Europe's Sea Mammals Including the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands and Cape Verde: A field guide to the whales, dolphins, porpoises and seals 9780691190624

Table of contents :
Contents
EUROPE’S SEA MAMMALS
Preface
How to use this guide
What is a sea mammal?
The region covered by this guide
Threats to sea mammals in the 21st century
Recording techniques and photography
Watching Europe’s sea mammals – Where and when to look
The Species Accounts – Identification at Sea
Glossary
Observation guidelines
Stranded cetaceans and sea mammal rescue
Species mentioned in the accounts
Legislation
References
Photographic and artwork credits
Non-English names of cetaceans
Index
Acknowledgments

Citation preview

WILDGuides

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In memory of Terry Holmes 1951 - 2019

Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 6 Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TR press.princeton.edu Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to Permissions, Princeton University Press Copyright © 2019 by Robert Still, Hugh Harrop, Tim Stenton and Luís Dias Copyright in the photographs remains with the individual photographers. Copyright in the illustrations remains with Robert Still. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available Library of Congress Control Number 2019932387 ISBN 978-0-691-18216-2 Production and design by WILDGuides Ltd., Old Basing, Hampshire UK. Printed in China

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Contents Preface  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 How to use this guide  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 What is a sea mammal?  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Pinnipeds  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Cetaceans  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 The region covered by this guide  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Threats to sea mammals in the 21st century  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Recording techniques and photography  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Watching Europe’s sea mammals   Where and when to look  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 How to look  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Identification  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Behaviour  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

EUROPE’S SEA MAMMALS (See the following pages for full list)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Glossary  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Observation guidelines Observation guidelines: Seals – on land  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Observation guidelines: Sea vessels – at sea  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Stranded cetaceans and marine mammal rescue  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Species mentioned in the accounts  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Legislation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Photographic and artwork credits  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Non-English names of cetaceans  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Index  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Acknowledgments  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

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EUROPE’S SEA MAMMALS

(V = vagrant; † = extinct in region; * = extralimital) Identification Further At sea Information

EUROPE’S CETACEANS

THE GREAT WHALES COMPARISON CHART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BALEEN WHALES V Bowhead Whale  Balaena mysticetus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V† North Atlantic Right Whale  Eubalaena glacialis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘Finless’ whales and rorquals with fins compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Humpback Whale  Megaptera novaeangliae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue Whale  Balaenoptera musculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fin Whale  Balaenoptera physalus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sei Whale  Balaenoptera borealis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bryde’s Whale  Balaenoptera edeni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Minke Whale  Balaenoptera acutorostrata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V Antarctic Minke Whale  Balaenoptera bonaerensis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V† Gray Whale  Eschrichtius robustus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SPERM WHALES Sperm Whale  Physeter macrocephalus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dwarf Sperm Whale  Kogia sima  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pygmy Sperm Whale  Kogia breviceps  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identification of Dwarf and Pygmy Sperm Whales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identification of ‘blackfish’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SMALLER CETACEANS COMPARISON CHART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘BLACKFISH’ Short-finned Pilot Whale  Globicephala macrorhynchus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long-finned Pilot Whale  Globicephala melas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . False Killer Whale  Pseudorca crassidens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Killer Whale  Orcinus orca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V? Melon-headed Whale  Peponocephala electra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V? Pygmy Killer Whale  Feresa attenuata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DOLPHINS AND PORPOISES Short-beaked Common Dolphin  Delphinus delphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Atlantic White-sided Dolphin  Lagenorhynchus acutus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . White-beaked Dolphin  Lagenorhynchus albirostris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Striped Dolphin  Stenella coeruleoalba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Atlantic Spotted Dolphin  Stenella frontalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Pantropical Spotted Dolphin  Stenella attenuata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Clymene Dolphin  Stenella clymene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V? Fraser’s Dolphin  Lagenodelphis hosei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Atlantic Humpback Dolphin  Sousa teuszii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rough-toothed Dolphin  Steno bredanensis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Bottlenose Dolphin  Tursiops truncatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risso’s Dolphin  Grampus griseus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harbour Porpoise  Phocoena phocoena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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34 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 40 42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 60 61 62 64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

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Further Information

BEAKED WHALES THE BEAKED WHALES COMPARISON CHART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Identification of Mesoplodon beaked whales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Sowerby’s Beaked Whale Mesoplodon bidens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Blainville’s Beaked Whale Mesoplodon densirostris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 True’s Beaked Whale Mesoplodon mirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Gervais’ Beaked Whale Mesoplodon europaeus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 North Atlantic Bottlenose Whale Hyperoodon ampullatus . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Cuvier’s Beaked Whale Ziphius cavirostris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 BELUGA AND NARWHAL V Beluga Delphinapterus leucas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 V Narwhal Monodon monoceros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

EUROPE’S PINNIPEDS

V V V V

Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus monachus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differentiating Common and Grey Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common or Harbour Seal Phoca vitulina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grey Seal Halichoerus grypus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ringed Seal Pusa hispida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caspian Seal Pusa caspica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bearded Seal Erignathus barbatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hooded Seal Cystophora cristata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harp Seal Pagophilus groenlandicus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walrus Odobenus rosmarus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 111 112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Killer Whale flukeprint

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Preface “For instance, on the planet Earth, man had always assumed that he was more intelligent than dolphins because he had achieved so much—the wheel, New York, wars and so on— whilst all the dolphins had ever done was muck about in the water having a good time. But conversely, the dolphins had always believed that they were far more intelligent than man—for precisely the same reasons.” Douglas Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, 1979 So this is my story. One late September day, just a few years after reading Douglas Adams’ prophetic words and thinking I had ‘got it’, I found myself sitting on an Isles of Scilly inter-island boat. It was a calm day and, all of a sudden, out of the water surfaced a group of dolphins. I was utterly hypnotized by the effortless, synchronous swimming of a mother and her calf. At that precise moment, I knew my life had changed forever, and it was definitely a change for the better. Had this group chosen to swim towards my boat and to enjoy bow-riding the pressure wave purely for the fun of it? Fast forward some 30 years to the scientific discovery that dolphins have a similar pattern of neocortical neurons that, in human beings, are used in social conduct, emotion, judgement and memory. But we knew that, didn’t we? – although it’s nice to have a scientific explanation to underpin what instinct and observation have already taught us. Organized, systematic killing, largely avoidable ship strike, entanglement and drowning in commercial fishing gear, as well as the physiological effects of sonar, are all threats directly facing whales, dolphins, porpoises and seals. Indirectly, overfishing and the development of infrastructure are reducing the availability of prey and degrading habitat. Pollution in some areas has reached worrying levels, causing horrific damage to immune and reproductive systems. It’s still a wonder to me that, despite our neocortical neurons, we continue to treat our marine environment and the creatures that inhabit it with such disdain. It would be hard to argue with any extraterrestrial opinion that the disrespect we demonstrate for our shared environment truly diminishes us as a species. Although sea mammals share broadly the same environment, the diversity of social organization, behaviour and life strategies found within cetaceans and pinnipeds is truly breathtaking. The adaptation of different populations to an environment that may seem uniform, their migrations and structured communication, and their ability to hunt in total darkness at lung-crushing depths are to be marvelled at. And there is still so much to be fully understood at a scientific level. But it’s not all about science. By putting a name to a sea mammal that you may observe, you open up a window into their world and gain a chance to understand and appreciate the fascinating details of their existence. The aim of this book is to enable you to identify any sea mammal that can be seen in Europe, as well as to provide some brief information about their life, the threats they face and what is being done to reduce those threats. Rob Still January 2019

A young Atlantic Spotted Dolphin briefly takes a different view of the world.

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How to use this guide This guide is divided into sections, each of which can either be used in isolation or in conjunction . There are introductions to the region and to sea mammals, followed by more detailed sections covering the practicalities of where, when and how to look for sea mammals in order to optimize both the viewing experience and the chance of a successful identification (even after what may have been a brief encounter), and of course how to do so without causing disturbance to the animal in question . There is also information on the importance of photography and some hints on getting the best results, as well as how to use your images to help sea mammal research . However, the bulk of the book comprises at-sea identification and information on each species. These two sections are arranged such that the identification section is concise, for use in the field, with supplementary information about the species following this. THE SPECIES ACCOUNTS – IDENTIFICATION AT SEA (pages 32–122) This section describes, highlights and illustrates, with both photographs and artwork, the critical features of each species that need to be seen to enable a confident identification . For each species there is a map showing the known/expected range, as well as sighting ‘hotspots’ and notes on seasonality . The text covers what the species looks like and its behaviour, as well as a brief overview of where to see it and some tips on observation . For vagrants, a list of the countries in which it has been recorded is given . The most recent sighting(s) are included in brackets . For cetaceans, each species has an illustration that represents the typical portion of an individual that is seen above the surface, and an annotated graphic depicting a typical surfacing sequence shown with two seabirds to scale (see Seabirds for Scale on page 34) . COMPARISON CHARTS: There are three plates that illustrate groups of similar cetaceans to scale: The Great Whales (page 34); Smaller Cetaceans – dolphins, Kogia and porpoises (page 62); Beaked Whales (page 96) . CODES: A summary of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List categories and other coding used in the accounts is given on the front cover flap . THE SPECIES ACCOUNTS – FURTHER INFORMATION (pages 123–185) This section is designed to supplement the identification at sea section and gives succinct information for each species, subspecies and population recognized by the IUCN . A brief description of the species is followed by any relevant taxonomic notes and information about the species’ world and regional distribution and population . Additional information on social organization and behaviour, including diet and feeding techniques and communication is provided . The accounts close with sections outlining recent historical, current and potential threats, current conservation measures and research that is needed, as well as a summary of the region-wide legislative protection covering the species . OTHER SPECIES: A list of all species (predominantly prey) mentioned in the text can be found on pages 191–193 . This is a taxonomic list, by Order and Family, with their English (where it exists) and scientific name . LEGISLATION: Brief information about the scope of the region-wide sea mammal legislation and any associated organizations mentioned in the text is given on pages 194–195 .

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COMMON (or Harbour) SEAL

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What is a sea mammal? Sea mammals are not a distinct biological grouping, but are defined instead as mammals that have a reliance upon the marine environment for feeding – although not necessarily for breeding. Hence, cetaceans and pinnipeds are considered sea mammals – cetaceans being wholly dependent upon the marine environment throughout their life-cycle, and pinnipeds being dependent upon the sea for food, but dry land (or ice) for resting, moulting and breeding. Six other species are considered as part of this group, of which only the Polar Bear presently occurs in the region covered by this book. The other members are three species of fully aquatic sirenians and two sea otters. The sirenians are the West Indian Manatee Trichechus manatus, found in coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean north to the USA (Georgia); the West African Manatee T. senegalensis of coastal and estuarine West Africa; and the Dugong Dugong dugon confined to seagrass meadows of Australia, South Asia and East Africa. The sea otters comprise the Marine Otter Lontra felina, a little-known intertidal species of southwest South America, and the Sea Otter Enhydra lutris, which is widespread along the

Obviously not a seal or a cetacean …

northern and eastern coasts of the Pacific Ocean. Both these species are almost exclusively marine, unlike the widespread Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra (below), which, although found in coastal habitats, is primarily a riverine species and not wholly dependent upon the marine environment. Indeed, the otters that live in coastal areas need to bathe in fresh water in order to rid themselves of sea salt that would otherwise reduce the insulative qualities of their fur.

Eurasian Otter in Shetland.

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WHAT IS A SEA MAMMAL?

Pinnipeds All seals (and Walrus) belong to a subgroup of sea mammals called Pinnipedia, collectively known as pinnipeds . They are classified as part of the overarching order Carnivora, sharing common ancestors with, amongst others, bears and dogs – an interesting parallel given the shared curiosity Grey Seals and domestic dogs often show towards one another . All pinnipeds have a fundamental similarity in that they are generally cumbersome and ungainly on land but are well adapted to a marine environment . The limbs have evolved into webbed flippers, and the body is exceptionally streamlined for manoeuvrability underwater – even their reproductive organs are retractable into the main body mass to minimize drag when swimming . They all have a thick layer of blubber for insulation, and a circulatory system that redirects blood away from the body surface to minimize heat loss . Further adaptations are: nostrils that close when submerged; eyes with a protective clear membrane that allows excellent vision both above and below the water; and whiskers which, in conditions of low visibility, provide information about their surroundings . When diving, pinnipeds regulate the flow of blood to their organs, and are able to empty their lungs completely without any ill effect when diving deeply . Pinnipeds are carnivorous and hunt by pursuing their prey . They feed on a wide variety of marine fish, cephalopods and molluscs, although they may feed opportunistically on seabirds and even other seals . Although most pinnipeds are generalist feeders, some species and populations are more

specialized, such as the Bearded Seal that has a marked preference for shrimps, crabs, and clams in some locations . Young pinnipeds are born on land or sea ice, and are suckled by their mother for a period that ranges from just a few days to several weeks . The pups have a coat (or coats) that is suited to the environment into which they have been born . For example, the pups of Arctic species are born with very fluffy, insulating coats (lanugo) that are moulted relatively quickly to reveal a near-adult coat, after which the pup takes to the water . On the other hand, the pups of some species found in relatively warmer latitudes, such as the Common Seal, shed the lanugo in the womb and are born with coats that allow them to take to the water almost immediately . Females give birth annually, although the time of year depends upon the species . There are approximately 35 species in the subgroup Pinnipedia, comprising three distinct families: the Otariidae; the Phocidae; and the Odobenidae . The Otariidae (known as eared or walking seals) includes 15 species of fur seal and sea lion that are found in the Pacific and across the Southern Hemisphere, although absent from the North Atlantic . They are built for speed and manoeuvrability over short distances in water, using both their powerful hind and front flippers for propulsion . Their ears are external and their hind flippers can turn to point forwards, enabling them to walk (after a fashion) on all fours on dry land . Only Walrus (Odobenidae) and some representatives of the Phocidae have occurred in the region .

Seal topography terms used in identification Muzzle Front (or fore) flippers

Whiskers

Hind flippers

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GREY SEAL

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PINNIPEDS WALRUS Family: Odobenidae Walrus (page 122/184) The only member of the Odobenidae, the Walrus, has a combination of features of the other pinniped families inasmuch as it has hind flippers that turn and allow it to walk on dry land (like the Otariidae); and internal ears (like the Phocidae) . Now exclusively an Arctic species, the Walrus is the sole surviving member of what was once a diverse and geographically widespread family . Walrus are long-lived, social animals unique amongst the pinnipeds for their prominent tusks . They feed almost exclusively on molluscs . For indigenous Arctic people the Walrus has always been WALRUS an important cultural component . More efficient hunting techniques severely depleted the population during the 19th and early 20th centuries . More recently the population has increased, although it remains fragmented and at a lower level than in historical times . The Walrus is a very rare vagrant to the region .

TRUE (or earless) SEALS Family: Phocidae Mediterranean Monk Seal (page 110/168) Common (or Harbour) Seal (page 112/179) Grey Seal (page 114/181) Ringed Seal (page 116/173) The true seals, as their alternative English name suggests, have no visible external ears . All the seals in the region are phocid seals . They are built for ease of movement in water, with specialized hind flippers that are more ‘tail’ than limbs . This enables them to swim efficiently over great distances but somewhat hinders their movement when out of water . On land they use a combination of their front flippers and abdominal muscles to move, shuffling along like ungainly caterpillars on dry ground – sliding along slightly more gracefully if the surface is slippery . In water they propel themselves through side-to-side movements of their body and hind flippers and use their front flippers to steer .

Caspian Seal (page 118/177) Bearded Seal (page 119/170) Hooded Seal (page 120/171) Harp Seal (page 121/172)

COMMON (or Harbour) SEAL

Grey Seals on a beach.

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WHAT IS A SEA MAMMAL?

Cetaceans Whales, dolphins and porpoises are sea mammals that belong to a taxonomic group known as Cetacea, collectively known as cetaceans . Although some taxonomic authorities treat them as a separate group, others include them as a division within the ‘even-toed ungulates’ or Artiodactyla (and sometimes refer to them as Cetartiodactyla to acknowledge their inclusion) . What is not currently in dispute is that cetaceans are mammals, and most closely related to hippopotamuses, camels and pigs . ● have some or all of the neck vertebrae fused Like their terrestrial relatives, cetaceans are warmblooded, breathe air into their lungs through their (depending on the species) to stiffen their neck nostrils, and suckle their young . However, unlike all and enable high speed swimming; ● have a greater tolerance to carbon dioxide, and other mammals (except for the Dugong and the manatees) they live exclusively in water . lungs that are far more efficient at processing oxygen than any terrestrial mammal – essential EVOLUTION for a mammal that must dive frequently, Cetaceans have evolved from their amphibious sometimes to extreme depths, to feed; ancestors of some 50 million years ago to life in the marine environment . The requirements of an aquatic ● are hairless* and instead have a layer of fat (or blubber), beneath the skin for insulation . life mean that similar adaptations are found in many creatures, from penguins to fish . Cetaceans perhaps FEEDING most resemble fish (sharks in particular) . Any doubt Baleen whales use a filter-feeding system that at sea can be dispelled by recognizing the vertical tail utilizes plates of keratin edged with bristles . These of a fish or shark, compared to the horizontal flukes plates are located along the upper jaw in a close of a cetacean . arrangement . When a whale opens its mouth, water pours in and (in the rorquals) the ventral pleats There are approximately 90 species of cetacean, expand to accommodate the water . The whale then separated into two suborders: the Mysticeti (baleen pushes its tongue forward (and contracts its pleats) whales) and the Odontoceti (toothed whales) . to force the water out through the baleen plates, the bristles trapping any prey inside the mouth . Toothed whales as the name suggests, have teeth on the upper and/or lower jaws . The jaws in some species are elongated into a distinct ‘beak’ . Except Fish (Shark) for the Sperm Whale, toothed whales are generally smaller than baleen whales . They hunt by pursuit and most use echolocation (see Glossary, page 186) to locate prey in deep, dark or murky waters . REPRODUCTION AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Cetacean (Dolphin) Cetaceans reach sexual maturity when they reach 86% of their adult size . They give birth to live, fully FEATURES formed young and, in common with terrestrial Cetaceans come in all shapes and sizes and are able mammals, suckle their offspring . Many cetacean to exploit a wide variety of food sources, from the species are sociable animals with complex social deep-diving, squid-hunting Sperm Whale of the behaviours – both physical and vocal – from open ocean to fish- and shrimp-eating dolphins generations-long stable matriarchal groups to found in freshwater rivers; and from the huge 30 m, vicious competition between males; from the song long filter-feeding Blue Whale to the compact 1·5 m unique to each Humpback Whale group to the selflong fish-hunting Harbour Porpoise . aware whistles of bottlenose dolphins . The annual cycles of cetaceans are as variable as the many forms All cetaceans: ● breathe air through a blowhole or blowholes in which they are found: some species migrate great distances; others are relatively sedentary; some have situated on or near the top of the head; ● have front limbs that have evolved into flippers, short life-spans and reproduce relatively quickly; and hind limbs that have reduced to nothing to whereas others, like the Bowhead Whale, live a long create an efficient hydrodynamic body shape; time and reproduce very slowly .

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* Cetaceans have hairs around the tip of the rostrum or beak which are shed before or just after birth . One exception is the river dolphins of South America (Iniidae) which retain stiff hairs on their beak, used to assist foraging in their murky river habitat .

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CETACEANS Cetacean topography terms used in identification Mysticetes or baleen whales range in size from the Pygmy Right Whale, which barely reaches 7 m in length, to the massive Blue Whale, which grows to over 30 m. Instead of teeth, these whales have plates of baleen (whalebone) which hang from the upper jaw. These vertical plates can grow to over 2 m in length in some species and are used to filter enormous quantities of small fish, crustaceans and zooplankton such as krill. Baleen whales have two external nostrils or blowholes.  Splashguard Double blowhole Upper jaw Rostrum

Dorsal fin back

Tailstock flank

Snout

Tail flukes

Lower jaw belly/underside

Ventral pleats

Notch

Pectoral flipper HUMPBACK WHALE

Odonticete or toothed whales range in size from the huge Sperm Whale, with a maximum length of 18 m, to the diminutive Harbour Porpoise, which reaches a maximum length of 1·7 m. Besides having teeth, the Odontoceti are distinguished by having only one external nostril or blowhole. Nearly 70 species of toothed whale are recognized, the smallest of which are generally known as dolphins or porpoises. Dorsal fin Melon

Single blowhole

Forehead

back

Tailstock

fore-flank rear flank

Beak

Tail flukes

belly/underside

Pectoral flipper NORTH ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSE WHALE

SHORT-BEAKED COMMON DOLPHIN

Cape: a contrasting area of colour that demarcates the back from the flank

Saddle: the area of the flank and back immediately behind the dorsal fin and ahead of the tailstock Blaze: a contrasting area of diffuse colour

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WHAT IS A SEA MAMMAL?

Cetaceans Mysticeti – Baleen Whales

direction of travel

BALEEN WHALES Families: Balaenidae, Balaenopteridae (rorquals) & Eschrichtidae (Gray Whale) Bowhead Whale (page 36/124) North Atlantic Right Whale (page 38/125) Humpback Whale (page 42/132) Blue Whale (page 44/130) Fin Whale (page 46/130) Sei Whale (page 48/128) Bryde’s Whale (page 50/129) Common Minke Whale (page 52/127) Antarctic Minke Whale (page 54/128) Gray Whale (page 55/133) This group is named after the baleen plates that hang from their upper jaw and are used in filter feeding. The two finless balaenid whales have a distinctive ‘V’-shaped blow and are vagrants to the eastern Atlantic. Rorquals are large and characterized by the expandable rows of pleated folds of skin running from the throat to the navel. The Gray Whale is an extirpated former resident but has been recorded twice in the Atlantic in recent years. Despite their enormous size, baleen whales are streamlined and capable of considerable speed. They have large, flattened heads with a centrally located twin blowhole. The larger species can exhale a vertical blow several metres high.

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE

FIN WHALE

GRAY WHALE

Odonticeti – Toothed Whales SPERM WHALES Families: Physeteridae and Kogiidae Sperm Whale (page 56/136) Dwarf Sperm Whale (page 58/137) Pygmy Sperm Whale (page 59/138) Both families of sperm whales are toothed whales characterized by a bulky body, a squarish head that is large in proportion to the body, and a narrow, underslung lower jaw lined with teeth. The single blowhole is located slightly to the left of the top of the head producing a blow that is angled forward and to the left. The Physeteridae comprises one species, the Sperm Whale, which is the largest toothed whale; the Kogiidae comprises two species, which are among the smallest toothed whales. All sperm whales specialize in hunting deep-sea squid, and are therefore usually found far from land.

SPERM WHALE

DWARF SPERM WHALE

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CETACEANS DOLPHINS and ‘BLACKFISH’ Short-beaked Common Dolphin (page 74/145) Atlantic White-sided Dolphin (page 76/147) White-beaked Dolphin (page 78/148) Striped Dolphin (page 80/153) Atlantic Spotted Dolphin (page 82/150) Pantropical Spotted Dolphin (page 84/151) Clymene Dolphin (page 85/152) Fraser’s Dolphin (page 86/149) Atlantic Humpback Dolphin (page 87/150)

Family: Delphinidae Rough-toothed Dolphin (page 88/154) Common Bottlenose Dolphin (page 90/155) Risso’s Dolphin (page 92/157) Short-finned Pilot Whale (page 64/140) Long-finned Pilot Whale (page 66/141) False Killer Whale (page 68/144) Killer Whale (page 70/142) Melon-headed Whale (page 72/140) Pygmy Killer Whale (page 73/139)

Dolphins are considerably smaller than most whale species and have slim, streamlined bodies, usually with a prominent dorsal fin located centrally along the back. In most species the head tapers gently to a prominent beak containing many sharp teeth. ‘Blackfish’ include the largest members of the dolphin family. They are predominantly black with a small or absent beak, and the jaw is rounded. All dolphins are highly social, often spending their entire lives in a family group. They are also very demonstrative and regularly spyhop, tail-slap and breach. They are efficient, pack-hunting predators capable of considerable speed and feed on a wide variety of fish, squid and other sea life, including sea mammals. direction of travel

SHORT-BEAKED COMMON DOLPHIN

FALSE KILLER WHALE

NORTH ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSE WHALE

HARBOUR PORPOISE

BEAKED WHALES Family: Ziphiidae

PORPOISES Family: Phocoenidae

North Atlantic Bottlenose Whale (page 104/162) Cuvier’s Beaked Whale (page 106/163) Sowerby’s Beaked Whale (page 98/164) Blainville’s Beaked Whale (page 100/165) True’s Beaked Whale (page 102/165) Gervais’ Beaked Whale (page 103/166)

Harbour Porpoise (page 94/158)

A group of medium-sized whales with a distinctive protruding jaw/beak, a streamlined body and a dorsal fin located 2⁄3 of the way along the back. Unobtrusive, elusive, deep-diving squid- and fisheaters. They are hard to see well enough for positive identification at sea. Any observer will have to note, and ideally photograph, the head and beak to have any chance of identification.

The smallest cetacean of the region. Relatively robust but streamlined, and without a prominent beak. A timid and unobtrusive, predominantly fish-hunting, inhabitant of inshore waters.

NARWHAL and BELUGA Family: Monodontidae (not shown here) Beluga (page 108/160) Narwhal (page 109/161)  Two unique, unmistakable Arctic species that are vagrants to the region. 15

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The region covered by this guide Jan Mayen

De nm ar kS tra it

70° N

Bo thn ia

Norwegian Sea

Gu lf o f

Faroes el nn ha dC n tla he e-S ro Fa

60° N

Lak Saim

Archipelago Sea

ATLANTIC OCEAN

North Sea

Baltic Sea

k rra ge Ska Kattegat

Gulf of Finland

Gulf of Riga

Irish Sea Porcupine Seabight

50° N

St. George’s Channel

Celtic Sea

ST WE S TH ACHE U SO P R O AP

el nn ha hC s i l Eng

Bay of Biscay Ligurian Sea Balearic Sea

40° N

Azores

Adriatic Sea Tyrrhenian Sea Ionian Sea

Alborán Sea

MACARONESIA

Mediterranean Sea

Madeira 30° N

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Marmar Sea

Canaries 30°W

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20°W

10°W

0

10°E

20°E

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Aegean Sea

THE REGION

Depth (m)

Barents Sea

50

1,000

2,000

White Sea

thn ia

3,000

Lake Saimaa Lake Ladoga

Gulf of Riga

n Sea

er ing Irm rrent Cu

rw No

t

rif cD nti tla A th Nor

Can ary Curre nt

Warm Cold

Major North Atlantic Currents Sea of Azov

Black Sea

Caspian Sea

Marmara Sea

Aegean Sea

Furthermore, the powerful currents of both warm and cold water create an ever-changing set of conditions, both seasonally and over many years . The European continental shelf is directly in the path of the North Atlantic Current which brings warm water northeast across the Atlantic from the Americas . A second significant warm water current flows northwards up the continental shelf edge, bringing with it a planktonic community with origins in the Mediterranean . Cold, nutrient-rich water driven by ocean floor currents hits the shelf slope and is forced upwards, eventually mixing with warmer water near the surface . The combination of nutrients and sunlight gives rise to an abundance of phytoplankton and zooplankton, which draws in plankton-feeding cephalopods and fish . Cetaceans are in turn drawn to these rich feeding areas . Away from the warm water currents and continental shelf upwellings there is a decrease in the diversity and abundance of marine life in the shelf waters of the North and Baltic Seas, although the Baltic is home to one genetically isolated subspecies and subpopulations of two other species .

Levantine Sea

30°E

What makes the region so good for sea mammals is the wide range of topographic and oceanic conditions that create distinct habitats that appeal to a broad range of species . In fact, approximately 1⁄3 of the planet’s cetacean species and 1⁄4 of the pinnipeds have been recorded in this area . The edge of the continental shelf, seamounts, canyons and the steeply rising oceanic islands of Macaronesia mean that deep water cetaceans can be seen very close to land as they take advantage of the nutrient-rich upwellings these features facilitate .

ay Cu rren t

Gulf of Finland

4,000

Europe (which includes the British Isles and Scandinavia) sits on its continental shelf, with the deep Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Arctic Ocean to the north and warmer subtropical waters relatively close by . In addition, the all-but-enclosed Mediterranean and Black Sea system, and the fully enclosed Caspian Sea mean that there is a wide diversity of habitats for sea mammals, whether resident, migratory or transient wanderers .

40°E

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50°E

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Threats to sea mammals in the 21st century Bycatch Each year, thousands of sea mammals are accidentally caught and killed by fishing gear around the world. Commonly referred to as ‘bycatch’, this represents a growing threat to marine life and is one of the biggest challenges faced by global sea mammal populations. The issue is complex as a result of the range of equipment used and species affected, and there is a significant lack of understanding of the true scale of the issue since so many incidents are currently unreported. Larger sea mammals, such as baleen whales, are vulnerable to creel fishing, a method which uses a string of baited pots connected by rope, with either end of the rope floated using buoys. Animals swimming through the water column with their mouth open to catch prey can become entangled in this rope, resulting either in drowning or in the individual dragging the pots around for hundreds or even thousands of kilometres. Smaller sea mammals, such as dolphins and porpoises, are more at risk from static or ‘set’ fishing nets such as gillnets. These nets sit stationary to capture passing fish but are indiscriminate and therefore can catch sea mammals and cause them to drown. Bycatch is one of the most significant threats facing marine megafauna and swift action is needed. Better monitoring combined with enforcement of mitigation measures and effective fisheries management all need to be implemented urgently to ensure that this growing threat does not cause more preventable deaths. Ship strike Commercial shipping is estimated to be responsible for moving 90% of industrial goods globally, and the numbers of ships on the oceans is set to rise further as human populations grow. The inevitable result of this is that sea mammals are vulnerable to being struck by ships and this poses a significant threat to marine life. Large whales in particular are vulnerable to collisions with marine traffic. Whales, as mammals, need to come to the surface periodically to breathe and are therefore regularly found occupying the same space as marine vessels. Species such as Fin Whales are known to be particularly vulnerable, and research has shown that areas of high shipping traffic coinciding with high whale densities can quickly become hotspots for ship strike incidents. Some populations have already been decimated – the North Atlantic Right Whale is at risk of extinction in large part because of the impact of ship strike. Yet despite this urgency it is still estimated that a large number of ship strikes and near misses go unreported. As a result, reliable data on the impact of this threat are limited and the true scale of the damage being caused is not clear. More research is needed to better understand how animals react and where action can be taken, but industry and government also need to do their part to make sure the impact shipping has on marine life can be minimized and new, safe spaces for wildlife can be put in place for future generations. Commercial whaling After centuries of hunts, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) introduced a global commercial whaling moratorium in 1986. Despite this, a number of countries still flout this global action and continue to engage in a brutal and barbaric practice that causes the suffering and death of hundreds of animals each year. Both Norway and Iceland continue to hunt whales in Europe, killing Common Minke and Fin Whales in contravention of the IWC’s moratorium. In July 2019 Japan will resume commercial whaling within its territorial waters and, at the same time, stop its scientific whaling programme in Pacific and Antarctic waters. Whaling practices have long been seen as cruel, with the animal suffering significantly from 18

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THREATS

the pain inflicted by the hunting methods that whalers use. Data suggest that, on average, animals take ten minutes to die, and up to 25 minutes in some cases; their death is undoubtedly a painful one. Whale meat also presents a significant public health risk, with the toxins that contaminate it potentially being able to cause real harm to the consumer. Toxins such as PCBs have been known to cause cancer and infertility in humans, and these health impacts can be seen in indigenous populations which hunt whales for subsistence. Whaling has no place in modern society and those countries still engaging in such a barbaric practice are subjected to increasing pressure from the international community to bring an end to this relic of the past. Marine pollution Marine pollution takes many forms but each is causing significant damage in oceans across the world. Since many species of sea mammals sit high up or at the top of the food chain, they are particularly vulnerable to some of the main effects of these human-made materials. Currently the most high profile form of pollution is plastic waste, with awareness of the impact of plastics on the environment having increased dramatically in recent years. Plastic waste poses a particular challenge as it takes at least 450 years to fully break down. Widespread use of plastics began in the 1940s, so the vast majority of the material in the marine environment will continue to be present for centuries to come. Plastic impacts sea mammals in a number of ways, but the most visible is their direct consumption of large plastic items. These cannot be digested and cause malnourishment and ultimately death as the plastic is stored in their digestive system. Another increasingly devastating form of pollution is polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). This is a group of human-made organic chemicals that have been produced commercially since the 1930s, but were banned in Europe in the 1980s after evidence of their impact on human health was revealed. PCBs from historic sources such as landfill and old buildings make their way into the environment, leaching into water courses and being absorbed by marine life. Since these chemicals can bioaccumulate, they build up particularly significantly in larger, apex predators such as dolphins and seals. The impact of PCBs can include infertility and cancer, and they have been found in record concentrations in sea mammals, particularly Killer Whales. PCBs are thought to be responsible for the dramatic decline in the size of the UK’s West Coast community of Killer Whales, which has not produced a calf for over 20 years.

A North Atlantic Right Whale entangled in fishing line – this individual was lucky enough to be freed.

A tangle of nylon and plastic at the high water mark – an all-too-common sight on beaches. 19

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Recording techniques and photography It is critical for scientists to understand animals’ distribution and numbers to protect them effectively. This information can help policy makers determine the level of protection required, and consider whether activities such as construction or fishing should be restricted in particular areas or at certain times to conserve marine life. Marine animals are notoriously difficult to monitor as they often have wide ranges and spend part of their time underwater. There are several techniques that are frequently used to monitor sea mammals: Photo-identification

Certain species can be identified by individual markings, which can be used just like human fingerprints to track individuals over time. Pinnipeds such as grey seals can be identified by the markings on their fur which stay with them throughout most of their life. Common Bottlenose Dolphins are well studied due to their often coastal distribution and the nicks and scars on their dorsal fins that can be used for identification. Other species of dolphins and whales can be identified from scars, and unique patterns and shapes, such as on the flukes of Humpback Whales. Photo-identification ‘catalogues’ can be created from a series of photos, often including different angles and sides of the same animal. These catalogues are used to identify subsequent sightings, and create a dataset that can be used to estimate population sizes, return rates of individuals to an area, movement between populations, life-spans, and birth rates. If you take a good photo of a sea mammal, it could be used in one of these studies, so contact your local sea mammal researchers, or upload it to a citizen science photo-identification program such as HappyWhale (www.happywhale.com).

Distance sampling

Surveys from ships or aircraft that travel along predetermined, randomly placed routes and record distances from the observer to the animal are a robust way of estimating the number of animals in a defined area. This type of survey provides data that can be used in statistical models to estimate the percentage of animals missed by observers under various viewing conditions, and to account for this when estimating abundance within the survey region. Typically, this is carried out by professional scientists, but similar techniques can be carried out from ferries and cruise ships that travel non-random routes. Citizen scientists can get involved through several charities and organizations such as ORCA (www.orcaweb.org.uk) that use these ships to survey sea mammal populations.

Passive acoustics

Passive acoustic monitoring is a broad field of research that uses animal vocalizations to study individual animals, populations, or groups of similar species. To collect these data, hydrophones (underwater microphones) are normally used, either suspended from ships, or left for extended periods floating or

A shore watch is something everyone can do. 20

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RECORDING + PHOTOGRAPHY

moored in the ocean . Acoustic data can be used to identify species or even individual animals in some cases, with some calls being unique to animals or pods . Acoustic survey data can sometimes be used instead of, or in addition to, distance sampling sightings data, to verify how many animals were missed by observers . The behaviour of toothed whales and dolphins can also be determined by the amount of time between their foraging clicks, with frequent clicks suggesting that they have found food and are homing in on their prey .

Shore watches

Looking for and recording sea mammals from land is popular, especially for citizen scientists, and can provide information on the seasonal presence of animals that use coastal areas . You can get involved at organized events, or sit at a vantage point on the coast with binoculars and wait for something to swim along . If you are lucky enough to see a sea mammal, Sea Watch Foundation (www .seawatchfoundation .org . uk) will be happy to receive information about anything you observe .

Internet-based research

You can also contribute to science without leaving your house . Zooniverse (www .zooniverse .org/projects) hosts a variety of projects that use crowd-sourcing to complete time-consuming tasks that would take small scientific teams years . Active projects continually change, but have included counting seal colonies from satellite images, or identifying manatee calls . Photography ● For best results use a digital SLR or mirrorless camera with an interchangeable zoom lens . A focal length of 70–200 mm or 100–400 mm is ideal . Always attach a strap to the camera or lens and wear it around your neck . ●

For fast-moving subjects (e.g. dolphins) set the shutter speed as high as possible . Usually a minimum shutter speed of 1/2,000th sec . is required for ‘freezing the action’ and getting sharp images . To get the maximum shutter speed, shoot with the lowest aperture possible or increase the ISO . When using a high ISO ensure your camera can take ‘noise-free’ images . Most modern DSLRs allow people to shoot around ISO 800 with ‘noiseless’ results . Shooting almost ‘noiseless’ is possible at ISO 3200 on topof-the-range models .

●

As whales and dolphins (and you, if you are on a boat!) are likely to always be moving, use the focus-tracking mode if your camera has it .

●

Try to use large memory cards (e.g. 64 Gb) – there is nothing worse than running out of memory and having to delete images to make room on a card in the middle of some action! Always carry spare memory cards .

●

Charge your camera batteries before you head out and if possible always carry spares .

●

Where possible, shoot in RAW mode – if not, choose the highest quality JPEG setting for the highest resolution .

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●

Make sure to check images using your histogram when you are in the field so you can make adjustments as you go . Take a couple of test shots of the sky or people around you to make sure everything is set correctly before you see any animals .

●

Keep your lens clean! Salt spray is not good for cameras or lenses so try and keep your gear dry by using lens hoods and custom-made lens/ camera covers . A UV filter will protect the front lens element and a simple plastic bag secured with elastic bands is a simple solution for covering your gear . NEVER polish a lens that has sea spray on it – the salt may well scratch the glass and damage it permanently .

This Killer Whale’s fin shape and ‘saddle’ markings are unique – enabling the individual to be tracked and identified from photographs. 21

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Watching Europe’s sea mammals – Where and when to look Where to look

One of the joys, and at the same time frustrations, of cetacean-watching is its unpredictability. Even though some species are resident year-round and others are migratory, and some species favour shallow inshore waters whilst others prefer deep waters beyond the coastal shelf, when it comes to cetacean-watching nothing can be taken for granted – and nothing is impossible. Species can sometimes be found far from their favoured habitats – for example, the first confirmed British record of Dwarf Sperm Whale was in shallow inshore waters – a far cry from the deepwater habitat with which this squid-hunting whale is normally associated. Most cetaceans occupy a position high up the food chain, and so tend to occur in lower population densities than their prey. Furthermore, as all cetaceans spend much of their time out of human sight underwater, even those resident species of inshore waters can be frustratingly elusive. However, the patient and informed observer can take steps to shorten the odds of enjoying a cetacean sighting. Knowing where, when and how to look are all critical first steps. FROM LAND: Viewing from land, observers should seek headlands – particularly promontories that jut out some distance from the adjacent coast. Such vantage points offer both a better field of view for the observer than one at sea-level, and are often closer to deeper water than other points along the coast (see How to look: from land – page 24). DEDICATED TRIP: Putting yourself into the cetaceans’ habitat should increase your chances, and may result in superlative views of the animals. There is a growing industry of boat operators offering wildlife-watching trips in inshore waters. Often such boat operators have a very good local knowledge of the habits of their local cetacean populations, and can help you get the views you seek. FROM FERRIES: Alternatively, commercial ferry operators offer a number of different advantages to the prospective whale-watcher; their vessels are much larger, are usually more stable than small inshore boats, and offer a better vantage point from the higher elevation of their passenger decks. Moreover, many such ferries cross considerable distances at sea, and a voyage can transect a range of cetacean habitats, from inshore waters through deeper water and back inshore again. The best-known of these crossings are the routes to Spain from England that pass through the Bay of Biscay, from which a mouthwatering variety of cetaceans has been recorded, including rarely encountered and enigmatic Mesoplodon beaked whales (see How to look: at sea – page 24). SEALS: Seals represent less of a challenge since their habits are much more predictable and they are, in the main, very faithful to certain stretches of coastline (see individual ID accounts – pages 34–122).

When to look

There is a golden rule for watching cetaceans – the more time you spend looking for them, the more likely you are to be ‘lucky’. There will be a lot of times when the sea appears empty – but if all of a sudden a cetacean breaches, as if out of nowhere, all the time you have put in watching will seem worthwhile. Some, but by no means all, of the sea mammals recorded in Europe to date are a little more predictable insofar as we know roughly when and where they are likely to occur. For example, Short-finned Pilot Whales are all but guaranteed in the Canaries and Harbour Porpoises may be found year-round in inshore waters, our ability to see them only being limited by the sea state. Of course cetaceans do not follow any set rules, so seeing them comes down to positioning yourself in a likely place, at the right time, and putting in the hours watching and waiting. The greatest diversity of cetacean species occurs in summer and early autumn and, combined with the likelihood of better weather conditions, this perhaps represents the best time of year to look for them. At this time of year many waters are at their richest, as the longer hours of daylight and warming of the surface combine to initiate an explosion of phytoplankton – the most abundant foundation of the marine food chain. With this profusion of phytoplankton comes a corresponding surge in the abundance of zooplankton and fish and, as a consequence, cetaceans. Other times of year should not be wholly discounted, especially in Macaronesia – it is worth taking advantage of calm weather in any month. 22

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WHERE AND WHEN TO LOOK

For seals, the time of year is somewhat less critical – both Grey and Common Seals are easy to see yearround and spend a proportion of each day hauled out. So timing depends more on the location in question and the behaviour you hope to see. Many seals allow themselves to be ‘stranded’ by the falling tide and low tide is therefore the best time to see seals on dry land.

Sea states

0 Weather conditions in the region are notoriously variable, depending upon the time of year. Winter months are generally dominated by a succession of wet and windy weather fronts that track northeast from the Atlantic. These create disrupted sea conditions for long Mirror calm: whale-watching heaven! periods, in particular along those areas of coast or sea that are exposed to the 2 prevailing wind. With the onset of milder weather in the spring the weather improves and by the summer months drier, sunnier weather and calmer sea conditions may be expected. In late summer and early autumn these conditions can last Small wavelets; glassy crests, no white caps for weeks at a time, and are therefore a peak time for whale-watching. With 4 the autumn equinox in September the weather becomes less predictable and more stormy, steadily deteriorating with the impending winter. Various weather conditions can hinder the observer’s ability to find cetaceans – fog, rain and even the glare of the sun can reduce Longer waves; many white caps: visibility. whale-watching becomes more tricky The effect of the wind on the sea 6 (the size and nature of the waves and swell) is known as the sea state and is by some margin the most important determining factor in the ability to locate cetaceans where they are present. Sea state is described on a scale of 1–9 in the World Meteorological Large waves; many white caps, Organization code (see right). Clearly, frequent spray the calmer the sea state the better the observer’s chances of spotting 8 cetaceans breaking the surface – anything over sea state 3 and there is a far greater possibility that wave troughs or the visual ‘noise’ of a disturbed sea will reduce the chances of any signs of cetaceans, such as blows or dorsal fins, Long, high waves; edges breaking, being noticed. foam blows in streaks

1

Slight ripples; no white water

3

Large wavelets; crests begin to break, few white caps

5

Moderate waves of longer form; some spray

7

Sea heaps up; white foam blows in streaks

9

High waves; sea begins to roll, dense foam streaks: scary!

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Watching Europe’s sea mammals – How to look From land ● Pick a suitable vantage point – reasonably high in order to maximize your field of view, and if possible extending some way out into the sea – headlands are ideal . ● Prepare to be patient – you may well be looking for some hours, so make the time spent as comfortable as you reasonably can . Consider taking a small folding camping stool, food and drink, weather-appropriate warm and/or wind and waterproof clothing (remember, you can always shed layers, gloves and hat if needs be, but they are of no use to you if left at home), sun-block, antihistamines, etc . ● Use the right optics – 8× or 10× magnification binoculars provide a wide field of view and are a significant improvement over the naked eye; any higher magnification binocular is likely to be unwieldy and of poorer optical quality . A spotting telescope with 30× magnification mounted on a tripod will greatly increase your chances of picking out distant animals . It may be helpful if your telescope’s eyepiece is a zoom, as these can provide up to 60× magnification very quickly . ● Keep looking – scan the sea with your binoculars, and use your telescope if you have one to get better views of animals once you have found them . A binocular with a wide field of view enables you to search a greater area of sea more easily, and you are less likely to miss a Common Minke Whale that is feeding close inshore while you are scanning the far horizon! ● Record your sightings – have a notebook and a pen with you; if you do not have a digital camera to hand to obtain a record shot of a sighting, it is still important to record any details noted (numbers, behaviour, appearance, etc.) at the time . These data may be of use subsequently . At sea As on land, try to get a good vantage point – high and with a good field of view ahead of the vessel . Dress warmly – it is often much cooler at sea than it is on land . Be prepared for the effects of the sun – cover up, use sun-block, and wear a hat . ● Seasickness is no fun at all – try to avoid it by remaining hydrated and with a full stomach, so take water and plain food snacks with you . If you begin to feel nauseous, fresh air and concentrating on the far horizon may help . And remember, there is no shame in taking motion-sickness medication – after all, many people who work at sea do so regularly . Take advice from your pharmacist, and remember that these medications may make you feel drowsy . ● In the main, binoculars are the best optical aid to use at sea – if the vessel is sufficiently large and stable, a spotting telescope on a tripod may still be useful . Attach soft, foam rubber pads (sections of pipe lagging are good for this) to the feet of the tripod to absorb some of the vibration from the ship’s engines . ● Have your camera charged and at the ready – you have a far higher chance of a close encounter with cetaceans at sea than when looking from land . ●

Common Bottlenose Dolphins in the Moray Firth – sometimes it’s all a bit too easy …

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Watching Europe’s sea mammals – Identification An encounter with cetaceans may, if you are fortunate, be a relatively prolonged experience affording plenty of opportunities to observe identification features and behaviour, and secure a confident identification of the animals in question . The reality is sometimes rather different – whales and dolphins are unpredictable and may dive for long periods of time, during which they may move a considerable distance from where they were last seen . It may well be that an encounter will be brief and fleeting, and for this reason the cetacean-watcher should be prepared . It is all too easy in the excitement of the initial moment of discovery to not remain calm and observant – and then the encounter is over, and the opportunity to identify the animal gone with it . Photographs can help greatly as they may freeze details that may otherwise be overlooked (see page 21) . The following general features should always be looked for, and a combination of these with any behaviour that is noted may help to secure an identification . SIZE – may be difficult to judge, as there is often a lack of other features nearby that can provide scale, and distance may also prove deceptive . Where possible, if there are any nearby features – boats, seabirds, buoys, etc . – these should be used to help provide some measure of scale . Bear in mind that typically only a small part of a cetacean’s body will be visible above the surface of the water at any one time, and that different species may show more of themselves than others . So what you actually see is not necessarily a reliable indicator of the size of the animal in question .

Atlantic Spotted Dolphin with Cory’s Shearwaters.

Comparing a cetacean with an object of known size, such as a boat or seabird, can help in the estimation of size. In many whale-watching areas you will be able to use a nearby vessel with people, as is the case with this Fin Whale.

SHAPE – while all cetaceans have a similar basic ‘design’, the variability in shape between the different species that may be encountered in European waters is considerable, even within families . For example, Risso’s Dolphin and Common Bottlenose Dolphin are, broadly speaking, grey dolphins, but note the steeply sloping forehead and straight back of Risso’s Dolphin (left) compared with the more rounded forehead and slightly more rounded back of Common Bottlenose Dolphin (right) .

RISSO’S DOLPHIN

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COMMON BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN

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Watching Europe’s sea mammals – Identification COLORATION – while some cetaceans have very distinctive colorations and patterns on their skin, actually seeing these features can be challenging – and colours and patterns may alter or be less visible depending on the light and viewing conditions . In the same way that the sea’s colour may change from bright blue to leaden grey depending on the amount of sunlight and the sun’s position in the sky, so too can the observer’s perception of the colour of a cetacean . It may be that all you are able to say is that an animal looked light or dark, but even this may help in conjunction with other features observed at the time . The pale coloration of Risso’s Dolphin can be a challenge to see in certain light conditions.

DORSAL FIN – with the exception of the some very rare species, all cetaceans in the region have a dorsal fin . The general shape and location of the dorsal fin varies between species and the differences are very useful for identification, particularly in the whales . Try to note the the shape of the fin itself, the size of the fin in relation to the body, and how far along the back the fin is located . For large whales it is helpful to note, if possible, where and when the dorsal fin appears relative to the whale’s blowhole (see p. 28) . ²/₃ from front

²/₃ from front

forward

central

COMMON MINKE WHALE

SOWERBY’S BEAKED WHALE

BLOW – larger cetaceans often have a distinctive blow when they surface . The blow is a plume of moisture-laden air expelled as the animal surfaces and exhales . This varies between species in size, shape and orientation . In perfect viewing conditions these blows can help to identify an animal . However, blows are very variable depending upon circumstances and should be used with caution for identification purposes . Younger animals may have smaller blows than adults; the size of the blow may be bigger if the animal is surfacing after a long dive as opposed to when it is making shallow dives just below the surface – and, being vaporous, a blow’s shape is easily altered by the wind . A distant Fin Whale blows on surfacing – in calm conditions some blows can be seen over 5 km away with the naked eye.

SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE

SHORT-BEAKED COMMON DOLPHIN

Care should be taken to eliminate large, surface-feeding fish – Basking Sharks are encountered in some waters during the prime summer/autumn cetacean-watching season, and may be a trap for the unwary.

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Watching Europe’s sea mammals – Behaviour Cetacean behaviour varies greatly between species and the nature of the encounter. Some behaviours may assist in identification – for example, some large whales regularly fluke as they dive, whilst others do not. Hence a whale observed doing this is more likely to be a Blue, Humpback or Sperm Whale rather than a Fin, Sei, Bryde’s or Common Minke Whale. Like blows, many of these behaviours may not themselves be diagnostic of a species, but they can help in identification alongside other features that are noted. BLOWING – some species have single blowholes, while others have double blowholes; some are located centrally on the top of the head, but others are offset resulting in an angled (instead of straight up) blow.

BLUE

FIN

SEI/BRYDE’S

HUMPBACK

RIGHT/BOWHEAD

SPERM

Rorqual blows are column-like and range from the huge, dense blows of Blue and The finless baleen whales give a ‘V’Fin Whales, to the lower, more diffuse blows of Sei, Bryde’s and Humpback Whales. shaped blow when viewed from behind; The blow of Common Minke Whale and smaller cetaceans is inconspicuous and Sperm Whale gives a distinctive lowusually only noticeable in calm conditions. angled blow from its left-sided blowhole.

FLUKING – is a behaviour often associated with some of the larger whales, particularly when diving. Whether an animal flukes or not when diving can be a good pointer to identification, especially in the rorquals. Some of the smaller species will show their tail when lob-tailing or tail-slapping (see p. 31). Broad triangle; smooth trailing edge; wholly dark grey

Broad; ‘scalloped’ trailing edge; black above, white patches underneath

Deep triangle; straight/slightly convex trailing edge; deep notch; all-dark NB this individual has some damage to the trailing edge

BLUE WHALE

HUMPBACK WHALE

SPERM WHALE

Broad triangle; smooth trailing edge; wholly black

Broad triangle; smooth trailing edge; all black (but older animals may have some white on the tail and tailstock)

Broad triangle; convex trailing edge; grey, usually mottled white

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE

BOWHEAD WHALE

GRAY WHALE

As well as providing additional species identification, in those species with markings on the flukes the pattern is unique and can be used to identify individuals. If you can manage to get a photo, as well as having a spectacular memento you may also have some very useful information for cetacean research (see Photo identification on p. 21) 27

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WATCHING SEA MAMMALS TRAVEL – some cetaceans are fast, some are slow; some travel alone, some in groups; and some will associate with other cetaceans. These traits can assist identification, but usually only as supplementary information.

Bow-riding – is the activity of cetaceans swimming in the pressure wave created ahead of ships or animals moving through the water. Most commonly seen around vessels, such as this Common Bottlenose Dolphin (left) and Short-beaked Common Dolphin (centre), this behaviour may also be seen around travelling large whales (see Association p. 31). It is typically exhibited by smaller cetaceans such as dolphins, and may provide observers with superlative downward views of the animals, e.g. the Short-beaked Common Dolphin (right).

Porpoising – is when a cetacean leaps clear of the water while travelling at speed and re-enters the water headfirst. Often repeated, this behaviour is commonly associated with members of the dolphin family, such as these Short-beaked Common Dolphins.

Logging – is when cetaceans, such as these Short-finned Pilot Whales, rest motionless on the surface of the water, their bodies held horizontally. Surfacing – travelling cetaceans will typically break the surface and roll forwards in a regular pattern. As they roll different parts of the body will be on view at any one moment. The shape of these ‘snapshot’ profiles, such as where and when the dorsal fin appears relative to the head, as well as the timing and speed of the roll are often helpful clues for identification. Below, a Short-finned Pilot Whale mother and calf show a typical pilot whale sequence. All the identification accounts in this book have annotated silhouettes showing the typical surfacing sequence for that species.

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BEHAVIOUR FEEDING – cetaceans employ a variety of feeding strategies, sometimes alone, sometimes cooperatively. Broadly speaking the baleen whales hunt by engulfing prey in various ways, and the toothed whales hunt by pursuit of a specific prey item. Both types of cetacean hunt both at the surface and at depth, depending on their preferred or available prey, the time of year and the time of day. Toothed whales in particular are able to hunt both day and night, using echolocation to detect their prey. Some of the more commonly observed surface-feeding behaviours are shown below.

Skim-feeding – is a feeding behaviour typical of Sei Whale, when the animal will swim on its side, open-mouthed at the surface, taking in water and prey before closing the mouth and filtering the prey with the baleen plates.

Lunge-feeding – is a feeding behaviour most commonly seen in baleen whales, such as this Bryde’s Whale, when the animal rises vertically and at great speed with its mouth wide open in order to capture a large quantity of prey items.

Pursuit – is a feeding behaviour most commonly seen in toothed whales, be it a Killer Whale (left) twisting and turning after a seal at speeds that produce quite a wave, or a Common Bottlenose Dolphin (right) capturing an Atlantic Salmon after a burst of speed just below the surface. Diving and between dives – after a number of surfacing sequences it is quite typical for a whale to make a deep dive to feed. Details of the diving profile, such as whether the flukes are raised or not (see p. 27), can help identification. Information on the typical deep dive profile, along with dive depth and duration, and any inter-dive behaviour useful for identification, is included in the individual identification accounts.

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WATCHING SEA MAMMALS DEMONSTRATIVE AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR – is shown by many cetaceans, some of it territorial and agonistic display, some of it social interaction; although on occasion it just looks like they are having a good time. Here are some commonly seen examples of these behaviours. Breaching – is the term used when an animal has propelled itself upwards so that most or even all of its body clears the water’s surface. If seen it offers an amazing chance to see the whole animal as well as little-seen features. For some species prone to breaching, such as the beaked whales, it provides an ideal opportunity to identify these elusive species.

SPERM WHALE

ATLANTIC SPOTTED DOLPHIN

WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN

TRUE’S BEAKED WHALE

FALSE KILLER WHALE

ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN

COMMON BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN

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BEHAVIOUR

Lob-tailing – is the term used when a large whale, such as this Humpback Whale, lifts its tail clear of the water and then slaps the flukes against the water’s surface .

Tail- and flipper-slapping – smaller cetaceans such as this Killer Whale are capable of raising their tail flukes or flippers above the surface and then vigorously slapping them against the water, sometimes repeatedly .

Spy-hopping – is the behaviour in which the animal raises its head vertically from the water allowing it to see the immediate environs above the surface . Spy-hopping animals, such as this Killer Whale (left) and the Long-finned Pilot Whales (right), usually sink smoothly back beneath the surface .

Chorus line – is the activity, most often seen in the ‘blackfish’ and dolphin families, where a group of animals, such as these Risso’s Dolphins, surface simultaneously line-abreast . Association – different species are sometimes seen together . This can be a long-term association, such as found with Common Bottlenose Dolphins and pilot whales in some areas, or it can be seasonal when food is more scarce . It is not infrequent to see an individual, presumably lost, dolphin within a group of a different species . Often, though, any apparent association is just coincidental as the species involved take advantage of the same food source in an area . Here a White-beaked Dolphin is associating with a Humpback Whale, a frequent occurrence, and it is not unknown for the dolphins to harass the whale in an attempt to make it swim faster and create a better bow-wave for riding .

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WATCHING SEA MAMMALS SEAL BEHAVIOUR – is less dynamic and varied than that of cetaceans. Territorial displays and fighting are more prevalent in some species, and very rare in others. Seals are most likely to be seen either lazily hauled out or as a head just above the surface looking inquisitively at the observer (opposite). The following images describe some of the interactions found in the Grey Seal (p. 114)

Mother and pup contact is vital for a pup’s survival during its initial growth period.

Fish-eating seals may hunt by pursuit, but may also use a ‘sit-and-wait’ strategy to ambush prey.

Actual fights are rare, due to the potential cost of injury, but are most likely between an available female and a courting male or between competing males during the latter part of the breeding season.

Younger animals may be seen playfully mimicking adult behaviours. 32

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The Species Accounts – Identification at Sea

COMMON (or Harbour) SEAL

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The Great Whales CORY’S SHEARWATER

Harbour Porpoise 1·5–1·7 m p. 94

HUMPBACK WHALE 13–16 m p. 42

GANNET

Short-beaked Common Dolphin 1·7–2·5 m p. 74

Killer Whale 5·0–9·5 m p. 70

SPERM WHALE 11–20 m p. 56

NB The dolphin-sized Dwarf Sperm Whale and Pygmy Sperm Whale are shown on page 62

Scale The cetaceans here are depicted at a scale of approximately 1:180, or 0·6% of life-size . The Harbour Porpoise, Short-beaked Common Dolphin and Killer Whale are also shown at this scale to illustrate the immense difference in size between them and the great whales . This is something that is often difficult to appreciate when viewing a great whale, as it only reveals a small proportion of its back at any one time when it surfaces . SEABIRDS FOR SCALE In addition, there are depictions of two birds: A Gannet Morus bassana and a Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea. These are two reasonably large seabirds that often associate with or are found in the vicinity of cetaceans; the Gannet is typically found in the northern portion of the region; the Cory’s Shearwater in the south .

GRAY WHALE (extirpated, now vagrant) 11–15 m p. 55

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE (extirpated, now vagrant) 11–18 m p. 38

BOWHEAD WHALE (vagrant) 14–19 m p. 36

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See also Smaller Cetaceans page 62 and Beaked Whales page 96 NB Blue Whale scaled at approximately 25 m long – at the lower end of its 25–33 m range

BLUE WHALE 25–33 m p. 44

Fin Whale (showing white right side of jaw)

FIN WHALE 19–27 m p. 46

SEI WHALE 12–16 m p. 48

BRYDE’S WHALE 12–14 m p. 50

NB Antarctic Minke Whale (vagrant p. 54) is virtually identical to Common Minke Whale, differing externally only in the flipper pattern ANTARCTIC

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COMMON MINKE WHALE 7–10 m p. 52 6

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NB Common Minke Whale scaled at approximately 10 m long – at the upper end of its range

Surfacing illustrations The Common Minke Whale shown below illustrates just how little of a whale is seen at the surface . The portion of the animal below the surface has been faded . Throughout the following identification accounts all species are depicted in this way to highlight this important point .

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BALAENIDAE | BALEEN WHALES LC EN

Bowhead Whale

FURTHER INFORMATION p. 124

Balaena mysticetus

Vagrant from Arctic and sub-Arctic waters . 3 records: southwest UK [February 2016] France, Ireland and

southwest UK [May 2016]; Belgium and Netherlands [April 2017] .

l 14–19 m | W 75,000–90,000 kg (females larger than males) DESCRIPTION: Large, stocky, black whale characterized by a proportionally huge head (up to 1/3� of its body length), strongly arched jawline and a broad, smooth back without a dorsal fin. The chin and lower jaw are white, sometimes spotted black. GROUP SIZE: Usually solitary, or in small groups of up to 14 (usually 1–6). An exceptional gathering of 80–100 was encountered in 2015 between Greenland and Svalbard. BEHAVIOUR: Slow-moving: typical swim speed is 2–3 km/h, but up to 20 km/h in short bursts. Skim-feed almost continuously, alone or, on occasion, in a cooperative echelon. Bowheads may nudge others in a group; they occasionally breach, spy-hop, lob-tail and flipper-slap. WHERE FOUND: Resident in Arctic and sub-Arctic waters; migratory between areas of higher food concentration and to avoid ice entrapment. A small population (approximately 300 EN ) migrates between Svalbard and East Greenland. Historically, Bowhead Whales reached European Atlantic coasts of Scandinavia and Iceland. The recent reduction in sea ice has seen an increased occurrence in open water during the summer, which may explain the recent sightings off southwestern UK and France.

All records [3 individuals} ( )

WHERE TO SEE: A very recent vagrant to the region, so anything is possible . However, perhaps the best chance just outside the region is a dedicated trip to Svalbard or Disko Bay, Greenland . OBSERVATION TIPS: Slow-moving, best seen from a dedicated whale-watching trip . SIMILAR SPECIES: The North Atlantic Right Whale (p. 38) is the only other large whale in the region which lacks a dorsal fin and has a ‘V’-shaped blow, but that species has pale callosities on its head and mouth, a dark lower jaw and dark tailstock/fluke underside . Other black species, such as Humpback Whale (p. 40) that lack a true dorsal fin have at least some lumpy interruption to the smooth dorsal profile . OTHER IMAGES: Fluking (p. 27)

A group of typically languid Bowheads in Greenland; the nearest shows the distinctive ‘double-humped’ profile of this species.

direction of travel

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SURFACING COMPARED p. 40 | BLOWS + FLUKES COMPARED p. 27 DIVING: Typically to 200 m deep for 4–20 (to 60+ minutes); often resurfacing in the same location . direction of travel

The head appears first, usually flat (occasionally steep, showing some baleen) …

… the animal then blows with the head and body showing just above the surface .

This is repeated until the animal prepares to dive …

… the back is flexed and the tailstock may be arched and flukes may break the surface .

SURFACING: Travelling animals will surface and blow with the head and body just above the surface and may make short (approximately 15 seconds), shallow dives . Pre-diving animals flex their back and will then usually sink below the surface, although in about 1⁄3�of dives the tailstock will be steeply arched and the flukes break surface . IDENTIFICATION: Often unobtrusive at the surface, when the rounded back lacking a dorsal fin and ‘peak and trough’ blowhole give a distinctive double-humped appearance. A view of the higharched jawline, white chin and lower jaw, and/or white tailstock/ fluke underside will confirm identification. Scar patterns (from e.g. ice damage and Killer Whale attacks) can help identify individuals. The amount of white on the tail increases with age.

The narrow rostrum is a feature of both the region’s balaenid whales; Bowhead Whale lacks callosities .

White around the tailstock and underside of flukes, especially on older animals, is distinctive .

White on the arched lower jaw combined with ‘peak-and-trough’ blowhole is unique to Bowhead Whale.

BLOW: Variable but usually ’V’-shaped when viewed from front; less obvious from side; approximately 4 m high (compare with North Atlantic Right Whale) .

The head profile of a lone extralimital Bowhead Whale should be distinctive enough for a confident identification. direction of travel

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BALAENIDAE | BALEEN WHALES EN

North Atlantic Right Whale

FURTHER INFORMATION p. 125

Eubalaena glacialis

Former latitudinal migrant (extirpated early 20th century); now vagrant from the northwest Atlantic . Post 1950 records from Iceland, UK (Shetland [2000]), Ireland, Bay of Biscay, Spain, Portugal, and Macaronesia (Azores [2009], Madeira, Canaries)

Selected records 1950–2018 ( )

l 11–18 m | W 55,000–90,000 kg DESCRIPTION: Large, stocky, black whale characterized by a proportionally huge head (up to 1/4�of its body length), strongly arched jawline and a broad, smooth back without a dorsal fin. The rostrum, chin and jawline have grey or black callosities that appear pale or yellowish due to infestations of whale lice. GROUP SIZE: Solitary, or in small groups of 2–3, although aggregations of up to 30 have been seen. BEHAVIOUR: Slow-moving, often logging for long periods: typical swim speed is just over 1 km/h, although up to 16 km/h in short bursts. Breaching, often multiple times, is common, as is lob-tailing and flipper-slapping. WHERE FOUND: Formerly common on both sides of the North Atlantic but now only seen in their wintering area off Florida and Georgia, and in the feeding grounds from Cape Cod to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. There have been a few recent records from southern Greenland and Iceland but very few in the northeast Atlantic. Sightings from Norway (1999) and the Azores (2009) were identified as individuals from the western North Atlantic and give a glimmer of hope that, given a suitable recovery in numbers, perhaps this species may recolonize its former range.

WHERE TO SEE: The best chance outside the region is a perhaps a trip into the Gulf of Maine or Bay of Fundy; within the region it is simply down to extreme good fortune . OBSERVATION TIPS: Slow-moving, best seen from a dedicated whale-watching trip . SIMILAR SPECIES: The Bowhead Whale (p. 36) is the only other large whale in the region which lacks a dorsal fin and has a ‘V’-shaped blow, but that species lacks callosities and has white on the lower jaw/chin and on the tailstock/fluke underside . Other black species, such as Humpback Whale (p. 42), that lack a true dorsal fin have at least some lumpy interruption to the smooth dorsal profile . OTHER IMAGES: Aerial view (p. 126) .

The distinctive, smooth tailstock of a diving North Atlantic Right Whale. direction of travel

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SURFACING COMPARED p. 40 | BLOWS + FLUKES COMPARED p. 27 DIVING: Typically 80–175 (300) m deep for 5–14 (40) minutes . direction of travel

The distinctively calloused head and blow (‘V’-shaped unless seen from the side) appear together first …

… followed by the back, with the top of the head and often part of the jawline still visible .

The animal then rolls, and the lack of a dorsal fin becomes apparent .

A travelling whale then rolls over and repeats the sequence …

… unless diving when the tailstock is raised and the flukes appear .

SURFACING: In between deeper dives a surfacing whale typically makes a series of 5 or 6 short (approximately 12 second) shallow dives and is at the surface for about 6 seconds between each dive . Prior to a deep dive the angle of the tailstock and flukes indicate the depth of the dive . IDENTIFICATION: Usually stays low in the water; the large, flattish head profile and broad, flat back lacking a dorsal fin are characteristic of this species. A view of the high-arched jawline, and pale callosities on the rostrum, jawline and around the blowhole will confirm identification.

The tail flukes are all black with smooth edges .

Breaching, often multiple times, is common .

Callosities on the rostrum and jaw and the near flat blowhole profile are diagnostic of North Atlantic Right Whale .

The narrow rostrum is a feature of both the region’s balaenid whales; callosities are always obvious .

BLOW: Variable but usually ‘V’-shaped when viewed from front; less obvious from side; approximately 5 m high (compare with Bowhead Whale) .

The head and back profile of a lone extralimital North Atlantic Whale, together with its callosities, should be distinctive enough for a confident identification. direction of travel

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BALAENOPTERIDAE | RORQUALS

‘Finless’ whales compared  Although not a formal grouping, these species either lack

a fin, have a triangular lump or, as with Humpback Whale (a rorqual), can have a noticeable fin (which can actually be more prominent than that of Blue Whale). However, all the species in this ‘group’ have distinctive non-rorqual profiles and features.

A note about blows 

Blows are not shown here, but are illustrated for comparison on page 27. However, even though blows are a useful pointer, they are rarely diagnostic of a species, as they vary depending on a number of factors such as the size of the animal, activity level, duration of recent deep dive, weather conditions and viewing angle. A brief description is given here, along with the key morphological features for identification.

HUMPBACK WHALE p. 42

triangular/rounded lump in place of fin

unique profile; long body with humped back

BLOW dense, ‘mushroom’

hump beneath stubby fin

SPERM WHALE p. 56 triangular/rounded lump in place of fin

GRAY WHALE p. 55

small lump in place of fin

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE p. 38

unique profile; slate-grey to brown ‘log-like’ body with forward-positioned blowhole

BLOW offset, angled

unique grey-and-white-mottled body

BLOW heartshaped or bushy

unique head profile with callosities

BLOW ‘V’-shaped from front

no fin

unique ‘double-peaked’ head and back profile

BOWHEAD WHALE p. 36

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BLOW ‘V’-shaped from front

no fin

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BLOWS + FLUKES COMPARED p. 27

Rorquals with fins compared  Typically encountered as individuals or single species groups, size can be difficult to establish, especially as younger animals of the larger species overlap in length with mature animals of the smaller species. However, if seen, the combination of features and behaviour detailed below should enable a positive identification of almost any rorqual encountered in the region. OMURA’S WHALE Balaenoptera omurai  An intriguing 2013 record of a stranded Omura’s Whale (known only from the western Pacific) in Mauritania throws up the possibility of vagrancy or a hitherto unknown Atlantic population. Omura’s Whale (9·5–11·5 m) is between Common Minke Whale and Bryde’s Whale in size and resembles Fin Whale in its asymmetrical jaw markings: A dark grey left lower jaw, and a dark right lower jaw with a white mandible patch. The dorsal fin is falcate with a leading edge that gradually slopes into the back, intermediate in shape between the more gradual slope of Fin Whale and the more acute angle of Bryde’s and Sei Whales. It typically has a single prominent median ridge on the rostrum, but can have faint lateral ridges. COMMON MINKE WHALE p. 52 BLOW