses like Advances in Mycology, Phycology and Virology; Microbial Physiology and Metabolism, Bioinstrumentation and Biometry, Extremophiles, etc. are offered in Semester I in M.Sc. Similarly, in Semester III, courses like Immunology, Molecular Biology, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, etc. are offered. These courses come under the classical approach of teaching Microbiology. Under the modern approach, courses like Advanced Microbial Genetics, Advances in Enzymology, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, and Bioprocess Technology, Advances in Molecular Biology, Plant Microbe Interaction, Genetic Engineering, etc. are offered in the Semester II and IV, respectively. At University of Pune, Pune, Maharashtra, the M.Sc. Microbiology curriculum consists of classical courses like Microbial Diversity and Taxonomy; Cell Organization and Biochemistry; Microbial Metabolism; Immunology; Virology; Pharmaceutical and Medical Microbiology, etc. Following the modern approach, the curriculum also consists of courses like Quantitative Biology; Instrumentation and Molecular Biophysics; Evolution, Ecology and Environmental Microbiology; Molecular Biology and Microbial Biotechnology. In recent years, there is a movement to start four-year degree courses in pure sciences in some universities, to integrate pure and technical/applied knowledge (Vijayendra and Narasimharao, 2011). According to these authors this type of approach may be useful in developing microbiology professionals for the food industry by integrating basic and applied knowledge. Application oriented courses at the Masters level are offered in basic sciences by many Indian universities. There are Masters in Business Administration in science subjects like Biotechnology, Clinical Research, Agricultural business, Phar-

macy, etc. Some universities have also introduced the participation of personnel from industry in their board of studies. Specially designed master’s degree programmes like ‘Professional Science Masters Programmes (PSM)’ are being offered in USA, which address the current needs of the economy as well as the needs of students by providing both fundamental knowledge and specialized skills (Schuster, 2009). Indian universities do produce thousands of masters’ and hundreds of PhD’s in different disciplines of science to cater to the need of different academics and industries. Many of them are unemployed. Therefore, there is no dearth of professionals and talents. Nevertheless thousands of graduates and masters’ in this country remain unemployed due to non-exposure to reality of the needs of the industries. Re-orientation of their skills towards more applied aspects would add more value to their degrees which will attract jobs.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN MICROBIAL TECHNOLOGY/ BIOTECHNOLOGY Although a good number of microbiology and biotechnology graduates are produced every year, the biotechnology firms can absorb very less numbers of them for want of required skills and knowledge. Broadly speaking three different career routes can be developed by students of Microbiology/Biotechnology – Careers in microbial technology/biotechnology as educationists and researchers in various branches of the subject; careers in microbial biotechnology to cater to the need of biotechnology industries, and careers in microbial technology to serve the needs of society. Careers in industry have to be developed keeping in mind the types of microbial technologies needed by different types of industries and their requirements. Some of the strategies that can be followed for developing corporate education in

221

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

universities are – developing industry related and relevance based courses, trans-disciplinary approach to courses, and development of courses specific to different regions and focusing on skill development. When choosing a career in industrial microbiology or biotechnology, one should be prepared to embrace a multidisciplinary science. The challenges will require investigation of several aspects of a process or production problem. In such circumstances, one will often need skills and expertise in additional fields such as molecular biology, bioengineering, or biochemistry. The industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists are responsible for the discovery, development, or implementation of certain processes and the quality of resultant products such as: 1. Antibiotics/Antimicrobials: Both natural and chemically enhanced microbial products can be used to control human, animal, and plant diseases. Using traditional genetics or recombinant DNA techniques, the microorganisms can be modified to improve the yield or action of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. Efforts are aimed at discovering microbial metabolites (with pharmacological activities) useful in the treatment of lifestyle diseases like hypertension, obesity, coronary heart disease, cancer, and inflammation. 2. Vaccines: Vaccines are essential to protect humans and animals from microbial diseases. The advancements in Recombinant DNA technology have allowed for the production of vaccines that offer protection without risk of infection (e.g. hepatitis B vaccine). New vaccines are being developed by industrial microbiologists every day. 3. Health-Care Products: The development and production of diagnostic assays that utilize monoclonal antibody or DNA probe technology are essential in the manufacture of health-care products such as rapid tests

222

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

for streptococcus infection of throat, AIDS, etc. Microorganisms are also used to produce human or animal biologicals such as insulin, growth hormone, and antibodies. The industrial microbiologist/biotechnologist may screen new microbial sources (e.g., marine microorganisms) for their ability to produce new pharmaceuticals or develop new diagnostic assay systems. Foods/Beverages Produced by Microbial Activity: Yogurt, cheese, pickles, sauerkraut, soy sauce, food supplements (vitamins and amino acids, etc.), food thickeners (produced from microbial polysaccharides), alcohol (beer, whiskeys, wines), sausages, and silage for animals are a few examples of products of microbial activity. Foods/Beverages Cured or Improved by Microbial Activity: Production of certain items like coffee, tea, cocoa, vanilla, cheese, olives, and tobacco all require curing, which is a microbial activity, and a microbiologist to ensure product quality. Food Flavoring Agents and Preservatives: Organic acids, such as citric, malic, and ascorbic acids, and monosodium glutamate are microbial products commonly used in foods. Industrial Microbiologists/ Biotechnologists: May be involved in producing concentrated microbial inocula for fermentations or the maintenance of fermentation systems utilized in production facilities. They may also be involved with the identification of the organisms involved in fermentation processes and in maintaining culture collections. Microorganisms Used as Foods: Some red and green algae are consumed directly. Yeasts are used as food supplements for humans and animals. Agriculture: Microbial inoculants serve as fertilizer supplements by fixing atmospheric nitrogen to improve plant yields and to

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

serve as plant pest controls. Conventional, recombinant DNA, and monoclonal antibody techniques are used to improve microbial inoculants. All of these require a microbiologist to ensure product efficacy and quality. Enzymes: Many enzymes find industrial applications, like in production of cheese, the clarification of apple juice, the development of more efficient laundry detergents, pulp and paper production, de-hairing of leather and the treatment of sewage, etc. These processes have been dramatically enhanced by the use of recombinant DNA techniques to design enzymes of increased activity, stability, and specificity. Carbohydrates: Microbial carbohydrates like dextran are used as molecular sieves for purification/separation processes and xanthan is used as a thickening agent in salad dressings. Xanthans are also used for secondary oil recovery in oil fields and as lubricants in drilling oil wells, gelling agents in foods, and thickeners in both paints and foods. Organic Chemicals: Compounds such as acetone, methanol, butanol, and ethanol have multiple applications in industries. Microbiologists are required to do research on improvements in the production and detection of new metabolic pathways. In the days to come microorganisms will increasingly be used to supplement or replace those processes which rely on petroleum/natural gas for the production of these compounds. Oil Recovery/Mining: Surfactants produced by some bacteria facilitate the recovery of oil by forcing trapped oil out of rocks. Some bacteria are used for extraction of minerals from low-grade ores (microbial leaching). Control of Microbial Contamination: Research and developments in this area also offers career paths for industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists. The industrial microbiologist develops assays to detect

microbial contaminants in food and develops preservatives. Microbiologists are also involved in the development of procedures for the control of deterioration in cosmetics, steel, rubber, textiles, paint, and petroleum products. 15. Waste and Wastewater Management: The production of clean water and the destruction of waste material are important for preserving the environment and providing potable water. The industrial microbiologist is directly involved in developing microbial strains to detoxify wastes of industrial, agricultural, or human origin. 16. Environmental Science: Studying the microorganisms living in extreme habitats (e.g. high temperatures, salinity, high or low pH, high radiation, etc.) may lead to discovery of or engineering of microbes with new abilities to degrade or transform pollutants and improve the environment. Industrial microbiologists/biotechnologists are involved in engineering microorganisms to solve contamination and recycling problems, and assess the environmental safety of new and exciting products. 17. Self Employment: is also a very good option for microbiologists to start their professional career. They can set up microbiological laboratories of their own and can help in diagnosing the disease and researchers to direct their own research. There are large, private research institutes that conduct Microbiological/epidemiological studies for government agencies where there is a sudden outbreak of any epidemic disease.

Considerations for a Career in Industrial Microbiology/ Biotechnology A career in industrial microbiology/biotechnology offers a variety of work assignments. Typically these may include basic research, process devel-

223

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

opment, production, technical services, quality control, sales, etc. Some industrial microbiologists may actually be considered as genetic engineers (utilizing recombinant DNA techniques) while others may be classified as bioprocess engineers (optimizing enzymatic reaction systems for a desired product). Microbial and molecular biologists often combine the fields of microbiology, cell biology, genetics, chemistry, biochemistry, cellular physiology, ecology, and pathology in their day-to-day work or experiments. The industry will require scientists who can discover new products and develop methods for producing those products in large quantities. The government agencies will employ microbiologists/biotechnologists in research, regulatory, and oversight positions. The academic institutions will require teaching professionals to prepare the next generation of industrial microbiologists/ biotechnologists. Individuals who develop their skills and expertise will find mobility in the job market since their basic background and training will be transferable to new opportunities. Microbiologists have great demand in the industries like pharmaceutical, food and biotechnology industries preparing enzymes, etc. The Microbiologists get job in product development, processing, production, quality control, etc. Similarly there is demand for Microbiologists in food and catering industries in quality control areas and in maintaining hygiene. In biotechnology industries producing industrial enzymes, hormones, steroids, etc. microbiologists are employed to oversee the production processes, etc. The new growth areas for employment are in environmental and pollution control companies. The Biotechnolgy companies use the advances in molecular biology to improve agricultural crops, develop new kinds of drugs, or harness microbes to recycle wastes. Many biotechnology companies use genetic engineering to accomplish their corporate goals. Microbiologists and molecular biologists are also employed by state and central government

224

agencies; or in the private sector, such as a vaccine company, a clinical reference laboratory doing tests for physicians and health departments, or a pharmaceutical corporation. Many industries require microbiologists to ensure the safety of their products, such as cosmetics, food processing, and the dairy industry. Mathematical ability, problem-solving and analytical skills, and curiosity are important traits for future microbiologists and molecular biologists. Those who hope to work in industry should broaden their educational background to include courses such as economics, computer technology, and business management. Good oral and written communication skills are critical; many scientists work as part of a team, write research papers or proposals, and have contact with clients or customers with non-science backgrounds. The tasks of an industrial microbiologist/ biotechnologist might include: • •

•

•

•

• •

Chemical analyses of substances, such as acids, alcohols, and enzymes. Examining physiological, morphological, and cultural characteristics, using microscope, to identify microorganisms. Isolation and making cultures of bacteria or other microorganisms in prescribed media, controlling moisture, aeration, temperature, and nutrition. Observing action of microorganisms upon living tissues of plants, higher animals, and other micro- organisms, and on dead organic matter. Researching use of bacteria and microorganisms to develop vitamins, antibiotics, amino acids, grain alcohol, sugars, and polymers. Studying growth structure and development of viruses. Studying the growth, structure, development, and general characteristics of microorganisms.

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

Microbial technology having myriad applications in various sectors needs the approaches discussed in this chapter for making its graduates employable in biotechnology industry.

CONCLUSION Considering the enormous applications of microbiology and biotechnology in different sectors a myriad of employment opportunities does exist. However, to keep pace with the development in microbiology and biotechnology and enormous job opportunities and employment avenues of graduates seeking employment in microbiology industries, there is need for a dimensional change in creating new course curriculum, university and laboratory set up, and infrastructural facilities both in public and private sectors. There is also need for skilled manpower to cater to the need of industries. Avenues are also open for other science graduates to enter into microbiological sectors to fill the gap between the required and the available manpower. As there is lack of infrastructure and laboratory facilities in many institutions, there is urgent need for public-private partnership to develop skilled manpower to cater to the need in different sectors.

FUTURE PROSPECTS The recent developments in molecular biology and genetic engineering are rapidly being translated into commercial practices and are revolutionizing industrial microbiology and thus creating employment opportunities not only for microbiologist but to related disciplines. It has also opened up other related industries providing inputs to biotechnology industries. Over the years, hundreds of companies have been built upon for developing new technologies that have come into being during the last several years. As it cannot be done alone by the governments, the need of establishing and

strengthening university-industry partnership has been realized. The impact of latest developments in biotechnology will influence society throughout the world. The areas like agriculture and food production, environmental quality and waste management, new pharmaceutical products and chemicals and disease control will see new accomplishments. More professional degree programs will have to be started which will provide a strong fundamental knowledge base along with the highly specialized skills needed for a career in biotechnology industries. The Microbiology and Biotechnology education should be professionalized for a knowledge economy. This will involve developing courses having equal share of knowledge, skills and values; giving more emphasis on multidisciplinary approach; involving the stakeholders of microbiology/biotechnology education in designing of course curricula and getting regular feedbacks from the industry about their requirements. This will improve the employability of the science graduates in biotechnology industry as well as provide benefit to the society at large. To keep pace with the developments in science and technology and to cater to the emerging and diversified needs of the different sectors of the societies, there is urgent need to: 1. Reorient the present course curriculum more towards industries and other sectors by involving private industry professionals in each stage of education to understand their needs and vision 2. Impart practical trainings to the students and expose them to different techniques/ processes of industrial, clinical, medical, fermentation, molecular biology and biotechnology industries, etc. for honing their skills to become fit for jobs in those sectors 3. Emphasize the need for developing entrepreneurs for small and medium scale industries involving microbial processes including

225

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

fermentation, byproduct utilization, waste treatments, microbial enzyme industries, etc. through both professional and vocational programmes. These can be region specific developing upon availability of byproducts, agro-wastes, techno-economic viability of the technologies of that region and socioeconomic status of the region. To achieve the above goals, the government set up needs to open up their technological knowledge base to the industries in more pragmatic ways than ever before. To bring synergy and energy to the educational sector which needs a paradigm shift, both in terms of revamping and reorientation to meet the ever-growing demand of society as a whole, needs enormous magnitude of investment. Therefore, strategic partnerships involving public, private, NGOs, and all other stakeholders are required to build a society and nation of competitive and knowledgeable professionals.

REFERENCES Beerkens, E. (2009). Centres of excellence and relevance: The contextualisation of global models. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 153–175. doi:10.1177/097172180801400106 Dahms, A. S. (2003). Possible road maps for workforce development in Biocommerce clusters, including institutions of higher education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 31, 197–202. doi:10.1002/bmb.2003.494031030224

Magrath, C. P. (2006). Outreach now: Inventing the future through engagement. September 27, 2006. VA: The Inn at Virginia Tech and Skelton Conference Center Blacksburg. Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Nair, P. R. R. (2010). Universities and corporate education, 21st century social responsibility of developing countries. SRRNet, Discussion papers in social responsibility, No. 1002. Retrieved from www.socialresponsibility.biz Narasimharao, B. P. R., Prasad, J. S., & Nair, P. R. R. (2011). Corporate education in natural sciences: A professional approach for universities. Current Science, 101(11), 1421–1424. Schmid, M. B. (2008). Graduate programs that prepare for non- research careers: New views on the master’s degree in science. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News, 28(14). Retrieved from www.genengnews.com/articles/chitem. aspx?aid=2541 Schuster, S. M. (2009). BAMBED commentary; post-PhD education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 37(6), 381–382. doi:10.1002/ bmb.20337 Sidhu, G. S. (2008, May 20). Stop churning out unemployable youth. The Tribune (Online Edition, Chandigarh). Sitaramam, V., & Sauna, Z. E. (1996). What can be done with science education in Indian universities? An attempt at a synthesis. Current Science, 70(5), 335–340.

Lakhotia, S. C., & Mukunda, N. (2008). Science academies’ position paper: Restructuring postschool science teaching programmes. Current Science, 95(10), 1411–1420.

Tobias, S., Chubin, D., & Aylesworth, K. (1995). Rethinking science as a career. Perceptions and realities in the physical sciences. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation.

Lal, R. (2010). Microbiology and biotechnology education in India. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 50, 251–252. doi:10.1007/s12088-010-0064-3

Vijayendra, S. V. N., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2011). Preparing microbiology professionals for food industry. Indian Food Industry, 30(5&6), 32–43.

226

Microbiology Education for Biotechnology Industry

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Biofertilizers: Preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help in the uptake of nutrients by the crop plants thereby improving the yield. Biotechnology: The field of biology which uses living organisms and bioprocesses for development of technology and production of bioproducts having societal values. Corporate Education: A system of professional development activities provided to educate employees in an organization. Fermentation: A process in which an agent causes an organic substance to break down into simpler substances; especially, the anaerobic breakdown of sugar into alcohol. Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organism’s genome by artificial means.

Industrial Microbiology: An area of applied microbiology which deals with production of food and industrial products using microorganisms. Knowledge Economy: An economy that creates, disseminates and uses knowledge to enhance its growth and development. Natural Sciences: The branches of science that seek to explain the rules that govern the natural world by using scientific methods. Professional Science Master’s Programme (PSM): Is a graduate degree program integrating science and mathematics studies with knowledge and training in management, law, or other professional areas, awarded by universities in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Recombinant DNA Technology: A technology that is used to cut a known DNAsequence from one organism and introduce it into another organism thereby altering the genotype of the recipient.

227

228

Chapter 17

University Outreach in Management Education:

A Case from India for Meeting the Needs of Professionals in the Field Yashavantha Dongre University of Mysore, India & Vijayanagar Krishnadevraya University, Bellary, India B. PanduRanga Narasimharao University of Mysore, India & Indira Gandhi National Open University, Jodhpur

ABSTRACT The need for a specialized course for non-profit management was perceived by University of Mysore and by a non-governmental organization of the region. The necessity and the importance of offering such a course at field level in close collaboration with the stakeholders concerned has been met logistically through the concept of outreach programmes. The approaches followed are relevant as in almost all functional areas of civic society there is a need for integration of management knowledge with that of other subject fields. It argues that the model of adopting bidirectional interactions, reciprocity, and participatory approaches may help addressing different issues in Indian higher education system by bringing the change from within the institutions and individuals. The case also demonstrates how using a leading NGO and university outreach centre as linker units, the outreach concept can be made successful in Indian context. It is argued that this kind of model using outreach concept may prove useful in India not only for implementing government’s ambitious projects like ‘Mission 2007 – Every Village Knowledge centre’ or ‘skill development centres,’ but also for community and regional economy development using university knowledge resources in close collaboration with those who need it. Another important aspect of this approach is that it is related to civic development and in turn to economic development and not directly to economic development unlike the entrepreneurial university.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch017

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

University Outreach in Management Education

1. INTRODUCTION It is stated that higher education exists to serve the public interest and is not a commodity. Its mission is to contribute to the sustainable development and improvement of society as a whole by educating highly qualified graduates who are able to meet the needs of all sectors of human activity (AUCC, 2001). In contrast to this mission, contribution from higher education institutions towards society is often conceptualized in terms of economic development only by addressing the research and person power needs of business and industry. The mission of higher education can be fulfilled only when the universities are able to serve the whole society and not just economically important institutions. It is necessary that they develop appropriate strategies within the existing framework to withstand the pressures arising from economic, globalization and commercialization processes to reach out to all sectors of the society. Though the need for reforms in the education system and the need for university reaching out to society is reiterated by several commissions and educationists in India (Kothari Commission, 1966; Sam Pitroda, 2007; Yashpal, 2008,2009; Balram, 2008; Anandakrishnan, 2008), the change as envisaged by these commissions is constantly alluding the Indian higher education system. Narasimharao (2009) discussed the role of university outreach programmes in meeting the demands of knowledge society. When outreach and engagement concept is applied in its true sense, as projected by Boyer (1996) and Magrath (2006) it can help in expanding the boundaries of scholarship and change in values, norms and goals from within the system. However, the concept is in its nascent stage in India and need to be evolved through various models and strategies. The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate through a case study, how a collaborative partnership between a university and a local non-governmental organization (NGO) in India under the outreach concept might throw light on the approaches to

developing and designing management courses that meet the needs of professionals of different sectors working in the field. The chapter also seeks to indicate as to how such collaborations could break the institutional and discipline centric barriers and facilitate development of higher education modules that respond to societal needs of the day. The presentation is more of a grounded theory approach. That is outreach concept was implemented for offering a programme at field level for NGOs adopting different approaches. This process we studied and theorized on the basis of literature. This Chapter is presented starting with background literature giving the relevance of the case studied to management education. This is followed by methodology and discussion on the need for a specialized course for non-profit management sector. The next section on developing course structure briefly describes the approaches that are followed for treating the subject to suit the needs of professionals at the field level. This is followed by a discussion on the relevance of this case to Indian higher education in general.

2. BACKGROUND LITERATURE Even though Management Studies as a stream in higher education was introduced way back in 1881, it grew in popularity only in the 20th century in response to the needs of business houses applying scientific methods to manage their operations and human resources. The management discipline as seen today was evolved over the years as per the changes and demands in industrial practices – quality control in the 1920s; operations research and cybernetics in the 1950s; total quality management in the 1980s; and reengineering in the 1990s. We will not be reviewing the evolution of management education which is extensively discussed in literature from different perspectives. What is important here is to identify that management education is in critical condition and it need to move from the traditional discipline based list of

229

University Outreach in Management Education

courses to an integrated network of stakeholdercentered courses (Emiliani, 2006). This need can well be identified from the kind of Masters in Business Administration (MBA) programmes various universities in India offer – MBA in agri business, ayurveda pharmacy, aviation, chemical sales & marketing, clinical research, shipping & logistics, communication management, tourism & hospitality, hospital administration & health care management, computer aided management etc., (see Rangappa & Narasimharao, 2010). Similarly the drivers of change such as globalization, disruptive technologies, and demographic shifts put emphasis on developing careful strategies for management education. One can add more drivers of change arising from knowledge economy/ knowledge society, social and cultural dynamics, and regional variations. In almost all functional areas the management courses can be planned as per the impact of these drivers. For instance, Mir et al. (2004) emphasized the importance of management practices relevant to local needs. They claim that the import of management education into India from west served to delegitimize local managerial practices and produced a workforce capable of serving the interests of multinational corporations and not local priorities. They suggest that management pedagogy should act to restore a new concept of knowledge, where it is presented not merely as a resource, but as a public consciousness. Similarly Narasimharao et al (2011) discussing corporate education in natural sciences argued that in designing a course for a science based management degree one need to focus on preparing science professionals in management and not management professionals in science. The emphasis is on keeping science as the main focus while integrating various skills and requirements of management education. This can be compared with how management education itself has evolved over the years as a result of convergence between a number of disciplines – psychology, sociology, cybernetics, economics and ecology – and combining with industrial dis-

230

ciplines of finance and production (Garratt, 1995). The management studies that was developed some 50 years back as a discipline as per the requirements of that day did not undergo any major revisions in terms of the sectoral needs of the present day. As Abdur-Raouf et al (2010) states management education has become one of the most important disciplines due to its interdisciplinary nature and wide role in economic and social affairs. Often the management education system was developed to create human resources for working mostly as managers in industries/for profit organizations. It is argued that in this process, imparting purposebased knowledge and development of required competencies among people working in other social sectors should not be neglected. For instance, Fisher (2006) discussing the debate on higher education institutions for public good emphasized their role in shaping the society and the need for involving more people to participate in higher education. Yashpal (2006) with reference to Indian society observed that the connection between the community (read village) and education has already broken down in our formal system and we should ensure that new possibilities help to re-establish this contact. In this context, the universities of future will have to become a key factor of economic, social and cultural development of the society thereby improving the quality of life of citizens. For this to happen, it is necessary that the universities develop appropriate strategies for integrating the experience and expertise of academics of the universities with that of other stakeholders of higher education. For instance, Ylinenpaa (2005) advocates dialogue as a pedagogical strategy for designing higher education institutions (HEI) based management training programmes. He suggests consultants as main lubricating interface between academic world and the small firms’ world of practice. Sandmann (2006) lists the benefits of university outreach and engagement to the external partners of outreach, students, faculty, institution, and discipline or subject area. Nara-

University Outreach in Management Education

simharao (2009) discusses the role of university outreach programmes in knowledge economy and knowledge society through reciprocal and bidirectional interactions with communities or industries. Similarly, Spanier (1997) emphasized the importance of reciprocal relationships between universities and communities and articulated the value of synergy between teaching, research and public service missions for creating a broad based and active learning community. The issues identified from this literature are: •

•

•

•

Management education is in a critical condition and has to evolve to cater to various functional areas of civil society. It should take into account the drivers of change arising from knowledge society and knowledge economy. Offering management related courses in other disciplines is to be done with the emphasis on the discipline and not on management. For instance, in science related management related courses the focus should be on preparing science professionals in management and not management professionals in science. Developing appropriate strategies integrating the expertise and experience of academics in higher education institutes with that of the stakeholders of higher education is key factor in establishing reciprocal relationships between universities and communities. Strategies like outreach and engagement are shown to be effective in establishing reciprocal and bidirectional interaction with communities or industries and to serve the local communities.

The present paper focuses on how to bring about changes in management education to suit social sectors of the economy including nonprofit organizations (NPO) and social enterprises. We have taken the case of offering a management

programme in collaboration with one of the local nongovernmental organizations (NGO) of the region as per their needs through bidirectional interaction under the outreach. Through this case we intend to show how universities can evolve models which can address issues like - creating opportunities for different kind of interfaces between the disciplines; relating the education to the world outside; making the walls of disciplines more porous to let other voices be heard; seeing the university in its totality - the importance of all of which are highlighted by a recent high level committee on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education in India (Yashpal committee, 2009). It illustrates on how University outreach programmes can help in extending the expertise and knowledge available with the universities to different societal sectors in a participatory mode.

3. METHODOLOGY This paper uses the case example of a particular management course developed through integrative approach both at institutional and discipline level. The example of developing and operationalizing a Masters program in Nonprofit Management (MNPM) in India is taken as an illustration. The process of identification, the need for such a course, the development of curriculum with multi stakeholder participation, redesigning of the course based on feedback methods and integration of different disciplines based on the actual needs of a social organization are highlighted. The authors of this paper were the parties for developing, operationalizing and teaching of the course. Hence most of the analysis depends on the experiential data that was gathered over a period of time. However, the unstructured interviews with different stakeholders including students who completed the course and the organizations that have employed them are considered to arrive at conclusions. Secondary data and related literature are used as required, primarily to build

231

University Outreach in Management Education

the theoretical setting to the paper and substantiate the experience of the case study.

4. DEVELOPING A SPECIALIZED COURSE: THE CASE OF MNPM This section illustrates the need for developing a specialized course that falls outside the conventional management course structure. This is done by giving the details of the key players involved in designing the programme, narrating the process of identification of need for such a course and the actual process of course design, implementation and redesign.

4.1 Key Players The three key players involved in evolving this outreach programme in management education for non profit organization are - Centre for Outreach Programmes (COP), Third Sector Research Resource Centre (TSRRC) and a leading NGO of Karnataka Sri Vivekananada Youth Movement. The University of Mysore established ‘Centre for Outreach Programmes’ in 2006 for promoting outreach concept by designing innovative ways of extending its expertise and facilities to other regions in participatory mode with NGOs, industries, local communities and other higher education institutions. The Third Sector Research Resource Centre (TSRRC - www.tsr.uni-mysore. ac.in) of University of Mysore has been working on the needs of third sector (the space outside state and corporate) and is basically an interdisciplinary research unit with focus on social sciences. Sri Vivekananada Youth Movement is an NGO putting its efforts to create leadership qualities among youth to handle and manage nonprofit organizations (NPO) and social enterprises. It established a separate wing called Vivekananda Institute for Leadership Development (VILD – www.vild.edu. in) at Mysore for this purpose.

232

4.2 Identifying the Need for a Specialized Course The need for a specialized course in nonprofit management was identified through various inputs from our interactions with the NGO organization and its functionaries. Initially the close interactions with VILD functionaries by the faculty of University of Mysore revealed the need for developing knowledge base for equipping executive level personnel for the nonprofit organizations. While the existing master level programs in management (MBA) and in social work (MSW) served generally the interests of the corporate sector and field level workers for the social sector respectively, the NGOs in the region were feeling the need for an education module that prepares professionals to take up the executive positions in social organizations. The need for a specialized course also stemmed from the fact that running a voluntary organization demands for professional competency to cope with ever changing civil society. The altruistic motives and the feeling of sacrifice for the benefit of the society alone will not be helpful unless one feels professional fulfillment. Based on the discussions with the NGO and other stakeholders the requirements to prepare professional level cadre in terms of background theoretical knowledge, practical and field level skills, and soft skills were identified. One of the major challenges identified was to design a course that provides inputs of varied nature in optimum quantities. For instance both NGO functionaries and academics felt that an executive of NGO type organization need to appreciate the philosophical values and cultural essence of a region while developing a vision on how alternative energy resources need to be put in place in a village. We quickly realized the need for integration of knowledge from different disciplines like management, philosophy, economics, psychology, sociology, law, information technology, statistics, engineering, medicine, and political science. This is a big challenge as we

University Outreach in Management Education

not only have to integrate different disciplines but also have to integrate academic way of thinking with the thinking of activists. All this also called for a change in the ‘mindset’. This course cannot be treated as just another package under management studies not only because the clientele for the voluntary organizations are often the rural and marginalized groups with a different kind of background and requirement but also because the nonprofit organizations are multi stakeholder organizations with no interest either in monetary profit or political power.

Basis for Development of Course Structure The various issues NPOs address like health, sanitation, alternative energy, organic cultivation, and environment do not fit exactly with the knowledge of one discipline or subject. It is necessary to go beyond the boundaries of different disciplines and absolute academic thinking. In order to do this, the issues and needs were carved out based on the experiences of some of the leading NPOs/NGOs. From this the list of the different knowledge bases and professional skills required by those working for such organizations were prepared. For instance, it was felt that managerial skills such as decision making and communication were to be embedded with humane considerations and cultural values. Accounting and financial skills had to be developed along with socially relevant cost and technology considerations. At the same time packaging of all this is to be done within the specified structure of a master’s curriculum as per university regulations. This formed a base for discussions with stakeholders and academics for arriving at some idea on how much of what should go into the curriculum. Much of this is done not in traditional way but through multidisciplinary consultative approach.

Stakeholder Participation Another novel idea in Indian context which was tried out is the stakeholder involvement in curriculum redesign. After the first batch of students, a whole day workshop was conducted with representation from – people involved in the initial designing of the curriculum, faculty who taught the course, project heads of the NGO which is offering the course, university faculty from different disciplines, TSSRC, COP, practitioners (NGO officials working at field level) and the students of the first batch to reflect upon their experience with the course content and the modus operandi of operationalizing the course. The changes immediately required and changes to be done over a period of time were listed and the changes were put in to motion.

5. DEVELOPMENT OF THE COURSE STRUCTURE The TSRRC coordinated the whole activity of development of the course structure/ course material. The subject was treated in a holistic way by integrating the knowledge and experience of academics from various disciplines, NGO activists and other professionals (practicing doctors, auditors, engineering professionals, and IT professionals).

5.1 Basic Framework The basic frame work for the course was taken from the discipline of management studies, which itself is interdisciplinary in nature (Figure 1). The management studies focuses, for specialization on the core functional areas of management such as finance, human resource development, marketing etc. Along with these core areas, the students of any management course study subjects like accounting, taxation, banking and other related areas (shown in the

233

University Outreach in Management Education

Figure 1. The domain of management studies

second triangle) which are considered to be the core areas of the discipline of commerce. Further, the management studies also assimilate issues from a host of social science (economics, geography, law, sociology and psychology) and science and technology areas (mathematics, statistics, engineering and information technology). However, one limitation of management studies is that it is basically structured for a corporate manager. Management education has to come out from its traditional role and approach of being function specific (marketing, finance etc.,) to become organization specific and to be in tune with the special circumstances of the present day society. This is not easy considering the uncertainties of the academic job market and the territorial behaviour that goes along with academic department disqualifying the professors from thinking creatively and responsively (Rudolph, 1984). In designing the MNPM course, the civil society (NPOs) needs were given focus taking the framework of management discipline.

234

5.2 Designing the Courses through Integration of Different Disciplines It was realized that in order to achieve the objective of being in tune with the specialized needs of the NGO, the focus should be on what knowledge is needed in a particular context rather than what knowledge one need to give as per the discipline. This is more essential when one takes in to consideration the need for integrating the knowledge from different disciplines. In this era of knowledge explosion the crucial aspect for social development is how one can organize and use the knowledge in a useful way. This fact is more clear in what Senge (1990) suggests: ‘Perhaps, for the first time in history, humankind has the capacity to create far more information than anyone can absorb, to foster far greater independency than anyone can manage, and to accelerate change far faster than anyone’s ability to keep pace. Certainly the scale of complexity is without precedent.’ Narasimharao & Sridhar (2007) illustrating how biology is related to the society suggested that it is useful to

University Outreach in Management Education

Table 1. Chart showing course structure of MNPM degree* No.

COURSE

EXAM

I.A/ FIELD

MAJOR DISCIPLINES INTEGRATED

DEVELOPED/ TAUGHT BY

1.1

Introduction to Nonprofit Sector

60

40

Management

Economics

NGO Activist/Academic

1.2

Social Philosophy

60

40

Philosophy

Sociology

Academic

1.3

Indian Economy

60

40

Economics

Rural development

Academic

1.4

Managing Organization And Self

60

40

Psychology

Management

Psychologist/Academic

1.5

Project Development, Management and Reporting

60

40

Management

NPO practices

NGO Activist/Academic

2.1

Social Values and Movements

60

40

Sociology

Philosophy

Academic

2.2

Accounting for NPOs

60

40

Commercce

Management

Auditors/Academic

2.3

Legal Environment for NPOs

60

40

Law

NPO practices

Academic/Legal experts in NPO

2.4

Research Methods and Statistics

60

40

Statistics/Mathematics

Computer Application

I.T. Professional

2.5

Apprenticeship

60

40

Field/Practical

Management & NPO practices

NGO Activist

3.1

Marketing Management for NPOs

60

40

Management

Communication

Academic

3.2

Sustainable Technologies and Development

60

40

Engineering

Economics

Engineering Professional/ Activist

3.3

Human Resource Management

60

40

Management

Psychology

Academic/H.R.Professional

3.4

Elective–Health Management I

60

40

Medical

Education

Doctor/Activist

3.5

Field Work and Project

60

40

Field/Project

Management & NPO practices

NGO Activist/ Academic

4.1

Governance, Citizenship and Constitutional values

60

40

Political Science

Law

Academic/Law Professional

4.2

Financial Management for NPOs

60

40

Management

Commerce

NGO Activist/Academic

4.3

Elec.-Health Management II

60

40

Medical

Manaagement

Doctor

4.4

Major Project

150

50

Field/Practical

NPO practices

NGO Activist/Academic

*MNPM - Masters in Non Profit Management, I.A = Internal Assessment

take each of the need separately and make it the central focus to make the whole course or activity. In designing the courses of MNPM more emphasis was laid on how to make disciplinary boundaries more porous for integration of different subjects as per the knowledge and skills required for the people working in the NGOs. As already discussed the basic knowledge and professional skills required were identified through delibera-

tion with all the stakeholders. Each discipline was treated in an integrative way with other disciplines as per these identified needs. Hence many courses were actually a combination of two or more subjects or disciplines (Table 1). When management related subjects are taken (See Figure 1) it may be necessary that the weightage of each subject is decided as per the orientation needed to be given for people working in

235

University Outreach in Management Education

Figure 2. Weighted composition of disciplines in MNPM course

non-profit organizations. The composition and weightage given may be different from that in conventional MBA and MSW programmes. The MNPM course was planned with merger of subjects, disciplines as well as equated weightage for different domains. Figure 2 gives weighted composition of different disciplines (related to management) covered in the MNPM course. During the process of designing the MNPM programme, the interaction between the NGO practitioners and academics also resulted in evolving special courses like social philosophy, sustainable technology, and managing organization/self. Each of these courses was evolved through integration of various disciplines and field level experiences. For example the social philosophy course has inputs from the disciplines of sociology, philosophy and anthropology. Similarly the sustainable technology includes knowledge related to social sciences, science, agriculture, technology and management. Managing organization and self integrates management with psychology and some of the principles highlighted in Indian scriptures like spirituality, altruism etc.

236

5.3 Treating the Disciplines Differently In MNPM program the aim is to prepare professionals for non-profit sector. The term ‘professional’ is used to refer to the skillfulness of a person in engaging his/her scholarship in practice and being able to apply it to the emerging problem areas. It is postulated that masters’ programs should be designed in such a way that the graduates produced should be able to provide the same level of ‘expertise and leadership’ as professionals do in other fields (Tobias et al., 1995). For this to happen it is necessary that the disciplines are treated in a different way. We followed two broad approaches for this. 1. How to tell the story or how to integrate different subject fields 2. How to make students learn to apply the knowledge they gained in an integrative way and for practical and field level problems. The first one can be explained by quoting some of the examples of courses offered by other universities. The Harvard University’s Master of Arts in History of Science programme integrated different science and social science subjects like

University Outreach in Management Education

natural and social sciences, behavioural and brain sciences, technology, mathematics, medicine and law using history as a method. Similarly Lund University’s school of social sciences offers a masters level program in the theory of science for social sciences where the aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of contemporary theory of science, especially in relation to the social sciences and offer students the theoretical frameworks and conceptual tools necessary for an overview, facilitating their analyses with regard to their own subject and its relation to other subjects (for more examples see Table 2).

In a similar fashion in treating the disciplines covered under MNPM program the skills required were integrated with basic knowledge of disciplines to provide meaningful skill based disciplines. The curriculum design was also done in similar way as all the stake holders were involved in the curriculum design and redesign. This kind of integration of subjects can further be explained taking one of the seven deadly sins Stewart and Bonifant (2008) discussed with relation to business. They presented two ways of telling compound ND-04’s story (Table 3). In the first column of the table they explained how the story is told

Table 2. Examples of some courses integrating different disciplines S. No.

University

School/ Department

Country

Course Title

Course features

1.

Harvard University www.gsas. harvard.edu

The Graduate School of Arts & Science (History of Science)

US

Master of Arts in History of Science Doctor of Philosophy in History of Science

Science its subject and history its method. Broad and sufficient foundation in natural & social sciences, behavioural and brain sciences, technology, mathematics, medicine, law

2.

University of Cambridge www.cam.ac.uk

Archaeology & Anthropology

UK

Undergraduate course

Enables one to combine a broad general introduction and then pursue detailed advanced study in one of the three fields

3

Australian National University http://cass.anu. edu.au

Faculty of Arts & ANU Medical School (Culture, Health & Medicine)

Australia

Masters of Culture, Health and Medicine (MCHAM)

Interdisciplinary with focus on medical anthropology and health sciences. Emphasis is placed on the problems of combining anthropological perspectives and medical practices with other forms of technical expertise in health-related research & practice

4.

University of Auckland www.auckland. ac.nz

Disability Studies

New Zealand

Undergraduate Programme

University level training for human services and disability support workers

5.

University of Strathclyde Glasgow www.strath. ac.uk

Sports Engineering

UK

Undergraduate Programme

Special Combination of subjects from the areas of engineering, design and sports science

6.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology web.mit.edu

School of Sciences (Brain & Cognitive Sciences)

US

Graduate Programme leading to Doctor of Philosophy

Students may specialize in molecular & cellular, neuro sciences, systems neuroscience, cognitive science, computation, cognitive neuroscience

7.

McGill University www.macgill.ca

Biomedical ethics

Canada

Masters in specialized education in Bioethics

Interdisciplinary that emphasizes both the conceptual and the practical aspects of bioethics

8.

University of Tokyo www.u.tokyo. ac.jp

School of Interdisciplinary Information studies

Japan

Socio-information and communication studies

Covers media, journalism, law and policy, economy & Industry, sociology & history, social psychology and information management

continued on following page 237

University Outreach in Management Education

Table 2. Continued S. No.

University

School/ Department

Country

Course Title

Course features

9.

Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (GGSIPU) www.ggsipu. nic.in

School of Basic and Applied Sciences

India

M.Tech in Engineering Physics

Generating trained manpower in techniques finding application in defense technologies, alternative energy technologies, network security, genomics and computational biology, accelerator technology, modeling in the areas of metrology, nano-science, neuro science, finance and disaster management

10.

Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) www.ignou.ac.in

In association with Maya Academy of Advanced Cinematics (MAAC)

India

Bachelor’s in 3D Animation and Visual Effects

Impart training in animation skills, soft skills, business & production management content creation etc.

11.

TERI University www.teriuniversity.ac.in

Renewable energy and energy management

India

M.Tech in renewable energy engineering and management

Impart knowledge not only in renewable energy tech. and implementation but also is important synergetic sectors of energy infrastructure such as energy economics and energy conversion.

12.

University of Melbourne www.unimelb. edu.au

--

Australia

Under graduate degree

The university phasing out 96 old under graduate courses in favour of six broad first degree programmes – arts, bio medicine, commerce, environment, music and science. They study 25% of their modules from outside their degree programme (called breadth subjects).

13

Lund University www.lu.se

Faculty of Social Sciences

Sweden

Theory of Science for Social Sciences (Masters level)

This is a course in the theory of science. The aim of the course is to provide a comprehensive understanding of comtemporary Theory of Science, especailly in relation to the Social Sciences. The main purpose is to offer students the theoretical frameworks and conceptual tools necessary for an overview, facilitating their analyses with regard to their own subject and its relation to other subjects.

14

Hawaii Pacific University www.hpu.edu

Faculty of Arts

US

Undergraduate Programme

Bachelor of Arts program which in its first credit part has the subjects like Introductory Biology, Career Skills, Professional Writing, Introduction to Computer Information Systems, Principles of Microeconomics, Principles of Macroeconomics and Introduction to Human Geography. It also includes choice courses, a paper each, on Mathematics, Physical Sciences and World Civilization

15

Pacific Lutheran University www.plu.edu

Multi Disciplinary Program

US

Undergraduate level

The goal of the program is to examine the relationship between humans and the environment through a wide variety of perspectives within the university curriculum and to lay the foundations for an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to address environmental problems. A 10-member faculty committee governs the program, representing the disciplines of biology, chemistry, and geosciences to education, communications, economics, religion, political science, and psychology”.

as a science story in a chronological order. But when the focus is on how science supports market the story is to be told in a different way which is presented in the column 2 of the table.

238

To take an example from the MNPM course Marketing Management paper should be specific to the activities pursued by a nonprofit organization. While doing this it is also essential that proper care

University Outreach in Management Education

Table 3. Two ways to tell compound ND-04’s story (Stewart and Bonifant, 2008) Ineffective Science Story

Effective market story

• Felines were infected by a fungus, and it was not known why host immune systems did not clear the infection • Compound ND-04 is a small molecule made by the fungus that down regulates host immune responses • ND-04 binds a unique Toll-like receptor • ND-04 down regulates CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in a mouse model • ND-04 has been tested in humans in a phase 1 clinical trial • ND-04 has been tested in pilot study where rheumatoid arthritis patients showed a 37% reduction in arthritis symptom scores. • Revenue could reach $1.2 billion Science story builds chronologically

• Revenues could reach $1.2 billion • ND-04 binds a unique Toll-like receptor. (The new mechanism of action is seen by physicians as an advantage over other mechanisms, and this could drive revenue). • ND-04 will be accepted in the marketplace because it has been tested in a pilot study where rheumatoid arthritis patients showed a 37% reduction in arthritis symptom scores. (This demonstrates that the product has a reasonable likelihood of reaching the market). • ND-04 has been tested in humans in a phase 1 clinical trail. (This shows that safety data support the likelihood of product approval). • ND-04 is a small molecule. (This is an advantage over antibodies in this market) Science supports the market

is taken to integrate basics of marketing (management), social values in relation to marketing (sociology), legal problems or issues related to marketing (law), organizational dynamics and people management (psychology), economical factors (economics) and the like. This helps the candidate to have a holistic picture of marketing management and not fragmented or only application oriented aspects of marketing management. In other words the story of marketing management was told focusing on nonprofit organization. The second approach followed was to shift the focus of designing and treating a course from ‘Subject orientation’ to ‘Relevance orientation’ to make students apply their knowledge to field level issues by integrating various disciplines. For instance in the MNPM programme when marketing strategies for marketing tribal products were to be taught the focus was shifted from marketing management to the tribal products marketing. In doing this there was a need to integrate various disciplines including sociology, psychology, economics, law, and marketing management. These disciplines were to be treated not in isolation but were to be linked to the focus area of tribal products in an integrative way. In this way it was easy to evolve marketing strategies depending on local culture, people perception, local competition, market laws, and basic marketing techniques (as hypothetically illustrated in Figure 3).

This kind of dealing the subject gives the students to relate their knowledge to local conditions. This is evident in the feed back we received in our review workshops. For instance some students observed that they felt very confident of explaining a demo related to use of solar lamps and solar cookers after our dealing the topic of alternative energy with the focus on rural conditions and rural population. Similar views were expressed by students with regard to health care management.

5.4 Course Redesign In the course redesign, workshop approach was followed with the involvement of all stakeholders of the programme. Students who have experience with social sector organizations were quick to recognize that they need different orientation and treatment of the subject from what is done in the case of MBA and MSW graduates. The need is to focus more on policy formulations for the organizations and relate them to the nitty gritty of the nonprofit organizations. They also realized that they need additional inputs especially in terms of soft skills and technology that is relevant to meet social needs and the needs of civil society organizations. The NGO leaders while appreciating the design of the new course felt the need for creating more space for

239

University Outreach in Management Education

Figure 3. Shifting focus from subject based to relevance based treatment

field exposure during studies, and suggested to have at least three months (half semester) exclusively for field testing of what students studied in earlier semesters. The focus was on the importance of linking the knowledge gained to the field practices. For the academicians it was practice to blend theory and practice in a more pragmatic and practical manner. Course redesign was carried out taking all these parameters into consideration. The outreach concept introduced by the university gave necessary flexibility in doing these things.

240

6. DISCUSSION This section presents some of the important issues which can potentially be addressed by following the outreach strategy adopted in the present case.

6.1 Relevance to Management Education With the pressures of knowledge explosion, emergence of more disciplines and emphasis of more application orientation to basic studies,

University Outreach in Management Education

more and more fields need to be integrated into management or vice versa. This trend can be seen from the variety of functional areas where management expertise is needed. Further, there is a need to integrate the management knowledge with that of other subject fields. In addition, the management education also has to take into account the different kind of approaches needed to address different target groups requiring different kinds of skills and attitudes as per what they need to deal. For example, Narasimharao (1992, 2010) identified various target groups including many in industries needing biotechnology education and the challenges faced by biotechnology in knowledge management. We can also extend this to other industries and business organizations. This can be evident from the various tie ups IGNOU had entered into recently with different industries for starting some courses in management covering areas like retail, entrepreneurship, telecom, rail transport and so on (www.ignou.ac.in). Narasimharao et al. (2011) argued the need for bringing both scientific knowledge and professional skills to work place as evident from a number of applied courses and management courses in science subjects. However, as is discussed for preparing professionals for nonprofit organizations, it is necessary to give a different orientation to the knowledge and skills required by each of these sectors through integration of various disciplines. Some of the approaches presented in the paper may prove useful in this direction. These approaches can further be improved upon to suit various sectors and contexts.

6.2 Bringing the Change from Within As Balram (2008) pointed out the intellectual environment of an Indian university declined even as the city around it had evolved under the selective pressures of a liberalized economy. In this context it may be said that we have interpreted all needs in our own image: more courses, credit hours, campus classes and classical curricula (Guzzetta, 1982). It

is argued that by integrating university activities and societal needs with outreach and knowledge economy principles, academics may be forced to reorient themselves in balancing both economic and traditional functions of the university. The master’s programme in non profit management (MNPM) discussed in this paper was designed to reach out to the society through outreach concept of University of Mysore. The close collaboration between the participating institutions and engagement of university scholars in developing the relevant curriculum for NGO management make this a case of punctuation 1 as identified by Sandman (2008) in the evolution of outreach and engagement. She observes that in 1998-2000, authors argued for expanding traditional concept of service and outreach to embrace engagement which emphasized bidirectional interactions, reciprocity and mutual respect instead of one way assistance and direction. The MNPM programme in the present study was developed using bidirectional interactions and expected to serve as a model for reciprocal relationship between universities and communities. It is important to note here, that it was as much the responsiveness of the university administration to encourage new ideas and permit deliberations outside of the formal and structured bodies as that of the innovative thinking of those involved in the course design that facilitated the evolution of this kind of course. This underlines the fact that innovations in higher education have both the individual and institutional dimension and change from within is essential both at individual and institution level. At the same time the individuals and institutions should be exposed to various concepts available for achieving this change.

6.3 Relevance to NGOs In recent years, NGOs have emerged as powerful sources for social change within developing countries (Estes, 1992). Since the NGOs exist outside of the government and in direct

241

University Outreach in Management Education

vicinity of society, their programmes mostly emanate from the expressed needs of people and not as directed by governments. However, these NGOs need appropriately trained and skilled manpower and may depend on higher education institutes. When this need is linked to the fact that Indian universities produced more unemployable graduates (Ghose, 2006), the relevance of MNPM programme may as well be appreciated. In this context the model proposed by Narasimharao (2009) for linking university and community with a prominent role for NGOs emphasizes the importance of programmes like MNPM. In this model the University will have a linker unit like university centre for outreach which will coordinate and collaborate the activities. The Advisory Committee of stakeholders in association with the university centre for outreach would identify the issues, capacities and needs of the community. Based on the inputs and the evaluation of issues and implementation of strategies the university centre will develop university outreach programmes using the knowledge capital network (of all players) developed. NGOs play a prominent or linker role in the whole model. This is an important observation for the present case of MNPM programme as it was developed through close collaboration of three key players - a leading NGO of the region, a research centre on third sector TSRRC and a linker unit at university level namely ‘Centre for Outreach Programmes’. Though there are many examples of NGOs collaborating with some university departments for community development programmes they are mostly short term or extended training programmes or for the purpose of certain inputs. Our programme is unique in offering a masters programme in management integrating several other disciplines and in following different approaches for making the boundaries of disciplines porous to be able to hear the voices from outside academia for designing a course.

242

Regional Development As Peters and May (2004) observed, the role of universities in regional development has gone beyond the study of technology transfer and direct employment effect of spin-off companies and the establishment of science parks. They have to embrace the wider ethos of the enhancement of human and social capital within a region. Knowledge development and creating endogenous or local capacity at the regional level is basic to the strengthening of overall socio-economic development. The participation of local and national governments, community level bodies, non-government organizations, international agencies, local small and medium-sized enterprises in such partnerships with the university is crucial to the successful development of a regional level knowledge economy. In this connection the present case of preparing specialized course in non profit management may provide a base for more such university outreach programmes. This is also relevant for the schemes like ‘Mission 2007 – Every Village Knowledge Centre’, a nation wide initiative, launched in 2004 by Government of India with the aim of setting up a knowledge – based livelihood and income generation (http://www.mission2007.org). It may be stated that unless the local capacity of scholarship is enhanced by preparing trained and qualified manpower to manage this huge venture this mission will not be successful. This can be achieved through collaboration with local bodies as is done in the present case. In this whole process the local universities and local NGOs/local community units can play a crucial role. Similarly the proposed 50,000 new skill development centres announced by the Prime Minister of India is directly relevant to community knowledge economy and development and should not be separated from the university. Universities need to reach out to the society through outreach and engagement as is done in the present case.

University Outreach in Management Education

Outreach Concept and Collaboration Sandman (2006) lists benefits of outreach and engagement to external partners, faculty members, students, institution and units and discipline or profession. The importance of outreach to Indian higher education system was also highlighted directly or indirectly by various education commissions including the recent Yashpal committee (2009) and National Knowledge Commission of India (2007). However, the outreach in its true sense of reaching out to society through reciprocal relationships did not happen effectively. The efforts on university and industry also ended up mostly as unidirectional either university offering some programmes meant for industries or industry funding some research in the university. There are several barriers for this (see Narasimharao, 2010). Braskamp and Wergin (1997) observed about how the faculty of University of Illinois, Chicago quickly learned about the difficulties involved in collaborative work. ‘Collaborative work often creates a conflict of institutional cultures; that political and community groups want to use the prestige of the university to enhance their agenda; that faculty members often have less experiential knowledge of the problem context than do teachers and reformers but compensate by using their theoretical perspectives; that failed experiments outside the academy are more visible than a failed experiment in a laboratory; that compromise is essential; that new forms of communication are needed to reach different audiences; that partnerships can be intellectually challenging; that faculty scholarship is enhanced; and that continuous support is needed for long-term impact.’ (Braskamp and Wergin, 1997: 77-78) These kinds of difficulties were not experienced in the present study. This may be attributed to the outreach concept adopted for involving all stakeholders in the course design and delivery. University offering the whole programme at the NGOs place under outreach may be another reason where faculty and NGO functionaries were

able to quickly grasp the field level realities and complexities of offering a master level academic programme respectively. Another factor which was helpful in alleviating the problems of collaboration was that the partnership had become part of the university system under outreach. It also provided easy access to the external stakeholder (the NGO) in learning about university research programmes and resources.

Dealing with Multi and Interdisciplinary Approaches It is a known fact that while dealing any functional area of the society (protecting environment, rural development), it is not possible to compartmentalize knowledge and skills required as per the existing academic disciplines. In fact, there is much concern among many leading educationists about the universal malady of knowledge being broken up into narrower and narrower cubicles and failure to look beyond the boundaries created by the disciplines (Yashpal, 2009, Cech, 1999, Ruthnaswamy, 1955, Ghose, 2006, Schuster, 2008). On the other hand, more and more disciplines are becoming interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary and Okuwada (2006) mapped the relation among the 153 rapidly developing areas covering various disciplines like mathematics, space science, psychology, economics, material science, life sciences, molecular biology, engineering, agriculture, geosciences, chemistry etc. Obviously the traditional disciplines and traditional approaches need to be reoriented. There is much to be done for this kind of orientation. This is evident in what Nobel Laureate Thomas Cech argues in favour of interface between science and liberal arts. …in history, literature and the arts, one is presented with diverse, often mutually contradictory “data” – different points of view due to incomplete knowledge or the different backgrounds of those doing the viewing. One learns to distill the critical elements from the irrelevant, synthesize seemingly

243

University Outreach in Management Education

discordant observations, and develop a strong argument. While scientific data are commonly thought to exist on a different plane – absolute, precise, unambiguous, and above reproach – such is rarely the case. Random error and systematic deviations must be taken into account. Choices of experimental design inevitably affect the results obtained. Interpretations are often heavily influenced by expectations, which in turn are heavily influenced by earlier conclusions published in the research literature. Scientists need the same skills as humanists to cut through misleading observations and arrive at a defensible interpretation, and intellectual cross-training in the humanities exercises the relevant portions of the brain (Cech, 1999). Knowledge is essentially diverse and cannot be compartmentalized. If compartmentalized we only stand to lose the essence of knowledge. Similarly utility of knowledge gets enhanced when the study crosses the limits of a single discipline. In designing the MNPM program in collaboration with VILD, this was being experienced. The case also showed how new knowledge and relevant knowledge can be developed through integration of different disciplines and through working in close collaboration with some of the stakeholders of higher education.

CONCLUDING REMARKS The present case is a successful demonstration of developing strategies for offering programmes for functional areas at field level. It also demonstrates the potential of outreach concept in such efforts. We argue in favour of developing this concept at university level for real interface between university and society and for reaping the benefits of knowledge base available at universities and other higher educational institutions. It will be a step forward for making the overall work of the academy relevant to the nation’s most pressing

244

civic, social, economic and moral problems. We also argue that the university – industry/community interaction happens not just by offering some relevant courses but through real integration of knowledge from different stakeholders of higher education. The outreach concept can facilitate involvement of parents, teachers, principals, community advocates, business leaders, community agencies and general citizenry as active partners in reorienting higher education. Similarly through this approach the scope of higher education is broadened. For instance, one of the important aspects of MNPM course discussed here is that it is related to civic development and in turn to economic development and not directly to economic development alone unlike the entrepreneurial university model.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors acknowledge the support received from Prof. J. Shashidhara Prasad, the then Vice Chancellor, University of Mysore for implementing the outreach concept through collaboration between the university and Sri Vivekananada Youth Movement, a leading NGO of the region.

REFERENCES Abdur-Raouf, R. K., & Siddiqi, A. F. (2010). Gaps in management education: A case study of University of Management and Technology. USChina Education Review, 7(11), 12–26. Anandakrishnan, M. (2008). Promises and perils of globalized higher education. Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, 22(2), 199–212. AUCC. (2001). Joint declaration on higher education and GATS. Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, September, 2001.

University Outreach in Management Education

Balram, P. (2005). Reinventing our universities. Current Science, 88, 529–530. Balram, P. (2008). Universities: Restructuring and reform. Current Science, 94(2), 153–154. Boyer, E. (1996). The scholarship of engagement. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 9(1), 11–20. Braskamp, L., & Wergin, J. F. (1997). Universities and the new social contract . In Tierney, W. G. (Ed.), The responsive university: Restructuring for high performance. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Cech, T. R. (1999). Science at liberal arts colleges: A better education? Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Winter, 195-216. Emiliani, M. L. (2006). Improving management education . Quality Assurance in Education, 14(4), 363–384. doi:10.1108/09684880610703956 Estes, R. J. (1992). Internationalizing social work education: A guide to resources for a new century. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work. Fisher, S. (2006). Does the Celtic Tiger society need to debate the role of higher education and the public good? International Journal of Lifelong Education, 25(2), 157–172. doi:10.1080/02601370500510827 Friga, P. N., Bettis, R. A., & Sullivan, R. S. (2003). Changes in graduate management education and new business school strategies for the 21st century. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2(3), 233–249. doi:10.5465/ AMLE.2003.10932123

Guzzetta, D. J. (1982). Education’s quiet revolution: Changes and challenges. Change, 14(6), 10–11, 60. Kothari Commission Report. (1966). Education Commission, 1964-66. Dr. D.S. Kothari Comission, Compilation on 50 years of Indian Education, 1947-1997, Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education and National Informatics Centre. Mir, R., Mir, A., & Srinivas, N. (2004). Managerial knowledge as property: The role of universities. Organization Management Journal, 1(2), 126–137. doi:10.1057/omj.2004.23 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (1992). Biotechnology education – An open learning concept. Biology Education, July-September, 191-199. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009). Knowledge economy and knowledge society – Role of university outreach programmes. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 119–151. doi:10.1177/097172180801400105 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Biotechnology education and societal demands – Challenges faced by biotechnology and human resources development. Social Responsibility, 6(1), 72–90. doi:10.1108/17471111011024568 Narasimharao, B. P. R., Shashidhra Prasad, J., & Nair, P. R. R. (2011). Corporate education in natural sciences – A professional approach for universities. Current Science, 101(11), 1421–1424.

Garratt, B. (1995, 21 September). An old idea that has come of age. People Management.

Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Sridhar, Y. (2007). University outreach programmes – Their potential to meet changing societal demands . In Narasimharao, B. P. R. (Eds.), Changing societal demands and adopting teaching learning systems in higher education to reach out (pp. 85–94). Mysore, India: University of Mysore.

Ghose, T. K. (2006). Academic realities of Biotechnology education in India. Indian Chemical Engineering Section B, 48, 201–206.

Nelson, R. R. (2004). The market economy & the scientific commons. Research Policy, 33(3), 455–474. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2003.09.008

245

University Outreach in Management Education

Okuwada, K. (2006). Elements of converging technologies - Japan’s NISTEP reports look to the past and the future of CTs. Tech Monitor, 23(6), 25–30. Peters, M. A., & May, T. (2004). Universities, regional policy and knowledge economy. Policy Futures in Education, 2, 263–277. doi:10.2304/ pfie.2004.2.2.4 Pitroda, S. (2007). Address to delegates of CALIBER (Convention on Automation of Libraries in Education and Research) and interaction from Chicago. 5th International CALIBER, 2007, INFLIBNET centre, Ahmedabad and Punjab University, Chandigarh, 9-10 February, 2007. Rangappa, K. S., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Developing strategies for successful science and technology programs in open universities of developing countries. International Conference on Access & Success in Learning: Global Development Perspectives – Pan-Commonwealth Forum (PCF6), November, 24-28th, Cochin. Rudolph, F. (1984). The power of professors: The impact of specialization and professionalization on the curriculum. Change, 16(4), 12–17, 41. Ruthnaswamy, M. (1955). The new idea of a university. Journal of the Annamalai University, February. Sandmann, L. R. (2006). Where is the scholarship in the scholarship of engagement? Outreach now preconference workshop, 27th September 2006.

246

Sandmann, L. R. (2008). Conceptualization of the scholarship of engagement in higher education: A strategic review, 1996-2006. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(1), 91–104. Schuster, S. M. (2008). Critical skills in biotechnology education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 36(1), 68–69. doi:10.1002/ bmb.20158 Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York, NY: Doubleday. Spanier, G. B. (1997). Enhancing the capacity of outreach. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 2(3), 7–11. Stewart, J. J., & Bonifant, B. (2008). The seven deadly sins of business development. Nature Biotechnology, 26(4), 375–377. Tobias, S., Chubin, D., & Aylesworth, K. (1995). Rethininking science as a career: Perceptions and realities in the physical sciences. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation. Yashpal. (2009). Report of ‘The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.education. nic.in/ Yashpal. (2006). Let us not forget the proximate while chasing the wonders of distance education. 11th Annual Prof. G. RamReddy memorial lecture, IGNOU. Ylinenpää, H. (2005). If management can be learned, can learning be managed? Reflections on HEIbased management training in smaller firms. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 24(6), 507–524. doi:10.1080/02601370500280298

247

Chapter 18

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry Onkar Nath Central Bank of India, India Tukaram U. Fulzele Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

ABSTRACT Banking has come to occupy a vital position in a nation’s economy. In today’s world, banking is a business which not only deals with borrowing, lending, and remittance of funds but it is important for forecasting economic growth. As a result of knowledge explosion besides other factors, in the last two decades banks in India have witnessed a transition from traditional banking to modern technology driven banking. Exposure to competition has made these banks re-engineer and re-structure their processes, systems, and product line. Indian industry and Indian exports are greatly dependent on the banking sector which in turn, has to achieve the highest international standards. Introduction of innovative delivery channels at par in the banking by all types of banks have opened new challenges to the bankers and the banking industry. At present there is need for techno-bankers.

INTRODUCTION The IT revolution had a great impact in the Indian banking system. The use of computers had led to introduction of online banking in India. The use of the modern innovation and computeriza-

tion of the banking sector of India has increased many folds after the economic liberalization of 1991 as the country’s banking sector has been exposed to the world’s market. All this mean that we need to prepare not only qualified people for banking sector but also knowledge workers with

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch018

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

professional approach. The chapter takes the issue of preparing our graduates from universities for banking sector taking into consideration the fact that many of them are unemployable and not trained for non academic work.

majority of the people. In late nineties and early twenties risk based concept came into existence in banking and generated the need for risk management professionals.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF BANKING SYSTEM IN INDIA

HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT HISTORY FOR INDIAN BANKING INDUSTRY

Banks are the backbone of a country’s economy which is truer for a developing country like India. Banks in India are not only strong but are one of the fastest growing sectors in the country. Pre Independence banking system of India originated in the last decades of the 18th century. The story of banking starts from Bank of Hindustan established in 1779 and it was first bank at Calcutta under European management. In 1786 The General Bank of India was started. Both of the Banks are now defunct. Since the Calcutta was the most active trading port in India, mainly due to the trade of the Britisher’s, it became a banking centre. Three Presidency banks were setup under charter from the British East India Company–Bank of Calcutta, Bank of Bombay and Bank of Madras. These worked as quasi central bank in India for many years. The Bank of Calcutta established in 1806 immediately became Bank of Bengal. In 1921 these three banks merged with each other and Imperial Bank of India got birth. It’s today’s State Bank of India. The name was changed after India’s independence in 1955. So State Bank of India is the oldest Bank of India. However the first Indian Commercial Bank which was wholly owned and managed by Indians was Central Bank of India which was established in 1911. So this bank is called India’s First truly Swadeshi bank (www.gktoday.in/brief-historyof-banking-in-india). The banking sector reforms started immediately after the independence. These reforms were basically aimed at improving the confidence level of the public as most banks were not trusted by the

The Human Resource field in the Banking Industry is considered as one of the process of discovery and transformation. The field of Human Resource can be described as emergent and dynamic within the cultural business aspect in a Banking Industry. The success of today’s banking business will sparsely depends on the human resources of the organization, in which plays a crucial role in providing the services needed. The evolution of banking system in India affected the human resource practices, recruitment and selection practices, and training system. It is very important that the details of human resource are discussed along with the employees, to build their own career planning, perceptions and development. The primary strength of the industry is the human resource that is why the efforts to develop the skills and management are the main subject placed before the human resource. A major challenge for many banks will be to develop the special competencies and skills for credit appraisal and risk management. Putting the information technology is a key contributed in human resource development. Therefore, the HR model of the future will require professionals to be both driving and anticipating change, understanding the complexities of the new business environment and forces shaping it. Gelade and Ivery (2003) examined relationships between human resource management (HRM), work climate, and organizational performance in the branch network of a retail bank. Significant correlations were found between work climate, human resource practices, and business performance. The results showed that the corre-

248

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

lations between climate and performance cannot be explained by their common dependence on HRM factors, and that the data are consistent with a mediation model in which the effects of HRM practices on business performance are partially mediated by work climate. Bartel (2004) studied the relationship between human resource management and establishment performance of employees on the manufacturing sector. Using a unique longitudinal dataset collected through site visits to branch operations of a large bank, the author extends his research to the service sector. Because branch managers had considerable discretion in managing their operations and employees, the HRM environment could vary across branches. Site visits provided specific examples of managerial practices that affected branch performance. An analysis of responses to the bank’s employee attitude survey that controls for unobserved branch and manager characteristics shows a positive relationship between branch performance and employees’ satisfaction with the quality of performance evaluation, feedback, and recognition at the branch-the “incentives” dimension of a high-performance work system. In some fixed effects specifications, satisfaction with the quality of communications at the branch was so important. According to 2010 annual survey of Federation of Indian Chambers Of Commerce & Industry, Pubic Sectors Undertakings banks which are a dominating force in the Indian banking system have lacked a proactive HR environment. However, much has changed with the opening of other sectors and increased competition from newer banks in the system. Banks are increasingly beginning to recognize Human resources as a possible area of core competence, and seek to pursue and retain the best talent in the industry. There is a realization that skill development is extremely important for staff retention as well as the quality of manpower, and all respondents to our survey had in place a system of continuous professional learning. A few respondents were in the process of

revamping their training processes and emphasis is being laid on hard as well as soft skills. Banks are keen to tie up with external training agencies for in-house training. Some have even roped in top universities and business schools to help them in their initiative, while others have their own staff colleges for training employees. In one of the recent studies by McKinsey & Company in its publication (Aug 2010) “The human capital key: unlocking a golden decade in Indian Banking”, it points out that “Over the decade, the Indian Banking Industry is poised for unprecedented growth but only if it can dramatically strengthen its human capital. For banks to realize their full potential, developing robust leadership capability and improving productivity will be critical”. Mentoring, grooming, skill building, training and upgrading human competence and leadership can be possible only if the various capabilities are captured as part of HR function. In order to do so, ICT can be leveraged to parameterize and capture the granular set of competence. Gap analysis can be done. Skill gaps can be identified. Then the exercise of building up the missing skill sets will be possible. The ICT can be a good enabler for such critical improvements. Jayaditya (2012) have stated in his paper on Indian Banking Industry that measuring risks will become more explicit in the new Accord. Measuring credit, market, operational, interest rate, liquidity and other risks in compliance with the new Accord will not be an easy task for either bank managers or supervisory authorities, where there is a lack of ratings agencies and the majority of individual claims remain unrated. Further, banks and supervisors will be required to invest considerable resources in upgrading technology, including adequate data access, technical capacity and human resources to meet the minimum standards in the new Accord. In the IT vision document 2011-2017 RBI has shown concern on creation of dedicated pool of human resources. It is mentioned that there is an urgent need to train people across several levels to

249

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

bridge the gap between the technological skill-sets required and skilled manpower available. There is also a need to ensure continuity for human capital by creating a dedicated pool of trained IT professionals with suitable aptitude. Towards this, a roster of dedicated resources in the following areas may be prepared:

Market Dynamics

• • • • • • • •

•

Infrastructure Management IT Project Management Process Engineering Data/Information Management Data Warehousing and Data Mining Business Continuity Information Security Management Business Intelligence and Analytics

BANKING FUNCTIONS The major activities and functions are listed in Figure 1. It also means the banking sector needs personnel with varied backgrounds. The products diversification along with the expansion of banks may put more demand on preparing bank professionals from the large number of graduates available in the market. These varied natures of banks like scheduled banks, cooperative banks, regional rural banks, foreign banks etc. will give an idea of preparing banking professionals for various target groups the banks have to address.

DEMAND DRIVERS Market dynamics, Technology, Household savings are the main demand drivers of banking industry which are explained below in Figure 2. How these drivers demand for more professional approach to preparing the graduates for banking sector is discussed.

250

•

•

•

•

Increasing reach of banks into rural areas and Tier2/Tier3 cities. Banks aim to achieve a penetration level of 74% and 81.5% in 2013 and 2018. Micro finance emerging as a major thrust area. Increasing Mergers and acquisitions to reap the benefits of consolidation. Improving competitiveness in terms of lower interest rates, increased productivity, better working capital management, deleveraging. Growth in Indian exports and imports.

All these demands for the experts in different field like microfinance, mergers and acquisitions, capital management, stock broking, exports and imports, rural and semi-urban banking and the like.

Technology Technology in banking is drawing more and more customers for banking related products and services as they become more cost effective and customer friendly. Banks renders various technology based services such as mobile banking, net banking, tele banking, atm/credit cards, etc. Banking sector spend about 46% of its technology budget in business continuity, 32% for adding product functionality/new products/new features and the remaining 22% in new technology which can change the business process4. The paradigm shift in the banking started with the inception of Goipria committee on customer service, which recommended introduction of ATMs for customer convenience. This was the beginning of introduction of technological tool in the banking business. This initiative is also identifiable landmark to define link of traditional banking to technology. Later on the introduction

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

Figure 1. Major activity in the banking functions

of ALPM system is the milestone for inception of technology in banking business. This was the point of time where traditional bankers or recent graduates joining banking as career started feeling uncomfortable to the business processes. The era was early eighties. During that period none of the universities or colleges was having Information technology education in their curriculum. It was not only challenging for the universities or colleges but for the banks too to develop skill set in existing employees. Then the apex institutes like IIBF, NIBM needed to develop short term courses or certificate courses. The responsibility was well understood by these great institutions and Information Technology was included in the curriculum. IT papers in JAIIB and CAIIB are the examples of the same. In late eighties again the second committee on Banks Computerization headed by Dr. Rangrajan, recommended for PBA, TBA and Computerization of administrative and corporate offices. This generated the need for IT specialist to manage the highly IT intensive environment. Accordingly Computer Processing and Planning (CPP) and Zonal computer centre was setup. Again it was challenging for universities and colleges to give knowledge of baking to IT specialists to manage IT driven baking business. Till today this gap continues. We have IT specialists not knowing banking and we have bankers too not knowing IT as well.

Household Savings Bank deposits have been the mainstay of the saving process in the Indian economy and banks have played an increasingly important role in stepping up the financial savings rate, physical savings, nevertheless, have tended to grow in tandem with the financial savings. With the shrinking share of household sector deposits in total deposits, banks need to explore ways of more saving. The household savings no longer restricts themselves to conventional savings. The savings through instruments like mutual funds, unit linked policies (ULIP), equity linked insurance and the like is increasingly becoming popular among Indian middle class. It means the banking sector has to gear itself to give good service provisions.

Figure 2. Demand drivers for banking industry

251

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

DISTRIBUTION OF MANPOWER Figure 3 explains qualifications required for various level of positions/post. The education wise distribution of manpower is also given in Table 1. These qualifications are required to help the banking industry to manage the existing products and services, innovative financial services and to deliver the same to target customers in safe and secure manner. The chartered professionals are also required to supervise the banking with risk based approach, which is on of the regulators requirement. Moreover for addressing the issues arise from money laundering, fraud etc. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has also suggested to establish Fraud Risk Management Cell in every Bank. This RBI initiative has also generated the need for appointment of fraud examiners in the banks.

SKILL COMPETENCIES AND CHALLENGES Skill Requirement and Skill Gaps Traditionally banking industry employs highly skilled people with specialized education qualification for most of its functions. However, with the expansion of banking industry covering many

fields there is lot of skill gaps and knowledge gaps. For instance, over the last few years there has been an increasing trend to outsource some of the activities through Direct Sales Agents (DSAs). This outsourcing has resulted in creation of employment opportunities for minimally educated people who were not earlier part of the banking system in the form of customer care support and tele marketing/ tele sales persons. These people are expected to possess good communication (spoken, written) skills, high level of perseverance, high energy level, emotional intelligence, and aptitude for repetitive work, integrity and managing customer’s expectations. Banking systems faces mostly following challenges. •

•

Modern banking demands for many skills and competencies from its functionaries. One of the challenges is identifying them and comparing them with what is imparted through university education or short term training or short term add-on courses for graduates. The second challenge is the rapid growth in banking sector and its need for large number of suitably trained manpower. The business of banking moved from class banking to mass banking. During post nationalization, the Banks were asked to open more branches in rural areas.

Table 1. Distribution of manpower by education level in banking industry

Source: Primary Research and IMaCS analysis

252

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

Figure 3. Education qualification and experience of manpower (National Skill Development Corporation)

•

The third challenge is banks are no more only commerce oriented. They need to deal with several subject areas to serve various sectors of the society. That the recruits from other disciplines are to be appropriately trained to integrate their subject knowledge with the banking sector needs. For instance science graduates need to be trained integrating science subject content with bank’s need for communication technologies or assessing agricultural products or statistical tools or assessing science based industry needs. A well planed, organized, efficient and viable banking system is a necessary concomitant of economic and social infrastructure.

Based on our industry interaction and projections we argue that there exists a case for targeting skill building initiatives in the following areas: •

Financial Intermediary ◦◦ Basic understanding of BFSI industry. ◦◦ Training for financial planning. ◦◦ Soft skills training for communication and selling skills.

•

Others ◦◦ Highly skilled areas such as risk management, credit evaluation. ◦◦ Emerging areas such as Wealth Management.

There is paradigm shift in Banking from Banking to intermediaries and from intermediaries to Risk Management. This shift has given birth to various specialist non business functions which were not prevailing during primitive and modern banking. Banking in India is graduating from general to specialize. This sector therefore needs specialist officers like System Administrators, DBA, Network Administrators, Programmers, Information Security Professionals, IS auditors, Dealers, Risk Managers, Fraud Risk Managers in various fields like IT, Technical, Agriculture, Legal, Marketing, HR, etc. and also in Rashtrabhasha. Today with the globalization and liberalization, every industry at every sector has not been spared with the impact it caused. Among all these industries include the banking which is very hot industry today. Thousands of people that have already been engaged in various jobs are today reaping their harvest of hard work due to which

253

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

they have reached to where they are today. Not only in India but also in many countries, banking has been a passion for people to build their careers at which is looking to be under the tremendous growth track. Every year there are hundreds of bank jobs created by various banks both the government and private ones.

Present Status of the Subject Gone are the days when people used to think that for making career in banking one usually requires the commerce background. In fact, there are hundreds of people with no commerce backgrounds engaged in banking sector It is true that most of the people simply think that in banks the jobs would be only handling of financial transactions. However, the fact is within the banking world, there are many areas that are quite dissimilar to one another and require people from different backgrounds for assigning varied responsibilities For instance, bank teller may have to be more customer oriented; agriculture professional may need to take a real assessment of things, relationship managers need to have more qualifications and skills in how to develop personal relations without effecting banking business. Similarly one can find that banks have diversified their activities and are getting into new products and services that include opportunities in credit cards, consumer finance, wealth management, life and general insurance, investment banking, mutual funds, pension fund regulation, stock broking services, custodian services, private equity, merchant banking, risk management, information system sudit, information system security etc. All this requires preparing suitable manpower. Emergence of technology-driven new private banks and entry of Financial Institutions into short-term lending business has created the requirement of more professionals. It is not only MBAs, CAs and CFAs, but also graduates from different streams like arts, science, agriculture, veterinary, legal,

254

IT, and humanities can be prepared as banking professionals for meeting the large demand in banking sector for well qualified people with required skills and knowledge. Nevertheless bright graduates from any subject can get entry in the Public sector Banks through an All India Examination conducted themselves by banks. In the Skills Gap Survey for Banking Sector (2010) respondents felt that providing more practical knowledge and making students more aware of the realities of corporate work and life needs to start with the faculty. From here, the curriculum needs to be continually updated to meet the changing needs and demands of the market. The market is not stationary, so curriculum cannot be stationary. These are the primary ways that education institutes can mange expectations, work to limit the disparity between institutions, and address primary gaps in knowledge and skills brought to light in this survey.

Institutes/Universities Conducting Specialized Courses in Banking The following is the illustrative list of institutes and universities where specialized courses in banking are conducted. •

• •

• • • •

Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology, Hyderabad, provides executive programmes in banking technology; National Institute of Bank Management, Pune; Centre for advanced financial studies, Institute for Financial Management and Research, Chennai; The Indian Institute of Banking & Finance, Mumbai conducting certificate courses; Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi; Pondicherry University; University of Madras, Chennai;

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

• • • • • • • • •

The Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Baroda; Gujarat University; Utkal University; Annamalai University; Shri Venkateshwara University; Delhi School of Economics; Marathwada University Aurangabad; Manipur University, Imphal offers Diploma programmes in banking.

Some of the courses run by above institutions are as under: • • • • • • • • •

Post-graduate in banking and business finance; Post-graduate Diploma in banking; Post-graduate diploma in financial management; Master of Business Administration in banking technology; Master of Arts in Fashion Retail Management; Post-graduate Diploma in Financial Management; Post-graduate Programme in Advanced Finance; Post-graduate Programme in Financial Technology; Post-graduate Programme in Banking and Finance.

Projected Manpower Requirements Banking Sector in India employ large number of people and large number of people retire every year. To fill this gap and to take up the growing business the banks are on a recruiting spree as can be seen in media and from vacancy announcements from time to time. In the year 2010 only about 40000 vacancies have been created in public

sector banks due to retirements, resignations and expansion of bank business. However, the question is whether the graduates coming out of the university system are professionally prepared for banking sector. Based on the growth expected in the Banking and Financial Services Industry (BFSI), it is expected that about 8.4 million persons would be employed in the BFSI industry. The incremental human resource requirement between 2008 and 2022 is expected to be about 4.2 million. The segment-wise composition is shown in Table 2. As seen in Table 2 the majority of the incremental requirement is in the financial intermediary segment which is primarily driven by the planned development, such as Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM), of cities and towns where the financial services penetration is low.

IT TALENT FOR BANKING All the banks have these days adopted IT in all spheres of banking-online banking, core banking, online trading and ATM etc. Hence, banking IT jobs are crucial for the effective functioning of organizational processes. To handle IT, demand for bank IT officers have increased. Bank have traditionally been in the forefront of using technology of improve its products, Services and efficiency. Banks have over a long time been using electronic and telecommunication networks for delivering a wide range of value added products & services. The delivery channels include direct dial-up connections, private networks; public networks etc. and the devices include telephone, PCs including ATM s etc. With the popularity of PCs easy access to internet and World Wide Web (WWW), Internet increasing used by banks as channel for receiving instructions and delivering their products & services to their customers.

255

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

Table 2. Projected manpower requirement between 2008 and 2022 (in ‘000s)

Source: IMaCS analysis:*On-rolls employee

Apart from Internet Banking, Internet is used as a channel for several other banking products and services such as online trading, utility bill payments, payment hub, etc. NASSCOM estimates that each year India adds three millions new graduated and diploma holders to the talent pool, out of which nearly one third are in engineering and sciences. The IT industry currently employs about 1.8 million people and even with aggressive growth projections, this means an additional 300,000 new employees every year for the next few years, but still a fraction of talent added every year. We have seen classic symptoms of under supply, such as year–on-year wage increase of 15%, unrealistic careers expectations from many young employees, and attrition rates above 20%. That’s why most Indian graduates are unemployable by the standards of these industries. The actual size of the available talent pool is relatively small, only about a quarter of the total by some estimates. This indicates that even though there is economic recession all over the word, the HR manager of Indian Information Technology firms will still have to do their bit to attract and retain the talent. These talents can be prepared for banking industry by adding additional certificate courses relevant to banking. In the IT talent supply space, 5.36 lakhs engineering graduates and 3.03 lakhs IT graduates were added in 2007-08 as per NASSCOM (www.nasscom.in,2008)

256

Opportunities for Computer Graduates in Banks Need arises for specialist bankers who are aware of needs and requirements of customers from diverse background. Subject Matter Experts or Practice Experts for various industries like Media and Entertainment, Oil and Gas, Power etc. would be better able to handle a customer from the respective domain instead of a general banker. IT officers are appointed in following specialized areas. Few examples of specialized skill set are: • • • • • • • •

IT Specialist Officer (Data Centre & Disaster Recovery); T Specialist Officer (Capacity Planning, IT Asset & Vendor Management); IT Specialist Officer (Information Security); IT Specialist Officer (Network); IT Specialist Officer (Project Management Office); IT Specialist Officer (Development); IT Specialist Officer (Database Administrator); IT Specialist Officer (System Administrator).

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

Master of Business Administration (MBA) and Chartered Accountants (CA) Large number of MBAs is recruited in Banking Sectors since last so many years for various positions. In bank MBAs hold various higher positions. Exact data of MBA’ employed in Banks is not available at any source but the fact is that there is a growing demand in Banks as they are trained for proper attitude, commitments, dedications, self disciplined, self motivation, and to show an aptitude and willingness to learn. MBAs are also trained for possessing strong analytic listening and communication skills and to work in a team and collaboration. It is well known fact that now MBAs come in with at least a basic knowledge of organization and process within the organization and an understanding of products, solutions and services – including that’s of competitors – as well as consumer barrier. In a dynamic and challenging business environment Chartered Accountants are looked upon as a completed business solution providers. They are thoroughly trained practically in all avenues of finance, accounting and banking. In Campus Placement Programme of Chartered Accountants for the period Feb. – March, 2011 and Aug. – Sept. 2011 approximately 20% of registered candidates were offered job ([email protected]).

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CORPORATE EDUCATION FOR BANKING IN INDIA The challenges facing the banking industry can be met only by taking a long term view towards manpower appointment. The manpower appointed should be suitably educated and trained. This responsibility lies with the Indian higher education system. As the Banking sector has moved from traditional banking to modern banking, our educational system should use its modern fea-

tures to suitably train its graduates. Universities and educational institutions have a great role to play in this whole process. Its graduates need to be prepared in various skills and competencies required to take the Indian banking sector to cater both globalized economy and local economy. The global should find itself in local.

Apex Institutes Preparing Graduates for Banking Sector IIBF (Indian Institute of Banking and Finance) Established in 1928 as a Company under Section 25 of the Indian Companies Act, 1913, Indian Institute of Banking & Finance (IIBF), formerly known as The Indian Institute of Bankers (IIB), is a professional body of banks, financial institutions and their employees in India. With its membership of over 700 banks and financial institutions as institutional members and about 300000 of their employees as individual members, IIBF is the largest Institute of its kind in the world and is working with a Mission “to develop professionally qualified and competent bankers and finance professionals primarily through a process of education, training, examination, consultancy/ counseling and continuing professional development programmes. Since inception, the Institute has educated numerous members and awarded several banking and finance qualifications, viz., JAIIB, CAIIB, Diploma and Certificates in about 20 specialized areas and helped them to sustain their professionalism through Continuing Professional Development programs. IIBF is a ‘Distance Learning’ Institute. In order that the candidates who appear for the examinations get adequate education/knowledge inputs, the Institute offers various educational services. The pedagogy of Distance Learning offered by the Institute is 1) publishing specific courseware for each paper/examination; 2) publishing work

257

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

books; (3) tutorials through accredited institutions; 4) contact classes; 5) virtual classes; 6) e-learning through portal; 7) campus training for selected courses, etc. As a professional body, IIBF ensures that its members are given updated information about the profession they practice. Towards this end, the Institute offers a daily e-news letter called “Fin @ Quest”, a monthly bulletin “IIBF-Vision”, a quarterly journal – “Bank Quest” and Reports based on the Research Studies commissioned by the Institute on the subjects of topical importance to bankers and finance professionals, besides organizing Seminars, Conferences, Lecturers, short duration programs and Management Development Courses in collaboration with leading management institutions, as part of Continuing Professional Development. IIBF has collaboration with 1) Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) for offering CAIIB-linked MBA in Banking & Finance; 2) Punjab national bank institute of information technology (PNBIIT) for an Advanced Diploma in Banking Technology; and 3) Commercial Bank of Ceylon Limited (CBCL) for customized Certificate and Diploma Courses in Banking Studies for the bankers in Sri Lanka.

IIBF Institute Diploma Courses The IIBF offers Diploma in Banking Technology, Diploma in International Banking & Finance, Diploma in Treasury, Investment & Risk Management, Advanced Diploma in Wealth Management, Advanced Diploma in Coop/ Urban Coop Banking, Diploma in Micro Finance Professionals, Diploma in Commodity Derivatives, Diploma in Home Loan Advising.

PNBIIT (Punjab National Bank Institute of Information Technology) PNBIIT is an autonomous non-profit society promoted by Punjab National Bank and regis-

258

tered under Societies Registration Act. PNBIIT is located at Gomti Nagar, Lucknow. An associate member of Indian Banks’ Association (IBA), PNBIIT has been offering services to various BFSI organizations, educational and training institutes since commencement of its modest journey on 16.10.2002. During this period, PNBIIT had been conducting training programmes on Banking and Banking Technology for officials of different Banks. Key subjects of training programmes have been “Finacle”, the Core Banking Solution of “Infosys”, Core Banking, Data Center, Disaster Recovery Centers, Business continuity plan, Information Security, Alternate Delivery Channels, Payment and Settlement Systems, Oracle Database Management, Operating Systems UNIX & LINUX and Networking Technologies etc. Other organizations have used the resources of the Institute for conducting their programmes. PNBIIT has been periodically organizing seminars and conferences on contemporary topics for senior and middle level executives of banks. The six months Certification Programme “Advanced Diploma in Banking Technology (ADBT)” of PNBIIT for B.Tech (IT & CS) and MCA pass outs was started in 2007 with focus on industry relevant core IT and inputs of banking including operational areas to serve as a bridge between academia and industry. The campus placement started with an impressive figure of more than 80% and increasing gradually to touch 100% placement in the last batch(ADBT-V).

NIBM (National Institute of Bank Management) Established in 1969 by the Reserve Bank of India, in consultation with the Government of India, as an autonomous apex institution, with the mandate of playing a proactive role of “think-tank” of the banking system, the National Institute of Bank Management is part of the grand vision of giving a new direction to the banking industry in India and making the industry a more cost-effective

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

instrument for national development. Therefore, helping the managers in their endeavor to make their organizations competitive both in domestic and inter-national markets is the mission of the Institute. NIBM is recognized by the University of Pune as an approved centre for Post-Graduate Research and also by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India. Many Ph.D. students are currently registered with NIBM for their doctoral dissertation under the supervision of the Institute’s faculty members. The two-year PGPBF is designed as a contemporary, rigorous, innovative and practical source of management education. The Programme is pitched to provide to the financial system, on a regular basis, a pool of talented young executives who are thoroughly trained in Foundations, Analytical Skills and Perspectives in Banking and Finance and fully prepared to shoulder managerial responsibilities in the banking and financial sector. A perfect blend of analytical skills, subject knowledge and a thorough understanding of the practical nuances of banking business makes the students of PGPBF a class-apart from other management graduates.

IDRBT (Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology) In the year 1994, the Reserve Bank of India formed a committee on “Technology Upgradation in the Payment Systems”. The committee suggested setting up of an Information Technology Institute for the purpose of Research and Development as well as Consultancy in the application of technology to the Banking and Financial sector of the country. As recommended by the Committee, the Institute for Development & Research in Banking Technology [IDRBT] was established by the Reserve Bank of India in March 1996 as an Autonomous Centre for Development and Research in Banking Technology.

Academic Programmes With the Indian Banking and Financial Sector riding on technology to make banking a comfort for the common person and to reach the unbanked areas of our country, the need and demand for Banking Technology specialists is on the rise. In order to address this need, one of the key areas of focus of the Institute is to develop fresh technical talent to lead the technology initiatives of the Indian Banking and Financial Sector. As part of these initiatives, the Institute offers a range of Academic and Research Programmes, designed specifically to meet both the existing and emerging requirements of the Banking and Financial Sector. The Institute is an Associate Institution of the University of Hyderabad (A Central University). The Academic Programmes, currently being offered by the Institute, are: • • • •

•

IDRBT Post Doctoral Fellowship (IPDF); Ph.D Programme in Computer Science and Information Technology; IDRBT Research Project Scheme (IRPS); M.Tech. in Information Technology (with specialisation in Banking Technology and Information Security); IDRBT Project Trainee Scheme (IPTS).

IDRBT is the only Institute in India which exclusively focuses on Banking Technology and is the first choice of candidates interested to specialize in the domain of Banking Technology.

IFBI Established by NIIT in association with ICICI BANK., NIIT’s expertise in the design and conduct of distributed non-formal education and its experience of manpower-development for India’s IT sector, are combined with ICICI Bank’s domain-knowledge across the spectrum of financial services and its leadership status within the banking sector. 259

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

The key focus area of IFBI is to address the manpower challenges of multi-skilled and trained professionals in BFSI sector. IFBI is actively engaged in re-skilling existing professionals in the Financial Services sector-who are being overwhelmed by recent economy reforms, technology advancements and changes in attitude & approach in this sector. Since inception in September 2006, IFBI has launched over 15,000 careers in leading organizations of the Banking and Financial Services Industry. Today, IFBI graduates are working in leading organizations ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, ICICI Lombard, ICICI Prudential, Laxmi Vilas Bank, Wealth Advisors Inc, Karvy, Fullerton Securities, ICICI Securities, HDFC Securities, Bajaj Capital, Deutsche Bank, ING Life and many more. IFBI students get inducted in various functional roles like customer acquisitions (sales), front-office operations, backoffice operations, wealth management, customer service, phone- banking etc.

RBI’S INITIATIVES RBI has suggested that the following steps are required for creation and maintenance of such a dedicated pool of resources: • • • • •

260

Identifying potential employees with relevant IT competencies. Providing appropriate training on a continuous basis. Monitoring performance and re-orienting to specific tasks. Preparing career paths and succession plans. Sharing the common pool across the Reserve Bank.

CONCLUSION Today the Banks’ are having two major challenges, viz.: (a) to get suitable human resource for present banking needs and (b) to retain the present generation knowledge workers. Similarly today’s generation also faced similar challenges, viz.: (a)to get job appropriate to their acquired qualification and (b) to pursue career with a particular organization, reason being that there is no Institute-industry partnership for acquiring educational qualifications. To cater to the need of skilled manpower, many institutes have come up with specialized courses on new banking initiatives which develop aspirant’s competencies on dimensions like domain, technology, application and customer-service. Furthermore, the banking started searching for risk managers. Till the time banking understands the link between skill and manpower, the technology up-gradation dropped in. The next shift was from branch banking to bank banking. This was enabled with the introduction of Centralized Baking System (CBS). First ever in the banking history customer of the branch became customer of the bank. This demanded customer centric, open, robust and efficient system architecture to fill up the gap and deliver the services to the customer. The banking started appointing engineers and computer professional’s at large scale. But such manpower was not having exposure to banking business. Apart from that it also created gap amongst the professional bankers and IT professionals. In the later phase of this period also embark the introduction of IT enabled product and services. Central Government as well as State Governments started linking their treasuries to the banks. Rather Government’s treasury function was trusted on banking through online payments and settlements. This period was not only challenging for the bankers, but also to the regulators. The role of aggregators and segregators occupied the larger picture of the online payment canvas. In the last thirty years there is sea change in the banking business and every three to five year there

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

is paradigm shift. This has also not given stability to the banking human resources requirement so that the universities or colleges may develop appropriate curriculum for the future bankers. That’s why we may conclude that till the time stability does arrive in the skilled required for banking, the specialized institutes may continue to serve the skilled manpower requirement of banking business. Considering the paradigm shift in the banking, the universities and specialized institution running the banking and finance courses, are required to update and upgrade themselves. Lots of innovation has taken place in banking business and also the channels through which banking products and services are delivered. The raw graduates are not much in demand by the bankers. There is need for specialization along with banking domain knowledge. The universities may consider running the banks sponsored courses as many private institutions are doing so for existing and future employees of the banks. The graduates, who choose to pursue carrier in banking industry may take the internship in banks to have hands on experience. The institutions and universities need to consider the technology aspect too. The present bankers need to understand the innovative management tools such as data mining, business intelligence, and it should be introduced during university education itself.

REFERENCES Bartel, A. P. (2004). Human resource management and organizational performance: Evidence from retail banking. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 57(2), 181–203. doi:10.2307/4126616 Gelade, G. A., & Ivery, M. (2003). The impact of human resource management and work climate on organizational performance. Personnel Psychology, 56(2), 383–404. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003. tb00155.x Goyal, K. A., & Vijay, J. (2012). Indian banking industry: Challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Business Research and Management, 3(1), 18–28.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS CBS (Centralized Banking System): In this system all transactions takes place centrally. Customer of the branch becomes customer of the Bank. A shift from branch-banking to bank banking. JAIIB: Eligibility for this certificate course is IIBF Members are those individuals who are Life members of the Institute and are employees of a banking establishment or financial institution or any other institution, which is an Institutional Member of the Institute. CAIIB: Eligibility for this certificate course is IIBF Members are those individuals who are JAIIB and Life members of the Institute and are employees of a banking establishment or financial institution or any other institution, which is an Institutional Member of the Institute.

261

Preparing Graduates for the Indian Banking Industry

APPENDIX Reports Banking Regulation (Amendment) Act 1949, Act No. 10 of 1949, 10th March 1949. Federation Of Indian Chambers Of Commerce & Industry, Indian Banking System: The Current State & Road Ahead, Annual Survey, February 2010 (http://www.medwelljournals.com/fulltext/?doi= pjssci.2009.194.199). Primary Research and IMaCS Analysis (http://www.imacs.in/biz_finance.html). Report on “The human capital key: Unlocking a golden decade in Indian Banking” A publication of McKinsey & Company on financial services, August 2010. Skills Gap Survey for the Indian banking, financial services, and insurance sector, higher education forum supported by Lsos & Westat, India, march 2010.

Websites www.bankingfrontiers.com/coverstory0612_01.pdf www.business-standard.com/india/news/sbi-launches-fresh-hr-initiative/368766/ www.coolavenues.com/mba-journal/finance/basel-2-challenges-indian-banking-industry www.gktoday.in/brief-history-of-banking-in-india www.ibps.in/html/research_development.htm www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/.../HROB007.htm www.icmrindia.org/freeresources/casestudies/StateBankofIndia-VRSStory1.htm www.idrbt.ac.in/genesis.html www.ifbi.com/aboutus.aspx www.nasscom.in/research-reports?tid=2822 www.nasscom.in/sites/default/files/userfiles/file/National_Policy_on_Information_Technology_071011. pdf. www.nibmindia.org/index.aspx?idp=83&idc=86 www.pnbiit.ac.in/bankers.php www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?Id=12664 www.scribd.com/doc/52568901/HRM-in-Indian-Banking-Industry

262

263

Chapter 19

Power System Operator Certification: A Case Study for India

K. Balaraman Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd., India B. R. Lakshmikantha Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology and Management, India R. Nagaraja Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd., India

ABSTRACT The unbundling of the electricity industry has changed the way the energy supply business is handled from a mainly technical to a more commercially dominated one. This new paradigm shift has facilitated creation of new system and/or market operation entities in electrical utilities throughout the world. The increasing number of different companies with diverse interest participating in the electricity supply business leads to a shift from traditional tasks of power system operation among these companies to new additional job duties or even a complete new job as system or market operator. This case study examines the critical change that have taken place in the commercial environment in which power system operators now work both at the system operation level as well as in the generation operation and how that affects their day-to-day operations. This case study analyses the international scenario along with their performance targets that have already been implemented worldwide and would describe their impacts on the job to be performed by the system operator in India. Finally the training needs of system and market operators’ personnel both at the system operation and generation operation where these entities are separated are pointed out, focusing on the new points that have arisen because of the new commercial environment.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch019

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Power System Operator Certification

1. INTRODUCTION The unbundling of Electricity Industry has paved a new operational environment changing from the classical technically driven operation towards a commercially customer oriented business. This process is initiated by various Governments across the world including India with the passage of the Electricity Act 2003 in the Parliament with a directive to establish a competitive electricity supply business. With the act, •

•

•

A number of electrical utilities in the States of India has already moved from their single monopolistic type of structure into an unbundled industry with separate generation companies, transmission companies, distribution companies along with merchant power plants, trading companies and power exchange, While majority of these states, the system operation lies with the state transmission utility, a process of ring fencing the power system operation is initiated. In some of the States, only transmission companies are carved out and keeping the generation and distribution function in one company.

As part of the reforms, the electricity supply business is separated into • •

The physical transfer of energy (based on real-time power dispatch, i.e. MW) and The energy trading environment (based on financial energy trading, i.e. Rs./MWh).

The physical transfer of energy is under responsibility of the system operator (SO) who has the responsibility to fulfil the two basic tasks: • •

264

Providing security of the interconnected power system Balancing power/frequency of the system.

Again, the role of system operator depends on the transmission asset ownership as •

•

Transmission System Operator (TSO), if overall system operation responsibility and asset ownership belong to one and the same company (common in Europe). In this case the transmission system is operated by the system operator. Independent System Operator (ISO), if overall system operation responsibilities belong to an independent company (like in the US, South America, Australia). The transmission system is operated by one or more transmission agents under supervision of the system operator.

The Energy trading environment is through the market operator (MO) who is responsible for the overall economic trading environment. This entity can either be •

•

Integrated into a system operator like in Argentina, PJM (Pennsylvania-New Jersey-Maryland) or NYPP (New York Power Pool) or Separated as an Independent Market Operator (IMO) like in Scandinavia (Allemby et al., 2000).

Grid code, co-operation rules and market rules also define the mutual interfaces between system operator and market operator as well as the interfaces between each of them and the diverse agents like suppliers, distributors and consumers that are physically connected to the transmission grid and/ or trading in the market environment. Referring to this framework, system operator and market operator have to act in a non-discriminating way and transparently with regard to tariff structures and decision making. Furthermore, the metering and settlement code defines the interface between system operation and energy trading and contains the basis for the settlement of imbalances.

Power System Operator Certification

The unbundling of the traditional monopolistic physical transmission environment leads to an increasing number of parties with different goals and interests in energy supply business, but general tendency is the merger of companies with similar responsibilities after a while. The energy trading environment is usually set up after the unbundling process – albeit unbundling is not a necessary condition - by establishment of a market entity under responsibility of the market operator (MO). Besides that, additional new agents without any physical link like traders and brokers join the electricity supply business. During the transition process from the traditional to commercialised environment stepwise changes of the participating entities in doing their business is observed. All this leads to a changed organisation within each participating company and influences the overall power system operation as well as the economic trading operation. Therefore, new requirements in power system operation are seen for each of the entities which also cause the necessity to review the training programs; design and implementation such that it will take care of changing scenario. In this regard Ministry of Power Govt. of India constituted a committee to examine the issues relating to manpower, certification and incentives for the personal employed on system operation at various levels and also for ring fencing the Load Despatch Centres to ensure their functional autonomy and give recommendations.

2. CERTIFICATION OF SYSTEM OPERATORS Licensing has been one of the earliest forms of certification in many occupations. Certified Operators have been a pre-requisite in areas involving public health and safety. In case of vehicle driving, a permanent Licence is required and is generally

valid for 10-15 years and has to be revalidated after this period. Similarly, an elaborate process exists for ensuring that the personnel in the civil aviation industry viz. aircraft pilots, Aircraft Maintenance Engineers (AMEs), cabin crew, Air Traffic Management are competent. In the international scenario, power system operation training and certification is needed for the operators in many countries. For example, the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) has a system operator certification program. Program which provides the framework for the examinations used to obtain initial certification in one of four NERC credentials (PJM training manual-www.pjm.com): • • • •

Transmission Operator, Balancing and Interchange Operator, Balancing, Interchange and Transmission Operator and Reliability Operator.

A System Operator credential is a personal credential issued for successfully passing the NERC System Operator Certification Exam. A written examination is conducted for testing the Operators on their knowledge of NERC operating policies along with the principles of operation of interconnected power systems before the award of the Certification. Such certificates have to be revalidated every three years. Staffing the control centres with such certified Operators is a mandatory requirement in North America. PJM interconnection is a regional transmission organisation (RTO) in USA that co-ordinates the wholesale electricity in all or parts of 13 states and District of Columbia. PJM has a System Operator Certification Program which is designed to provide the participants with the knowledge required to operate within PJM.

265

Power System Operator Certification

3. POWER SYSTEM OPERATOR CERTIFICATION: INDIAN CONTEXT

The pre-dispatch operation, also called operational planning involves

India is poised for unified grid in the mid of 12th five year plan with a generation capacity of over 200GW. At present India has interconnection with Bhutan and Nepal and would interconnect with Bangladesh during the 12th plan period. At present power system operation at national level is co-ordinated by the National Load Despatch Center (NLDC) and at the regional level by Regional Load Dispatch Centers (RLDCs) and are the apex bodies for ensuring integrated operation of the power system in accordance with prevailing grid codes and standards. There are five RLDC’s in the country. The RLDCs are responsible for real time monitoring of grid operations, maintaining accounts of the electricity transmitted, supervision and control of the interstate and inter-regional transmission system, operational planning and establishment and maintenance of the data telemetry and SCADA/EMS facilities. Similar responsibilities have been entrusted to the State Load Dispatch Centres (SLDCs) who act at the state level in conjunction with the respective RLDC. The number of SLDC is around twenty three with the monitoring centers in the union territories. In addition there are Area Load Dispatch centers existing in the larger states like Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu etc. The existing strength of the skilled manpower in the LDC is over 1200 which may have to be enhanced to over 2750 in due course for better management of the Grid. In general, the functions assigned to the System Operator can be classified as follows as per the committee constituted by the Ministry of Power, Government of India (Pradhan, 2008):

• •

• • • •

266

Pre-Dispatch Operations; Real Time Operations; Post-Dispatch Operation; Interaction with External Environment.

• • •

Load Forecasting and Demand Estimation, Outage Planning (Generating Units and Transmission Elements); System studies/Simulation studies; Evaluation of Available Transfer Capability (ATC) for short term bilateral transactions; Resource Scheduling. The Real Time operation consists of

• • • •

•

• • •

Resource re-scheduling to mitigate real time constraints; Real time load generation balance; Maintenance and control of system parameters; Ensure grid security, quality of power and reliability in line with the Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC) stipulations; Co-ordination of outages (generating units/ trans-mission elements), both planned and emergency; Secure grid operation in emergency conditions/alert states; Optimal utilization of resources and minimization of transmission losses; Implementation of Contracts. The Post-dispatch operation consists of

•

• • • • •

Post facto event analysis–disturbance data collection, analysis, reporting and follow-up; Energy Meter Data Collection, validation and processing; Energy Accounting; Pool Account operation; The Interaction with the external environment would involve; Event information and reporting– Feedback to utilities, management, planners, administrators and regulators;

Power System Operator Certification

•

Meetings of the Regional Power Committee (RPC) and its subcommittees.

As per the committee report (Pradhan, 2008), the Indian System Operator is responsible for the security of the electricity supply industry feeding a billion people handling over Rs.180Crores worth of energy/ day and affecting the economy of the entire country. Hence, the proposed power operator certification has to cover all the operational sequences as mentioned above and should ensure that capability of manpower is enhanced for more rigorous and mission critical framework. In addition certification may have to be proposed for Generation system operator also. The proposed certification for power system operator may have to cover atleast 3000 personnel and in case generation system operator is to be covered which would be more than 5000 as of now and could increase to over 10000 with the proposed addition of power plants from Independent power producers

4. POWER SYSTEM OPERATOR CERTIFICATION: FRAMEWORK The power system operator certification can be taken up with three levels. The Basic level is for the operation planning and other support staff, the intermediate level for system operator who graduates from Basic level and advanced level is for the power system operation manager who will graduated from both Basic and Intermediate level. The Intermediate level and Advanced level may have the combination of theoretical understanding along with simulator training and testing under various hypothetical operating conditions. The basic level shall consist of relevant subjects for understanding of power system operation and its fundamental principles along with the training on use of operational planning software. The relevant subjects may be

• •

•

•

•

Introduction to power system and background of Indian power system evolution; Elements of Power system including basic understanding on the protection systems, HVDC, FACTS and Distribution system; Power System operation including scheduling process, unit commitment, System security, monitoring and control, Reactive power management and voltage control, Frequency control, System stability aspects, Load management etc.; Legislative and regulatory framework including Grid Code and its relevance, detailed understanding of operational planning procedures, scheduling and dispatch procedures, UI regulations etc.; SCADA/EMS IT system including basic understanding of the subject.

In the intermediate level consists of advanced level of understanding of power system along with the electricity market can be covered. The relevant subjects for the intermediate level can be • • • •

• • • •

Power system stability and power system reliability; Frequency control, Generation reserve management and Load management; Advanced SCADA/EMS system including Real time network analysis; Power system markets including advanced understanding of the market like day ahead market, balancing market, power exchange, Bilateral, open access, UI regulations etc.; Power system restoration and Black Start procedures; Power system operation in emergencies; Reactive power management and voltage control; Resource scheduling and economic dispatch.

267

Power System Operator Certification

The intermediate level theoretical understanding is followed up with the power system simulator training for one week under various hypothetical operating conditions. The candidate would be tested for his alertness and power system operation skills during the simulator training. The advanced level consists of review of the understanding of the subjects detailed above along with two weeks orientation of power system simulator training. During the training the candidate’s alertness, power system operation skill along with the managerial skill including communication skill shall be checked. The course work is mandatory for every FIVE years or as the case may be and the certification for each level is valid for TWO years and can be renewed by appearing for examination. The certification body shall be professional independent body with proven expertise in the power system area and shall have licence from either the Regulator or the AICTE.

5. CONCLUSION The unbundling of the electricity industry has changed the way the energy supply business is handled from a mainly technical to a more commercially dominated one. The increasing number

268

of different companies with diverse interest participating in the electricity supply business leads to a shift from traditional tasks of power system operation among these companies to new additional job duties or even a complete new job as system or market operator. The requirement to run the power system under commercial constraints to its limits and still maintain full system security impacts strongly on the performance standards that must now be met in - especially - system operators’ positions and on the training needed to fulfil their role.

REFERENCES Allamby, S., Bogas, J., Cukalevski, N., Flores, G., Gjerde, O., Mijuskovic, N. A., Weiss, G. (2000). Operator performance requirements and training needs in the commercial environment. CIGRE working group WG 39.0, 2000, CIGRE SC 39 session Paris. Pradhan, G. B. (2008). Report of the committee on manpower, certification and incentives for system operation and ring fencing load despatch centres. Ministry of Power, Government of India. Training Manual, P. J. M. (n.d.). System operators division. Retrieved from www.pjm.com

Section 4

Higher Education Institutions and Corporate Education

270

Chapter 20

Corporate-University Partnerships:

The Outreach and Engagement Model Brandon W. Kliewer Florida Gulf Coast University, USA Lorilee R. Sandmann The University of Georgia, USA B. Panduranga Narasimharao Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

ABSTRACT Corporate-university partnerships have the potential to create a myriad of mutually beneficial and reciprocal outcomes that support a larger public good. Within the various expressions of engagement, this chapter situates the outreach and engagement model historically and politically in the United States (US). A case study of a successful corporate-university partnership in the US is provided and is analyzed using the tenets of community engagement. The discussion of the case features three lessons that have the potential to inform corporate-university partnerships in contexts outside the US. Finally, approaches for implementing university outreach and engagement in the Indian context are proposed.

INTRODUCTION To thrive in the 21st century, today’s corporations and higher education institutions must consider themselves partners in the knowledge enterprise. No longer is the creation and application of knowledge the purview of any one sector. The synergy created through partnerships between

these two entities can be a powerful mechanism to co-create solutions on a local, national, and global level. Creating and sustaining mutually beneficial university-corporate partnerships through an engagement and outreach model is gaining attention in the United States and elsewhere (Mendel-Reyes & Weinstein, 1995; Musil, 2011).

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch020

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Corporate-University Partnerships

Objectives of the Chapter The purpose of this chapter is to provide a basic understanding of how the concepts of university outreach and engagement can benefit industries by providing a holistic approach to corporate education in the Indian context. Since many readers may not be aware of developments in the concepts of outreach and engagement, evolution of these concepts in universities, in the US, will be described to give an overall idea of associated concepts and their relevance to universities and society. To do this, in the first section of the chapter we give a brief overview of the historical policy context that has shaped the university-corporation outreach and engagement model in the US. Once the larger policy context is established, the section concludes by briefly highlighting the core tenets of university-community engagement. The second section of the chapter deals with the various practices that are followed in implementing the concepts of outreach and engagement. These practices are illustrated in the case of Virginia Tech’s program of outreach and engagement in Southside (central southern) Virginia in the United States. This case gives an idea of how universities can help rural areas that are in economic transformation and have limited knowledge inputs. This case is then analyzed in terms of the tenets of engagement. Lessons are extracted on how outreach and engagement can effectively broaden the scope and coverage of corporate education. This may be explained in terms of boundary expansion of university scholarship and university jurisdiction and boundaryspanning roles. The final section of the chapter discusses implications of university outreach and engagement in the Indian context based on the preceding discussion. What are factors to consider when implementing practices that are successful elsewhere? Observations and recommendations of a recent committee on rejuvenating and renovating

the Indian higher education system (Committee to Advise on Renovation, 2009) provides the basis for this discussion.

The Post-Industrial Economy and the University-Community Engagement Model The US has had relative success creating a higher education system that is multifaceted and serves a variety of purposes (Fallis, 2007). One way the American university has supported a general public interest is by maintaining relationships and partnerships with various elements of the broader community (Kezar, 2005). The organization and compartmentalization of community engagement activities in different university units has led to the development of differing concurrent conceptions of community involvement, outreach, and community and civic engagement. Engagement activities focused on social, political, and economic justice issues have primarily been emphasized as a pedagogical component of service-learning courses (Butin, 2008, 2010). Service-learning is a “course-based, credit-bearing educational experience that allows students to participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs and reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility” (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995, p. 112). Engagement activities focused on economic development and industry capacity building have generally been conceptualized under outreach services (O’Mara, 2010). The guiding theoretical basis of outreach and economic development programs does not necessarily share the principles underlying other forms of community engagement tied to curricular or co-curricular academic or student programs. The literature does, however, reflect an effort to link and overlap the principles of curricular and

271

Corporate-University Partnerships

co-curricular community engagement designed to address larger social, political, and economic justice issues, with the corporate education, outreach, and economic development efforts of the university (Narasimharao & Nair, 2010). In an attempt to contribute to this discussion, we highlight how the theoretical tenets of curricular and co-curricular community engagement have the potential to inform elements of engaged university-corporate partnerships. If the principles of community engagement are going to be applied to university-corporate partnerships in India, it is important to consider how larger contextual features of US higher education have shaped collaboration between universities and industry. This section outlines the context in which university-corporate partnerships have developed in the US. Specific attention is given to the basic legal and policy regimes that inform universitycorporate research scholarship. By highlighting the general context that informs university-industry partnerships, we are able to analyze a universitycorporate partnership using the theoretical tenets of community engagement in later sections. The American higher education systems commitment to supporting levels of teaching, research, and service has varied over time. Higher education during the colonial period was focused on developing the moral character of students through teaching. The growth of the industrial age prompted the American university to rearticulate the tenets of scholarship in relation to service. Moving into the early 20th century, particularly post-WWII, the focus of scholarship shifted toward research (Boyer, 1997). Boyer argued that the shift toward a research model can be attributed to efforts to re-make U.S. higher education in the image of the German Model of postsecondary education. The German model emphasizes graduate student training and the creation of original knowledge through research. Boyer’s perspective effectively identified a shift in how scholarship was understood in the U.S. higher education system but failed to highlight the underlying mechanisms that

272

led to the shift. We argue that by recognizing the research policy context, scholars and practitioners can offer a better explanation of the forces that reshaped the American university to emphasize the importance of research scholarship. In turn, understanding the larger research context allows scholars to more fully understand elements that shape university-corporate partnerships in the US. We highlight one interpretation of the U.S. research policy environment that guides and motivates the institutional decisions of large research-intensive universities. This is an appropriate starting point because it illuminates how university and corporate interests interact in the US context. The policy environment that shaped research paradigms at the American research university was redefined post-WWII. The intensification of university research became more pronounced in the 1980s. Compared to previous decades, in the 1980s, the United States was struggling to grow the economy at a constant rate. The federal government made intentional, and in some cases drastic, steps to restructure, reregulate, and deregulate the U.S. economy. The policy decisions and legal paradigm informing the economy were adjusted to align with the philosophical commitments of neoliberalism (Harvey, 2005). Neoliberalism is a social, political, and economic paradigm that emphasizes the importance of free markets, extreme economic individualism, and the lax regulatory role of the state. Ideological commitments to neoliberalism have fundamentally reshaped the human condition (Giroux & Giroux, 2004). The Bayh-Dole Act (1980) offers a specific example of how commitments to neoliberalism have shaped the way universities and private corporations interact in the United States. In an effort to promote commercial development between universities and private industry, the Bayh-Dole Act allows nonprofit universities to retain intellectual property rights and subsequent profits generated from the commercialization of federally funded research. Under the legal paradigm represented by the Bayh-Dole Act, universities

Corporate-University Partnerships

and affiliated research faculty have the potential to earn profits from the commercialization of research projects. In fact, a variety of corporateuniversity research centers have developed near major research universities to serve as incubators for the commercial interests of the university and industry. These forms of community engagement, more commonly known as outreach or economic development, are consistent with the triple helix model described by Victor Konde (2007). Under this framework, universities and industries work in conjunction with the regulatory schemes of government to promote the interests of business. Most state research-intensive universities in the United States have nonprofit status. There are a variety of legal and taxation implications tied to this designation, but for the purposes of this chapter, the primary implication of nonprofit status is that the institution does not have the same tax burdens as for-profit or corporate entities. In the past, government officials often justified, and citizens accepted, the nonprofit status of universities because these institutions were seen as supporting a generally defined public good. However, for many opponents, activities sanctioned under the Bayh-Dole Act represent a significant departure from the public orientation of universities focused on supporting larger public interests. For some critics, the profit motive created by the Bayh-Dole Act challenges the status of nonprofit universities as tax-exempt institutions. From a policy perspective, the paradigm shift and the larger implications of the Bayh-Dole Act quickly influenced larger narratives within the U.S. academy. As public support of universities declined, university administrators began to reshape aspects of the university to create profit even outside the new market space created by the Bayh-Dole Act (Giroux & Giroux, 2004; Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). Advocates of this shift argued that the new legal environment encouraged application of the principles of market efficiency to the management of the university. In the context of

research scholarship, proponents of the neoliberal shift suggest that the legal regime promotes the type of innovation required in a post-industrial economy. Opponents of the policy shift argue that collective tax dollars are being used to advance very select private commercial interests at the expense of the larger public good. This same group also argues that the policy shift toward academic capitalism allows administrators to favor areas of the university closer to the market (Nussbaum, 2010); that is, administrators find market-oriented activities desirable because they can create profit for the institution (Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). Declining public support of higher education, a focus on research, and reshaping the university to fit the corporate profit model forms the context for the institutional direction of US higher education. This internal and profit-focused agenda can be interpreted as leading some university leaders to reconsider the public purposes of higher education. In the early 1990s, however, leaders within higher education realized that the university would withdraw from the public at its own peril. Many felt that the university was losing touch with its core public purposes. Ernest Boyer (1997) was one of the more vocal advocates championing broader conceptions of the public purposes of higher education. Boyer’s work called for a general reconsideration of fundamental elements of the university and what it meant to be a scholar. More plainly, the basis of university-community partnerships, engagement, and integrated scholarship was meant to redefine and re-commit the university to supporting the larger and more robust conceptions of the public good. This reconstituted nature of scholarship was intended to re-conceptualize the university as a public institution. The theoretical tenets of community engagement are in many ways an administrative response to an extreme emphasis on profit-oriented trends of the academy. With that said, general contextual commitments to academic capitalism and the theoretical tenets of community engagement do not have to be mutually exclusive.

273

Corporate-University Partnerships

In fact, one purpose of this chapter is to highlight how these two policies and general narratives can overlap, creating a moderate policy paradigm that can inform university-corporate partnerships in India. The theoretical objective of this chapter is to demonstrate how university-corporate partnerships can create profit, but still generate enough secondary benefits to justify being considered an organization focused on promoting a larger public good.

Tenets of Engagement The rest of the section highlights three basic tenets that have produced curricular and co-curricular community engagement efforts. Specific attention is given to the unique challenges universitycorporate partnerships might pose for community engagement theory and practice. To fulfill the promise and benefits of such collaborations, first we explain how effective university-corporate partnerships ought to be understood as creating a series of duties and obligations for each partner. Second, we discuss how the normative tenets of community engagement are arranged to leverage the strengths of all partners. Finally, we argue that university-corporate partnerships should be concerned with supporting a larger public interest that moves beyond basic cost-benefit calculations.

Duties and Obligations: Reciprocity In many contexts partnerships form for a variety of reasons. The community engagement literature reports that commitments to reciprocity explain the positional organization and underlying desire to form university-community partnerships (d’Arlach, Sanchez, & Feur, 2009; Porter & Monard, 2001). The conceptual understanding of mutuality helps scholars and practitioners understand the motivations to form partnerships but leaves more important questions of interpersonal power differentials unaddressed

274

(Sandmann, Kliewer, Kim, & Omerikwa, 2010). Effective partnerships will consider how power differentials and interpersonal power dynamics influence the substance of a partnership. Duties and obligations frameworks can help administrators create a community engagement practice in India that recognizes the significance of maintaining reciprocal relationships. Understanding university-corporate partnerships in relation to a series of duties and obligations ensures that the terms of the relationship are not exploitive for any of the participants. Participants in any successful university-corporate partnership in India will share the burden of maintaining a relationship. Corporations and universities generally act as autonomous institutions with different primary operating missions. Universities focus chiefly on creating and transferring knowledge. Corporations, on the other hand, focus on accumulating surplus value for shareholders. The duties and obligations framework helps universitycorporate partnerships ensure that the substance of the relationship is negotiated along fair terms. Overlapping interests define the obligations, but the structure of the partnership still respects the equality and autonomy of each partner. This theoretical point makes more sense when it is expressed in relation to an example. Imagine a university-corporate partnership focused on corporate training education. For this partnership to be effective and consistent with the theoretical principles of community engagement, as expressed in the US, each partner must maintain a space of organizational overlap without sacrificing larger elements of institutional autonomy. That is, it would be inappropriate for the university to make core decisions for the corporation and vice versa. In this community engagement example, the university has an interest in providing a meaningful education to students. The corporation benefits from the development of an efficient and well-trained workforce. A relationship based on duties and obligations recognizes both the

Corporate-University Partnerships

university and corporation as having enough overlapping interest to see the intrinsic value of partnering but recognizes that mechanisms must be in place that ensure each partner shares the burden of a partnership. This might mean corporate employees support an educational element of the partnership in addition to their traditional work responsibilities. For university students and faculty, this might be expressed in adjustments in their work schedule or scholarly product. In short, parties to such a relationship need to recognize the importance of sharing the burden of partnering, while simultaneously enabling both entities to perform core responsibilities of their organization without interference. This example highlights the challenge university-corporate partners will face when they attempt to form meaningful partnerships. Duties and obligations frameworks can help partnerships define a common relationship while recognizing the importance of maintaining a reciprocal relationship. For an example of a university-corporate partnership that is inconsistent with the principles of community engagement, see Marc Bousquet’s (2008) book How the University Works: Higher Education and the Low-Wage Nation. Bousquet describes how the for-profit company United Parcel Service (UPS) partnered with the University of Louisville and Jefferson Community College in the United States. The partnership was designed to give UPS workers increased access to educational opportunities that fit within the unique work schedule of the UPS employees. However, the education component of the partnership was a failure by most objective measures. The structure of the program really only created an access point for UPS to draw student-workers from the inexpensive and contingent labor market. This university-corporate partnership did not reflect or adhere to the principles of reciprocity. University-corporate partnerships that are focused on creating access to new markets are unlikely to be organized within the theoretical tenets of community engagement.

Terms of Partnership Enhance or Improve Collective Goals: Mutual Benefit Although each entity in the partnership maintains a large degree of autonomy, the purpose of partnerships is to leverage strengths to promote common goals. In many contexts, this portion of community engagement relationships is discussed in terms of mutuality or mutual benefit (Conners, Gelmon, Holland, Seifer, Shinnamon, 1998). The language of mutuality is very common in the community engagement field, but as already discussed, can limit the ways partnerships negotiate the terms of their relationship (Mitchell, 2008). The theoretical basis of university-corporate partnerships needs to focus on the substance of a relationship. Instead of attempting to attach conceptions of mutuality to university-corporate partnerships that are focused on material outcomes, it would be helpful for administrators in India to redefine the nature of university-corporate relationships to focus on the substance of the relationship. The challenge for university-corporate partnerships is defining and negotiating clear terms of benefit that do not exploit or undermine positions of equality. As alluded to previously, we have described a conceptual makeup of partnerships based on the assumption that relationships will form in an area where organizations have common interests and goals. Effective partnerships ought to focus on enhancing the capacity of each organization by supporting a context in which organizations and firms are more dynamic and more capable of performing tasks they normally would not be able to complete alone. It is important to note two factors that are intimately connected to the capacity-building element of community engagement. First, equality between partners is integral to the relationship. This has been discussed, but the idea is so fundamental to community engagement it deserves repeated attention. Each organization maintains a large degree of autonomy. The goal is to maintain high levels

275

Corporate-University Partnerships

of organizational autonomy but still find an area of overlap where a partnership can strengthen each organization through cooperation. Second, respecting the autonomy of organizations and the space not related to partnerships creates the appropriate structural conditions for maintaining equal relations between organizations. Focusing on the substance of a relationship empowers partners to collaborate as equals.

Supports Larger Public Interests: Sustains Partnerships The third principle of community engagement is that it supports a larger public good or public interest over time. Predominant modes of understanding the significance of public policy make it difficult to comprehend policies, programs, and partnerships that are informed by public interest narratives (Bozeman, 2007). In fact, in the United States, although the process of community engagement institutionalization has stabilized (Sandmann, 2008), there is still difficulty defining a coherent public interest theory tied to community engagement efforts. With that said, partnerships should aspire to consider larger public interests when building a relationship. University-community partnerships can too easily become centered on instrumental outcomes tied to the collaboration. Partner 1 strengthens some element of Partner 2, and, by agreed-upon terms, Partner 2 similarly provides some positive element to Partner 1. Community engagement partnerships by their nature involve instrumental benefits. However, a focus on outcomes can quickly create university-community partnerships that concentrate on supporting private interests, at the expense of the more general public goods. Pursuing larger conceptions of the public interest, generally defined, can help avoid developing an exploitive partnership. Community engagement is based on supporting a larger and more general public interest. Creating partnerships that support the public interest could pose a serious challenge for university-corporate part276

nerships focused on the development programs of students and workers. The substance of the public interest, in many ways is practically produced in relation to competing political preferences. In most circumstances, the general critique of public interest narratives is that they merely reflect the subjective preferences of the most powerful groups in society. The basis that grounds this assumption will pose the most significant challenge for university-corporate partnerships in India. If they are to act within larger conceptions of the public interest, university-corporate partnerships cannot develop as a way to externalize the costs associated with training workers, maintaining an inexpensive labor market, or be solely focused on accessing new markets. University-corporate partnerships in India ought to be defined in ways that reflect aspirations to achieve more diffused public value. Effective university-corporate partnerships can support a corporate culture and brand of capitalism that is socially conscious. In contrast to the extreme economic individualism promoted by forms of neoliberal theory, university-corporate partnerships can champion a more moderate form of capitalism that is responsive to the social, political, and economic issues confronting India. India can leverage community-engaged scholarship and partnerships that solidify the country’s position among the leaders of the knowledge economy. To illustrate the enactment and impact of these tenets of engaged partnerships, the case of Southside Virginia and its various partnerships with Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) will be described.

CASE: ENGAGEMENT FOR REGIONAL TRANSFORMATION Like many once-thriving areas in the United States, the central southern part of the Commonwealth of Virginia, referred to as Southside Virginia (primarily the cities of Danville and Martinsville and the counties of Pittsylvania, Halifax, and Henry), had become a region lacking an innovation economy,

Corporate-University Partnerships

talent, investment, and infrastructure. It had lost industries (textiles, furniture) and agriculture (tobacco growing and selling) that generated jobs and built regional consumer demand. Southside was left with an undereducated workforce and low educational aspirations for digital-age jobs, coupled with limited access to local higher learning opportunities. This region’s efforts to revitalize itself began in 2000 when a committed group of private citizens invited Virginia Tech (125 miles away) to be a strategic partner in a business-led coalition. At the time the group was made up from a variety of local partners and local, state, and federal leaders that hoped to leverage what, from the outside, appeared to be meager resources for an ambitious economic development agenda. Yet within four short years, this leadership group and the coalition it organized managed to fund programs and build a state-ofthe art regional research, technology, education, and commercialization center, the Institute for Advanced Learning and Research (IALR; see http://www.ialr.org/). By late 2007, the initiative had received over $80 million in investments for an engaged program model designed to foster technology and talent as catalysts for economic transformation. This case is compelling because it goes well beyond the use of technology to create an engine of innovation. Although the initiative began with a region-wide project to construct the basic building block of modern technology, a high-speed fiber optic network, the key to this success involved forging new, innovative relations between the region and its leading research university. Of course, building a research university in every economic region is not feasible. Consequently, the relevant question for universities and the communities and corporations they serve has moved from one of what to do or why it should be done. Rather, as the promise of engagement beckons, the relevant questions shift toward how to engage the critical capabilities of a university in out-of-region engagement efforts that enhance the viability of rural regions in an

innovation-based, global economy while simultaneously benefiting the university’s discovery, learning, and engagement missions. (Franklin, Sandmann, Franklin, & Settle, 2008, pp. 206-207) Dedicated to its motto, Ut prosim (That I may serve), Virginia Tech, as the primary university partner in this case, fulfills its mission of transforming knowledge to practice through technological research leadership and by fueling economic growth and job creation locally, regionally, and across Virginia. Additionally, it is committed to an engaging approach to education, preparing scholars to be leaders in their fields and communities. As the commonwealth’s most comprehensive university and its leading research institution, Virginia Tech offers 215 undergraduate and graduate degree programs to more than 30,000 students and manages a research portfolio of nearly $400 million (http://www.vt.edu/about/). Through a multi-dimensional, iterative, and now robust partnership with Virginia Tech, the IALR became host to faculty researchers and graduate students associated with three Virginia Tech colleges, four individual research centers, and educational programs focused on creating, accumulating, and applying knowledge-more than two driving hours from Virginia Tech’s main campus in Blacksburg. With financial commitments from local foundations, the commonwealth, the U.S. government, the Virginia Tobacco Commission, private sources, and other funding entities, the IALR has brought millions of research and development dollars into rural Southern Virginia. For example, Virginia Tech, Old Dominion University, and Virginia International Raceway all partnered in IALR’s Virginia Institute for Performance Engineering and Research (VIPER) program, which provides state-of-the-art testing facilities to racing car companies in an area known as “NASCAR country.” Similar “distributed research” is ongoing in high-value horticulture and forestry, renewable energy and bioproducts, and robotics and unmanned systems. These areas build on university and local assets and capacities.

277

Corporate-University Partnerships

Just as important as the partnerships for research and development was the commitment to build a contemporary, knowledge-based culture in the region. Given the out-migration of young people, local talent development was a strategic transformation priority. It was recognized that the region simply could not compete (in a global economy or in attracting outside talent to reside in the community) without elevating its educational capacity at all levels, including K-12, postsecondary education, and postgraduate education. Elevating the educational level could not be done without both technological delivery systems and new kinds of relationships between higher education institutions, scattered across the region and the state, and Southside. Although distance learning has become a growing force emanating from the universities, the Southside strategy turned it on its head, both by reversing the relationship between the main campus and the satellite location and by fusing distance learning and economic development into distributed learning and distributed research and development. Educational and outreach programs focus learning opportunities on disciplines associated with the IALR’s research and information technology expertise, toward the goal of building a workforce in targeted economic sectors. Baccalaureate completion programs and graduate degrees that build on curricular partnerships with regional community colleges and K-12 systems provide advanced education opportunities to local citizens in addition to attracting talented graduate students from other places. Dozens of science, technology, engineering, math, and entrepreneurship outreach programs target audiences ranging from grade school children to senior citizens. The Institute Conference Center brings visitors to the region. IALR technology infrastructure and staff offer state-of-the art capabilities. What has evolved is a “miniature, disaggregated version of campus programs, designed specifically for the Southside community” (Franklin et al., 2008, p. 209). While the growth of the overall effort has been messy and confusing 278

at times, what has emerged based on the scale, scope, and, most important, the sustainability of the Southside Virginia effort is a robust model of university-community-corporate engagement. Or as Franklin et al. observe, If, metaphorically, innovation is viewed as fire built from learning, discovery, and engagement, then traditional university extension and outreach are its radiated heat as knowledge is transferred from fire to field. The Southside model has moved beyond radiated heat to build a fire in the field, permitting combustion, and the private economy it spawns, to occur in the needy locale (pp. 209-210).

DISCUSSION The Southside-Virginia Tech example demonstrates the fluid process of creating and maintaining an engaged partnership. The relationship between the university, state and local agencies, private industry, and community partners was collaboratively shaped. The key tenets of reciprocity, mutuality, and supporting the public good are present in the relationship, and are constantly providing feedback to inform the partnership. By maintaining an engaged relationship of this nature the economic transformation associated with the Southside project is diffused, and benefits accrue to stakeholders at multiple levels. The engaged relationship characterized by the Southside-Virginia Tech project contrasts with the type of economic development projects inspired by the Bayh-Dole Act. The benefits of university-community partnerships organized under the Bayh-Dole model are instrumental, focused only on economic outcomes, and lack concern for the larger substance of the partnership. The university-community engagement model emphasizes a type of economic transformation in which benefits are diffused and the importance of a larger public good is recognized. One element that significantly differs between the Bayh-Dole model and the university-community engagement model is the process employed to

Corporate-University Partnerships

produce scholarship. Under the Bayh-Dole model, university-corporate partnerships emphasize “technology transfer” or “knowledge transfer.” The process in which the knowledge is produced is relatively unimportant, and this knowledge is directed toward other partners. Thus, in many ways, the primary objective under the Bayh-Dole model is to produce scholarly research or teaching products that have commercial value. Producing teaching and research knowledge with commercial value might involve extensive communication between the university and industry, but this is not required. The engaged scholarship model, which is demonstrated in the Southside-Virginia Tech example, requires extensive co-production and communication among a range of stakeholders. In fact, the narrative included in the Southside example is one of engaged discovery. Any traditional economic and commercial value produced is carefully constructed to recognize the full range of stakeholder interests. Throughout the engagement process, knowledge is co-produced through acts of teaching, research, and service. Each stakeholder in the university-community engagement model is in a position to shape the partnership and contribute to the production of knowledge. This ensures that associated economic development is tailored to specific regional needs and recognizes the moral autonomy of each stakeholder. In the case of the Southside- Virginia Tech project, the engaged partnership created a dynamic economic transformation model that is responsive to specific needs of rural Virginia. This case offers many lessons that could inform efforts elsewhere, in particular corporateuniversity outreach and engaged partnerships in India. Here we focus on three. One lesson is that the relationship between the partners was cultivated within a milieu of mutuality. This milieu was characterized by a sense of readiness to address the outstanding issues and a recognition of and commitment to the antecedent elements for an engaged partnership (community recognition of

the need, leadership on both sides, and allocation of resources). That is, there was an openness to boundary expansion by the relevant entities. Another lesson is that community/corporate settings offer notable benefits across a spectrum of teaching, learning, and scholarship, in particular engaged scholarship. The community or corporate setting provided public relevance, new problems, and interdisciplinary opportunities that invigorate multiple forms of scholarship. Industry relationships offered problem-solving opportunities formed outside traditional disciplinary dialogue. These settings provide the opportunity for what Van de Ven (2007) calls bridging or engaged scholarship, defined as “a participative form of research for obtaining the different perspectives of key stakeholders (researchers, users, clients, sponsors, and practitioners) in studying complex problems” (p. 9). Other higher education scholars similarly define engaged scholarship as highly collaborative and hence cognizant of how multiple perspectives can inform a more meaningful approach to difficult problems. Engaged scholarship, according to Van de Ven, is also an identity in which scholars view their relationship with their communities as one involving negotiation, mutual respect, and collaboration as a learning community. These learning communities create reciprocal benefits such as synergies with campus-based labs that couple basic and applied research settings, stimulating productive research relationships and yielding increased grantsmanship competence. As an unintended consequence, multiple distributed research areas can lead to greater interdisciplinary interaction, resulting in multidisciplinary research and product development efforts. Such evidence counters many negative initial assumptions about the quality of scholarly experience available in community and corporate settings (Franklin et al., 2008). Finally, partners’contributions are unique and need to be valued, with some individuals acting as interpreters or boundary spanners across the

279

Corporate-University Partnerships

partnership. By working from a core strength, each partner enhances the ability to sustain the effort. Contributions from the corporate or community settings are noted above. The university’s contribution could come about through integrating with departments on campus, enriching student learning, faculty and graduate student research, unique knowledge resources—labs, content experts, journals—or through special or new funding sources. Bringing together “good science and good politics” was the way the Southside–Virginia Tech partners described their respective core strengths and specialized contributions. Since the entities are unique, there is a need for individuals to act as boundary spanners or “bridgers between an organization and its exchange partners” (Scott, 1998, p. 196). Such boundary spanners primarily serve as points of entry, process information from the environment, and provide external representation to stakeholders outside the organization (Aldrich & Herker, 1977). Weerts and Sandmann (2010) found that from a university’s perspective there may be multiple types of boundary spanners involved in an engaged partnership--such as community-based problem solvers, technical experts, internal engagement advocates, and engagement champions—and that they must work in harmony to make engagement effective.

Implications of Outreach and Engagement in the Indian Context The lessons learned from the corporationuniversity partnership context in the US and the Southside partnerships can be useful to inform future direction of engagement practice in India. First, the Southside model highlights approaches that can be used to integrate rural areas in India into the larger knowledge economy. As the world’s largest democracy the community engagement model has the potential to increase social, political, and economic equality and improve access to democratic institutions. Second, the universitycorporate regime created under the Bayh-Dole Act, and subsequent reformulations of academic 280

capitalism, can serve as a cautionary tale for higher education leaders in India. The open embrace of market principles and logics of capitalism within the halls of the US academy has created a flood of unintended consequences. The academic capitalism regime can undermine the role higher education has in supporting a larger public interest if community engagement is the vehicle used to leverage increased access. Although the selective pressures of globalization have brought about many developments in the society, Indian universities themselves have changed very little, which has led to a decline in their intellectual environment (Balram, 2008). Education commissions have been set up periodically, starting with the Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Commission of 1948, and have proposed many reforms in Indian higher education. In 2007 the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) stated, “We recognise that a meaningful reform of the higher education system with a long-term perspective is both complex and difficult. Yet it is imperative” More recently the high-level committee on higher education (Committee to Advise on Renovation, 2009), known as the Yash Pal committee, suggested several measures to rejuvenate university education in India. These measures include recognizing the need for universities to connect with the outside world and for disciplinary boundaries to be porous so voices from outside can penetrate. In this context the outreach and engagement concept as discussed in this chapter has wider implications for Indian universities and for corporate education in universities. Historically, India followed the British education system by establishing universities and affiliated colleges. The number of universities in the country has risen from 20 in 1950 to 565 in 2011, a more than 25-fold increase. The NKC’s call for the establishment of 1,500 additional universities, however, reflects the growing need for advanced education. The majority of existing universities cannot be classified as research intensive, as the country’s dismal publication record indicates (Gupta & Bala,

Corporate-University Partnerships

2011). Furthermore, a growing trend of research institutes’ “breaking away” from the university system has been observed (Lakhotia, 2005). The universities serve to launch and deliver various degree programs rather than make meaningful attempts to integrate elements of Boyer’s model (1997) for an engaged professoriate. Students receive an education separate from societal problems or oriented solely toward their economic futures. The Yash Pal committee report (Committee to Advise on Renovation, 2009) states that most Indian universities have been reduced to centers that teach and examine the masses. The report also observes that, with some exceptions, engineering and management educational institutions have become mere business entities that in fact dispense very poor quality education. Universities in India have nonetheless been trying to associate themselves with their communities for more than 40 years. Many factors account for their lack of sustained success (Narasimharao, 2010). The triple helix model that has proved effective elsewhere in the world was reported not to work in the Indian context (Sardana & Krishna, 2008). In many instances, such endeavors in India have focused on material outcomes in university-corporate associations, much as in the case of United Parcel Service described earlier. As discussed previously in this chapter, and as the Yash Pal committee report indicates, administrators in India need to redefine the nature of university-corporate relationships to focus on the substance of such relationships as well as a regime seeking the larger public good. The idea of a university should not only resist fragmentation of knowledge but aspire to encompass the world of work in all its forms. Knowledge and skills are born from work, and new knowledge takes shape in response to social and personal needs (The Committee on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education, 2009, p.10). There is an urgent need to identify effective and viable approaches that can bring about much-desired changes in the Indian higher education system (Anandakrishnan, 2008; Kothari

Commission, 1966), with more focus on engaging society. In the democratic society of India, with its associated complexities, this kind of change cannot happen through any regulatory or controlling authority. Only diffused and bottom-up change can be effective. Discussing the role of Indian universities in a knowledge society, Narasimharao (2009) concluded that the outreach concept involving faculty and students directly in partnership with stakeholders of higher education may support a strategically defined public interest. However, the danger remains that a university-corporate regime focused on private value will detract from more diffused societal benefits. For example, many universities and colleges have offered popular courses that their facilities cannot support, producing too many graduates and postgraduates who lack even a fundamental knowledge of the subject (Lal, 2010); engineering and management colleges have mushroomed while offering minimal-quality instruction; and various political and commercial vested interests have offered interference in the functioning and priorities of universities (Committee to Advise on Renovation, 2009). It is necessary that private value is combined? with an innovative approach which makes the system internally quality oriented. We argue that this can happen by developing interrelated and interdependent teaching, research (academic) and outreach. In this connection the approaches should take into consideration the multiple types of boundary spanners involved in an engaged partnership (Weerts & Sandmann, 2010) and ensure that they work in harmony to make engagement effective. Given the circumstances of Indian culture and social structure, what can be done to bring about change from within? It is said that the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) in India were inspired by the example of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the United States. Similarly, the Southside Virginia Partnership provides a replicable form of community engagement that can increase regional capacity in India. As discussed in this chapter, attributes of the outreach and engage281

Corporate-University Partnerships

ment model are appropriate for the Indian context. Practicing the tenets of community engagement has the potential to strengthen India’s role as an emerging global leader in the knowledge economy. That the academic community in India has often failed when the independence of scholarship from power has been put to the test (Committee to Advise on Renovation, 2009) is one indication of obstacles to be overcome in implementing this model. However, as shown elsewhere, outreach and engagement can change the horizons of scholarship by changing values and goals of academics. The Yash Pal committee (Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education, 2009). and NKC (2007) have recommended actions such as bringing vocational education to the mainstream of higher education, developing models for community colleges, creating a national knowledge network, increasing the gross enrollment ratio (GER is a statistical measure used in the education sector to analyze the ratio of the number of students who live in that country to those who qualify for the particular grade level) in higher education, establishing effective educationindustry linkages, creating sufficient room for use of local data and resources, and adopting frequent curricular revisions. These recommendations may be effectively implemented through outreach and engagement. Many regions in India could benefit from an engaged partnership similar to the Southside, Virginia, example. This is particularly true given the increasing importance of rural higher education. Palanithurai (2009) has described the current lack of institutional mechanisms to transfer the rich potential of extendables in the form of ideas, technologies, and skills (of our educational institutions) to the rural communities. Outreach and engagement offers a means of filling this gap. The father of the Indian nation, Mahatma Gandhi, designed a scheme to prepare a self-reliant community by orienting body, mind, and soul to bring productive work and academic learning together into one integrated educational program. Outreach and engagement can prove a useful tool in implementing this strategy. 282

ACKNOWLEDGMENT We thank Timothy V. Franklin, Ph.D., founding Executive Director of the Institute for Advanced Learning and Research, for his review of the Southside Virginia Case.

REFERENCES Aldrich, H., & Herker, D. (1977). Boundary spanning roles and organizational structure. Academy of Management Review, 2(2), 217–230. Anandakrishnan, M. (2008). Promises and perils of globalized higher education. Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, 22(2), 199–212. Balram, P. (2008). Universities: Restructuring and reform. Current Science, 94(2), 153–154. Bousquet, M. (2008). How the university works: Higher education and the low-wage nation. New York, NY: New York University Press. Boyer, E. (1997). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate (1st ed.). Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bozeman, B. (2007). Public values and public interests: Counterbalancing economic individualism. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Bringle, R., & Hatcher, J. (1995). A service learning curriculum for faculty. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 2, 112–122. Butin, D. (2008). Justice learning: Servicelearning as justice-oriented education. In Butin, D. (Ed.), Service-learning and social justice education. New York, NY: Routledge. Butin, D. (2010). Service-learning in theory and practice: The future of community engagement in higher education. New York, NY: Palgrave. doi:10.1057/9780230106154

Corporate-University Partnerships

Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education. (2009). Report of the Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.edgex.in/resources/Yashpalcommittee-report.pdf

Kezar, A. (2005). Challenges for higher education in serving the public good. In Kezar, A., Chambers, A., & Burkhardt, J. (Eds.), Higher education for the public good: Emerging voices from a national movement (pp. 23–42). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Connors, K., Gelmon, S., Holland, B., Seifer, S., & Shinnamon, A. (1998). Community partnerships for mutual learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 5(1), 97–107.

Konde, V. (2007). Role of linker units in academia industry-government relations: The cases of the internet in Zambia and genomics in Brazil. Tech Monitor, 24(1), 24–30.

d’Arlach, L., Sanchez, B., & Feur, R. (2009). Voices from the community: A case for reciprocity in service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 16(1), 5–16.

Kothari Commission Report. (1966). Report of the Education Commission: Education and national development (1964-66). Dr.D.S. Kothari Commission, Ministry of Education, New Delhi.

Fallis, G. (2007). Multiversities, ideas, and democracy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.

Lakhotia, S. C. (2005). Deemed universities and other universities. Current Science, 89(8), 1303–1304.

Franklin, T., Sandmann, L. R., Franklin, N., & Settle, T. (2008). Answering the question of how: Out-of-region university engagement with an economically distressed, rural region. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(3), 205–222.

Lal, R. (2010). Microbiology and biotechnology education in India. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 50, 251–252. doi:10.1007/s12088-010-0064-3

Giroux, H., & Giroux, S. (2004). Take back higher education: Race, youth, and the crisis of democracy in the post-civil rights era. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Gupta, B. M., & Bala, A. (2011). Indian S&T during fifteen years (1996-2010): A quantitative assessment using publication data. DESIDOC: Journal of Library and Information Technology, 31, 359–370. Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Mendel-Reyes, M., & Weinstein, J. (1996). Community service learning as democratic education in South Africa and the United States. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 3(1), 103–112. Mitchell, T. D. (2008). Traditional vs. critical service learning: Engaging the literature to differentiate the two models. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 14(2), 50–62. Musil, C. (2011). Remapping education for social responsibility: Civic, global, & US diversity. In Saltmarsh, J., & Hartley, M. (Eds.), To serve a larger purpose: Engagement for democracy and the transformation of higher education (pp. 238–265).

283

Corporate-University Partnerships

Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009). Knowledge economy and knowledge society – Role of university outreach programmes. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 119–151. doi:10.1177/097172180801400105 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Biotechnology education and societal demands: Challenges faced by biotechnology and human resource development. Social Responsibility Journal, 6(1), 72–90. doi:10.1108/17471111011024568 Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Nair, P. R. R. (2010). Universities and corporate education: 21st century social responsibility for developing countries (Discussion Papers in Social Responsibility, No. 1002). Retrieved from http://www.socialresponsibility.biz/discuss1002.pdf National Knowledge Commission (NKC). (2007). National Knowledge Commission report to the nation. Retrieved from http://www.knowledgecommission.gov.in/reports/report07.asp Nussbaum, M. (2010). Not for profit: Why democracy needs the humanities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. O’Mara, M. P. (2010). Beyond town and gown: University economic engagement and the legacy of the urban crisis. Journal of Technology Transfer, 1(36), Online First. Retrieved from http://www. springerlink.com/content/ft1xn1620pjp89q1/ fulltext.pdf Palanithurai, G. (2009). Rural universities in the era of globalization. University News, 47(33), 1–12. Porter, M., & Monard, K. (2001). Ayni in the global village: Building relationships of reciprocity through international service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 8(1), 5–17.

284

Radhakrishnan Commission. (1949). Report of the University Education Commission, 1948–49/ S. New Delhi: Radhakrishnan Commission, Government of India, Ministry of Education. Sandmann, L. R. (2008). Conceptualization of the scholarship of engagement in higher education: A strategic review, 1996-2006. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(1), 92–104. Sandmann, L. R., Kliewer, B. W., Kim, J., & Omerikwa, A. (2010). Toward understanding reciprocity in community-university partnerships: An analysis of select theories of power. In Keshen, J., Holland, B. A., & Moely, B. E. (Eds.), Advances in service learning: Research for what (pp. 3–23). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Sardana, D., & Krishna, V. V. (2008). Government, university and industry relations: The case of biotechnology in the Delhi Region. Science, Technology & Society, 11(2), 351–378. doi:10.1177/097172180601100204 Scott, W. R. (1998). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems (4th ed.). Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Slaughter, S., & Rhoades, G. (2004). Academic capitalism and the new economy: Markets, state, and higher education. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Van de Ven, A. H. (2007). Engaged scholarship: A guide for organizational and social research. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Weerts, D., & Sandmann, L. R. (2010). Community engagement and boundary-spanning roles at research universities. The Journal of Higher Education, 81(6), 632–657.

285

Chapter 21

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education Subraya B M Infosys Limited, India

ABSTRACT In the recent past, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has impacted human lives in multiple dimensions. No aspect of human endeavour is untouched by ICT and education domain is no exception to this. Universities need to leverage ICT to improve the quality and relevance of higher education, which would positively impact the corporates, apart from other sectors. In this context, this chapter provides an innovative model which the universities could adapt and revolutionize the higher education. The best practices being followed by Infosys Limited, the IT corporate giant, narrated in this chapter could be leveraged by the universities in the interest of the learning community, the corporates and the society at large.

INTRODUCTION C. S. Lewis, the British novelist and academician once wrote, “The task of the modern educator is not to cut down jungles, but to irrigate deserts”. This is a profound and insightful thought that any academia need to address and, more importantly, any higher education system needs to demonstrate. To make this happen, the philosophy and vision, the governance and policy, the processes

and practices of the educational systems need to converge towards creating educational excellence albeit universities cannot be linked to training institutes, factories and workshops. With the emerging trends in the ICT, there is a wide scope for the educational systems to leverage ICT in all dimensions. To start with, the chapter sets the background taking a retrospective observation of education system in India and summarizes the contemporary

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch021

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

education including the corporate education and its challenges. The background also covers the current trends in ICT and ICT use in country’s education. The main focus of the chapter is the role of universities in leveraging ICT for corporate education. A brief introduction to the structure of university education system in India becomes essential to indicate the gaps and shortcomings in the current university education system. An innovative model has been proposed to plug these gaps along with the recommendations. Infosys Limited initiatives have been illustrated as the evidence of best practices in corporate education. Future research directions have been covered towards the end. Acceptance and deployment of the proposed model in certain areas of university education would bring a substantial and visible transformation in higher education in India which would eventually reduce the demand-supply paradox currently existing in corporate systems. The proposed model is based on author’s two decade of experience in academia and a decade’s experience as the Head of Infosys Global Education Center, the largest corporate university in Asia. The author acknowledges Infosys Limited for providing relevant information related to the initiatives mentioned.

Evolution of Education System in India

BACKGROUND

Figure 1. Early Vedic education

As the saying goes “if you want to understand today, you have to search yesterday”, it is imperative that the progress of education in India needs to be considered in retrospection with the evolution of civilization. If not the past can be applied today, at least the wisdom, intellect and accomplishments of our fore-fathers would motivate us to think big, plan better and execute brilliantly. Also, history would warn us to be cautious of our moves so as not to err the same way over again.

286

Origin of higher education in India dates back to Indus valley civilization. During the Vedic times, the education was imparted orally by the sages and saints, may be underneath a tree and the knowledge was passed on from one generation to the other (Figure 1). Openness and inclusiveness were believed to be prevalent as is evident from the Vedic hymn “Aano bhadra krtavo yantu vishwatah” (Rigveda 1-89-i) meaning “Let noble thoughts come to us from all directions”. Later, the Gurukul system of education came into existence (Figure 2). The Gurukuls were the traditional residential schools which were usually conducted in the master’s residence. Sanskrit was used as the major lingua franca to disseminate the intended knowledge. Vedic learning remained as the major part of education, subsuming the literature, grammar, epics and ethics. The Vedic hymns clearly dictate the importance of learning and preaching, as understandable from one of the verses “Swadhyaya Pravachanaabhyam Na Pramaditavyam” (Taittriya Upanishad) meaning “do not desist from self-study and preaching”. Questioning and dialogues were very much a part of pedagogy as could be seen from the lengthy conversations between master and student collated as Upanishads.

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

Figure 2. Gurukul system

attained freedom, there were already 25 universities and 700 colleges existing in the country. Post-Independence, education became the responsibility of the states with the support of the Central Government coordinating the technical and higher education. Accordingly, IITs (Indian Institute of Technology) and IIIMs (Indian Institute of Management) were set up by the Central government to promote professional education and research. By 1980, there were more than 125 universities and 4,500 colleges in the country.

CORPORATE EDUCATION IN INDIA The emphasis on education in ancient India resulted in flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Ujjain and Takshashila Universities with each University getting specialized in a specific field of learning. Accordingly, Takshashila specialized in the field of medicine, while the Ujjain was prominent in astronomy. Nalanda was a residential university with free boarding and lodging accommodating about 1500 teachers and 10,000 students (Figure 3). Following the invasions and subsequent disorder in the country, even though the ancient education system slowly faded away, three distinctive ethnicities of studies continued in the Gurukuls for Hindus, in the Viharas for Buddhists, and in the Madrasas for Muslims. The British records emphasize that the education in India was predominant in the 18th century. The major courses were the arithmetic, theology, law, astronomy, metaphysics, ethics, medical science and religion. The students from all strata of society were privileged to study at the schools. Lord Macaulay’s system of education was inducted by British during pre-independence era. By the time India witnessed the first war of Independence, there were already three universities established in three regions of the country namely Bombay in the West, Madras in the South and Calcutta in the East. Since then, till India

According to an on-line dictionary, the word corporate is defined as “formed into a body by legal enactment; united in an association, and endowed by law with the rights and liabilities of an individual” (Webster, 1913). In this chapter, we associate the word “corporate” to any industry or business organization. We refer to as corporate education the educational programs or services offered to acquire necessary awareness, knowledge and skills for professional development (1) either internally in a corporate to its work-force (2) or collaboratively with other educational institutions to the corporate’s employees (3) or formally in a university or college to the prospective profesFigure 3. Remnants of Nalanda

287

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

sionals. We assume corporate education subsumes corporate training. Having defined the scope of the usage of the term “corporate”, it is apparent that the corporates need conceptually sound, technically talented and behaviorally skilled human resource to align the work elements to be carried out in the industry. The revenue and reputation of corporates have a direct dependence on the quality of the work force. Indian industry encompasses huge public sectors like BHEL and BEML, research organizations like ISRO and BARC and defense organizations like DRDO. Traditionally, Tatas and the Birlas have been the most admired corporates of India. As per ‘Far Eastern Economic Review’s annual company survey’, Infosys Limited, Reliance Industries and Hero Honda Motors have been ranked as the top three companies in India for ‘overall leadership’. Fifty six Indian companies have been listed in the Fortune 500 ranking for 2011. Nonetheless the corporate sectors like Retail, Real Estate, Aviation, Hospitality, Media, Banking and Finance, Construction, BPO, Health Care, Accounts and Consulting, Manufacturing and IT are facing skill shortages (BW Research, 2007). IT companies have a huge requirement for industry-ready professionals. Some of the companies are growing more than the industry standard year-on-year and are either close to, or have exceeded, one lakh employee strength during the last three years. These companies recruit fresh graduates from various universities across the country based on basic knowledge, general ability and aptitude, rather than specialized domain and technical skills. They have their own training plan to make them industry-ready professionals. Corporate education in the IT world encompasses both fresh entrants’ training program and the competency development program for the experienced ones. Corporate education not only includes technical skill building, but also addresses soft skills, process orientation and quality focus. As an example, Infosys Limited has a committed investment for corporate education, by creating

288

the Global Education Center (GEC) at Mysore, India which is the largest Corporate Technical University in Asia is a classic example of corporate education. For its science recruits, another IT sector giant provides seven months of training in computer programming, customer orientation and project management (Vivek, 2008). Today, there is a shortage of quality engineering colleges to meet the industry expectations, and the estimations for 2015 and 2020 indicate that the shortage is likely to increase further.

Corporate Education Challenges Traditional approaches of imparting knowledge fails in the context of corporate education. Corporate education demands application of knowledge to the business needs, addressing the scale and diversity of the learning community, contemporary education in line with the pace of the industry, etc. The challenges of corporate education can be broadly classified under the following categories: •

Education Management ◦◦ Scale: Many services-oriented corporates need to recruit the work-force in large numbers. For example, Infosys Limited recruited around 20000 employees in 2009-2010. These fresh entrants need to be trained on fundamentals and various technologies of ICT so that they are industry-ready. Training such a large volume of new recruits as per industry standard demands investment in physical and technical infrastructure, efficient education governance policies, competent faculty, and appropriate systems and processes. Infosys Global Education Center at Mysore is testimony to managing such a scale sustaining excellence for a decade. ◦◦ Diversity: India is a vast country with diverse languages, religions, cultures,

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

•

beliefs and practices. Even though in the current system of education in India, the universities tend to impart education detaching themselves from the diversity aspects, the deep-rooted diversity factors still impacting the learning cannot be ruled out. For example, the medium of instruction in many schools is in local languages, which are different in different states, while higher education largely employs English medium. This impacts learning effectiveness in higher education, and continues to impact during corporate education. ◦◦ Rapid Roll Out: The industry dynamics invariably impact the cycle time of corporate education. As the need of work-force by the corporate depends on the business plans and return on investment, which are tightly coupled to the industry dynamics, rapid roll-out becomes essential during quick time-to-market scenarios. For example, when the business demands more work force to meet the customer orders, the company may have to increase the pace of recruitment, and the newly joined work force may have to be quickly trained to make them competent for meeting the business demands. The corporate education system therefore needs to be flexible for rapid roll out of work force, yet efficient in building their competency. Quality and Performance ◦◦ Learning Effectiveness: Measuring the effectiveness of learning is a challenge as knowledge building is not straightforwardly tangible. Performance of the learning community in the assessment is a rudimentary indicator of training effective-

•

ness. Much better metrics need to be arrived at and used to substantiate the effectiveness of corporate training/ learning. Genome model (Subraya, Manjunatha, & Amit, 2011) provides an innovative model for the same. ◦◦ High Quality and Productivity: Corporate capability baselines provide Quality and Productivity (Q&P) expectations. Towards meeting and further exceeding these expectations, the competency of the work-force need to be met, exceeded and sustained on a continuing basis. ◦◦ Boost Customer Confidence: Client value and customer delight are the driving factors for the success of any business. These days, business is an engagement relationship with the client rather than producer-consumer relationship. For the engagement to succeed and result in repeat business, customer confidence is an indispensable constituent, and competency of work-force supports to boost the customer confidence. ◦◦ Development of Competent Faculty: A competent educator can play a major role as a “transformation partner” in the institutional growth. Competency Development for Educators must address all four dimensions of skills set – Core, Process, Domain and Behavioral. External Determinants ◦◦ Quality of Learning Community: When the work-force is hand-picked through rigorous interview mechanisms, quality of input resource could be controlled as per the needs of the organization. However, many corporates recruit fresh entrants from universities and colleges based on academic performance and/or campus

289

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

◦◦

◦◦

interview performance both of which are rough indicators of the capability but do not guarantee learnability and on-job performance. Dynamic Changes in Industry Trends and Technology: The saying “Nothing is permanent except change” is a reality. At times in history, technology has gone through continuous revolution as rapidly as is happening nowadays. This in turn has a retrospective impact on the competency need of the corporate work-force. Systemic Changes in Society: India is going through a transformation on the social front. For example, of late, women are among the work-force in many job profiles and capacities. The life style and mind-set of the young crowd in adolescence and early twenties has gone through remarkable changes. The western impact on the society is significant and noticeable. The age old teacher-student mode of knowledge building, black-board approach of knowledge dissemination and knowledge creation in the form of printed text books are becoming less effective.

Amidst these challenges, corporates need to impart requisite education and enhance the skill level for their own existence. Leveraging ICT is an essential strategy to address all these challenges of corporate education.

by Motorola for the U.S. army signal control. The first stored program electronic computing machine “Baby” with 2048 bits of memory was made in UK in the mid-1940s. Today, computer systems invariably store Gigabytes of information (1,073,741,824 X 8 bits) within a small physical space (stamp size). Nowadays, mobile communication technology has shrunken the entire globe with connectivity anytime anywhere. ICT has intruded into varied types of systems ranging from mission critical real time fighter aircraft to small embedded systems in tooth brushes. ICT has become an integral part of life. To scale up operations and provide best in class services, there is no alternative but to leverage ICT. Educational systems are no exception to this trend. Leveraging ICT support in corporate education necessitates special focus in the modern era and has become the need of the hour.

Current Trends in ICT In the last couple of decades, the computational power, the storage capacity and the user interface have gone through astonishing transformation which is evident from the look and feel of the current day electronic gadgets. The current trends in ICT could be viewed in three dimensions as shown in Figure 4. The conglomeration of these three dimensions has unified the global community, and the world is showing the propensity towards becoming a global village. Following are some of the latest advancements in these dimensions: •

ICT in the Educational Sector No engineering and/or technical field has progressed at such a stupendous pace as the information and communication technology has evolved in the last six decades. In the early 1940s, the first handheld two-way radio was developed

290

•

Computational Science: Phenomenal advancement has taken place in computer systems from good old desk top computers to current generation hand held mobile devices/tablets. Communication Engineering: Telecommunication has gone through a revolution with the wire-less technology coupled with satellite communication.

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

•

User Experience Design: Humancomputer interface has gone through remarkable vagaries in terms of unimaginable tactile interfaces through touch screens and capacitive displays thus making the user experience close to the reality in physical world.

Internet, undoubtedly being the prime focus of the three dimensions, is an inevitable transformation partner of lifestyle of the global society empowering every aspect of human life. Many facets of day to day life like the Health Care, Social Life, Business, Communication, Education, etc have been greatly influenced by the Internet. In the context of these facets, Internet has rapidly evolved in recent times, and is culminating towards “Any Place Connection”, “Any Time Connection” and “Any Thing Connection”. The growing connectivity of the world around us, enabled by innovative devices and technologies linked to the Internet are collectively called as “Internet of Things”. Bill Gates quoted a few years ago “The Internet is becoming the town square for the global village of tomorrow”.

ICT in Indian Context The revolution of telecommunication and Internet facilities within the country has taken place at a very fast pace as per ‘Millennium Development Goals – India Country Report 2009’ by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India. There has been a dramatic shift from the 1980s in terms of access to ICT by the Indian population. Deregulation of the airwaves and the telecommunication industry has spurred the revolution in telecommunication and Internet services. The current annual rate of growth in the telephone sector is at 44% for mobile telephony. Radio has a penetration of 100 per cent in the country while satellite and terrestrial television cover nearly 80% of the country. Theoretically, availability of ICT is widespread in large parts of the

Figure 4. Three dimensions of ICT

country. The overall tele-density has remarkably increased in the country. Number of telephones in the country has gone through a dramatic shift from fixed lines to wireless phones. Millennium Development Goals report also reveals that the use of personal computers has increased from 5.4 million PCs in 2001 to 19.6 million in 2006. The electronic connectivity among the Indian population and with the global community has additionally enriched with the penetration of Internet. The number of Internet subscribers has increased in the country from 0.21 million in 1999 to 81 million in 2010 and India is the 4th country in the world to have the highest Internet subscribers’ base.

ICT Use in Country’s Education India has the policy and technology to implement both small and large ICT involvements in education (Usha & Vineetha, 2003). The nation has sufficient experience in the use of broadcast technologies for educational purpose. Radio and television media have been leveraged for agriculture, non-formal education, and school telecasts. The launch of EDUSAT has added a 70-channel capacity for use by all state governments and publicly funded educational institutions. Satellitebased teleconferencing is in practice since 1992 for formal and non-formal education. For example,

291

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

GyanDarshan, is a dedicated satellite-to-cable educational television channel, and Gyan Vani, is a dedicated educational radio project. There are many projects across the country that have leveraged ICT. These projects and initiatives can be classified under two categories with respect to their use of ICT, namely broadcast technology projects and digital technology projects. Broadcast technology projects directly make use of communication technology and are mostly owned and operated either by the government or by publicly funded institutions. Digital technology projects do not depend on communication and broadcasting technology. Some illustrations of these categories are given in (Usha & Vineetha, 2003).

Role of Universities in leveraging ICT As the British colonial administration advocated an ‘Anglicist’ orientation for higher education, Indian university system predominantly inherited the British university framework. Since independence, the university system in India has gone through transformation in a systematic and controlled manner, steered by the good efforts of Government of India. However, still there are shortcomings and challenges in the current system of university education in coping up with the expectations of the varied stakeholders. The purpose of this section is to uncover these gaps and address the ICT based solutions to plug them.

Structure of University Education System in India Higher education is governed by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India through multiple bodies such as University Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), etc. The UGC is responsible for Arts, Science, Commerce and related education system in India whereas the engineering education and polytechnics come under the umbrella of Technical Education. The AICTE

292

is the regulatory body for Technical Education in India. The objectives of AICTE are planning and coordination of technical education system, regulation and maintenance of norms and standards and to promote quality in technical education. The UGC provides funds in the form of grants, sets standards for quality, knowledge dissemination, assessment and research in universities and also coordinates their functions. According to Section 2f – Definition of “University” given in University Grant Commission Act, 1956, “University means a University established or incorporated by or under a Central Act, Provincial Act or a State Act, and includes any such institution as may, in consultation with the University concerned, be recognized by the Commission in accordance with regulations made in this behalf under this Act.” As per this definition, it is apparent that UGC needs to recognize the institutionalization of any University. A University could exist and function under the purview of central government or state government or operate autonomously. Accordingly they are termed as central, state and deemed universities. Private Universities allowed by the State Governments do not come under section 2f of UGC Act. The UGC report suggested that the following issues are to be addressed under the Eleventh plan (2006-2011) for universities and colleges: • •

•

• • • •

Lower enrolment in higher education, Inter-state and inter-district disparities and rural-urban differences in the access to higher education, Inter-caste, inter-religion, male/female, poor/non-poor disparities in access to higher education, Issue of quality in higher education, Issue of providing relevant education, Academic reforms in Universities and Colleges, Regulation of private educational institutes.

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

However, there is no direct mention of leveraging ICT among the strategies and schemes for Higher education in India for the 11th plan period. With the 11th plan period ending, it becomes very essential to address leveraging ICT for which this chapter would make an attempt in setting the context.

Figure 5. Expectations of the stakeholders

Gaps and Shortcomings in the Current University Education System The students, faculty, management, government, corporates, research bodies and society in all would form the gamut of stakeholders for any higher education system. The expectations of the stakeholders from the current education system are hypothetically depicted in Figure 5. These expectations are epitomic and have to be perceived at three levels, namely (1) Prior to University Education, (2) During University Education and (3) Post University Education. However, there exist several gaps in the current university system with respect to the expectations of the stakeholders. These gaps can be classified as shown in Figure 6. •

Need Analysis: Necessity is the mother of invention. The needs and wants of the stakeholders set forth the directions for policy updates, curriculum design, pedagogical mechanisms needed, and assessment requirements. Research outcomes, industry trends, emerging technologies, society expectations need to be elicited, analyzed and documented for further academic activities. The ‘elicitation mechanisms’ for stakeholder needs in the educational sector are not as formal, methodical and standardized as in engineering domains. The educational needs would differ widely among the domains. The academic demands of the emerging trends in the industry sectors like green revolution, desalination, bio-technology, non-conventional energy, nanotechnology, etc. are diversi-

•

fied and need to be understood. Specialized fields like textiles, material science, leather technology, food technology, chemical engineering, mining, petroleum engineering, aeronautics etc. have their own challenges to educate. The well-established science, engineering and management fields like physics, chemistry, biology, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, automobile engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, human resource management, finance, etc. have their own flavour of academic needs. ICT trends currently pose multi-dimensional academic challenges. Arriving at a generic, holistic need analysis framework is an impractical challenge and uncalled for. However, at least a formal mechanism for sharing best practices of need analysis may be essential. Relevance of Curriculum: The curriculum in the universities is getting reviewed and revised at regular intervals. However, the curriculum still does not comprehensively address the fast pace of transformation on the technological front. The exposure of knowledge (width) and the expertise in the technical skill set (depth)

293

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

Figure 6. Gaps in the current university system

•

•

•

•

•

294

expected by the industry are not fully met by the current curricula. Flexibility in Content: The university curriculum does provide a certain flexibility in content in terms of electives that could be chosen by the students. However, these electives are limited in number and are mostly stereotype kind of subjects nowhere near the industry expectations. Time to Market: Turnaround times of university programs are fixed and inflexible. The durations are prefixed irrespective of subject area and relevance to the needs of the industry, corporates and society at large. Behavioral Skills: Behavioral skills are rarely being addressed in university education. Universities and colleges assume no ownership and responsibility for behavioral aspects of the student community other than just covering a few basic guidelines for the students as part of the policy. However, behavioral skills are extremely essential qualification to be imbibed and nurtured as they would foster the personality as a whole. Innovation: Innovation thought process is seriously missing in the current university

•

•

education, barring a few attempts and accomplishments at a few institutes namely IITs, IIMs, IISC, etc. Neither the curriculum, nor the educational process explicitly encourages innovativeness and creativity. There is absolutely neither a pull factor for research nor a push factor for exploration. Value System: Ethics and values are the basic foundation without which any higher education ceases to make sense for the society. No sincere attempt has been made by the universities in grooming the student community in the context of professional ethics, social values and ideologies of the nation. Only, extreme situations like ragging are being addressed under disciplinary norms. Dominating impact of western culture in terms of blindly aping the life style by the young blood, particularly in the urban areas, is posing a threat to the evolved Indian ethos and nation’s pride. Priori and Posteriori Disconnects: University education system is not the beginning for a learner as the primary and secondary education system must have already molded the learner up to a certain extent. However, relationship between the University education system with primary and secondary education systems is not encouraging. There exists the visible disconnects (i) between “learning prior to university education” and “university education” and (ii) between “university education” and “education after graduating from the university”. Figure 5 provides the expectations during education prior to university education and the education after graduating from the university. Learning Effectiveness: Effectiveness of university education is hardly measured and there are no relevant metrics available to pin down the learning. Grades and Marks are no reflection of students’ performance. For example, even a rank student

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

•

•

•

•

may fail with respect to the expectations of the corporates. Present university system does not address the knowledge acquired by the learning community. The universities continue to measure the learning effectiveness without substantial innovations and implementations on the assessment front. Quality and Standards: Accreditation systems for educational institutions are in place. Affiliations of colleges to universities exist for proper academic governance. Certifications are being awarded by Quality Organizations like ISO. However, the frameworks for measuring educational standard of universities and colleges are not matured and robust, unlike the CMMI kind of models that exist for software development organizations. Accountability: The most striking challenge is the lack of accountability. Accountability in many aspects are either not defined or vaguely addressed. There are no healthy processes and practices available in current university education system to address the issue related to poor performance, degradation in learning, and irrelevance of learning outcomes. Assessment Concerns: Operational challenges during assessment are significant bottlenecks for universities due to scale and diversity. Some of the challenges are like involving educators for evaluation, infrastructure requirements for evaluation, communication of evaluation results, etc. continue to bother owing to the fact that assessment mode is still manual. Adaptability: Universities are not quickly adaptable and are not resilient to change. Many Universities are the established academia systems over the ages and are large systems with archaic practices and processes. They generally are not risk takers and tend to resist change. Penetration of

•

novel ideas, realization of the ideas and measurement of the outcomes in such systems pose many challenges. External Interference: India being a democratic country, it is very important and essential to arrive at consensus among various strata of society, bureaucrats and political segments for introducing any kind of change in the academia. This is a great hindrance at times for bringing a positive transformation.

If not all the above gaps can be covered instantly and simultaneously due to many constraints and limitations of the current university system of education, some of them could be addressed immediately and must be plugged so that we are “better late than never”. Hence there is a need for new approach or innovative model to address the above mentioned gaps.

The Proposed Model A paradigm shift is required to revolutionize the university system of education by bridging the existing gaps. One such attempt has been made in this section providing an innovative model for organizing the educational stages with essential dimensions encompassing them. The result of the attempt is the proposed staged model supported by the spiral approach for learner’s growth.

Staged Model According to Bloom’s Taxonomy, the cognitive processes include ‘remember’, ‘understand’, ‘apply’, ‘analyze’, ‘evaluate’, and ‘create’. However, in the context of higher education, and moreover to create an alignment with corporate education, we recommend four stages in the proposed model. Each stage represents the maturity of the university system aspiring to evolve in knowledge building and skill development among the learning com-

295

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

munity. The proposed staged model is shown in Figure 7. •

•

•

296

Stage 1-Learning Stage: Any educational system would begin to evolve initially from the learning stage. Learner is the primary focus of the system and the focus is on knowledge transfer to make the learner comprehend the concepts. The learner is expected and encouraged to remember what has been learnt, recognize and appreciate the concepts. No doubt comprehension of concepts happens at this stage, however, the concepts remain static in the sense they are not connected to transformation. The current university systems are producing a large number of such graduates. Stage 2-Application Stage: The comprehended concepts would get internalized only when they are applied. This stage therefore expects a learner to solve problems by analyzing and applying the concepts. In other words, the learning community develops the skill of transforming the concepts in the context of the given problem. Such graduates become industry-ready professionals. The current university systems are attempting to produce such graduates. University curricula impose laboratory sessions, project work and dissertations to achieve this stage. However, due to lack of relevance and exposure, not all the graduates are becoming industry-ready professionals. Stage 3-Demonstration Stage: In the context of corporates, the learning would culminate only when the learning has been transformed into business actions. The learner who has reached this stage would demonstrate himself as a perfectionist. The learner needs to promote business and would be a prospective entrepreneur. He sets standards for others and becomes a role model in the industry. He becomes the

•

brand ambassador for the rest of the world and future perfectionists. Stage 4-Innovation Stage: Innovation and research would bring uniqueness and differentiator providing additional value to what has been learnt. Such a graduate evolves into an inventor and his creations would become his intellectual property. Most of the current universities have inadequate focus and insufficient emphasis on innovation and research.

For example, a university or institution of higher learning which is yet to establish requisite physical and technical infrastructure could start its journey from stage 1. Having stabilized at stage 1, it could aspire to achieve higher levels of the staged model over a period of time. As the four stages are sequential, it is mandatory for any university or institution to demonstrate and prove its capabilities in each stage before moving on to the next stage. A well-established university could aspire to evolve to a particular stage depending on which stage it is currently operating at. Most of the well-established universities of the country would have certainly achieved stage 1. Such universities have scope for transforming to stage 2 and beyond. Each stage of the model is basically intended to build knowledge and develop skills among the learning community to the expected competencies of that stage. For that to happen, each stage needs to address the following questions: 1. What knowledge is to be provided and what skills are to be developed? 2. How does the knowledge have to be imbibed among the learning community? 3. How to ensure that the knowledge has been provided and to what extent the learning has happened? 4. How is the knowledge organized and maintained?

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

Figure 7. Proposed model

◦◦

◦◦

The answers to these four questions are essentially the four dimensions of the educational system namely Knowledge creation, Knowledge dissemination, Knowledge measurement and Knowledge management.

While the static content is independent of context, the dynamic content is situational and coupled with the real time scenarios. Accordingly, the dynamic content would differ from one context to the other, while the static content would remain the same always. Dynamic content would work as the most motivating catalyst for the students. No pedagogy will be as exciting as learning with the real time scenarios. We propose three styles of content presentation that could be deployed using ICT. •

Knowledge Dimensions Any education system revolves around knowledge and knowledge seekers. A good education system mainly focuses on right knowledge with a proper context. Context could be acquiring a degree or a certificate. The success of any education system depends on how four dimensions of the knowledge are addressed. •

Knowledge Creation: Creation of educational content plays a vital role in understandability and retention of concepts. Content helps in stimulating and sustaining the motivation for learning. Even the most dreary concept could be made exciting, a complex concept could be made easy, and abstract concept could be made comprehensible by proper design and development of the knowledge to be disseminated. Content could be addressed from two perspectives as shown in Figure 8. Knowledge (content) Type can be either static or dynamic.

Static Content: Is conceptual and represented formally in text books, novels, guides etc. Dynamic Content: Is contextual and relevance based.

•

•

Conventional Style: Content could be Textual, Statistical, Symbolic, Figurative or Pictorial with emphasis on fundamental concepts including historical data. Conventional style tends to become monotonous and difficult to comprehend for all segments of learning community. Cinematic Style: Emphasizes on articulation of concepts through Videos, Movies, Animations, Simulations, etc. Such content would create curiosity among the learning community. Interactive Style: Essentially encourages the learning community to actively participate in the learning process through handson practice. Some of the recommended practices are usage of on-line learning Aids, Q&A sessions, Experiments, Learn while Play, Fun and Learn, Virtual Reality, etc.

It is imperative to note that the interactive and cinematic presentation styles would result in more effective learning than the conventional style of presentation. Content from any authentic freeware open source could also serve as a solution to pro-

297

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

vide the educational content. Conventional style content is easier to develop with popular desktop publishing tools. Cinematic style content would need high end tools like Movie Maker, Expression Encoder, etc. Interactive style content development demands Silverlight, Flash and similar application programming platforms. Educational content invariably should have the element of exploration to challenge the learning community. The current scenario of university educational system in the country is largely conventional using the static content and hence not effective enough to meet the global employment challenges. Hence there is a need to bring the paradigm shift from conventional to interactive style with dynamic content as shown in the Figure 8. •

298

Knowledge Dissemination: This dimension can leverage ICT to its full potential. One of the most recent electronic gadgets influenced by ICT and UXD is the Tablet Computer like iPad. The proposed model advocates the deployment of educational content using such Tablet Computers. Dynamic content on a high-end tablet computer forms highly effective pedagogical mechanism. The three styles of content on tablet computers would contribute by way of imparting education, scaffolding the traditional school learning. In particular, interactive content would enable the students to learn collaboratively with the content in the absence of the teacher, thus making the learning possible any time anywhere. Current generation students tend to make use of interactive and cinematic content repetitively, thereby enhancing the retention of concepts. The tablet computers could also be interfaced with television sets, for enhanced visibility of the content. It may not be an exaggeration to assume that the price of tablet computers would fall exponentially to less than Rs. 5000 in the days

Figure 8. Knowledge creation perspectives

•

to come for customized educational tablets manufactured in bulk. Knowledge Measurement: Assessment is an integral part of any learning process. The content developed must be assessable content. The content deployment must support the assessment and on-line assessment must happen while learning the content. Assessment can be of three levels: ◦◦ Conventional Assessment: Providing the questions to the students towards the end of a concept. Conventional evaluation of the answers must be carried out by the teachers. ◦◦ Implied Assessment: As the learning progresses using the content deployed on tablet computers, automatically evaluation of learning effectiveness must be carried out on-line in real time. ◦◦ Reverse Assessment: The students are expected to arrive at relevant queries and submit the same on the tablet computers. These queries undergo evaluation to decide the quality of learning.

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

Interactive learning coupled with implied assessment would provide holistic learning for the student and enabling the assessor to arrive at the learning effectiveness. In addition, reverse assessment enhances the depth of understanding. •

Knowledge Management: Creation, dissemination and measurement of knowledge exist in any educational set up. However, most of the universities do not address knowledge management dimension. George Bernard Shaw opines, “If you have an apple and I have an apple and we exchange these apples then you and I will still each have one apple. But if you have an idea and I have an idea and we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas”. Although abundant ideas get generated at the universities among the students, educators, faculty, and management, unfortunately there are no established mechanisms in which these ideas and learning are captured, maintained and shared. Knowledge management essentially focuses on documentation, storage, maintenance, deployment and measurement of knowledge repository. The availability of mammoth storage space in computers, high speed computer networks, deployable computer tablets make knowledge management more effective and learner friendly. Versatile on-line portals are essential to share the knowledge repository. Such portals need to support discussion forms, chat support, search engine and statistical analysis of usage. Knowledge currency units could be awarded based on usage and users feedback. Protection of intellectual property, 24 X 7 accessibility, and continuous updates to keep the knowledge contemporary are a few challenges of knowledge management.

Figure 9. Spiral approach

Because of the fact that the four stages of the model are progressive on the time scale, the applicability of the four dimensions in each stage of the model necessitates the evolutionary approach for realization. As each dimension must be revisited in each stage, it is more realistic to adopt the spiral approach rather than linear approach to realize the four stages of the model. •

Spiral Approach: We propose the spiral approach for the university education system to evolve through the four mentioned stages, addressing all the four dimensions in each round of the spiral as shown in Figure 9.

The spiral approach of knowledge building implements the learning process incrementally and steadily. This approach enforces the implementation of knowledge building stages sequentially. The approach gets the feedbacks stage by stage, feed into the system at every iteration and fine-tuned before it reaches a steady state. All four knowledge dimensions are addressed in each stage. For example, the first stage “Learning” goes through four knowledge dimensions in sequence and thereby ensures the effective implementation of knowledge building process. When the university education system enters into the stage 2 “Application”, and follows the same ap-

299

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

proach, the education system automatically elevates to the next level of excellence. Similarly, one can reach to the next level of excellence like Demonstration and Innovation by using the spiral approach. Needless to say, a minimum of four rounds of the spiral are necessary to evolve a newly established institution to excellence.

•

Rationale for Leveraging ICT The rationale for leveraging ICT for higher education could be justified from several perspectives as follows. •

•

•

•

•

300

User Experience Design: In the last one decade, User Experience Design (UXD) has gone through phenomenal transformation which is evident from the look and feel of the current day electronic gadgets like iPods, iPads, Note Books, etc. UXD is no more click or key-in. The auditory and tactile interfaces have changed drastically resulting in multi-touch screen interfaces. Connectivity: It is not difficult to have a communication interface to any electronic gadget. Internet connectivity is a possible reality nowadays as evident from the current day mobile gadgets like cell phones, iPods, iPads, etc. Mobility: The communication infrastructure across the country is commendable with many private service providers offering maximum coverage. Most of the country’s inhabited geographical area has been covered by the Radio Frequency. Customizability: The electronic gadgets are easily customizable as per the needs and could be made most cost effective too. Awareness: Majority of the population in India have at least some minimum exposure to the usage of electronic equipment, which could be cell phones or ATMs or Toys or Voting machines. Other domains like agriculture, banking, healthcare, retail,

•

etc. have started witnessing usage of electronic gadgets and other technology. By and large, electronic systems are no more an unfamiliar entity for the majority of the Indians. Decreasing Cost: Going by the previous trends, cost of electronic gadgets tends to decrease over a period of time. Cost of iPods, iPhones, iPads and similar kind of gadgets will reduce drastically in times to come. Policy and Governance: India has the policy and technology to implement both small and large ICT involvements in education. The nation has sufficient experience in the use of broadcast technologies for educational purpose. Radio and television media have been leveraged for agriculture, non-formal education, and school telecasts. Satellite-based teleconferencing is in practice since 1992 for formal and non-formal education. For example, GyanDarshan, is a dedicated satellite-tocable educational television channel, and Gyan Vani, is a dedicated educational radio project. ICT being an emerging area, there are obvious advantages in leveraging ICT for corporate education. EDUSAT has added a 70-channel capacity for use by all state governments and publicly funded educational institutions.

Solutions and Recommendations The proposed model would address some of the gaps in the current university system identified in this chapter by virtue of leveraging ICT. A few initiatives and methods experimented and accomplished at Infosys Limited bears testimony for the recommendations provided in this section to fill the gaps in the current university system. •

Adopting the Model: The proposed model is a staged model producing four differ-

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

ent levels of graduates from the learning community namely (1) basic graduates (2) industry-ready professionals (3) perfectionists, promoters and entrepreneurs (4) inventors and differentiators. The current situation is that the universities are producing more of basic graduates and less of professionals. Adopting the model would take the universities to the next level and higher, result of which will be more of industry-ready professionals, inventors and entrepreneurs. The need analysis is to be carried out for a given domain at all the four levels. Curriculum, content and time to market at each level is to be arrived at based on the need analysis. The knowledge creation dimension of the model needs to be adopted as per the level to be addressed to circumvent the gaps related to “curriculum relevance” and “content flexibility”. For example, static content would produce at best basic graduates. Creation of dynamic content is necessary to produce more of industry-ready professionals as it would cater to the context of the respective domains. As an instance, the ICT fundamentals are essential for each engineering domain. However, need analysis for a given engineering domain would set for the directions for curriculum design and content creation for ICT fundamentals for that domain. •

Ramifications of Spiral Approach: The first cycle of the spiral would produce the static content for ICT fundamentals which would remain the same for all domains. Dynamic content for ICT fundamentals is to be arrived at during the second cycle of the spiral based on the scenarios, case studies and examples in that domain. This content would not be suitable for a different domain. To take the learning community to the demonstration level, behavioral skills and value system to be included as part of the curriculum during the third cycle of the

•

spiral as they are extremely essential to groom the individuals to excel as promoters and entrepreneurs. The “innovation” related gap would get addressed during the 4th cycle of the spiral. Interactive dynamic content needs to be designed to motivate the learning community to innovate and arrive at differentiators. Lessons to Imbibe: Universities need to take best practices from corporates. For example, Infosys Limited has a Leadership Institute with proven framework for developing the behavioral skills. The industry-academia partnership has been best demonstrated by the Campus ConnectTM program, launched in the year 2004 by Infosys Limited, which aims to build a strong foundation for the needs of both academia and IT industry by aligning engineering talent with the needs of the industry (Campus Connect 2004). It is a nationwide program focusing on aligning the needs of engineering colleges, the faculty and students with the needs of the industry, thus preparing “industry-ready” professionals. Infosys Campus Connect Program through its various initiatives has demonstrated the accomplishments of corporate learning unit through innovative alliances with academia, learning consortiums, subject matter experts and others to support or manage elements of education and learning programs leveraging ICT. With these initiatives, over 100,000 students have been trained and 5000 faculty have benefited since its inception in 2004. Infosys Limited has won the prestigious 12th Annual CorpU Xchange Awards 2011 in the Excellence and Innovation category for its Campus Connect Program.

Infosys Limited has propelled yet another successful initiative called SPARK to ignite the minds of student community from all over India

301

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

for raising the aspirations through the “observeinfluence-deliver” model. SPARK is a one-day program which was launched in August 2008 as an exploratory program for students from different age groups and segments from high school to degree and engineering colleges. Through this on-campus event conducted by Infosys volunteers, participating students assess their industry readiness and check their aspirations meter. SPARK Rural Reach Program (RRP) is a one day program that aims to raise Awareness of Computers and the Power of IT among rural school children in India. RRP connects with the Infosys PC donation scheme, so that schools where Personal Computers have been donated will benefit from the learning. The target audience for RRP is students from rural Government schools studying in 5th to 7th standard. SPARK Catch Them Young (CTY), a decade-long Infosys’ initiative, trains high school students in the basics of Information Technology. Started in 1997, this two week long program aims to expose bright youth to the world of Information Technology by conducting a summer vacation program for them at Infosys’ campuses. It also raises the curiosity levels in young students to develop an interest in computer science and information technology. The intended participants for CTY training are the high performing students who have completed 8th and 9th standard. Spark GURU is an initiative which will help teachers to enrich their knowledge transfer skills,. The aim of this program is to motivate teachers from rural areas (from Government and Government Aided schools), by bringing them into an informal environment and conducting sessions on how to teach for effectiveness, how to use computers to teach students and to inculcate habits of safety, security and hygiene. All these initiatives are attempts to bridge the priori disconnects and these best practices could be emulated by the universities. Universities could attempt to plug the learning effectiveness gap, by using the Genome Model pioneered by the authors at Infosys Limited (Subraya, Manjunatha & Amit, 2011). Establishing Service

302

Level Agreements (SLAs) by the governing bodies for each of the educational activities would bring in accountability, improving the quality of education. For example, SLAs could be set for learning community performance, feedback from learning community regarding knowledge creation and dissemination, time to market, etc. All these SLA parameters could be managed using ICT, inducting necessary tools and systems. Assessment operational concerns in the current university system are due to manual mode of assessment conduction and evaluation. The only solution is to eliminate this bottleneck through automation using ICT based systems. Infosys Limited GEC has deployed innovative model for automated assessment which is robust, precise, and consistent. Universities and corporates need to come closer and work in collaboration. Corporate leaders and experts need to go to the Universities and share the experiential knowledge. University educators need to leverage corporate best practices by way of working on sabbatical at corporates. The collaborative programs between the Universities and corporates need to facilitate such knowledge transfer initiatives. •

Flexible Learning Structure: Progressive knowledge acquiring mechanism as per the needs of corporates would help to address the flexibility issue. For example, a degree program can be composed of intermediate milestone based structure like (1) acquiring certification at regular intervals (2) getting a diploma after a predetermined period and (3) eventually getting a degree on completion of the program. As an instance, a civil engineering degree program could be structured to have major component to acquire depth in civil engineering and multiple minor components to acquire wider knowledge in supplementary areas.

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

Adaptability and External Interference are intrinsic gaps which are not addressed by the proposed model.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The proposed model could be coupled to ‘progressive knowledge acquiring mechanism’ so that the model becomes flexible yet robust. The four levels of the proposed model could be formulated to measure the extent of educational excellence. Efforts are in progress in this direction at infosys limited. ICT could be leveraged to a greater extent incorporating the concept of ‘ICT Center’ (subraya, 2011).

CONCLUSION University education is the pre-requisite for many roles in the corporate world. Degrees provided by the universities serve as one of the eligibility criteria for entry into the corporates. However, the recruits need further enhancement of knowledge and skills before they really become productive in meeting corporate expectations. In other words, a wide gap still exists between the knowledge imparted at the universities and the needs of corporate bodies. There are challenges in the university education system in terms of applicability, demonstrable skills, relevance and domain knowledge as needed by the corporate sectors. Hence, there is an immediate need for a change in the philosophy, vision, governance, policy, processes and practices at the universities towards improving the education system to become more proximity to the corporate world. With the emerging trends in the ICT, there is wide scope for the universities to leverage ICT in all dimensions towards creating educational excellence as needed by the corporate sector. An attempt has been made through a model to address some of the gaps existing in the current university system

and illustrated a few best practices adopted in the corporate education at Infosys Limited.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This chapter resulted in many years of research in the area of education and applied to the corporate sector. Most of the findings have been experimented successfully and documented. The success won’t come without the help of many stakeholders, colleagues and friends. I immensely thank my dream company, Infosys Limited that provided various platforms to test the ideas and helped in achieving the goals. Many of my colleagues have contributed to the development of ideas by helping with examples, challenging my ideas, providing constructive comments and digesting my frustrations. I personally thank Mr. Manjunatha Prasanna who was instrumental in shaping my ideas and helping in documenting it nicely. Without his active support, I would have not reached the logical end of success. I also, thank Mr. Mohana Krishna who critically reviewed this chapter and provided constructive feedbacks. I extend my sincere thanks to publishers and editorial board of this book.

REFERENCES Department of School Education & Literary, Government of India. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2011, from HTTP://WWW.EDUCATION.NIC. IN/SSA/SSA_1.ASP European Commission. (2008). Internet of Things in 2020: Roadmap for the future. EPoSS Expert Workshop on RFID/Internet-of-Things, 2008. Government of India. (2009). Millennium development goals – India country report 2009. MidTerm Statistical Appraisal, Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, 2009.

303

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

Government of India. (2010, May). Education in India: 2007-08, Participation and expenditure, NSS 64th Round (July 2007 – June 2008). Government of India. (2011). Higher education in India: Strategies and schemes during 11th plan period for the universities and colleges. ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited. (2010, August). The skill development landscape in India and implementing quality skills training. 3rd Global Skill Summit of the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI), August, 2010. Primary Education from India Development Gateway. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2011, from HTTP://WWW.INDG.IN/PRIMARYEDUCATION/ Reddi, U. V., & Sinha, V. (2003). ICT use in education, national policies, strategies and programmes. UNESCO Meta-survey on the Use of Technologies in Education. B W Research. (2007, April). Business world, (p. 42). Subraya, B. M. (2011). Context dependent and assessment centric educational model for rural India. National Conference on Future Trends in Information & Communication Technology & Application (NCICT), 2011. Subraya, B. M., Manjunatha Prasanna, S., & Purohit, A. (2011). Genome model – A context on measurement of learning effectiveness by aligning objectives and assessment. 2011 International Conference on Frontiers in Education: Computer Science and Computer Engineering, 2011. The Gazette of India Extraordinary. (2009, August). The right of children to free and compulsory education act document. Retrieved November 7, 2011, from HTTP://WWW.EDUCATION.NIC. IN/ELEMENTARY/FREE%20AND%20COMPULSORY.PDF

304

Wadhwa, V. (2008). India’s workforce revolution. The Wall Street Journal Online. Webster. (1913). The collaborative international dictionary of English v.0.48.

ADDITIONAL READING Agarwal, P. (2009). Indian higher education: Envisioning the future. New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. McCarthy, B., & O’Neill–Blackwell, J. (2007). Hold on, you lost me! Use learning styles to create training that sticks. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press. Phillips, J. J., & Phillips, P. P. (2008). Beyond learning objectives: Develop measurable objectives that link to the bottom line. Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Assessment: Assessment is the process of quantifying the effectiveness of learning. Assessment measures knowledge, skills and attitude of learning community. Corporate: Formed into a body by legal enactment; united in an association, and endowed by law with the rights and liabilities of an individual. Education Governance: Education governance defines learnability expectations, grants academic powers and verifies performance of educational system. ICT: Information and Communication Technology. Pedagogy: Pedagogy deals with principles and methods of instruction, strategies and styles for knowledge dissemination. Tablet Computer: A type of Handheld Computer in which touch constitutes the primary user interaction mechanism.

Role of Universities in Leveraging ICT for Corporate Education

Time to Market: Turnaround time taken by the universities to transform the students into Graduates. User Experience Design: (UXD) University established or incorporated by or under a Central

Act, Provincial Act or a State Act, and includes any such institution as may, in consultation with the University concerned, be recognized by the Commission in accordance with regulations made in this behalf under this Act.

305

306

Chapter 22

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning B. PanduRanga Narasimharao Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

ABSTRACT Tobias et al. (1995) postulated in their book on “Rethinking Science as a Career” that Master’s programs could produce graduates who provide the same level of expertise and leadership as professionals do in other fields. They say that they would do so by having the ability to use the products of scholarship in their work and by being familiar with the practical aspects of emerging problem areas. If we consider natural science consisting of physical sciences, biological sciences, mathematics, geosciences, and computer science, degrees in computer science and geosciences served as credentials for practice, whereas physics, chemistry, and biological sciences served as classical graduate education. Robbins-Roth (2006) collected 22 career descriptions for science graduates ranging from public policy to investment banking, and from patent examining to broadcast science journalism. There are several sectors of the society where the principles and knowledge of these science disciplines are used. On the other hand, there are many of the graduates in these disciplines who either are working in areas completely unrelated to their education and training or are unemployable. The need for preparing the science graduates professionally is well recognized (Schuster, 2011; Vanderford, 2010; Narasimharao, Shashidhara Prasad and Nair, 2011; Chuck, 2011).

INTRODUCTION Open distance learning (ODL) is viewed as one of the potential system of education to serve the needs of the society (see Ram Reddy, 1988). However, in Indian context this system is often considered as

‘second chance’ or even ‘second grade’ education. It is important to analyze the fact that in spite of ODL gaining more and more importance all over the world in response to knowledge society needs, why it is still treated as ‘second grade’ education by many in developing countries like India. Many

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch022

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

factors like equating distance education with correspondence education, ODL following the beaten path of hierarchical approach of conventional class room system, industries not realizing the ODL potential, poor repetition of courses that are offered in conventional university system, and laying more emphasis on producing learning resources of high quality than on the development of local capacity; has contributed to this situation (Rangappa and Narasimharao, 2010). The chapter discusses how a multipronged open distance learning incorporating various developments that are happening in the tertiary education system1 can facilitate professionalizing the natural science education.

Issues in Professionalizing Natural Sciences The growth and emergence of knowledge and service based industries, knowledge intensive firms coupled with professionalism, and globalization of economies coupled with local socio-economic changes have lead to new and pressing demands on educational institutions and other organizations. These knowledge based economies puts emphasis not simply on skill development but on developing professional skills. The term professional skill is used to refer to the skillfulness with which professionals engage in practice. This means there is a need to produce graduates in Natural sciences with the ability of applying their knowledge in practice. There are various issues involved in this.

Preparing the Graduates for the Workplace In the early part of the 20th century, professional and graduate education took divergent paths as can be seen from pure sciences (physics, chemistry, biology) and applied sciences and technology (engineering, agriculture, medicine). It is generally accepted fact that graduates in applied sciences

are trained to enter workplace. In pure sciences, on the other hand the graduates are educated for academics (Schuster, 2009). In the last 50 years more fields are trying to become more professional and natural sciences field also started offering more applied courses (Table 1). However, what is important is to provide students with connections to real-world problems and develop the ability to bring both scientific knowledge and professional skills to the workplace allowing them to make a contribution in the workplace from day one.

Challenge of Integrating Knowledge from Different Disciplines Traditionally, the master’s degree in the natural sciences has tended to be single-discipline in orientation. However, in work life the graduates need to address issues that require integration of science content. They need to be able to access and identify information, consider ethical and legislative issues, develop communication skills and work in cooperative environments. All this coupled with disciplines becoming part of multidisciplinary matrix (Okuwada, 2006) puts demand on the graduates to integrate knowledge from disciplines and develop a professional approach to the subject. This integration cannot be done by simply giving a mix of different disciplines.

Involving All Stakeholders of Higher Education in the Development of Program As Braskamp and Wergin (1997) argue that the institutions of higher education need to reorient themselves as active partners with parents, teachers, principals, community advocates, business leaders, community agencies and general citizenry to meet the demands of knowledge society. This is more so in the case of science where there is a paradigm shift towards knowledge production that was socially distributed, application-oriented,

307

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

Table 1. Master’s level application oriented courses in (Basic) Sciences in Indian Universities M.Sc.: In Actuarial science, Agl.botany/zoology/chem, animal sc &Biotech, Applied Bio, Applied Biochemistry, Applied Chemistry, Applied Chemistry (Pharmaceutical) Applied: Electronics/Genetics/Geochemistry/Geology/Geography/geophysics/maths/microbiology/Microbiology& Biotechnology/ Physics/Physics (instrumentation)/Psychology/Science/Statistics/Statistics&informatics/Zoology, Aquaculture (applied), Aquatic Biology & Fisheries, Astrophysics, Bio Electronics & Biosensors, Biodiversity & Conservation, Bio Med Tech Sc, Bio Med Genetics, Bio Med Instrumentation, Biotechnology, Bioresources, Catering Sc & Hotel Mgt, Chemistry(Industrial oriented/Appln./Chem), Chemistry (instrumental analysis) Clinical: Biochemistry/Microbiology/Psychology/Nutrition & Dietics/Nutrition Environmental: Biotech/Biology/Botany/Chemistry/Education/Microbiology/Management/Science Technology, Food Biotech, Food Sc & Quality Control, General & Applied Geography, Computational Maths/Natural Sc, Drug Chemistry, Eco-Biotech, Electro Chemistry Industrial: Biotech/Chemistry/Electronics/Fisheries/Maths/Microbiology/Stat, Maths & Computer Sc, Maths & Computing, Mathematics with Computer Programme/Sc/Application, Maths with Oceanology & Computer Programming, Mathematics & Scientific Computing, Medicinal Chemistry Medical: Biochem/Biotech/Lab Tech/Microbiol & Lab Tech/Physics/Physiol, Medicinal Plants, Microbial Gene Tech, Mod App Maths, Music media & Electornics, Nano Sc/& Tech, Ocean life sciences, Petroleum Geology, Petroleum Geosceicnes, Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Physics (Non Conventional Energy), Plant Biotech, Plantation Dev, Polymer sc, Polymer Chemistry, Rural Tech, Science of Living, Seed Sc & Tech, Space Physics, Statistical (Acturial), Sc & Tech Comm, Sustainable Dev, System Sc, Textile Chemistry, Textile Physics MSc: Intl Bus Mgt/Human Resource Mgt/Marketing Mgt M.Sc. (Hons): Fermentation & Microbiol tech M.Sc. (Tech): in App Geology, Engg. Phy, Env Sc & Tech, Geology, Geophysics, Earth Sc, Finance, Gen Studies, Pharmaceutical Chem Source: Universities Handbook, 2010 (32nd Edition), Association of Indian Universities, New Delhi

trans-disciplinary, and subject to multiple accountabilities (Beerkens, 2009). Thus for preparing the students professionally universities need to exploit the tacit and explicit knowledge available outside universities. This may be possible by providing provisions to involve all stakeholders in the development and delivery of programs/courses.

Preparing the Students for Professional Approach In the professional approach students should be prepared not only to work in academic world but also to give them a platform to enter nonacademic sectors where their training in science can be made use of. For instance a natural science graduate in an industry should be able to fuse scientific knowledge from one field with another and integrate that knowledge with training in management, law, or public policy, or civic requirements. This may be possible only when we are able to amalgamate managerial and other nonacademic sector requirements into science programmes creating a cadre of science-educated professionals. 308

Courses for Different Professions In this era of knowledge economy, there is a need to move away from the rigid boundaries of disciplines and provide opportunities to fulfill the needs of students seeking science based careers outside the academic world and also the needs of the local, regional, and national employers who hire them. Sitaramam (1996) rightly points out the need to overcome the mind-set of considering science and industry as different entities. He also questions whether we are widening or bridging the gap between the intellectual frontiers of pure science and the transmission of specific skills for the job market in biological sciences or life sciences. It is necessary to follow a professional approach to develop new courses and curricula specific to professional practice. However, all this does not mean we need to dispense away the traditional discipline based programs. What is required is to fulfill the needs of students who require a different graduate experience for the workplace: banks, insurance & financial companies, SMEs, large firms needing

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

financial and industrial mathematics; biotechnology companies needing middle level managers who have both scientific knowledge and broader business skills; services corporations needing employees with depth in science and breadth in business and customer skills; government employers (particularly military, intelligence, security, various science based departments) that have an increasing need for science- and technology-savvy staff; nonprofit organizations and nongovernmental organizations working in various fields needing people having science based knowledge with the ability to integrate with other fields like culture, sociology, political science etc; civic service organizations needing people having knowledge in science as well as in sociology, economics and many more (Narasimharao, Shashidhara Prasad and Nair, 2011). For instance, Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, Keck Institute, USA initiated a Postdoctoral Professional Masters (PPM) degree in Management designed to educate PhDs and MDs with both soft and hard skills to obtain jobs in industry. As Schuster (2012) points out PhDs should be prepared in such a way that PhD becomes a valuable spring board for them to be able to do many things in academia, industry, governments, not-for profit organizations, and every realm of our society.

Orienting Tertiary Education All the above facts means there is an absolute need to reorient the tertiary education. It can be said that this orientation is already in vogue as can be seen from the developments like mode 2, triple helix, sustainable development in higher education, corporate education and corporate universities, and community colleges. What is required from the point of view of countries like India is how best we can use these developments to address issues in professionalizing the natural science education. Though there are certain de-

velopments like offering industry related courses, soft skill courses, industry projects, developing new integrative disciplines and the like, they are not used to the full extent of their potential for professionalizing the natural science education.

ADDRESSING ISSUES THROUGH MULTIPRONGED OPEN DISTANCE LEARNING In India though the potential of open distance learning is well recognized and many universities offer distance education courses, it has rarely moved away from the traditional path. This has resulted in continued misconceptions and myths about open distance learning2 and poor repetition of courses that are offered in face to face university system. In addition, this traditional path has resulted in ODL following hierarchical approach to education (pyramid structure) treating each stage of education as preparation for next stage and in the process producing more number of unemployable youth. Analyzing the kind of courses offered by open universities, one can observe that most of them follow the beaten path of traditional universities (Table 2). With this kind of approach it is difficult to visualize that the ODL system can use its potential for addressing the issues in preparing the professionals in science. It can be said that ODL system can take a cue from the significant transformations and reforms that are taking place in tertiary education systems (see Thulstrup et al. 2005) to follow a multipronged approach. Rangappa and Narasimharao (2010) identified three broad heads under which strategies can be developed for moving beyond the traditional distance education. These are innovations, border less education and approaches3. In this whole process it is essential to focus on how one uses the different features and tools available under ODL system rather than on what tools being used. As Kulan-

309

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

Table 2. Science and technology programmes offered by some open universities in India Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, A.P. B.Sc. in Botany, Chemistry, Geology, Mathematics, Physics, Zoology (72 practicals in each subject); M.Sc. in Mathematics; PG Diploma in Environmental studies; Certificate in Mushroom cultivation, computing. Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota, Rajasthan Diploma in Computer in Office management, Nutrition and Health Education; Certificate in Food and Nutrition, computer awareness. Nalanda Open University, Patna, Bihar M.Sc. in–Botany, Chemsitry, Geography, Mathematics, Physics, Zoology; MCA;B.Sc. Hons in – Botany, Chemistry, Geography, Mathematics, Physics, Zoology, Home Science, BCA;Post graduate diploma in – Yogic studies; Agriculture Certificate courses in – Biofertilizer production, Floriculture technology, Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Soil Health Management; Health & Environment Certificate courses in – Environment studies, Food & Nutrition, Health & Environment, HIV & Family Education; Paramedical Certificate courses in – Basic medical assistance & Nursing Care, Clinical Dental Technique, Dental Mechanic, Dental & Oral Hygiene, ECG technique, Medical laboratory technique, Optometry and Ophthalmic assistance, Operation theater assistantship, Physiotherapy and Yoga therapy, Radiography & Imaging technique; Certificate courses in – computing, home usages of computers, disaster management. Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nashik, Maharashtra B.Sc. in IT, Agri Hort; B.Tech. Marine, Elect, Mech Engg; M.Sc. research methods, Agri (comu), Agri (extn), Agri (Dev); Electronics Engg Diploma in: computer tech, communication engg, instrumentation engg, indl electronics; Agriculture Diplomas in – fruit production, vegetable production, floriculture & landscape gardening, agri business mgt., Computer diplomas in – computer operations, office computing, computerized financial accounting, Printing & graphic arts, computer hardware maint & network; Certificate in – office computing, computerized financial accounting, entrepreneurship development in inf tech, DTP,CA, Computer operations, coputer preparatory skills, early child care, gardening. Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Open University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh B.Sc. – pass, Hons in – Maths, Physics, comp.sc, Nursing, Design, IT enabled services, IT; BCA;MCA; M.Sc. IT, Comp. sc., Physics, Chemisty, Maths, Botany, Zoology; M.Sc. (Hons) in Maths, comp. Sc.; PG diploma in – bioinformatics, chemoinformatics, computer applications, maternal & child health, hospital & health management, dietetics & therapeutic nutrition; Advanced PG diploma in-Computer applications; Advanced Diploma/Diploma/certificate in – computer application; Diploma in Nutrition and Health education; 1 year Training Programme-Knowledge and Skill upgradation of Rural doctors & para medicals. Karnataka State Open University Programmes offered under partnership with Avalon Aviation academy (aviation courses), CMC Pvt. Ltd (Computer courses), Dayananda Sagar Institution(Forensic Science), Father Muller Charitable Institutions (para medical), JSS institutions (Engineering), Pooja Bhagvat Memorial Mhajana Education centre (applied science courses), Osteen academy (fashion design), Pilikula Nisargadhama (skill development courses), Sharada Vikas Trust (computer), Toonskool (animation), virtual education trust (information technology); Post PUC diploma in – nutrition & health, environmental sicnece and management, information technology; Certificate courses in – science & technology, information technology, environmental technology, environmental management, solid waste management, computing, food & nutrition. Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkatta, West Bengal B.Sc. in Botany, Chemistry, Geography, Maths, Physics, Zoology; Certificate course in – computer application & programming, web design, information technology; 2 yr prgm in Web application development. Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu B.Sc. Maths, Maths with computer applications, apparel & fashion design, Hospitality & hotel admn, Geography; M.Sc. in Maths, counseling & psychotherapy, Psychology; PGDAH, PGDCA, BCA, MCA, PG dip in information tech, Psychological counseling; Advanced diploma in apparel & fashion design; Diplomas in refrigeration & air conditioning technician, house electrician, plumbing technician, catering assistant, four wheeler mechanism, design & garment making, home appliance repairing, mobile phone servicing, computer hardware servicing, animation, health assistant, multimedia system, computer application, early childhood care, food production food & beverages service, Bakery & confectionery; Certificate in – food & nutrition, teaching in primary school maths, environmental studies, accounting software & tally. Indira Gandhi National Open University Offers several S&T programmes at different levels including awareness & non credit, certificate,diploma,advanced diploma, PG diploma, under graduate, post graduate and research level. It covers basic and applied sciences, computer sciences, agriculture, engineering, medical, para medical, skill development etc. It also has entered into MoU with several organizations to offer courses (www.ignou. ac.in). Source: Universities Handbook, 2010 (32nd Edition), Association of Indian Universities, New Delhi

310

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

daiswamy (2002) points out the power is not in the tool but in the user or in other words the power lies in how the user uses the tools.

Target Groups and Distance Education The potential of ODL for various target groups with varied needs from industries, communities is well recognized all over the world (Narasimharao, 2000; Temple, 1991; Tahir,2001). However, most often the focus is on more courses and traditional courses4. Narasimharao et al (2011) argue that there are many areas where the students can be professionally trained in subjects like physics, chemistry, and life sciences. As per the area one can identify the target group. For instance, the target groups for food industry and food science can be as varied as from lay man to professional scientists to politicians and policy makers (Narasimharao, 2000). Similarly Vijayendra and Narasimharao (2011) while discussing how to prepare professionals in microbiology for food industries identified the needs of various functionaries in food industries. The target groups need to be identified not just in terms of traditional disciplines of universities but also in terms of functional needs. ODL has the potential to identify target groups as per the functional needs as can be evident in some courses developed by some open universities. For instance in developing a course in food technology by IGNOU the functional needs of various target groups are taken into account (Narasimharao, Vijayendra and Salooja, 2011). However, in many instances the courses are just developed in a traditional fashion for fear of market viability and for nonrecognition at higher education circles. What may make difference in achieving the task of preparing professionals as per functional and knowledge needs is ODL system taking the help of concepts like sustainability in higher education, outreach and engagement, and collaboration and cluster concept. For instance, for developing a course for nonprofit management for field level

professionals the outreach concept was used by university of Mysore (See Chapter 17). ODL system having the inbuilt flexibility can involve other stakeholders in the course development. Unlike in the face to face mode the ODL system can orient the whole course material involving the field level practitioners.

Program Development ODL system is presumed to follow a systematic approach for program development. Using this feature one can design many programs in different disciplines relating them to societal needs. In this way the courses can offer a different academic experience to students who want to go and work in non academic sectors. For instance some of the programmes developed by open universities include floriculture, agri business management, consumer protection, watershed management, participatory development, computer hardware maintenance, solid waste management, fashion design and the like (Table 2). However, it is important to see how these courses are treated to prepare the real life professionals. We can take a cue from how master of business administration (MBA) has developed into present day status. Though it was introduced in 1881 it did not take off immediately. Only in the 20th century it grew in popularity in response to employers’ need for staff who could apply scientific methods to management and labor. Business school curricula have evolved over the last century with the development of new management approaches: quality control in the 1920s; operations research and cybernetics by the 1950s; total quality management in the 1980s; and reengineering in the 1990s – all further responses to industry. Open universities using the systems approach can provide appropriate directions for any discipline to grow in this fashion. As Narasimharao, Shashidhara Prasad and Nair (2011) suggested that there is need to develop use inspired programs. In order to develop this kind

311

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

of model it is necessary to involve industry, nongovernmental sector and a government sector or a service sector and other stake holders of higher education. The Hong Kong polytechnic university offered a food science and technology degree course for in-service personnel in food industry. Students can receive training relevant to their daily work, and obtain qualification required for food professionals (Ma et al, 1995). We can quote other examples like BIOTOL project, European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE), European Association of Distance Learning Universities (EADTU) DUNE project and the like (see Narasimharao, 2009b) It is argued here that ODL should develop mechanisms not only for learner centered approach but also for learner useful approach. This may be possible by incorporating the concept of outreach and engagement as visualized by Magrath (2006)5 and others (Sandmann, 2008, Narasimharao, 2009a). Kliewer et al., (2013) presented the case of Virginia tech experience where an economically backward area was developed into a prosperous area through the use of outreach concept and involving various stakeholders in the development of education and skill levels of the region. IBM, India, used the outreach concept to train the science graduates professionally on job in collaboration with University of Mysore (Guruprasad, 1997). ODL can take a cue from these examples for using different concepts and developing a multipronged approach for developing programmes for non-academic sectors.

Mechanisms for Hearing the Voices outside Academia One of the important requirements of the knowledge society is the ability to hear the voices outside academia. This may be much easier in ODL if the features like course team approach, course design committee, integrating modern communication technologies and pedagogies into curriculum are followed in true spirit of their purpose. Using these features and other accommodative features 312

of ODL one can develop formal mechanisms for identifying the needs and opportunities in the market place and provide a feedback mechanism to ensure that the program is able to respond to the inevitable changes that may occur over time. For instance, in offering industry relevant courses it is necessary to cover three main aspects – providing appropriate and relevant knowledge base, imparting technical skills and imbibing industry related skills (Narasimharao, Vijayendra and Salooja, 2011). It is necessary to note that the curriculum approach as well as the way we treat the subject for the purpose of industry will have to be different from what is required for purely academic purpose. A multipronged ODL system using its various tools and integrating the various developments of the tertiary education system (like triple helix, mode 2 concept, and national/regional innovative system) may help in this direction. The mode 2 concept focuses more on problem based and cooperative based development of the course production. The triple helix is involvement of three key players (industry, government and university) as equal partners. In the National and Regional innovative system different players are involved in a planned way for developing emphasis and orientation of the programme. ODL system using its features like flexibility, multimedia approach, team building, target group orientation, feedback mechanisms, spacial separation of teacher and learner, use of modern pedagogies in education technologies, student support services and net work, delivery mechanisms etc., can easily incorporate these concepts for hearing the voices outside academia and develop courses not only for academic fields but also for non-academic areas. Here we can quote the example of Indira Gandhi National Open University entering into collaboration with many players of the society. They are mainly meant for ensuring skilling of unskilled labour and create a pool of professionally trained people (Open letter, IGNOU,2010). However, most of these collaborations (Table 3) are not designed to involve these stake holders in the academic development activity to use

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

knowledge available with them. In most cases the collaborating agency depends on the University for the Course Development or project execution and the university depends on the collaborating agency for financial assistance. These kinds of collaborations also are available in the conventional face to face mode and did not prove to be very successful in hearing the voices of other stake holders in the society. The requirement is to be able to integrate the inputs from all the players. In recent years there are concepts which are used for this purpose. We may need to use these concepts while establishing collaborations. Using the multipronged distance education approach it may be possible to develop mechanisms incorporating these various concepts viz., outreach, engagement, corporate education, linker units, regional innovation systems and communities of practice for hearing the voices outside academia.

Developing the Emphasis It may not be enough that one develops an excellent course. It is necessary that one develops the programmatic emphasis as per the requirement. For instance for preparing professionals in microbiology for food industry Vijayendra and Narasimharao (2011) identified two important aspects – designing a suitable course and treatment of the subject content. For developing emphasis the exact need is to be recognized. One can identify various skills required for different job functions (See Dhams & Leff, 2002). ODL system through multipronged approach of using external advisory committees, specialized knowledge available at the universities, multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary boards, industry tie ups, involving industry professional in teaching, and exchange programs can develop the right emphasis to prepare the students professionally. In this connection it is relevant to mention about professional science masters programs offered in USA. There are well over 200 programs

in the US now, called professional science masters programs. Most take existing science and business courses offered at the university and combine them into a degree program. KGI, follows different approach, with integrated or hybrid courses, one might say.....science of business and business of science. And a key part of the program is the industry internship between the two years, followed by an industry-supported team project that is about half of the second year curriculum (personal communication, Elizibeth C.Wright, Asst VP, and Secretary to the Board, Keck Graduate Institute, Claremont, USA). Though society (industry) related courses are developed by some of the universities, most of the courses are developed by the academics themselves4. This may result in developing courses in our own imagination. There are also universities having tie ups with different stakeholders. For instance IGNOU has several tie ups with different partners (Table 3). The important point here is how the programmatic emphasis is developed. Our personal experience shows that university faculty puts more emphasis on academic knowledge and the industry partner is also scared to take any innovative path for fear of market influences and validity of the course.

Integrating Knowledge One of the issues in preparing graduates professionally is developing the ability to integrate knowledge from different disciplines and with the real world issues. That is in preparing professionals in science requires more than adding courses from other fields or courses on practical professional skills or soft skills on to a science base. They should not be “science plus” programs. That is they do not include separate courses to focus on professional skills, but provide skill development through the scientific training itself6. Narasimharao (2010a) listed knowledge integration elements in biotechnology which consist of knowledge parameters, knowledge creators,

313

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

Table 3. Some IGNOU – Government organization collaborations Field Agriculture And Food Processing

Science and Technology

Tourism and Hospitality

Collaboration with

Programmes/Projects

Ministry of Rural Development

Diploma in Watershed Management

Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)

Post-graduate diploma in food safety and quality management, Certificate in Organic farming

Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles

Certificate in Sericulture

Ministry of Food Processing Industries

Diplomas in Meat technology/Dairy Technology/Value added products/Fish product technology

Dept. Agriculture, Government of West Bengal

Integrated Pest Management technology in Potato, Training programme for farmers of Betelvine

Indian Space Research Organisation

ISRO Chair

Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), Department of Science and Technology

Integrated M.Sc.-Ph.D Programme (IPhD) in Physics and Astrophysics

Ministry of Power, USAID-India and the Power Finance Corporation

Advanced Certificate Programme in Power Distribution Management

ICT Academy of Tamil Nadu (ICTACT)

IT skills for school teachers

AYUSH, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare

Certification of the prior learning and knowledge of the Gram Vaidyas (traditional village health practitioners)

World Wide Fund (WWF-India)

Diploma in Environmental Law

National Council for Hotel management and catering technology (NCHMCT

Bachelor of Science and Master of Science in Hopitality and Administration (BHM and MHA)

Institute of Hotel Management, Catering and Nutrition, New Delhi

M.Sc. in Dietetics and Food Service management (DFSM)

There are collaborations with many other organizations covering various fields (like Central Leather Research Institute, Indian Air Force, Rehabilitation Council of India, Indian Navy, Indian Institute of Banking and Finance, National Institute of Rural Development, Indian Society for Technical Education, Confederation of Indian Industry, Institute of Company Secretaries of India, Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology etc.). Lists more than 100 collaborations. Source: OpenLetter, IGNOU, Monthly Newsletter vol.2 (10), 2010

knowledge integration facilitators, human capital development and knowledge integration mechanisms (See Figure 2 in Chapter 1). It is necessary to involve the stake holders in knowledge integration. For instance, challenges to universities to make algal technologies work in knowledge economy can be identified under five broad heads – biobusiness and knowledge transfer, knowledge and technology integration, developing algal biotechnology as an integrative field, human resource development and capacity building, expanding boundaries of scholarship. It is argued that using some of the recent concepts in tertiary education, strategies should be developed for evolving new design/new anatomy (structure) so that different players can excel collectively in integrating the skills and knowledge available

314

with all the stakeholders (Narasimharao et al., 2012). Here it is relevant to quote the example of collaboration between Moorpark College and local biotechnology companies. While designing training programme for industry eight departments from a local industry (Baxter Healthcare Corporation), many scientists and managers from Amagen company, faculty from chemistry, mathematics and biology, and administrators from the college were involved for knowledge integration (Harrigan, 2003). Dongre and Narasimharao (2013) discussed the experience of University of Mysore in integrating knowledge available with different stake holders while designing and delivering a management course for field level professionals through outreach concept.

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

The flexibility available in ODL system can be effectively used for developing mechanisms to integrate knowledge. Use of multimedia and other modern communication technologies may help in exploiting the modern developments in tertiary higher education such as outreach & engagement, mode 27, triple helix8, cluster and collaborative arrangements and other9. Similarly it can incorporate modern pedagogies such as peer oriented group instruction, problem-based learning(PBL), process-oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL), and peer-led team learning (PLTL) and other active learning tasks (see Farrell et al., 1999; Eberlein et al., 2008).

Program Delivery For preparing the professionals as per the demands of the society, there is need to incorporate within ODL the various program delivery mechanisms that are available in tertiary education system. ODL system should not be restricted or constrained by distance education methodologies. It should focus on learner usefulness along with learner centeredness. For instance, in open universities on an average only 50% of the total students may be employed depending on the programme. The general experience is that in basic degree (BA, B.Com and B.Sc.) many students are those who are not able to get admission into regular colleges/ universities or those who cannot afford the cost involved. Further, many of these students are not ready for self learning. In such cases ODL system can use multipronged approaches to programme delivery (this is different from offering various inputs for self study) including regular class room teaching to develop self learning abilities for the young learner. Similarly, for a factory worker a simple sticky label may work better than any other delivery mechanism. Further, using these various programme delivery mechanisms can strengthen the distance education system. Though some of the open universities like IGNOU started face to

face regular class room based programmes, they are facing criticism as they simply followed the conventional university type of system.

CONCLUSION As the society moved from industrial society to knowledge society, there is demand on more interactive and interdependent relations between universities and society in general. What Balram (2008) says referring to Andhra University can easily be generalized for the entire university system in India. He says that while the city around the university had evolved under the selective pressures of a liberalized economy, the intellectual environment of the university had probably declined. He also concludes in his article that if reform and restructuring must happen, the movement for change must come from within the universities. How we can achieve this change from within is a matter of debate though there are several mechanisms/concepts which can help us in this direction. This is in this context professionalizing natural science education has to be viewed. If one agrees to the argument that open distance learning is next stage of evolution in the educational system, it should use its tools for changing the scenario of higher education and address the issues faced by higher education. This cannot be easily done as ODL system in countries like India just followed a traditional path and mostly treated as an alternative system of education for those who missed the bus earlier for some reason or other. The real potential of ODL as an essential education system to cater to the needs and demands of knowledge society can be realized only when it moves beyond the traditional distance education. The ODL system just following the footsteps of traditional universities may be related to what Rabindranath Tagore10 said about commercial man, an incomplete man with limited purpose obscuring his human side under the soul-less organization. 315

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

It is argued that ODL system should not be limited in its purpose, use of tools and incorporation of various developments. Various developments are happening in the tertiary education system and ODL system through its inbuilt flexibility can incorporate these. It can facilitate the ODL to move beyond traditional distance education by following a multipronged approach. Some of the open universities are adopting some approaches like corporate education, community colleges, convergence between conventional and distance education systems, outreach and engagement and so on. However, all these initiatives cannot be said to have fulfilled the necessity for multipronged approach. It is necessary that each of these initiatives are taken in a holistic ODL system to make the system a broad based system serving to cater the needs of various subject fields as discussed here with relation to professionalizing natural science education. What is discussed here for natural science education may also be applicable to humanities, social sciences and other fields. It is important to develop a particular discipline both for discipline sake and also for the sake of the society. For this one has to use a multipronged approach which can easily be accommodated in ODL system. Many concepts like corporate education, university outreach, engagement, innovation systems, cluster concept, community learning, community colleges, finishing schools can be incorporated depending on the need.

Braskamp, L., & Wergin, J. F. (1997). Forming new social partnerships. In Tierney, W. G. (Ed.), The responsive university: Restructuring for high performance (pp. 62–91). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University.

REFERENCES

Guruprasad, K. (2007). Industry – academia collaborations: Addressing societal needs of education and employment. In B. P. R. Narasimharao, et al., (Eds.), Changing societal demands & adopting teaching learning systems in higher education system to reach out. Centre for Outreach Programmes, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore, 2007.

Balram, P. (2008). Universities: Restructuring and reform. Current Science, 94(2), 153–154. Beerkens, E. (2009). Centres of excellence and relevance: The contextualisation of global models. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 153–175. doi:10.1177/097172180801400106

316

Chuck, J. (2011). Hypothetical biotechnology companies: A role-playing student centered activity for undergraduate science students. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 39(2), 173–179. doi:10.1002/bmb.20480 Dahms, A. S., & Leff, J. A. (2002). Industry expectations for technician-level workers. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 30, 260–264. doi:10.1002/bmb.2002.494030040109 Dongre, Y., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2013). University outreach in management education – A case from India for meeting the needs of professionals in the field. In Narasimharao, B. P. R., Rangappa, K. S., & Fulzele, T. U. (Eds.), Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries – Role of universities. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Eberlein, T., Kampmeier, J., Minderhout, V., Moog, R. S., Platt, T., Varma-Nelson, P., & White, H. B. (2008). Pedagogies of engagement in science: A comparison of PBL, POGIL, and PLTL. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 36(4), 262–273. doi:10.1002/bmb.20204 Farrel, J., Moog, R., & Spencer, J. (1999). A guided-inquiry general chemistry course. Journal of Chemical Education, 76, 570–574. doi:10.1021/ ed076p570

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

Guzzetta, D. J. (1982). Education’s quiet revolution: changes and challenges. Change, 14(6), 10–11. Harrigan, M. T. (2003). Industrial biotechnology education: A model of collaboration between industry and academia. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 31, 142–144. doi:10.1002/ bmb.2003.494031020195 Kliewer, B. W., Sandmann, L. R., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2013). Corporate – university partnerships: The outreach and engagement model. In Narasimharao, B. P. R., Rangappa, K. S., & Fulzele, T. U. (Eds.), Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries – Role of universities. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Kulandaiswamy, V. C. (2002). In Garg, S., & Panda, S. (Eds.), Education for knowledge era: Open and flexible learning (p. 167). New Delhi, India: Kogan Page. Magrath, C. P. (2006). Outreach now: Inventing the future through engagement. September 27, 2006 The Inn at Virginia Tech and Skelton Conference Center Blacksburg, VA. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2000). Challenges in food science education and training for food industries – Issues in adopting open learning system. Indian Food Industry, 19, 279–290. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009a). Knowledge economy and knowledge society – Role of university outreach programmes. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 119–151. doi:10.1177/097172180801400105 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009b). Need for new trend in biotechnology education and training. Asian Biotechnology and Development Review, 11(2), 89–114.

Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010a). Biotechnology education and societal demands: Challenges faced by biotechnology and human resource development. Social Responsibility Journal, 6(1), 72–90. doi:10.1108/17471111011024568 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010b). Tertiary education institutions for corporate education – Need and relevance of corporate education centres. SRRNet, Discussion papers in social responsibility, No.1003. Retrieved from www.socialresponsibility.biz Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Anand, N., VIdyashnakar, S., & Sarada, R. (2012). Algal technologies and challenges to universities: New approaches to reach out to society. Asian Biotechnology and Development Review, 14(2), 19–38. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Shashidhra Prasad, J., & Nair, P. R. R. (2011). Corporate education in natural sciences – A professional approach for universities. Current Science, 101(11), 1421–1424. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Vijayendra, S. V. N., & Salooja, M. K. (2011). Approaches for developing self instructional learning materials for industry oriented courses. Asean Journal of Open Learning, 3(1), 63–78. Okuwada, K. (2006). Elements of converging technologies - Japan’s NISTEP reports look to the past and the future of CTs. Asia Pacific Tech Monitor, 23, 25–30. OpenLetter, IGNOU. (2010). Special issue: Partnering government. Monthly Newsletter of Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2(10), 1–16. Rabindranath, T. (1917). Nationalism (p. 190). Delhi, India: Macmillan.

317

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

RamReddy. G. (1988). What, why and how of distance education. In B. N. Koul (Ed.), Studies in distance education. New Delhi.

Temple, H. (1991). Open learning in industry: Developing flexibility and competence in the work force. Essex, UK: Longman Group.

Rangappa, K. S., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Developing strategies for successful science and technology programmes in open universities of developing countries. Pan Commonwelath Forum International Conference, 2010, Cochin, November, 2010.

Thulstrup, E. W., Hansen, J. A., & Gaardhoje, J. J. (2005). Capacity building in higher education and research: A key component of efficient global development. In J. J. Gaardhoje, J. A. Hansen, & E. W. Thustrup (Eds.), Capacity building in higher education and research on a global scale: Proceedings of the International Workshop on How can Manpower Needs in Knowledge Based Economies be Satisfied in a Balanced Way? May 17-18, 2005, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen, Published by The Danish National Commission for UNESCO, Denmark (pp. 20-31).

Robbins-Roth, C. (2006). Alternative careers in science: Leaving the ivory tower (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. Sandmann, L. R. (2008). Conceptualization of the scholarship of engagement in higher education: A strategic review, 1996-2006. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(1), 91–104. Schuster, S. M. (2009). BAMBED commentary: Post-PhD education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 37(6), 381–382. doi:10.1002/ bmb.20337 Schuster, S. M. (2011). Commentary: Attitude adjustment: Educating PhD scientist for business careers. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 39(1), 61–62. doi:10.1002/bmb.20475 Schuster, S. M. (2012). The supply of postdocs. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 40(3), 159–160. doi:10.1002/bmb.20608 Sitaramam, V., & Sauna, Z. E. (1996). What can be done with science education in Indian universities? An attempt at a synthesis. Current Science, 70(5), 335–340. Tahir, F. (2001). Distance education, environmental education and sustainability – An overview of universities in commonwealth Asia. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 2(1), 21–37. doi:10.1108/1467630110380271

318

Tobias, S., Chubin, D., & Aylesworth, K. (1995). Rethininking science as a career: Perceptions and realities in the physical sciences. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation. Vanderford, N. L. (2010). Opinion: Encourage alternatives. The Scientist. Retrieved August 1, 2011, from http://classic.the-scientist.com/news/ display/57221/ Vijayendra, S. V. N., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2011). Preparing microbiology professionals for food industry. Indian Food Industry, 30(5&6), 32–43.

ENDNOTES 1.



These developments can be listed as mode 2, triple helix, corporate universities, entrepreneurial university, university – industry interaction, corporate education, sustainability in higher education, National innovation systems, regional innovation systems, higher education for sustainable development, consortium & cluster concept,

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

2.

3.





public-private-panchayat partnership, skill development mission, finishing schools, university outreach and engagement, service learning, community learning, centres of excellence and relevance, and community colleges. Some of the general myths in applying open learning are-equating it to conventional correspondence courses which may create doubts in the minds of people about validity of offering practical and application oriented courses; presuming that open learning has to be done in isolation which prevents use of the open learning techniques in other situations like traditional training and on the job training; treating open learning as knowledge dissemination in a more elaborative and exhaustive (information overload) way which makes it difficult to think of simple solutions available for the practical problems; seeing open learning as a complex one and not using it in simple and relevant way and thus making the system irrelevant in some cases; equating open learning with the application of ICT and other modern communication technologies which may lead people to focus more on technologies rather than using the concept for focusing on solutions to the problems of education and training; presuming that open learning should be always successful, often forgetting the fact that it is only a concept and its success depends on how best we can conceive and implement (Narasimharao, 2009b) Under innovations we need to deal with technologies, pedagogies and societal context. Borderless education may cover convergence of all systems, making disciplinary boundaries and the education systems more porous, integrating traditional knowledge and modern knowledge, knowledge management and knowledge integration. For achieving innovations and borderless education we can follow different approaches like

4.



5.



6.



collaboration and net working (sharing of resources), outreach and engagement (scholarly engagement), sustainable education (balancing market forces), corporate education (triple helix) and skill development and engagement (community engagement). Guzzetta (1982) argues that, though we sincerely feel that we are responding to the perceived public needs in higher education, in reality we did not meet the challenge. He says that we have interpreted all needs in our own image: more courses, credit hours, campus classes and classical curricula. Magrath (2006) referring to outreach programmes says “Personally I prefer Engagement, but have little interest in debating labels and terminology. What ultimately counts is the concept of a major state university being in partnership with its community, its state and region, and, yes, the wider world with which we are inextricably involved in this new globalized environment. Ultimately all that counts is what we do in effective working partnerships with businesses, civic organizations, government agencies, and, indeed, other colleges and universities. Everything we do in this future--which is here right now--must involve the fundamental responsibility of educating men and women of all ages and from our diverse populations (we can call this learning); discovering new knowledge and applying it (typically labeled research); and providing service to society. For example, developing financial mathematics, industrial mathematics in a program may make the students attractive to banks, insurance companies, and large business and industrial firms. Some of the universities started programs in actuarial science. Similarly a microbiologist in a fermentation based industry appointed as production and process manager may have to integrate his microbiology knowledge with various other fields. Their major responsibilities may in-

319

Professionalising Natural Science Education and Multipronged Open Distance Learning

7.

8.





320

clude production technologies; machinery required and used; implementation of food safety systems (GMP, GHP and HACCP); avoiding food safety hazards; knowledge on new products and processes; competitive technologies and their feasibility; regional resources; product economics and so on (Vijayendra & Narasimharao, 2011). Mode 2 concept is often used to refer to a novel way of scientific knowledge production (or rather its Co-production) put forth in 1994. Mode 1 knowledge production is investigator-initiated and more discipline based while mode 2 is problem focused and interdisciplinary. Triple helix concept comprises of three basic elements – a prominent role for the university in innovation with industry and government as equal partners; a movement toward collaborative relationships among the three major institutional spheres (Universities, Government and Industries); in addition

9.





10.

to fulfilling their traditional functions, each institutional sphere also “takes the role of the other” performing new roles besides their traditional roles. Narasimharao (2009b) discussed the need for new trends in biotechnology education and training giving examples of various developments in tertiary education which are gaining importance. It is necessary to integrate these various tools available and focus on various needs. History has come to a stage when the moral man, the complete man, is more and more giving way, almost without knowing it, to make room for the commercial man, the man of limited purpose. This process, aided by the wonderful progress in science, is assuming gigantic proportion and power, causing the upset of man’s moral balance, obscuring his human side under the shadow of soul-less organization. (Rabindranath Tagore, 1917, p.20).

321

Chapter 23

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education: The Experience of Open University Malaysia Anuwar Ali Open University Malaysia, Malaysia

ABSTRACT The rise of corporate education can be attributed to changes in higher education worldwide in the 1990s, when many countries bore witness to restructuring and reforms. In Malaysia, this restructuring process saw the corporatisation of public universities, rise in private higher education, increasing interest in quality assurance as well as growing awareness of the importance of lifelong and workplace learning. One of the significant parameters of these new dynamics is information and communication technology (ICT), which allows for many corporations to address education and training through online platforms and Web-based tools. The success of some of the most prominent “corporate universities” – many in the United States of America like Motorola University and McDonald’s Hamburger University, can also be attributed to the inability of traditional higher education to meet current workplace needs, a phenomenon also common to many other countries.

1. INTRODUCTION In other words, the importance of corporate education today lies with its function in providing education, training and human resource development to suit specific business needs. The motivations for corporate education are many, e.g.

competitive advantage of employees, increased workplace productivity, cost-saving (especially for large-scale programmes), as well as recruiting and retaining quality manpower. Central to the success of today’s corporate education provision is the leverage on ICT; where a novel approach like open and distance learning (ODL) has been

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch023

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

able to provide many advantages in due to a costeffective system that does not require learners to spend extensive time away from work. This chapter will examine the broad concept of corporate education, the status of higher education in Malaysia as well as OUM’s role in Malaysian corporate education. This chapter will also explore how universities can contribute to the success of university-corporate partnership for further development of the corporate education cause. There is a growing realisation that education has importance and connotations beyond formal schooling; an awareness partly influenced by new perspectives on higher education and the role of universities. These perspectives, through restructuring and reform of higher education around the world, have resulted in diverse forms of formal educational institutions, e.g. community colleges, polytechnics, private universities and for-profit institutions. Similarly, the worldwide concern for creating and sustaining competitiveness through a knowledge-driven economy has influenced the need for building and developing human capital-an issue that also lent a new angle on the importance of education. A common theme within these phenomena is corporate education. Its origins lie with corporate America’s awareness that “education and training were critical to innovation and competitiveness” (Ryan, 2001), leading to the establishment of ‘universities’ that carried famous brand names, e.g. Motorola University and McDonald’s Hamburger University, in the late 1980s and 1990s. In essence, these institutions served as a central unit to coordinate all education and training activities of each company. In the years to come, as buzzwords like ‘capacity building’, ‘globalisation’, ‘K-economy’ and ‘lifelong learning’ came into the picture, the idea of corporate education began to encompass more than just an extension of a company’s human resource department. While earlier generation corporate universities, like Motorola University, continue to hold relevance in human

322

resources (especially on a large, multinational scale), corporate education itself has evolved to include novel approaches in teaching and learning. One such approach involves leveraging on information and communication technology (ICT). An ICT-based delivery platform, like open and distance learning (ODL) and e-learning, can allow for greater cost-effectiveness and time-saving for many organisations. Through technologies too, programmes and curricula can be customised to suit specific business needs. Employees need not spend extensive time away from work, hence, leading to less disruption and better productivity. In Malaysia, formal education (up to the higher education level) remains the predominant concern for its Government and people. It is considered the major educational pathway for individual, societal and economic well-being. However, within recent years, Malaysia too has witnessed restructuring of higher education and growing interest in lifelong learning, corporate education and human capital development – all in the name of national progress. The establishment of Open University Malaysia (OUM) in 2000 was the premier introduction of the ODL approach to the Malaysian society. In the past decade, OUM has been actively involved in championing the lifelong learning cause, especially for working adults who are at the heart of the country’s economy. OUM’s foray into corporate education has also been aided by the flexible nature of ODL and its leverage on ICT, thus helping the university to conduct corporate education programmes for both local and international clients. This chapter will detail how corporate education has taken shape specifically from the viewpoint of Malaysia and OUM, in light of various developments in higher education, ICT and ODL. This chapter will also detail the history behind the emergence of corporate education and briefly describe higher education in Malaysia. This is followed by a quick look at the country’s current corporate education scenario, examples of corpo-

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

rate education provision via ODL as exemplified by OUM as well as the role of universities in sustaining and enhancing university-corporate partnerships.

2. THE EMERGENCE OF CORPORATE EDUCATION education.com defines corporate education as a, “broad array of courses, curricula, and educational services offered by business and industry; which may be completely in-house or offered co-operatively with an educational institution” (accessible at http://www.education.com/definition/corporate-education/). Other terms that have also been used in similar connotations include ‘continuing education’, ‘executive education’ and ‘workplace training’. This broad understanding is common among many developing countries that look to corporate education as a way to boost the knowledge capacity of its workforce and thereby improve economic conditions. Although one may argue that this is a simplified concept that merely refers to training or ‘re-tooling’ activities at either individual, institutional or national levels, it is necessary to acknowledge that for many such developing countries, including Malaysia, corporate education is still relatively nascent and that this basic representation is, at the very least, a necessary first step towards cementing a more comprehensive and academically-sound approach towards corporate education. In his definition of corporate education, Ryan (2010) warns that ‘corporate education’ and ‘corporate training’ need to be identified separately as the former goes above and beyond mere training. According to Ryan, corporate education involves the generation of new knowledge to help companies and organisations grow and develop, rather than the limited focus of corporate training that only aims to develop an individual’s operational competency. He also asserts that corporate educa-

tion intends to promote the development of both the individual and his/her organisation. Importantly, the idea of corporate education hints at a vital and inherent relationship between the corporation/organisation and the educational institution. Consequently, this forms the basis for further understanding of how each can contribute to the development of the true concept of corporate education. A predominant concept of corporate education, generally considered to be an American phenomenon (Prince & Beaver, 2002), was founded on the need for employee training and development – a specific function of human resource development in many companies and organisations. In the United States, corporate education has managed to grow into a notable higher education sector. The basis for the emergence of corporate education can be found in the establishment of the earliest corporate universities, e.g. those belonging to General Electric (established 1955), McDonald’s (1961) and Motorola (1981). In those early days, these ‘first generation’ corporate universities tended to represent a re-badging of conventional training and development activities, emphasising on promotion, spreading corporate values (Prince & Beaver, 2002) and ensuring consistency of service (Middlehurst, 2001). Over the years, corporate universities have evolved into three generations (Walton (1999), cited in Prince & Beaver, 2002), i.e. those that have a broad-based strategy towards organisational learning; those that may possess a virtual element in the learning process; as well as those that may encompass greater employee intellectual capital development. Having said that, in essence, corporate universities do owe their establishment to the singular objective of, “developing and educating employees… to meet an organisation’s business strategies” (Meister (1998), cited in Prince & Beaver, 2002). Simply put, their establishment attests to “business commitment to education and the failure of traditional universities to meet

323

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

labour needs” (Meister (1998), cited in Ryan, 2001). However, in avoiding broad generalisation, Middlehurst (2001) also categorises corporate universities as representing, “a more wide-ranging approach to developing best practice corporate learning system.” In both cases, whether aimed only at employee development or as a comprehensive education system on its own, corporate education tends to leverage on ICT as a main component. Elsewhere, corporate education is a relatively new trend. The increasing popularity of corporate education (and other forms of non-formal education, for that matter) is indicative of the new perspective of education as a whole – that is, education is now more widely recognised as a lifelong endeavour. Barnett (2000) contends that the idea of universities in its traditional sense is changing because of several novel opinions, e.g. that universities are not the sole or main source of knowledge creation; that universities must respond to the wider world as well as position themselves in that world; and that there is a new form of knowledge valued in this wider world. This is known as ‘performative knowledge’, i.e. knowledge that has direct connotations to how people act and engage with and in the world. Thus, to have any impact in the corporate world, performative knowledge is clearly linked to professional and work-based training. The current practices of today’s corporate universities are distinctive from traditional universities. Many of the American and British counterparts have very specific curricula, with courses that cater for short durations and to exclusive targets. Ryan (2001) cites MasterCard University as one example that trains only bank staff and vendors. The Disney Institute relies on its ‘brand value’ to openly ‘sell’ its courses in certain specialised areas, e.g. customer service and events management. Providers with ‘global industry standard’ courses have also been able to deliver their curricula worldwide, either as training within the companies themselves, or

324

externally to the general public. Examples of this include Microsoft, Sun Microsystems and Oracle (Ryan, 2001). The internationalisation of curricula is perhaps indicative of the channels through which the corporate education culture can pervade consumer countries. In Malaysia, information technology (IT) giants, e.g. Hewlett Packard, Intel and IBM, are instances of such multinational companies (MNCs) that conduct technical training courses overseas using international curricula. This is common throughout many other Asian countries as well; where such MNCs have also established regional or branch offices. As such, it can be inferred that the growth of corporate education in Malaysia has leveraged on the practices of such types of courses or programmes through such types of organisations. Albeit this has been the case with MNCs, it is not to be assumed that the American corporate education model is representative of the general Malaysian understanding of the concept. As will be further explained in this chapter, corporate education in Malaysia is still relatively new and will likely undergo much development before a unique and comprehensive national understanding as well as its ensuing policies and implementation (from the perspectives of both corporations/organisations and universities) can be achieved. Nevertheless, corporate education has been commonly viewed as extending learning beyond university or higher education. Changes that have influenced higher education, defined by Middlehurst (2001) to comprise four parameters, i.e. economic and business dynamics, social and intellectual developments, technological developments and changes in government policy, are, by similar extension, the same drivers that influence the need for corporate education. These new developments have helped to shape a growing demand from the ‘working adult’ population, also including those who failed to quality or participate in higher education at earlier stages in their lives and those seeking further credentials or training

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

Table 1. Current higher education institutions in Malaysia Type

Total throughout Malaysia*

Status**

Public Universities

21

Not-for-profit

Private Universities (including ODL institutions)

23

For-profit

Branch Campuses of Foreign Private Universities

5

For-profit

Private University Colleges

21

For-profit

Polytechnics

27

Not-for-profit

Community Colleges

70

Not-for-profit

TOTAL

167

*Figures as at 2010 (derived from MOHE, 2011) **Not-for-profit public institutions are governed by the MOHE and receive annual funding/budgets for their activities. Fees are also highly subsidised. For-profit private institutions are accountable to the MOHE and must follow specific national policies, but they can be considered semi-autonomous and are independent in generating their own income and profits.

(Middlehurst, 2001). There is also demand coming from newly-created professions and vocations, as well as the interest in lifelong learning.

3. HIGHER AND CORPORATE EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA: A BRIEF OVERVIEW Middlehurst’s (2001) four parameters of change can be considered as global trends that have also made an impact in Malaysia. The Malaysian higher education system underwent restructuring in the 1990s; responding to global trends in terms of privatisation, corporatisation as well as transnational education (Lee, 2005). The main driver for higher education restructuring in Malaysia was increasing social demand – better economic standards and higher secondary school enrolment meant that there was a rising demand for tertiary education; also representing an avenue for social mobility, human capital development, economic growth, as well as a vehicle to promote national identity and unity (Lee, 2005). Before the restructuring process, the government was the main provider of higher education through 11 public universities that were present at the time. The restructuring specifically resulted in the privatisation of Malaysian higher education

and corporatisation of some of the public universities. The corporatisation strategy was thought to be in line with the global trend of changing universities into enterprises and introducing corporate culture and practices to create market competitiveness (Lee, 2005). It was also during this time that new higher education institutions were established in the country, many deriving from the private sector and also helping to further shape the corporatised environment of Malaysian higher education. As a result, today there are six categories recognised under the Ministry of Higher Education, (MOHE), representing 167 institutions nationwide (Table 1). The ‘rebranding’ of five public universities as corporate universities was followed by the amendment of the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 in 1995. This laid the framework for the corporatisation of all public universities (Lee, 2005). At the same time, several more policy changes were made, allowing for the establishment of the National Accreditation Board (now Malaysian Qualifications Agency, MQA); as well as the setting up of private universities and colleges that usually run as autonomous, for-profit entities. This corporatisation of public universities meant to grant greater autonomy and responsibility to public universities, as well as to encourage them to demonstrate greater accountability, ef-

325

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

ficiency and productivity. This strategy is also linked to new social demands that call for more opportunities at the tertiary education level, as well as the national drive towards becoming a more developed, socially inclusive, equitable and knowledgeable Malaysia. As is the case in many other developing countries, when universities operate like corporations, there is a risk that knowledge imparted via higher education becomes a marketable good and a tradable commodity (Lee, 2005). It is unfortunate to note that this is still frequently debated and remains an issue for many countries, including Malaysia. However, at this point it would be useful to consider Newson’s (1998) observation that the emergence of corporatisation to a certain degree concerns a university’s ‘contractual relationship’ with an external ‘corporate donor’, where universities and organisations may exchange benefits over educational or research activities. This form of corporatisation has already been established in Malaysia, particularly in research-based centres in public universities that have established some form of collaboration with a corporate partner. In general, the outlook of corporate education in Malaysia is broad; and similar to that of many other developing countries that perceive it as extended learning beyond higher education. It is seen as a means to build a knowledge-based workforce needed to sustain an increasingly globalised and competitive economic environment. In Malaysia, the importance of corporate education also ties with the concept of lifelong learning; included as one of the seven thrusts of the National Higher Education Strategic Plan (MOHE, 2007). This Plan cites lifelong learning as “… a process for the democratisation of education through the acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies via formal, informal or non-formal means based on workplace experiences or training”. Lifelong learning is a new focus for Malaysia, and has yet to be officially or comprehensively

326

defined in the context of the Malaysian education system. Only recently in November 2011 did the Ministry of Higher Education release the Blueprint on Enculturation of Lifelong Learning for Malaysia (2011-2020) – which is a document that lists the necessary initiatives to encourage lifelong learning in Malaysia and cement it as a pillar in human capital development. The Blueprint stresses on expanding educational opportunities, especially for the working population. This is perhaps the most concrete demonstration of the connection between corporate education and lifelong learning, at least in the Malaysian perspective. Whether or not other countries or economies resort to the same understanding remains to be seen. As stated in the Blueprint, lifelong learning is seen as a way to respond to the rapid pace of globalisation and technological change as well as the changing nature of work and the employment market. Apart from that, lifelong learning also signifies a shift in societal norms – people are encouraged to partake in learning activities (whether formal, non-formal or informal) throughout their lives, beyond the confines of school and university. Achieving the complete concept of corporate education as espoused by Ryan (2010), where learning and knowledge building extends beyond training, is something that can be deemed to be ‘still in the works’ for Malaysia. Presently, on-thejob training and workplace education are given due consideration by the Government; and they are also considered under the ‘umbrella’ term of lifelong learning and as seen in various examples, understood as corporate education. Professional development and corporate education are funded through payroll taxes, incentives for employers to invest in the relevant programmes and other similar approaches. The Human Resource Development Fund (HRDF) and Skills Development Fund (SDF) provide the means for employees to partake in training and retraining programmes. According to the Human Resources Develop-

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

ment Act 1992, certain categories of employers must pay a human resource development levy for each working employee at a rate of one per cent of his/her monthly remuneration. This is channelled directly into the HRDF, which is managed by the Human Resource Development Council (HRDC). Through this levy system, private companies participate on a cost-sharing scheme with the HRDC to finance employee upgrading. A designated body, i.e. the National Institute of Public Administration, or INTAN, manages all training activities for civil servants.

4. CURRENT SCENARIO OF MALAYSIAN CORPORATE EDUCATION To speak of the role of universities in corporate education will be meaningless without exploring the relationship between the higher education institution and the corporate organisation. In general, the traditional understanding of university-corporate relationship involves industrial attachments for students and faculty members. For students, industrial attachments are a common component in many undergraduate degree programmes, usually fulfilled during the final year of a programme. Other forms of partnerships often revolve around research and development (R and D) initiatives; many of which have been established in Malaysia’s five research universities, i.e. Universiti Malaya (UM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). One such example is UM’s Pharmacology Department’s partnership with Shimadzu Corporation. This particular partnership has established the Shimadzu-UMMC Centre for Xenobiotic Studies (SUCXeS) at UM’s medical facility in Kuala Lumpur. The centre provides analytical services in various fields such as medicine, food monitoring, environmental monitoring, pharma-

ceutical analysis, herbal and traditional medicines as well as other biomedical and industrial-related tests using equipments from Shimadzu Corporation – a Japanese manufacturer of scientific equipment (further details of the nature of this partnership is accessible at http://sucxes.um.edu. my/?modul=The_Centre&pilihan=Background). University-corporate relationship in Malaysia is also evident in the establishment of private higher education institutions. Several of Malaysia’s private universities were set up and are funded by Government-linked companies (GLCs), e.g. Multimedia University (MMU) was established by Telekom Malaysia Berhad (Malaysia’s telecommunications company); Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) was established by PETRONAS (Malaysia’s national oil company); and Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) was established by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (Malaysia’s utilities provider). Other private institutions, including branch campuses of foreign universities, have been established by some of Malaysia’s largest conglomerates. Examples include Monash University Malaysia (established by Sunway Berhad); and University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus (established by a consortium that includes Lembaga Tabung Angkatan Tentera or Armed Forces Superannuation Fund (LTAT) via its subsidiary Boustead Holdings Berhad, YTL Corporation Berhad, the University of Nottingham and its Alumni Association). One of the advantages provided by these private universities is the direct connection with large corporations that can absorb graduates upon completion of their studies. These are of course some examples on how universities and corporations have been able to co-operate in the Malaysian environment. They do not comprehensively embody corporate education in Malaysia, where employee training and education remains the most important and visible component. This focus on employee training and education as part of corporate education is deliberate and specific to the understanding of

327

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

corporate education in Malaysia. With anticipated progress in the future, particularly in encouraging and effecting university-industry partnerships, this concept can be further developed. A quick look at current practices in corporate education as practised by private companies in Malaysia reveals that much progress has been made since the early 1990s. At that time, only a small percentage of Malaysian companies conducted training for their employees. A study by Othman & Poon (2000) cited that only 44 per cent of such companies in the manufacturing sector provided formal training, and only 38 per cent with informal training. Albeit by the mid-1990s there was an increase in training activities, the numbers indicate that corporate education was then still considered a low priority. Othman & Poon (2000) believe that the growth in training activities in the mid-1990s was a result of two events, i.e. the establishment of the HRDF following the enactment of the Human Resources Development Act 1992 (resulting in funds for training), and the tight labour market of that time (resulting in high turnover and employers being forced to train new recruits). Another plausible factor, as iterated earlier, is the involvement of MNCs. By introducing the corporate education culture using international curricula and approaches, they certainly played a role in the growing awareness of the importance of employee training and development in Malaysia. While Othman & Poon (2000) reported an increase in training activities, they also cited a low level of sophistication in the delivery of those activities. The more popular approaches were cited as on-the-job coaching, short-term classroom instruction (less than one week) and mentoring. This indicates the low level of ICT embeddedness at the time, although they also predicted that the use of ICT was likely to become more prevalent as Malaysia continues to move towards a knowledge- and technology-based economy. Again, the contribution of MNCs in this regard is something to be noted, particularly those within the IT field.

328

IBM and Hewlett-Packard are two examples of such MNCs that have extensively used e-learning in their corporate education and training approaches, perhaps creating the path for other companies and organisations in Malaysia to follow suit. These new “for-profit e-learning providers” have evolved in stride with Malaysia’s growing capacity of ICT infrastructure (cited in Jung, 2009) as well as the new perspectives on extending higher education beyond universities. This is considered especially true for corporate education. What is equally important to note is that the reasons behind the heightened interest in using ICT for corporate education in Malaysia is similar to that of other countries. Berge (2003) noted seven business drivers that have pushed employers into considering the distance learning approach for training needs: • • • • • • •

The cost to the employer; The lack of time available to trainees and trainers; The fast pace of change and reduction in development-to-delivery cycles; The need to train large numbers of employees; The need to train employees who are spread across a wide geographic area; Reduced training budgets but increased training needs; and The need to become a learning organisation.

The use of ICT as a delivery approach in corporate education, through distance learning or ODL specifically, has the potential to provide solutions to these issues. Standard approaches, like the ones mentioned by Othman & Poon (2000), need revisiting because by being anchored to synchronous, classroom-based delivery, they are unable to provide a time- and cost-effective avenue for training large numbers of employees. An open and flexible pathway, such as one offered via ODL, can respond to diverse needs and be more effective and efficient as well.

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

5. OPEN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA: INTEGRATING OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING AND CORPORATE EDUCATION ODL is founded on the ideals of openness, flexibility, quality and affordability in terms of access, curricula and infrastructure. While the ODL mode of learning remains as structured as its traditional counterparts, oftentimes its learners are separated by time and space. Teaching and learning occurs through the use of various learning materials, both in print and electronic formats such as audio and video cassettes, CD-ROMs and multimedia components such as computer and satellite transmissions. Corporate education programmes, by nature, target business-specific subject matters, delivered ‘just in time and just enough’ within a single company, or through outsourced arrangements and partnerships. As Malaysia’s premier ODL institution, OUM’s major clientele are working adults who enrol into academic programmes as a means of personal or professional advancement, or those who are seizing their ‘second-chance’ opportunity at higher education. As such, OUM focuses on formal academic programmes at diploma, Bachelor’s degree, Master’s and PhD levels. In a decade since its establishment in August 2000, OUM has enrolled more than 110,000 learners in 59 programmes. The institution considers this achievement an indication of a positive market uptake of higher education in Malaysia as well as an awareness of ODL and the desire for continued and lifelong learning amongst Malaysians. OUM is a for-profit institution and also has a professional training arm, Institute of Professional Development (IPD), which provides short modular courses at various levels as well, from career certificate to postgraduate diploma and executive Master’s. OUM is the seventh private university in Malaysia, and the first to operate completely via ODL. It was incorporated as a private university under the Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996.

It is owned by a consortium of the country’s 11 public universities. OUM subscribes to the motto is “University for All”. This is consistent with its philosophy of a democratised education, which is based on the belief that education should be made available and accessible to everyone, regardless of age, gender, location, race or socio-economic background. The ODL mode is especially suitable for working adults who also need to take care of their families while pursuing higher studies. OUM employs a blended learning approach that combines self-managed learning using print modules and other learning resources; face-to-face tutorials; and an online learning platform. The modules are meticulously developed to support self-managed learning, while face-to-face tutorials are held every fortnight at various learning centres nationwide. Other learning resources (illustrated in Figure 1) – many of them available on the Internet via the University’s learning management system, known as my Virtual Learning Environment (myVLE), have also been developed to complement the print modules. These are supported by state-of-the-art ICT infrastructure. In 2006, OUM implemented the Open Entry System with the approval of the MOHE. Now called the Flexible Entry System, it allows the University to enrol learners based on assessment of prior learning. As an alternative channel for admission into higher education, the Flexible Entry System enables an applicant’s relevant work experiences to be evaluated and matched against the learning outcomes of a particular course in an academic programme. This means that those who do not meet the standard minimum entry requirements can still apply at the University; and might even be granted credits if their body of knowledge can be recognised through the accreditation of prior experiential learning (APEL). OUM is also the National Referral Centre for Flexible Entry, with approval from both the MOHE and the MQA. Apart from catering to working adults, OUM has forged several partnerships to offer programmes corresponding to corporate education.

329

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

Figure 1. Various learning resources at OUM

By leveraging on its ICT platform and infrastructure as well as the open and flexible ODL delivery, OUM has thus been able to introduce a new approach in corporate education in Malaysia. This has been the accomplishments of three parties, i.e. the university’s international arm, IPD as well as its parent company, Multimedia Technology Enhancement Operations Sdn Bhd (METEOR). OUM International, IPD and METEOR have targets that are dissociated from OUM’s main operations, focusing their efforts on providing corporate education solutions through partnerships with various ministries and private organisations. The following are an illustration of OUM’s foray into corporate education.

5.1 E-Learning Language Programme The e-Learning Language Programme (ELLP) was designed for one of the leading banks in Malaysia. As a large institution with thousands of employees distributed across different states throughout Malaysia, the bank’s corporate trainers and managers realised that setting up and implementing traditional face-to-face or instructor-led English language training nationwide would be challenging.

330

OUM discovered that the best way to develop an e-learning approach for this kind of training was to design learning content with very close resemblance to face-to-face training courses. Basically, the blended learning approach developed for this programme was acquired via self-managed learning mode and the training modules were presented in CD-based and web-based courseware. Self-managed learning was introduced as the best way to handle training for the large number of employees due to their geographical spread as well as time- and cost-effective factors. As a whole, the EELP helped employees to have a sufficiently clear understanding of an employer’s expectation of their English standard and to work out a self-improvement target for career development.

5.2 Nestlé-OUM Executive Diploma in Manufacturing Management A special example of a partnership developed between OUM and industry is the Nestlé-OUM Executive Diploma in Manufacturing Management (EDMM) programme, which was launched in June 2006. Delivered via a conventional faceto-face manner, trainees attended formal classes

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

at specific locations and schedules. The first batch of 49 First Line Managers (FLMs) graduated in May 2008 while the second batch of 31 FLMs graduated in June 2009. Building upon the success of this programme, Nestlé-OUM introduced the internet-based ODL mode of delivery from its 2009 intake onwards, where the EDMM programme began to be delivered in a blended ODL mode. This consisted of self-managed learning via various print and online resources that allowed the EDMM learners to continue studying while still remaining at work; online support via forums, chat, mobile, e-mail and et cetera with subject-matter experts (SMEs) and peers; as well as face-to-face classroom for tutorials and delivery of topics that require SME/ tutor-learner interaction and/or participation (e.g. sensory evaluation and other skills training). Interaction with shop floor/site SMEs and facilitators (e.g. during projects and coaching) was also included. Based on the success of this programme in Malaysia, OUM is optimistic that it can be similarly adopted in other Nestlé factories worldwide when the e-learning component has been fully developed and tested. If this project materialises, this will be a significant milestone for OUM in embarking on an international training programme which leverages on e-learning to suit the needs of a dynamic multinational organisation which requires new competencies within its workforce.

5.3 Diploma Programmes for AEON Co (M) Berhad Similar to the OUM-Nestlé arrangement, OUM has also collaborated with OUM AEON Co (M) Berhad to conduct several programmes such as Diploma in Retail Management, Diploma in Human Resource, Diploma in Security and Diploma in Business Management to their management trainees since 2002. As the Malaysian branch of the giant Japanese retail company, AEON Malaysia also has thousands of employees located across

most urban areas in the country. The short- and medium-term programmes are specifically developed to raise the competencies and skills of industry employees. They are also structured in such a way that allows employers to track employee performance, even after the completion of their study. This helps to lend credibility to the programmes as employers are able to see how this type of corporate education translates into workplace efficiency and productivity. Thus far, almost 1,000 of their staff have enrolled in these programmes at OUM. The theoretical section of these programmes is conducted in the classroom, while practical work is carried out at designated departmental stores. This win-win collaboration has proven to be a very effective training mechanism for training the employees of this large retailer.

5.4 Initiatives by OUM International OUM International focuses on forging crossborder partnerships with foreign institutions and conducting short- and medium-term training courses, usually involving ministries and officers from the civil service. Thus far, OUM International has had success in countries like Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka; having trained officers in customised professional development courses. One of the latest courses to have been conducted involved officers from the Sri Lankan Ministry of Education. This project, funded by the World Bank, trained more than 30 officers who were divided into three batches; each undergoing two weeks of training in Malaysia. They underwent three needs-based programmes in Measurement and Evaluation, Management for IT Administrators and Best Practices in School Library Development. This unique arrangement also combined classroom activities with field trips to Smart Schools around Malaysia as well as various divisions in Malaysia’s own Ministry of Education.

331

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

5.5 Human Capital Development Project for Northern Corridor Implementation Agency

All of these different focus areas lead to corresponding Professional Diploma qualifications with an international perspective. Some 500 participants from diverse backgrounds such as tourist guides, hotel and resort management and staff were trained for 11 months and job placement for the graduates was also duly executed. A convocation ceremony for these graduates was held in mid-February 2011.

various training and education needs for former members of the country’s army, naval and air forces to ensure that they receive sufficient assistance for their own socio-economic well-being as Malaysian citizens. Recognising the importance of continued education and development of Malaysia’s armed forces, this partnership focuses on providing these individuals with the relevant academic and semi-technical qualifications that can help them keep abreast with current technologies, be academically proficient and attain the right knowledge and work skills that will be essential when they are eventually discharged from duty. These qualifications are also meant to help them develop entrepreneurship skills that will be vital for their continued growth outside their service in the armed forces. In general, this partnership caters to all levels of study, from diploma to postgraduate, and also includes short courses and executive diplomas. Some of the immediate forthcoming plans under this partnership include promotion exercises at 157 schools for the armed forces nationwide and the offering of at least two short courses each month. The first batch should see at least 60 learners enrolling in the Diploma in Information and Technology, 80 in the Diploma of Management and another 70 in the Professional Diploma in Safety and Security programmes, respectively. Within the next several years, OUM expects to have an annual enrolment of 3,000 PERHEBAT members (those who are about to leave the service) and 2,000 in-service personnel as well. OUM also provides advisory services for PERHEBAT to establish a university college of its own in the near future.

5.6 OUM-PERHEBAT: Educating Malaysia’s Armed Forces

5.7 MOHR-OUM Certificate in Legal Practice

This collaboration brought OUM together with Perbadanan Hal Ehwal Bekas Angkatan Tentera (PERHEBAT), an organisation that manages

Borne of a partnership with the Ministry of Human Resources (MOHR), this unique programme was designed as a training scheme for unemployed

In order to boost the tourism and hospitality sector in the four northern states of Malaysia, i.e. Kedah, Penang, Perak and Perlis, OUM was identified to manage and deliver manpower requirements for the tourism and hospitality sector in the fourth quarter of 2010. The Northern Corridor Implementation Agency (NCIA) was established as a corporate body under the purview of the Prime Minister’s Office, whose responsibilities are to spearhead, manage and implement socio-economic development in the abovementioned states. The long-term objective of this programme is to encourage lifelong learning and to deliver community tourism development and its human capital supply. The programme focuses in the following areas of professional and certification: • • • • •

332

Hospitality Management; Travel and Tourism; Culinary Art; Events Management; and Retail Management.

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

graduates from various backgrounds. The increasing unemployment rate amongst graduates in Malaysia has been a worrying trend for some time and this particular project is one such contribution by OUM to help alleviate the problem at the national level. Learners underwent 10 months of training before receiving certification in legal practice and given job placements as legal assistants in legal firms throughout Malaysia. In total, 170 learners successfully completed this programme in 2010. Judging from OUM’s experience during the last number of years, perhaps the most significant plus point for the institution is its ability to leverage on ICT and academic strength not only to deliver high quality corporate education courses, but also to forge collaborations with industry players as well as government agencies seeking to train and develop their own respective employees. Malaysia’s growing ICT sector – in terms of infrastructure, acceptance, culture and awareness – is a good sign; indicating the country’s capacity to adapt to more advanced educational approaches. The above has described OUM’s efforts in corporate education in its drive to be the premier force in educating adult learners in Malaysia. It is clear that ODL represents an approach that can truly benefit corporate education – allowing organisations to develop competitive advantage in an equally competitive environment.

6. UNIVERSITY-CORPORATE PARTNERSHIPS: WHAT IS THE ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES? In its own right, OUM can be said to have contributed to corporate education in Malaysia. The role of ODL and ICT in creating opportunities for learning as well as in expanding the reach of education is something that has been demonstrated not only in OUM or Malaysia, but in many other institutions worldwide. However, in further devel-

oping, promoting and evolving corporate education in Malaysia, it will be necessary to examine the nature of university-corporate relationships. The university and the corporation are unique entities – Likins (1998) makes the distinction that corporations aim to maximise financial benefits while operating within societal constraints, while universities generally want to maximise societal benefits within financial constraints. Because each has a different objective, creating a balanced and effective partnership requires mutual compromise from both partners. Likins (1998) believes that this can take place when the academic partner understands the profit motive, while the industry partner accepts the importance of protecting the prestige of knowledge in the public domain. Johnson (2003) provides a comprehensive guide to university-industry relationship from the perspective of a global company, Hewlett Packard. Partnerships are often sought when both parties recognise a need and an opportunity to add value to their organisations. However, sustaining the relationship takes more than just interest in reaping benefits. Continuum can only be achieved when there is trust and the partnership is deep enough to create more opportunities for engagement. A higher and more holistic level of engagement (i.e. towards Phase 5) can only be achieved when the relationship is well-established and mature (See Figure 2). In Malaysia, university-corporate partnerships are encouraged as a way to enhance the quality of graduates upon their exit from the university system and into the working world. The Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) (Economic Planning Unit (EPU), 2010) outlines the Government’s stand in promoting stronger university-corporate links. As iterated earlier, the most traditional form of this relationship is industrial attachments. In addition to this, the Government has stated the need to enhance market orientation of programmes; expand industrial attachments beyond fields with mandatory clinical/laboratory training

333

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

Figure 2. The university-industry relationship continuum (adapted from Johnson, 2003)

(e.g. medicine and dentistry); and encourage faculty members to obtain industrial experience for themselves. The Government has introduced the Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP) Programme in 2011 as an initiative in facilitating (EPU, 2010): • • •

The forging of collaboration between universities and the industry; The transfer of expertise and research findings through joint innovation projects; and Industrial-based training for graduates to enhance practical knowledge, business skills and employability.

Through the KTP programme, universities will also be encouraged to develop strategic partnerships with international research institutions and foreign universities to enhance R&D activities. Thus, it can be inferred that at present, the focus for university-corporate partnerships in Malaysia remains to be quite conventional. To understand the role of universities in enhancing university-corporate partnerships, it is useful to outline the objectives behind the need for collaboration. Likins (1998) cites the need to obtain research funding from external sources;

334

a particular concern for for-profit institutions. Ryan (2009) lists several other reasons, including corporations’ concern for adding strength, credibility and value to their in-house corporate education programmes; the advantages of the university (i.e. formal credentials that stand as a mark of achievement; availability of resources and facilities; access to comprehensive resources; capacity to provide objective research input); the possibility of integrating university research with corporate education content; and for the universities, the promise of a long-term ‘cross pollinating’ or ‘cross fertilising’ relationship where there is a chance to learn, exchange ideas and pursue joint research projects. From an academic point of view, the compartmentalisation of knowledge, or rather, the lack of integration of knowledge across different disciplines, especially at the undergraduate level, is also a factor in driving university-corporate partnerships (Narasimharao & Nair, 2010). Having described some of the objectives behind a partnership, we can thus explore what role the universities play in enhancing partnerships with corporations beyond that of research endeavours and industrial attachments; as well as in improving provision of corporate education. Narasimharao

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

and Nair (2010) provides a useful list of expectations in corporate education partnerships. For the university, these include: •

•

• •

• • •

To decide what and how much knowledge is relevant to be integrated into corporate education needs; To determine programmes and courses that are needed to enhance employee skills, performance and productivity; To develop and customise delivery of corporate education programmes; To provide objectivity to a corporation and challenge its traditional thinking and paradigms; To integrate university research with the content of said programmes; To grant awards based on different skills, knowledge and management levels; and To leverage on industry resources to enhance university academic programmes as well as to combine them with university expertise.

The business of a university is in producing knowledge. Thus, its role in a university-corporate partnership will naturally involve leveraging on academic expertise and core processes that lead to the development of knowledge that is relevant in a corporate environment. To do so, universities need to accommodate the educational needs and goals of their corporate partners. At the same time, faculty members and university staff who are directly involved in a partnership are pressured to contribute to the university’ research funding while meeting required quality in their regular, day-to-day teaching tasks. This might prove complicated, especially for individuals who struggle with the idea of additional workload or time spent at work. A university’s most obvious contribution in a partnership is from the academic perspective – universities develop course materials, lesson plans,

schedules, assessment and other criteria related to corporate education programme design. These are likely to be different from the traditional academic programme and incur direct financial costs to the university in terms of setting up, writing, supervising and managing corporate education programmes as well as awarding qualifications in a workplace setting. Universities must be sufficiently flexible in dealing with their corporate counterpart while adhering to the terms detailed in a matrix of responsibilities. The latter must be developed at an early phase of any partnership to ensure that all processes are executed properly according to set rubrics as well as to minimise any misunderstanding during the running of said programmes. Both partners need to work together to develop the matrix so that neither feels ‘shortchanged’ in the collaboration. From OUM’s own collaborative experience, other components are also encompassed in the roles and responsibilities of the university. For instance, if the corporate partner is allowed to run the university’s academic programmes independently, then the university needs to conduct regular audits that involve the inspection of various operations and review of the relevant documents, e.g. learner files, assessment questions and answer scripts. This is an essential exercise that will allow both partners to monitor the progress of the collaboration, identify problems and troubleshoot where necessary. The sharing of resources is also important – OUM’s contribution to all of its partnerships involves the sharing of all learning materials related to the programmes, as well as learning processes and systems, including its elearning platform, myVLE. In summary, a university’s role and contribution to a university-corporate partnership is centred on the university’s academic strengths and main business in producing knowledge. Operational expenses are to be anticipated, while indirect costs, e.g. inflexible attitudes, bureaucratic barriers, cultural differences and potential conflict

335

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

are problems that need to be overcome if the partnership is to be sustained (Breen, 2001). These ‘internal’ challenges must be heeded by universities and naturally call for some adjustments on the part of the participating members of the collaboration. In her thesis, Breen (2001) also notes the importance of reciprocity, trust and synergy – all of which can bolster a partnership towards the promise of ‘cross pollination’ between industry and academia as well as a more holistic engagement in university-corporate relationship.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS That corporate education and ODL can be integrated is not a surprising turn of events, especially as we have seen that new perspectives in higher education, an awareness of the importance of continuous learning opportunities and the use of ICT in modern educational practices often take place in concert. The various advantages offered by ODL have provided the solutions required for corporate education programmes to be delivered in a way that is time- and cost-effective for employers and employees while regularly involving large numbers of employees in multinational settings. As long as human capital development remains an interest for nations as well as companies and employers, the creation and encouragement of performative knowledge through corporate education will also remain relevant. At the moment, it will be difficult to say that work-based learning has been successfully acculturated in the Malaysian workforce. That said, the awareness of the importance of lifelong learning and benefits of professional development programmes is growing; evident in the positive trends that we have seen at OUM. However, at this point in time, challenges remain rife. Budgets (whether national or institutional) are limited, cutbacks occur when companies have to react to

336

unstable economic conditions and others have also raised the issues of global liberalisation, the complexity of today’s service trade, new regulatory requirements, the demand of technological advancement as well as brain drain resulting from retirement (Ripsam, Landry & Fusco, 2009). These contribute to the problems faced by both corporate education providers and employers. For Malaysia, the focus will be to create a favourable policy environment that can encourage employers to invest in corporate education, as well as to foster greater awareness for lifelong learning. Infrastructure-wise, Malaysia can already attest to a healthy growth of its ICT sector. In 2009, the communications and multimedia industry managed to achieve a growth of 113 per cent in market capitalisation (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, 2010). Also, important on the agenda is the National Broadband initiative. Since 2007, the Government has focused on expanding and improving broadband access and penetration – a component that will be vital for ODL and other ICT-based educational delivery to move forward. For OUM specifically, while its role in corporate education is not as distinctive as that in its formal academic programmes, its partnerships with key industrial players and several government agencies demonstrate the relevance of ODL in the world today. The flexibility, quality, accessibility and affordability of ODL, combined with the specialised business needs of corporate education, can prove to be a lucrative and successful strategy for national development. Moving forward will entail exploring niche areas and specific disciplines that are designed to cater to various skill sets required in different industries, especially in the services sector. Partnerships will remain a key strategy as well, as we hope to cement the integration of ODL and corporate education even more in Malaysia. To move forward in a university-corporate partner-

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

ship for corporate education specifically, it will be vital to discover the middle ground where academic esteem is protected and corporate demands are fulfilled. ‘Cross pollination’ would be the ultimate achievement in corporate education; one that will spell a rejuvenated approach towards the development, exchange and application of knowledge for the mutual benefit of all.

REFERENCES Barnett, R. (2000). University knowledge in an age of supercomplexity. Higher Education, 40, 409–422. doi:10.1023/A:1004159513741 Berge, Z. L. (2003). Planning and managing distance training and education in the corporate sector. In Moore, M. G., & Anderson, W. G. (Eds.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 601–613). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Breen, H. (2001). Cooperative education partnerships: An examination of reciprocal relationships between universities and tourism and hospitality industry organisations in providing professional development education for their employees. Master’s Thesis. Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales. Retrieved March 12, 2012, from http://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1053&context=theses Corporate Education. (2012). In Education.com. Retrieved February 22, 2012, from http://www. education.com/defintion/corporate-education/ Economic Planning Unit. (2010). The tenth Malaysia plan (2011-2015). Retrieved February 24, 2012, from http://www.epu.gov.my/html/themes/ epu/html/RMKE10/rmke10_english.html

Johnson, W. C. (2003, December). University relations: The HP model. Industry and Higher Education, 17(6), 391–395. doi:10.5367/000000003322776280 Jung, I. (2009, March/April). The emergence of for-profit e-learning providers in Asia. TechTrends, 53(2), 18–21. doi:10.1007/s11528-0090262-1 Lee, M. N. N. (2005). Global trends, national policies and institutional responses: Restructuring higher education in Malaysia. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 3, 31–46. doi:10.1007/s10671-004-6034-y Likins, P. (1998, Winter). Corporate partnerships: What’s in it for the university. Retrieved February 24, 2012, from http://www.columbia. edu/cu/21stC/issue-3.1/likins.html Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC). (2010). 2009 annual report: Broadband towards 1Malaysia. Cyberjaya, Malaysia: MCMC. Meister, J. C. (1998). Corporate universities: Lessons in building a world-class workforce. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Middlehurst, R. (2001). University challenges: Borderless higher education, today and tomorrow. Minerva, 39, 3–26. doi:10.1023/A:1010343517872 Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (2007). National higher education strategic plan (20072010). Retrieved April 27, 2011, from http://www. mohe.gov.my/ Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (2011). Statistics of higher education of Malaysia. Putrajaya, Malaysia: MOHE.

337

Integrating Corporate Education in Malaysian Higher Education

Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Nair, P. R. R. (2010). Universities and corporate education: 21st century responsibility for developing countries. Discussion Papers in Social Responsibility, 1002. Retrieved February 24, 2012, from http://www. socialresponsibility.biz/discuss1002.pdf Newson, J. (1998). The corporate-linked university: From social project to market force. Canadian Journal of Communication, 23(1). Retrieved February 22, 2012, from http://www.cjc-online.ca/ index.php/journal/article/viewArticle/1026/932 Othman, R., & Poon, J. M. L. (2000, December). Management training and development practices of Malaysian organizations. Management Review, 35(2). Retrieved April 27, 2011, from http://mgv. mim.edu.my/MMR/0012/001210.Htm

338

Prince, C., & Beaver, G. (2000). The rise and rise of the corporate university: The emerging corporate learning agenda. The International Journal of Management Education, 1(2), 17–26. doi:10.3794/ijme.12.5 Ryan, L. (2009). Exploring the growing phenomenon of university-corporate education partnerships. Management Decision, 47(8), 1313–1322. doi:10.1108/00251740910984569 Ryan, L. (2010). Corporate education: A practical guide to effective corporate learning. Salisbury, Australia: Griffin Press. Ryan, Y. (2001). Higher education as a business: Lessons from the corporate world. Minerva, 39, 115–135. doi:10.1023/A:1010334721507

339

Chapter 24

Internalizing Quality Culture: Professionalizing University Education Ganesh A. Hegde National Assessment and Accreditation Council, India

ABSTRACT The Indian higher education system is witnessing a myriad of changes and challenges through the years, i.e., from ancient Gurukul system to the modern technology based learning system. India is a land of diverse cultures, religions, and communities. It has a unique geography and the absorption of customs, traditions, and ideas. Every region of the country portrays different customs and traditions. ‘Unity in Diversity’ has been the distinctive feature of Indian culture. Diversity in India can be seen in terms of religious practices, languages, society, family, customs, festivals, cuisine, clothing, literature, poetry, music and dance, paintings, sculptures, architecture, recreation and traditional sports, and plurality in terms of many religions, beliefs, and institutions. India has 122-languages and 234-mother tongues and numerous festivals come in every month for celebrations. From ancient period to modern times, higher education has always occupied a place of prominence in Indian history. Lord Macaulay, in 1835, advocated the need to train natives of the country thoroughly in good English language. Subsequently, the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay (now Mumbai), and Madras were set up in 1857, followed by the University of Allahabad in 1887 (Kuldeep Kaur, 2003). India has 634 University level institutions and 33,023 colleges (UGC, 2012). Higher Education Institutions demonstrate a high commitment to develop and embed quality through various programmes and activities. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2845-8.ch024

Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Internalizing Quality Culture

INTRODUCTION Quality begins on the inside... and then works its way out. -Bob Moawad Many external environmental pressures such as competition, globalization, market forces and limited autonomy impose on the capacity and capabilities of the institutions. In many of the state funded universities limited autonomy, inadequate or decreased funding, intrusion in governance come in the way of ensuring quality. Despite these constraints, Higher Education Institutions aspire to improve their quality and try to establish and ensure their accountability. Responsibility of ensuring their accountability and quality primarily lies with the Institutions of higher education themselves, shouldered by the staff and the students. Therefore, it is imperative that each institution has to develop efficient Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) system to professionalise the education. There is no single model that fits all. It is up to the institution to decide what model fits it best. Some good practices could be borrowed and some could be adapted according to the situation. Experiences at other institutions may also be used in developing an IQA system. In order to assist the higher education institutes the government of India established an autonomous body called National assessment and accreditation council. Before discussing the IQA system, for the sake of clarity and understanding, we will briefly review the Assessment and Accreditation System in India.

National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) The University Grants Commission (UGC) established the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) in 1994 with headquarters at Bangalore. The vision and mission statements of NAAC clearly specify its functioning, highlighting

340

quality assurance mechanism in higher education institutions with the combination of self and external quality evaluation, promotion & sustenance activities and initiatives. The prime agenda of NAAC is to Assess and Accredit institutions of higher learning with an objective of helping them to work continuously to improve the quality of education. Assessment is a performance evaluation of an institution and/or its units and is accomplished through a process based on self-study and peer review using defined criteria. Accreditation refers to the certification by NAAC, valid for a period of five Years. It grades the Institutions on a Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) of four point scale1. The process of Assessment followed by NAAC is in accordance with internationally accepted practice with modifications to suit the Indian context. The philosophy of NAAC is ameliorative and enabling rather than punitive or judgmental, so that all constituencies of institutions of higher learning are empowered to maximize their resources, opportunities and capabilities. NAAC is not the only accrediting agency in India. National Board of Accreditation (NBA) is another agency, constituted by the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), as an Autonomous Body, under Section 10(u) of the AICTE Act, 1987. The main objective of this agency is to periodically conduct evaluation of technical Institutions or Programmes on the basis of guidelines, norms and standards specified by it and to make recommendations to AICTE or to the Council, or to the commission or to other bodies, regarding recognition or de-recognition of the institution or programme. Accreditation signifies different things to different stakeholders. Accreditation in general means recognition and guarantee of minimum quality. For the NBA it means a process of quality assurance, giving credit where it is due. For parents, it signifies good, quality education. For students, it signifies that the institution of his choice has the essential and desirable features of

Internalizing Quality Culture

Quality Professional Education. For the employers, it signifies that the students passing out have competence based on well-grounded technical standards of AICTE, that the institutional performance is based on assessment through a competent body of Quality assessors, that give a feedback on their Strengths & Weaknesses as help to policymaking. For the institution, it signifies its strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for future growth. For the industry and infrastructure providers it signifies identification of quality of institutional capabilities and Skills & Knowledge. For the country, it signifies confidence in the Suitability for sustaining stockpiles of market sensitive human capital and a pragmatic national development perspective. For the alumni, it signifies attachment through the pride of passing out with credentials. AICTE gives approval for new Institutions or for starting new programmes based on Credibility of Institutional Management and the Programme providers’ assurance of compliance to AICTE Norms and Standards. NBA accreditation of the institutional programmes is based on the potential of an institution for sustenance and enhancement. Institution needs to demonstrate capability of the programme to adhere to the qualitative criteria for Accreditation. During the onsite visit to the institution, the peer group of NBA experts makes relevant recommendations to the Institution2.

ICAR Accreditation Board The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous organization under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. It has 97 institutes directly under the umbrella of ICAR and 47 Agricultural Universities spread across the country. This is one of the largest national agricultural systems in the world. ICAR Accreditation Board would assist the people, prospective students, educational institutions, professional societies, potential

employers, government and other concerned agencies in identifying those institutions and their programmes which meet the minimum norms and standards prescribed by the Council. It also provides guidance for improvement of the existing agricultural education institutions/programs and helps to develop new institutions/programs.

The Ecology of Indian Higher Education Institutions in India are undergoing massive transformation because of Government involvement, societal demands, and increasing private participation. The expectations of society, industry and service sector have changed drastically over the years. The change is mainly because of the expansion of higher education system in India and new demands made on the eco-system of Higher Education. The demands of knowledge society are constantly increasing and the higher education institutions have to play a crucial role. It is in this context internalizing the quality culture to professionalize the university education is discussed. Many institutions like central, deemed, private universities have been established during the last five to eight years. Specialized institutes are being established in the education as well as universities have become specialized in single areas such as Engineering, Law, Horticulture, Medical etc,. Rapid expansion has taken place in terms of the number of institutions during the last ten years, However, in terms of quality of courses offered, infrastructure, ambience, staff, teaching, support services etc. in many institutes is still wanting. It is very difficult to draw a line about quality of education with such diverse types of Institutions. It may be argued that the concepts like corporate education, outreach and engagement may force the institutions to upgrade themselves by ensuring internal quality assurance systems. These are in a way explained in chapters 18 and 21.

341

Internalizing Quality Culture

Internal Quality Assurance Systems (Cells) Competitive environment in the world demands good quality education. Quality has to be thought of in terms of faculty, academic environment, teaching-learning process, research, campus life, classrooms and their environment, support services and infrastructure, modernization of library, updating of library books, journals and reference materials. Today improving the quality of education and campus life is the major concern of higher education. Retention of good staff in the Universities and Colleges is a challenging task for the managements. To keep the institutions at their optimum level, and to ensure growth in quality, one needs to establish Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC- NAAC,1996) The composition may be representative of all the stakeholders such as management, faculty, staff, students, alumni, industry etc. IQAC is to develop a system for conscious and consistent improvement in the performance of the institution of higher education to achieve better quality in education. NAAC is triggering a ‘Quality Culture’ among the various constituents of the higher education institutions, as well as enhancing the awareness of Institutional Quality Assurance among all stakeholders. NAAC urges every accredited institution to establish an Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) as a post-accreditation quality sustenance measure. Since quality enhancement is a continuous process, the IQAC will become a part of an institution’s system and work towards realizing its goals. Most of the institutions have already started establishing IQA systems in their institutions during the first accreditation cycle itself. The purpose of the IQAC is to strive towards ensuring lean, effective and development-oriented IQA systems, mutual inspiration, capacity building in terms of IQA, sharing of experiences of good practices and development of a good quality culture.

342

The term Quality Culture refers to the creation of a shared set of values and commitments to monitoring quality within universities/colleges. Quality culture aims at the creation of engagements, commitment and conviction with stakeholders to meet and improve the learning abilities. Quality commitment in terms of work, projects, engagements and delivery in time would enhance the credibility of the institutions. (EUA, 2005) Universities need to have effective and meaningful ways to ensure that quality assurance (QA) mechanisms improve quality and support internal changes. This culture can be promoted through the creation of a space for debate and discussions by the IQAC about quality mechanisms. The role of the IQAC coordinators becomes crucial in terms of channelizing the goals of the institution into action. IQACs in Universities may have a few best practices and benchmarks to project to other universities. The European University Association (EUA) has carried out a Quality Culture Project on Developing an Internal Quality Culture in European Universities (2002-2003), funded by the Socrates Programme, to enable participating institutions to discuss how to introduce and embed a quality culture in their institutions and develop action plans in specific thematic areas. (www.eua.be) The Socrates Programme3 study reveals that staff development schemes must be implemented in an integrated and coherent way to ensure overall development of teachers as well as students. Students are key members of the academic community. Through feedback, their potential must be developed with appropriate leadership training. There should be opportunities for students to serve in university committees and activities where they can contribute constructively. There needs to be clarity of roles and expected contributions of universities and their stakeholders. To ensure deep attitudinal change, the community must work together to define quality–however difficult be that task and contextualise it, based on accurate identification of the institution’s internal

Internalizing Quality Culture

and external environments. It further suggests that Governments should play a key role in creating appropriate conditions for quality and appropriate external quality assurance procedures that build on and promote internal quality processes. Internal quality culture is viewed as the essential precondition to ensure public accountability and strengthen institutional autonomy. (www.enqa. edu). All this may also mean the universities need to associate themselves closely with their surrounding society and the societal needs for developing quality culture. The corporate education concept as discussed by Narasimharao et al (2011) may help universities to develop internal quality culture by associating themselves with societal needs. In this context we may further elaborate on institutional quality assurance. Janne Parri, MA Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, states that Internal or institutional quality assurance aims at institutional development and assessment of internal accountability. Institutional quality assurance incorporates every institutional activity that focuses on quality assurance and development in all the fields of activity of the institution (European dimension of institutional quality management, 2000). Internal quality assurance concentrates mainly on academic issues and lies in collecting evidence and information about mission fulfilment, efficiency of activity and ways of assuring quality within the institution (El-Khawas, 1998). Quality assurance systems are classified according to the aims and in this context, we can speak about the so-called A’s and E’s of quality: The A’s of quality are assurance, accountability, audit and assessment. They are strongly connected with control – to quality control. Quality assurance mechanisms are imposed by university administration or state and they concentrate on ensuring the minimum (often not defined) level of instruction and courses. The ‘E’s of quality include empowerment, enthusiasm, expertise and excellence of the staff. These aspects characterise the raising of quality

(McKay, Kember, 1999). It is well known that what distinguishes the quality of an institution is the quality of its faculty. According to John Biggs (2001) three stages are involved in the institutional reflective practice: (1) articulating an espoused theory of teaching, the quality model (QM); (2) continually improving on current practice through quality enhancement (QE), in which staff development should play an important role; and (3) making quality feasible (QF), by removing impediments to good teaching, which often arise through distorted priorities in institutional policy and procedures. These three stages, QM, QE, and QF, are essential ingredients in the prospective Quality Assurance. Good performance of the institutions helps them to attract more research projects, good students, parental support, and enhances their social image. Keeping on undertaking more and more projects will ensure better flow of resources, both human and infrastructural. It will also improve its chances of getting sanctions for more projects and financial assistance. In short, resources and reputation tend to be mutually reinforcing.

Corporate Education and Governance Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs (IICA), has been established by the Indian Ministry of Corporate Affairs for capacity building and training- relevant to corporate regulation and governance such as corporate and competition law, accounting and auditing issues, compliance management, corporate governance, business sustainability through environmental sensitivity and social responsibility, e-Governance etc. IICA would provide a platform for dialogue, interaction and partnership between governments, corporate, investors, civil society, professionals, academicians and other stake holders in the emerging 21st century environment. The Indian Corporate Law Service (ICLS) Academy, located in the Indian Institute of

343

Internalizing Quality Culture

Corporate Affairs (IICA), has the responsibility for conducting the induction training for the Probationary Officers (POs) belonging to the ICLS. It has School of Corporate Law, School of Competition Law, School of Finance, School of Business Environment and School of Corporate Governance & Public Policy. Students need to focus on corporate communication and public relations with various stakeholders, like shareholders, government, regulators and other related authorities. They need to study advisory services for brand equity and image building, human resource management, office management, work studies, performance standards etc. Similar kind of analysis of requirement of students in different fields is to be assessed for cultivating internal quality assurance and professionalizing university education.

Issues and Challenges The challenge before the IQAC is to systematize the quality parameters in the Institution. The tasks ahead of IQAC are, (1.) creating awareness and building confidence; (2.) setting a documentation process; (3.) evolving formats for information and data collection; (4.), setting up of specific schedule for work; and, (5.), drafting of quality-status report. Though the task appears to be enormous initially, in the subsequent years, the work being reduced to updating the data and redefining strategies for better results. Thus, IQAC in the institution needs to be seen as the first step towards quality enhancement. Its success depends on the sense of belongingness it would inculcate in all the constituents of the institution. Therefore, IQAC becomes a vehicle for ushering in quality. One of the important functions of IQAC is to develop realistic and attainable quality benchmarks or fix standards for each of the academic and administrative activities of the institution. The most critical function of IQAC is to keep the institution abreast of and abuzz with quality

344

sustenance activities on a wide gamut of pertinent issues through Workshops/Seminars/Demonstrations/Case Studies etc. Multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional activities will expose the students and teachers to new frontiers of knowledge. Integrating different disciplines for meeting the demands of knowledge society ensures that the universities are maintaining quality in terms of societal needs as well. Chapter 6 discusses the importance of integrating different disciplines. The following tasks are suggested to inculcate quality culture among the faculty, the staff and the students.

Division of Work for Cata Collection and Analysis The data collection has to be the collective responsibility of the entire institution. Several small groups under the umbrella of IQAC need to be formed and faculty, staff and students should be included in these groups. While assigning tasks to different groups the interests and aptitudes of the persons involved should be kept in mind. As we all know, the role of the person in charge of the work is crucial. It depends upon his/her abilities to perform and convince the other staff to participate whole heartedly in the assigned work. A plan of action using the SMART method may help the person to achieve the required goals. S is for Specific, M is for Measurable, A is for Achievable, R is for Realistic, T is for Timely. Work should start slowly, gradually building up the effort put in. Teamwork builds the institution. While talking about Quality, the personnel (academic and support staff) comes first, and then comes the quality of the institution. While gathering the data, it is necessary to keep in mind that the data pertaining to individual departments may be different but each one good in its own way. For example, a Chemistry department and a Social Work department will publish their research work in journals pertaining to their respective domains. The faculty of Chemistry may

Internalizing Quality Culture

publish papers in some high impact journals and the Social Work department in a national journal where impact factor may not be known. Both should be given due regard. Supplying appropriate formats may help the faculty in submitting the data. Developing incentives and staff development schemes would bring a functional quality culture. Extension work and other institutional social responsibility need to be publicized in many forum. Data keeping and projecting the same in various forum is needed to be taken care of by the institutions. These data would be very useful for internal and external academic audits.

Leadership Provided to Empower the Faculty, Administrative and Support Staff and the Students Conducive atmosphere for quality enhancement can be created in the institution if every member of the faculty and staff owes an active allegiance to quality. The Head of the Institution should plan separate meetings of faculty and of administrative and support staff to impress upon them the importance of the task and to create an atmosphere of co-operative partnership in achieving quality. Leaders make things happen. A visionary leader stands for enhancing and sustaining quality, empowering people and ushering in the required paradigm shift to redefine the vision and mission of the institution and meet the challenges of the times. Institutions flourish or perish depending largely on the leadership qualities of the persons at the helm of affairs. One more dimension of the leader is Motivation. How the leader motivates the subordinates makes a huge difference. Motivation accelerates positive attitudes. It is a quest for insight, wholeness, integrity and better performance. Motivation is everybody’s problem. The Principal of a college/Vice Chancellor of a University would like to motivate his/her staff. The teacher would like to motivate the students. The parents want to motivate their children. From the time we get up

in the morning to the time we go to bed at night, we run into dozens of situations where we need to motivate others. Without motivation, there is no change. Without a change there is no enhanced learning. Without learning there is no action. Without action there is no result. Ultimately, change is the order of the day. Motivation accelerates this process of becoming a good person and an effective leader. Transformational leadership through relationships would be more effective for achievement of the set goals. Hence, learned people have said ‘Education is the ability to meet life’s situations’. That is the universities need to develop mechanisms for developing ability of its students and faculty to apply their knowledge in real life situations. Developing corporate education strategies and using the concepts like professinalisation, engaged scholarship, outreach etc., may help in this regard. Education received from an institution is put into practice in different ways in different areas. Faculty needs to demonstrate individual excellence. This needs to be promoted by enhancing student learning experience by arousing curiosity to stimulate and inspire learning. Faculty needs to organise and present resources cogently and imaginatively. They need to recognise and support diversity of learning needs of students. Faculty will have students from rural, economically backward, poor and marginalised sections of society as well. Special monitoring and mentoring is required for these types of students. As Braskamp and Wergin (1997) argue, universities need to reorient themselves as active partners with parents, teachers, principals, community advocates, business leaders, community agencies and general citizenry. Faculty needs to be encouraged to raise its profile of excellence through teaching and research. Developing individual excellence is more important in the career of a faculty. Motivating and supporting colleagues and influencing them for writing reports, research articles and books would help in overall development of a faculty.

345

Internalizing Quality Culture

Faculty need to be groomed for research as well as teaching. Experience enhances the endurance and energy of the faculty. It further enhances if students are involved in research and other related works. Support for students increases the power of learning and helps to imbibe a good culture of research and other allied areas. This profile of excellence may be demonstrated through the impact of academic as well as professional roles. It may be exhibited through contribution and development of colleagues to promote student learning and community development. Developing excellence is another area on which teachers need to focus. Commitment to ongoing professional development with regard to teaching and learning and research needs must be continued. It needs to be supported by ongoing review and enhancement of individual practices. Such practices would include becoming good researchers, editors of journals, board members, fellows of different societies, publishing papers in journals with high impact, raising the bar individual Citation index, h-index (Hirsch Index), community engagement etc.

Use of ICT and Data Management Any individual in today’s world needs to be updated for the use of ICT. To work in the university system you need expertise in the use of computers, software and other related new gadgets. It is necessary to work with different formats and software of data management. On the basis of the feedback from students, parents, alumni, faculty, administrative and support staff, one needs to develop software for feedback mechanism. This would help IQAC in undertaking systematic analysis. The Student Information System (SIS), will provide all types of data related to each student aspects like admission, attendance, fee payment, internal assessment marks, personal achievements, cultural activities, sports and issuance of transfer certificate.

346

Computerization of the entire documentation system, including data on processes of Examinations, Evaluation, Minutes of meetings, Public Disclosure system must be undertaken. One must also set up systems for monitoring of Website, WiFi Facilities, and Networking. Intercom connectivity for all the departments and facilities must be put in place for easy access for all stakeholders.

Deciding Time Schedule for Work Setting deadlines is of paramount importance since collection of data is a rather difficult task. It would be advisable for the Head of the Institution to set time schedules with deadlines. The IQAC should work out a strategy for checking the progress of this work. Academic calendar should focus on admission, faculty, support staff, evaluation pattern, counseling, internship, computer lab facility, library, hostel, sports, scholarships, examination, declaration of results and other such details. Each year the activities can be identified and monitored. From first year to fourth year, the Institution may plan for short-term and long-term goals. Areas like infrastructure, examination and result declaration, convocation, tree plantation, and social responsibility may call for better planning and notification to all those involved in these processes. These schedules need to be put on the website for easy access to all the stakeholders.

Quality Circle The Quality Circle concept serves two purposes. One is organizational improvement, and another is improvement in personal life and professional living conditions. A rather easy way to transform the organisation is to implement the Quality Circle concept in the educational organization as an integral part of quality management system. This would pave the way for integrated collaborative working with everyone involved, to make the organization strive for excellence. The Quality Circle will provide a forum to teachers of the

Internalizing Quality Culture

University to share their experiences and learn from each other. It will also create opportunity for every teacher for self-growth, self-development and self-learning, ultimately encouraging them to undertake the path towards capacity building. It is an inner self-driven journey of the teacher to attain quality and excellence. The Quality Circle is part of the internal quality assurance mechanism. An academic audit can be undertaken by the IQAC to review the further enhancement of the faculty and service of the institution. The academic audit reviews the processes or procedures that faculty members use to provide quality education in their departments. Unlike some other approaches to evaluation or program review, academic audits do not try to second-guess decisions made by the faculty about their departmental curriculum nor attempt to “micromanage” the way they teach. Academic audits concern themselves more with the processes that the faculty use to think about their curriculum decisions and how they carry out these activities in the best interests of discipline and student learning. Academic audits also focus on how faculty members organize these activities and how well they perform them. Academic Audit may be termed as Academic and Administrative Audit Committee as has been done in some of the southern universities like University of Mysore, which has made an impact on the overall development of the University. The audit process has brought about a significant level of academic achievement in many departments. It has observed many areas of its current and projected functions, needs and interventions to sustain its long term growth and prestige. The external peer review has resulted in identification of several key issues for action and available options to deal with them. Planning, monitoring and evaluation boards, with assistance from Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) and interactions with faculty, students and administrators as well as the Academic and Administrative Audit committee have identified a set of general features requiring attention and department-wise prognosis outlining remedial measures for some and incentive and support for

others. A number of aspects were discussed in terms of evaluation of department, goals, staff strength, competence, research, infrastructure etc. The committee has submitted a focused and qualitative report for improvement and for attainment of global stature and internationally comparable curriculum and evaluation.

Identifying a Team for Writing a Quality-Status Report The writing of a quality-status report is a difficult and important task. The Report has to be lucid and written in simple straightforward language. It should reflect the true picture of the institution and present data without exaggeration or distortion. In addition, it should reflect the strengths and weaknesses of the institution, undertaking critical analysis. This means that the report writing needs to be planned properly and the best way to go about is to identify preferably two to three persons, as members for this task. Right from the beginning, these persons must give a thought on preparing the report, the way they would like to go about it and the strategy for presentation. The Head of the institution also has to spend considerable time in giving the final shape to the report. It may be shared with all the members by putting it on the intranet for their feedback. There is a need to recognize the IQAC in the University system and make them part of the Executive Committee as permanent invitees. The Annual Quality Assurance Report (AQAR) by the IQAC needs to be place before the syndicate in case of the Universities. Institutions should conduct Academic and Administrative Audit (AAA) in the third year of accreditation. A corrective measure may be undertaken for the next two years before inviting an External Quality Assurance (EQA). The suggested improvement of the first/second cycle accreditation by the peer team may/should be placed on University website for all stakeholders. Considering the Diversity and variety of Institutions which exists in the country, A Development Index model has been suggested in Table 347

Internalizing Quality Culture

Table 1. Development index model Information

First Cycle Second Cycle (for example period of (for example period of assessment 2000-2005) assessment 2005-2010)

Next Cycle

Number of Programmes offered Programme options New Graduate/Post Graduate Departments Number of certificate courses Number of Diploma courses Teacher Quality • Number of Ph. D holders • Number of Fellows (permanent faculty) Indian Academy of Sciences National Academy of Sciences Indian National Science Academy Research activity • Minor Research Projects • Major Research Projects • Industry collaboration Fund Generated Projects supported by International funding Number of students having-Junior Research Fellow (JRF); Senior Research Fellow (SRF) Number of Ph. D awarded Success rate of students Number of national • Collaborations • MoUs Number of international • Collaborations • MoUs Number of departments having “Fund for Improvement of Science and Technology infrastructure in universities & higher educational institutions (FIST)” programme of the Department of Science and Technology Number of departments having SPECIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME (SAP) by UGC Number of departments having Centre of Advanced Study (CAS) status Number of departments having Department of Special Assistance (UGC-Departmental Special Assistance Programme Number of departments having Departmental Research Support (DRS) Number of departments with Assistance for Strengthening Infrastructure in Science & Technology, (ASIST) Assistance for Strengthening Infrastructure in Humanities and Social Sciences (ASIHSS) Infrastructure development

continued on following page 348

Internalizing Quality Culture

Table 1. Continued Information

First Cycle Second Cycle (for example period of (for example period of assessment 2000-2005) assessment 2005-2010)

Next Cycle

impact factor (Average) International seminar/workshops held In house publications Publication of papers in national journals Publication of papers in international journals International seminar/workshops held

1, which may help the institutions to strengthen its functions. However, this developmental index is only for basic guidelines and the institutes as per their resources and environment can implement various concepts and models for professionalizing the university education through internal quality culture. They can have several collaborations, offer various innovative courses, implement concepts like national innovation system/regional innovation system, university outreach, engaged scholarship, corporate education, community colleges or community engagement, tie ups with industries/government (triple helix model) and the like. Through various activities they can link research, teaching and outreach or community development. All these can ensure internal quality culture and professionalization of the whole system.

CONCLUSION NAAC guides the higher education institutions of India for quality culture through peer review and self assessment4. Quality Assurance is systematic, structured and continuous attention to quality in terms of maintaining and improving quality. Internal QA has a major role in improving the quality in Institutions of Higher Education. External QA has a major role in assuring what the institutions say or show to the peers. IQA and EQA

are two sides of the same coin; their activities are inextricably interrelated. We cannot have the one without the other. Excellence is a global journey where institutions need to take initiatives to improve the campus life and to achieve the set goals. It needs to take steps towards quality education, services and strive towards academic excellence. Quality enhancement is a continuous process and concerted effort on the part of the institutions is required to achieve excellence in all spheres of academic and administrative activities. Benchmarking, total quality management and SWOT analysis are sine qua non for Institutions of Higher Education to gear up for an aggressive competition from the international community in the context of liberalization, privatization and globalization. However, quality assurance cannot be seen in isolation. There are different concepts and models which can help in quality assurance. For instance the concept of corporate education can help in several ways. Narasimharao and Nair (2010) discussing corporate education and universities argued corporate education as 21st century universities responsibility. They discuss how it will help in broadening the purpose of the universities. Universities through the internal quality culture will automatically get linked to their place catering to the needs of the society. The concepts like outreach and engagement coupled with corporate education may further enhance the quality culture and the change from within.

349

Internalizing Quality Culture

REFERENCES Braskamp, L., & Wergin, J. F. (1997). Universities and the new social contract. In Tierney, W. G. (Ed.), The responsive university: Restructuring for high performance. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. EUA. (2005). Developing an internal quality culture in European universities report on the quality culture project (2002 – 2003, p. 10). Hegde, G. (2009). Quest for quality: Internal quality system matters. University News, 47(16), 1–6. Hegde, G. (Eds.). (2006). Best practices in internal quality assurance cell activities (p. 77). Bangalore, India: NAAC. Hegde, M. G. (2007). Proceedings of NAAC Sponsored Seminar on Quest for Quality: Classroom Matters, at Kumta, North Kanara, Karnataka, 2007 (pp. 10-11).

Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Nair, P. R. R. (2010). Universities and corporate education- 21st century responsibility for developing countries. Discussion papers in social responsibility, SRR Net, No.1002. Retrieved from www.socialresponsibility.biz Narasimharao, B. P. R., Nair, P. R. R., & Naidu, C. G. (2011). Corporate education in universities: Expanding the boundaries of scholarship. University News, 49(12), 10–18. UGC. (2012). Higher education in India at a glance. New Delhi, India: University Grants Commission, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Retrieved from http:// oldwebsite.ugc.ac.in/pub/HEglance2012.pdf

ENDNOTES

1

Kuldeep, K. (2003). Higher education in India (1781-20030 (pp.183-195). Lee, H. (2009). Quality in higher education. Retrieved from http://www0.bcu.ac.uk/crq/publications/goterburg.pdf



2

McKay, J., & Kember, D. (1999). Quality assurance systems and educational development: Part 1 – the limitations of quality control. Quality Assurance in Education, 7(1). doi:10.1108/09684889910252504 NAAC. (1996). Guidelines for internal quality assurance cell operations (p. 57). Bangalore, India: National Assessment and Accreditation Council. NAAC. (2005). Guidelines for the creation of the Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) in accredited institutions (pp. 2–6). Bangalore, India: National Assessment and Accreditation Council.

350



3

If the institutional score is 3.01-4.00-is A and performance descriptor as Very Good, if it is 2.01-3.00 is B and performance descriptor as Good, if it falls from 1.51-2.00 is C and performance descriptor as Satisfactory. If institution scores below 1.50 is D and performance descriptor as Unsatisfactory. NBA grading consists of just two categories, accredited or not accredited. Those programmes, which score more than 650 marks, will be accredited whereas those who score less than 650 will be not-accredited. In order to differentiate between the institutions getting more than 650 marks, the institutions that score between 650-750 will be accredited for a period of 3 years, whereas those institutions, which score more than 750, will be Accredited for a period of 5 years. The SOCRATES programme was an educational initiative of the European Commission; 31 countries took part. The initial

Internalizing Quality Culture

4



Socrates programme ran from 1994 until 31 December 1999 when it was replaced by the Socrates II programme on 24 January 2000, which ran until 2006. This, in turn, was replaced by the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Socrates_programme) The seven criteria for peer review by NAAC are 1. Curricular aspects; 2. Teachinglearning and evaluation; 3. Research, consultancy and extension; 4.Infrastructure and learning resources; 5. Student support and progression; 6. Governance and leadership; 7. Innovative practices.



5

In general, the Internal Quality Assurance may focus on the following seven areas for their development. a. Quality Assurance of Faculty and Staff. b. Quality Assurance of Students’ Facilities. c. Self-Assessment by Teaching Faculty and Staff d. Internal Audit-Academic and Administrative Audit. e. Management Information Systems and Use of ICT Enabled System for Staff and Students. f. Public Information and Public Relations. g. Quality Handbook.

351

Internalizing Quality Culture

APPENDIX Web Sites http://220.227.128.112/?q=node/18 (MES College of Engineering, Kuttipuram, accessed on July 10, 2012 http://www.icar.org.in/node/829 (Agriculture Board- accessed on 10July 2012) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_programme (accessed on 20 July 2012) http://mhrd.gov.in/over_test11 (accessed 20 July 2012) http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm http://www.enqa.eu/eventitem.lasso?id=246&cont=pasteventDetail (accessed 04 Aug. 2010) http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/QC1_full.1111487662479.pdf (accessed on 10July 2012) http://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/67070.Henri_Bergson (accessed on 10July 2012) http://www.iica.in/School/school_of_corporate_management.aspx (accessed on 10July 2011) http://www.india9.com/i9show/Guru-46738.htm (7th June 2012) http://www.springerlink.com/content/m2472106v357t754/ (accessed on 22-01-2009) (John Biggs, Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong) www.leidykla.eu/fileadmin/Vadyba/11/Janne_Parri.pdf

352

353

Compilation of References

(2002). Report of the Committee on India: Vision 2020. New Delhi, India: Planning Commission. Abdur-Raouf, R. K., & Siddiqi, A. F. (2010). Gaps in management education: A case study of University of Management and Technology. US-China Education Review, 7(11), 12–26. ABLE (Association of Biotech Led Enterprises). (2011). Bioinvest 2011- A snapshot. enABLE Newsletter, 8(12). Retrieved from http://ableindia.in/admin/attachments/ newsletter/enable_dec11final.html ACER. (2011, December 16). Programme for international student assessment 2009+. Australian Council for Educational Research, Camberwell. Retrieved October 3, 2012, from http://www.acer.edu.au/media/acer-releasesresults-of-pisa-2009-participant-economies/ Acerman, D., & Perkins, D. N. (1989). Integrating learning and thinking skills across the curriculum. In Jacobs, H. H. (Ed.), Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and implementation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Agarwal, N., Yeole, B. B., & Ram, U. (2009). Lifetime risk and trends in lung cancer incidence in greater Mumbai. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 10, 75–82. Albrecht, W. S., & Sack, R. J. (2000). Accounting education: Charting the course through a perilous future. accounting education series, Vol. 16. Sarasota, FL: American Accounting Association. Retrieved from http://aaahq.org/ pubs/AESv16/chapter2.pdf Aldrich, H., & Herker, D. (1977). Boundary spanning roles and organizational structure. Academy of Management Review, 2(2), 217–230.

Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn&Bacon. Allamby, S., Bogas, J., Cukalevski, N., Flores, G., Gjerde, O., Mijuskovic, N. A., Weiss, G. (2000). Operator performance requirements and training needs in the commercial environment. CIGRE working group WG 39.0, 2000, CIGRE SC 39 session Paris. American Accounting Association. (1986). Special report: Future accounting education: Preparing for the expanding profession. Retrieved from http://aaahq.org/AECC/ future/cover.htm. American Accounting Association. (1989). The big 8 white paper - Perspectives on education: Capabilities for success in the accounting profession. Retrieved from http://aaahq.org/AECC/big8/cover.htm. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. (2011). CPA horizon 2025. Retrieved from http://www. aicpa.org/Research/CPAHorizons2025/Pages/CPAHorizonsReport.aspx. Anand, A. (2012, May 04). Higher education in India at a glance: UGC report. India Education Review. Retrieved from http://www.indiaeducationreview.com/features/ higher-education-india-glance-ugc-report Anand, M., Balakrishnan, M., Batra, V. S., & Das, P. (2009). Review of international nanotechnology developments and policy concerns. Project report, 2009. Anandakrishnan, M. (2008). Promises and perils of globalized higher education. Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, 22(2), 199–212.

Compilation of References

Anon, G. P. (2001). NanoTechnology group limited announces placing of new shares and sale shares on the GEM Board. Retrieved from http://www.gpnano.com/ eng/press1.html.

Baughman, R. H., Zakhidov, A. A., & de Heer, W. A. (2002). Carbon nanotubes – The route towards applications. Science, 297, 787–792. doi:10.1126/science.1060928

Ashkenazi, A. (2002). Targeting death and decoy receptors of the tumour-necrosis factor superfamily. Nature Reviews. Cancer, 2, 420–430. doi:10.1038/nrc821

Bedar, S. (1999, October). Corporate universities- For better or worse? Engineers Australia, 70.

B W Research. (2007, April). Business world, (p. 42). Balraja, S. O. (2003). Higher education institutional collaborations: an analysis of models of joint degree programs. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 25(2), 131–145. doi:10.1080/1360080032000122615 Balram, P. (2005). Reinventing our universities. Current Science, 88, 529–530. Balram, P. (2008). Universities: Restructuring and reform. Current Science, 94(2), 153–154. Barker, D. (2004). The scholarship of engagement: Taxonomy of five emerging practices. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 9(2), 123–137. Barnes, S. H. (Ed.). (1990). Points of view on American higher education (Vol. 2, pp. 38–43). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. Barnett, R. (2000). University knowledge in an age of supercomplexity. Higher Education, 40, 409–422. doi:10.1023/A:1004159513741 Bartel, A. P. (1989). Formal employee training programs and their ımpact on labor productivity: Evidence from a human resources survey. NBER Working Paper Series, Working Paper No. 3026, Retrieved from http://www. nber.org/papers/w3026.pdf?new_window=1 Bartel, A. P. (2004). Human resource management and organizational performance: Evidence from retail banking. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 57(2), 181–203. doi:10.2307/4126616 Barth, M., Godemann, J., Rieckman, M., & Stoltenberg, U. (2007). Developing key competencies for sustainable development in higher education. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 8(4), 416–430. doi:10.1108/14676370710823582

354

Beerkens, E. (2009). Centres of excellence and relevance: The contextualisation of global models. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 153–175. doi:10.1177/097172180801400106 Bender, F. W. (2008). American higher education transformed, 1940-2005: Documenting the national discourse. USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Berge, Z. L. (2003). Planning and managing distance training and education in the corporate sector. In Moore, M. G., & Anderson, W. G. (Eds.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 601–613). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. BioAsia. (2010). International venture funds perspective of funding life science startups in India. Panel discussion, Global Bio Business Forum, FABA (Federation of Asian Biotech Association), Hyderabad, February 3-6, 2010. Biswas, G., Chopra, K. L., Jha, C. S., & Singh, D. V. (2010). Profile of engineering education in India – Status, concerns and recommendations. Study commissioned by Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE). Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, October 2010. Bousquet, M. (2008). How the university works: Higher education and the low-wage nation. New York, NY: New York University Press. Boyer, E. (1996). The scholarship of engagement. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 9(1), 11–20. Boyer, E. (1997). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate (1st ed.). Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bozeman, B. (2007). Public values and public interests: Counterbalancing economic individualism. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Compilation of References

Braskamp, L., & Wergin, J. F. (1997). Forming new social partnerships. In Tierney, W. G. (Ed.), The responsive university: Restructuring for high performance (pp. 62–91). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Braskamp, L., & Wergin, J. F. (1997). Universities and the new social contract. In Tierney, W. G. (Ed.), The responsive university: Restructuring for high performance. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Breen, H. (2001). Cooperative education partnerships: An examination of reciprocal relationships between universities and tourism and hospitality industry organisations in providing professional development education for their employees. Master’s Thesis. Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales. Retrieved March 12, 2012, from http://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article =1053&context=theses Bringle, R., & Hatcher, J. (1995). A service learning curriculum for faculty. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 2, 112–122. Brody, A. (2006). Nano and food packaging technologies converge. Food Technology, 60(3), 92–94. Butin, D. (2008). Justice learning: Service-learning as justice-oriented education. In Butin, D. (Ed.), Servicelearning and social justice education. New York, NY: Routledge. Butin, D. (2010). Service-learning in theory and practice: The future of community engagement in higher education. New York, NY: Palgrave. doi:10.1057/9780230106154 Byrne, D., & Strobl, E. (2004). Defining unemployment in developing countries: Evidence from Trinidad and Tobago. Journal of Development Economics, 73(1), 465–476. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2002.12.005 Carrascosa, L. G., Moreno, M., Álvarez, M., & Lechuga, L. M. (2006). Nanomechanical biosensors: A new sensing tool. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 25(3), 196–206. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2005.09.006 CEA. (2009). Monthly review of power sector (September 2009). Retrieved 6th November 2011 from http://www.cea. nic.in/reports/yearly/annual_rep/2009-10/ar_09_10.pdf

Celik, G. (2007). In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of science in urban policy planning and local governments. Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University, Turkey. Central University of Rajasthan. (2011-12). Annual report of the Central University of Rajasthan. Rajasthan, India: Central University of Rajasthan. Cervero, R. M. (2001). Continuing professional education in transition, 1981-2000. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(1-2), 16–30. Chandra, S., & Mahato, R. (2011). Social change and NGOs (Vol. 22, pp. 42–47). Charlier, J. C., & Iijima, S. (2001). In topics in applied physics. In Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., & Avouris, P. (Eds.), LNCS, 2001 (Vol. 80, pp. 55–59). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. Chuck, J. (2011). Hypothetical biotechnology companies: A role-playing student centered activity for undergraduate science students. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 39(2), 173–179. doi:10.1002/bmb.20480 Clark, L., & Lyons, C. (1962). Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular surgery. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 102, 29–45. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x Commission to Implement Change in Pharmaceutical Education. (1993). The papers of the Commission to Implement Change in Pharmaceutical Education. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 57, 366–398. Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education. (2009). Report of the Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.edgex.in/resources/ Yashpal-committee-report.pdf Connors, K., Gelmon, S., Holland, B., Seifer, S., & Shinnamon, A. (1998). Community partnerships for mutual learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 5(1), 97–107.

Cech, T. R. (1999). Science at liberal arts colleges: A better education? Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Winter, 195-216.

355

Compilation of References

Corporate Catalyst India (CCI). (2012). Survey reportPress releases: KPMG report on food processing and agri business, agriculture and processed food products export development authority (APEDA). Ministry of Food Processing Industries articles, RNCOS Research Report, Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), Media Reports & IMaCS (ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited) report, Human Resource and Skill Requirements in the Food Processing Sector. Corporate Education. (2012). In Education.com. Retrieved February 22, 2012, from http://www.education.com/ defintion/corporate-education/ Cory, S., & Adams, J. M. (2002). The Bcl2 family: Regulators of the cellular life-or-death switch. Nature Reviews. Cancer, 2(9), 647–656. doi:10.1038/nrc883 Cranch, E. T. (1987). Corporate classrooms. European Journal of Engineering Education, 12(3), 237–252. doi:10.1080/03043798708939367 CREST Working Group. (2008). Industry-led competence centers. Brussels, Belgium: Author.

Dai, H. (2001). Topics in applied physics. In Dresselhaus, M. S., Dresselhaus, G., & Avouris, P. (Eds.), LNCS, 2001 (Vol. 80, pp. 29–53). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. Daiute, C., & Kruidenier, J. (1985). A self-questioning strategy to increase young writers’ revising processes. Applied Psycholinguistics, 6(3), 307–318. doi:10.1017/ S0142716400006226 Davis, J. R. (1995). Interdisciplinary courses and team teaching: New arrangements for learning. American Council on Education and Oryx Press. De-Azeredo, H. M. C. (2009). Nanocomposites for food packaging applications. Food Research International, 42(9), 1240–1253. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2009.03.019 Department of Information Systems. (2011). History of higher education outline. Boston, MA: Northeastern University. Department of School Education & Literary, Government of India. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2011, from HTTP://WWW.EDUCATION.NIC.IN/SSA/SSA_1.ASP

Crocetti, C. (2002). Corporate learning: A knowledge management perspective. The Internet and Higher Education, 4, 271–285. doi:10.1016/S1096-7516(01)00066-5

Dickey, M. D. (2004, November). The impact of web-logs (blogs) on student perceptions of isolation and alienation in a web-based distance-learning environment. Open Learning, 19(3), 40–45. doi:10.1080/0268051042000280138

Crowther, D., & Carter, C. (2002). Legitimating irrelevance: Management education in higher education institutions. International Journal of Educational Management, 16(6), 268–278. doi:10.1108/09513540210441227

Dierkes, M., Berthoin Antal, A., Child, J., & Nonaka, I. (2003). Handbook of organizational learning & knowledge. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

CSIR (Council for Science and Industrial Research). (n.d.). Programme on technology led entrepreneurship. Retrieved from http://csirhrdg.res.in/tep.htm d’Arlach, L., Sanchez, B., & Feur, R. (2009). Voices from the community: A case for reciprocity in service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 16(1), 5–16. Dahms, A. S. (2003). Possible road maps for workforce development in Biocommerce clusters, including institutions of higher education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 31, 197–202. doi:10.1002/ bmb.2003.494031030224 Dahms, A. S., & Leff, J. A. (2002). Industry expectations for technician-level workers. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 30, 260–264. doi:10.1002/ bmb.2002.494030040109 356

Dingler, A., & Gohla, S. (2002). Production of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN): Scaling up feasibilities. Microencapsulation, 19, 11–16. doi:10.1080/02652040010018056 Dongre, Y., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2013). University outreach in management education – A case from India for meeting the needs of professionals in the field. In Narasimharao, B. P. R., Rangappa, K. S., & Fulzele, T. U. (Eds.), Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries – Role of universities. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Drucker, P. (1993). Post-capitalist society. New York, NY: Harper Business. Drucker, P. (1994). The age of social transformation. Atlantic Monthly, 274(5), 53–80.

Compilation of References

DSIR (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research). (n.d.). Technopreneur promotion programme. Retrieved March 12, 2010, from http://www.dsir.gov.in/tpdup/ tepp/tepp.htm Duxbury, S. (2006, December 8). Foundations move in where VCs fear to tread. San Francisco Business Times. Ebeling, K. (2002). Nanotechnology- The next industrial revolution, Vol. 1, (pp. 6-9). Eberlein, T., Kampmeier, J., Minderhout, V., Moog, R. S., Platt, T., Varma-Nelson, P., & White, H. B. (2008). Pedagogies of engagement in science: A comparison of PBL, POGIL, and PLTL. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 36(4), 262–273. doi:10.1002/bmb.20204 Economic Planning Unit. (2010). The tenth Malaysia plan (2011-2015). Retrieved February 24, 2012, from http:// www.epu.gov.my/html/themes/epu/html/ RMKE10/ rmke10_english.html Eldridge, J. H., Hammond, C. J., Meulbroek, J. A., Staas, J. K., Gilley, R. M., & Tice, T. R. (1990). Controlled vaccine release in gut-associated lymphoid tissues, part I: Orally administered biodegradable microspheres target the Peyer’s patches. Journal of Controlled Release, 11, 205–214. doi:10.1016/0168-3659(90)90133-E Emiliani, M. L. (2006). Improving management education. Quality Assurance in Education, 14(4), 363–384. doi:10.1108/09684880610703956 Erickson, H. L. (1998). Concept based curriculum and instruction (p. 134). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Ermakov, V. (2010). Corporate training culture in the companies listed on the Micex Russian stock exchange: A review of current status, perspectives, and what lessons Swiss companies can learn from ıt. Social Responsibility, Professional Ethics, and Management: Proceedings of the 11th International Conference, 24–27 November 2010, Ankara, Turkey, (pp. 467-485). Ernest & Young. (2009). Making the Indian higher education system future ready. India: FICCI Higher Education Summit. Ernst and Young. (2008). Globalizing Higher Education in India – EDGE 2008 Report

Estes, R. J. (1992). Internationalizing social work education: A guide to resources for a new century. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work. ETC. (2003). Down on the farm: The impact of nanoscale technologies on food and agriculture. ETC Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration. Etzkowitz, H., Dzisah, J., Ranga, M., & Zhou, C. (2007). The triple helix model of innovation. Asia Pacific Tech Monitor, 24(1), 14–22. Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L. (2000). The dynamics of innovation: From national system and mode 2 to a triple helix of university industry government relations. Research Policy, 29, 109–123. doi:10.1016/S00487333(99)00055-4 EUA. (2005). Developing an internal quality culture in European universities report on the quality culture project (2002 – 2003, p. 10). European Commission. (2008). Internet of Things in 2020: Roadmap for the future. EPoSS Expert Workshop on RFID / Internet-of-Things, 2008. Fallis, G. (2007). Multiversities, ideas, and democracy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. Farrel, J., Moog, R., & Spencer, J. (1999). A guided-inquiry general chemistry course. Journal of Chemical Education, 76, 570–574. doi:10.1021/ed076p570 Feucht, F. J., Imhof, M. J., Smith, L. M., & Wang, K. (2011). The call for ıncreasing the ınternational component of accounting education. Academy of Accounting and Financial Studies Journal, 15(3), 133–147. FICCI. (2007). Innovation for quality and relevance. The Higher Education Summit 2007, New Delhi, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry. FICCI. (2009). Survey jointly carried out by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and the World Bank. Indo Asian News Service. Retrieved from http://news.in.msn.com/national/ Fischli, A. E. (1999). Chemical education and the pharmaceutical industry. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 71(5), 865–879. doi:10.1351/pac199971050865

357

Compilation of References

Fisher, S. (2006). Does the Celtic Tiger society need to debate the role of higher education and the public good? International Journal of Lifelong Education, 25(2), 157–172. doi:10.1080/02601370500510827

Garavan, T. N., Costine, P., & Heraty, N. (1995). The emergence of strategic human resource development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 19(10), 4–10. doi:10.1108/03090599510095816

Florence, A. T., Hillery, A. M., Hussain, N., & Jani, P. U. (1995). Nanoparticles as carriers for oral peptide absorption: Studies on particle uptake and fate. Journal of Controlled Release, 36, 39–44. doi:10.1016/01683659(95)00059-H

Garland, A. (2004). Nanotechnology in plastics packaging: Commercial applications in nanotechnology (pp. 14–63). Pira International Limited UK.

Franklin, T., Sandmann, L. R., Franklin, N., & Settle, T. (2008). Answering the question of how: Out-of-region university engagement with an economically distressed, rural region. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(3), 205–222. French, G. R., & Coppage, R. E. (2000). Educational ıssues challenging the future of the accounting profession. The Ohio CPA Journal, 59(3), 69–73. Friedman, Y. (2010). Location of pharmaceutical innovation: 2000-2009. Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery, 9, 835–836. doi:10.1038/nrd3298 Friga, P. N., Bettis, R. A., & Sullivan, R. S. (2003). Changes in graduate management education and new business school strategies for the 21st century. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2(3), 233–249. doi:10.5465/AMLE.2003.10932123 Gaardhoje, J. J., Hansen, J. A., & Thustrup, E. W. (Eds.). (2005). Capacity building in higher education and research on a global scale. Proceedings of the International Workshop on ‘How Can Manpower Needs in Knowledge Based Economies be Satisfied in a Balanced Way, May 17-18, 2005, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen, Published by The Danish National Commission for UNESCO, Denmark. Gabelnick, F., Mac Gregor, J., Matthews, R., & Smith, B. L. (1990). Learning communities: Creating connections among students, faculty and disciplines (pp. 23–25). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Galbraith, J. K. (1976). The new industrial state. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. Gao, S., Zhao, Y., Gou, P., Chen, N., & Xie, Y. (2003). Preparation of CuAlO2 nanocrystalline transparent thin films with high conductivity. Nanotechnology, 14, 538–541. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/14/5/310

358

Garratt, B. (1995, 21 September). An old idea that has come of age. People Management. Garver, T. L. W., Thomas, B. J., Robbins, M. P., & Zeyen, R. J. (1998). Phenyalanine ammonia-lyase inhibition, auto- fluorescence,and localized accumulation of silicon, calcium and manganese in oat epidermis attacked by the powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis (DC) speer. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology, 52, 223–243. doi:10.1006/pmpp.1998.0148 Gelade, G. A., & Ivery, M. (2003). The impact of human resource management and work climate on organizational performance. Personnel Psychology, 56(2), 383–404. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00155.x GEN. (2012, August). Biotech boulevard. Genetic Engineering and Biotech News. Retrieved August 12, 2012, from http://www.genengnews.com/biotechblvd/ Ghose, T. K. (2006). Academic realities of biotechnology education in India. Indian Chemical Engineering Section B, 48, 201–206. Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotony, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., & Trow, M. (1994). The new production of knowledge: The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London, UK: Sage Publications. Giroux, H., & Giroux, S. (2004). Take back higher education: Race, youth, and the crisis of democracy in the post-civil rights era. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Godwin-Jones, R. (n.d.). Emerging technologies: Blogs and wikis: Environments for on-line collaboration. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 12-16. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num2/emerging/ Government of India. (2005). Report of the Task Force for Basic Scientific Research in Universities. Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Secondary & Higher Education Government of India, New Delhi.

Compilation of References

Government of India. (2006). Report of the steering committee on science and technology for eleventh five year plan (2007-12) (p. 149). New Delhi, India: Planning Commission. Government of India. (2009). Millennium development goals – India country report 2009. Mid-Term Statistical Appraisal, Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, 2009.

Guruprasad, K. (2007). Industry–academia collaborations: Addressing societal needs of education and employment. In B. P. R. Narasimharao, et al., (Eds.), Changing societal demands & adopting teaching learning systems in higher education system to reach out. Centre for Outreach Programmes, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore, 2007. Guzzetta, D. J. (1982). Education’s quiet revolution: Changes and challenges. Change, 14(6), 10–11, 60.

Government of India. (2009). Yashpal Committee report on renovation and rejuvenation of higher education. Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD). Government of India.

Hale, W. B. (2007). Education vs. training in the twenty first century. Forum on Public Policy: A Journal of the Oxford Round Table. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/ articles/mi_6908/is_2007_Spring/ai_n31182300/pg_2/

Government of India. (2010, May). Education in India: 2007-08, Participation and expenditure, NSS 64th Round (July 2007 – June 2008).

Hanahan, D., & Weinberg, R. A. (2000). The hallmarks of cancer. Cell, 100, 57–70. doi:10.1016/S00928674(00)81683-9

Government of India. (2011). Higher education in India: Strategies and schemes during 11th plan period for the universities and colleges.

Harrigan, M. T. (2003). Industrial biotechnology education: A model of collaboration between industry and academia. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 31, 142–144. doi:10.1002/bmb.2003.494031020195

Goyal, K. A., & Vijay, J. (2012). Indian banking industry: Challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Business Research and Management, 3(1), 18–28. Groopman, J. (2008, January 28). Buying a cure (Kathy Giusti’s Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation). New Yorker (New York, N.Y.). Gunasekara, C. (2004). Universities and communities: A case study of change in the management of a university. Prometheus, 22(2), 201–211. doi:10.1080/0810902042 000218373 Gunasekara, C. (2006). Academia and industry – The generative and developmental roles of universities in regional innovation systems. Science & Public Policy, 33(2), 137–150. doi:10.3152/147154306781779118 Gupta, B. M., & Bala, A. (2011). Indian S&T during fifteen years (1996-2010): A quantitative assessment using publication data. DESIDOC: Journal of Library and Information Technology, 31, 359–370. Gupta, C. (2010). Role of NGOs in social mobilization. Anusandhanika, 27, 34–45.

Harris, A. T., & Bali, R. (2008). On the formation and extent of uptake of silver nanoparticles by live plants. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 10, 691–695. doi:10.1007/ s11051-007-9288-5 Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Healy, J. M. (1998). Failure to connect: How computers affect our children’s minds--For better and worse. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. Hegde, M. G. (2007). Proceedings of NAAC Sponsored Seminar on Quest for Quality: Classroom Matters, at Kumta, North Kanara, Karnataka, 2007 (pp. 10-11). Hegde, G. (2009). Quest for quality: Internal quality system matters. University News, 47(16), 1–6. Hegde, G. (Eds.). (2006). Best practices in internal quality assurance cell activities (p. 77). Bangalore, India: NAAC. Herbert, E., & Shetty, R. (2005). Impact of nanotechnology on biomedical sciences: Review of current concepts on convergence of nanotechnology with biology. AZojoNO, 1. Heron, J. S., Fournier, T., & Bourgeois, O. (2007). Surface effect on the phonon transport of silicon nanowire. Journal of Physics: Conferences Series, 92, 1–4. 359

Compilation of References

Hilton, W. R. (2005). Managerial accounting – Creating value in a dynamic business environment. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing. Hotchkiss, R. S., Strasser, A., & McDunn, J. E. (2009). Cell death. The New England Journal of Medicine, 361, 1570–1583. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0901217 Houghton, J., & Sheehan, P. (2000). A primer on the knowledge economy. Melbourne City, Australia: Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Victoria University Publication. Retrieved from http://www.cfses.com/documents/ knowledgeeconprimer.pdf Hullman, A. (2006). The economic development of nanotechnology – An indicator based analysis. European Commission Unit: Nano S&T – Convergent Science and Technologies. Retrieved from http://cordis.europa.eu/ nanotechnology IBM. (2008). The enterprise of the future. Hampshire: Global CEO Study, Executive Summary. ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited. (2010, August). The skill development landscape in India and implementing quality skills training. 3rd Global Skill Summit of the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI), August, 2010. IIT (Indian Institute of Technology). (n.d.). Kanpur, SIDBI innovation and incubation centre. Retrieved from http:// www.iitk.ac.in/siic/incubatee2.html IKP Knowledge Park. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www. iciciknowledgepark.com/ Istanbul Chamber of Certified Public Accountants Academy. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ismmmoakademi. com.tr/html.asp?id=10959 Jacob, K. K. (2006). Why India can be global knowledge economy leader. Retrieved from http://www.rediff.com/ money/2006/nov/11guest.htm Jacobs, G. (2002). Employment generation in agriculture, wasteland development, afforestation & agro-industries. Manpower Journal, 38.

360

Jacobs, J. (June 2004). Communication over exposure: The rise of blogs as a product of cybervoyeurism. In C. Hatcher, T. Flew, & J. Jacobs (Eds.), 2003Australian and New Zealand Communication Association Conference Proceedings. Jacobs, J. B. (2004). Exploring the use of blogs as learning spaces in the higher education sector. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 20(2), 232–247. James, C. (2011). Global status of commercialized biotech/ GM crops: 2011. ISAAA Brief No. 43. Ithaca, NY: ISAAA. Jani, P., Halbert, G. W., Langridge, J., & Florence, A. T. (1990). Nanoparticles uptake by rat gastrointestinal mucosa: Quantitation and particles size dependency. Journal of Pharmaceuticals and Pharmacology, 42, 821–826. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7158.1990.tb07033.x Javey, A., Wang, Q., Ural, A., Li, Y., & Dai, H. (2002). Carbon nanotube transistor arrays for complementary logic and ring oscillators. Nano Letters, 2, 929. doi:10.1021/ nl025647r Jharkhand Development Report. (2010). Prabhat Khabar. Hindi Daily. Jogalekar, A. (2012, March 1). Science in India: Moon shot or bust? Critical Twenties, Science & Technology. Retrieved from http://www.criticaltwenties.in/ sciencetechnology Johnson, W. C. (2003, December). University relations: The HP model. Industry and Higher Education, 17(6), 391–395. doi:10.5367/000000003322776280 Jonker, J., & Eskildsen, J. (2009). Management models for the future. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. Joseph, T., & Morrison, M. (2006, May). Nanoforum report. Institute of Nanotechnology. Retrieved from www.nanoforum.org Jung, I. (2009, March/April). The emergence of for-profit e-learning providers in Asia. TechTrends, 53(2), 18–21. doi:10.1007/s11528-009-0262-1 Kamat, M. S. (2009). Democratizing the higher education ploicy formulation by exploring the use of blog. University News.

Compilation of References

Kameswara Rao, C. (2009). The state of biotechnology education. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from http://fbae. org/2009/FBAE/website/special-topics_biotech_education_the_state_of_biotechnology_education.html Kameswara Rao, C. (2010). Moratorium on Bt brinjal. A review of the order of the Minister of Environment and Forests, Government of India (p. 70). Bangalore, Italy: Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education. Retrieved July 31, 2012, from http://www.whybiotech. com/resources/tps/Moratorium_on_Bt_Brinjal.pdf Kameswara Rao, C. (2000). Database of medicinal plants (p. 458). Bangalore: Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka. Kameswara Rao, C. (2010). Botany, palynology and modern agricultural biotechnology. Journal of Palynology, 46, 145–164.

Khar, R. K., Ahmed, F. J., & Jain, G. K. (2011) Pharmacy education: Gearing up to meet industrial needs. Pharmacology Times, 43(3). Khodakovsky, A. P., Schroder, P., & Sweldens, W. (2000). Progressive geometry compression. In Siggraph 2000, Computer Graphics Proceedings, (pp. 271–278). Khosravi-Far, R., & White, E. (Eds.). (2008). Programmed cell death in cancer progression and therapy series. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 615(14). doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6554-5 Kitagawa, F. (2009). Universities-industry links and regional development in Japan: Connecting excellence and relevance? Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 1–33. doi:10.1177/097172180801400101 Klein, J. T. (1990). Interdisciplinarity: History, theory and practice (p. 55). Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.

Kang, R., Zeh, H. J., Lotze, M. T., & Tang, D. (2011). The Beclin 1 network regulates autophagy and apoptosis. Cell Death and Differentiation, 18, 571–580. doi:10.1038/ cdd.2010.191

Klein, J. T. (1996). Crossing boundaries: Knowledge, disciplinarities, and interdisciplinarities (pp. 34–36). Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.

Kanto, T., Miyoshi, A., Ogawa, T., Maekawa, K., & Aino, M. (2004). Suppressive effect of potassium silicate on powdery mildew of strawberry in hydroponics. Journal of General Plant Pathology, 70, 207–211. doi:10.1007/ s10327-004-0117-8

Kliewer, B. W., Sandmann, L. R., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2013). Corporate – university partnerships: The outreach and engagement model. In Narasimharao, B. P. R., Rangappa, K. S., & Fulzele, T. U. (Eds.), Evolving corporate education strategies for developing countries – Role of universities. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Kastan, M. B. (2005). DNA damage responses: Cancer and beyond. Scientist (Philadelphia, Pa.), 19(19), 24. Kavaloski, V. (1979). Interdisciplinary education and humanistic aspiration: A critical reflection. In Kockelmans, J. (Ed.), Interdisciplinarity and higher education. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Kerr, C. (2001). The uses of the university (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kessels, J. W. M. (2001). Learning in organisations: A Corporate curriculum for the knowledge economy. Futures, 33, 479–506. doi:10.1016/S0016-3287(00)00093-8 Kezar, A. (2005). Challenges for higher education in serving the public good. In Kezar, A., Chambers, A., & Burkhardt, J. (Eds.), Higher education for the public good: Emerging voices from a national movement (pp. 23–42). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kliucharev, G. A. (2010). Characteristics, effectiveness and prospects of supplementary professional education. Russian Education & Society, 52(9), 3–20. doi:10.2753/ RES1060-9393520901 Konde, V. (2007). Role of linker units in academia industrygovernment relations: The cases of the internet in Zambia and genomics in Brazil. Tech Monitor, 24(1), 24–30. Koo, L. Y. E., Cao, Y., Kopelman, R., Koo, S. M., Brasuel, M., & Philbert, M. A. (2004). Real-time measurements of dissolved oxygen inside live cells by organically modified silicate fluorescent nanosensors. Analytical Chemistry, 76, 2498–2505. doi:10.1021/ac035493f Kothari Commission Report. (1966). Education Commission, 1964-66. Dr. D.S. Kothari Comission, Compilation on 50 years of Indian Education, 1947-1997, Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education and National Informatics Centre.

361

Compilation of References

Kothari Commission Report. (1966). Report of the Education Commission: Education and national development (1964-66). Dr.D.S. Kothari Commission, Ministry of Education, New Delhi. Kranacher, M. J., Morris, B. W., Pearson, T. A., & Riley, R. A. (2008). A model curriculum for education in fraud and forensic accounting. Issues in Accounting Education, 23(4), 505–519. doi:10.2308/iace.2008.23.4.505 Kulandaiswamy, V. C. (2002). In Garg, S., & Panda, S. (Eds.), Education for knowledge era: Open and flexible learning (p. 167). New Delhi, India: Kogan Page. Kuldeep, K. (2003). Higher education in India (178120030 (pp.183-195). Lakhotia, S. C. (2005). Deemed universities and other universities. Current Science, 89(8), 1303–1304.

Lucas, C. (1996). American higher education. Harvard Educational Review, (Spring): 1996. Luo, J., Maye, M. M., Kariuki, N. N., Wang, L., Njoki, P., & Lin, Y. (2005). Electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol: carbon-supported gold-platinum nanoparticles catalysts prepared by two-phase protocol. Catalysis Today, 99(3-4), 291–297. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2004.10.013 Luppi, B., Cerchiara, T., Bigucci, F., Basile, R., & Zecchi, V. (2004). Polymeric nanoparticles composed of fatty acids and polyvinylalcohol for topical application of sunscreens. Journal of Pharmaceuticals and Pharmacology, 56, 407–411. doi:10.1211/0022357022926 Magrath, C. P. (2006). Outreach now: Inventing the future through engagement. September 27, 2006 The Inn at Virginia Tech and Skelton Conference Center Blacksburg, VA.

Lakhotia, S. C. (2008). Are biotechnology degree courses relevant? Current Opinions in Science, 94, 1244–1245.

Majumder, D. D., Banerjee, R., Ulrichs, C. H., & Mewis, I. (2007). Nano-materials: Science of bottom-up and topdown. IETE Technical Review, 24(1), 9–25.

Lakhotia, S. C., & Mukunda, N. (2008). Science academies’ position paper: Restructuring post-school science teaching programmes. Current Science, 95(10), 1411–1420.

Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC). (2010). 2009 annual report: Broadband towards 1Malaysia. Cyberjaya, Malaysia: MCMC.

Lal, R. (2010). Microbiology and biotechnology education in India. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 50, 251–252. doi:10.1007/s12088-010-0064-3

Malek Shah Bin Mohd, Y. (2012). Globalization and human resource development in the Malaysian public service. Retrieved from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/ groups/public/documents/eropa/unpan014373.pdf

LaMore, R. L., & Supanich Goldner, F. (n.d.). Capacity in the global knowledge economy – Assessment and steps to take. Retrieved September 18, 2012, from http://www. municipaltoolkit.org/UserFiles/LaMore&SupanichGoldner_EN.pdf Lee, H. (2009). Quality in higher education. Retrieved from http://www0.bcu.ac.uk/crq/publications/goterburg.pdf Lee, M. N. N. (2005). Global trends, national policies and institutional responses: Restructuring higher education in Malaysia. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 3, 31–46. doi:10.1007/s10671-004-6034-y Likins, P. (1998, Winter). Corporate partnerships: What’s in it for the university. Retrieved February 24, 2012, from http://www.columbia.edu/cu/21stC/issue-3.1/likins.html Liyanage, S., & Diaz Andrade, A. (2012). The changing role of research and education in New Zealand universities. Science, Technology & Society, 17(2), 201–232. doi:10.1177/097172181101700202 362

Marginson, S. (2000). Research as a managed economy. In Coady, T. (Ed.), Why universities matter. St Leonards, UK: Allen and Unwin. Mashelkar, R. A. (2001). Intellectual property rights and the third world. Current Science, 81(8), 955. Mason, T. G., Wilking, J. N., Meleson, K., Chang, C. B., & Graves, S. M. (2006). Nanoemulsions: Formation, structure, and physical properties. Journal of Physics Condensed Matter, 18, R635–R666. doi:10.1088/09538984/18/41/R01 Matija, L. (2004). Reviewing paper: Nanotechnology: Artificial versus natural self-assembly. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (FME). Transactions, 32, 1–14. Mazzarol, T., Soutar, G. N., & Sim Yaw Seng, M. (2003). The third wave: Future trends in ınternational education. International Journal of Educational Management, 17(3), 90–99. doi:10.1108/09513540310467778

Compilation of References

McDonagh, C., MacCraith, B. D., & McEvoy, A. K. (1998). Tailoring of sol-gel films for optical sensing of oxygen in gas and aqueous phase. Analytical Chemistry, 70, 45–50. doi:10.1021/ac970461b McGrath, S. P., & Zhao, F. J. (2003). Phytoextraction of metals and metalloids from contaminated soils. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 14, 277–282. doi:10.1016/ S0958-1669(03)00060-0 McKay, J., & Kember, D. (1999). Quality assurance systems and educational development: Part 1 – the limitations of quality control. Quality Assurance in Education, 7(1). doi:10.1108/09684889910252504 MCMSE. (Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises). (n.d.). Support for entrepreneurial and managerial development of SMEs through incubators. Retrieved from http://www.dcmsme.gov.in/schemes/ Supportforemdti.html Meek, V. L., Teichler, U., & Kearney, M. L. (2009). Higher education research and innovation: Changing dynamics. UNESCO Forum Report, INCHER-Kassel. Mehta, D. K. (2004, September). India higher education reform: From Half-Baked Socialism to Half-Baked Capitalism. Retrieved from Center for International Development, at Harvard University Working Paper No. 108: http://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/publications/faculty-working-papers/cid-working-paper-no.-108 Meister, J. C. (1998). Corporate universities: Lessons in building a world-class workforce. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Mendel-Reyes, M., & Weinstein, J. (1996). Community service learning as democratic education in South Africa and the United States. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 3(1), 103–112. Metcalfe, S. (1995). The economic foundation of technology policy: Equilibrium and evolutionary perspectives. In Stoneman, P. (Ed.), Handbook of the economics of innovation and technological change. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Middlehurst, R. (2001). University challenges: Borderless higher education, today and tomorrow. Minerva, 39, 3–26. doi:10.1023/A:1010343517872 Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (2007). National higher education strategic plan (2007-2010). Retrieved April 27, 2011, from http://www.mohe.gov.my/

Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (2011). Statistics of higher education of Malaysia. Putrajaya, Malaysia: MOHE. Ministry of Human Resource Development. (2007). Annual report 2006-2007. Mir, R., Mir, A., & Srinivas, N. (2004). Managerial knowledge as property: The role of universities. Organization Management Journal, 1(2), 126–137. doi:10.1057/ omj.2004.23 Mitchell, T. D. (2008). Traditional vs. critical service learning: Engaging the literature to differentiate the two models. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 14(2), 50–62. Miyazaki, K., & Islam, N. (2007). Nanotechnology systems of innovation – An analysis of industry and academia research activities. Technovation, 27, 661–671. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2007.05.009 Mohan, R. (2008, July 5). Higher education in India - Its drawbacks and suggestion for reforms. Retrieved from http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Rajesh_Mohan Monck & Co. (1988). Science parks and the growth of high technology firms. London, UK: Croom Helm. Morgan, G. J. (2007). Communication skills required by accounting graduates: Practitioner and academic perceptions. Accounting Education, 6(2), 93–107. doi:10.1080/096392897331514 Musil, C. (2011). Remapping education for social responsibility: Civic, global, & US diversity. In Saltmarsh, J., & Hartley, M. (Eds.), To serve a larger purpose: Engagement for democracy and the transformation of higher education (pp. 238–265). NAAC. (1996). Guidelines for internal quality assurance cell operations (p. 57). Bangalore, India: National Assessment and Accreditation Council. NAAC. (2005). Guidelines for the creation of the Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) in accredited institutions (pp. 2–6). Bangalore, India: National Assessment and Accreditation Council. Nanotech Now. (2002, January 5). Nanomat first to commercially produce talc and calcium carbonate nanomaterials. Retrieved from http://nanotech-now.com/ nanomat-release-05012002.htm

363

Compilation of References

Narasimharao, B. P. R. (1992). Biotechnology education – An open learning concept. Biology Education, July-September, 191-199. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2000). Challenges in food science education and training for food industries – Issues in adopting open learning system. Indian Food Industry, 19, 279–290. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2008). India as a global leader in knowledge economy. Current Science, 95(6), 704–706. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009). Knowledge economy and knowledge society – Role of university outreach programmes. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 119–151. doi:10.1177/097172180801400105 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2009). Need for new trend in biotechnology education and training. Asian Biotechnology and Development Review, 11(2), 89–114. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Biotechnology education and societal demands – Challenges faced by biotechnology and human resources development. Social Responsibility, 6(1), 72–90. doi:10.1108/17471111011024568 Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Tertiary education institutions for corporate education – Need and relevance of corporate education centres. Indian Journal of Higher Education, 1003. Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2013). Strategies for developing academic abilities for corporate education – Relevance of outreach and engagement for developing countries. In Ahmed, A., & Crowther, C. (Eds.), Education and corporate social responsibility: International perspectives. UK: Emerald publishers. Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Anand, N., VIdyashnakar, S., & Sarada, R. (2012). Algal technologies and challenges to universities: New approaches to reach out to society. Asian Biotechnology and Development Review, 14(2), 19–38. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Nair, P. R. R., & Naidu, C. G. (2011). Corporate education in universities, scope and coverage: Expanding the boundaries of scholarship. University News. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Shashidhara Prasad, J., & Nair, P. R. R. (2011). Corporate education in natural sciences – A professional approach for universities. Current Science, 101(11), 1421–1424.

364

Narasimharao, B. P. R., & Sridhar, Y. (2007). University outreach programmes – Their potential to meet changing societal demands. In Narasimharao, B. P. R. (Eds.), Changing societal demands and adopting teaching learning systems in higher education to reach out (pp. 85–94). Mysore, India: University of Mysore. Narasimharao, B. P. R., Vijayendra, S. V. N., & Salooja, M. K. (2011). Approaches for developing self instructional learning materials for industry oriented courses. Asean Journal of Open Learning, 3(1), 63–78. Narayanamurthy, N. R. (2012). Report of the Committee on Corporate participation in Higher Education. Planning Commission of India. Retrieved from www.sarkaritel. com/tag/corporate-participation-in-higher-education Narayanan, R., & El-Sayed, M. A. (2004). Shapedependent catalytic activity of platinum nanoparticles in. colloidal solution. Nano Letters, 4, 1343–1348. doi:10.1021/nl0495256 NASSCOM Report. (2011). Building a career in the BPO industry: BPO career guide. A NASSCOM Report. National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector. (2008). Social security for the unorganized sector in India. Report. New Delhi: Government of India. National Innovation Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.nifindia.org National Knowledge Commission (NKC). (2006-2009). National Knowledge Commission Report to the nation, 2006-2009. Government of India, New Delhi. Retrieved from http://www.knowledgecommission.gov.in National Solar Mission. (2009). Details. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www.pluggd.in/nationalsolar-mission-india-details-297/ NCL (National Chemical Laboratory). (n.d.). NCL innovations. Retrieved March 10, 2012, from http://www. nclinnovations.org/index.php Nelson, R. R. (1993). National innovation systems: A comparative analysis. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Nelson, R. R. (2004). The market economy & the scientific commons. Research Policy, 33(3), 455–474. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2003.09.008

Compilation of References

Newell, W. H. (1990). Interdisciplinary curriculum development. Issues in Integrative Studies, 8, 69–70. Newson, J. (1998). The corporate-linked university: From social project to market force. Canadian Journal of Communication, 23(1). Retrieved February 22, 2012, from http://www.cjc-online.ca/index.php/journal/article/ viewArticle/1026/932 Nicolaides, A. (2011). Entrepreneurship-- The role of higher education in South Africa. [from http://www. interesjournals.org/ER]. Educational Research, 2, 1043–1050. Retrieved July 15, 2012

Othman, R., & Poon, J. M. L. (2000, December). Management training and development practices of Malaysian organizations. Management Review, 35(2). Retrieved April 27, 2011, from http://mgv.mim.edu.my/ MMR/0012/001210.Htm Ouyang, M., Huang, J. L., Cheung, C. L., & Lieber, C. M. (2001). Energy gaps in “metallic” single-walled carbon nanotubes. Science, 292, 702. doi:10.1126/science.1058853 Palanithurai, G. (2009). Rural universities in the era of globalization. University News, 47(33), 1–12.

Nixon, J. C., & Helms, M. M. (2002). Corporate universities vs higher education institutions. Industrial and Commercial Training, 34(4), 144–150. doi:10.1108/00197850210429129

Park, H. J., Kim, S. H., Kim, H. J., & Choi, S. H. (2006). A new composition of nanosized silica-silver for control of various plant diseases. The Plant Pathology Journal, 22(3), 295–302. doi:10.5423/PPJ.2006.22.3.295

Northern Virginia Community College (NOVA). (n.d.). Training versus education. Retrieved from http://www. nvcc.edu/home/nvportg/education_versus_training.htm

Patel, P. P. (2008, January 14). Turning waste heat into power: Research shows that silicon is as efficient as pricier materials. MIT Technology Review, 1-2.

Nussbaum, M. (2010). Not for profit: Why democracy needs the humanities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Pawlowsky, P. (2003). The treatment of organizational learning in management science. In Dierkes, M., Berthoin Antal, A., Child, J., & Nonaka, I. (Eds.), Handbook of organizational learning & knowledge (pp. 61–88). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

O’Mara, M. P. (2010). Beyond town and gown: University economic engagement and the legacy of the urban crisis. Journal of Technology Transfer, 1(36), Online First. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/ ft1xn1620pjp89q1/fulltext.pdf Ochekpe, N. A., Olorunfemi, O. P., & Ngwuluka, N. C. (2009). Nanotechnology and drug delivery part 1: Background and application. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 8(3), 265–274. doi:10.4314/tjpr.v8i3.44546 OECD. (1996). The knowledge-based economy. OCDE/ DG (96)102, Paris. Okuwada, K. (2006). Elements of converging technologies - Japan’s NISTEP reports look to the past and the future of CTs. Asia Pacific Tech Monitor, 23, 25–30. OpenLetter, IGNOU. (2010). Special issue: Partnering government. Monthly Newsletter of Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2(10), 1–16. Osin, L., & Lesgold, A. (1996). A proposal for the reengineering of the educational system. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 621–656.

Pearson, D., & Barr, R. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of reading research (Vol. III, pp. 771–788). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Pearson, G., & Young, T. (2002). Technically speaking. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Peter Duffy, A. B. (2006). The use of blogs, wikis and RSS in education: A conversation of possibilities. Online Learning and Teaching Conference, (pp. 31-38). Brisbane. Peters, M. A., & May, T. (2004). Universities, regional policy and knowledge economy. Policy Futures in Education, 2, 263–277. doi:10.2304/pfie.2004.2.2.4 Pitroda, S. (2007). Address to delegates of CALIBER (Convention on Automation of Libraries in Education and Research) and interaction from Chicago. 5th International CALIBER, 2007, INFLIBNET centre, Ahmedabad and Punjab University, Chandigarh, 9-10 February, 2007.

365

Compilation of References

Planning Commission. (2006). Integrated energy policyReport of Expert Committee (2006). Retrieved 6th November, 2011, from planningcommission.nic.in/reports/ genrep/rep_intengy.pdf

Prince, C., & Beaver, G. (2000). The rise and rise of the corporate university: The emerging corporate learning agenda. The International Journal of Management Education, 1(2), 17–26. doi:10.3794/ijme.12.5

Planning Commission. (2007-11). Documents related to 11th five year plan. Retrieved from planningcommission. nic.in/plans/planrel/11thf.htm

Prince, C., & Stewart, J. (2000). The dynamics of the corporate education market and the role of business schools. Journal of Management Development, 19(3), 207–219. doi:10.1108/02621710010318783

Planning Commission. (2008). Eleventh five year plan. Towards faster and more inclusive growth. New Delhi: Government of India. Planning Commission. (2012). Approach document to 12th five year plan. Retrieved from planningcommission. nic.in/plans/comments/inter.htm Porter, M. E. (1998). Competitive advantage. New York, NY: The Free Press. Porter, M., & Monard, K. (2001). Ayni in the global village: Building relationships of reciprocity through international service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 8(1), 5–17.

Pujar, S. M., & Kamat, R. K. (2009). Libraries a key to harness e-learning: Issues and perspectives. DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 29(1). Pujar, S. M., Kamat, R. K., Bansode, S. Y., Kamat, R. R., & Katigennavar, S. H. (2008). Identifying and exploiting human needs for a people centric evolving knowledge society: A case study of Indian ICT emergence. The International Information & Library Review, 40(3), 165–170. doi:10.1016/j.iilr.2008.07.003 QSWUR. (2012). QS world university rankings. Retrieved October 3, 2012, from http://www.topuniversities.com/ university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2012

Powell, W. W., & Snellman, K. (2004). The knowledge economy. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 211–212. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100037

Rabindranath, T. (1917). Nationalism (p. 190). Delhi, India: Macmillan.

Prabhat Khabar. (2007, December 18). Hindi Daily. Ranchi, India: Neutral Publishing House.

Racuciu, M., & Creanga, D. E. (2007). TMA-OH coated magnetic nanoparticles internalized in vegetal tissues. Romanian Journal of Physics, 52, 395–95.

Prabhat Khabar. (2011, May 23). Hindi Daily. Ranchi, India: Neutral Publishing House. Pradhan, G. B. (2008). Report of the committee on manpower, certification and incentives for system operation and ring fencing load despatch centres. Ministry of Power, Government of India. Prasad, B. K., & Sharma, S. (2010). Employment opportunities in Jharkhand: A case study of Ranchi District. Anusandhanika, 16, 21–27. Primary Education from India Development Gateway. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2011, from HTTP://WWW. INDG.IN/PRIMARY-EDUCATION/ Prince, C. (2000). Strategic change: The role of incompany management education. .

366

Radhakrishnan Commission. (1949). Report of the University Education Commission, 1948–49/ S. New Delhi: Radhakrishnan Commission, Government of India, Ministry of Education. Rai, M. K., Deshmukh, S. D., Ingle, A. P., & Gade, A. K. (2012). Silver nanoparticles: The powerful nanoweapon against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 112(5), 841–852. doi:10.1111/j.13652672.2012.05253.x Rai, M. K., Yadav, A. P., & Gade, A. K. (2009). Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnology Advances, 27(1), 76–82. doi:10.1016/j. biotechadv.2008.09.002 Rai, M., Gade, A., Gaikwad, S., Priscyla, D., & Duran, N. (2011). Biomedical applications of nanobiosensors: The state-of-the-art. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, 23(1), 16–24.

Compilation of References

Raj, K. (2008) Corporate education for poverty reduction in rural India. The IUP Journal of Higher Education, 72-78. Rajeshkumar, S., Venkatesan, C., Sarathi, M., Sarathbabu, V., Thomas, J., Anver, B. K., & Hameed, A. S. (2009). Oral delivery of DNA constructs using chitosan nanoparticles to protect the shrimp from white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 26, 429–437. doi:10.1016/j.fsi.2009.01.003 RamReddy. G. (1988). What, why and how of distance education. In B. N. Koul (Ed.), Studies in distance education. New Delhi. Rana, S. P. S., Gupta, R., Chaudhary, P., Khurana, D., Mishra, S., & Bhatnagar, S. (2011). Cancer pain management: Basic information for the young pain physicians. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 17(2), 127–130. doi:10.4103/0973-1075.84533 Rangappa, K. S., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2010). Developing strategies for successful science and technology programmes in open universities of developing countries. Pan Commonwelath Forum International Conference, 2010, Cochin, November, 2010. Rao, C. N. R. (1999). Science in the future of India. Science, 286, 1295. doi:10.1126/science.286.5443.1295 Rather, M. A., Sharma, R., Aklakur, M., Ahmad, S., Kumar, N., Khan, M., & Ramya, V. L. (2011). Nanotechnology: A novel tool for aquaculture and fisheries development. A prospective mini-review. Fisheries and Aquaculture Journal, 16, 1–5. Readings, B. (1996). The university in ruins. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Reddi, U. V., & Sinha, V. (2003). ICT use in education, national policies, strategies and programmes. UNESCO Meta-survey on the Use of Technologies in Education. Report of the National Knowledge Commission. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.knowledgecommission.gov. in/ Report, A. (2006). University of Madras, academic year, 2005-2006. Retrieved from www.unom.ac.in Report, A. (2011). University of Madras, academic year, 2010-2011. Retrieved from www.unom.ac.in

Riddell, W. C., & Song, X. (2011). The ımpact of education on unemployment ıncidence and re-employment success: Evidence from the U.S. labour market. Labour Economics, 18(4), 446–454. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2011.01.003 Robbins-Roth, C. (2006). Alternative careers in science: Leaving the ivory tower (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. (2001). Societal implications of nanoscience and nanotechnology. National Science Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.wtec. org/loyola/nano/NSET.Societal.Implications. Roco, M. C. (2003). Nanotechnology: Convergence with modern biology and medicine. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 14, 337–346. doi:10.1016/S09581669(03)00068-5 Roco, M. C. (2004). The US national nanotechnology initiative after 3 years (2000-2003). Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 6, 1–10. doi:10.1023/ B:NANO.0000023243.25838.73 Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. (2003). Converging technologies for improving human performance. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. Rudolph, F. (1984). The power of professors: The impact of specialization and professionalization on the curriculum. Change, 16(4), 12–17, 41. Ruthnaswamy, M. (1955). The new idea of a university. Journal of the Annamalai University, February, 1955 Rwigema, R., & Venter, R. (2004). Advanced entrepreneurship. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press. Ryan, L. (2009). Exploring the growing phenomenon of university-corporate education partnerships. Management Decision, 47(8), 1313–1322. doi:10.1108/00251740910984569 Ryan, L. (2010). Corporate education: A practical guide to effective corporate learning. Salisbury, Australia: Griffin Press. Ryan, Y. (2001). Higher education as a business: Lessons from the corporate world. Minerva, 39, 115–135. doi:10.1023/A:1010334721507

367

Compilation of References

Sahoo, S. K., Parveen, S., & Panda, J. J. (2007). The present and future of nanotechnology in human health care. Nanomedicine: Biology and Medicine, 3, 20–31. doi:10.1016/j.nano.2006.11.008 Salunkhe, M. M. (2006). Best practices to activate students participation in quality assurance. APQN & NAAC Organized International Conference September 16-17, 2006.

Schmid, M. B. (2008). Graduate programs that prepare for non- research careers: New views on the master’s degree in science. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News, 28(14). Retrieved from www.genengnews.com/articles/ chitem.aspx?aid=2541 Schmikl, E. D. (2011). Evolution of our educational system. Gauteng, South Africa: Cranefield College.

Salunkhe, M. M. (2006, January). Shivsandesh. Shivaji University, Kolhapur. Retrieved from http://www.unishivaji.ac.in/shivsandesh/archive/vol5jan06/vcdesk.htm

Schuster, S. M. (2008). Critical skills in biotechnology education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 36(1), 68–69. doi:10.1002/bmb.20158

Salunkhe, M. M. (2009). Concept paper on Central University of Rajasthan. Retrieved from http://www. curaj.ac.in

Schuster, S. M. (2009). BAMBED commentary: Post-PhD education. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 37(6), 381–382. doi:10.1002/bmb.20337

Salunkhe, M. M., & Kamat, R. K. (2009). Democratizing the higher education policy formulation by exploring the use of blog. University News, A Journal of Higher Education by AIU, 47(40).

Schuster, S. M. (2011). Commentary: Attitude adjustment: Educating PhD scientist for business careers. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 39(1), 61–62. doi:10.1002/bmb.20475

Salunkhe, M. M., & Kamat, R. K. (2009). Leveraging technology for value-added evaluation in institutes of higher learning. University News, A Journal of Higher Education by AIU, 47(45).

Schuster, S. M. (2012). The supply of postdocs. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 40(3), 159–160. doi:10.1002/bmb.20608

Sandmann, L. R. (2008). Conceptualization of the scholarship of engagement in higher education: A strategic review, 1996-2006. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(1), 92–104. Sandmann, L. R., Kliewer, B. W., Kim, J., & Omerikwa, A. (2010). Toward understanding reciprocity in communityuniversity partnerships: An analysis of select theories of power. In Keshen, J., Holland, B. A., & Moely, B. E. (Eds.), Advances in service learning: Research for what (pp. 3–23). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Sardana, D., & Krishna, V. V. (2008). Government, university and industry relations: The case of biotechnology in the Delhi Region. Science, Technology & Society, 11(2), 351–378. doi:10.1177/097172180601100204 Scharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mobile technologies for lifelong learning. Pergamon. UK: Elsevier Science. Schiller, D., & Brimble, P. (2009). Capacity building for university-industry linkages in developing countries: The case of Thai higher education development project. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 59–92. doi:10.1177/097172180801400103 368

Scott, W. R. (1998). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems (4th ed.). Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Scoufis, M. (2000). Integrating graduate attributes into the undergraduate curricula. University of Western Sydney. Sekhon, B. S. (2010). Food nanotechnology – An overview. Nanotechnology. Science and Applications, 3, 1–15. Semolic, B. (2011). Smart machine collaborative R&D program. Celje, Slovenia: INOVA Consulting, LENS Living Lab. Semolic, B., & Kovac, J. (2008). Strategic information system of virtual organization: Pervasive collaborative networks. Poznan, Poland: IFIP, Springer. Sengel, S. (2010). The ımportance of constant accounting training (education) and an evaluation. The Journal of Accounting and Finance, 47, 81–94. Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York, NY: Doubleday. Senik, R., & Broad, M. (2011). Information technology skills development for accounting graduates: Intervening conditions. International Education Studies, 4(2), 105–110. doi:10.5539/ies.v4n2p105

Compilation of References

Shah, V., & Belozerova, I. (2009). Influence of metal nanoparticles on the soil microbial community and germination of lettuce seeds. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 197, 143–148. doi:10.1007/s11270-008-9797-6 Sharma, S. K., & Bhardwaj, V. (2007). Employment generation through small hydro projects in the Himalayan states. Paper presented at the International Conference on Small Hydropower - Hydro Sri Lanka, 22-24 October 2007. Sharon, M., Choudhary, A. K., & Kumar, R. (2010). Nanotechnology in agricultural diseases and food safety. Journal of Phycology, 2(4), 83–92. Shivaji University. Kolhapur. (2012). About Shivaji University. Retrieved from http://www.unishivaji.ac.in/ aboutus.htm Shukla, R. (2005). India Science Report. National Council of Applied Economic Research. Sidhu, G. S. (2008, May 20). Stop churning out unemployable youth. The Tribune (Online Edition, Chandigarh). Siegel, G., Sorensen, J. E., Klammer, T., & Richtermeyer, S. B. (2010). The ongoing preparation gap in management accounting education: A guide for change. Management Accounting Quarterly, 11(4), 29–39. Sitaramam, V., & Sauna, Z. E. (1996). What can be done with science education in Indian universities? An attempt at a synthesis. Current Science, 70(5), 335–340. Slaughter, S., & Rhoades, G. (2004). Academic capitalism and the new economy: Markets, state, and higher education. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Smith, A. (2006). Nanotechnology: Does it have a sporting chance. Chemistry International, 28(1), 8–9. Smitherman, D. V. (2000). Space elevators: An advanced Earth-space infrastructure for the new millennium. NASA. Spanier, G. B. (1997). Enhancing the capacity of outreach. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 2(3), 7–11. Squire, K. (2009). Mobile media learning: multiplicities of place. Horizon, 17(1), 70–80. doi:10.1108/10748120910936162 Stewart, J. J., & Bonifant, B. (2008). The seven deadly sins of business development. Nature Biotechnology, 26(4), 375–377.

Steyn, P. G. (2010). The need for a chief portfolio officer (CPO) in organizations. PM World Today, 12(7). Stone, R. (2012). India Rising. Science, 335, 904–910. doi:10.1126/science.335.6071.904 Strasser, A., Harris, A. W., Bath, M. L., & Cory, S. (1990). Novel primitive lymphoid tumours induced in transgenic mice by cooperation between myc and bcl-2. Nature, 348, 331–333. doi:10.1038/348331a0 Stylios, G. K., Giannoudis, P. V., & Wan, T. (2005). Applications of nanotechnologies in medical practice. Injury, 36(4), S6–S13. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2005.10.011 Subraya, B. M. (2011). Context dependent and assessment centric educational model for rural India. National Conference on Future Trends in Information & Communication Technology & Application (NCICT), 2011. Subraya, B. M., Manjunatha Prasanna, S., & Purohit, A. (2011). Genome model – A context on measurement of learning effectiveness by aligning objectives and assessment. 2011 International Conference on Frontiers in Education: Computer Science and Computer Engineering, 2011. Suresh, N. (2012, August). The emerging trends in India’s biotech education system. Biospectrum, p. 9. Suresh, S. (2012). Cultivating Global science. Science, 336, 959. doi:10.1126/science.1224580 Susan, A. (2005). Greenfield biotechnology, the brain and the future. Trends in Biotechnology, 23(1), 34–41. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2004.11.011 Sveiby, K.-E. (1997). The new organizational wealth: Managing and measuring knowledge based assets. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Tadros, T., Izquierdo, P., Esquena, J., & Solans, C. V. (2004). Formation and stability of nanoemulsions. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 109, 303–318. doi:10.1016/j.cis.2003.10.023 Tahir, F. (2001). Distance education, environmental education and sustainability – An overview of universities in commonwealth Asia. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 2(1), 21–37. doi:10.1108/1467630110380271

369

Compilation of References

TECHKNOW. (2010). Innovation to implementation. TECHKNOW-2010, National Expo on Student Innovation, April, 2010, Anna University, Chennai. Teksen, O., Tekin, M., & Gencturk, M. (2010). Evaluating of accounting education: A research on the students of vocational colleges ın Mehmet Akif Ersoy University. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty, 46, 100–111. Temple, H. (1991). Open learning in industry: Developing flexibility and competence in the work force. Essex, UK: Longman Group. TERI. (2010). Nanotechnology development in India: Building capability and governing the technology [TERI Briefing Paper]. Canada: Supported by IDRC. The Gazette of India Extraordinary. (2009, August). The right of children to free and compulsory education act document. Retrieved November 7, 2011, from HTTP://WWW.EDUCATION.NIC.IN/ELEMENTARY/ FREE%20AND%20COMPULSORY.PDF The Hindu. (2012, 28 May). The corporate view. The Hindu, Education Supplement. Retrieved from http:// www.thehindu.comtodays-papertp-featurestp-educationplusarticle3463341.ece The Per Capita Electricity Consumption - UN Statistics. (n.d.). Wikipedia. Retrieved 7th November, 2011, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. (2004, July). Nanoscience and nanotechnologies. The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering Report, July 2004. Retrieved August 5, 2008, from http:// www.nanotec.org.uk/final Thong, H. Y., Zhai, H., & Maibach, H. I. (2007). Percutaneous penetration enhancers: An overview. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 20, 272–282. doi:10.1159/000107575 Thornton, M. (2001). The demise of diversity in legal education:globalisation and the new knowledge economy. International Journal of the Legal Profession, 8(1), 35–56. doi:10.1080/09695950120103172

370

Thulstrup, E. W., Hansen, J. A., & Gaardhoje, J. J. (2005). Capacity building in higher education and research: A key component of efficient global development. In J. J. Gaardhoje, J. A. Hansen, & E. W. Thustrup (Eds.), Capacity building in higher education and research on a global scale: Proceedings of the International Workshop on How can Manpower Needs in Knowledge Based Economies be Satisfied in a Balanced Way? May 17-18, 2005, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen, Published by The Danish National Commission for UNESCO, Denmark (pp. 20-31). Tian, N., Zhou, Z. Y., Sun, S. G., Ding, Y., & Wang, Z. L. (2007). Synthesis of tetrahexahedral platinum nanocrystals with high-index facets and high electro-oxidation activity. Science, 316, 732–735. doi:10.1126/science.1140484 Tilak, J. B. G. (2004). Public subsides in the education sector in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 39(4), 343–359. Tobias, S., Chubin, D., & Aylesworth, K. (1995). Rethininking science as a career: Perceptions and realities in the physical sciences. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation. Training Manual, P. J. M. (n.d.). System operators division. Retrieved from www.pjm.com Traverso, L. (2012). The current status of the Indian actuarial profession. Retrieved from http://www.aktuaris. org/images/upload/File/12%20Lesley_Traverso_01.pdf UGC. (2012). Higher education in India at a glance. New Delhi, India: University Grants Commission, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Retrieved from http://oldwebsite.ugc.ac.in/pub/ HEglance2012.pdf UGC. (2012). Report on higher education in India. Retrieved from UGC.ac.in Wadwa, V., Rissing, B., Gereffi, G., Trumpbour, J., & Engardio, P. (2008). Globalization of innovation [Can India and China Cure the Global Pharmaceutical Market? Kauffman- The Foundation for Entrepreneurship.]. Pharmaceuticals (Ottawa), 3–5. Ulrich, P., Welte, T., Giersig, M., & David, A. (2006). Groneberg nanomedicine for respiratory diseases. European Journal of Pharmacology, 533(1-3), 341–350. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.12.068

Compilation of References

Van de Ven, A. H. (2007). Engaged scholarship: A guide for organizational and social research. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Vanderford, N. L. (2010). Opinion: Encourage alternatives. The Scientist. Retrieved August 1, 2011, from http:// classic.the-scientist.com/news/display/57221/ Vaux, D. L., Cory, S., & Adams, J. M. (1988). Bcl-2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells. Nature, 335, 440–442. doi:10.1038/335440a0 Venture Centre- A CSIR Initiative. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2012, from http://www.venturecenter.co.in/index.php Vijayendra, S. V. N., & Narasimharao, B. P. R. (2011). Preparing microbiology professionals for food industry. Indian Food Industry, 30(5&6), 32–43. Wadhwa, V. (2008). India’s workforce revolution. The Wall Street Journal Online.

Williard, R. (1996). The changing biomedical research and health care environments: Implications for basic science graduate education and research in pharmacy. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 60, 308–314. Working Group on Power for Eleventh Plan. (February 2007). Planning Commission. Retrieved 6th November 2011, from planningcommission.nic.in/about us/committee/.../wg11_power.pdf World Bank report. (2007). Building knowledge economies – Advanced strategies for development. Washington DC: World Bank Institute, Knowledge for Development Program (K4D). Worthen, B. R., Van Dusen, L. M., & Sailor, P. J. (1994). A comparative study of the impact of integrated learning systems on students’ time-on-task. International Journal of Educational Research, 21(1), 25–38. doi:10.1016/08830355(94)90021-3

Walker, M. (2001, 11 October). Debates in higher education. University College London Higher Education, Critical Professionalism and Educational Action Research. Retrieved from www.ucl.ac.uk/cishe/seminars/ dhe_papers/MWpaper.doc

Xu, H., Aylott, J. W., Kopelman, R., Miller, T. J., & Philbert, M. A. (2001). A real-time ratiometric method for the determination of molecular oxygen inside living cells using sol-gel-based spherical optical nanosensors with applications to rat C6 glioma. Analytical Chemistry, 73, 4124–4133. doi:10.1021/ac0102718

Watling, D., Prince, C., & Beaver, G. (2003). The changing dynamics of the corporate education market. Strategic Change, 12, 223–234. doi:10.1002/jsc.635

Yashpal. (2006). Let us not forget the proximate while chasing the wonders of distance education. 11th Annual Prof. G. RamReddy memorial lecture, IGNOU.

Webster. (1913). The collaborative international dictionary of English v.0.48.

Yeole, P. G., & Puranik, M. P. (2005). Pharmacy in India: At crossroads. Express Pharma Pulse.

Weerts, D., & Sandmann, L. R. (2010). Community engagement and boundary-spanning roles at research universities. The Journal of Higher Education, 81(6), 632–657.

Ylinenpää, H. (2005). If management can be learned, can learning be managed? Reflections on HEIbased management training in smaller firms. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 24(6), 507–524. doi:10.1080/02601370500280298

Weiser, H. J. (1966). Accounting education-Present and future. Accounting Review, 41(3), 518–530. Whitney, D.-T. (2005). Blogs and RSS: Powerful information management tools. Library Hi Tech News, 22(10), 28–29. doi:10.1108/07419050510644374

Yokakul, N., & Zawadie, G. (2009). The role of triple helix for promoting social capital, industrial technology and innovation in the SME sector in Thailand. Science, Technology & Society, 14(1), 93–117. doi:10.1177/097172180801400104

Williams, D. (2008). The relationship between biomaterials and nanotechnology. Journal of Biomaterials, 1, 1–3.

371

Compilation of References

Zhang, L., Hong, F., Lu, S., & Liu, C. (2005). Effect of nano-TiO2 on strength of naturally aged seeds and growth of spinach. Biological Trace Element Research, 105, 83–91. doi:10.1385/BTER:104:1:083

Zhu, H., Han, J., Xiao, J. Q., & Jin, Y. (2008). Uptake, translocation and accumulation of manufactured iron oxide nanoparticles by pumpkin plants. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 10, 713–717. doi:10.1039/b805998e

Zhang, S., Li, J., Jiang, Y., Xu, Y., & Qin, C. (2009). Programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) suppresses metastastic potential of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research, 28, 71. doi:10.1186/1756-9966-28-71

Zong, R. L., Zhou, J., Li, B., Fu, M., Shi, S. K., & Li, L. T. (2005). Optical properties of transparent copper nanorod and nanowire arrays embedded in anodic alumina oxide. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 123, 94710–94715. doi:10.1063/1.2018642

372

373

About the Contributors

B. PanduRanga Narasimharao did his Master’s and Doctoral in life sciences from Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, India. He also successfully completed courses in human resource development and distance education. He has more than 30 years of teaching and research experience covering both conventional face to face university system and open distance learning (ODL) education system. His work covers diverse areas like algal physiology (Phycology), distance education, microbiology/ biotechnology education, food science and open distance learning, outreach programmes, and corporate education. He is currently regional director of IGNOU overlooking its activities in the western part of the state of Rajasthan in India (covering 11 districts). He was holding different positions like Director, Centre for Outreach Programmes, Dy.Director, Centre for Corporate Education, Training and Consultancy, Faculty, School of Life Sciences, Research Associate, CAS in Botany, and Academic Associate, School of Life sciences, Faculty/Lecturer, Department of Botany. He had published and presented a number of papers in the above areas and two of his papers got best paper awards at national level. K. S. Rangappa, the Vice Chancellor of Karnataka State Open University, has three decades of Research and Teaching Experience as Junior and Senior Research Fellow, Lecturer, Reader, Professor, and Director at Post Graduate Department of Chemistry, University of Mysore. He worked as Post-doctoral / Research Associate / Visiting Professor at several Universities in Canada (1983 – 85), USA (1990 – 92), Germany (1995), Japan (1999 – 2000, May – July 2005), Korea (Nov 2002), Poland (April – May 2006), etc. He has made novel and significant contributions to Bio-organic and Medicinal Chemistry and Drug discovery programs. Over 2000 new bioactive molecules have been synthesized from his laboratory which were tested for their Antimicrobial, Anti-inflammatory (PLA2 Inhibitors), Anticancer (Cervical, Breast, Liver and Mouth Cancer), Alzheimer’s disease, and Diabetes. Prof. Rangappa is Fellow of The Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC; UK) and Fellow of National Academy of Sciences (FNASc) India. He is recipient of several prestigious national and international awards including Prof. Y. T. Thathachari research award for Science – 2007, Sir C. V. Raman Young Scientist Award (2006) of Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology, Golden Jubilee Sir C.V. Raman award of the university of Mysore (2006), Chemical Research Society of India (CRSI) Bronze Medal (2006) in Chemical Sciences by Chemical Research Society of India and Prof. R. C. Shah Memorial National Award- 1999 from Indian Science Congress Association, Dr. Raja Ramanna State Award for Scientists – 2009 from Government of Karnataka. Tukaram U. Fulzele after obtaining B.Sc. (Maths) from Nagpur University completed his M.A. (Eco) from Agra University followed by M. Phil, Ph.D. and Diplomas in English and Spanish from Jawahar-

About the Contributors

lal Nehru University, New Delhi. He also acquired PGDCA from IEC, New Delhi and PGDDE, DIM, PGDFM, M.B.A. from Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi. Currently, Dr. Fulzele is working as Professor in School of Management Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi. He has more than 30 years experience of teaching, research, and academic administration and planning with a decade research experience in Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, New Delhi. He was holding various positions like Associate Professor in the Department of Business Administration and Management, Amravati University, Amravati; Software Engineer, Dy. Director and Regional Director in Indira Gandhi National Open University; system manager, Dena Bank, Mumbai, India. Dr. Fulzele presented several research papers at National and International Seminars and Conferences. *** Aslı Beyhan Acar is a Teaching Assistant in the Institute of Business Administration at Istanbul University. She also responsible for the short-middle term education-training programs for business life in the Institute. She completed her Bachelor’s degree in the Faculty of Political Science at Istanbul University. After her graduation she attended Faculty of Education at Kocaeli University for a while. She received her post graduate (2006) and PhD (2011) in the Department of Human Resources Management in the Faculty of Business Administration at Istanbul University. Her main research interests include training-development function of HRM, international industrial relations, labour economy, EU social policies, microfinance, and employment in developing countries. Anuwar Ali has more than 30 years’ experience in higher education, beginning as a tutor at the Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia (UKM), where he rose to become Dean of the Faculty of Economics and later Vice-Chancellor. He is a former Director of Higher Education at the Ministry of Education (1995–1998) and Chairman of the Malaysian Examinations Council (2001–2003). He currently serves as the President/Vice-Chancellor of Open University Malaysia and is a member of the National Higher Education Council and the National Minimum Wage Council. Vivek Ambastha took his primary education from Maharashtra, India, followed by his Master’s in Microbiology and Biotechnology from M.S. University, Baroda, India. Currently Vivek is pursuing his Ph.D. studies in “Programmed Cell Death in salt stress induced oxidative stress in rice and Arabidopsis” from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. N. Anand was the first Vice-Chancellor of VELS University, Chennai. He is a renowned algologist of India and served at the Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Chennai for thirty six years. At University of Madras he also held the positions of Director of Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, Dean of Research, and standing Committee member of the Academic Council. Prof. Anand has been teaching M.Sc. programmes in Botany and guiding students for M. Phil and Ph. D. Twenty five students have taken Ph.D. under his guidance. He has handled research projects from UGC, DST, Ministry of Environment and Forests and has been expert committee member of other funding agencies like CSIR, DBT, DOD, and Tamil Nadu Forest Department. Prof. Anand has a wide experience with the academic systems in the University of Madras. He is currently Coordinator of Project on

374

About the Contributors

All India Coordinated Project on Taxonomy of Algae. He has served in the Board of studies of several universities in the country and also evaluator of PhD theses. He is presently the Vice-President of the Phycological Society, India and Chief Editor of the journal Phykos. Seetharam Annadana earned his M.Sc. (1997) and Ph.D. (2001) degrees in Biotechnology from the Wageningen Agricultural University, and Wageningen UR, Netherlands, respectively after obtaining B.Sc. (agriculture) degree from University of Agricultural sciences, Dharwad. Dr. Annadana was Vice President, Seeds and Traits at Avesthagen, Bangalore and joined Syngenta India Limited, in 2009 as the Technology Lead, and is currently the Traits Development & Vegetable R&D Management Lead, South Asia, at Syngenta. He is also Vice-President, Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education, Bangalore. Dr. Annadana has been a consultant to numerous international and Indian firms in the space of seeds, GM technology and crops, molecular markers, biofuels, tissue culture, floriculture, organic farming, fruit and vegetable processing, nutriceuticals, et cetera. He was also involved in developing curricular content for M.Sc., and B.E., courses in Biotechnology. He worked as a consultant with many international organizations such as USAID and the UN Agencies like UNEP-GEF (Kenya) and UNIDO (Austria). Uday Annapure is presently working as an Associate Professor of Food Chemistry at Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India. He is having about 12 years teaching and research experience. He is a Vice-President of Association of Food Scientists and Technologists (India), Mumbai Chapter. Recently, he has been awarded BOYSCAST Fellowship from Department of Science and Technology, Government of India under which he visited to Washington State University, Pullman, WA and University of California, Davis, CA. He has been also awarded TEQIP Fellowship to visit Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, NJ, USA. His research interests include extrusion processing, traditional foods, and food biotechnology. He is a Life Member of Association of Carbohydrate Chemists and Technologists of India. (ACCTI), Biotech Research Society of India and International Society of Food Engineering (ISFE), USA. He has 35 national and international research publications in the peer reviewed journals. Anu Appaiah, working as Principal Scientist in the Department of Food Microbiology, Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, has interests in wine fermentation and agro waste management. He got his Doctoral degree from CFTRI, University of Mysore. He has a wide experience of working in private industry, University and Research Institute. He has about 40 papers in national and international journals, has contributed 6 chapters for books and coauthored one book. With his guidance 3 students have completed their Doctoral degree and 5 are working at present. A number of students have completed their Master’s degree under his guidance. He has handled 5 projects from governmental agencies and one from the industry. Gireesh Babu K, PhD, obtained his Doctoral degree in Biotechnology from Gulbarga University, Gulbarga. He secured his M. Phil and M.Sc. degrees in Biotechnology, from the same university. He worked on characterizing γ-aminobutryric acid shunt and stress proteins in sugar cane for his Doctoral thesis. Currently, as a founder partner of BioGenics, he is heading the R&D efforts. Some of his research interests are plant molecular biology, recombinant proteins, and bioprocess technology. He also is serv-

375

About the Contributors

ing as a guest faculty and member of Board of Examinations for premier academic institutes. He has been a resource person in workshops, conferences and delivered lectures on technical issues. He has undergone entrepreneurship development training conducted by department of micro, small and medium enterprises, government of India. He has published 6 scientific research articles in international journals. Rajat Kanti Baisya holds a PhD in Chemical Engineering having over thirty years of industrial experience in FMCG and MNC’s. Since 2000 he is a senior Professor in the areas of Marketing and Strategic Management and also of International Business and Project Management at Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Before joining academics he has worked for many leading Indian and multinational corporations for over 30 years covering all functional areas of management. Prof. Baisya has been President and CEO of Emami Group of Companies, Senior VP- Business Development of Reckitt Benckiser India Ltd, General Manager (Projects) of Goetze India Ltd and Controller –Corporate Planning of UB Group. He has been associated with companies like Escorts Ltd., United Breweries Group, Best Foods International (Unilever Group), and Parle-Bisleri Group in very senior management capacity. He has over 300 research publications and authored four books. Prof Baisya has served as a member of Research Management Board as well as Team Lead Assessor for Project Excellence Award of International Project Management Association, (IPMA) Switzerland, also a member of the editorial advisory board of PM World Today. He serves on the board of many private and public companies. He is the editorial board member of many national and international journals. He is the visiting Professor at ENPC International Business School, Paris as well as at NPU, Xian, China. He is The Founder President of Project & Technology Management Foundation (a non-profit society). Professor Baisya is a Fellow of Institute of Engineers (India) and also a Fellow of Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers. K. Balaraman received his Bachelor’s in Engineering from Bangalore University in 1989, and M.Tech and Ph.D from Vivesvariah Technological University. His doctoral thesis is on Application of New Methodologies in Energy Management System. He has to his credit more than 20 publications. He has worked in the Electricity utility in Karnataka and is currently the Chief General Manager in Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd. His area of interest is power system simulation and studies, load forecasting, power system operation, and control. Shivaji D. Deshmukh completed his M.Sc. (Biotechnology) in 2007, and presently working as research scholar under the supervision of Professor Mahendra Rai at Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University at Amravati, India. His area of interest is nanobiotechnology and molecular biology. His work is focused on synthesis of nanoparticles, characterization, and their application as antimicrobials as well as bioconjugation studies of nanoparticles for drug and gene delivery. Rinku Dey received her Postgraduate and Doctoral degree in Microbiology from Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), N. Delhi. She has been working as agricultural/soil microbiologist at the Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh since 1997. Her research interests include plant-microbe interactions, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, development of microbial consortia and formulations, utilization of agricultural residues, fermentation for enzyme production, et cetera. She has been associated with CSIR, DBT, ICAR, and DST funded projects. She has developed Rhizobium and PGPR

376

About the Contributors

cultures for use as biofertilizers in groundnut cultivation. She has guided dissertation works of many PG students. Dr. Dey has published many research articles, reviews, etc. in national and international journals. Yashvantha Dongre started his career at Mangalore University in 1981 and moved to University of Mysore as Professor of Commerce in 1999. He was the Director of Post Graduate Centre of Mysore University at Hassan for four years and Coordinator of Third Sector Research Centre at Manasagangothri, Mysore till his appointment as Registrar of Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University Bellary in Nov. 2010. Dr. Dongre was Japan Foundation Fellow in 2000 and carried out post doctoral research at Ritsumeikan University, Japan. He was Visiting Overseas Professor, MINPAKU, Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Osaka, Japan during 2008-09. He has completed 8 major research projects including internationally funded projects notably from International Cooperative Alliance, Ford Foundation, University of Technology Sydney, Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium, Philippines and Supraja Foundation, Hong Kong. Among his recent assignments was the consultancy service provided to the High Power Committee on Cooperatives set up by Ministry of Agriculture, GOI. Dr. Dongre has about 100 paper publications, successfully guided 9 students to Ph. D and is currently serving as Co Secretary of ICA-Asia Pacific Committee on University/Campus Cooperatives. Mrinal Gaurav, an academician from the field of commerce with over seven years teaching experience of Commerce and Management, has also worked as a journalist for Ranchi edition of a few national English and Hindi dailies. Dr. Gaurav is presently working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Commerce at Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya. K Guruprasad has worked as VP and Global Head, Learning and Development at Tata Consultancy Services BPO unit in India for four years (till June, 2012). He has previously worked in the capacity of General Manager and head of Learning at IBM Global Services India for about eight years. He has an overall experience of about 27 years, of which the last 12 years have been mainly in the HR/Learning space, and the earlier 15 years have been in the technical area. He has published over 20 national and international journal papers in the technical areas, which are cited by several authors worldwide, and also published a few papers in the management/HR areas. He holds ME (Mechanical Engineering) from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India and PhD (Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering) from Clarkson University, NY, USA. He has worked in the technical areas of finite element analysis, boundary element analysis, software development, and parallel computing. He has a combination of industry, academic and research experience, including technical, management, and HR areas. Prabodh Halde is currently working as Head Regulatory Marico Ltd. Marico is one of the fastest growing FMCG companies in India with leadership in branded edible oils. Prabodh has more than 18 years of industrial experience in area of quality and food regulation. He has worked for Coca-Cola and ACC Ltd in the past. Prabodh is Vice President of AFST Mumbai, Executive committee member of Solvent Extractor’s Association India, Industry committee member AFST Mysore, Expert Panel member FSSAI, and FICCI Codex & Food Processing committee & PFNDAI. He has participated in Codex meeting at China in March 2012 as a part of Indian delegation. He has published many articles in scientific journals and newsletters. Prabodh is approved trainer from FSSAI and FDA Maharashtra, FDA Gujarath, FDA Goa, FDA Kerala, & FDA MP. He has trained more than 1600 food safety officials

377

About the Contributors

so far. He has delivered more than 100 lectures at different national and international conferences. He is regular faculty at various food technology colleges. He is management board member of SNDT Matunga college, Syllabus committee member of ICT Mumbai, CFT Parbhani and Pondicherry University. His area of expertise is food safety and food regulations. He has received various awards includes 2 times best employee awards at Coca-Cola and four times value awards at Marico Ltd. He is also active member of UDAAN foundation an NGO working for underprivileged section of the society. Ganesh A. Hegde is presently working as Assistant Adviser at NAAC, Bangalore. He has done his Doctorate in Mass Communication and Journalism from University of Mysore. Dr. Hegde joined the NAAC in 1996 and instrumental for bringing out all manuals, guidelines, and publications in its initial years. He has co-ordinated many workshops of Assessment and Accreditation at national level for principals, faculty and conducted training programme for assessors and helped for many international conferences. He has co-ordinated more than 550 institutions of higher learning for NAAC’s process of Assessment and Accreditation. Dr. Hegde participated and presented papers on Higher Education, Assessment and Accreditation, Internal Quality Assurance Systems, Quality in Teacher Education, Best Practices in many national and international seminars. He has been awarded by AUQA, at Sydney, Australia for his best poster presentation on NAAC. He has co-authored two books one on Internal Quality Assurance Cell and another on the state-wise analysis of Punjab. Recently he has co-ordinated workshop on IQAC coordinators of Universities at NAAC. Before joining NAAC, Dr. Hegde worked in Vigyan Prasar, Dept. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi as Publication Executive. Rajanish K. Kamat was born in India in 1971. He received B.Sc. in Electronics, M. Sc. in Electronics both in distinction in 1991 and 1993, respectively. Further he completed M.Phil in Electronics in 1994 and qualified the State Eligibility Test (in 1995), which is mandatory for faculty positions in India. He pursued his Ph.D. in Electronics specialized in Smart Temperature Sensors at Goa University and completed the same in 2003. He was awarded merit scholarship during the Master’s programme. Dr. Kamat is currently an Associate Professor with the Department of Electronics, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, India. Prior to joining Shivaji University, he was working for Goa University and on short term deputation under various faculty improvement programmes to Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and IIT Kanpur. He has successfully guided five students for Ph.D. in the area of Embedded System and VLSI Design. His research interests include smart sensors, embedded systems, VLSI design, and information and communication technology. He is recipient of the Young Scientist Fellowship under the fast track scheme of Department of Science and Technology, Government of India and extensively worked on Open Source Soft IP cores. He has published over 50 research papers, presented over 60 papers in conferences, and authored eight books. Sandesh Kamath B., Ph.D., is Co-founder and Chief Executive at BioGenics, research and training centre in biotechnology. He did his M.Sc. in Biotechnology from Gulbarga University, Gulbarga and Ph.D. from Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore. He worked on technological aspects of production of natural food colorants from algal sources and elucidated its biological activities. He has presented his work in various national and international conferences. He is a recipient of innovation grant under Technopreneur promotion program of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ministry of Science and technology, Government of India. He has particular interest in developing cost-effective

378

About the Contributors

technologies for life science industries. In addition, he has been trained by World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) and National Institute of Intellectual Property Management, Nagpur, on IPR issues. He has also completed the ‘Innovation Readiness series’ with IC2 Institute, University of Texas, Austin and FICCI, India. He has 5 international publications, 4 Indian patent, and 1 book chapter to his credit. Brandon W. Kliewer, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Civic Engagement at Florida Gulf Coast University. His larger research agenda looks at the intersection between the normative foundations of public administration, civic engagement, and political theory. Ram Babu Koganti, graduated from the Madras Institute of Technology, Chennai, India in Automobile Engineering. He joined Indian Oil Corporation Ltd., R&D Center, Faridabad near New Delhi as Research Officer and retired as CEO, LPG Equipment Research Center, Bangalore in July, 2011. His areas of specialization include the fuels and lubrication aspects related to Internal Combustion Engines including gas based engines. He has authored 20 technical papers which were presented in various national and international conferences both in India and abroad. He is a life member of the Tribology society of India. He is a recipient of the DSIR award as co-developer of the multi grade rail road engine oils. D. N. Kulkarni who is presently President of Jain irrigation Systems Ltd, Jalgoan did his Master’s in Food Technology from CFTRI, Mysore in 1974 with the support from FAO and subsequently Ph.D.. He was responsible for starting the first degree programme in India as Professor and Head of Food science and Technology at Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani. Dr. Kulkarni established the Agri Food Research Foundation of India and served, as its first Director. Dr. Kulkarni was a DANIDA Fellow in Denmark, consultant in Indonesia, advisor and visiting Professor in Mauritius, and visiting Professor to the Chinese academy of sciences in China. He is recipient of several awards and certificates, among them are TATA scholar 1978; N.M. Mohan Award, 1984; IFCON prize 1998; M.A.U. Commemorial Award 1996; Rashtriya Gowrav Award 2001; Govt. of Maharashtra Sanman Patra 2002. B. R. Lakshmikantha received his B.E degree from Bangalore University in 1979, and subsequently M.E degree in 1981. He did his PhD from Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bangalore, India in 2009 on the Research topic “Improving the Power System Stability By the Application of Advanced Control Techniques”. He has to his credit 20 publications and has more than 25 years teaching experience. He is a member of various professional bodies. He is Director “Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology & Management” Bangalore. His area of interest is FACTS controllers and application of FACTS controllers in renewable energy systems. Archi Mathur, M.Sc., M.B.A., Ph.D. She is an Associate Professor. She specializes in Marketing Management and Strategic Management. She is a postgraduate in Chemistry and Management She also has a diploma in International Trade Management and her doctoral work is on the emerging trends in advertising in relation to Fast Moving Consumer Goods. Currently, she is holding the office of The Controller of Examination. She has also undertaken other administrative responsibilities. She is also being invited by various institutions to deliver lectures on fundamental educational concepts like student handling, non-verbal communication, the art of speaking, and so on.

379

About the Contributors

R. Nagaraja after obtaining his Engineering degree from University of Mysore, Mysore in 1986, did his Master’s (M.E) and Doctoral (Ph.D) degrees from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. He has to his credit more than 25 publications. He is Promoter and Managing Director of Power Research Development Consultants (Pvt.) Ltd. He is specialized in design, implementation, and project management of power system analysis, power system and power plant training simulators, design simulators, SCADA, and Energy Management Systems. He has provided consultancy services to over 100 utilities and industries across the world. Onkar Nath got his 1st PhD from AMSE University, France and 2nd PhD from P.U., India. Both are in Astrophysics. He has also completed PGDCM, PGDHRD, PGDIMM, PGDIFM, PGDIM, and MBA in Human Resource Development. He has six gold certifications, viz. CISSP for Information Security, CISA for Information System Audit, CISM for Information Security Management, CFE for fraud examination, CNSM of STQC for Network Security, and CAIIB from IIBF for Banking. He is ISO 27001 LA and BS 25999LA. Apart from this he is also having more than a dozen Diplomas in various facets of Information Technology. He has been honoured with the Fellow membership of Royal Astronomical Society, UK, AMSE University, France and United Writers Association of India. He has been associated with Magnetohydrodynamic research group of Manchester University, UK. Seventy research papers of his are published in international journals of repute and more than 25 plus articles are published in various leading journals/magazines. He has authored three books and coauthored two books for IIBF. He has been visiting faculty to various corporations, academies, and institutes. He is life member of a dozen of scientific academies and societies. His area of expertise is in information technology, IT management, IS audit, BCP/DRP, cybercrime, and information security. Presently, he holds the position of Chief Manager – Information Security with Central Bank of India. Recently he has been taken as a pool of resource for banking industry by Reserve Bank of India. Subhaprada Nistala did her Master’s in Food Science and Technology from Central Food Technological Institute (affiliation to University of Mysore). She worked with Coca-Cola India (Asst Manager – Quality systems), ISC Pty Ltd., (Manager – Operations, Hyderabad; Compliance and Certification Manager, Mumbai), as Guest Faculty at various food business groups like Marathwada Chamber of Commerce and NISIET. She is lead auditor of ISO 9001:2008, ISO 14001:2004, OHS 18001:2007, ISO 22000:2005, HACCP. She is also RAB QSA accredited Tutor for QMS and FSMS and has Green Belt in Six Sigma. Her expertise covers global food safety standards – ISO 22000, HACCP, FSSC, PAS 220, SQF, food microbiology, hygiene programs, and India food regulations. Kamal Krishna Pal has a long experience of working in the field of soil/agricultural microbiology. He is working in the areas of biological nitrogen fixation, bio-inoculants, various aspects of plant-microbe interactions, formulation and delivery systems of inoculants, microbial diversity, bioprospecting of genes and allele mining for abiotic stress tolerance, biocontrol of phytopathogens, etc. He has worked in projects funded by CSIR, ICAR, NAIP, NATP, and DBT. He was awarded the Merit Medal for outstanding research work during his Ph.D in 1997 by the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA). He was also awarded with IARI Merit Gold Medal for outstanding academic performance during M.Sc. programme. Dr. Pal worked in the Department of Plant Pathology, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA under the DBT Overseas Associateship Award. He has guided the dissertation works of seven PG students

380

About the Contributors

and five doctoral students. He has published many research papers, review articles, etc. in national and international journals. Dr. Pal is a Guest faculty of Department of Life Science, Kannur University, Kerala and recognized guide for PG students in the discipline of Agricultural Microbiology, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh. Shiv Shanker Pandey obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. (Biochemistry) in 2003 and 2005, respectively, from University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India. He was introduced to the exciting field of Molecular Biology during his Ph.D. research work under the guidance of Professor Baishnab Charan Tripathy at the School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. His research work during Ph.D. focused on the study of role of VTE5 (Vitamin E pathway gene 5) and PORC (Protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase C) in Chlorophyll Metabolism. Om Prakash is Assistant Professor in the faculty of policy sciences of the National Law University Jodhpur and having more than 10 years of teaching experience. He has done his graduation and Master’s from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi and also holds a M. Phil degree from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Dr. Om Prakash has done his Doctorate (Ph. D) from National Law University, Jodhpur. Currently he is also the Executive Director of the Center for Human Welfare and Empowerment of the university. He has published about 30 research papers and articles in national and international journals, conference proceedings, edited books etc. He is life fellow of Indian History Congress, Indian Social Science Congress, Comparative Education Society of India, and World Council of Education. He is also a visiting faculty to Amity University, Jaipur and University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India. Mahendra Rai is a Professor and Head at the Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University at Amravati, Maharashtra, India. He was a Visiting Scientist at the Department of Bioenergetics, University of Geneva, Switzerland in 2004 and at the Department of Plant Protection of Debrecen University, Debrecen, Hungary in 2005 and 2008. He visited Department of Chemical Biology, University of Campinas, Brazil under Indo-Brazil Research Programme (DST-CNPq collaboration) in 2009, 2011, and 2012. Recently (May-June, 2012), he was visiting Professor in Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland. His area of expertise includes microbial biotechnology and nanobiotechnology. His present research interests are nanobiotechnology in medicine and agriculture, in particular the use of metallic nanoparticles as new generation of antimicrobials. He has published more than 200 research papers in India and abroad. In addition, he has edited/authored more than 25 books. C. Kameswara Rao, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.Sc., was Professor of Botany and Chairman of the Department of Sericulture, Bangalore University, Bangalore, India from 1967 to 1997. He has university teaching and research experience from 1965 to 2003. Presently he is Executive Secretary, Foundation for Biotechnology Awareness and Education (FBAE), Bangalore, India, a non-profit organization. Dr. Kameswara Rao was an invited speaker at international conferences/workshops/seminars on biotechnology and biosecurity, held in US, UK, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Mexico, Libya, China, Thailand, and others, besides at many places in India. He is member of several international committees and special working groups (US National Academies of Science, US National Institutes of Health, World Health Organization, etc.) and national policy Committees (Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of

381

About the Contributors

Environment and Forests, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India). He is member, European Federation of Biotechnology, and European Association of Pharma Biotechnology, Delft, Netherlands. He is also member, Expert Panel on Agricultural Biotechnology, Council for Biotechnology Information, Washington DC. He has published five books and co-author of three international reports. V.V. Kutumba Rao is presently Vice President (Strategic Planning and Development) at Gokaraju Rangaraju Educational Society, Hyderabad. He has more than 44 years of experience in academics and industry. His affiliations include Faculty member, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; Director, JN Aluminium RD & D Centre, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India; Pro Vice Chancellor, Gitam University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. He is Fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineering, Indian Institute of Metals, and Institution of Engineers (India). He has received some of the prestigious awards like National Metallurgists Day Award of the Government of India; Birla, Binani and Kamani Gold medals of the Indian Institute of Metals; Engineer of the Year Award of the Institution of Engineers (India). Manikrao Madhavrao Salunkhe, born in 1955, obtained his Doctoral degree in Organic Chemistry in 1979 from Shivaji University, Kolhapur, India. After working for a year in a college, he joined this University as Lecturer in 1980 and was Reader in Organic Chemistry from 1989 to 1995. Dr. Salunkhe was selected as Professor of Organic Chemistry in 1995 at the prestigious Institute of Science (former Royal Institute of Science, Bombay) at Mumbai, where he later became Head, Department of Chemistry (1997) and then Director (2000-2004). During his tenure at the Institute, he could get research grants of over rupees 15 millions from various funding agencies such as CSIR, DAE, DBT, UGC, ISIS Pharmaceuticals, USA etc. Under his dynamic and visionary leadership, the Institute established itself as one of the highly acclaimed centres in India for advanced studies and research in science. He worked as Vice-Chancellor of Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Maharashtra from 11th June, 2004 to 2nd March, 2009. During his tenure as ViceChancellor in Shivaji University he undertook number of reforms in various fields of the University. He is now working as the First Vice-Chancellor of the Central University of Rajasthan from 3rd March, 2009. His academic distinctions include honours like the Fellow of Royal Society of Chemistry, UK (2002), Member of American Chemical Society, Fellow/Member of Indian Chemical Society, Maharashtra Academy of Science, Bio-organic Society of India, International Society for Nucleosides, Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids. For his meritorious contributions, he has received Best Teacher Award of the Government of Maharashtra, among others. Lorilee R. Sandmann, Ph.D., has over 35 years in faculty, outreach, and administrative roles at major research universities. Currently she is professor and program chair of Adult Education in the Department of Lifelong Education, Administration, and Policy, at the University of Georgia. Her research focuses on leadership and organizational change in higher education with special emphasis on the institutionalization of community engagement, as well as faculty roles and rewards related to engaged scholarship. Her latest book is Institutionalizing Community Engagement in Higher Education: The First Wave of Carnegie Classified Institutions (Sandmann, Thornton, & Jaeger, 2009). She serves as a member of the National Advisory Committee for the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching’s Community Engagement Classification.

382

About the Contributors

Brane Semolic is Professor at University of Maribor and Cranefield College. Beside this he is serving as coordinator of international research living laboratory LENS Living lab (http://www.3-lab.eu/) and SIG Project Management Issue Manager in NETLIPSE Network (http://www.netlipse.eu/). He is former IPMA Vice president and present Chairman of IPMA Research Management Board (http://www.ipma. ch/. Since 1998 he is serving as first Assessor in the 4L IPMA PM certification program. He is visiting Professor at several foreign universities. He has published over 400 works and has more than 30 years of working experiences as expert, researcher, consultant, project manager and CEO in industry. He is President of Slovenian Chamber of Business Services, member of Strategic Advisory Board of European Competitiveness and Innovation Program (CIP), member of the PM World Today editorial advisory board and Distinguished International Fellow (DIF) appointed by International Cost Engineering Council. Evren Dilek Sengur is a research and teaching assistant in the Department of Accounting in the Faculty of Business Administration at Istanbul University. She received her Ph.D. in accounting from the Istanbul University in 2010. She also holds MSc in Accounting from Istanbul University and MBA from Ball State University. Before joining the faculty at Istanbul University Evren Sengur worked as an internal auditor at Zorlu Group in Istanbul, Turkey. She is a Certified Public Accountant since 2005. Her main research interests include financial reporting and auditing. B.N Balaji Singh is presently Director of KEC International Training Centre, Butibori, Nagpur, India. He has 24 years of industrial experience in leading companies holding top posts and 15 years of academic experience (as teacher and Director). He is credited with starting of first quality circle in a training centre in India in 1980 and the first Kaizen study circle in India in Bangalore in the 1990s. He has widely travelled in most parts of the world and has a vast international exposure in his field. He is member of several professional bodies like NIPM, BMA, NIQR, ISTD etc., and held various posts as Secretary, President etc. He has published and presented several papers in proceedings of national and international conferences and national journals. He has authored one text book on Organization Behavior and one book entitled “Art of Management through Basava Vachana’s” for industrial workforce. Ravi Sinha is a technocrat with over 40 years work experience in India and abroad. Mr. Sinha has been associated with a Ranchi based NGO, SRI for past many years and has worked on different projects in Rural and Sub-urban set up of tribal dominated Jharkhand. He is working as Secretary of a minority educational institution, namely, Yogoda Satsanga Mahavidyalaya, Ranchi. D. Sriram is presently working as Associate Professor at Department of Pharmacy, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus. He received his Ph.D. from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. He has been collaborating with various national and international organizations that include National Institutes of Health, USA, Southern Research Institute, USA, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore. He has received many research funding from government agencies like UGC, CSIR, DBT and ICMR. Dr. Sriram has made outstanding contributions in the area of tuberculosis drug discovery research. In the last 5 years, he had developed various new lead molecules as anti-TB agents effective against both MTB and MDR-TB which are targeted against various enzymes that include DNA gyrase and isocitrate lyase. Recent research efforts are focused on design of drugs for the treatment of latent TB for which no drugs are available presently. Dr. Sriram has

383

About the Contributors

to his credit more than 150 international publications in the field of drug discovery which have more than 1000 citations and an Indian Patent applied. He has been felicitated with Young Pharmacy Teacher Award in the year 2006.and Basanti Devi Amir Chand Prize 2008 by ICMR. B.M. Subraya, Vice President, Infosys, India currently works as the Head of Global Education Centre (GEC), Infosys Technologies Limited, Mysore, India. He is currently responsible for managing Global Education Centre, one of the biggest corporate universities in the world, training more than 20 thousand graduates in IT and IT enabled services in a year. Before Infosys, he worked as a Professor and Head of Computer Centre, at S.J. College of Engineering, an affiliated college of University of Mysore, a reputed engineering college in southern part of India, for more than 18 years. Dr. Subraya holds PhD from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi from Computer Science & Engineering Department, in the area of hardware verification and high level synthesis. He has guided many projects at graduate and under graduate level. His area of interest includes software testing, operating system, and distributed databases. His area of research is in software testing, and in particular, Web performance testing. He has been responsible for starting a Performance Testing Centre (InPTC) and consulted many customer projects in the area of Performance testing. He is the author of a book titled “Integrated Approach to Web Performance Testing: A Practitioner’s Guide” published by IRM Press, USA. N. V. Thakkar is well recognized as a devoted academician and dutiful administrator for last three decades. His contribution as Professor in Chemistry at Institute of Science has been still rendered its impact on his colleagues, peers, and students. Besides, he also worked as a Controller of Examinations of Shivaji University and rendered his meritorious service for two years. Dr. Thakkar introduced many innovations in the examination and evaluation procedure and made the system transparent and efficient. He also took keen interest in the development of facilities for Distance Education and preparation of study material at Shivaji University, Kolhapur. Thereafter he joined as a Officer on Special Duty at Central University of Rajasthan and wholeheartedly contributed to build the new Central University from scratch. K. V. B. R. Tilak has a very distinguished background in the field of soil microbiology, biological nitrogen fixation, biofertilizers, and plant-microbe interactions. He was a coordinator of Indo-US Science & Technology Initiative (Senior Scientific Panel) program during 1984-91 and visited various universities in USA in a bilateral programme on Biological Nitrogen Fixation and Biofertilizers including Mycorrhizae. Dr. Tilak held various positions at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi as Professor of Microbiology; National Coordinator, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) of Biological Nitrogen Fixation Program; Project Director, National Facility for Blue-Green Algal Collections and Head, Division of Microbiology for over a period of 30 years besides serving a number of organizations in the country on programmes dealing with Biofertilizers and Soil (Agricultural) Microbiology. Presently he is working as Senior Scientist, National Academy of Sciences, India, in the Department of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad, A.P. He was DAAD Fellow, Germany (1966-69) and Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Fellow in Microbiology, Germany (1980-81, 1986). For his contributions towards research in Soil Microbiology and Biofertilizers, he was awarded the prestigious Prof. S.R. Vyas Memorial award by the Association of Microbiologists of India.

384

About the Contributors

Budhi Sagar Tiwari took primary and higher education from Banaras Hindu University Varanasi. After receiving Ph.D. (Botany) from BHU, Dr. Tiwari moved to Bose Institute, Calcutta as DBT sponsored post doctoral fellow. Later, Dr. Tiwari was awarded post doctoral fellowship from The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel in the group of Prof. Alex Levine where he started working on elucidating molecular mechanisms underlying programmed cell death. After spending a couple of years in Israel, Dr. Tiwari moved to USA and carried out research in Programmed Cell Death in the leading groups of Prof. Eric Lam and Martin Dickman. Later, Dr. Tiwari was awarded visiting Scientist fellowship from Wenner Gren foundation, Sweden and spent a year in Swedish university of Agricultural Sciences with Dr. Peter Bozhkov. After spending another 6 months in Virginia Tech, USA, Dr. Tiwari joined Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi as DBT sponsored Ramlingaswami fellow where he is still continuing his research on light regulated PCD in plants. During the course of his career, he published a dozen articles in the journals of high repute. His findings have been recognised and cited highly. Ram Vemuri is a graduate of IIT-BHU from the Electrical Engineering department. He went on to complete his Ph.D. from the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at the University of Cincinnati in 1994. Ram has over twenty years of experience in the areas of semiconductor design and electronic design automation (EDA) tools. He has published over a dozen academic papers and continues to follow academic research through attending conferences and publications. He is currently working as a technology development manager with Intel Corporation in Hillsboro, OR. His focus is on hardware-software co-design which is still an evolving field. Outside of work, Ram enjoys playing tennis and reading technical and non-technical books. P. Yogeeswari is presently working in the capacity of Associate Professor and Head at Department of Pharmacy, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus. She received her Ph.D. degree from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Her area of research include new drug discovery for various diseases that include tuberculosis, HIV, neuropathic pain, epilepsy, cancer, etc. She has collaborations with various national and international organizations that include National Institute of Health, Bethesda, USA, National Cancer Institute, USA, and Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Science, University of Illinois, Chicago, USA. She has to her credit more than 100 research publications and also is the expert reviewer of many international journals. She is the editorial advisory board member of two international journals - Recent Patents on CNS Drug Discovery and International Journal of Biomedical Science. She is a lifetime member of Association of Pharmacy Teachers of India and Indian Pharmacological Society. She was awarded Young Pharmacy Teacher of the Year 2007 by Association of Pharmaceutical Teachers of India.

385

386

Index

A accounting education 21, 29-38 Accounting Education Change Commission (AECC) 29 accreditation of prior experiential learning (APEL) 329 actuarial science 158, 163-164, 319 Advanced Diploma in Banking Technology (ADBT) 258 agriculture and processed food products export development authority (APEDA) 198 agri-food engineering 193 agri-food industry 192 agri-food trade 193 All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) 104, 292, 340 American Institute of Certified Public Accountants’ (AICPA) 30 apoptosis 200, 203, 206-207 applied research 44, 63, 279 associate satisfaction index (ASI) 91

B back end staff 103 basic research 44, 56-59, 65, 147, 203, 207, 223 bio-business 84, 180, 314 biochemistry 19, 123, 128, 131, 166, 168, 174, 181, 219-222, 224, 226, 246, 316-318 biofertilizer 210, 216, 221 biosensor 143-144 blogging 161 Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) 115 business incubation 180

C Cancer Prevention Fellowship Program (CPFP) 202 cancer therapy 200, 203-204 carbon nanotubes (CNT) 146

cell proliferation 202, 207 Centers of Excellence (CoEs) 92 Centralized Baking System (CBS) 260 Central Statistics Office (CSO) 26 Centre for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology (CBEN) 142 Centre for Outreach 102, 232, 242, 316 Centres of Excellence (CoE) 148 Cold War 62, 219 Commercial Bank of Ceylon Limited (CBCL) 258 communities of practice 92, 98, 313 community engagement 270-276, 280-282, 284, 319, 346, 349 community service learning (CSL) 67 Computer Assisted Audit Techniques (CAATs) 32 Computer Processing and Planning (CPP) 251 Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) 173, 177 continuing education unit (CEU) 51 Continuous learning 22, 51, 91-92, 97, 102, 336 Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) 140 Corporate Catalyst India (CCI) 186, 198 corporate education responsibility (CER) 109 corporate organization 81 Corporate Sector Participation 103, 109 corporate social responsibility (CSR) 109 corporate training 21, 23-25, 31-32, 35-36, 40-41, 51, 53, 94, 97, 274, 288-289, 323 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) 183 Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) 340 curriculum development 83, 87-88, 158, 228

D Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) 80, 83 demystify 56 Dental Council of India (DCI) 104 Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE) 341

Index

Department of Biotechnology (DBT) 120 Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) 188, 198 Department of Science and Technology (DST) 147148 department of scientific and industrial research (DSIR) 176 developing country 4, 9-10, 17-19, 21, 25-27, 32-34, 36-37, 58, 65, 67, 71, 140, 146, 165, 201-202, 207, 218, 226, 241, 246, 248, 284, 306, 316318, 323, 326, 338, 350 digital working places 46 Division of Cancer Control and Population Science (DCCPS) 202 Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics (DCEG) 202 DNA technology 14, 213, 222, 227

E Education Governance 288, 304 e-Learning Language Programme (ELLP) 330 employee performance 39, 331 enterprise management 158 entrepreneurship 20, 66-67, 71, 73-75, 100, 107, 110, 113, 120, 125, 127-129, 131, 166, 176, 180-185, 241, 278, 332 Entrepreneurship Development Institute (EDI) 73 Entrepreneurship Development Program (EDP) 73 environmental science 105, 167, 223 equity funding 180 European Association of Distance Learning Universities (EADTU) 312 European Initiative for Biotechnology Education (EIBE) 312 European University Association (EUA) 342

F fermentation 135, 209-210, 216, 220, 222, 225-227, 319 finishing school 92, 97 Food and Agriculture Integrated Development Action (FAIDA) 190 food science 15, 138, 158, 187, 190, 193, 197, 311312, 317 foreign direct investment (FDI) 188 foreign trade 158

G genetic engineering (GE) 120-122, 126-127, 130, 133-134, 181, 209, 213-214, 220-221, 224-227 Gen-Y 90, 96, 100, 102 global economic integration 23, 29 global economic liberalization 51 Global Education Center (GEC) 288 Globalization 2, 7, 25-28, 33, 35, 37, 39-41, 47-48, 59, 66, 79-80, 116, 157, 159, 164, 170, 229230, 253, 280, 284, 307, 340, 349 government-linked company (GLC) 327 gross enrolment ratio (GER) 116

H Human Capacity Building 103 Human Resource Development Council (HRDC) 327 Human Resource Development Fund (HRDF) 326 human resources 18, 23, 25, 31-32, 36, 51, 74-75, 81, 103, 108, 110-111, 116, 138, 147, 149, 206207, 229-230, 245, 248-249, 261, 322, 326, 328, 332

I Indian Corporate Law Service (ICLS) 343 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) 341 Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) 104, 191 Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs) 65 Indian Power Sector 103-104, 114, 117 Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) 73 Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) 258 industrial microbiology 209-210, 213-216, 218, 220, 222-223, 225, 227 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 64, 285, 321-322 initial learning program (ILP) 92 integrated circuits (IC) 13-15, 132 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) 122 Interagency Oncology Task Force (IOTF) 202 interdisciplinary approach 79 Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) 340 International Agency for research on Cancer (IARC) 202 International Center for Technology Assessment (ICTA) 140 internationalisation 324

387

Index

J Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) 255 Jharkhand 67-77 Jharkhand Tribal Development Society (JTDS) 72 job opportunity 124, 128, 163-165, 200, 202-203, 219-220, 225

K Knowledge Economy (KE) 1-2 knowledge integration 4, 12-13, 20, 83, 313-314, 319 Knowledge Project Team (KPT) 11 knowledge society 1, 4, 7-8, 12, 16, 18, 63, 76, 79-80, 84, 90, 171, 229-231, 245, 281, 284, 306-307, 312, 315, 317, 341, 344 knowledge transfer 20, 40, 52, 200, 279, 296, 302, 314, 334 Krishi Gram Vikas Kendra (KGVK) 71

L learning stage 296 lifelong learning 24, 26, 30, 49, 55, 90, 322, 325326, 329, 332, 336, 351 LPG Equipment Research Centre 103

M management education 4, 17, 24, 27, 39-40, 53, 55, 228-232, 234, 240-241, 244-245, 259, 316, 338 market operator (MO) 264-265 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 281 master of business administration (MBA) 257, 311 master of valuation 158 Masters Program in Nonprofit Management (MNPM) 231 Medical Council of India (MCI) 104 metal leaching 220 microbiology 9, 15, 17, 19, 123-124, 128, 152, 166, 168, 174, 181, 197, 209-227, 283, 311, 313, 318-319 microenvironmental stress 202 Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 73, 291, 303 multinational company (MNC) 324

N nanocheck 142 nanopowder 142 Nanoscience and Technology Mission (NSTM) 147

388

nanotechnology (NT) 138 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) 123, 340 National Board of Accreditation (NBA) 340 National Chemical Laboratory (NCL) 183 National Innovation System (NIS) 9 National Institute of Public Administration 327 National Institutes of Technology (NITs) 104 National Knowledge Commission (NKC) 18, 280, 284 National Load Despatch Center (NLDC) 266 National Mission for Education using Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT) 155 National Nanotechnology Initiative 147, 152 National Sample Survey (NSS) 191 national training policy (NTP) 111, 116 Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) 67, 70-78, 182, 200-204, 206-207, 226, 228-229, 231-236, 239, 241-244 non-profit management 228-229 nonprofit organizations (NPO) 231-232

O OECD (Organisation of Economic Co-operation Development) 62 oncogenes 200 Open distance learning (ODL) 306 Open University Malaysia (OUM) 322 ordinary least squares (OLS) 26

P Pedagogy 230, 257, 286, 297, 304 peer-led team learning (PLTL) 315 performative knowledge 324, 336 personal development plan (PDP) 96, 100 Pharmaceutical Council of India (PCI) 104 Pharmacy Council of India (PCI) 60 pharmacy education 57, 60-61, 63, 65 plant manager 219 policy formulation 158, 171 Postdoctoral Professional Masters (PPM) 309 post-graduate (PG) 120 power system operator certification 263, 266-267 probationary officer (PO) 344 process-oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) 315 Professional Science Master’s Programme (PSM) 227 professional skill 307

Index

programmed cell death 200-203, 206-208 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 124 project manager 219 protein supplement 220 Public-Private-PEOPLE-Partnership (4P) 73 Punjab national bank institute of information technology (PNBIIT) 258

Q quality culture 339, 341-345, 349-350 quality enhancement (QE) 343 quality feasible (QF) 343 quality model (QM) 343

R rDNA 121 real time operation 263, 266 Regional Load Dispatch Centers (RLDCs) 266 Regional Power Committee (RPC) 267 regulatory mechanism 203

S seed capital 180, 184 self employed 177 self help groups (SHGs 73 Skills Development Fund (SDF) 326 soil reclamation 220 Special Interest Group (SIG) 20 State Load Dispatch Centres (SLDCs) 266 student-centered activities 86 subject matter expert (SME) 95, 98 supplementary professional education (SPE) 23 support personnel 103

T tablet computer 298, 304 team leader (TL) 95 team member (TM) 95 telecommunication industry 1, 11, 15-16, 291 Time to Market 294, 301-302, 305 Total Village Management (TVM) 72 triple helix model 17, 273, 281, 349 Tropical Botanical Gardens Research Institute (TBGRI) 81

U under graduate (UG) 120 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 146 university continuing education (UCE) 24, 26 university-corporate partnership 272, 274-275, 322, 335-336 University Grants Commission (UGC) 59, 120, 171172, 292, 340 University Industry Community Interaction Centre (UICIC) 175 university outreach 7, 18, 20, 75-76, 121, 228-231, 242, 245, 270-271, 284, 316-317, 319, 349 user experience design (UXD) 300

V Virginia Institute for Performance Engineering and Research (VIPER) 277 virtual class room 39

W World-Class University 62 World Wide Web (WWW) 161, 255

389