Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4: Western and Central Himalayas [1 ed.] 1771885505, 9781771885508, 9781315207391, 1315207397, Ethnobotany-of-India, Volume-4

Table of contents :
Content: Ethnic Diversity in Central and Western Himalayas Mamta Sharma and S. K. Sood Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation in Western and Central Himalayas Basant Ballabh and T. Pullaiah Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region of Uttarakhand Himalaya Harsh Singh and Veena Dixit Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas Basant Ballabh, O. P. Chaurasia, P. C. Pande, and T. Pullaiah Ashtavarga Plants-A Review S. John Adams, T. Senthil Kumar, G. Muthuraman, and Anju Majeed A Reconnaissance of Ethnic Psychedelic Plants of Western Himalaya and Their Possible Identity to Soma K. V. Krishnamurthy and Bir Bahadur Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas T. Pullaiah, K. V. Krishnamurthy, Bir Bahadur, and John Adams Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species in North Western Himalaya, India A. Rajasekaran, Joginder Singh, S. P. Subiramani, and Shalu Devi Ethno- Conservation Practices in North Western Himalaya, India Rajasekaran, Vaneet Jishtu, Yogesh Gokhale Nazir A. Pala, and Jagdish Singh The Sacred Natural Sites, the Social Taboo System and the Scope of Developing Some of the Sites as Biodiversity Heritage Sites, Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya Chandra Singh Negi

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ETHNOBOTANY OF INDIA Volume 4 Western and Central Himalayas

ETHNOBOTANY OF INDIA Volume 4 Western and Central Himalayas

Edited by T. Pullaiah, PhD K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD Bir Bahadur, PhD

Apple Academic Press Inc. 3333 Mistwell Crescent Oakville, ON L6L 0A2 Canada

Apple Academic Press Inc. 9 Spinnaker Way Waretown, NJ 08758 USA

© 2018 by Apple Academic Press, Inc. Exclusive worldwide distribution by CRC Press, a member of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Need to add somewhere, preferably on the copyright page. Cover photo 1 by Wouter Hagens​. Used with permission via public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Houttuynia_cordata_A.jpg ​Cover photo 2 by Karsten Heinrich. Used with permission via the Creative Commons Attribution license. https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mahonia_napaulensis#/media/File:Mahonia_napaulensis_Nepal.JPG Cover photo 3 by Kristian Peters. Used with permission under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mentha_arvensis#/media/File:Mentha_arvensis.jpeg Cover photo 4 by JeremiahsCPs. Used with permission by via public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Nepenthes_khasiana.jpg International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-77188-550-8 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-315-20739-1 (eBook) Ethnobotany of India, 5-volume set International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-77188-600-0 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-315-18662-7 (eBook) All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electric, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or its distributor, except in the case of brief excerpts or quotations for use in reviews or critical articles. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission and sources are indicated. Copyright for individual articles remains with the authors as indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors, editors, and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors, editors, and the publisher have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Trademark Notice: Registered trademark of products or corporate names are used only for explanation and identification without intent to infringe. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Ethnobotany of India / edited by T. Pullaiah, PhD, K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD, Bir Bahadur, PhD. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Contents: Volume 4. Western and central Himalayas -- Volume 5. The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India. Issued in print and electronic formats. ISBN 978-1-77188-550-8 (v. 4 : hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-77188-599-7 (v. 5 : hardcover).-- ISBN 978-1-31520739-1 (v. 4 : PDF).-- ISBN 978-1-315-18784-6 (v. 5 : PDF) 1. Ethnobotany--India. I. Pullaiah, T author, editor II. Bahadur, Bir, author, editor III. Krishnamurthy, K. V., author, editor GN635.I4E85 2016 581.6'30954 C2016-902513-6 C2016-902514-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Pullaiah, T., editor. | Krishnamurthy, K. V., editor. | Bahadur, Bir., editor. Title: Ethnobotany of India. Volume 4, Western and Central Himalayas / editors: T. Pullaiah, K.V. Krishnamurthy, Bir Bahadur. Other titles: Western and Central Himalayas Description: Waretown, NJ : Apple Academic Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017022226 (print) | LCCN 2017022997 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315207391 (ebook) | ISBN 9781771885508 (hardcover : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Ethnobotany--India--Himalaya Mountains. Classification: LCC GN476.73 (ebook) | LCC GN476.73 .E823 2017 (print) | DDC 581.6/3095496--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017022226 Apple Academic Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic format. For information about Apple Academic Press products, visit our website at www.appleacademicpress.com and the CRC Press website at www.crcpress.com

CONTENTS

List of Contributors........................................................................................ vii List of Abbreviations....................................................................................... ix Preface............................................................................................................ xi Acknowledgments........................................................................................... xv Ethnobotany of India 5-volume Series.......................................................... xvi About the Editors......................................................................................... xvii 1. Introduction....................................................................................................1 Bir Bahadur, K. V. Krishnamurthy, and T. Pullaiah 2.

Ethnic Diversity in Central and Western Himalaya................................. 11 Mamta Sharma and S. K. Sood

3.

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation in Western and Central Himalaya.................................................................................39 Basant Ballabh and T. Pullaiah

4.

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region of Uttarakhand Himalaya......................................................................... 115 Harsh Singh and Veena Dixit

5.

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalaya....................149 Basant Ballabh, O. P. Chaurasia, P. C. Pande, and T. Pullaiah

6.

Ashtavarga Plants: A Review....................................................................293 S. John Adams, T. Senthil Kumar, G. Muthuraman, and Anju Majeed

7.

A Reconnaissance of Ethnic Psychedelic Plants of Western Himalaya and Their Possible Identity to Soma.......................................313 K. V. Krishnamurthy and Bir Bahadur

8.

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalaya.......................................................................................325 T. Pullaiah, K. V. Krishnamurthy, Bir Bahadur, S. John Adams, and T. N. Manohara

vi Contents

9.

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species in North Western Himalaya, India.............................................................................................................357 A. Rajasekaran, Joginder Singh, S. P. Subramani, and Shalu Devi

10. Ethno-Conservation Practices in North Western Himalaya, India.............................................................................................................409 A. Rajasekaran, Vaneet Jishtu, Yogesh Gokhale, Nazir A. Pala, and Jagdish Singh 11. The Sacred Natural Sites, the Social Taboo System and the Scope of Developing Some of the Sites as Biodiversity Heritage Sites, Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya...............................................................445 Chandra Singh Negi Index............................................................................................................. 479

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS S. John Adams

R&D, Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy, Sami Labs Ltd., Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Bir Bahadur

Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal – 505009, India, [email protected]

Basant Ballabh

Defence Institute of Bio-Energy Research, Defence Research & Development Organization, Goraparao, Haldwani, Uttarakhand, India, E-mail: [email protected]

O. P. Chaurasia

Defence Institute of High Altitude Research, Defence Research and Development Organization, Leh-Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Shalu Devi

Faculty of Forestry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Science and Technology, Benihama, Srinagar – 191121, Jammu & Kashmir, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Veena Dixit

Plant diversity, Systematics and Herbarium division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow – 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India

Yogesh Gokhale

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Vaneet Jishtu

Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla – 171009, Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

K. V. Krishnamurthy

Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore – 560058, Karnataka, India

T. Senthil Kumar

Department of Plant Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli – 620024, India

T. N. Manohara

Bioprospecting and Indigenous Knowledge Division, Rain Forest Research institute. Po. Box. 136, Jorhat, Assam, India.

Anju Majeed

R&D-Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy, Sami Labs Ltd., Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore, India

G. Muthuraman

R&D-Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy, Sami Labs Ltd., Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore, India

Chandra Singh Negi

Department of Zoology, Government Postgraduate College, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand – 262502, India, E-mail: [email protected]

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List of Contributors

Nazir A. Pala

Department of Forestry, Faculty of Horticulture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari – 736165, Cooch Behar (WB), India, E-mail: [email protected]

P. C. Pande

Department of Botany, Kumaum University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India

T. Pullaiah

Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur – 515003, A.P., India, E-mail: [email protected]

A. Rajasekaran

Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore – 641002, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Mamta Sharma

Department of Botany, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla – 171005, Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Harsh Singh

Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow – 226007, Uttar Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Jagdish Singh

Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla-171009, Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Joginder Singh

Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla – 171009, Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

S. K. Sood

Department of Botany, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla – 171005, Himachal Pradesh, India

S. P. Subramani

Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore – 641002, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AST Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna BHS biodiversity heritage sites BMC Biodiversity Management Committee BNF Bangladesh National Formulary CNS central nervous system HFRI Himalayan Forest Research Institute HMS Himalayan medicine system IHR Indian Himalayan Region IPR intellectual property rights ISM Indian System of Medicines JFM Joint Forest Management KFD Kedarnath Forest Division MAPs medicinal and aromatic plants MDMA 3,4-methylene-dioxymethamphetamine MPCA Medicinal Plant Conservation Area NBAI National Biodiversity Authority of India NMPB National Medicinal Plants Board RET species rare, endangered and threatened species SNS sacred natural sites THC tetrahydrocannabinol TKBS traditional knowledge-based systems WHO World Health Organization

PREFACE Humans are dependent on plants for their food, medicines, clothes, fuel and several other needs. Although the bond between plants and humans is very intense in several ‘primitive’ cultures throughout the world, one should not come to the sudden and wrong conclusion that post-industrial modern societies have broken this intimate bond and interrelationship between plants and people. Rather than plants being dominant as in the ‘primitive’ societies, man has become more and more dominant over plants after the industrial revolution, leading to over-exploitation of plants, and resulting in a maladapted ecological relationship between the two. Hence a study of the relationships between plants and people—ethnobotany—and, thus, between plant sciences and social sciences, is central to correctly place humanity in the earth’s environment. Because ethnobotany rightly bridges both of these perspectives, it is always held as a synthetic scientific discipline that bridges science and humanity. Most people tend to think that ethnobotany, a word introduced by Harshberger in 1896, is a study of plants used by ‘primitive’ cultures in ‘exotic’ locations of the world, far removed from the mainstream. People also think wrongly that ethnobotany deals only with non-industrialized, non-urbanized and ‘non-cultured’ societies of the world. Ethnobotany, in fact, studies plant-human interrelationships among all peoples. However, since indigenous non-Westernized societies form the vast majority of people now as well as in the past a study of their interrelationships with people becomes important. Tens of thousands of human cultures have existed in the past and a number of them persist even today. They contain the knowledge system and wisdom about the adaptations with nature, particularly with plants, for their successful sustenance. Thus, ethnobotanical information is vital for the successful continuance of human life on this planet. Ethnobotany is of instant use in two very important respects: (i) providing vital ecological knowledge, and (ii) acting as a source for economically useful plants. The first will help us to find solutions to the increasing environmental degradation and the consequent threat to our biodiversity. In indigenous societies, biodiversity is related to cultural diversity and, hence, any

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threat to biodiversity would lead to erosion of cultural diversity. Indigenous cultures are not only repositories of past experiences and knowledge but also form the frameworks for future adaptations. Ethnic knowledge on economically useful plants has resulted in detailed studies on bioprospection for newer sources of food, nutraceuticals, medicines and other novel materials of human use. Bioprospecting has resulted in intense research on reverse pharmacology and pharmacognosy. This has given rise to attendant problems relating to intellectual property rights, patenting and the sharing of the benefits with the traditional societies who owned the knowledge. This has also resulted in efforts to seriously document all types of traditional knowledge of the different cultures of the world and to formalize the methods and terms of sharing this traditional knowledge. It has also made us to know not only what plants people in different cultures use and how they use them, but also why they use them. In addition it helps us to know the biological, sociological and cultural roles of plants important in human adaptations to particular environmental conditions that prevailed in the past, and may prevail in future. This series of the five edited volumes on ethnobotany of different regions of India tries to bring together all the available ethnobotanical knowledge in one place. India is one of the most important regions of the Old World which has some of the very ancient and culturally rich diverse knowledge systems in the world. Competent authors have been selected to summarize information on the various aspects of ethnobotany of India, such as ethnoecology, traditional agriculture, cognitive ethnobotany, material sources, traditional pharmacognosy, ethnoconservation strategies, bioprospection of ethnodirected knowledge, and documentation and protection of ethnobotanical knowledge. The first volume was on Eastern Ghats and Adjacent Deccan Region of Peninsular India, while the second one is on Western Ghats and Western Peninsular India. Third volume is on North-East India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, one of the hot spots of biodiversity. The fourth volume is on Western and Central Himalayas. And the fifth volume is on The IndoGangetic Region and Central India. Published information is summarized on different aspects. Our intention is that the information contained in this volume may lead in the future to discovery many new drugs, nutraceuticals, novel molecules, and other useful products for the benefit of mankind.

Preface

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Since it is a voluminous subject we might have not covered the entire gamut but we have tried to put together as much information as possible. Readers are requested to give their suggestions for improvement of future volumes in this series.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to express our grateful thanks to all the authors who have contributed their chapters. We thank them for their cooperation and erudition. We also thank several colleagues for their help in many ways and for their suggestions from time to time during the evolution of this volume. We wish to express our appreciation and help rendered by Ms. Sandra Jones Sickels and her staff at Apple Academic Press. Above all, their professionalism that has made this book a reality is greatly appreciated. We thank Mr. John Adams, Senior Research Fellow of Prof. K. V. Krishnamurthy for his help in many ways. We wish to express our grateful thanks to our respective family members for their cooperation. We hope that this book will help our fellow teachers and researchers who enter the world of the fascinating subject of ethnobotany in India with confidence. —Editors

Ethnobotany of India 5-volume Series Editors: T. Pullaiah, PhD, K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD, and Bir Bahadur, PhD

Volume 1: Eastern Ghats and Deccan Volume 2: Western Ghats and West Coast of Peninsular India Volume 3: North-East India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Volume 4: Western and Central Himalayas Volume 5: The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India

ABOUT THE EDITORS T. Pullaiah, PhD Former Professor, Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Andhra Pradesh, India T. Pullaiah, PhD, is a former Professor at the Department of Botany at Sri Krishnadevaraya University in Andhra Pradesh, India, where he has taught for more than 35 years. He has held several positions at the university, including Dean, Faculty of Biosciences, Head of the Department of Botany, Head of the Department of Biotechnology, and Member, Academic Senate. He was President of the Indian Botanical Society (2014), President of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy (2013), and Fellow of the Andhra Pradesh Akademi of Sciences. He was awarded the Panchanan Maheswari Gold Medal, the Dr. G. Panigrahi Memorial Lecture Award of the Indian Botanical Society, the Prof. Y. D. Tyagi Gold Medal of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy, and a Best Teacher Award from Government of Andhra Pradesh. He has authored 45 books, edited 15 books, and published over 300 research papers, including reviews and book chapters. His books include Flora of Eastern Ghats (4 volumes), Flora of Andhra Pradesh (5 volumes), Flora of Telangana (3 volumes), Encyclopedia of World Medicinal Plants (5 volumes), and Encyclopedia of Herbal Antioxidants (3 volumes). He was also a member of the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Professor Pullaiah received his PhD from Andhra University, India, attended Moscow State University, Russia, and worked as postdoctoral fellow during 1976–78. K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD Former Professor, Department of Plant Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli, India K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD, is a former Professor and Head of Department, Plant Sciences at Bharathidasan University in Tiruchirappalli, India, and is at present a consultant at Sami Labs Ltd., Bangalore. He obtained his PhD

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About the Editors

degree from Madras University, India, and has taught many undergraduate, postgraduate, MPhil, and PhD students. He has over 48 years of teaching and research experience, and his major research areas include plant morphology and morphogenesis, biodiversity, floristic and reproductive ecology, and cytochemistry. He has published more than 170 research papers and 21 books, operated 16 major research projects funded by various agencies, and guided 32 PhD and more than 50 MPhil scholars. His important books include Methods in Cell Wall Cytochemistry, Textbook of Biodiversity, and From Flower to Fruit. One of his important research projects pertains to a detailed study of the Shervaroy Hills, which form a major hill region in the southern Eastern Ghats, and seven of his PhD scholars have done research work on various aspects of Eastern Ghats. He has won several awards and honors that include the Hira Lal Chakravarthy Award (1984) from the Indian Science Congress; Fulbright Visiting Professorship at the University of Colorado, USA (1993); Best Environmental Scientist Award of Tamil Nadu state (1998); the V. V. Sivarajan Award of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy (1998); and the Prof. V. Puri Award from the Indian Botanical Society (2006). He is a fellow of the Linnaean Society, London; National Academy of Sciences, India; and Indian Association of Angiosperm Taxonomy. Bir Bahadur, PhD Former Professor, Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Telangana, India Bir Bahadur, PhD, was Chairman and Head of the Department, and Dean of the Faculty of Science at Kakatiya University in Warangal, India, and has also taught at Osmania University in Hyderabad, India. During his long academic career, he was honored with the Best Teacher Award by Andhra Pradesh State Government for mentoring thousands of graduates and postgraduate students, including 30 PhDs, most of whom went onto occupy high positions at various universities and research organizations in India and abroad. Dr. Bahadur has been the recipient of many awards and honors, including the Vishwambhar Puri Medal from the Indian Botanical Society for his research contributions in various aspects of plant Sciences. He has published over 200 research papers and reviews and has authored or edited dozen books, including Plant Biology and Biotechnology and Jatropha,

About the Editors

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Challenges for New Energy Crop, both published in two volumes each by Springer Publishers. Dr. Bahadur is listed as an Eminent Botanist of India, the Bharath Jyoti Award, New Delhi, for his sustained academic and research career at New Delhi and elsewhere. Long active in his field, he is a member of over dozen professional bodies in India and abroad, including Fellow of the Linnean Society (London); Chartered Biologist Fellow of the Institute of Biology (London); Member of the New York Academy of Sciences; and a Royal Society Bursar. He was also honored with an Honorary Fellowship of Birmingham University (UK). Presently he is an Independent Director of Sri Biotech Laboratories India Ltd, Hyderabad, India.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION BIR BAHADUR1, K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY2, and T. PULLAIAH3 1

Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal – 505009, India

Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore – 560058, Karnataka, India

2

Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur – 515003, A.P., India, E-mail: [email protected]

3

CONTENTS Abstract..........................................................................................................1 1.1  The Study Region.................................................................................2 1.2  Ethnic Diversity....................................................................................4 1.3  Ethnic Traditional Knowledge of Plants...............................................5 1.4 Ethnoconservation.................................................................................8 Keywords.......................................................................................................8 References......................................................................................................8 ABSTRACT This introductory chapter deals with the scope of this volume. It gives a general account on the Western and Central Himalayas (covering the States of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand), particularly the physical location, geology, climate and vegetation. It also introduces the other chapters of this volume which are related to the ethnic diversity, various

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aspects of ethno-traditional knowledge systems and ethnic conservation strategies.

1.1  THE STUDY REGION The Indian subcontinent of Asia consists of the Himalayas, Indo-Gangetic plains, Peninsular India with its uplands and plateaus and the Narrow coastal plains along the seaboards (Valdiya, 2010). The Himalayas form the mountainous province that girdles the northern border of India. It is a structurally, lithologically, physiographically and evolutionarily distinct province that separates India from the rest of Eurasia. The composite Himalayas comprises the Kirthar and the Sulaiman mountain chains in the west, the main Himalayas in the center and the Patkai-Naga-Arakan-Yoma mountain ranges in the east. The Himalayas forms a 2,400 km long and 300–400 km wide region and embodies four physiographically different terrenes: the Siwalik, the Himachal (Lesser Himalayas), the Himadri (Greater Himalayas) and the Tethys Himalayas. The Siwalik Terrane abruptly rises above the almost flat Indo-Gangetic plains, is about 250 to 800 m. height and forms the southern front of Himalayas. It is mainly made up of the sedimentary deposits by ancient Himalayan rivers in the last 16 to 1.5 million years. The Siwalik is often broken by south-facing scarps and show long, and flat stretches called Duns. Lying north of Siwalik is the outer Lesser Himalayas or Himachal which consists of Pir Panjal-Dhauladhar-Mussorie-Nainital-Mahabharat Ranges (generally more than 2,000 m high). North of these in the central sector (Kumaun and Nepal) is the Middle Lesser Himalayas (600–2,000 m high). The valleys of the rivers like Ravi, Sutlej, Yamuna, Ganga, Kali, Karnali, Kandaki, Kosi, Arun and Subansiri (most of these rivers are older than the regions which they cross) are characterized by deep gorges and defiles (Valdiya, 2010). The rocks of Lesser Himalayas are Precambrian and are more than 540 million years of age; these are often found along with volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The Himadri or Greater Himalayas is perennially snow-capped and extremely rugged (with a height from 3,000 to 8,000 m). There are many mountain peaks such as Nanga Parbat (8,126 m), Nun-Kum (7,817 m), Daulagiri (8,172 m), Sagarmatha or Everest (8,848 m), Kanchanjungha (8,598 m) and Namcha Barwa (7,756 m). This region of Himalayas is made up of high-grade metamorphic rocks and gneissic granites.

Introduction 3

Beyond Himadri is the Tethys Himalayas which has sedimentary rocks of late Precambrian (more than 600 million years old) to the Cretaceous and Eocene (95–45 million years old). It is a cold desert and is without vegetation. This Himalayan region ends up against the zone of collision of India with Asia, which is a 50–60 km wide zone of continental junction (3600– 5000 m high). North of this is Tibet plateau. This Himalayan zone, also called Trans-Himalayas, makes up the Ladakh-Kailas-Gangadese ranges (Valdiya, 2010). The states of India included in this study region (Western and Central Himalayas) are Jammu & Kashmir (incl. Ladakh), Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The average height of mountains in this region ranges between 3000 and 4000 m. The annual precipitation in the study region ranges from 500 to around 1200 mm, of which about 50% is received in the form of snow during winter. Thus, when compared to Eastern Himalayas, this region receives low rainfall, but with high solar radiation. The mean temperature during winter is around –2°C to –8°C while maximum temperature during summer is around 32°C. The relative humidity ranges from 40 to 90%. Although much less diverse than Eastern Himalayas, this region has a fairly rich vegetation. The areal extent of forest cover (in Km2) in TransHimalayas did not change between 1930 when it was 1695 and 2013 when it was again around 1695. In Western-Himalaya in 1930 it was around 52,166 but in 2013 it was reduced to 43,982. For Jammu and Kashmir the forest cover was 28,986 in 1930 but was only 18,662 in 2013, in Himachal Pradesh it was 14,762 in 1930 but 14,354 in 2013 while in Uttarakhand it was 24,729 in 1930 but 19,292 in 2013 (Sudhakar Reddy et al., 2016). The characteristic features of this vegetation are the dominance of vast and gregarious conifer forests of chir, blue pine, deodar and fir with patches of dry Juniper forests. However, the vegetation varies due to different climatic features. The vegetation is primarily arboreal except in the alpine zones, and has forests, meadows, marshes, swamps, etc. There are cultivated areas that range from 14–20% of the total land area. The vegetation is classified into three basic categories: Tropical, Temperate and Alpine. The tropical vegetation may be Evergreen, Semi-evergreen, Deciduous, or Savanna forests and Grasslands. The temperate vegetation occurs at 1200–3000 m and may be either Moist Temperate or Dry Temperate. These two are mainly made of conifers, although species of hardwoods such as Shorea, Acer, Fraxinus, Ilex, Buxus, Aesculus, Myrica, Corylus, Juglans, Rhus, Ulmus, Cornus, Viburnum and Rhododendron also occur. The poor ground flora

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includes species of Abelia, Berberis, Coriaria, Cotoneaster, Daphne, Inula, Rubus, Myrsine, Spiraea, etc. The Alpine vegetation occurs at a height of 3,000 to 3,400 m. and is made up mainly of dwarf shrubs and herbs such as Betula, Cupressus, Berberis, Rosa, Sorbus, Anemone, Gentiana, Potentilla, Saussurea, Saxifraga, Agrostis, Bromus, Festuca, Poa, Stipa, etc. About 4,000 to 5,000 species of vascular plants have been reported from this region. The Kashmir Himalayas of the Pir Panjal range (including the Trans-Himalayan Ladakh) alone has about 2,000 species (Dhar et al., 2012), which make up around 12% of total Indian Angiosperms. Here alone, there are 153 endemic plant taxa (3% of Indian endemics), although earlier only 54 taxa were reported (Dhar et al., 2012). Important species of endemic category belong to the following genera: Gentiana, Potentilla, Astragalus, Berberis, Corydalis, Festuca, and Pseudomertensia. The above authors have also reported the presence of 45 threatened taxa belonging to various RET categories. These include nearly 80 orchids and the eight Ashtavarga plants (essentially because of trade but also because of annual burning of grassland and cutting of grasses) (see Chapter 6 for more details). The other most important endangered species include Gentiana kurroo, Meconopsis aculeata (blue poppy), Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum australe, Dioscorea deltoidea, Aconitum heterophyllum, Picrorrhiza kurroa, Rhododendron campanulatum, etc. Three biosphere reserves (Dachigam in Jammu & Kashmir; Salamynala in Himachal Pradesh Valley of Flowers in Uttarakhand) and one National Park (Corbett National park) are located in the study region. 1.2  ETHNIC DIVERSITY India is known for its remarkable ethnic diversity with about 427 tribal communities of about 65 million people (Singh, 1993, Vinodkumar, 2002), although others speak of about 4635 well-defined ethnic groups under 532 tribes. This remarkable diversity is due to India’s geographical location at the tri-junction of the African, Eurasian and Oriental realms. Its great variety of environmental regimes and enormous biodiversity (plants and animals) attracted human inflow of different ethnic stocks, cultures and languages into the country starting from around 70,000 years ago. This W. Himalayan region formed an important entry point for such human inflows from central India and Eastern Europe. These inflows included the IndoEuropeans, Greeks, Sakas, Kushans, Huns and Arabs. The human population

Introduction 5

present in the study region may roughly be categorized into four major ethnic groups recognized for India as a whole: Australoid, Negrito, Mongoloid and Caucasoid (Kashyap et al., 2003), although Negriod group is very rarely seen. The main language groups are Tibeto-Burman, Dravidian, AustroAsiatic (Majundar, 2001) and Indo-European (Gadgil et al., 1998). Western and Central Himalayan regions of India form important areas of ethnic diversity in India. Mamta Sharma and Sood have provided a detailed account on the ethnic diversity of these two Himalayan regions. Their account shows how very rich ethnic traditional knowledge of this area is contributed by the different tribes. 1.3  ETHNIC TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF PLANTS Traditional knowledge systems include all kinds of knowledge relating to subsistence production systems, ecosystems, logics of subsistence, traditionally used plants in food, medicine and other human needs, methods of socialization, education, self-governance and community decision making, etc. It is a pity that many of these systems of knowledge are not even recognized as knowledge but as superstitious and irrational belief systems. One should bear in mind that technical, social, organizational and cultural traditional knowledge was obtained as “a part of great experiment of survival and development” over several thousands of years and hence it should be regarded as constitutive of a full-fledged science in its own right. Since ethno-based bioprospection has resulted in the discovery of new and novel food and medicinal plants, new biomolecules of importance in nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals and pharmaceuticals, documentation and presentation of ethnic knowledge on plants (animals) of any region of the world would be an immense service to the human kind (Cotton, 1997; Krishnamurthy, 2003). Food forms the very stuff of life of humans (as well as of other animals). Although initially hunted and collected from wild, most food was gradually collected from select plants that were domesticated and cultivated and from select animals that were subject to animal husbandry. The traditional foods and food systems, though surviving in some traditional ethnic communities of the world, have been greatly corrupted and/or replaced by alien foods/ food systems due to increased globalization and homogenization; this is in spite of the fact that the traditional foods and food preparations cover the full

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spectrum of life that the modern foods do not. Moreover, traditional foods/ food systems have been developed based on locally available food plants and local environmental/climatic and cultural conditions over the past several hundreds of years when ethnic people were living in close association with nature. An impressive array of traditional food species and food preparations are available and these should be documented before they vanish; if anything happens to the modern food systems and their source plants (and animals) we have no other option except to look back into our traditional food sources. In Chapter 3 of this volume Basant Ballabh discusses the ethnic food plants and food preparations of Western and Central Himalayas. This account provides some very interesting food preparations which were not well known in other parts of India. India is known for its very rich traditional medical knowledge. Both codified and non-codified medical systems were already well developed (Bahadur et al., 2007) and the physical and therapeutic bases of such systems were also very well established. The sources of drugs/medicines for all human ailments (all ailments known in modern humans were almost known to ancient Indian Vaidyas, although in different terminologies) came from plants, animals and minerals formed around them. More than 8,000 species of plants were known to be used (Murthy et al., 2008) and different kinds of drug/medicine preparations were in vogue. These were not only therapeutically very effective but were also devoid of any major side effects. The Indian Himalayan region, particularly the Western and Central Himalayan region, has a very rich biodiversity, particularly medicinal plants diversity. In the Himalayan medicinal system there are more than 1,800 plants (Agarwal, 2011) of which more than three-fourths are found in Western and Central Himalayas. In chapters 4 and 5 Harsh Singh and Veena Dixit, and Basant Ballabh et al. respectively deal with ethnomedicinal plants of subalpine and alpine regions of Uttarakhand Himalaya, and Ethnomedicinal plants of Western and Central Himalayas. Both have provided an exhaustive list of medical plants, the parts used and the ailment for which they are used. This rich phytodiversity of medicinal importance is obviously the outcome of a very rich ethnodiversity. Western Himalayan region is also a home for the evolution of Ayurvedic system of medicine especially that is related to the Rasayanas that deal with systematic rejuvenation. It is intended to arrest the decay of the system, to restore youth and to ensure long life with health and intelligence. One of the very important components of Ayurvedic Rasayana is the Ashtavarga, a

Introduction 7

group of eight plants whose underground parts are used in rejuvenation medicine. The Ashtavarga plants were all W. Himalayan in distribution, although one or two of them are also found in E. Himalayas. A detailed review on Ashtavarga plants is given in Chapter 6 of this book by John Adams et al. The western Himalaya and the subjacent Indus Plain is considered by many as the region where Aryans lived and flourished. It is also considered as the region where the four Vedas as well as Ayurveda were created and practiced. The first of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda, as well as Atharva Veda make frequent references to the Soma which not only denoted a deity but also a plant (or plants). The latter was (were) the source of soma rasa, the divine extract, often used for sacrifice and consumption during Yagnas and rituals. Soma rasa was considered to produce a hallucinogenic effect under whose influence, it is believed, that vedic hymns were created and chanted as well as “vedic Shamanism” was practiced. The exact identity of the soma plant is still debated although some taxa have been suggested. In Chapter 7 of this volume Krishnamurthy and Bir Bahadur discuss the possible relationship of the soma to the psychoactive plants known from the “soma land” which roughly corresponds to the Kashmir Himalayas and its adjacent regions north of Kashmir. India is blessed with a very rich stock of domesticated animals and local breeds. There are about 30 indigenous cattle breeds, 12 buffalo breeds, 20 goat breeds, 40 sheep breeds, 6 horse breeds, 3 pig breeds, and about 20 breeds of poultry (Aruna Kumara and Anand, 2006). Most breeding were done by the tribal communities, who besides breeding, spent much attention on maintenance of such breeds as well as preventing and curing their diseases. Thus, ethnoveterinary medicine in India is as old as the domestication of animals. More than 250 diseases have been reported and ethnic people have, by trial and error identified several plants to prevent and cure them. W. Himalaya has a rich domesticated animals diversity and it specifically includes varieties of wool-yielding sheep, draft mules and horses, and yak. Pullaiah et al. have dealt with in detail the ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of the study region covered in this volume in Chapter 8. Plants provide a vast array of products other than food and medicine. Many of these are exploited from wild plants, while a number of them are from cultivated sources. Ethnic communities around the world, have been exploiting wild plants for timber, fuel, shelter, fiber, dyes, tannin, gums, resins, ornamental and many other purposes. Much of this information is poorly documented particularly for the different Himalayan regions where a

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number of ancient tribal communities live. In Chapter 9, Rajasekaran et al. have provided a detailed account on the traditionally used plants of Western and Central Himalayas for purposes other than food and medicine. 1.4 ETHNOCONSERVATION There are many reasons as to why ethnic knowledge on plants is to be conserved. The most important reason is that it provides for human need and benefits that are cultural, social/cognitive and/or utilitarian. However, it is to be stressed here that the ethnic communities themselves realized these values of biodiversity and developed sustainable and effective conservation strategies to conserve it. Chapters 10 and 11 by Rajasekaran et al. and Negi, respectively, deal with the various ethnoconservation strategies developed by the various ethnic tribes of Western and Central Himalayas. KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• ••

Central Himalayas ethnic diversity ethno-traditional knowledge systems ethnoconservation strategies Western Himalayas

REFERENCES 1. Agarwall, D. P. (2011). Traditional Knowledge Systems: Culture, Ecology, and ways of Knowing. Multiversity and Citizens International, Penang, Malaysia. pp. 1–50. 2. Aruna Kumara, V. K., & Anand, A. S. (2006). An Initiative towards the conservation and development of Indian cattle breeds. In: Balasubramanian, A. V., & Nirmala Devi, T. D. (eds.) Traditional Knowledge Systems of India and Sri Lanka. Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai, India. pp. 104–113. 3. Bahadur, B., Janardhan Reddy, K., & Rao, M. L. N. (2007). Medicinal Plants: An overview. In: Janardhan Reddy, K., Bahadur, B., Rao, M. L. N., & Bhadraiah, B. (Eds.) Advances in Medicinal Plants. Universities Press, Hyderabad, India. 4. Cotton, C. M. (1997). Ethnobotany. Principles and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.

Introduction 9 5. Dhar, G. H., Khuroo, A. A., & Aman, N. (2012). Endemism in the Angiosperm flora of Kashmir Valley, India: Stocktaking. In: Maiti, G., & Mukherjee, S. K. (Eds.) Multidisciplinary Approaches in Angiosperm Systematics. Vol. 2. Univ. Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal, India. pp. 502–516. 6. Gadgil, l. M., Joshi, N., Manoharan, S., Patil, S., & Prasad, U. V. S. (1998). Peopling of India. In: Balasubramanian, D., & Appa Rao, N. (Eds.) The Human Heritage. Universities Press, Hyderabad, India. pp. 100–129. 7. Kashyap, V. K., Sarkar, N., Sahoo, S., Sarkar, B. N., & Trivedi, R. (2003). Genetic variation at fifteen microsatellite loci in human Populations. Curr. Sci. 85, 464–473. 8. Krishnamurthy, K. V. (2003). Textbook of Biodiversity. Science Publishers. 9. Majumdar, P. P. (2001). Ethnic populations of India as seen from an evolutionary perspective. J. Biosci. 26, 533–545. 10. Murthy, G. V. S., Benjamin, J. H. F., & Bahadur, B. (2008). Medicinal Plants of Andhra Pradesh. Proc. A. P. Akademi of Sciences. Special Issue on Plant Wealth of Andhra Pradesh 12, 120–137. 11. Singh, K. S. (1993). Peoples of India (1985–92). Curr. Sci. 64, 1–10. 12. Sudhakar Reddy, C., Jha, C. S., Dadhwal, V. K., & Diwakar, P. G. (2016). Quantification and monitoring of deforestation in India over eight decades (1930–2013). Biodiversity and Conservation 25(1), 93–116. 13. Valdiya, K. S. (2010). The making of India. Geodyamic Evolution. MacMillan Publishers India Ltd., New Delhi, India. 14. Vinodkumar (2007). Sustainable development perspectives of Eastern Ghats-Orissa. pp. 558–575. In: Proc. Natl. Sem. Conserv. Eastern Ghats. ENVIS Center, EPTRI, Hyderabad, India.

CHAPTER 2

ETHNIC DIVERSITY IN CENTRAL AND WESTERN HIMALAYA MAMTA SHARMA and S. K. SOOD Department of Botany, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla – 171005, Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS Abstract........................................................................................................11 2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................13 2.2  Ethnic Diversity..................................................................................14 2.3  Inhabitation in the Himalaya...............................................................18 2.4  Risks to Himalayan Cultures..............................................................27 2.5  Cultural Protection and Promotion.....................................................30 2.6  Initiatives for Preservation and Promotion of Himalayan Cultures.......36 2.7 Conclusion..........................................................................................37 Keywords.....................................................................................................37 References....................................................................................................38

ABSTRACT Himalaya, a mountain range in Asia, separates the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Tibetan Plateau and is a rich genetic resource of Ethnic Diversity. There is great cultural diversity within the population of the Himalayan

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regions where religion is concerned. Three religions are dominant in the mountains: Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. Four distinct ethnic strains, i.e., Indic people, Tibetan people, Afghan–Aranian and Burman are visible and present today. In general, the inhabitants of the northern slopes and the higher altitudes on the southern side of the Himalayas are Mongoloids and have remained ethnically pure because of relatively lower contact with outsiders and had waves of invasions and conquests and migrations through history, and are today inhabited by diverse and mixed ethnic groups, with Mongoloid, Negroid and Aryan strains. The Central Himalayan region in inhabited by people commonly known as ‘Paharis’ comprise a variety of subgroups which share basic cultural patterns but show local differences in such features as dialect, ceremonial forms, deities worshipped, house styles, dress and ornamentation, range of castes, and rules of marriage. In Western Himalaya Changpas are mostly nomads engaged in trans-human activities while Laddakhis, Dardi and Balti are engaged in primitive agricultural activities mostly concentrated in river valleys. Kashimiris, Gujjars and Bakkerwals inhabit the Pirpanjal and Kashmir valley mountains areas who speak Kashmiri, and Pahari/Gojri, respectively. Nomadic pastoralism has been portrayed as one of the great advances in the evolution of mankind. People who specialize in livestock production requiring periodic movements of their herds are known as nomadic p­ astoralists, or, simply nomads. As such, these portraits of nomads offer a rare glimpse into a way of life that is rapidly vanishing. Menfolk in remote Himalayan region flourished by nature. Just as some travel for herding, many others travel out of their valleys and across the ranges for selling their wares at lowland markets, buying at the same time, goods that they cannot access in the closed high altitude valleys. Sheep, Goat and Yak wool is main source of trading. In terms of its diversity of peoples and languages, the greater Himalayan region is the most complex. There are hundreds of different languages spoken in the Himalayas. Himalayan people are highly clannish. Himalayan women usually enjoy a much greater level of freedom and participate equally with the men in agricultural practices and in cultural activities. Mountain regions had developed a rich base of indigenous traditional knowledge that is being rapidly eroded under the forces of modernization, as new methods/sciences make inroads and local value and promotion of ITK declines.

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2.1 INTRODUCTION From time immemorial, the indigenous communities, all over the world, have been depending upon the ambient natural resources for their sustenance. This indigenous knowledge has evolved independently in a variety of ecosystems in different parts of the world (Jain and Sharma, 2000). However, due to changing perception of the user communities, commercialization and socio-economic transformation all over the world, there has been a general observation that the indigenous knowledge on sustainable use of resources has degraded severely (Gadgil et al., 1993), and needs to be documented before it is lost forever to posterity. Ethnic group, a social group or category of the population that, in a larger society, is set apart. Ethnic diversity is one form of the social complexity found in most contemporary societies. Historically it is the legacy of conquests brought diverse peoples of area under the rule of a dominant group, i.e., rulers who in their own interests imported peoples for their labor or their technical and business skills; of industrialization, which intensified the age-old pattern of migration for economic reasons; or of political and religious persecutions that drove people from their native lands. The Himalayas or Himalaya is a mountain range in the South Asia, which separates the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Tibetan Plateau. This range is home to nine of the ten highest peaks on Earth, including the highest above sea level, Stretching in an arc over 3,000 kilometers of northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and the northwestern and northeastern states of India, the Himalaya hotspot includes all of the world’s mountain peaks higher than 8,000 meters. This includes the world’s highest mountain, Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) as well as several of the world’s deepest river gorges. This immense mountain range, which covers nearly 750,000 km2, has been divided into two regions: the Eastern Himalaya, which covers parts of Nepal, Bhutan, the northeast Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet (China), and northern Myanmar; and the Western Himalaya, covering the Kumaon-Garhwal, northwest Kashmir, and northern Pakistan. While these divisions are largely artificial, the deep defile carved by the antecedent Kali Gandaki River between the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri mountains has been an effective dispersal barrier to many species. Broadening in an immense arc of 2500 km in length, along the boundaries and covering 5 Asian countries, the rugged terrain of the Himalaya range is broken intermittently by valleys and plateau that have allowed habitation.

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Although a tremendously difficult terrain, the Himalayas are thus inhabited by a sizeable population of 65.57 million belonging to different indigenous tribes. Of this, 36.32 million reside in India (25% in western Himalayas, 54% in Central Himalayas and 21% in eastern Himalayas), 27.07 million in Nepal and 2.18 million in Bhutan. Biogeographically, the Himalayan Mountain Range straddles a transition zone between the Palearctic and Indo-Malayan realms. Species from both realms are represented in the hotspot. In addition, geological, climatic and altitudinal variations in the hotspot, as well as topographic complexity, contribute to the biological diversity of the mountains along their east-west and north-south axes. 2.2  ETHNIC DIVERSITY “Cultural diversity” refers to the manifold ways in which the cultures of groups and societies find expression where as ethnic diversity is variation in cultures prevalent amongst ethnic peoples. These expressions are passed on within and among groups and societies. Cultural diversity is made manifest not only through the varied ways in which the cultural heritage of humanity is expressed, augmented and transmitted through the variety of cultural expressions, but also through diverse modes of artistic creation, production, dissemination, distribution and enjoyment, whatever the means and technologies used. There is great cultural diversity within the population of the Himalayan regions. Banerji and Pragnya (2016) have given a detailed account on cultural diversity in the Himalayas. Where religion is concerned, three religions are dominant in the mountains: Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. In terms of livelihood practices, as mentioned above, some undertake terraced agriculture, some are pastoralists while others are traders. Even local administrative systems vary from statutory panchayat systems to traditional institutions. The cultural variations visible when moving laterally across the Himalayas, stem from the waves of migration across the Himalayan ranges and into the fertile valleys. Over the centuries, generations of people of different ethnic origins from its south, east, west and north, have migrated into the region and made it their home. Puranas, the ancient Hindu epic, mentions the Kinnars, Kilinds, and Kiratas as the original inhabitants of the Himalayas. History also mentions the names of Khasas and the Darads. Four distinct ethnic strains are visible today:

Ethnic Diversity in Central and Western Himalaya

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• Indic people, predominantly of the Hindu faith, with Indo-Aryan languages and art forms, and settled agriculture as an occupation. • Tibetan people following Buddhism, with Tibetan and associated languages, art and culture, and agropastoralism as the occupation. • Afghan-Iranian people following Islamic faiths and Islam-influenced art and culture, and both pastoralism as well as settled agriculture. • Burman with a mix of faiths, with animist origins and animism influenced art forms and cultures, practicing shifting or settled agriculture or even pastoralism. In general, the inhabitants of the northern slopes and the higher altitudes on the southern side of the Himalayas are Mongoloids and have remained ethnically pure because of relatively lower contact with outsiders; the southern slopes, especially the lower and middle ranges, have had waves of invasions and conquests and migrations through history, and are today inhabited by diverse and mixed ethnic groups, with Mongoloid, Negroid and Aryan strains. It is believed that settlement in the Himalayas began with a warriorlike Aryan tribe called Khas that migrated to the western Himalayas in 1500 B.C.; the Tibeto-Burman people of South-east Asia (called the Kiratas and reputed for their musical skills) moved into the central and eastern Himalayas in the early millennia. Bhotia nomads moved southwards from the northern slopes into the high Himalayan valleys and plateaux on the southern slopes in the early centuries AD. Although the pattern of settlements is variegated and complex, on the whole, north-western Himalaya has evolved under the Muslim influence, central and eastern Himalaya is essentially Hindu, while Buddhists holds sway in the northern flank. 2.2.1  ETHNIC GROUPS IN CENTRAL HIMALAYA The Central Himalayan region can be divided into the regions of Himachal and Punjab, Garhwal and Kumaon and the Nepal Himalayas. With the exception of a few Buddhists, the region is inhabited by people of the Aryan stock. People in the foothills of the Inner Himalayan region are loosely referred to as ‘Paharis’ comprise a variety of subgroups which share basic cultural patterns but show local differences in such features as dialect, ceremonial forms, deities worshipped, house styles, dress and ornamentation, range of castes, and rules of marriage. These variations are often extremely limited in distribution so that it is possible for one acquainted with a region to identify readily the particular valley or ridge from which a person comes by

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his speech or dress. They are isolated from the Tibetan Bhotiyas by high mountains, but have trading contacts when the Bhotiyas come (to the) lower regions. The semi-nomadic Bhotiyas live in the northern regions (they) live in their villages only for short periods in the year. They go either to high altitudes with their herds during the summer months, or to the Bhabar near the plains for trade during the winter when the valleys are severely cold. 2.2.2  ETHNIC GROUPS IN WESTERN HIMALAYA The people of this region display a flow of the Afghan-Iranian cultures from the west, with an impinging of the Indic cultures from the south and Tibetan cultures from the north. Pradyumna P. Karan divides the Western Himalayan realm into the Sub-Himalayan Kashmir (Poonch and Jammu), Pir Panjal, Valley of Kashmir, Ladakh and Baltistan, and the Kohistan and Gilgit regions. The Laddakh division of Jammu and Kashmir is represented by the Changpas in the highland areas of extreme north, Laddakhis in the plateau areas of central zones and Baltis, Bropkpas and Dards in the river valleys of Western zones. The Changpas are mostly nomads engaged in trans-human activities while Laddakhis, Dardi and Balti are engaged in primitive agricultural activities mostly concentrated in river valleys. Laddakhi, Dardi and Balti are the major languages spoken in this region. Kashimiris, Gujjars and Bakkerwals inhabit the Pirpanjal and Kashmir valley mountains areas who speak Kashmiri, and Pahari/Gojri respectively. The people in the upper reaches of the mountains follow Islam while the populations in the foothills are mostly Hindu. Both Ladakhis and Baltis are Mongolid in physical traits. While Ladakh’s population is predominantly Buddhist, the Baltistan consists of both Muslims and Buddhists. It is therefore that Buddhist monasteries, prayer flags and chortens form significant elements of the cultural landscape in Ladakh and adjoining Baltistan. 2.2.3  TRIBAL DIVERSITY IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL HIMALAYAS Sahoo et al. (2013) have given details of some of the tribes of Western and Central Himalayas and the details are given below. Himachal Pradesh: (5.7%) Gaddi, Kinnaura, Gujjar, Bodh, Labula, Khanpa (Gaddi).

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Jammu & Kashmir: (11.9%) Balti, Bodh, Brog-pa, Champa, Mon, Purig-pa, Amci, Boto, Dard, Drukap, Changpa. Uttarakhand: (2.9%) Jaunsari, Tharu, Bhotia, Bhoska, Raji, Gangwal, Gorkhali, Kinnauris, Gujjar, Naipali. Amchi is a tribe in the high mountain region of Ladakh in northwest India, pharmacists/healers in Ladakh. They practice an old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis and applies dietary and behavioral factors as well as medicines compounded from natural materials (e.g., mainly herbs and minerals) and physical therapies to treat illness. It is effective in all kinds of illness. It has proved particularly beneficial in the treatment of chronic diseases such as rheumatism, arthritis, ulcers, chronic digestive problems, asthma, hepatitis, eczema, liver problems, skin diseases, sinus problems, anxiety and problems connected with nervous system. Banraut is a small tribe in higher regions of Kumaon in NW Himalayas. Bhoska, also known as Buska, are indigenous people living mainly in the Indian states of Uttarakhand and U.P. They are mostly concentrated in Dehra Dun and Nainital in the Kumaon foothills of the outer Himalayas. They are also found in Bijnor district of U.P. where they are known as Mehra. Both communities have been granted scheduled tribe status. Bhotia, also called as Bhot, Bot, Bhutiya, Bhutia are groups of ethno-linguistically Tibetan people living in the trans-Himalayan region that divides India from China and were originally a hill tribe. Their name, Bhotiya, derives from the word Bod (Bodyul), which is the classical Tibetan name for Tibet. The ancient language of Bot people is Boti. The Bot people are closely related to the Sikkimese Bhutia, the main ethno-linguistic group of Northern Sikkim that speaks the Sikkimese (Bhutiya) language. They are also closely related to Uttarakhand Bhotiya, several groups in the upper Himalayan valleys of the Kumaon and Garhwal of Uttarakhand Himalayas. These include the Shaukas of Kumaon and Tolchas and Marchas of Garhwal. The Bhotiyas are also related to the Ngalop, the main ethno-linguistic group of Bhutan speaking Dzongka, as well as several dispersed groups in Nepal and adjacent areas of India including Tibetans proper, Sherpa and many others. Johari or Shauka, living in the Johar valley of Goriganga river in Munyasari Tehsil of the Pithorgaarh district. They are part of the larger Uttarakhand Bhotiy ethno-linguistic group, and one of the few of Uttarakhand tribes that show a rich cultural heritage and adhere to the caste system. Shaukas are followers of Hinduism and rely on the Hindu Brahmins

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to conduct religious ceremonies. Their main deity is Goddess Nanda Devi in Martoli and Milam. Tharu, a tribe of about 0.1 million people inhabiting Terai region in U.P. and extending to Nepal. It is said that Tharus are descendants of Rajputs who were evicted from Rajasthan by some invaders, however, some experts say that they cannot be placed in any other constellation of tribes and castes of the province, Indo-Aryan or Australoid. Also the Rajput origin is not supported on the basis of serology. Thus, it is concluded that the Tharus are a Mongoloid people, or predominantly so, who have successfully assimilated non-Mongoloid physical features as well. 2.3  INHABITATION IN THE HIMALAYA Every mountain slope is, from the anthropo-geographical standpoint, a complex phenomenon. It displays a whole range of cultural features/combinations—a variety of occupations from commercial cropping and agro processing to nomadic pastoralists, every degree of density from congestion to vacancy, every range of cultural development from industrialization to nomadism. The isolation bred by the high mountain ranges has helped nurture a multiplicity of tribes with unique cultures that include languages, social structures, and spiritual traditions. Each tribe also has its own arts and crafts (weaving, metal craft, architecture, music and dance) and certain invaluable traditional knowledge systems (ethnobotany, medicine). Some of the tribes predominant in this region of North East India and the neighboring the area of Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan, parts of West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh (North East India) etc. Only in Arunachal Pradesh itself there are over 80 tribes and sub-tribes of Indo-Mongoloid origin. Having acted as a natural and political barrier for centuries, the Himalayas have nurtured a number of communities, cultured and custom. The Hindu epics, talk about Kirates, Kinnars, Khasas and Darats, who were original inhabitants of the Himalayas. The inhabitant of Himalaya includes, Bhutiyas of Bhutan, Sikkimese from Sikkim consisting of three different groupsLepchas, Bhutias and Nepalese, Ladakhis from Ladakh and Himachalis of Himachal. Ethnic Spectra of central and western Himalaya differ conspicuously from that of north of north-eastern region. Cultural region indicates those areas that display relative consistency, homogeneity, and distinctiveness in inhabitants’ lifestyle, in that there are a greater number of shared cultural elements within the region, than between

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the region and others. The cultural complex of the Himalayas may be differentiated into multiple cultural regions. Cultural variation in the Himalayas is both vertical and lateral. While vertical variation predominantly flows from ecological factors, lateral variation in cultures is mediated by ethnicity and migration. 2.3.1  ECOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION The settlement patterns, occupations and ways of life of populations in the Himalayas are a reflection of human interaction with and adaptation to climate, relief and ecology. The key differentiator is that of livelihoods practiced and associated way of life. Guillet has analyzed the cultural patterns in mountain regions, with special reference to the Andes and the Himalayas, and drawn out what he calls the ‘cultural ecology of mountains’ to interpret these patterns. This comprises two major interpretive schemas: ‘approaches to organismic interaction in mountain environments’ and ‘production in mountain environments’. The nature of interactions in mountain environments comprises the interrelation of human and biological features including flora and fauna; occupation and strategies for control amongst cultures; utilization of vertical life zones for human exploitation. Production in mountain environments is a composite of response of populations and occupations to climate and altitude; the population’s strategies, spatial and temporal factors, and internal and external pressures influencing agricultural intensification. A majority of the people residing in the valleys and plateaus of the southern slopes of the Himalayan range are sedentary. Agriculture is the dominant occupation for most Himalayan communities, except for the people of very high altitudes and northern steppes who follow nomadic pastoralism. Different patterns of cultivation are however followed, depending on the nature of the terrain and soil in a particular Himalayan region. The foothills and the lower hills, by virtue of their rich, fertile soils, brought down by the Himalayan rivers, are relatively densely populated, and the predominant religion is Hinduism. The Greater and Trans Himalayas are by far more severe in terrain and climate. Populations in this region are therefore very sparse living in small communities widely dispersed across a vast, harsh terrain. Depending on the precise location and agro-climatic conditions, they are either sedentary, subsistence farmers or nomadic tent-dwelling

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pastoralists. The altitude-based occupational and associated cultural patterns in the Himalayas are as below: 2.3.2  NOMADIC PASTORALISM Nomadic pastoralism has been portrayed as one of the great advances in the evolution of mankind. It is an adaptation by people to grassland areas of the world where the raising of livestock is more supportive of human life than the growing of crops. People who specialize in livestock production requiring periodic movements of their herds are known as nomadic pastoralists, or, simply nomads. The survival of nomads on the Tibetan Plateau and Himalaya provides examples of nomadic practices that were once widespread throughout Asia and Africa, but are now increasingly hard to find. As such, these portraits of nomads offer a rare glimpse into a way of life that is rapidly vanishing. The lives of the nomads are tuned to the growth of the grass and the seasonal pulse of the grazing lands. The grasslands provide the theater in which the nomads and their animals interact to make a living. Over centuries, the nomads acquired complex knowledge about the environment in which they lived and upon which their lives depended, which enabled them to persist in one of the most inhospitable places on earth. But, they did more than just survive. The nomads created a unique, vibrant culture, about which, even today, so little is known. Nomads possess a great body of indigenous knowledge about the environment, in which they live, the animals they raise for a living, and the wildlife that is found in their environs. Over thousands of years, nomads in the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau acquire complex understanding about the environment in which they lived and upon which their lives depended. This was a major reason why they were able to persist in one of the most inhospitable places on earth. Unfortunately, nomads’ vast ecological knowledge and animal husbandry skills are often not well recognized by scientists and development planners. 2.3.3  NOMADISM AT HIGH ALTITUDES The arid lands on the northern flanks and the high altitude plateau of similar character in the southern side cannot support cultivation. A very small

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part of the rain-bearing winds can steal through the ranges that lie on their path to precipitate in these areas; even this is often unable to settle on the ground because of the winds that blow wild and unchecked on these flat tablelands. The little snow that does settle and provide moisture to the soil helps a soft downy grass grow in the summers. Hence the people of these regions adopted animal husbandry for their livelihoods, and follow a seasonal form of nomadism, moving with their families and herds (sheep, goats, yaks, camels) from one pastureland to the next during the summer, halting at one site just as long as its regeneration would not be affected by use, stocking up all the while for the barren, cold, but sedentary winters. These are large communities (by mountain standards) but dispersed over a vast terrain, with little contact amongst them. In the context of scarce rangeland resources, contact has often led to clashes over sharing of these scarce resources. The culture of the nomadic pastoralists that inhabit the very high altitudes therefore revolves around their herds, the produce from them (wool, milk) and the rangelands. 2.3.4  INHABITATION AT MID ALTITUDES These are sedentary zones with village settlements in valleys and slopes, where the soils are infinitely more productive and support a wide range of crops. The sub-tropical and temperate zones are good for vegetables and orchards and are not terribly distant from the markets, and hence cash-cropping and horticulture is practiced. Communities at higher altitudes even in these zones however, practice subsistence cultivation, supplemented by animal husbandry and trading. These mid-latitudes are more densely populated and along with the sedentary nature of life, this has helped the development of more elaborate social structures and cultural forms. 2.3.5  LOW ALTITUDES AND FOOTHILLS At the Himalayan foothills, communities plant the fertile alluvial lands with grain crops and use flooding with river waters for irrigation. In the eastern Himalayas, the much-maligned ‘slash and burn’ cultivation is followed, and in most other areas, Himalayan farmers painstakingly cut terraces into the uncompromising steep hillsides to plant them with one or two crops per year. Menfolk in remote Himalayan region flourished by nature. Just as some

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travel for herding, many others travel out of their valleys and across the ranges for selling their wares at lowland markets, buying at the same time, goods that they cannot access in the closed high altitude valleys. Sheep, Goat and Yak wool is main source of trading.

2.3.6 LANGUAGES In terms of its diversity of peoples and languages, the greater Himalayan region is the most complex. This remarkable landscape includes the highest land barrier on the face of the planet, and linguistic evidence shows that this has shaped and channeled population movements in the past. There are hundreds of different languages spoken along the length of the Himalayas. Most people speak languages belonging either to the Tibeto-Burman or Indo-European families, but there are also Austroasiatic, Dravidian, Daic and Altaic language communities settled in the mountain tracts, foothills and periphery of the Himalayas, and two language isolates, Burushaski and Kusunda. The Himalayan region is characterized by considerable linguistic diversity and multilingualism as well. “The Himalayan reaches of South Asia have been described as one of the ten biodiversity ‘mega centers’ of the world. But this diverse region is also home to almost 20% of all human languages, so the area should be thought of as a linguistic and cultural ‘mega center’ as well, and as a key site for the common heritage of all humanity.” Language communities of the Himalayas include the Indo-European language family, the Dravidian language family, the Tibeto-Burman language family, the Austro-Asiatic language family, as well as some language isolates. A study has listed as many as 51 languages in the Himalayan region, in the western and central regions, predominantly of the Indo-Aryan group in the eastern, predominantly of the Tibeto-Burman group. The languages of the rituals (Sanskrit, Tibetan) are usually well developed and documented, and some of the more widely used languages such as Nepali, Burmese, etc., also have detailed dictionaries. Classical literature is available in the language of the rituals, and neo-classical and modern literature in the more dominant languages in use. Long contact between the different languages have also caused linguistic borrowing and change and the languages as they exist today and the literature of the current times is a reflection of the migration patterns, patterns of dominance-submission among communities, social structures

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and trade relations. Barām, Black Mountain Mönpa, Bhutan, Bumthang, Byangsi, Chamling, Choyo, Dhimal, Dumi, Dzongkha, Gongduk, Guìqióng, Hayu, Indian, Jero, Kulung, Lepcha, Lhokpu, Limbu, Lohorung, Manchad, Mangde, Nàmùyì, Nepal, Pakistan, Sampang, Sinhalese, Sulung, Sunwar, Thadou, Thangmi, Tibet, Trung, Tshangla, Tosu, Toto, Wambule, Yamphu and Zaiwa are most of the languages spoke in the Himalayas. 2.3.7  LIFESTYLE AND NATURE A majority of the people residing in the valleys and plateaus of the southern slopes are sedentary. The foothills and the lower hills, by virtue of their rich, fertile soils, brought down by the Himalayan rivers, are relatively densely populated, and the predominant religion is Hinduism. The Greater and Trans Himalayas are by far more severe in terrain and climate. Populations in this region are therefore very sparse living in small communities widely dispersed across a vast, harsh terrain. Depending on the precise location and agro-climatic conditions, they are either sedentary, subsistence farmers or nomadic tent-dwelling pastoralists prevailing in the lap of Himalaya. Since fording the high mountain ranges that separated the Himalayan valleys was possible only at great risk to life, each valley and each distinct community developed its own socio-cultural solutions to the challenges of life, virtually cut-off from the rest of the world. Yet, the common geographical factors helped shape cultures that were highly akin one to another. One and all, the people of the Himalayas worship the mountains as their preserver and protector and life-giver. All communities are strongly religious, nature-dependent and clannish; except for inhabitants of the arid wilderness on the northern flanks and the dense forests of the eastern ranges, where the people are fierce and warrior-like – they successfully rebuffed the British armies during the Raj era – the Himalayan people are essentially peaceloving. The Himalayas also boast of a rich tapestry of traditional knowledge, spanning domains, such as architecture, medicine and agro-forestry that reflect the particular ecological conditions of the region. One positive result of the physical isolation of the region has been the near intact preservation of centuries old knowledge base. Society in the higher altitudes is quite liberal albeit male dominated; lower Himalayas has a more conservative society. Mountain women carry out all sedentary activities including farming, gathering fodder and Fuel wood, etc., while men manage herds and carry out trading activities.

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2.3.8 RELIGION All communities are deeply spiritual and strongly religious. The religious institutions hold great importance in the lives of the people: such as the Hemis monastery in Leh, the Tashigong Monastery in Pooh, Kinnaur and the Tabo monastery in Spiti. Apart from institutionalized religious practices, tribal practices that are mostly animistic and characteristic of nature worship are prevalent in most parts of the Himalayas. Thus, most communities have myths and legends where the gods and goddesses of the rivers and mountains play out epic tales that are narrated till today. 2.3.9  NATURE CONNECTIVITY To claim that this feature is unique only to the tribal populations of the mountains would be grossly unfair to their counter parts in the plains. But the geographical isolation of the mountains makes this a rather striking feature of the people living within them. One and all, the people of the Himalayas worship the mountains as their preserver and protector and life-giver. Nature and its relationship with the human are intrinsic in all the systems and institutions governing the functioning a particular community. Natural resources are looked upon as living entities interacting with the human and animal population. Forests, trees, rivers, mountains and lakes are worshipped. Religion and medicine is centered on nature and its practice aided with natural resources. Traditional livelihood practices of agriculture or pastoralism are also mostly in sync with the cycle of death and rejuvenation in nature. 2.3.10  RICH TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE The Himalayas also boast of a rich tapestry of traditional knowledge, spanning domains, such as architecture, medicine and agro-forestry that reflect the particular ecological conditions of the region. One positive result of the physical isolation of the region has been the near intact preservation of this centuries old knowledge base. 2.3.11  BIODIVERSITY IN SACRED CLIFFS Cliffs are completely forgotten cultural landscape elements that support a variety of species of plants and animals in India. As humans have special

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fascinations to such areas often cliffs across the country are considered sacred. Cliffs elsewhere have been found to support undisturbed ancient woodland, dominated by tiny, slow-growing and widely spaced trees. Vertical cliffs often support populations of widely spaced trees that are exceptionally old, deformed and slow growing. Some of the most ancient and least-disturbed wooded habitats on Earth are found on cliffs, even if such sites are close to intensive agricultural and industrial development. The age of the trees on cliffs may indicate the age and growth rates of the entire plant communities on the cliffs. Cliffs across the world may support ancient, slow-growing, open woodland communities that have escaped major human disturbance, even when they are situated close to agricultural and industrial activity, which has destroyed or altered most other natural habitats (Peterken, 1996). Examples of such habitat in India abound. Cliffs in Udaipur and Kota districts of Rajasthan were surveyed (7 cliff with ancient vegetation). Cliffs were found to have more than 25 species of trees, several species of shrubs and herbs. Areas close to Bhopal have more than 50 cliffs in central India in a radius of about 100 kms. All the 7 cliffs surveyed in Rajasthan are sacred. They are often part of the sacred corridors along the riverbank escarpment with several meters of precipitous fall. Attempts have been made to regenerate the Gaipernath Cliff with the traditional species occurring in the area (Lannea coromandelica, Boswellia serrata, Sterculia urens, etc. about 25 species). The result was very poor initially. But local ethnoforestry techniques of tucking the branch cuttings of coppicing species in whatever little crevices area may have were successful. Also, depositing the seeds (same species that occur) in crevices with the ball of moist earth has been found promising. 2.3.12 SOCIALABILITY Himalayan people are highly clannish. While the Hindu and Islamic societies are very hierarchical, the Mongoloids have several distinct groups based on territory, language and tribal customs. Himalayan women usually enjoy a much greater level of freedom than in other parts of the peninsula. They participate equally with the men in agricultural practices and in cultural activities, and there is no seclusion of women as is seen in the plains of India. Society in the higher altitudes is quite liberal albeit male dominated; lower Himalayas has a more conservative society. Mountain women carry out all sedentary activities including farming, gathering fodder and Fuel wood, etc., while men manage herds and carry out trading activities.

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2.3.13  ETHNIC ART The Himalayan communities have a wealth of traditional art forms and crafts, that include Thangka painting, wood carving, carpet weaving, and traditional music and dances. These art and craft forms follow a distinct Himalayan style that is indigenous to the Himalayas, characterized by Tibetan, Nepali and Kashmiri religious cultures and span the areas under the sway of these particular cultures. Himalayan style art is generally religiousesthetic in nature, and comprises the iconography, composition, symbols and motifs drawn from the forms of religions of Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. Crafts of the Himalayan region are in keeping with the available resources, climatic conditions and terrain of the Himalayas. The seclusion of the region and the long periods of hibernation during the severe winters allows considerable time for crafts work. Most crafts also serve certain functions, for clothing, food, and various social, cultural and spiritual traditions, and the isolation of the Himalayan worlds has necessitated self-reliance in their production. Many Himalayan communities therefore developed superior craftsmanship- in bamboo and wood carving, silver and gold articles, weaving of shawls, carpets and rugs. As with other aspects, geography, geology and climate, apart from lifestyle and esthetic considerations, play a big role in the architectural styles that have evolved in the Himalayan region. The flat-roofed, earthen structures of the western Himalayas and the higher altitudes characterized by low precipitation, the timber and stone constructions of the mid-altitude ranges in the central and eastern Himalayas, are attuned to the materials, the climate, as well as the religio-esthetic and lifestyle considerations of the region. While the material differs – construction tends to follow a distinctive style across the Himalayan belt. All housing is typically of two stories, the lower floor being used for storage and cattle, and the upper floor for living. It is also important to note that there have been migrations into the Himalayas from very early times for various reasons, to gain strategic access to the great Indian plains, to establish ownership on Himalayan kingdoms or even to satisfy one’s requirement for spiritual quest. All these factors combined over a period of time to change significantly the complexion of the local populace. There have been waves of migration from Nepal to Sikkim and Kumaon, for instance, and from Tibet, as a result of which, it is extremely difficult to separate the different racial strains. Population movement is a continuing

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phenomenon in the Himalayas and hence its current character too is in flux. People from the plains move seasonally into the mountains and those from the higher altitudes move to lower altitudes during summers; those from the northern flanks keep migrating in waves to the southern slopes. 2.4  RISKS TO HIMALAYAN CULTURES The high mountain ranges result in physical isolation of the communities that inhabit this region and restrict movement and communication, factors that have led to the maintenance of the cultural sovereignty of the Himalayan people. With increasing connectivity, this is fast eroding however. A world in transition, the mountains lie at the cross roads, sometimes taking advantage of the change that is fast enveloping and same time clinging to its uniqueness, its heritage. As every small town in these mountains looks forward towards more shopping malls, more English schools and fast food joints, the ancient culture of every hill and mountain is stared at by every person, be it a second generation ‘pahari,’ a policy maker or a development practitioner, as something that needs to be preserved, because it yet has not been understood and because there is so much more yet to learn from it. Ecological degradation due to such anthropogenic activities is the main danger these days. 2.4.1  MELTING GLACIERS AND BURSTING LAKES Climate change is the most challenging environmental crisis in the present 21st century world. Human activities like excessive use of fossil fuels and land use change (deforestation and forest degradation) are fueling the global warming process. Non-linear changes in the natural system and species extinction have been increasing as a result of anthropogenic influence on the global climate. The snowball effect of the greenhouse gas emission is fueling the global warming, has severe impact on the existing ecosystem. Glaciers are sensitive to the climate change and several studies have shown that the worldwide glacier cover has declined significantly as a result of increasing temperature. Glacial cycles are mainly affected by the localized cooling and warming, during which glaciers advance and retreat (WWFNepal, 2005). The Himalayan Glaciers have been declining over at least the past 150 years (Wake, 2000) and increased in temperature, i.e., 1°C over the

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past two decades (Hasnain, 2000) in the Himalayan region, is accelerating the rate of glaciers melting significantly. There are several evidences of the glaciers melting, for instance the Khumbu Glacier has receded over 5 km since the first climb of Mt. Everest in 1953 (WWF-Nepal, 2005). The rate of melting does not only influenced by the changing climate but also affected by the size and aspect of the glaciers. Smaller glaciers fragment and melt faster than the bigger ones, and those facing south are also receding more quickly (BBC, 2005). So, chance of disappearing small glaciers and disturbance in their ecosystem is very high. In addition, the glaciers receding also influenced the resizing of glacial lakes and formation of the new lakes. Moreover, warming up does not only melt the glaciers, but also reduce the ice formation process. 2.4.2  CULTURAL DEPLETION Mountain regions had developed a rich base of indigenous traditional knowledge that is being rapidly eroded under the forces of modernization, as new methods/sciences make inroads and local value and promotion of ITK declines. The mountain ITK systems themselves – socio-political, education, environmental conservation, medicine, religious practices, etc. – lack recognition among the mainstream. Although ‘visible’ as exotic, for touristic purposes, they are ‘invisible’ and appear to lack credibility enough to be recognized at par with mainstream systems. This has in turn has led to the erosion of many traditional agricultural, medicine, food, education systems and knowledge and loss of many languages, under the onslaught of external influences after the exposure of these regions to wider population and influences. For example, the Lepchas in North Sikkim are now labeled as the ‘Vanishing Tribe’ because their indigenous systems of medicine, art, culture, livelihood practices, language, etc. are fast eroding as they have been pushed to the peripheries of their own lands in Sikkim and Darjeeling. In Dzongu, the Lepcha Reserve in North Sikkim which is also the last bastion of this vast dwindling tribe, there are only a handful of traditional medicinal experts called Bongthings. 2.4.3  MEDICINAL PRACTICES Medicinal practices carried out by the ethnic peoples are appreciated all over world. Mainstream medical practice questions the validity of traditional systems of healing of the Himalayas and although efforts are being made to

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preserve the knowledge in these practices, it still is in the danger of being appropriated for commercial use. The spread of many cultural forms (language, arts and crafts) to new generations has not continued, and they have also not evolved to modern lifestyles and needs, hence leading to declining use and endangerment of traditional cultural forms. The multilingualism practiced in the Himalayas is also a cause for the death of many Himalayan languages. The language of the rituals (Sanskrit, Tibetan) tends to survive, although primarily as a script, while more dominant languages of neighboring areas are adopted for regular use. 2.4.4 PARADIGMS The knowledge base on Himalayan ecology and environment has evolved over the years. The enrichment has been, and hopefully will continue to be, interdisciplinary and multidimensional. And the studies that are being undertaken in recent years have, to a large extent been driven by contemporary areas of concern, be it, nutrient dynamics, carbon sequestration, climate change, ecosystem services, etc. The mountains and its people have so far been either totally neglected from what was proposed to be a ‘democratic’ process of development or were taken for granted as top-down, homogenized processes of development were thrust on them. The development paradigm promoted in the Himalayas as elsewhere in the world, has been based on the Unilinear Theory of Cultural Evolution which perceives the western way of life as the ideal. The living systems of medicine, nature worship, barter, agriculture, etc. which is mostly based on subsistence needs and a symbiotic relationship with nature is threatened by a developmental policy that is based on a western economic model of growth sustaining itself on the rapid exploitation of all human and natural resources. Although most of the communities in the mountainous regions have their own unique traditional systems and institutions of education, medicine, and religion, larger development has been almost blind to these. This is despite the fact that research has clearly indicated the value of these traditional systems and local cultural forms. For instance, ‘Years of research have shown that children who begin their education in their mother tongue make a better start, and continue to perform better, than those for whom school starts with a new language. The same applies to adults seeking to become literate’ (UNESCO, 2003). Development, as is characterized mostly in terms of western concepts of societal relationships or the human nature interface have had a substantial effect in dramatically changing the existing institutional structures

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traditionally existing within mountainous communities. It is changing values and behaviors, and younger generations in particular, are forsaking their traditional culture to adopt mainstream cultures that they perceive to have significant economic and social benefits. The Himalayas have been shaken with examples of development projects like hydropower dams, limestone mines and roads usurping right of communities over sacred landscape and seriously endangering not only culture but basic livelihood and survival. This has led to the sudden loss of an entire resource base, owing to a majority of development projects in these mountains, uprooting people physically and culturally. Sadly, the developmental process consisting of an Environmental Impact Assessment does not take into account social and cultural costs of a developmental project. Therefore, local peoples’ concerns regarding marginalization, the need to preserve landscapes for religious and spiritual beliefs, do not find value in the cost benefit analysis of neither the project proponents nor the Government. Lack of information regarding global and national policy changes makes mountain communities vulnerable to global threats like that of biopiracy. International regime favors a system of patents and individual rights, a practice that is diametrically opposite to the mountain culture of sharing knowledge and resource. Recent legislation like the Biological Diversity Act of India, the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, etc., which seek to protect the rights of these communities over their resource and knowledge need to also develop mechanisms to protect this very culture of use of these resources, the wisdom and of sharing and community ownership.

2.5  CULTURAL PROTECTION AND PROMOTION 2.5.1  GOVERNMENT EFFORTS 2.5.1.1  Ministry of Culture Culture plays an important role in the development agenda of any nation. It represents a set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices. Culture and creativity manifest themselves in almost all economic, social and other activities. A country as diverse as India is symbolized by the plurality of its culture. The mandate of the Ministry of Culture revolves around the functions

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like preservation and conservation of our cultural heritage and promotion of all forms of art and culture, both tangible and intangible. The Ministry’s task is to develop and sustain ways and means through which the creative and esthetic sensibilities of the people remain active and dynamic. The functional spectrum of this Ministry is wide, ranging from generating cultural awareness at grassroots level to promoting cultural exchanges at international level. In order to achieve these objectives, the Ministry undertakes various activities that flow from subjects allocated under the Government of India’s Allocation of Business Rules. 2.5.1.2  Government Policies Government policies towards the tribes in the Himalayan foothills have to some extent, led to the tribes maintaining their traditional lifestyle. Historically, the political status granted to the Himalayan tribes was always distinct from the rest of India. These communities had not been controlled by any of the empires that had a stronghold in larger India, and the region was populated by autonomous feuding tribes. During British colonialism, efforts were made to protect the sensitive northeast frontier, followed a policy called the “Inner Line”, where non tribal people were allowed into the tribal areas only with special permission. Post independence governments have continued this policy of protecting the Himalayan tribes as part of the strategy to secure the border with China. This policy has generally saved the northern tribes from the kind of exploitation that those elsewhere in South India have suffered. In Arunachal Pradesh, for instance, tribal members control commerce and most lower-level administrative posts. Government construction projects in the region have provided tribes with a significant source of cash and access into wider society. Some tribes have made rapid progress through the education system. 2.5.2  PRESERVATION OF LANGUAGE AND OTHER INTANGIBLE CULTURAL FORMS The biggest impediment that the preservation of intangible cultural forms faces is the fact that the erosion of these forms is very difficult to determine. The need for preservation is often felt too late. Multilingualism for instance gradually leads to the indigenous language lying in disuse.

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2.5.3  AVENUES FOR PRACTICE Recognizing this, most State policies and programs aimed at the preservation of intangible cultures, such as language and music, aim to provide avenues for continuing use of these intangible cultural forms. Competitions, festivals, awards, etc., are orchestrated events that enable the display/practice of the cultural forms. Some examples of local cultural festivals in the Himalayan region that are helping to revive/continue the use of cultural forms, are as follows: 2.5.4  FAIRS AND FUNCTIONS 2.5.4.1  The Hemis Festival The courtyard of HemisGompa – the biggest Buddhist monastery in Ladakh is the stage for the famous ‘Hemis’ festival that celebrates the birth anniversary of Guru Padmasambhava. The colorful two-day pageant falls on the 10th day (Tse-Chu) of the Tibetan lunar month. 2.5.4.2  The Darjeeling Carnival Initiated very recently, the Carnival provides a platform to showcase the wide cultural diversity in the small district of Darjeeling. It is held mainly in the month of October every year. Traditional knowledge systems, particularly of medicine, that are being eroded under the force of modern systems, need to be addressed likewise through modes that promote their practice and use. Traditional medicine clinics are set up, and camps are held to promote traditional healthcare. The Govt. of India has several schemes for the revitalization, promotion, and even professionalization of these traditional systems of medicine, towards adapting them to modern-day user requirements. 2.5.5  RESEARCH, DOCUMENTATION AND DISSEMINATION Various methods of documentation, publication and dissemination are also used, and serve to preserve as well as maintain the use of these cultural forms. Digital forms of documentation, e-dissemination and media

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broadcasts are the primary modes. Thus, endangered language dictionaries, traditional pharmacopeia, music and dance recordings, are ways to document and preserve. Extensive, rigorous research however needs to precede this. Some examples of work in progress on documentation of intangible heritage include: • The Himalayan Languages project: This is the largest language documentation initiative that has covered parts of the Asian heartland: India, China, Bhutan and Nepal, for over 15 years. Comprehensive linguistic descriptions of endangered and threatened languages of the Himalayan region have been published by the members of the multinational research team of young investigators. These languages hold the key to the history and culture of the Himalayas and help to interpret archaeological records and trace the population movements in the past. • Digital Himalaya: This project seeks to digitize select information material with respect to the Himalayas. • Traditional Knowledge Digital Library is a collection of the traditional pharmacopeia of India.

2.5.6  PRESERVATION OF MONUMENTS AND MATERIAL CULTURAL FORMS Preservation of material, tangible cultural forms is by far more easy than of the intangible. Architectural heritage has known methods and regulations and processes as well, for their preservation, preservation of other material forms too, such as paintings and various material artifacts, have well-developed scientific methods.

2.5.7  CONSERVATION OF MATERIAL CULTURE Degradation is however, can only be controlled to an extent to extend the life of the artifacts. There are aims of conservation- to slow the process of natural decay, and to remove the parts that have already been spoilt. Both preventive conservation (taking steps in advance to slow the degradation of products), and curative conservation (redress degradation that has already occurred) are undertaken. A few conservation efforts of Himalayan heritage buildings have been undertaken, both at community and at State/institutional level.

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• The Nako monastery in Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh) is being restored by the local community with inputs and expertise from the School of Planning and Architecture. The project was initiated by Vienna University. • The Kham Aid Foundation is restoring several monasteries and their murals and paintings in Tibet. Given below are some Best Practices at Conserving Cultural Heritage Buildings. • Adopt a Monument Scheme, This is an innovative package which allows corporate houses, nongovernmental organizations and individuals owning monuments to sponsor conservation work of fragile monuments. 2.5.8  CONSERVATION FOCUS Recognition of a material heritage as worthy of preservation is frequently half the battle. The State and other multilateral bodies have therefore multiple mechanisms to determine and declare the preservation-worthiness of sites/monuments, etc. Both natural and cultural heritage sites would qualify to be covered under material heritage and hence are covered by the World Heritage List, which assures those listed a degree of specific preservation attention. Thus, in 1999, the UNESCO and the World Heritage Committee inscribed the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (popularly called the Toy Train) on the list of World Heritage Sites. 2.5.9  DOCUMENTATION OF RELATED TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE Documentation is a great tool for preserving the knowledge that underlies the particular material objects that are under threat. The Tibetan Architecture Documentation Centre, for instance, seeks to preserve, document, disseminate and encourage the natural development of the architecture of ancient Tibet. 2.5.10 ECO-MUSEUMS In the contemporary world, cultural traditions are disappearing as the drive towards cultural globalization and homogenization seems relentless. Facing these problems, museums need to make a statement to not only “collect

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artifacts and document lifeways before those cultures or memories of them disappear. The greater goal is for museums to play a role in the conservation of those cultures, to actually help those cultures survive in the contemporary world” (Kurin, 1991). The term Ecomuseum refers especially to a new idea of holistic interpretation of cultural heritage, in opposition to the focus on specific items and objects, performed by traditional museums. The idea is gaining ground especially in relevance to the increasing need to preserve the vanishing cultures around the world, the human equivalent to endangered species and to combat the possibility of a monoculture of the human race. It involves, as mentioned above, a holistic interpretation of cultural heritage as intrinsically linked to culture, people and the environment. Most ecomuseums, therefore, follow a community based, ‘bottom-up’ planning and management structure and offer to the visitor a one window approach to the variant aspects of a particular region, its culture and people. Examples of Ecomuseums: Ha Long Bay, Vietnam: a demonstration project of the UNESCO and facilitated by Vietnam, it is located on the World Heritage Area of the Ha Long Bay, which is also referred to as the microcosm of Vietnam. It is based on the principle of ‘appropriate heritage interpretation’ and aims to achieve ‘a balance between area-centered and people-centered approaches to environment and cultural conservation’. “The Ecomuseum concept views the entire Bay as a living museum… An important feature of this approach is that it views human activity, past and present, as fundamental components of the total environmental resource. The culture, history, traditions and activities of the human population on and around the Bay are as much a part of the heritage as the caves and plants on the island and are in continuous interaction with it.” (Galla, 2002). Belize: The Ecomuseum is reflective of the dynamic relationship between the Belizean culture and the environment it evolves in. The ecomuseum features exhibitions that include several of Belize’s important tropical treasures, nature artistries, butterfly corridor and Belize stone collection. 2.5.11  CULTURE BASED ENTERPRISES Cultural industries have evolved as a measure for the promotion of products and services based on the creative acumen, and have also helped in the continuation of traditional cultural skills. Traditional arts and crafts may be commercialized, and the economic motive would provide cultural actors of these traditional cultural forms with a new lease of life. Frequently this

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would require the traditional product/service to mutate in form. Marketability might call for a degree of modification to adapt the products/services to new user requirements and preferences. The traditional purpose, often social or spiritual, would also, naturally be overlaid by commercial considerations. The essential skills involved however, tend to survive this route. 2.5.12  PATENTING UNIQUENESS Local and regional communities are fast catching up on the international trade fundas, like for example Kullu shawls being now protected under the Geographical Indications Act and Kinnaur is pushing the same for Kinnauri shawls. The irony here is whether this exclusive protection mechanism focused on economic benefit and trade and dangerously moving towards exclusivity, will in future mar the hitherto simple, intangible culture based on common sharing and benefit. 2.6  INITIATIVES FOR PRESERVATION AND PROMOTION OF HIMALAYAN CULTURES 2.6.1  CONCERN OVER TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE Traditional knowledge is being exploited at an alarming rate by the modern herbal medicine, pharmaceutical, food, perfume, and cosmetics industries. Indigenous and local people are increasingly becoming victims of piracy (illicit bioprospecting). The concern is that patents are being granted for non-original inventions that are directly or indirectly based on traditional knowledge and therefore do not meet the fundamental requirements for patentability. The wound healing properties of turmeric and the pesticidal properties of neem were both patented in two of the most notorious patent cases (the Turmeric Patent and Neem Patent) in which the legal patent system failed to recognize, or search for, prior rights over such ‘inventions’. These patents were based on the biological resources and associated traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous communities in the Indian subcontinent and the Amazon, which were obtained without respect for indigenous peoples’ rights over their resources, intellectual efforts, and developments. The holders of traditional knowledge need to establish their rights over such knowledge to ensure that they reap the benefits of their cultural discoveries and products and receive compensation for their investment in generating, holding, and promoting this knowledge for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

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Unfortunately, modern intellectual property rights (IPR) law is based on the notion of individual property ownership, which is an alien concept to many indigenous and local communities in the Himalayan region. Such laws favor corporate agencies and individual creators of innovations/products. Traditional knowledge is dynamic and is usually the combined effort of many community members and evolves over time; hence, it is not easy to identify the creator. Global IPR regimes as well as national IPR laws need to be amended to ensure the protection of traditional knowledge holders and to recognize and reward indigenous and local communities for their intellect and creativity. This would encourage further invention and maintain biodiversity in situ. To conserve the ethnic knowledge of the Himalaya some initiatives needs to be implemented which includes documentation of cultural assets; building community capacity for culture management; sustainable community-based interventions aimed at culture preservation and development; museum and Botanical Gardens; community museum; museums as heritage interpretation centers; community museums in the Himalayas; cultural industries for the high altitude. 2.7 CONCLUSION The modern time of urbanization, globalization, inclusive development in a multicultural society can only be possible through the understanding of the uniqueness of every culture. This understanding then needs to be translated into support to strengthen the community on the same grounds as it belongs and to allow its development to take place through informed choice buttressed by a belief and pride in its own heritage and understanding and respect for new/other. Indian Traditional Knowledge is the secret key to protect cultural heritage of the Himalaya and protect it from dispassion. KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• •• ••

culture ethnic diversity Himalaya Indian traditional knowledge languages nomads

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REFERENCES 1. Banerji, G., & Pragnya, M. F. (2016). Protection of Cultural diversity in the Himalayas. A background paper for a workshop on addressing regional disparities: Inclusive and Culturally attuned development for the Himalayas. http://www.pragya.org/doc/ Cultural-diversity.pdf. Accessed on 17th June 2016. 2. BBC. (2005). Himalayan Glaciers Melting Fast. [Updated 14 March, 2005; cited 29 October 2007]. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4346211.stm 3. Gadgil, M., Berkes, F., & Folke, C. (1993). Indigenous knowledge for biodiversity conservation. Ambio. 22, 151–156. 4. Galla, A. (2002). Culture and Heritage in Development: Ha Long Eco museum, A Case Study from Vietnam. Humanities Research 9(1), 1–13. 5. Hasnain, S. I. (2000). Status of the Glacier Research in the HKH region. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal. 6. Jain, S. K., & Sharma, P. P. (2000). A review of the parallel or unique indigenous uses of 25 plants in India and some African countries. Ethnobotany, 12, 51–55. 7. Kurin, R. (1991). Cultural conservation through representation: Festival of India folklife exhibitions at the Smithsonian Institution. In: Karp, I., & Lavine, S. D. (eds.). Exhibiting cultures: The poetics and politics of museum display. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London. 8. Peterson, R. D. (1996). Extremely disadvantaged neighborhoods and urban clime. Social Forces, 75(2), 619616. 9. Sahoo, A. K., Pal, D. C., & Goel, A. K. (2013). A Glimpse of the tribal and ethnobotanical diversity in India. Ethnobotany 25, 47–55. 10. UNESCO, meeting in Paris, 29 Sept.–17 Oct., 2003, at its 32nd session. 11. WWF-Nepal. (2005). An Overview of Glaciers, Glacial Retreat and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and China. WWF. pp. 1–2. 12. Wake, C. (2000). Himalayan Glaciers and Climate Change. Trekking and Climbing In Nepal: 25 Adventure Treks in The Mighty Himalaya. New Holland, London. pp. 140–141. 13. http://www.gisdevelopment.net/aars/acrs/2002/env/236.pdf 14. http://www.museumsnett.no/alias/HJEMMESIDE/icme/icme2003/kredler.html 15. http://www.isec.org.uk/articles/breaking.html 16. http://www.hinduonnet.com/folio/fo0105/01050140.htm 17. http://www.grain.org/seedling/?id=393 18. http://www.accu.or.jp/ich/en/training/country_report_pdf/08_09/country_report_india.pdf 19. http://www.banffcenter.ca/mountainculture/newsletter/pdf/peak_march03.pdf 20. http://www.le.ac.uk/ge/maj4/himalayas.html 21. http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/projectteam/turin/downloads/Jetwork_languages.pdf 22. http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/hjs/pdf/HJS_04_06.pdf 12

CHAPTER 3

ETHNIC FOOD PLANTS AND ETHNIC FOOD PREPARATION IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL HIMALAYAS BASANT BALLABH1 and T. PULLAIAH2 Defence Institute of Bio-Energy Research, Defence Research and Development Organization, Goraparao, Haldwani, Uttarakhand, India, E-mail: [email protected]

1

Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur – 515003, A.P., India, E-mail: [email protected]

2

CONTENTS Abstract........................................................................................................40 3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................40 3.2  Review of Literature...........................................................................41 3.3  Ethnic Food Plants and Uses...............................................................47 3.4  Ethnic Food and Food Preparation.....................................................49 3.5 Discussion.........................................................................................106 3.6 Conclusion........................................................................................108 Keywords...................................................................................................108 References..................................................................................................109

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ABSTRACT The review of ethnic food plants and ethnic food preparation in western and central Himalaya revealed a wide range of variability in ethnic foods made of cereals, pulses, milk, tubers and vegetables. Some of the famous dishes include Bhaturu, Babru, Beduan roti, Bhruni ki sabji, Chaulai ka halwa, Chamchuda, Chhoi/Chhabua, Gahat ki dal, Joula/Bhatia, Kaddu ka halwa, Kanaka, Kauni ki kheer, Leta/Lapsi, Madira/Jhangora ki kheer, Madra, Mithdoo, Meetha bhat, Methi ke laddu, Puwe, Seera, Sepubari, Kadi, Lasurae ki sabji, Patrode, Thukpa, Tantur, Khura, Kholak, Paba, Gur-gur chai, Chhang, etc. In addition to these conventional foods locals use many types of non-cultivated fruits and vegetables to supplement their diet. Simple indigenous methods are employed for processing and preparing the foods. The ethnic foods and many special ethnic food preparation in the Western and Central Himalaya not only exhibit a treasure of food heritage but it is an integral component of the region as some of the foods are specially prepared during marriages, local festivals and special occasions. The Western and Central Himalaya has rich diversity of ethnic food plants a total of 647 wild and cultivated species reported by various workers have been enlisted in this chapter with their edible potential. Majority of ethnic food, vegetables, fruits and beverages have been covered. 3.1 INTRODUCTION Since ancient time plants have always been elementary source for various daily needs of human beings and livestock. India is the country of diverse religion, languages and traditions where large numbers of tribal communities live in remote areas and forests. The evidence of man’s dependency on plants for his survival can be demonstrated by palaeo-ethnobotanical findings from prehistoric archaeological sites (Renfrew, 1963; Smith, 1986). The Indian Himalaya is abode for many tribal communities and a great wealth of wild edible plants and traditional inherent knowledge to use it. About 1000 species are consumed as food plants in India chiefly by its 53 million natives or tribal communities under 227 ethnic groups covering about 18.74% of the total area under varied geographical and climatic zones of over 5,000 villages in the forests (Singh and Arora, 1978), constituting about 7.7% of India’s population (Sinha, 1996). 675 edibles are known to occur in

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Indian Himalayas (Samant and Dhar, 1997), based on the plant parts eaten. Diversity comprises of roots/tubers 145 sp., leafy vegetables 521 sp., buds/ flowers 101 sp., fruits 647 sp., and seeds/nuts 16 sp. (Anonymous, 1994). The ethnic food plants are distributed throughout the Western and Central Himalayan zone but are location/altitude specific such as tree species occupies tropics or sub-tropics shrubs and small herbs represents higher alpine zone of the region. Arabidopsis himalaica, Rhodiola heterodonta, R. imbricata and Sedum ewersii found in high snow peaks of mountains; Capparis spinosa grows in dry sandy places at certain particular locations; Dactylorhiza hatagirea grows commonly in marshy lands; Rheum webbianum, Codonopsis clematedia and C. ovata found in the valleys.. Majority of wild food plants were utilized since a long time however, certain old and newly cultivated species also found place in ethnic food and their food preparations. Brassica campastris, Coriandrum sativum, Daucus carota, Raphanus sativus, Solanum tuberosum were found to be used since ancient time. The traditional meal of Western and Central Himalaya is the usually boiled rice, roti/chapati, dish of vegetable (sabzi) and a dal (pulse local/ other). Special food preparations have been developed for ceremonial occasions as well as for pediatric and other dietary purposes. The natives of Western and Central Himalaya are consuming these dishes since centuries which form a part of sociocultural life of these ethnic societies. At present due to urbanization and modernization in food habits these age-old traditional preparations are on the verge of disappearance. Thus, an effort has been made to compile some of the important recipes from the everlasting list of dishes prepared in this zone under the present chapter. 3.2  REVIEW OF LITERATURE Many ethnobotanists reported edible plants, ethnic food and ethnic food preparation in the western and central Himalayan region which is given as under: Abrol and Chopra (1962) investigated some vegetable resources of Ladakh. Gupta (1962) gave an account of some unusual and interesting food plants of the Garhwal Himalayas. Sarin (1967) listed 24 vegetable materials of Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh. Gaur (1977) conducted a study on wild edible fruits of Garhwal hills. Some wild edible fruit plants

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of Kumaon hills were given by Pangtey (1980). Details of unusual and supplemented wild food plants of Kumaun were given by Pangtey et al. (1982). Gaur and Semwal (1983) studied some little known wild edibles of Garhwal Himalaya. Kaul et al. (1985) conducted an ethnobotanical study on conservation of wild food plants of Ladakh in North-West and Trans Himalaya. Negi (1986) submitted PhD thesis on Ethnobotanical Survey of Wild Edible plants of Garhwal Himalaya. Some little known wild edible plants of U.P. hills were also studied by Negi (1988). Kaul et al. (1987) studied some traditional tea substitute from Jammu & Kashmir state. Pande and Pangtey (1987) have given the details of some less known edible and economic ferns of Kumaon regions in Western Himalaya. Paliwal and Badoni (1988) have listed the edible uses of 124 different plant species used as food. Srivastava (1988) conducted an ethno-botanical exploration of Jammu and Kashmir State, the authors gathered information from the primitive society, Gujar, Bakarwala and other inhabitants living in far-flung areas and documented 109 species of the wild edible plants, being used by them for food in various ways. Traditional beverages and their importance in the folk life of Bhotiyas in Uttarakhand Himalayas were given by Bhatt and Silas (1989). Wild edible plants and their nutritional profile were studied by Navchoo and Buth (1990) and reported 52 plant species, both wild and cultivated, with their uses. Negi and Gaur (1991a, b, 1994) described the wild edible fruits, wild Allium species used as food and wild food plants of Uttarakhand. Dhyani and Khali (1993) presented fruit yield and economics of jelly and jam production from some promising Ficus fruits. Negi and Gaur (1994) investigated principal wild food plants of western Himalaya Uttar Pradesh. Biochemical investigation of some common wild fruits in Garhwal Himalaya was given by Rawat et al. (1994). Singh (1996) conducted a study on wild edible plants of Mandi district in North-West Himalaya. Pundir and Singh (1997a, b, 1998a, b, c, d, 1999a, b, c) listed 137 wild food plants of Jaunsar-Bawar in Uttaranchal. Samant and Dhar (1997) provided an inventory of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya used by local communities. More than 675 wild plant species belonging to 384 genera and 149 families were found to be used as food/edible. Various parts of these plants were either consumed raw, roasted, boiled, fried, cooked or in the form of oil, spice, seasoning material, jams, pickles, etc. The Western Himalaya shows the highest diversity (50.96%) of edible plants however the Eastern Himalaya has the maximum number of endemics (18 taxa) and wild relatives of economic plants

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(39 taxa). Singh (1997) has made a survey on wild edible plants of Zanskar valley. Balodi and Rao (1998) studied some wild edible and medicinal plants used by tribals of Garhwal. Joshi et al. (1999) studied diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of medicinal and edible plants of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Chaurasia et al. (2000) investigated potential wild leafy vegetables from Ladakh. Joshi and Tiwari (2000) listed 108 wild edible plants found at different altitudes in Himalayan ranges in Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas. Maikhuri et al. (2000) reported the indigenous knowledge of 37 plant species of medicinal plants and wild edibles of Botia enthic tribe of the Central Himalaya. Singh et al. (2001) investigated edible wild plants of Trans-Himalayan cold-desert. Prasad et al. (2002) studied the need for scientific intervention and cultivation of Morchella esculenta (Guchhi) in central Himalaya. Maikhuri et al. (2004) presented bioprospecting of wild edibles for rural development in Central Himalaya. Negi (2005) studied Socio-cultural and ethnobotanical value of a sacred forest, Thal Ke Dhar, Central Himalaya. Ballabh and Chaurasia (2006) conducted an ethnobotanical study on Boto tribe in Ladakh. Savitri and Bhalla (2006) studied the traditional food and beverages of Himachal Pradesh. Dwivedi and Ahmed (2006) highlighted Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.), a potential underutilized fruit plant for cold arid India. Wild edible plant species for subsistence in Kumaon Himalaya and associated traditional knowledge was studied by Mehta et al. (2006). Black bean, a variety of soybean (Glycine max), is cultivated as a food crop in the Kumaon region (Uttaranchal state), and in the bordering states and countries in the Himalayas. The yellow variety, cultivated throughout the world for the soya oil, is a genetically improved variety obtained from USA. There is not much difference in the chemical constituents of the black and yellow varieties, except that the later contains more oil. The article by Shah (2006) deals with the origin, distribution, and introduction of Glycine max, the ethno-dietary recipes, the proverbs and sayings on black bean in Kumaon, its chemoprofile, pharmacology, and clinical uses, and the status of the bean in the world and in India. Ballabh et al., (2007) emphasized on development of herbal products from medicinal plants of Ladakh. Ballabh et al. (2007) presented raw edible plants of cold desert Ladakh. Chaurasia et al. (2007) have written a book on ethnobotany and plants of Trans Himalaya which includes all wild edible plants of Ladakh and LahaulSpiti. Kala (2007) presented a paper on preferences of local communities on the cultivated and wild edible plant species in an Indian Himalayan state,

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Uttaranchal. A total 23 cultivated food crop species and 15 wild edible fruit species were prioritized as the most preferred species by the local people in the study area. Kalia et al. (2007) reported the indigenous knowledge of local vegetables of Himachal Pradesh adapted to hilly regions, their habitat, nutritive value and prospects in the emerging scenario. These include leafy vegetables (Amaranth, Chenopodium, Colocasia, curry leaves, coriander, fenugreek, radish, zimmu, Rumex, Nasturtium, Fagopyrum, etc.), flower buds and fruits (Bauhinia (Kachnar), Cordia (lasora), chayote (launku) etc.), fern (Diplazium) and legumes (broad bean). Rashid et al. (2008) studied wild edible plant species consumed by the Gujjar tribe inhabiting the hilly areas of district Rajouri, a part of Jammu and Kashmir State, India. A total of 57 plant species belonging to 33 families were reported from the region. Gairola and Biswas (2008) studied the economic potential of different plant species and their value-addition. Among the over 8000 species of flowering plants growing in the Himalaya, nearly 4000 are identified from the Garhwal Himalayan region. Mishra et al. (2008) presented wild leafy vegetables of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, India. Bhatt et al. (2009) highlighted ‘Ladakhi tea’ Bidens pilosa L. (Asteradeae) a cultivated species in cold desert Ladakh Himalaya. Angchok et al. (2009) highlighted traditional food preparation in Ladakh. Khan et al. (2009) presented wild edible plants of Sewa catchment area of Northwest Himalaya. Kumar and Hamal (2009) studied wild edible plants of Kishtwar High Altitude National Park and discussed 50 plants species used traditionally by local inhabitants. Majority of the plant species (21 species) are exploited for fruit, 19 serve as vegetables, 4 species as flavoring agents (spices), roots and/or leaves of 3 species are eaten as raw, 3 species as tea substitute, whereas 2 species are used in making special drinks. Edible oils are obtained from the kernels of Juglans regia and Prunus armeniaca which are served with meals as such or used as cooking oil. Maikhuri et al. (2009) studied 13 potential species of wild fruits which are eaten raw by the local inhabitants of Garhwal Himalaya. Sharma et al. (2009) discussed 24 plant species belonging to 20 genera and 14 families along with 11 macrofungi belonging to 6 genera and 6 families. Generally fruits (51%) and leaves (33%) of these plants were found to be used as supplementary food. 2 gymnosperms and only one plant species of pteridophytes were noted during the study. Mehta et al. (2010) studied the changing of food habits of local communities of Uttarakhand Himalaya and documented the native plant genetic resources of food importance and traditional recipes of both cultivated and wild edible plant species. Pant and Samant (2010) undertaken a study in the Mornaula

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Reserve Forest of Kumaun, West Himalaya, India at an altitude ranging from 1500–2200 m amsl and recorded 337 economically important species (trees: 75 spp.; shrubs: 69 spp.; and herbs: 193 spp. including pteridophytes: 07 spp.) belonging to 111 families and 260 genera from the MRF. 114 species of wild edible/food plants were reported. Tiwari et al. (2010) studied wild edible plant species consumed by the local people inhabiting in the hilly areas of Alaknanda valley of Uttarakhand state of India. A total of 55 plant species belonging to 35 families were recorded from the study area. Amaranthaceae, Lamiaceae and Moraceae were the dominant families with 4 species each, while Anacardiaceae, Fabaceae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae followed with 3 species and rest were represented by one species from each family. Upreti et al. (2010) reported wild edible fruit plants of Uttarakhand indicate a varied and diverse flora which has been used variously by different ethnic groups in different altitudes. A total of 184 species belonging to 112 genera and 56 families of angiosperms and gymnosperms were reported. About 26 families are represented by one genus and one species each, 5 families by one genus and 2 species each and one family by one genus and three species and 6 families by 2 genera and 2 species each. Rest of the families are represented by 2–12 genera and 2–35 species, suggesting a very high diversity of wild edible fruit plants. The most dominant families with genera and species are Rosaceae (12/35), Moraceae (4/15), Anacardiaceae (6/8), Vitaceae (5/8) and Rutaceae (7/7). Two families of gymnosperms (i.e., Ephedraceae and Taxaceae) and one family of monocotyledons (Arecaceae) are recorded and rest of the families belonged to dicotyledons. Devi and Thakur (2011) conducted exploration on ethno botanical uses of some wild plants from cold desert of Himachal Pradesh. Kumar et al. (2011) studied wild edible plants of Uttarakhand Himalaya for potential nutraceutical source. Lone et al. (2012) studied ethnobotany of tribal areas of Kupwara. Rana et al. (2012) analyzed the diversity, consumption and gathering patterns, and uses of wild edible plants among the tribal communities living in cold arid region of Indian Himalaya. A total of 164 wild edible plant species belonging to 100 genera and 37 families were presented. Ballabha et al. (2013) studied the Lohba range of the Kedarnath Forest Division, Garhwal Himalaya to document the diversity, indigenous uses and availability status of wild edible plants. A total of 82 species belonging to 62 genera and 46 families were documented from the study area. Out of the recorded species 24 were herbs, 23 shrubs, 28 trees and the rest 7 were climbers. Chauhan et al. (2013) studied wild edible plants of Kinnaur district

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of Himachal Pradesh and documented 33 ethnomedicinal wild edible plants belonging to 25 genera and 19 families. Sehgal and Sood (2013) conducted a study on wild edible plants form an important constituent of traditional diets in Himalayas. People of Hamirpur District are very close to nature, wild fruits like Ziziphus jujuba Mill. are one of the important natural resources in the district. Sharma et al. (2013 a, b) conducted a study on wild edibles of Murari Devi and surrounding areas in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh, India and documented a total of 43 wild edibles, representing 33 genera and 25 families. From the total species, 14 species were trees, 16 shrubs and 13 herbs. Rosaceae (7 spp.); Moraceae and Polygonaceae (3 spp. each); Berberidaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Combretaceae, Elaeganaceae, Lamiaceae and Oxalidaceae, Rhamnaceae and Rutaceae (2 spp., each) were the dominant families; 13 families were monotypic. Among the genera, Rubus (4 spp.); Bauhinia, Berberis, Chenopodium, Elaeganus, Ficus, Oxalis, Terminalia and Ziziphus (2 spp., each) were dominant genera. Sharma and Sood (2013) conducted an ethnomedicinal survey in District Solan of Himachal Pradesh and discussed 48 edible plants include fruits and seeds. Chauhan et al. (2014) documented information on use of wild edible macro-fungi as supplementary food in Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh, India. Dangwal et al. (2014) analyzed 58 wild edible plant species belonging to 50 genera and 39 families of district Rajauri. Rosaceae was the dominant family that represented 7 taxa, while Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae and Poaceae represented with 3 taxa each and other 33 families have less representation. Tree make up was the highest proportion of the edible species 28 (41%) followed by 26 were herbs (38%) and 14 were shrubs (21%). Based on the requirements/ edibility, majority of the plant species (26 species) are commonly used as fruits. Khan and Hussain (2014) studied the diversity of wild edible plants and flowering phenology of district Poonch (J&K) and discussed 97 plant species of the region. Mir (2014) identified and documented food value of wild edible plants from selected areas like Budnamel, Keran, Karnah, and Jumgand of Kupwara. A total of 31 plant species belonging to 19 families were recorded as wild edible plants. Whole plant was found to be used in case of 12 species followed by green leaves of 10 species, fruits of 5 species and rhizome, flowers, roots, and seeds of 1 species each. Among families the Asteraceae (4) is most used followed by Amaranthaceae, Polygonaceae and Brassicaceae (3 species each) and the remaining families with one or two species each. Out of 31 wild species 25 were herbs, 2 shrubs, 2 fungi, 1 fern, and 1 tree. Among 31 species, angiosperms reported to be the highest

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in number with 28 species followed by fungi 2 species and pteridophytes 1 species. Dicotyledons were represented by 27 and monocotyledons were represented by only 1 species. Singh et al. (2014) studied 31 wild vegetables belonging to 23 genera and 16 families of Kinnaur district of HP, used by tribal people. Negi et al. (2015) documented the genetic resources of wild edible plant and traditional recipes of Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India. A total of 116 plant species belonging to 42 families were recorded from the study area. The life forms, herbs contributed the highest proportion of the edible species (57) followed by trees (32), shrubs (26) and climber (1). Fruits (50) are the highly consumed plant parts, followed by leaves (33), seeds (23), bulbs (6), resin/gum (6), roots (5), flowers (4), shoots (4), bark (2) and tubers (2), respectively. Chilgoza nut is the dominant wild edible and also the main source of revenue. Other publications on edible plants of Western and Central Himalaya include Bhargava (1960), and Singh (2002).

3.3  ETHNIC FOOD PLANTS AND USES Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle, [Syn: Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb.]. Tree Resin exudates called ‘Paan Chhi’ chewed as bubble gum (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Amarathus viridis L. Chaulai leaves are cooked as vegetable after boiling properly. The seeds are roasted and used to prepare ‘Laddo’ with jaggery and Kheer with milk and sugar, etc. in various parts of region (Mehta et al., 2010). Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Boiled tubers edible and is also used for making local beverages known as ‘Zamashang Phasur’ (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Aesculus indica Colebr. ex Camb. Seed soaked in water for about 12 hours, washed thoroughly, dried and made into flour which is used for making ‘halwa’ (Khan and Hussain, 2014). Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Rhizomes are boiled in water to yield a decoction which is used as tea substitute after adding sugar and milk to it (Khan and Hussain, 2014). Cannabis sativa L. The locals in Himachal Pradesh crushed leaves mixed with milk, sugar and dry fruits used in the preparation of ‘ghota’ on the day of Shivratri and distributes as ‘prasadam’ to devotees visiting the temple.

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The Seeds are also edible as condiment in Western and Central Himalayan regions (Sharma and Sood, 2013). Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don Resin exudates from tree called ‘Kialbung Chhi’ chewed as bubble gum (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Diplazium frondosum (Clarke) Christ Young circinate leaves are rubbed with a piece of cloth to remove scales and hairs before cooking it as vegetable and also used as pickled (Khan and Hussain, 2014). Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertner Dried seeds/grains are made into flour cooked as ‘Roti’ and sometimes fried with oil/ghee and sugar/jaggery to make delicious dish ‘Halva’ (Mehta et al., 2010). Euphorbia royleana Boiss. Pith of young shoots cut into small pieces, washed thoroughly, boiled and cooked as a vegetable and also used for preparing rayata (Khan and Hussain, 2014). Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Buckwheat Seed flour is used for making local dishes called ‘Hodh,’ ‘Dhoo’ or ‘Bro’ and ‘Rang Khobra’ in Himachal Pradesh (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. Seed flour is used for making local dishes called ‘Hodh’ and ‘Dhoo’ or ‘Bro’ in HP (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Glycine max L. Soybean (white and black seeds) used for making local pulse ‘Bhat ki Chutkani,’ ‘Dubke’ with rice and its flour mix with wheat flour is cooked into chapatti in Uttarakhand (Mehta et al., 2010). Hordeum vulgare L. Seed flour is used for making local dishes and beverages called ‘Chwa Rak’ or ‘Chwa Phasur’. The grains also used in hawans, religious rites, marriages and funeral ceremonies (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Hippophae rhamnoides L. The tribals of Ladakh consume fresh ripe fruits. Fruits are sun dried and kept in boiled water for a few minutes and taken out to remove moisture followed by mixing with sugar and jaggery and addition of salt according to taste. This is preserved by adding mustard oil. The dried berries are stored and used for making chutney for use in offseason (Singh et al., 2003). Fruits are a rich source of vitamin C and used for making juice and squash (Ballabh et al., 2007). Lathyrus sativus L. Fruits are used as vegetable. Also used for making flour. The flour when mixed with wheat flour is considered good for preparing local dish called ‘Thupka’ (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006). Macrotyloma uniflorum Lam. Gahat seeds are used for making pulse when fried with Heeng which is considered warm in winter and its combination with rice is used to prepare delicious dish called ‘Dubke’ in Uttarakhand. Flour prepared from its seed mixed with wheat flour is used to make roti locally called ‘Bedu roti’ (Mehta et al., 2010).

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation

49

Morchella conica Pers., Morchella deliciosa Fries., Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers., Morchella semilebra DC. Fructification of Morchella species is boiled/cooked in water and then fried in oil with onion to prepare very delicious dish (Sharma et al., 2009). Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Resin exudates called ‘Roy Chhi’ chewed as bubble gum (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D.Don Chilgoza Tree. Nuts edible (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks. Resin exudates called ‘Lim Chhi’ chewed as bubble gum (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don. Woody root stocks are boiled in water to yield decoction to which milk and sugar are added for consumption as a tea substitute by the hilly people (Khan and Hussain, 2014). Prunus armeniaca L. Chuli Tree Oil from the kernel is used as alternative of Desi ghee and therapeutic purposes. Kernels cooked with rice to make local dish called ‘Remo Thukpa’. (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Rhodiola heterodonta (Hook.f & Thoms.) A. Boiss. Delicate leaves and tender shoots are boiled, crushed and mixed with curd to prepare the local delicious dish ‘Tantur’ in Ladakh (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006). Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Flowers used in the preparation of local Namkeen/salted tea (Negi and Subramani, 2015). Rubus niveus Thunb. Fruits are eaten and made into sauce. Local drink is prepared from the root extract; this indigenous drink is locally known as ‘daru’ or ‘kachpani’ (Bisht and Jain, 2006). Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Kernels put under running water for about a week, dried and made into flour used for making halwa or bread (Khan and Hussain, 2014). Urtica hyperborea Jacq. ex Wedd. The fresh or dried leaves are used for preparing local delicious dish called ‘Thupka’ in Ladakh, which is considered warm (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006). Many other species of wild and cultivated plants are edible in Western and Central Himalaya listed in Table 3.1.

3.4  ETHNIC FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION The ethnic and traditional foods and food preparation in the Western and Central Himalayan regions vary as per the local tribal community of the region. However a number of traditional foods are prepared from wild and

Parts used Fruits Resin Resin Gum Leaves Whole plant Young leaves Leaves Tender shoot Leaves, twigs Fruits Seeds Kernel

Name of the plant species

Abelmoschus esculentus L.

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle

Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb.

Acacia modesta Wall.

Achillea millefolium L.

Achyranthes aspera L.

Aconitum heterophyllum L.

Acorus calamus Wall.

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Adhatoda zeylanica Medikus

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.

Aesandra butyracea Roxb.

Aesculus indica Colebr.

S. No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

TABLE 3.1  Ethnic food plants of Western and Central Himalayas

Edible

Used as edible oil

Ripe fruits eaten and used in preparation of sweet drink

Young twigs and leaves made into vegetable

Vegetable

Young leaves are presently flavored and are edible

Young leaves are used by the locals for edible purposes

Edible, young leaves are cooked and used as vegetable/saag

Edible, used in condiment and in preparation of herbal tea in Ladakh

Fried with ghee and eaten

Resin exudates called ‘Paan Chhi’ chewed as bubble gum

Resin exudates called ‘Paan Chhi’ chewed as bubble gum

Edible vegetable

Purpose

Pant and Samant, 2010; Dangwal et al., 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Tiwari et al., 2010

Gupta, 1962

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Ballabh et al., 2007

Srivastava, 1988

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

50 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruiting body

Tender stems Peduncle Flowers Resin Leaves Bulbs Bulbs Leaves, flower tips Seeds, grains Leaves, flower tips Leaves Leaves

Name of the plant species

Agaricus campestris L.

Agave americana L.

Agave wightii Drummond & Prain

Ainsliaea aptera DC

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.

Allium atropurpureum Waldst., & Kit

Allium cepa L.

A. caesium Schrenk

A. carolinianum DC.

A. griffthianum Boiss.

A. humile Kunth.

A. jacquemontii Kunth

A. przewalskianum Regel.

S. No.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Sharma et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Chauhan et al., 2014

Reference(s)

Fresh or dried leaves added as condiment to vegetable

Vegetable

Fresh or dried leaves added as condiment to vegetable

Spices and condiment

Fresh or dried leaves added as condiment to vegetable

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Rana et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Gairola and Biswas, 2008

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Bulbs used for making chutney and Negi and Subramani, 2015 as spices and condiment

Edible

Used as vegetable

Resin from stem bark edible

Flowers consumed for their nectar

Peeled peduncle cooked as a vegetable

Used as vegetable

Fruiting bodies are used fresh for making vegetables by boiling in water, decanting hot water and then fried in edible oil.

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 51

Parts used Bulbs Bulb, leaves Roots, leaves Leaves, flower tips Leaves, bulb Leaves, flower tips Leaves Leaves

Rhizomes Shoots, leaves

Name of the plant species

A. rubellum M. Bieb.

A. roylei Stern.

A. sativum L.

A. stracheyi Baker

A. thomsonii Baker

A. tuberosum Rottl. ex Sprengel

A. wallichii Kunth.

Aloe vera Tourn. ex L.

Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.

Alternanthera sessilis L.

S. No.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued) Reference(s)

Young shoots and leaves are cooked as pot herb

Spices and condiment

The thick succulent leaves cut into pieces followed by addition of condiments and dried. Locally known as Baddi, used as vegetable during off season when vegetables are not available

Fried young leaves are used as vegetables

Vegetable and condiment

Fresh or dried leaves added as condiment to vegetable

Vegetable and condiment

Edible

Bulbs and leaves used as vegetables or spices

Gupta, 1962; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Gairola and Biswas, 2008

Chandra et al., 2013

Chandra et al., 2013

Rana et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Rana et al., 2012

Sharma et al., 2013

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Bulbs used for making chutney and Negi and Subramani, 2015 as spices and condiment

Purpose

52 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Seeds, leaves

Whole plant Shoots, leaves Seeds, leaves Leaves, shoots Leaves Shoots, leaves Fruits Fruits Fruits

Name of the plant species

Amaranthus blitum L.

A. caudatus L.

A. creuntus L.

A. paniculatus L.

A. spinosus L.

A. tricolor L.

A. viridis L.

Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume ex Decne.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planchon

A. rugosa Wallich

S. No.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Mir, 2014; Rana et al., 2012

Chandra et al., 2013

Reference(s)

Srivastava, 1988

Gupta, 1962; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Ripen fruits edible

Fruits edible

Edible vegetable

Dangwal et al., 2014

Tiwari et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Young shoots and leaves cooked as Chandra et al., 2013; Dangwal vegetable et al., 2014

Used as vegetable

Fresh leaves are boiled and cooked as vegetable

Fried, vegetable

Young shoots and leaves made into Tiwari et al., 2010 vegetable

The tender plant is used as vegetable

Seeds are warmed on Tawa and eaten with honey during winter, fried seeds mixed with jaggery to form Laddu (sweets). Chapatis frequent as of grinded seeds during winter rains were very common in past. Boiled and fried leaves and tenders are used as green vegetables

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 53

Leaves

Leaves, shoots Rhizomes, Bulb Used as a vegetable in the juvenile stage Rhizomes Whole plant Roots Roots Whole plant Fruits Fruits Tendrils

Shoots

Antidesma acidum Retz.

Arabidopsis himalaica (Edgew.) O. E. S.

Arisaema jacquemontii Blume.

A. speciosum Mart.

A. tortuosum (Wall.) Schott

Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Jonston

A. guttata Bunger var. guttata

Artemisia nilagarica (Cl.) Pamp.

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.

A. lakoocha Roxb.

Asparagus adscendens Buch-Ham. ex Roxb.

Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

Tender shoots cooked as vegetable

Young tendrils are burnt over fire and eaten raw; Tendril is also boiled into soup which is considered as very good tonic during recovery after long illness

Raw, pickles

Edible vegetable

Edible

Stews & Soups

Stews & Soups

Edible

Used as vegetable

Young leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

The sour and acidic leaves are eaten raw and boiled by local people

Used as a flavoring agent in vegetable, meat and pulses

Roots

Angelica glauca Edgew.

47.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Mehta et al., 2010

Chandra et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Srivastava, 1988

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Chandra et al., 2013

Sharma and Lal, 2005; Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

54 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Fruits Seeds Leaves, seeds Seeds Young shoots Whole plant Flowers Leaves, seeds, fruits Flower buds Fruits, flower buds

Asplenium falcatum Lam.

A. polypodioides (Bl.) Mett. Syn. Diplazium polypodioides Bl. A. trichomanes L.

Astible rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex Don Astragalus chlorstachys Lindl. Avena fatua L. Atriplex hortensis L. A. sativa L. Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Barleria cristata L.

Bauhinia purpurea L.

B. racemosa Lamk.

B. retusa Buch.-Ham. B. vahlii Wight & Arn.

61.

62.

64.

71.

72.

73. 74.

65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

63.

Tender shoots, tubers Leaves

A. racemosus Willd.

60.

Leaves

Shoots, leaves

Fronds

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Vegetable Edible fruit. Flower buds either pickled or cooked as vegetable

Edible

Edible

Edible raw Oats consumed as human food Vegetable Edible Curry, pickles The whole plant is edible.

Tender shoots and leaves eaten as vegetable Edible

Vegetable

The fresh fern is used as vegetable and dried during summer time and eaten in harsh winter

Tubers edible

Purpose

Gupta, 1962 Mehta et al., 2010; Chandra et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988 Sharma and Sood, 2013 Rana et al., 2012 Pant and Samant, 2010 Gupta, 1962 Sharma et al., 2013; Pant and Samant, 2010 Gupta, 1962; Gairola and Biswas, 2008 Mir, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Gupta, 1962

Gupta, 1962; Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014; Sharma and Sood, 2013 Mir, 2014

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 55

Fruits Fruits Rhizomes

Rhizomes Whole plant Whole plant Fruit berries Fruit berries Fruit berries Fruits Bark

Leaves, flowers, Edible fruits

Benincasa hispida Thunb.

Benthamidia capitata (Wall. ex Roxb.) Hara

Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.

B. ligulata (Wall.) Engl.

Berberis aristata DC

B. asiatica Roxb.

B. chitria Buch.-Ham. ex Lindl.

B. glaucocarpa Stapf

B. jaeschkeana C. K. Schneid.

B. lyceum Royle

Betula utilis D.Don

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr., & Sherff.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

Dried bark used in the preparation of local Namkeen/salted tea

Ripe fruits are edible and also made into sauce

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible fruits, tender shoots used as vegetable

Edible

Edible

Rhizomes are boiled to yield a decoction which after addition of sugar and milk is taken as tea substitute

Edible fruits

Used as vegetable

Flower buds eaten as vegetable, petals used in a curd preparation

Flower buds

B. variegata L.

75.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Mir, 2014

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Dangwal et al., 2014; Mir, 2014

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Gupta, 1962; Pant and Samant, 2010; Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Reference(s)

56 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves are cooked as vegetable and seeds used for extracting edible oil Used as vegetable

Seeds Leaves, shoots, roots Flower buds Young shoot Seed oil Seed oil Leaves

Roots Leaves Seeds Fruit pulp Fruits Leaves

Boerhavia diffusa L.

Bombax ceiba L.

Bosia amherstiana Hook.f.

Brassica campestris L.

B. juncea L.

B. juncea var. rugosa (Roxb.) Prain

B. napus (L.) Hook. f., & Anderson. Leaves, seeds

Head, leaves

Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Greene

B. oleracea var. capitata L.

B. rapa L.

B. racemosa

B. rugosa (Roxb.) Bailey

Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng.

Buchanania lanzan Spreng.

Buddleja asiatica Lour.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

102.

103.

Edible

The dark brown ripe drupes eaten

Juicy pulp of the ripe drupes eaten as fruit.

Seed oil is used for edible purpose

Vegetable

Used as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Used as edible oil

Used as edible oil

Fried in butter and eaten

Young flower buds cooked as vegetable

Leaves and tender shoots occasionally made into vegetable; roots chewed as energy tonic

Edible

Edible

Whole plant

B. pilosa L.

88.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Mir, 2014

Chandra et al., 2013

Chandra et al., 2013

Kala, 2007

Gupta, 1962

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Chandra et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Gupta, 1962

Chandra et al., 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 57

Parts used Seeds, bulbs, tubers Seeds Whole plant Leaves, bark Seeds Fruits Whole plant

Leaves, Seeds

Whole plant Young leaves, fruits Herb Herb

Name of the plant species

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedsch.

Bupleurum tenue Don

Butea monosperma Roxb.

Buxus wallichiana L.

Cajanus cajan L.

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahal

Calvatia gigantea (Batsch) Lloyd

Cannabis sativa L.

Capparis zeylanica L.

C. spinosa L. var. himalayensis (Jafri) Jacobs.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.

C. elliptica C. A. Mey

S. No.

104.

105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

The delicate herb is cooked as vegetable

Herb is cooked as vegetable

Young leaves and flower buds are cooked as vegetable. Fruits are edible

The whole plant is edible

Crushed leaves mixed with milk, sugar and dry fruits used in the preparation of ‘ghota’ on the day of Shivratri and distributed as ‘prasadam’ to devotees visiting the temple. Seeds edible

The fungus is collected from the forests, eaten raw as well as cooked for making vegetable

Fruits are edible

Edible as pulse

Used as beverage

Edible

Spices adulterant to Kalajeera

Seeds are highly fragrant and are used for flavoring local dishes. Bulbs/tubers eaten as vegetable

Purpose

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Mir, 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Sharma et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Pant and Samant, 2010

Mir, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010; Dangwal et al., 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Gairola and Biswas, 2008

Sharma et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Reference(s)

58 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Leaves, shoots Fruits Tubers Shoots, leaves Fruits Fruits Fruits Roots, seeds

Seeds Pods Young stems, leaves, seeds

Flowers Fruits, seeds

Name of the plant species

C. thomsonii Hk. f., & Thoms.

Capsicum annuum var. aviculare Dierb.

Caralluma tuberculata N. E. Br.

Cardamine impatiens L.

Carica papaya L.

Carissa opaca Stapf. ex Haines.

C. spinarum L.

Carum carvi L. var. gracile

Cassia occidentalis (L.) Link.

C. floribunda Cav.

C. tora L.

Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D. Don

Castanea sativa P. Mill.

S. No.

116.

117.

118.

119.

120.

121.

122.

123.

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Edible fruits

Dried flowers are used to make namkeen tea/beverages.

Young stems as vegetable; dried mature seeds are ground and as used like coffee powder or tea leaf for the preparation of herbal tea

Young pods are cooked as vegetable

Seeds are used in beverages

Roots are boiled, washed thoroughly and cooked as vegetable. Seeds used as condiment

Fruits edible

Edible

Edible fruit

Young shoots including leaves and flower eaten as salad

Cooked, pickled

Used as vegetable

Delicate leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

Purpose

Mehta et al., 2010

Chauhan et al., 2013

Gupta, 1962; Chandra et al., 2013

Chandra et al., 2013

Gairola and Biswas, 2008

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Rashid et al., 2008

Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Mir, 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Srivastava, 1988

Mehta et al., 2010

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 59

Parts used Fruits

Resin Fruits Fruits Leaves Fruits Fruits Leaves Whole plant Roots, seeds Roots Roots, seeds Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Leaves

Name of the plant species

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng.

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G. Don

Ceiba pentandra L.

Celastrus paniculatus Willd.

Celosia argentea Moq.

Celtis australis L.

C. eriocarpa Decne.

Centaurea iberica Trev. ex Spreng.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban.

Chaerophyllum acuminatum Lindl.

C. reflexum Lindl.

C. villosum Wall. ex DC.

Chenopodium album L.

C. ambrosioides L.

C. botrys L.

C. foliosum (Moench) Ascherson

S. No.

129.

130.

131.

132.

133.

134.

135.

136.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Mehta et al., 2010

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Tiwari et al., 2010

Reference(s)

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Pant and Samant, 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Dangwal et al., 2014

Rashid et al., 2008

Tiwari et al., 2010; Dangwal et al., 2014

Leaves used as pot vegetable

Whole plant is used as a pot herb and dried for winter use

Edible

Ballabha et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Mir, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010

Young shoots are used as vegetable Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014

Edible as vegetable

Edible

Cooked as vegetable, condiment

Edible

Vegetable

Fruits edible

Fruits edible

Leaves cooked as vegetable

Unripe fruits are boiled and cooked Tiwari et al., 2010 as vegetable

Tenders fruits cooked as vegetable

Resin exudates called ‘Kialbung Chhi’ chewed as bubble gum

Ripe fruits are eaten after roasting or cooked, leaves are cooked as vegetable

Purpose

60 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Edible as spices Peeled stem and roots eaten raw

Tender shoots Seeds Fruit, seeds

Whole plant

Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Flowers Fruits Roots Roots

Cicer arietinum L.

C. microphyllum Benth.

Cichorium intybus L.

Cinnamoum tamala Nees & Eberm. Leaves, bark Root, stem

Chrisotolea crassifolia Camb.

Cirsium wallichii DC

Citrus medica L.

C. limon L.

C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck.

Cleome viscosa L.

Clerodendron serratum (L.) Moon

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt.

Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) Clarke

C. ovata Benth.

146.

147.

148.

149.

150.

151.

152.

153.

154.

155.

156.

157.

158.

159.

The bulbous roots are cooked as vegetable

The bulbous roots are cooked as vegetable

Fruits are cooked as vegetable

Edible

Used as spice

Edible fruit

Fruits eaten as such and also used for pickling

Fruits edible

Used as vegetable especially by women during pregnancy

Green seeds are cooked as vegetable, and dried seeds are used as pulse

Edible as pulse, flour

Boiled, washed thoroughly and then cooked as vegetable

Young leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

Leaves and shoots

Chorispora sabulosa Camb.

145.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Dangwal et al., 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Tiwari et al., 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mir, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Mehta et al., 2010

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 61

Parts used Petiole, rhizomes Tuber, fleshy peduncle Leaves, rhizomes Whole plant Fruits Fruits, bark Leaves, seeds, whole plant Fruits Fruits Fruits Aerial Parts Seeds Fruits Fruits Rhizome, leaves

Name of the plant species

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott

C. himalensis Royle

Commelina benghalensis L.

C. paludosa Bl.

Cordia dichotoma Forst.

C. wallichii G. Don

Coriandrum sativum L.

Coriaria nepalensis Wall.

Cornus capitata Wall.

C. macrophylla Wall.

Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith

Corylus colurna L.

C. jacquemontii Decne

Cotinus coggygria Scopoli

Cotoneaster microphylla Wall. ex Lindl.

S. No.

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

172.

173.

174.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Edible

Fruits are edible

Fruits are edible

Raw and roasted seeds edible

Aerial parts used as a vegetable

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible. Powdered fruits used as spice. Green leaves used for flavoring curries

Edible

Fruit used as vegetable or pickled

Edible

Edible used for vegetables

Edible, vegetable

Petioles are cooked with curd. Used as vegetable

Purpose

Pant and Samant, 2010

Ballabha et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010; Rana et al., 2012

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2013; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Tiwari et al., 2010; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mir, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Gupta, 1962

Sharma et al., 2009; Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

62 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruits Leaves Leaves, shoots Fruits Fruits Fruits Buds Rhizomes

Rhizomes Fruits Whole plant Aerial parts Roots Shoots Shoots, leaves

Name of the plant species

Crataegus songarica K. Koch

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

Crambe kotschyana Boiss.

Cucumis sativus L.

Cucurbita maxima Duch. ex Lam.

C. moschata Duch. ex Poir.

C. pepo L.

Curcuma. angustifolia Roxb.

C. longa L.

Cyclanthera pedata L.

Cyanotis cristata (L.) Don

C. vaga (Lour.) J. A., & H. S. Schult.

Cyperus rotundus L.

Dendrocolamus hamiltonii Nees ex Arn.

D. strictus Nees

S. No.

175.

176.

177.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

186.

187.

188.

189.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Kumar and Hamal, 2009

Reference(s)

Edible

Boiled young shoots and used for making Baddi.

Edible

Aerial parts edible

Edible in HP

Edible vegetable

Used as spice

Rhizomes are ground into flour after drying and consumed mostly as a famine food

Buds are used for the preparation of green vegetable.

Used as vegetable

Edible

Used as salad, vegetable

Tender leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Chandra et al., 2013

Gairola and Biswas, 2010

Sharma et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Mir, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Chandra et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2009

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Singh et al., 2001

Young leaves are sometime used as Khan and Hussain, 2014 pot herb

Fruits are edible

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 63

Parts used Roots, seeds Fruits Fruits Tender shoots Fruits Tubers Tuber Tuber

Tubers Tubers Tubers Tuber Fronds Frond, stems, leaves

Name of the plant species

Daucus carota L.

Debregeasia longifolia (N. Burman) Wedd.

D. salicifolia (Don) Rendl.

Dendrocalamus polypoides

Dendrophthoe subfalcata (L.f.) Etting

Dioscorea belophylla Voigt.

D. bulbifera L.

D. deltoidea Wall ex Kunth.

D. glabra Roxb.

D. melanophyma Prain & Burkill

D. pentaphylla L.

D. rotunda Poir.

Diplazium acrostichoides Bir.

D. esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

S. No.

190.

191.

192.

193.

194.

195.

196.

197.

198.

199.

200.

201.

202.

203.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Stem and leaves of very young plant are cooked and then fried/ used for the preparation of pickle

The young fronds are cooked and relished as vegetable

Edible vegetable

Edible

Tubers are cooked as vegetable

Edible as vegetable

Edible, vegetable

Tubers cooked as vegetable and as constituents of local wine

Edible, vegetable

Ripe fruits edible

Curry, pickles

Edible

Edible

Edible

Purpose

Sharma et al., 2009; Pant and Samant, 2010; Mehta et al., 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Gupta, 1962

Ballabha et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Gupta, 1962; Pant and Samant, 2010; Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Gupta, 1962; Rashid et al., 2008; Pant and Samant, 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Chandra et al., 2013

Gupta, 1962

Pant and Samant, 2010; Chandra et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Reference(s)

64 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Leaves

Flowers Shoots, plant Fruits Fruits Fruits Leaves Fruits Seeds Seeds Herb Whole plant Flowers Grains Grains

Name of the plant species

D. frondosum (Clarke) Christ

Diploknema butyracea Roxb

Dipsacus inermis Wall.

Diospyrus kaki L.

D. lotus L.

D. melanoxylon Roxb.

D. mitis Don

Dodecadenia grandiflora Nee

Dodonea angustifolia L.

D. palmata L.

Draba tibetica Hk. f., & Thoms.

Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focks.

Duranta repens L.

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link.

E. crus-galli L.

S. No.

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

211.

212.

213.

214.

215.

216.

217.

218.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Edible food

Grains are edible, prepared as rice

Flowers eaten by children

Edible; pinkish red juicy fruits are sweetish to sour

Herb used as vegetable

Seeds are known to be edible

Seeds occasionally edible

Ripe fruits are eaten

Vegetable

Fruits edible

Fruits edible

Fruits edible

Shoots of young plants are cooked as spinach for consumption

Young flowers are sweet and eaten raw especially by children

Young circinate leaves are rubbed with a piece of cloth to remove scales and hairs before cooking it as vegetable, also used as pickled

Purpose

Mehta et al., 2010

Dangwal et al., 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Dangwal et al., 2014

Singh et al., 2001

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Dangwal et al., 2014

Ballabha et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Mehta et al., 2010

Rashid et al., 2008

Mehta et al., 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Chandra et al., 2013

Rashid et al., 2008; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 65

Parts used Grains

Roots Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Leaves, roots Seeds

Seeds

Seeds Grains

Name of the plant species

E. frumentacea Link

Echinops cornigerus DC

Ehretia acuminata R.Br.

Elaeagnus angustifolia L.

E. conferta Roxb.

E. parviflora Wall ex Royle

E. umbellata Thunb.

Elephantopus scaber L.

Elsholtzia densa Benth.

E. eriostachya (Benth.) Benth.

E. flava (Benth.) Benth.

Eleusine coracana L.

S. No.

219.

220.

221.

222.

223.

224.

225.

226.

227.

228.

229.

230.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Grains are grounded and used for ‘Chapati’.

Mature seeds are used as condiments and spice

The dried seeds and powdered seeds are used as condiments to vegetable

The dried seeds and powdered seeds are used as condiments to vegetable

Edible in HP

Ripe fruits are eaten.

Edible

Edible

Fruits edible

Edible

Roots are used as salad

Grains are grounded and mixed with Manua or wheat. Very good feed for stalled cow and buffalo. Ingredient of traditional market for a Cari and ‘Pauloo’ in the area

Purpose

Mehta et al., 2010

Ballabha et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Mir, 2014

Rashid et al., 2008; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Rana et al., 2012

Mir, 2014

Ballabha et al., 2013

Chandra et al., 2013

Reference(s)

66 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruits Fruits Strobili Fruits Fruits Whole plant Shoots

Leaves Leaves Leaves, shoots, seeds Leaves, shoots Leaves, shoots, seeds

Name of the plant species

Emblica officinalis L.

Ephedra geradiana Wall.

Equisetum arvense L.

Eremurus himalaicus Baker

Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.

Euphorbia hirta L.

E. royleana Boiss. royleana Boiss.

Fagopyrum cymosum Meissn.

F.dibotrys (D.Don) Hara

F. esculentum Moench.

F. cymosum Trev.

F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn

S. No.

231.

232.

233.

234.

235.

236.

237.

238.

239.

240.

241.

242.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Kumar and Hamal, 2009

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Srivastava, 1988

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Reference(s)

Tender leaves washed and dried in the sun and cooked as vegetable. Seeds are used for making flour. Salted paste of leaves is used as chatani

Used as vegetable

Tender leaves washed and dried in the sun and cooked as vegetable. Seeds are used for making flour

Edible

Vegetable

Gupta, 1962; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Sharma et al., 2009; Rana et al., 2012

Mehta et al., 2010

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Gupta, 1962

Pith of young shoots cut into small Khan and Hussain, 2014 pieces, washed thoroughly, boiled and cooked as a vegetable and used for preparing rayata and ‘Baddi’.

Edible

Edible

Edible

Strobili edible

Eaten raw when ripe

Fruits eaten as raw and also made pickles from fruits

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 67

Parts used Shoots, leaves Fruits Fruits Unripe fruits Fruits Fruits Young shoot Young shoot Fruits Fruits Fruits

Fruits Fruits Whole plant

Name of the plant species

Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke

Ficus auriculata Lour.

F. bengalensis L.

F. carica L.

F. hederacea Roxb.

F. hispida L.f.

F. infectoria Roxb.

F. macrophylla Roxb.

F. neriifolia Smith

F. nemoralis Wall. ex Mir

F. palmata Forssk.

F. cunia Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.

F. glomerata Roxb.

F. religiosa L.

S. No.

243.

244.

245.

246.

247.

248.

249.

250.

251.

252.

253.

254.

255.

256.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Sharma et al., 2013

Dangwal et al., 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Chauhan et al., 2013

Reference(s)

Edible

Fruits are edible

Fruits are edible

Fruits delicious in taste, often taken raw with salt or filled inside the bread. Ripe fruits eaten, young figs and tender leaves cooked as vegetable.

Edible

Ripe Hypanthodium is sweet

Curry for scurvy

Curry for scurvy

Ripe fruits are edible. Green fruit is also used as vegetable

Edible

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Chandra et al., 2013

Gupta, 1962

Gupta, 1962

Chandra et al., 2013

Ballabha et al., 2013

Unripe fruits cooked as a vegetable Sharma and Sood, 2013 and the mature ones eaten as such

Edible

Fruits are edible when ripe and unripe fruits are used as vegetable

Tender leaves and shoots are used for making vegetable

Purpose

68 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Roots Fruits Fruits Fruits Young shoot Fruits Root, fruits, tuber Leaves, seeds Fruits Fruits Fruits

Bulb Leaves

Name of the plant species

F. roxburghii Wall.

F. rumphii Bl.

F. semicordata Buch.-Ham.ex J. E. Smith

F. subincisa Buch. – Ham

F. virgata Roxb.

Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr.

Flemingia vestita Benth. ex Baker

Foeniculum vulgare Gaertn.

Fragaria indica Andr.

F. vesca L.

F.nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita

Fritillaria roylei Hook.

Gagea elegans Wall. ex Royle

S. No.

257.

258.

259.

260.

261.

262.

263.

264.

265.

266.

267.

268.

269.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Young fleshy leaves are cooked as pot herb

Edible as vegetable

Ripe fruits edible

Edible

Ripe fruits edible

Edible

Edible

Fruits edible

Curry for scurvy

Ripe hypanthodium is sweet, edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Purpose

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Srivastava, 1988

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014; Dangwal et al., 2014

Sharma et al., 2013

Mehta et a., 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Gupta, 1962

Chandra et al., 2013

Dangwal et al., 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 69

Parts used Leaves Shoots, leaves Fruits Leaves and shoots Leaves Seeds Leaves, shoots Roots, leaves Fruits Leaves, bark Fruits Fruits, leaves Fructification Seed oil

Name of the plant species

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Galium aparine L.

Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Gentiana tianschanica Ruper.

Girardiana heterophylla Decne

Glycine max L.

Gnaphalium leuteoalbum L.

Gonatanthus pumilus (D.Don) Engler & Krause

Grewia optiva Drumm.

G. oppositifolia Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.

Gymnosporia royleana Lawson

Hedera nepelensis Koch.

Helvella compressa (Synder) N. S. Weber

Helianthus annuus L.

S. No.

270.

271.

272.

273.

274.

275.

276.

277.

278.

279.

280.

281.

282.

283.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Used as edible oil

Delicate slimy fructification is boiled in water then fried

Edible

Ripe fruits are edible at the time of scarcity

Edible

Ripe fruits edible

Tuberous roots and leaves are cooked as vegetable

Leaves and young shoots are cooked as vegetable

Used for pulse

Leaves used as green vegetable

Fresh leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

Fruits edible

Shoots and leaves are cooked as pot herb

Young leaves are cooked as vegetable

Purpose

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2009

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Tiwari et al., 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Mehta et al., 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Reference(s)

70 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruits Whole plant Shoots Fruits and leaves Fruits Fruits Fruits Grains Peduncle Flowers Leaves Seed Seeds Seeds Leaves Seeds

Name of the plant species

Helixanthera ligustrina (Wallich) Danser

Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC.

H. pinnatum C. B. Clarke

Hippophae rhamnoides L.

H. salicifolia (Don) Serv.

H. tibetana Schlecht.

Holboelia latifolia var. angustifolia (Wall.) Hook. f., & Thoms.

Hordeum vulgare L.

Hovenia dulcis Thunb.

Humulus lupulus L.

Hymenodictyon excelsum (Roxb.) Wall.

Hypericum cernuum Roxb.

Impatiens balsamina L.

I. edgeworthii Hook. f.

I. glandulifera Royle

I. sulcata Wallich

S. No.

284.

285.

286.

287.

288.

289.

290.

291.

292.

293.

294.

295.

296.

297.

298.

299.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Seeds edible

Vegetable

Raw seeds eaten

Seed are edible, used as condiment

Seeds used for flavoring curries

Edible

Dried flowers are used for making local wine

Vegetable

Edible food

Edible

Fruits are edible

Edible

Fruits are edible. Fruits used in juices, jelly and jams and leaves used in herbal tea

Tender shoots filled with curd and eaten

Edible

Ripe fruits edible

Purpose

Dangwal et al., 2014

Rana et al., 2012; Srivastava, 1988

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Dangwal et al., 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma et al., 2013

Chauhan et al., 2013

Gupta, 1962

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Rana et al., 2012

Ballabh et al., 2007; Rana et al., 2012

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Pant and Samant, 2010

Ballabha et al., 2013

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 71

Parts used Seeds Flowers Whole plant Flower, inflorescence Fruits and oils Roots Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits, seeds Fructification

Young leaves Tendrils, leaves Young leaves, flower buds and shoots

Name of the plant species

I. thomsoni Hook.f.

Indigofera heretantha Wall. ex Brandis

I. linifolia (L.f.) Retz.

I. pulchella Roxb.

Juniperus communis L.

Jurinea himalaica R. R. Stewart.

Juglans regia L.

Justicia adhatoda L.

Justicia japonica Don

Lablab purpureus L.

Lactarius delicious (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray

Lactuca brunoniana (Wall.) Cl.

L. dissecta D.Don.

L. dolichophylla Kitam.

S. No.

300.

301.

302.

303.

304.

305.

306.

307.

308.

309.

310.

311.

312.

313.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Chandra et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Sharma et al., 2009

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Mir, 2014

Sharma and Lal, 2005

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Reference(s)

Tender parts washed properly, Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana semidried and cooked as vegetable. et al., 2012

The young tendrils and leaves are used for vegetable purpose.

Used as vegetable

Fructification is boiled/cooked in water and then fried in oil with onion

Used as vegetable

The fruits are edible

Edible

Edible

Uncooked roots are chewed, these become gum like after chewing

Used for flavoring food products

Edible as vegetable

Edible

Flower used as vegetable

Raw seeds edible

Purpose

72 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Fruits Fruits

Leaves Leaves Leaves, shoots Seeds

Name of the plant species

L. lessertiana (DC.) Cl.

L. sativa L.

L. serriola L.

L. tatarica C. A. Mey.

Lagenaria siceraria Molina

L. vulgaris Seringe

Lamium album L.

L. amplexicaule L.

Lavatera kashmiriana Camb.

Lathyrus aphaca L.

S. No.

314.

315.

316.

317.

318.

319.

320.

321.

322.

323.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued) Reference(s)

Singh et al., 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Chandra et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Seeds are known to be eaten during Khan and Hussain, 2014 scarcity

Tender leaves and shoots are boiled and cooked as vegetable

Fresh leaves are cooked as vegetable

Young leaves used as pot herb

Besides common use as vegetable, traditionally fruits are cut into small pieces, grinded and converted into a paste and formed bolus like shape and dried in the sun and stored, traditionally called “Baddi.” The Baddi is used as vegetable in winter when there is scarcity of vegetable.

Fruits used as vegetable

Tender parts washed properly, Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006 semidried and cooked as vegetable.

Tender leaves are used for vegetable

Tender parts washed properly, Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006 semidried and cooked as vegetable.

Tender parts washed properly, Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006 semidried and cooked as vegetable.

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 73

Seeds are cooked as pulse Young shoots and leaves are used for vegetable purpose

L. humilis (Ser.) Fisher. ex Sprengel Seeds Shoots and leaves Fruits Seeds Leaves, shoots Leaves, shoots Leaves, seed oil Young shoots Young shoots Seeds Seed oil Seed oil Fruits Fruits Fruits

Lecanthus wallichii Wedd.

Leea aspera Edgew.

Lens culinaris Medik.

Lepidium capitatum Hk. f., & Thoms.

L. latifolium L.

L. sativum L.

L. virginicum L.

Leucus lanata Benth.

Linum perenne L.

L. usitatissimum L.

Litsea elongata Nees

Lonicera angustifolia Wall. ex DC.

Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.

L. cylindrica L.

325.

326.

327.

328.

329.

330.

331.

332.

333.

334.

335.

336.

337.

338.

339.

Used as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Edible

Used as edible oil

Used as edible oil

Roasted seeds are edible

Young shoots cooked as vegetable

Young shoot occasionally taken as vegetable

Young leaves or plant cooked as vegetable. Seed oil is edible.

Young leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

Young leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

Used for pulse

Fruits edible

Used as vegetable

Fruits

L. sativus L.

324.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Rana et al., 2012

Dangwal et al., 2014

Dangwal et al., 2014

Mehta et al., 2010; Dangwal et al., 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Chandra et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

74 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fructification Fruits Seeds Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Tender leaves, shoots Fruits Leaves Fruits Shoots, leaves

Name of the plant species

Lycoperdon sp.

Lycopersicon esculentum Miller

Macrotyloma uniflorum Lam.

Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel.

Maesa indica Willd.

Malus baccata (L.) Borkh.

M. domestica Borkh.

Malva neglecta L.

M. parviflora L.

M. rotundifolia L.

M. sylvestris L.

M. verticillata L.

Mangifera indica L.

Marsilea quadrifolia L.

Maytenus rufa (Wall. ex Roxb.) Raju & Babu

Medicago lupulina L.

S. No.

340.

341.

342.

343.

344.

345.

346.

347.

348.

349.

350.

351.

352.

353.

354.

355.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued) Reference(s)

Pant and Samant, 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Sharma et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Rashid et al., 2008

Singh et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Mir, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Rana et al., 2012; Negi and Subramani, 2015

Sharma et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Young shoots and leaves cooked as Khan and Hussain, 2014 vegetable

Edible

Used as vegetable

Edible

Boiled and cooked as vegetable

Cooked as vegetable

Tender leaves are used for vegetable

Cooked as vegetable

Young leaves are cooked as vegetable

Fruits edible

Edible

Edible

Fruits are edible

Used as pulse

Edible vegetable, salad, sauce, etc.

Fleshy puff balls are boiled/cooked Sharma et al., 2009 in water and then fried in oil

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 75

Parts used Tender leaves Fruits Leaves Leaves Fruits Leaves Shoots Leaves Leaves Flowers Fruits Fruits Fructification

Name of the plant species

M. sativa L.

Melia azedarach L.

Melilotus alba Medicus ex Desr.

Melochia corchorifolia L.

Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) Cong.

Mentha arvensis L.

M. longifolia L.

M. spicata L.

M. viridis L.

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Momordica charantia L.

M. dioica Wall.

Morchella conica Pers.

S. No.

356.

357.

358.

359.

360.

361.

362.

363.

364.

365.

366.

367.

368.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Fructification is boiled/cooked in water and then fried in oil with onion to prepare very delicious dish

Fruits eaten as vegetable.

Fruits cooked as vegetable

Edible

Leaves are used for making chutney and as flavoring agent

Leaves used as spice and condiment

Shoots used as vegetable and condiment

Leaves are used as a spice and condiment

Edible

Edible

Tender leaves used as vegetable

Edible

Cooked as vegetable

Purpose

Sharma et al., 2009

Srivastava, 1988; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma et al., 2013

Chauhan et al., 2013

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Mir, 2014

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Singh et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Reference(s)

76 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fructification

Whole plant

Fructification

Fruits, leaves

Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Leaves, fruit

Name of the plant species

M. deliciosa Fries.

M. esculenta L.

M. semilebra DC.

Moringa oleifera Lam.

Morus alba L.

M. austratis Poir.

M. himaliana L.

M. nigra L.

M. serrata Roxb.

Murraya koenigii Spreng.

S. No.

369.

370.

371.

372.

373.

374.

375.

376.

377.

378.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Leaves used for flavoring curries and culinary preparations. Ripe fruits edible

Ripe fruits edible

Dark red fruits are sour and eaten fresh

Ripened fruits are eaten

Ripe fruits are eaten

Ripe fruits edible

Ripened fruits are edible and leaves are used to flavor the dishes (curries) and pickled

Fructification is boiled/cooked in water and then fried in oil with onion to prepare very delicious dish

Fructification is boiled/cooked in water and then fried in oil with onion to prepare very delicious dish

Fructification is boiled/cooked in water and then fried in oil with onion to prepare very delicious dish

Purpose

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010; Pant and Samant, 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2009

Chandra et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010 Sharma et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Tiwari et al., 2010; Mehta et al., 2010; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2009; Mir, 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2009

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 77

Parts used Fruits Fruits Fruits Leaves Rhizomes Fronds Rhizomes Petiole Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Fruits Roots Frond Fruits Fruits Fruits

Name of the plant species

Musa bauensis Hakkinen & Meekion

M. paradisiaca L.

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex Don

Nasturtium officinale R. Br.

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.

Nephrodium odoratum (Bory ex Willd.) Baker

Nymphaea alba L.

Nymphoides peltatum Kuntz.

Ocimum americanum L.

O. basilicum L.

O. canum Sm.

Olea ferruginea Royle

Onosma hispidum Wall.

Ophioglossum reticulatum L.

Opuntia cochenillifera (L.) Miller

O. dillenii Haw.

O. elatior Miller

S. No.

379.

380.

381.

382.

383.

384.

385.

386.

387.

388.

389.

390.

391.

392.

393.

394.

395.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Fruits edible

Boiled ripe fruits eaten after removing spines.

Ripe fruits edible

Edible

Sweet and soup

Edible

Edible as tea

Edible

Leaves made into sauce

Used as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Vegetable

Used as vegetable

Used as green vegetable

Edible

Edible

Fruits are edible

Purpose

Tiwari et al., 2010

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Ballabha et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Dangwal et al., 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Tiwari et al., 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Srivastava, 1988

Gupta, 1962

Srivastava, 1988

Sharma et al., 2009; Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

78 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Roots Leaves, flower top Leaves and seeds Whole plant Shoots Grains Bark Flowers, leaves

Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves, shoots

Leaves, twigs

Name of the plant species

Orchis latifolia L.

Origanum normale Don

O. vulgare L.

Orobanche alba Steph.

O. hansii Ker.

Oryza sativa L.

Osyris wightiana Wall. ex. Wight

Ougeinia oojeiensis (Roxb.) Hochr.

Oxalis acetosella L.

O. corniculata L.

O. latifolia Kunth

Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill.

Peonia emodi Wallich ex Royle

S. No.

396.

397.

398.

399.

400.

401.

402.

403.

404.

405.

406.

407.

408.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Srivastava, 1988

Gairola and Biswas, 2010

Reference(s)

Green leaves and twigs are boiled, mitigated and cleaned before frying and eaten as vegetable

Fresh leaves and shoots are sour first boiled and cooked as vegetable

Edible

Edible, leaves taken as salad or cooked as vegetable

Cooked as vegetable

Flowers are boiled and much sought after mixed with cooked rice and millets

Bark powder is used for making namkeen tea

Edible food

The tender shoots are cooked as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Gupta, 1962; Chandra et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Rashid et al., 2008

Tiwari et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Chauhan et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Srivastava, 1988

Leaves used as vegetable and seeds Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma as spice et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Spice

Edible

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 79

Parts used Grains Leaves Fruits Fruits Grains Grains Seed oil Leaves Shoots Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Fruits Fruits Fruits

Name of the plant species

Panicum miliaceum L.

Papaver dubium L.

Parthinocissus himalayana Planch.

P. semicordata (Wall.) Planch.

Paspalum serobiculatum L.

Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.

Perilla frutescens L.

Perovskia abrotanoides Kiril

Persicaria alpina (All.) H.Gross

Phanera vahlii Wt., & Arn.

Phaseolus vulgaris L.

P. coccineus L.

P. lunatus L.

Phoenix acaulis Rosb. ex Buch.Ham.

P. humilis Royle

P. sylvestris (Roxb.) L.

S. No.

409.

410.

411.

412.

413.

414.

415.

416.

417.

418.

419.

420.

421.

422.

423.

424.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Ripe fruits eaten

Edible

Fruits are eaten

Used for pulse

Used for pulse

Used for pulse

Seeds roasted and eaten

Tender shoots are eaten for quenching thirst

Leaves used for flavoring curry

Used as edible oil

Grains cooked with rice to make local dishes

Edible food millet

Edible

Edible

Tender leaves used as vegetable

Edible food millet

Purpose

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010; Pant and Samant, 2010

Rashid et al., 2008

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Kala, 2007; Mehta et al., 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Mehta et al., 2010; Tiwari et al., 2010

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Singh et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

80 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruits

Whole plant Whole plant Fruits Fruits Leaves Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds, sweet resin Fruits

Fruit, Kernel

Name of the plant species

Phyllanthus emblica L.

P. virgatus Frost.

Physalis minima L.

P. divaricata D.Don

P. peruviana L.

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

Picea smithiana (Wallich) Boisser.

Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D. Don

P. longifolia Roxb. Sans

P. roxburghii Sarg.

P. wallichiana A. B. Jacks

Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J. L. Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f.

P. integerrima Bin.

S. No.

425.

426.

427.

428.

429.

430.

431.

432.

433.

434.

435.

436.

437.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued) Reference(s)

Edible

Edible

Seeds, sweet latex secreted during October and November are eaten in raw form

Edible

Seeds eaten raw

Seeds edible

Seeds edible

Edible as green vegetable

Ripe fruits are eaten

Fruits are edible

Edible

Edible

Sharma et al., 2013; Pant and Samant, 2010

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Sharma et al., 2009

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2009

Rana et al., 2012

Dangwal et al., 2014

Sharma et al., 2009, 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Srivastava, 1988

Tiwari et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010

Yellowish mature fruits, which also Chandra et al., 2013 are rich in vitamin C are eaten and as value added used for preparing jams, jellies products and pickles.

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 81

Parts used Seeds Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Roots Fruits Flowers Roots Tubers Tender leaves Leaves

Tender leaves Shoots

Name of the plant species

Pisum sativum L.

Plantago asiatica L.

P. himalaica Pilger

P. lanceolata L.

P. major L.

Platanus orientalis L.

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle.

Pogostemon bengalensis (Burm.f.) Ktze.

Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) Allioni

P. verticillatum (L.) All.

Polygonum alpinum All.

P. amplexicaule Don

P. aviculare L.

P. molle D. Don

S. No.

438.

439.

440.

441.

442.

443.

444.

445.

446.

447.

448.

449.

450.

451.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Tender shoots are eaten for quenching thirst

Used as vegetable

Leaves cooked as vegetable. Woody root stocks are boiled in water to yield decoction to which milk and sugar are added for consumption as a tea substitute by the hilly people.

Used as vegetable

Edible

Roots are eaten raw

Edible

Ripen fruits are red berries which are edible

Infusion of the roots is consumed as a beverage

Used as vegetable in juvenile stage

Fresh leaves are used as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Used for pulse, vegetable

Purpose

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Srivastava, 1988

Rashid et al., 2008; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Srivastava, 1988

Sharma et al., 2013

Ballabha et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988; Mir, 2014

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mir, 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Rashid et al., 2008; Mir, 2014

Srivastava, 1988

Srivastava, 1988

Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

82 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Ripened fruits are edible Ripe fruits eaten. Seed oil is used for edible purposes.

Tender leaves Fronds, leaves Leaves, shoots Leaves, shoots

Fruits, seeds and seed oil Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits

Fruits

Polystichium aculeatum (L.) Roth.

Portulaca oleracea L.

Potamogetan perfoliatus L.

Potentilla fulgens Wallich ex Hook. Fruits Fruit, seed oil

P. orientale L.

Prinsepia utilis Royle

Prunus armeniaca L.

P. cornuta (Wall.) Steud.

P. cerasoides D. Don

P. jacquemontii Hook.f.

P. mira Koehne

P. napaulensis Ser.

453.

454.

455.

456.

457.

458.

459.

460.

461.

462.

463.

464.

Fruits are edible

Fruits eaten raw or as dry fruits. The dried fruits are also used for making local beverages called ‘Reg Rak’ or ‘Reg Phasur’

Edible

Ripen fruits are edible

Edible

Edible

Young leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable

Leaves and shoots used as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Cooked as vegetable

Seeds yield oil, used as edible purposes. Fruits are edible

Seeds, fruits

P. nepalensis Meissn.

452.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Mehta et al., 2010

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Rana et al., 2012

Mehta et al., 2010; Ballabha et al., 2013

Rana et al., 2012

Gupta, 1962; Pant and Samant, 2010; Rana et al., 2012

Gupta, 1962; Mehta et al., 2010; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Sharma et al., 2013

Ballabha et al., 2013

Rashid et al., 2008

Gupta, 1962; Srivastava, 1988; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Gupta, 1962; Mehta et al., 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 83

Parts used Fruits Fruits Leaves, flowers Rhizomes

Tubers

Seeds Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits

Name of the plant species

P. persica (L.) Batsch.

Psidium guajava L.

Pteracanthus alatus (Nees) Bremek.

Pteridium aquilibrium L.

Pueraria tuberosa DC.

Punica granatum L.

Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem.

Pyrus communis L.

P. lanata Ham.

P. pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

P. pyrifolia Burm,

Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus

S. No.

465.

466.

467.

468.

469.

470.

471.

472.

473.

474.

475.

476.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Sharma et al., 2009

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Gupta, 1962; Mehta et al., 2010; Tiwari et al., 2010; Chandra et al., 2013

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Dangwal et al., 2014

Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Sharma et al., 2013

Reference(s)

Fruits are some time eaten by tribal Dangwal et al., 2014 people

Ripen fruits are edible

Edible

Fruits are edible

Fruits are edible

Ripe fruits eaten

Dried seeds sold as ‘anardana’ for chutney preparation

Used as vegetable and tuberous roots having a taste like liquorices are boiled and consumed

Boiled and roasted rhizome and young leaves eaten as vegetable and also for pickle preparation

Leaves and flowers occasionally cooked as vegetable

Fruits are edible

Ripen fruits edible

Purpose

84 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Edible The green part of the plant before flowering is cooked and is used as vegetable

Fructification

Randia tetrasperma (Roxb.) Benth., Fruits & Hk. Whole plant

Leaves Whole plant Roots Flowers Fruits Leaves Leaves Leaves, tendrils

R. botrytoides (Pers:Fr.) Ricken

Ranunculus arvensis L.

R. laetus L.

R. muricatus L.

Raphanus sativus L.

Reinwardtia indica Dumort.

Rhamnus triquetra (Wallich) Lawson

Rheum australe D. Don.

R. emodi Wall. ex Meissn.

R. moorcroftianum Royle

478.

479.

480.

481.

482.

483.

484.

485.

486.

487.

488.

Young leaves and tendrils are boiled especially by Gaddi and shepherd in alpine region. It imparts sour taste

The leaves are used as vegetable

Leaves used as vegetable

Ripe fruits edible

The fresh yellow flowers are chewed by the children

Roots edible

Before flowering the plant is used as vegetable

Leaves consumed as vegetable

Brooms like appendages are cooked/boiled in water and then fried in oil with onion

Fructification used for making delicious vegetable

Fructification

Ramaria abietina (Pers.) Quel.

477.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Chandra et al., 2013

Mir, 2014

Mir, 2014; Rana et al., 2012

Ballabha et al., 2013

Chandra et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mir, 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mir, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2009

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 85

Parts used Leaves, shoots Leaves, shoots Fructification Fructification Fructification Leaves, shoot

Leaves Flowers Flowers, buds

Flowers

Name of the plant species

R. tibeticum Maxim ex Hk. f.

R. webbianum Royle

Rhizopogon luteolus Fr.

R. rubescens Tal., & C. Tal.

R. vulgaris (Vittad.) M. Lange.

Rhodiola heterodonta (Hook.f & Thoms.) A. Boiss.

R. imbricata Edgew.

Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don

R. arborium Sm.

R. campanulatum D. Don

S. No.

489.

490.

491.

492.

493.

494.

495.

496.

497.

498.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Sharma et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Flowers eaten raw or made into sauce, jellies, jams or refreshing drinks

Flowers eaten raw or made into sauce, jellies, jams or refreshing drinks. Flowers buds are used as vegetable

Flowers used in the preparation of local Namkeen/salted tea

Cooked as vegetable

Rashid et al., 2008

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013; Dngwal et al., 2014; Mehta et al., 2010

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Tender leaves and shoots are Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006 cooked as vegetable or used to make a delicious dish called Tantur with curd

Tough rounded mycelia mass is eaten in raw form

Tough rounded mycelia mass is eaten in raw form

Tough rounded mycelia mass is eaten in raw form

Young leaves boiled and cooked as vegetable

Young leaves boiled and cooked as vegetable

Purpose

86 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruits Fruits Fruits Ripe berries Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Seed oil Flowers

Fruits Shoots Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits

Name of the plant species

Rhus cotinus L.

R. javanica L.

R. parviflora Roxb.

Ribes alpestre var. giganteum Wall. ex Decne

R. glaciale Wall.

R. griffithii Hook. f., & Thomson

R. himalense Royle ex Decne

R. orientale Desf.

Ricinus communis L.

Rosa brunonii Lindl.

R. canina L.

R. indica L.

R. macrophylla Lindl.

R. moschata L.

R. sericea Lind.

R. webbiana Wall. ex Royle

S. No.

499.

500.

501.

502.

503.

504.

505.

506.

507.

508.

509.

510.

511.

512.

513.

514.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Edible

Fruits are edible

Edible

Ripe fruits are eaten

Fleshy shoots are eaten

Ripe fruits edible

Flowers used for preparation of rose water and taken internally as laxative

Caster oil is produced which is edible.

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Fruits are edible and made into sauce

Fruits edible

Purpose

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Rana et al., 2012

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Rashid et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2009

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Mehta et al., 2010; Rana et al., 2012

Pant and Samant, 2010; Dangwal et al., 2014

Tiwari et al., 2010

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 87

Parts used Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits

Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Whole plant

Name of the plant species

Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming

Rubus barbatus Edgew.

R. biflorus Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.

R. duthieanus Sm.

R. ellipticus Sm.

R. foliosus D.Don

R. fruticosus L.

R. hoffmeisterianus Kunth & Bouche

R. macilentus Cambess

R. nepalensis (Hook.f.) Kuntze

R. niveus Thunb.

R. paniculatus Smith

R. pentagonus Wall. ex Focke

R. ulmifolius Shoot

Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees

S. No.

515.

516.

517.

518.

519.

520.

521.

522.

523.

524.

525.

526.

527.

528.

529.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Edible

Edible raw

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Ripen fruits are edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Edible

Fruits are edible

Purpose

Sharma et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Gaur, 1999

Bisht and Jain, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Bisht and Jain, 2006; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Bisht and Jain, 2006; Dangwal et al., 2014

Bisht and Jain, 2006; Dangwal et al., 2014

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Bisht and Jain, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Sharma et al., 2013

Gaur, 1999

Bisht and Jain, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Ballabha et al., 2013

Reference(s)

88 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Whole plant Aerial parts, Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, stem Tender plant Tuber Gum Flower buds Flowers Kernels

Roots

Name of the plant species

Rumex acetosa L.

R. hastatus Don

R. maritimus L.

R. nepalensis Spr.

R. obtusifolius L.

R. patientia L. ssp. orientalis Benth. ex Schult. f.

Sagittaria sagittifolia L.

Salix alba L.

Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott.

Salvia coccinea L.

Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.

Saussurea heteromalla Hand.-Mazz.

S. No.

530.

531.

532.

533.

534.

535.

536.

537.

538.

539.

540.

541.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Roots eaten as raw

Kernels put under running water for about a week, dried and made into flour used for making halwa or bread

Flowers consumed for nectar

Vegetable

Gum exudates chewed for its sweetness

Cooked as vegetable

Boiled and used as vegetable

Fresh stem and leaves eaten as such

Fresh leaves cooked as vegetable

Leaves are cooked as vegetable

Aerial parts refreshing and eaten raw. Leaves edible

Vegetable in juvenile stage

Purpose

Kumar and Hamal, 2009

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Gupta, 1962

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Srivastava, 1988

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Rashid et al., 2008

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Sharma et al., 2013

Mir, 2014

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 89

Parts used Leaves Leaves Fruits Fruits, leaves Leaves Leaves Seed oil Shoots Grains Grains Grains

Shoots, leaves Whole plant Whole plant

Name of the plant species

S. lappa Clarke

S. simpsoniana (Fielding & Gardner) Lipsch.

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken

Sechium edule Jacquin

Sedum ewersii Ledeb.

S. tibeticum Hook. f., & Thoms.

Sesamum orientale L.

Seseli libanotis (L) K. Koch

Setaria glauca L.

S. italica L.

S. viridis L.

Silene conoides L.

Sisymbrium loeselii L.

Smilacina purpurea Wall.

S. No.

542.

543.

544.

545.

546.

547.

548.

549.

550.

551.

552.

553.

554.

555.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Edible

Used as vegetable

Shoots and leaves are cooked as vegetable

Roasted grains used as a substitute of coffee. Powdered grains mixed with wheat flour for making dough for chapati

Edible food millet

Grains occasionally eaten, often used in local beverages

Vegetable

Used for edible purpose

Used as vegetable

Boiled and cooked as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Unripe fruits are pickled and ripe fruits eaten

Dried leaves used for making local Namkeen/salted tea

Used as vegetable

Purpose

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mir, 2014

Chandra et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Srivastava, 1988

Mehta et al., 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Srivastava, 1988; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010; Chandra et al., 2013

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Mir, 2014

Reference(s)

90 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Boiled seeds and bark is given to the woman after the delivery Fruits edible

Leaves, shoots Shoots Leaves Leaves Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Tubers

Fruits Leaves

S. parviflora Wall

Sonchus asper (L.) Hill

S. oleraceus L.

Solanum indicum L.

S. melongena L.

S. nigrum L.

S. pseudocaspicum L.

S. tuberosum L.

S. xanthocarpum Schrad., & Wendl. Seed, bark Fruits

S. glaucophylla Klotzsch.

Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi

S. heterophylla L.

Sonchus olearaceus L.

557.

558.

559.

560.

561.

562.

563.

564.

565.

566.

567.

568.

569.

Pant and Samant, 2010

Singh et al., 2013

Kumar and Hamal, 2009

Dangwal et al., 2014

Gairola and Biswas, 2008

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Reference(s)

Eaten raw as salad or cooked as vegetable

Fruits edible

Used as vegetable

Fruits are used as coloring agent to various dishes

Ripen fruits are eaten

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Rashid et al., 2008

Mehta et al., 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Rashid et al., 2008

Pant and Samant, 2010; Mir, 2014

Fruits cooked as vegetable and also Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma and used for culinary preparations Sood, 2013

Edible

Fresh tender leaves are used as vegetable

Leaves cooked as vegetable

Occasionally young shoots used as vegetable.

Edible

Young shoots cooked as a vegetable and also pickled. Pieces of roots added in the preparation of soups

Shoot, root

Smilax aspera L.

556.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 91

Parts used Fruits Fruits Fruits Grains Grains Fruiting body

Leaves Fruits Fruits Tender leaves and stalks Leaves, shoots Fruits

Name of the plant species

Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedlund

S. foliolosa (Wall.) Spach

S. lanata (D.Don) S. Schauer

Sorghum halepense (L.)

S. vulgare L.

Sparassis crispa Fr.

Spinacea oleracea L.

Spiraea canescens Don

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz

Stellaria media (L.) Vill.

S. palustris Ehrh. ex Retz.

Syzygium cumini Skees.

S. No.

570.

571.

572.

573.

574.

575.

576.

577.

578.

579.

580.

581.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Edible

Boiled and cooked as vegetable

Whole plant used as vegetable at tender stage

Edible

Ripen fruits are edible

Used as vegetable

Fresh fruiting bodies are used for making delicious vegetables. These are boiled, water decanted, squeezed and fried in oil. Species is likened by the people of area very much and collect it more quantity. Fructification is also dried and stored for winter uses, when other vegetable are not available

Edible food

Used as food when mixed with wheat or Maruwa

Edible

Edible

Fruits edible

Purpose

Sharma et al., 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Mir, 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2009

Mehta et al., 2010

Chauhan et al., 2014

Mehta et al., 2010

Srivastava, 1988; Chandra et al., 2013

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

92 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruits Leaves and roots Bark Fruits Fruits Tender fruits Fruits Fruits Rootstock Leaves Whole plant Seeds Stems Fruits Shoots

Name of the plant species

Tamarindus indica L.

Taraxacum officinale Wigg.

Taxus baccata L.

T. wallichiana Zucc.

Taxillus vestitus (Wall.) Danser

Telosma pallida Craib

Terminelia chebula Retz.

T. bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Thermopsis barbata Benth.

Thlapsi alpestre L. ex Hook.f., & Thoms.

Thymus linearis Benth.

T. serculum L.

Tinospora cordifolia (L.) Merr.

Trapa natans L.

Tragopogon gracilis D. Don

S. No.

582.

583.

584.

585.

586.

587.

588.

589.

590.

591.

592.

593.

594.

595.

596.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Sharma et al., 2013

Srivastava, 1988

Mehta et al., 2010; Pant and Samant, 2010

Negi and Subramani, 2015

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Reference(s)

Vegetable

Fruits collected from fresh water lakes are cooked as vegetable

Edible

Seeds used in pickle

Edible

Cooked as vegetable

Rana et al., 2012

Chandra et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2013

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Rana et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Young rootstock used as vegetables Negi and Subramani, 2015

Kernels are edible

Edible

Cooked as vegetable

Edible

Edible

Bark used as a substitute for tea

Fresh or dried leaves are cooked as vegetable roots eaten raw

Edible

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 93

Parts used Leaves, shoots and seeds Fruits Seeds Leaves Fruits Leaves, shoots Leaves, seeds Leaves Grains Bulbs Rhizome Tubers Leaves, shoots

Name of the plant species

Tribulus terrestris L.

Trichosanthes anguina L.

T. tricuspidata Lour.

Trifolium repens L.

Triglochin palustre L.

Trigonella emodii Benth.

T. foenum-graecum L.

Trillidium govanianum (Wall. ex. D.Don) Kunth

Triticum aestivum L.

Tulipa stellata Hook.f. var. chrysantha Boiss.

Typha angustata Bory & Chaub

Typhonium diversifolium Wall. ex Schott.

Urtica ardens Link

S. No.

597.

598.

599.

600.

601.

602.

603.

604.

605.

606.

607.

608.

609.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Young shoots with leaves are collected, boiled with water, fried and eaten as vegetable after adding spices as per tastes during winter months

Used as vegetable

Used as vegetable

Consumed raw or cooked as vegetable

Powdered grains used for making chapatti

Leaves cooked as vegetable

Used as vegetable and spice

Vegetable

Eaten as bread after making of its flour

Used as vegetable

Edible

Edible vegetable

Fresh leaves and shoots are cooked as vegetable. Seeds used for oil extraction

Purpose

Mehta et al., 2010; Chandra et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Srivastava, 1988

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010; Rana et al., 2012

Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kumar and Hamal, 2009

Mehta et al., 2010

Rana et al., 2012

Srivastava, 1988

Srivastava, 1988

Pant and Samant, 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

94 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Tender shoots, leaves Leaves, shoots Leaves Tender shoots, inflorescence Fruits Fruits

Fruits Fruits, seeds Aerial Plant Parts, Seed Fruits Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds

Name of the plant species

U. dioica L.

U. hyperborea Jacq. ex Wedd.

U. mairei H. Lev.

U. parviflora Roxb.

Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don

V. grandiflorum Decene.

V. mullah Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Vicia faba L.

V. hirsuta (L.) Koch

V. sativa L.

Vigna angularis Willd.

V. mungo L.

V. radiata L.

V. umbellata Thunb.

V. unguiculata L.

S. No.

610.

611.

612.

613.

614.

615.

616.

617.

618.

619.

620.

621.

622.

623.

624.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Singh et al., 2013

Gupta, 1962; Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014; Rana et al., 2012

Reference(s)

Mehta et al., 2010

Gupta, 1962; Pant and Samant, 2010

Used as pulse

Used as pulse

Used as pulse

Used as pulse

Used as pulse

Edible

Aerial parts cooked as vegetable. Seeds also eaten

Used as vegetable

Ripen fruits are edible

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Pant and Samant, 2010

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Ripen fruits are delicious and eaten Rana et al., 2012; Mir, 2014; Dangwal et al., 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Ripen fruits are edible

Vegetable, remedy for sciatica

Tender leaves are used as vegetable Negi and Subramani, 2015

Cooked as vegetable

Tender shoots and leaves used as delicious pot herb, remedy for sciatica, seed oil is edible

Purpose

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 95

Parts used Roots, seeds Flowers Flowers Flower petals Flowers Flowers Fruits Fruits Fruits Roots Leaves Fruits, leaves

Name of the plant species

V. vexillata (L.) A. Rich.

Viola betonicifolia J. E. Smith

V. biflora L.

V. odorata L.

V. pilosa Wall.

V. serpens Wall

Vitis jacquemontii Parker

V. lanata Roxb.

V. vinifera L.

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz

Xylosma longifolium Clos.

Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.

S. No.

625.

626.

627.

628.

629.

630.

631.

632.

633.

634.

635.

636.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Fruits are edible. Young leaves and fruits used for making chutney, for flavoring the food

Edible

Edible

Fruits are edible

Fruits are edible

Ripe fruits are edible

Flowers used for flavoring tea

Flowers are eaten and soup is used as tea substitute

Petals are dried and used in syrup and vegetable

Flowers are eaten and soup is used as tea substitute

Flowers are eaten and soup is used as tea substitute

Fusiform root edible, some times seeds also

Purpose

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Mehta et al., 2010

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Rashid et al., 2008

Mir, 2014; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Rashid et al., 2008

Rashid et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014

Reference(s)

96 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used Fruits Grains Rhizomes Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits

Name of the plant species

Z. armatum DC.

Zea mays L.

Zingiber officinale Rosc.

Z. armatum DC.

Ziziphus glaberrima (Sedgwick)

Z. jujuba (L.) Gaertn.

Z. mauritiana Lam.

Z. nummularia Wt., & Arn.

Z. oxyphylla Edgew.

Z. sativa Gaertn.

Z. vulgaris Lamk.

S. No.

637.

638.

639.

640.

641.

642.

643.

644.

645.

646.

647.

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Eaten raw

Ripe fruits edible

Ripe fruits edible

Ripe fruits edible

Edible

Ripe fruits edible

Fruits edible

Edible

Condiment, spice

Edible food

Aromatic fruits are mouth refreshing

Purpose

Srivastava, 1988

Rashid et al., 2008

Khan and Hussain, 2014

Rashid et al., 2008; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mehta et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2013; Khan and Hussain, 2014

Rashid et al., 2008

Dangwal et al., 2014

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Pant and Samant, 2010; Sharma et al., 2013

Mehta et al., 2010

Rashid et al., 2008

Reference(s)

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation 97

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cultivated plants in the region. In Uttarakhand apart from the usual stable food items such as rice and roti, a total of 21 other traditional food items based on the availability of food grains as well as nutritional requirement of the natives were reported by Mehta et al. (2010). The traditional staples are a very good combination of available millets, pulses and other material, for example, Chaulai ka bhat (Amaranth); Kutu ki roti (Buckwheat); Madua/ Jhangora ka bhat (Barnyard millet); Madira/Jhangora ki roti (Barnyard millet flour); Madua ki roti (Finger millet flour); Lesuwa roti (Finger millet and wheat flour); Kauni ka bhat (Dehusked Foxtail millet); Kauni ki roti (Dehusked Foxtail millet flour); Ginjada (Madira) (Dehusked Barnyard millet and black soybean (bhat); Ginjada (Kauni) (Dehusked Foxtail millet and black soybean); Tilkuta (Rice, blackgram, sesame); Meetha bhat (Rice and jaggery); Golthia (Wheat, ghee, jaggery); Chhachhiya (Rice, curd); Chhola roti (Wheat flour, jaggery and ghee); Chhoi/Chhabua (Wheat flour, jaggery and ghee); Mash ki bedu roti (Wheat flour, black gram); Gahat ki bedu roti (Wheat flour, horse gram); Lobia ki bedu roti (Wheat flour, cowpea); Gurush ki bedu roti (Wheat flour, rice bean); Joula/Bhatia (Rice, black soybean (bhat)). The productivity of pulses is very poor in the region. Pulses are grown as mixed with major cereals and minor millet crops during kharif as a measure to ensure the food security. There are a total of 15 pulses and grain legumes grown in the region but some pulses such as black soybean (bhat), horsegram, blackgram and cowpea are produced well in the hill terraces. A total of 19 sweet dishes were reported from Uttarakhand, for example, Chaulai ki kheer (Amaranth seeds, milk); Chaulai ka halwa (Amaranth seeds, coconut); Ogal/phaphar ka halwa (Buckwheat); Madira/ Jhangora ki kheer (Barnyard millet dehusked seeds, milk); Kauni ki kheer (Foxtail millet dehusked seed, milk); Madua ki badi (Finger millet flour, jaggery); Madira/Jhangora ka halwa (Barnyard millet dehusked seed); Chamchuda (Rice); Puwe (Wheat flour); Gehun ki khumani (Wheat, milk); Makka ki khumani (Maize, milk); Makki ka chhabua (Green maize seeds); Signal (Rice, udal roots); Til ka pin (Sesame seeds); Arsa (Rice); Meetha bhat; Chhoi/Chhabua; Joula/Bhatia; Chaulai ka halwa; Madira/Jhangora ki kher Kauni ki kheer; Chamchuda (Rice); Puwe; Leta/Lapsi (Wheat flour, milk); Methi ke laddu (Fenugreek seeds, besan); Kanaka (Wheat, milk); Kaddu ka halwa (Matured pumpkin, cheese, cashew nuts) (Mehta et al., 2010). Traditional pulse recipes of Uttarakhand, for example, Bhat ke dubake (Black seeded soybean), Gahat ke dubake (Horsegram); Urad ka chaisa

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation

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(Blackgram); Lobia ka chaisa (Cowpea); Chutkani (Black seeded soybean); Gahat ki dal (Horse gram, heeng) etc. (Mehta et al., 2010). Traditional vegetables commonly prepared by ethnic groups from wild species of Uttarakhand were documented by Mehta et al. (2010). Bichhu ka saag (twigs and soft leaves of Urtica spp., heeng); Lingura ki sabzi (Lingura fern folded leaves); Kothiyur ki sabzi (Kathiyur fern folded tender leaves), Bedu ki sabzi (Wild figs tender fruits); Timila ki sabzi (Ficus auriculata tender fruits); Gwaral ki sabzi (Tender flower bud of Bauhinia sp); Jhankara ka saag (Wild buckwheat tender twigs and leaves, coriander seeds); Semal ki sabzi (Semal tender fruits); Pania ka saag (Paniaghas, coriander seeds); Rambans ki sabzi (Rambans tender shoot); Jarag ka saag (Jarag twigs (Phytolacca sp.), coriander seeds, chili capsules; Gandpapar ka saag (Ganpapar’s folded leaves, coriander or fenugreek seeds); Birali kand ki sabzi (Birali kand yams); Genthi ki sabzi (roots of Genthi yams); Tarur ki sabzi (Tarun aerial root yams and aerial bulbs); Sakina ke phoolon ka saag (Sakina tender flower buds); Kairua ka saag Tender shoots of Kairuwa (Asparagus spp.); Banar ka saag (Banar pods); Ala ki subzi (Ala Girardiana sp. inflorescence); Bankh ki sabzi (Bankh tubers); Ganjad ki sabzi (Ganjadi roots); Bathua ki sabzi (Tender twigs of bathua Chenopodium sp.); Sonjal ka saag (Sonjal’s tender twigs); Buransh ke phoolon ki sabzi (Tender flower buds); Rugi ki sabzi (Tubers of Rugi); Hanw ka saag (Tender stem and leaves); Ghargud ki sabzi (Ghargud), etc. Some special traditional vegetables, for example, Methi ke bejon ki sabzi (Fenugreek seeds); Bhang aur gaderi ki sabzi [Gaderi (Colocasia sp.), hemp seeds]; Aalu sarson ki sabzi (Potato, mustard seeds); Ogal ka saag (Buckwheat tender twigs); Ganpapar, chalmora ka saag [Wild Colocasia tender leaves, chalmora (Oxalis sp.)]; Masur dal ki sabzi (Lentil, onion, mustard oil); Pinalu ka gunuwa [Colocasia leaves, lentil or gram flour (besan)]; Masur ki chilada (Lentil, vegetable oil); Bedu ki saani (matured bedu fruits, mustard oil); Lahsun ki sabzi (Garlic); Aalu methi ke bejon ki sabzi (Potato, fenugreek seeds) were reported by Mehta et al. (2010). Angchok et al. (2009) reported different food preparation from Ladakh Jammu & Kashmir. Breads are made from wheat flour (Paqphey) as well as barley flour (narjen– meaning uncooked barley) or a mixture of the two. Breads are also made from pea or lentil flour. Sometimes, pea and wheat are mixed and ground into flour which makes it more nourishing and palatable. For example Tagi Khambir or Skyurchuk (Browned sour dough bread); Tagi Buskhuruk (Puffed unleavened bread); Tagi Thalkhuruk (Bread uncovered

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and baked in ashes); Tagi Mer-Khour; Tagi Thal-Khour; Tagi Tain-Tain; Tagi Kiseer/Giziri; Skien/Mayaro; Kaptsey/Makhori; Tagi Tsabkhur (Ground sprouted wheat bread); Sephe Tagi (Freshly sprouted wheat bread); Khura (Sweet deep fried biscuits); Ready to serve Kholak (tsampa/namphey mixed in butter tea); Tsiri Kholak (diluted chhang kholak); Sbangphe (Chhang residue kholak); Chuu kholak; Cha Kholak; Der Kholak; Chhang Kholak; Phemar (Kholak for the sweet-tooth); Chubtsos (one of the major ingredients of phemar); Kushi Phey Kholak (crushed dried apple with namphey); Chuli Phe Kholak (powdered dried apricot with namphey); Baril (walnut and apricot kernel dip); Thud (butter and dried cheese brick); Ruskhu (soup made from bones), etc. are main food preparations. Yogurt, curd and vegetables (especially roots like radish and swede). Kholak can be taken as such with tea, butter, vegetable/meat preparations, tsamik, chhang, etc. Paba, Tsamik; Tangthur (Green-leafed vegetables and buttermilk or yogurt); Zathuk (Nettle soup); Tsong chhu (Onion soup); Markhu (Tsampa with melted butter); Sharjen (Thick dried or frozen meat soup); Tsha chhu or  Shespa (meat broth); Thukpa; Tsap-Thuk; Chhan-Thuk; Ngamthuk (Tsampa soup); Jamthuk (Unroasted barley flour soup); Pakthuk (wheat flour noodle soup); Guthuk (9 ingredients soup); Thenthuk (Soup with hand made noodles); Gyathuk (Chinese thukpa); Lama Pakthuk (Monks’ wheat flour soup); Trimthuk (Soup with hand rolled noodles); Trapthuk; Chhu Tagi (Bow-tie noodle stew); Skyu (Cap-shaped noodles stew); Paktsa Marku (Noodle balls in water). Steam cooked dishes are also common in Ladakh, for example, Timok (Streamed bread twist); Mok (Steamed dumplings filled with meat or vegetables); Loko Mok (Cup-shaped dumplings), etc. Certain useful, nourishing and refreshing beverages (Non-alcoholic/ alcoholic) are also enjoyed in Ladakh, for example, Gur Cha or Shrusma Cha (Butter tea); Khunak (Salted black tea); Cha Shrul (Butter tea with tsampa); Chuli Chhu (Apricot juice); Chhang (Fermented barley drink); Arak (Distilled chhang); Rguntshang (Fermented grape drink). Milk products Sri (Post natal milk); Labo (Cottage cheese); Chhurkhu (whey); Chhurphe (dried cottage cheese) etc. (Anchok et al., 2009). The local people in Western and Central Himalayan region also prepare various foods from wild and cultivated plants alone or both. The common food preparations are given as under:

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• Ambua is prepared from ripened mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) juice/ pulp along with stones of mangoes (100 g) and sugar (15 g) is added to the fried spice mixture (cumin seeds – ½ tsp., coriander powder – 5 g, garam masala – 5 g, turmeric powder – 5 g, salt) and cooked for about 5–10 min (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Babroo is prepared from rice (Oryza sativa L.) or wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour slurry, water, carom seeds (2.5 g), garam masala (2.5 g) and salt are added to wheat flour (100 g) to form a batter of semiliquid consistency in Kangra district. The fermented mixture is poured on the greased tawa and cooked similar to that of preparing dosa. Preparation of salty babroos is also reported in Lahaul & Spiti area of Himachal Pradesh. In Hamirpur the babroos prepared with rice flour instead of wheat flour (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Beduan roti, i.e., chapatti stuffed with boiled and mashed colocasia bulbs mixed with salt, chili powder, cumin seed powder (½ tsp.), garlic-ginger paste (½ tsp.), baked on hot griddle (specially on chulha) is also a common and famous specialty of rural kitchens (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Bhalla: Dahin Bhalla is prepared with no spice or salt is added to them are termed as bhalla but prepared by the same method as pakorus. These bhallas are put in spiced curd after dipping in lukewarm water so as to make them (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Bhangolu ki kadi seeds of (Cannabis sativa L.) are ground to a fine paste and are used to make a local dish by adding an equal quantity, i.e., half teaspoon each of cumin seed, coriander powder, turmeric powder, red chili powder and 10 g of garlic paste is roasted in 10 ml of oil and sieved paste of bhangolu seeds is added. Curd and a little amount of water is added boiled for next 10–15 minutes. At the end, one teaspoonful of galgal juice (Citrus pseudolimon Tan.) is added (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Bhat ki Chutkani: Soybean (Glycine max L. white and black seeds) used for making local pulse called ‘Chutkani’ and seed paste of pulse when combined with rice is used to prepare a delicious dish called ‘Dubke’ in Uttarakhand. Flour prepared from its seed is mixed with wheat flour and used to make roti locally called ‘Bedu roti’ (Mehta et al., 2010). • Bhaturu is a fermented product (roti) made of wheat flour which either deep fried or roasted. In Mandi and Hamirpur district, this fermented roti is fried after stuffing it either with soybean (Glycine max L.) or black gram (Vigna mungo L.) soaked and ground to a thick paste and is filled as stuffing and is termed as Beduan roti (Sharma and Singh, 2012).

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• Bhruni ki sabji is also popular among various wild vegetables prepared from Ficus carica L. relished by the Himachali people. The leaves are boiled and ground to a paste. Salt and green chillies are added for enhancing the taste of the dish. A unique method of cooking–smoking (dhuni in local dialect) is used to prepare this dish, i.e., a few drops of mustard oil are poured over the burning coal and this coal is kept over the paste with lid covered on top. The fumes of heated oil are absorbed in the paste which gives a typical smoky flavor to the dish (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Bicchu buti ka saag (Urtica parviflora Roxb.) (100 g) leaves boiled and mashed are cooked in oil with spices like cumin seeds (½ tsp.), coriander powder (½ tsp.) and turmeric powder (¼ tsp.) (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Chacha is prepared from raw mangoes peeled and ground to make a paste with the addition of salt, sugar and chilies. It gives a sweet and sour taste. A semi-liquid dish named mahni is also prepared from pulp extracted from boiled raw mangoes. It is served with rice after adding salt, pepper and shredded onion (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Chawal ke atte (Rice flour) ki beduan roti is a baked cereal and legume based preparation which is prepared by stuffing paste of soaked and dehusked black gram dal (100 g) mixed with garam masala (½ tsp.), salt and red chili powder in the kneaded rice flour (100 g) (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Gulgulae: Sweat flitters are prepared with viscous slurry by mixing sugar (50 g), wheat flour (100 g), water and previously fermented left over dough (5 g) followed by deep frying of small oval-shaped balls. These are specially prepared during birthday ceremony in Mandi and Kangra districts (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Gur Gur Cha or Shrusma Cha (Butter tea) usually a supply will be made in the morning, put in a clay samovar heated with cow dung – and served at frequent intervals throughout the day. Often extra butter will be put in the tea to be soaked by bread; tsampa may also be added at times, anything from just one pinch to quite a lot (Angchok et al., 2009). • Kaandal/khandole is prepared with spilt black gram (500 g) soaked and ground to a fine paste. Salt and spices are added and stems of colocasia are covered with the paste. The paste covered stems then half sun dried cut into small pieces and again sun dried, i.e., kaandal. The dried crispy kaandal are stored and when required cooked with onion, ginger and garlic paste (75 g) and fried along with half teaspoon each

Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Food Preparation

•

•

•

•

• •

103

of cumin seed powder, coriander powder, garam masala, fenugreek seeds. Further kaandal cooked with water and spice mixture about 15–20 minutes and mango powder (locally called aamchoor) is used for sour taste to it (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Kachalu Patrode colocasia (Colocasia esculenta L.) is widely cultivated and is utilized to prepare a number of recipes. Different parts of the plant are used for preparing different dishes. The Patrode which is a roll of Colocasia leaves layered with mixture of gram flour and other spices. To prepare patrode, a fine paste of gram flour (50 g), cumin seeds (½ tsp.), coriander powder (½ tsp.), turmeric powder (½ tsp.), garam masala (5 g), salt and chili powder (½ tsp.) is applied evenly on the underside of a leaf (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Kadi is prepared by simmering a mixture of buttermilk (3 cups) and besan/gramflour (1/2 cup) in spluttered onion (1 large size) and spices (cloves – 4, fenugreek seeds – ½ tsp., coriander powder – 1 tsp. Asafoetida – ½ tsp., red chilies – 4 full, turmeric powder – ¼ tsp.) for 20 minutes on medium flame (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Karalen ki sabzi is delicious wild vegetable consumed by the people during the month of March-April. Bauhinia variegata L. is locally called as karalen/kachnar. 750 g buds of kachnar boiled, (100 g) onion and garlic (15 g) chopped are fried in oil (50 ml) followed by addition of turmeric powder (5 g), salt, red chili powder (according to taste) and boiled kachnar buds. After 5–7 minutes cooking, (15 g) pulp of tamarind is added and the dish is again cooked for 5–10 minutes (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Khati bhuji/Garyali bhuji is prepared from leaves, stem, and bulb of Colocasia. A half teaspoon each of coriander seed and red chili powder are saute followed by addition of shredded leaves of colocasia, pieces of stems, bulbs and salt. The mixture is cooked for about 5 minutes. Dried mango slices (locally called mukdi/maakdi) are added and again cooked on slow flame (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Khoru is prepared with cumin seed (1 tsp.), turmeric powder (¼ tsp.), salt and red chili powder (according to taste) added to the buttermilk (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Khura (Sweet deep fried biscuits) is made especially for Losar when a married girl visits her parent’s home during Losar, she carry with her a plate of khura for the family members. In olden days, local flour would be used, and may be still in use in some villages. Nowadays, a few people use rice flour to achieve an even finer consistency. The salt syrup is used for salty khura (Angchok et al., 2009).

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• Lasiare/lasora: Unripe fresh fruit of Cordia dichotoma L. is used to prepare vegetable or pickle after removing the stone and sticky white pulp. The fresh lasurae crushed fruits are soaked in 1% salt solution for 3–4 hours boiled and further roasted in mustard oil (20 ml) along with turmeric powder (5 g), coriander powder (½ tsp.), sugar (10 g), chili powder (½ tsp.), and salt and raw mango (50 g) for about 10 minutes (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Lungdu neglected fern which is fully utilized by the rural people of the state is Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. The long stocks are cut into pieces and are cooked in mustard oil (20 ml) along with paste of onion (25 g), ginger (½ tsp.), garlic (½ tsp.) and other spices (turmeric powder – ½ tsp., garam masala – 5 g, red chili powder and salt-according to taste). An optional ingredient, i.e., curd (10 g) is sometimes added for flavor and taste (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Mah ki dal ke pakoru a tasty dish in Kangra, Mandi, Chamba, Hamirpur and Bilaspur is crispy. These are fried discs with hole in the center. The hole is made so that it cooks evenly all over. Pakorus are prepared from soaked, dehusked and ground black gram dal (100 g) to which salt, garam masala (½ tsp.) and red chili powder/chopped green chilies (according to taste) are added (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Mithdoo/Sancholu is prepared using of wheat flour dough kneaded with sugar (30 g), grated coconut (10 g), ghee (20 g in 100 g of wheat flour), aniseeds (5 g) and water. The rolled dough is cut into round shape (small rotis), then pressed in between designed embossed wooden dyes and deep fried till golden brown (Sharma and Singh, 2012). • Paba (Mixed grain and legume flour pudding) Most commonly used food in Ladakh is paba and is popular in all the classes all over the region. It is another healthy dish often taken to the fields, for lunch at sowing or harvesting time. Paba flour is called yotches and can have different ingredients, depending on what is grown in the area. It can include barley or wheat or both with any of the legumes like peas, broad beans or lathyrus to make it more nutritious and palatable which is half roasted and ground. In some places, they grind caraway (locally known as kosnyot) seed with the flour to give a good flavor. Traditionally, paba is cooked in a special stone pot called doltok. Some of the dishes or soups are often taken with paba (Angchok et al., 2009). • Pahari Madra is a rich dish of lentils made with yogurt. Mostly soaked and boiled chick peas/Kabuli chana (Cicer arietinum L.) or red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) or black-eyed beans/raungi (Vigna

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unguiculata L.) are used. It is prepared by spluttering of black and green cardamom (2 each), bay leaf (1–2 in number), cinnamon (1–1 ½ inch piece) and aniseed (1 tsp.) in ghee (1 cup). After that turmeric powder (1–2 tsp.) and beaten curd/ yogurt (3 cups) is added. Brisk stirring of the mixture is essential otherwise the curd curdles. When oil/ ghee separates from mixture, boiled beans (1 ½ cups), salt, dry fruits are put and cooked for about 15–20 minutes (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Ready to serve Kholak (tsampa/namphey mixed in butter tea): It is the most commonly used food that involves no cooking. The dish is the ultimate quick and easy breakfast, lunch, trek or anytime food. The fine powdered flour of barley grains (grounded and roasted called as tsampa in Tibetan and namphey in Ladakhi), foxtail millet (tse-tse phey), or wheat (choptsos) is generally referred as phey. Kholak is made by adding the powder to any liquid or semi-liquid and brought to uniformity, does not stick to the hand through proper mixing and accordingly named (Angchok et al., 2009). Rot is made from dough of wheat flour and jaggery especially in the areas of Una, Hamirpur and Bilaspur. It is used for puja/religious purpose (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Seera is famous in Mandi, Kangra, Bilaspur and Hamirpur and traditionally gifted to bride from her parent’s during her marriage. Wheat grains are soaked in water for 4–5 days so as to allow fermentation. The fermented grains are ground and steeped so as to allow the starch grains to settle down. The starch grains are made into of small balls, sundried. These balls are stored in airtight containers for use throughout the year. The (250 g) dried balls are soaked in 100 ml of water with addition of equal amount of sugar (100 g). The prepared slurry cooked in hot ghee (250 g) till it becomes brown (Sharma and Singh, 2012). Tangthur (Green-leafed vegetables and buttermilk or yogurt). Quite a variety of green leafy vegetables are grown in Ladakh such as spinach, ldums (cos lettuce), mongol, salad (Chinese cabbage), sugar beet (leaves only), radish leaves, celery (leaves only) and cabbage. Some people also use Chrysanthemum leaves (pato). In villages, tangthur made with wild green vegetables is served. The proportion of vegetables to butter milk (or yugurt) depends on choice (Angchok et al., 2009). Tantur: Fresh delicate leaves of Rhodiola heterodenta and R. imbricata used to prepare a delicious dish with curd, salt and other spices in Ladakh (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006). Tattwakhar: In Chuwar valley of Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh, the seeds of Aesculus indica are dried and ground into flour, which

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is called Tattwakhar. To prepare the flour, ripened fruits of Aesculus indica are collected during October. Seeds are separated from the fruits and crushed to get smaller pieces in order to facilitate quick removal of bitter content. The crushed seeds are kept in big bamboo baskets, which are placed under running water in a stream or under tap water. The crushed seeds kept in baskets are stirred daily to enhance cleaning process and to prevent rotting of seeds. Stirring process is continued for five to seven days and then the crushed seeds are dried, cleaned and stored in gunny bags for making flour. The flour, Tattwakhar is usually prepared in local water flour mills known as Gharaat. This flour, which is bitter, is used for making Halwa (porridge) especially during marriages and also mixed with wheat flour to prepare Chappatis. The Tattwakhar flour is available in local market in Chawar valley and Sundernagar tehsil of Mandi district in Himachal Pradesh. Bitterness is one of the major characteristics of seeds, hence cleaning process is extensively followed, and even flour prepared from the seed is washed two or three times before making Halwa or mixing it with wheat flour. The bitter component gets dissolved in water and are removed when the water is decanted (Rajasekaran and Singh, 2009). • Thukpa: Thukpa is the generic term for a variety of soups (using wheat or barley flour in many cases) and what we might call stews with wheat flour noodles. Literally, it means over cooked. It is a thick soup or noodle cooked to taste. It is made from namphey, wheat flour, or rice and is accordingly named. In the villages, the flour used will be the strong local variety. Chhurphe, the dried cottage cheese is what gives those dishes a special zip (Angchok et al., 2009). Thukpa is also prepared from fresh or dried leaves Urtica hyperboria mixed with noodles, butter, salt and spices, etc. (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006). Roy et al. (2004) gave the details of indigenous fermented food and beverages of the High altitude societies in Uttaranchal which include Balam or Balma, Jaan (local beer), Dru (alcoholic drink) and Sez (semifermented food).

3.5 DISCUSSION The Western and Central Himalaya has diverse population of ethnic communities which utilize large number of traditional ethnic food plants and food preparations for their daily need. People of the region have been following

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the method of preparation from their ancestors and these dishes have continued like a tradition in entire Western and Central Himalaya. As per reports certain traditional foods of the region still form a staple diet while rest are prepared during special occasions. Most of the foods identified in this zone were prepared by boiling, roasting, smoking, frying and fermentation methods. The food patterns are highly influenced by the ethnic community, availability of raw materials, geographical and climatic conditions of the region. Farming communities and other inhabitants of this zone had knitted their food and nutritional security web around the available resources, climatic and geographic conditions. The review of published literature reveals that there are over 647 ethnic food plants of both cultivated and wild species and numerous varieties of ethnic food and food preparation in vogue. The majority of wild edible plant species are consumed as vegetable, fruits, beverages and food, etc. by the local inhabitants. In order to ensure the food security a majority of over 125 different cuisines were alone reported from Central western Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand. The utilization of a large number of plant species and recipes were not observed anywhere else. Apart from food security, nutritional security is also taken into consideration by the inhabitants of these Western and Central Himalayan zone. Growing a large number of crops and their varieties in a mixed cropping pattern is not only a compulsion, but of paramount importance in view of food security of this zone. This pattern fulfills the requirement of farm households and helps them to sustain their livelihood in the region. In case of scarcity or unavailability of cultivated food items, they also collect the edible plant species from wild stand. If, production of the some perishable vegetables is available in more than sufficient quantity, they preserve them in the form of khwaire, baries, etc. (dehydrated form). Out of the total 647 plant species, more than a dozen of edible macrofungi were found to be used as supplementary food by the peoples in this zone. A maximum number of angiosperms followed by gymnosperms and few pteridophytes were reported to be used. It is interesting to note that the people also make use of some wild macrofungi as supplementary food. Among macrofungal species fructifications of 8 species, i.e., Helvella compressa (Synder) N. S. Weber, Lactarius delicious (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray, Lycoperdon sp., Morchella conica Pers. ex Fr., Morchella deliciosa Fries., Morchella esculenta L., Morchella semilebra DC., Ramaria botrytoides (Fr.) Ricken, Pers., are used in processed form whereas 3 species: Rhizopogon rubescens Tal., & C. Tal., Rhizopogon luteolus Fr., Rhigopogon vulgaris (Vittad.)

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M. Lange., are used in raw form. Lactarius delicious (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray., and species of Morchella and Rhigopogon are the most extensively used macrofungi. Among macrofungi, species of Helvella, Lactarius, Lycoperdon and Ramaria grow during rainy season, whereas species of Morchella and Rhizopogon grow during the month of March and April. It has been reported that an important species of pteridophyte Diplazium esculentum Retz., locally known as Lingara in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh is used for the preparation of delicious vegetable and pickle is facing threats due to improper collection and over exploitation, which need immediate attention for its conservation. Some shrubs like Berberis lyceum Royle, Berberis aristata DC., Rosa moschata Mill., Rosa canina L. and species of Rubus are diminishing from the entire western and central Himalayan area due to deforestation and clearing of the lands for the plantation of trees, etc. 3.6 CONCLUSION The review of published literature indicates that the western and central Himalayan has rich diversity of ethnic food plants and ethnic food preparation in vogue since ancient time which has great significance for food and nutritional security. The variety and variability among the large number of ethnic food plants (647 enlisted) and different food preparations which is environmental and locality specific may play a vital role in fulfillment of future need of supplementary food and food security of people in this Himalayan zone. Therefore, more attention should be paid towards the commercialization of these ethnic foods and their preparations as well as conservation of wildly growing plants to cater the need of nutritional requirements of the future generation. KEYWORDS •• •• •• ••

ethnic food plants food preparation tribal communities Western and Central Himalaya

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81. Sharma, P., Patti, P., & Agnihotry, A. (2013b). Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal uses of floristic diversity in Murari Devi and surrounding areas of Mandi district in Himachal Pradesh, India. Pak. J. Bio. Sci. 16(10), 451–468. 82. Sharma, S., Gautam, A. K., & Bhadauria, R. (2009). Some Important Supplementary Food Plants and Wild Edible Fungi of Upper Hilly Region of District Shimla (Himachal Pradesh), India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 13, 1020–1028. 83. Singh, B., Chaurasia, O. P., & Ballabh, B. (2001). Edible wild plants of Trans-Himalayan Cold Desert. In: P. C. Pande and S. S. Samant (eds.). Plant Diversity of the Himalaya. Samant, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, pp. 483–512. 84. Singh, H. B., & Arora, R. K. (1978). Wild Edible Plants of India, ICAR, New Delhi. 85. Singh, J., Rajshekharan, A., Negi, A. K., & Pala, N. A. (2014). Wild vegetable plants used by tribal people of Kinnaur District of Himachal Pradesh, India. Int. J. Usuf. Mngt., 15(2), 47–56. 86. Singh, P. B. (1996). Wild edible plants of Mandi district in North-West Himalaya. In: Jain, S. K. (ed.) Ethnobiology in Human welfare. Deep Publ., New Delhi, 22–25. 87. Singh, R., Dwivedi, S. K., Raut, B., & Mishra, S. N. (2003). Ethnobotany of Hippophae ‘Seabuckthrn’ in Ladakh. Ethnobotany 15, 1–5. 88. Singh, V. (1997). Lesser Known Wild Edible Plants of Zanskar, (Ladakh) Himalaya, J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 21(1), 175–178. 89. Singh, V. (2002). Cultural importance of the wild edible plants of Lolab valley of Kashmir Himalaya. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 26(3), 669–672. 90. Sinha, R. K. (1996). Ethnobotany – the renaissance of traditional herbal medicines. Ina Shree, Jaipur. 91. Smith, D. B. (1986). The Independent domestication of Indigenous seed-bearing plants in Eastern North America, Center for Archeological Research, Southern Illinois University, Occasional Papers 7. 92. Srivastava, T. N. (1988). Wild edible plants of Jammu & Kashmir State: An Ethnobotanical Study. Ancient Sci. Life, 7(3&4), 201–206. 93. Tiwari, J. K., Ballabhah R., & Tiwari, P. (2010). Some promising wild edible plants of Srinagar and its adjacent. J. Amer. Sci., 6(4), 167–174. 94. Upreti, K, Tewari, L. M., Pangtey Y. P. S., & Jalal, J. S. (2010). Diversity and distribution of wild edible fruit plants of Uttarakhand. In: Tewari, L. M, Pangtey, Y. P. S., & Tewari, G. (eds.) Biodiversity potentials of the Himalaya. Nainital Gyanodaya Prakashan, pp. 157–196.

CHAPTER 4

ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF SUBALPINE AND ALPINE REGION OF UTTARAKHAND HIMALAYA HARSH SINGH1 and VEENA DIXIT2 Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow – 226007, Uttar Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected] 1

Plant diversity, Systematics and Herbarium division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow – 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India

2

CONTENTS Abstract......................................................................................................115 4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................116 4.2  Study Area.........................................................................................118 4.3  Ethnobotanical Plants........................................................................137 4.4  Causes of Decline of Alpine Flora....................................................138 4.5  Methods of Conservation..................................................................139 4.6 Conclusion........................................................................................139 Keywords...................................................................................................139 References..................................................................................................140 ABSTRACT Ethnomedicinal knowledge is a valuable form of indigenous knowledge that provides baseline data for further communization in the form of product. In Uttarakhand, the alpine zone forms about 24.11% of the geographical

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area and around 8,524 km2 alpine vegetation covering with ca 4,376 km2 permanent snow. The rich plant diversity has provided an initial advantage to the inhabitants of Uttarakhand for scrutinizing various plant species for the purpose of food, medicine, perfumes and spices, etc. The life of the local inhabitants in high altitudes is intimately associated with the Bugyals (alpine herbaceous meadows) as evident from a large number of folklores available in the literatures, as these areas are the treasure house of important medicinal plants. The state of Uttarakhand has 5 major tribal communities viz., Bhotiya, Jaunsari, Boksha, Tharu and Raji. A total of 139 species belonging to 50 families and 98 genera are found so far from the present study. Maximum number of plants used local communities for the treatment of various ailments belonging to the families Ranunculaceae, Polygonaceae, Asteraceae followed by Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Rosaceae and Amryllidaceae, etc. In skin disease highest number of plants (36 spp.) are used followed by stomach problems (26), fever (20), cough and cold (21), headache (18), urinary problem (15), ear and eye problem (11), toothache and tonic (10), jaundice (7), respiratory (6), etc.

4.1 INTRODUCTION Ethnomedicinal knowledge is a valuable form of indigenous knowledge; it is a cultural asset that can be used for the recognition and preservation of valuable species as well as the habitats in which they occur (Khan et al., 2013). These ethnobotanical studies investigate the structural relationships between human society and the environment using socio-anthropological methods; these relationships can be social, economic, symbolic, religious, commercial, etc. (Aumeeruddy, 2003). The local people (shepherds in particular) believe in the healing power of these herbs, along with the power of ‘Tantra’ and ‘Mantra,’ but knowledge there of is restricted to very few elderly folks. Moreover, the younger generation does not seem much interested in keeping this traditional knowledge alive and spends most of the time growing commercial crops and fruits, etc. The alpine zone represents one of the most fascinating and important biomes in the Himalaya. It forms nearly 33% of the geographical area in the region, of which about 25.88% area is vegetated and remaining 7.12% area falls under perpetual snow (Anonymous, 1989). The highest numbers of endemic sub-alpine species were recorded in a northern

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aspect plant community at altitudes of between 2800–3400 m and in a timberline plant community (3300–4000 m). High-altitude species and ecosystems are also potentially under threat of biodiversity loss from global warming–a consequence of both geographical range contraction and mountain-top ecosystem extinction risk (La Sorte and Jetz, 2010; Mondoni et al., 2011, 2012). People living or settled in the high altitude areas of Himalayan regions have limited options to get money for their daily needs, due to uneconomic nature of cereals production, i.e., low returns from agricultural production. In the Himalayas, population growth, prevailing poverty and expansion of agriculture are the main causes of habitat and biodiversity loss and achieving the goal of sustainable resource use requires the management and collaboration of various governmental and non-governmental agencies involved in natural resources supervision and management together with the local communities (Gorenflo and Brandon, 2005). The alpine marshes, stream banks and similar watery situations are favored by another set of herbs. In many localities, the melting of snow leaves small depressions of gullies which are water-filled. These form marshy tracts. The hill streams form a criss-cross system in many higher valleys. Numerous high altitude herbs characteristic of moist situations are found in this valley. Alpine habitats are characterized by high environmental heterogeneity over small distance and high temporal variation (Negi, 2010). These habitats are fragmented due to high mountain boundaries with little connection between the neighboring areas or region sharing similar ecology. Migration between populations should thus be rare and will be low. In Uttarakhand, the alpine zones forms about 24.11% of the geographical area and around 8,524 km2 alpine vegetation covering 4,376 km2 permanent snow. The rich plant diversity has provided an initial advantage to the inhabitants of Uttarakhand for scrutinizing various plant species for the purpose of food, medicine, perfumes and spices. Over the years of trial and errors, they have developed a great deal of knowledge on the use of various plant species. However, at present, the traditional knowledge on the use of plant resources is dwindling due to several reasons, including shift in attitude towards a more western life style and declining interest among the younger generations to carry forward the tradition, etc. There are areas in the remote mountains where people still practice traditional way of sustaining life. There is frequent use of nearby plant species for curing various diseases and other purposes namely, ethnobotanical uses like agriculture,

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food, fodder, fuel, etc. The life of the local inhabitants in high altitudes of the region is intimately associated with the Bugyals (alpine herbaceous meadows) as evident from a large number of folklores available in the literatures, as these areas are the treasure house of important medicinal plants. Several religious sites are located in and around the alpine meadows where the local people visit for worshipping the deities often known as sacred sites and sacred groves. The Bugyals are also used as summer grazing grounds by a large number of migratory and local pastoral communities. Since the lower altitude grazing lands are limited in extent, summer migration to higher altitudes and alpine meadows has become a practice as a means to sustain the large livestock populations. However, increase in number of livestock and overuse of certain pastures has led to degradation of high altitude grasslands. These areas are thus regarded as repositories of a large number of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) which are used in local medicine as well as for sale of such plants to the herbal industries (Rawat and Pangtey, 1987; Pangtey et al., 1989; Nautiyal et al., 2000; Sahni and Raizada, 1957). There are about 1350–1400 species of vascular plants in alpine region of Uttarakhand hence, there is a great scope for ethnobotanical studies in this region. Many recent ethnobotanical listings include plants of medicinal values (Adnan et al., 2014; Ahluwalia, 1965; Chandra and Pandey, 1983; Shah and Joshi, 1971; Uniyal 1968; Gangwar et al., 2010; Singh and Pandey, 1980; Malhotra and Balodi, 1984; Gaur, 1999; Gaur et al., 1983; Rawat and Pangtey, 1987; Pangtey et al., 1989; Paliwal and Badoni, 1990; Satyal et al., 2002; Samant and Pal, 2003; Kala, 2007, 2011, 2015; Singh and Pundir, 2004; Singh, 2008; Gaur, et al., 2010; Dangwal, et al., 2011; Semwal et al., 2007; Samant and Pant, 2006; Chauhan et al., 2013; Singh and Rawat, 2011; Jain and Saklani, 1991; Semwal and Gaur, 1981; Joshi et al., 1995, Kumari et al., 2012; Nautiyal, 1981; Ratha et al., 2014, 2015; Bartwal et al., 2011; Bisht and Badoni, 2009; Issar, 1981; Gaur et al., 1980; Kehar et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2016). The present study is the compilation of ethnomedicinal plants from sub-alpine and alpine regions of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. 4.2  STUDY AREA 4.2.1  GEOGRAPHICAL AREA Uttarakhand state is well known for its rich biotic wealth and cultural mosaic of diverse nature. The recently carved out mountain state of Uttarakhand

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located between latitude 29°5′–31°25′ N and longitude 77°45′–81°E covering an area of 51,124 km2, comprises thirteen districts. This state is bounded by Himachal Pradesh to the Northwest, by Tibet to the North, by Nepal to the East, and by Uttar Pradesh to the South (Figure 4.1). The average rainfall recorded in the state is 1 to 2 cm per year. The state embodying the Kumaun and Garhwal divisions with a geographical area of about 53,483 km2 has a large altitudinal range (200–7109 m) with diverse habitats, species, populations, communities and ecosystems. This altitudinal variation has resulted in a complex diversity in topography, meteorology, flora and fauna. It covers about 12.18% of the total Indian Himalaya, and 40% of its total area falls under different forest types, some of the major vegetation types classified along the altitudinal gradient are tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, subalpine and alpine. Uttaranchal is known as a Devbhumi or the land of Gods because it possesses several sacred shrines and places such as Panch Kedar, Panch Badri and Panch Prayag. Several sacred rivers originate from the lofty snow clad mountain peaks of the state, which include the Ganga, GoriGanga, Kali-Ganga, Alaknanda and Bhagirathi. 4.2.2  VEGETATION OF THE AREA Based on the altitude and aspect, which in turn influence the duration of growing season and moisture availability, following major alpine types can be recognized in Uttarakhand:

FIGURE 4.1  Map showing high altitude regions of Uttarakhand Himalaya.

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Tall herbs: The tree-line gaps and shady moist slopes with deep soil exhibit profuse growth of fast growing herbaceous species which attain a height of up to 1–2 m. Characteristic species in such areas are Polygonum polystachyum, Selinum wallichianum, S. conifolium, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Angelica glauca, Angelica archangelica, Phlomis bracteosa, Impatiens sulcata and Osmunda claytoniana. Mixed herbaceous formations: Moist slopes of the mountain higher than the first category have a large number of herbaceous species, e.g., Anaphalis cuneifolia, Anemone rivularis, Bistorta affinis, B. macrophylla, B. vivipara, Iris kumaonensis, Potentilla atrisanguinea, P. argyrophylla, Ranunculus hirtellus, Selinum vaginatum, Geranium collinum, Geum elatum, and others. These all are short herbs and attaining the height of 10–50 cm. Most of the gregarious species such as Anemone rivularis, Iris kumaonensis and Ranunculus species are unpalatable. Matted shrubs or shrubberies: Shady moist slopes of the hills especially in areas of late snow mainly between 3500–4000 m a.s.l. often have extensive patches of dwarf willows (Salix lindleyana, S. karelinii), Cassiope fastigata and Rhododendron anthopogon. The mat forming Cassiope and Rhododendrons are not palatable by the livestock and wild herbivores. Danthonia grasslands: Danthonia cachemyriana, is one the dominant tussock forming grasses in the lower and mid alpine regions. Associated with Danthonia are quite a few other herbs, e.g., Trachydium roylei, Jurinea dolomiaea. Alpine plant communities: The following associations are commonly met with in these alpine communities are: Myricaria-Salix association: Glacial river beds and most shaded slopes are occupied by the species of Salix, Hippophae, Myricaria, Ribes orientale, R. glaciale, Rhododendron anthopogon, Sorbus ursine and S. microphylla. A higher elevations (3,800 m) Cassiope fastigiata, Salix lindleyi, Gaultheria trichophlla form pure stands. Ephedra gerardiana is seen forming dense mats on moist rocks. Berberis-Rosa association: This is an intermediate association spread over a wide range of habitats. Berberis jaeschikeana, B. umbellata, Rosa sericea, R. macrophylla, R. webbiana, Viburnum mullaha, Lonicera webbiania, Cotoneaster microphyllus are the connecting links between the tree line or may grow as undergrowth of tree species. But, Juniperus communis and J. macropoda form discontinuous belts above bush lands. Bugyals-Alpine meadows: The meadows abound in myriad cushionoid and velvety herbaceous species, known for their strong fragrance as well as for their attractive flowers. These herbs grow above the bush lands and are collectively termed as ‘Bug’ from which the term ‘bugyals’ (alpine pasture) has been derived.

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Alpine screes (Taturi bugyals): These are characteristic of areas above 4,000 m amsl, where ground is composed of dry exposed rocks. The vegetation is dominated by Rheum webbianum (locally Taturi). Other associated species includes Euphorbia stracheryi, Rheum australe, Saussurea obovallata, S. gossypiphora, Pleurospermum densiflorum, etc. Sunny slopes (Bas bugyals): Dominated by the species Saussurea graminifolia (locally referred to as bas), along with the other associated species such Ranunculus  sp., Delphinium sp., Corydalis sp., Draba sp., Sisymbrium sp., Arenaria sp., Impatiens sp., Geranium sp., Potentilla sp., Saxifraga sp., Astragalus sp., Pleurospermum sp., other Saussurea sp., Gentiana sp., Swertia sp., along with various sedges and grasses, form extensive and continuous stretch flower laden pasture. Shaded slopes (Bishan): Alpine shaded slopes usually harbor numerous medicinal herbs, which are more often than not dominated by the species of Aconitum, chiefly A. atrox, other important species are A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Angelica glauca, Pleurospermum.

4.2.4  TRIBAL AND NON-TRIBAL COMMUNITIES The area is inhabited by a population of 84,795,62 people, of which 78% fall under rural category. It is home to a variety of ethnic communities living in harmony with the rich and unique biodiversity elements. About 20% of the state population has been classified into the categories Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. The state has 5 major Schedule Tribe communities such as Bhotiya, Jaunsari, Boksha, Tharu and Raji. Their primary occupations is rearing of cattles (buffaloes, sheep, horse) and migrate from one place to other over different altitudinal zones of Himalaya for better grazing and browsing opportunities. Due to the geographical diversity and inaccessibility, a well-known feature of the mountainous region, Uttarakhand has remained isolated from rest of the agricultural plains of northern India, and thus, it has preserved some of the old practices, traditions and ethnic norms of various resource use patterns (Ameerudy, 2003; Issar, 1981). About 90% area of the state is hilly area and the major tribal communities Bhotiya, Raji and Jaunsari are inhabited in the hills of Uttarakhand. Pithoragarh district obtains highest population of two major tribal communities (Bhotiya and Raji) and Chamoli district obtains Bhotiya tribal community (Table 4.1). The literacy rate is highest in the Pauri district of Uttarakhand. Mainly alpine region is inhabitants by Bhotia and Raji tribe these are described as follows along with Jaunsari, Boksha, Tharu:

2500–3000

2600–3000

Gobrya

Atis

Gobrya

Dudh atis

Khyakjari

Aconitum ferox Wall.

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle

Aconitum laeve Royle

Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf.

Aconogonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) Hara

Aconogonum tortuosum (D.Don) Hara

Reechh Bhillar Ranunculaceae Actaea spicata var. acuminata (Wall. ex Royle) Hara

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Camb.) Hook.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Pangar

3600–4600

Polygonaceae

Mitha

Aconitum atrox (Bruhl) Mukherjee

Sapindaceae

Polygonaceae

Ranunculaceae

Ranunculaceae

Ranunculaceae

Ranunculaceae

Ranunculaceae

3600–4500

3400–4500

2000–3500

3300–4500

2100–3800

3400–3900

2800–3400

3.

Ranunculaceae

Mithabish

Aconitum balfourii Stapf.

3000–4200

2.

Asteraceae

Altitude range (m)

Gandhna

Family

Achillea millefolium L.

Local name

1.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1  Ethnomedicinal plants from sub-alpine and alpine regions of Uttarakhand Himalaya

Seed paste2

Leaf, flowers6

Root4, Stem6

Root6

Root4,6, 7

Root6, 7

Root4,6, 7

Root6

Root 4, 6, 7

Root3

Leaves 6

Part used

Rheumatic pain2

Body inflammation6

(Headache6 and diarrhea)4

Leucorrhoea6

Headache6, (rheumatism4, epilepsy)7

(Antiarthritic, diuretic)6, sciatica7

(Fever, cough, stomachache4, diarrhea, dyspepsia, headache)6,7

Used in sciatica, throat and internal inflammation6

Rheumatism, paralysis4, small quantity used as antiarthritic and sedative6, 7

Leprosy3

Cuts, wounds and burns6

Uses

122 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae

Jambu-dhun, faran

Choru

Kut

Bag

Laljari, Baljari

Rudravanti

Kilmora

Allium stracheyi Baker

Allium wallichi Kunth

Angelica glauca Edgew.

Arctium lappa L.

Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott

Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G. Don) I. M. Johnst.

Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth.

Berberis aristata DC.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Berberidaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Araceae

Asteraceae

Apiaceae

Amaryllidaceae

Allium humile Kunth

13.

Pharan

Amaryllidaceae

Family

Allium carolinianum DC.

Local name

12.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

2700–3200

3200–4000

3000–3800

2500–3200

2800–3600

3000–3600

3300–4200

2800–3500

3500–4000

2500–4000

Altitude range (m)

Goiter3; (Indigestion6, asthma, jaundice, cough and cold)7

Diuretic, Stimulant, tonic)6; joint pains, indigestion7

Uses

Root1,3

Root4,6

Root3,7

Fruit3, bulbs7

(Leaves6, root)7

Root3,4,7; Whole plant6

Leaves6, 7

Eye disease1,3

(Skin diseases and blood purifier)4,6

Baldness3, 7

Piles3; (rhueumatism, burns, scorpion sting, snakebite)7

Antiseptic6; (rheumatism, cystitis, gout, acne, pimples, boils)7

Cold and cough3,7; (Dysentery, constipation4,7; bronchitis)7

Indigestion6, 7

Whole plant4, Cold4, stomachache7 stem and leaves7

Leaves 3, 6, 7

Bulb 6, 7

Part used

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region 123

Betulaceae

Polygonaceae

Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Ranunculaceae

Bergenia stracheyi (Hooker Silphari & Thomson) Engl.

Betula utilis D. Don

Bistoria macrophylla (D. Don) Sojak

Bistorta affinis (D. Don) Greene

Bistorta vivipara (L.) S. F. Gray

Caltha palustris L.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

Kushnya

Bhoj, Syasin

Saxifragaceae

Silpara, patharchatta

Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.

24.

Saxifragaceae

Berberidaceae

Chutar

Berberis lycium Royle

23.

Berberidaceae

Dan

Family

Berberis jaeschkeana Schneid.

Local name

22.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

2500–4000

3000–4000

3000–4200

2700–4500

3000–3800

3000–3500

2000–3200

1600–3200

2000–3000

Altitude range (m) 6,7

Root6,7

Root4

Root4

Root, Seed6

Stem bark3, Seed6, Resin7

(Flower, root)1

Rhizome2, 4, 7

(Root3, fruit)7

Fruit, root

Part used

Warts and anemia6; gonorrhea, itching, diarrhea, sexual debility pain in abdomen, uterine cancer7

Dysentery4

Dysentery4

Lung and intestinal disorders, diarrhea, dysentery and to increase blood6

Abortifacient6; (Pregnancy3, muscular pain)7

Blister1

(Febrifuge, digestive7, cutaneous disorders)2; fevers, diarrhea and pulmonary affections4

Diabetes3, Conjuctivitis7

Eye disease6,7

Uses

124 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Asteraceae

Kandra, Kateri Asteraceae Ranunculaceae Fumariaceae

Fumariaceae Cuscutaceae

Kardra, Kandaya

Akash-laguli

Salampanja, Hattazari

Cyukla

Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng.

Cirsium wallichii DC.

Clematis orientalis L.

Corydalis govaniana Wall.

Corydalis meifolia Wall.

Cuscuta europaea L.

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo

Delphinium brunonianum Royle

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Indrajata, Balsum-jari

Fabaceae

Chesneya nubigena (D. Don) Ali

33.

Ranunculaceae

Orchidaceae

Asteraceae

Karatu

Cicerbita macrorhiza Royle

32.

Apiaceae

Kalajeera

Family

Carum carvi L.

Local name

31.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

3000–4000

3000–4000

3500–4200

3000–3300

3000–3800

3300–4000

2500–3000

3000–3400

4200–5000

2500–3000

2200–3800

Altitude range (m)

Root6,7

Renal pain, antiseptic6, wounds and burns7

Tonic. kidney complaints1; Wounds, cuts and boils3; fever, bone fracture, asthma, cough, dyspepsia and ulcer 7

Tuber ; root

3

Earache6 1, 7

Stem6

Headache, stomach and liver pain4

Swelling of the limbs and stomach pain4; gastric, liver and eye trouble, toothache7

Whole plant , roots7 Whole plant4

Scabies6

Hepatic and spleen trouble, scorpion stings, chest pain6

Rheumatism3

General debility6

Leaves6 4

Leaves, Root6

Root3

Leaves, fruits6

Leaves7, root3

Headache3, Indigestion7

Cold and cough6,7

Fruits , seeds 7

Uses

6

Part used

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region 125

Poaceae Lamiaceae Ephedraceae

Orobanchaceae Euphorbiaceae

Somlata

Siruli

Dudhila

Ugal

Phapher, kotu

Eleusine coracana L.

Elsholtzia strobilifera Benth.

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf.

Euphrasia himalaica Wettst.

Euphrasia platyphylla Pennell

Excoecaria acerifolia Didr.

Fagopyrum esculentum Menth

Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

Mandua

Lamiaceae

Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth.

44.

Polygonaceae

Polygonaceae

Orobanchaceae

Dioscoreaceae

Tairu, Tarur

Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb.

43.

Ranunculaceae

Kasturi-cey

Family

Delphinium cashmerianum Royle

Local name

42.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

2700–3400

2400–3200

2700–3200

3000–3200

3500–4500

2000–3300

1200–3800

2700–3600

3400–5000

2000–3100

4200–6000

Altitude range (m) 6, 7

Seed5

Root, leaves, fruit, seed5

Root3

Leaves4

Whole plant6

Whole plant6

Whole plant 2,4,6

Finger millet3

Whole plant6

Tuber4, 7

Whole plant

Part used

colic pain5

Rheumatic pain, typhoid, urinary disorder, fever, headache, anemia, constipation5

Stomach worm3

Eye disease4

Eye disease6

Asthma6

Bruises and wounds4,2,6

Cold and cough3

Liver complaints, fever, toothache6

Bronchial cough4; spermatorrhoea, piles, dysentery7

Cuts and wounds7; dyspepsis6

Uses

126 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Gentianaceae

Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae

Geraniaceae

Orchidaceae

Kakoli

Kuri

Gheri

Ridhi

Gandhrajan, krandel

Fritillaria royeli Hook.

Galium aparine L.

Gaultheria trichophylla Royle

Gentiana moorcroftiana (Wall. ex Griesb.) Airy Shaw.

Geranium himalayense Klot.

Geranium polyanthes Edgew., & Hook. f.

Geranium pratense L.

Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet.

Habenaria intermedia D Don

Heracleum candidans Wall. ex DC.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

Apiaceae

Ericaceae

Rubiaceae

Liliaceae

Janagali-heeng Apiaceae

Family

Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke

Local name

53.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

2600–3400

2000–3000

2500–3200

3000–4500

2800–3400

2000–3300

4000–5000

3000–3500

2500–3000

2700–4000

3400–4000

Altitude range (m)

Whole plant7

Whole plant5

Root4, whole plant2,7

Whole plant6, 7

Leaves4, whole plant6

Leaves6

Whole plant6, 7

Leaves4, fruits7

Leaves 2,3,4

Whole plant6

Fruit 6

Part used

Arthritis, toothache, leucoderma, eczema, menstrual disorders7

Tonic5

Otorrhoea and opthalmia2, dysentery and cold4, toothache, rheumatism and wounds7

Cough, backache, joint pains6; diarrhea, headache, urinary troubles7

Headache8, ulcers4

Stomachache, bruises6

Blood disorders, fever6; cold and cough, headache, jaundice and acidity7

Rheumatism4, wounds, cough, diabetes7

Skin diseases2; carbuncles3, Astringent4

Used as tonic6

Appetizer6

Uses

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region 127

Solanaceae Lamiaceae Balsaminaceae Iridaceae

Lamiaceae Phrymaceae Caprifoliaceae Ericaceae

Lathum, Pyzya

Akrot

Dhoop-jarh, guggul

Hyocyamus niger L

Hyssopus officinalis L.

Impatiens sulcata Wall.

Iris kumaonensis Wall. ex G. Don

Juglans regia L.

Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss.

Lamium apetalum Willd.

Lancea tibetica Hook.f., & Thomson

Lonicera spinosa (Jacq. ex Decne.) Walp.

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

Anyar

Langthang

Elaegnaceae

Hippophae tibetana Schlecht.

66.

Asteraceae

Juglandaceae

Elaegnaceae

Garchuk

Hippophae salicifolia D. Don

65.

Elaegnaceae

Dhooplakkar

Family

Hippophae rhamnoides L.

Local name

64.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

2700–3200

3600–4200

3300–4400

2800–3500

3000–4500

2000–3500

3200–4600

2800–3500

3000–4000

3500–4000

3400–4000

2900–3900

2800–4000

Altitude range (m)

Uses

Cause dysentry6

Indigestion7

Antiseptic, stimulant6

Toothache, hysteria, muscular pain6

Appetizer6

Appetizer6

6

Seed paste2

Fruits6,7

Whole plant

Leaves6

Root6,7

Wounds and Boils2

Asthma6,7

Cough, lung infection and fever6

Cuts and wounds6

Incense, antiseptic, fever6,7

Fungicide and Insecticide2, Leaves2, bark and Roots4, fruit toothache4; stomachache7 and seed7

Root 6

Seed7

Whole plant6

Seed6

Fruit6

Fruit6

Whole plant and Cold and cough7; cancer3 fruit7,3

Part used

128 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Malvaceae Papavaraceae Brassicaceae

Tamaricaceae Valerianceae

Meconopsis aculeata Royle Achatsarmu

Barmoola

Pudina

Bish kandara

Jatamansi

Khirku

Malva verticellata L.

Megacarpaea polyandra Benth. ex Madden

Mentha longifolia Wall. ex DC.

Morina longifolia Wall.

Myricaria elegans Royle

Nardostachys grandiflora DC.

Nepeta discolor Royle ex Benth.

Nomocharis oxypetala (Royle) E. H. Welson

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

Liliaceae

Lamiaceae

Morinaceae

Lamiaceae

Malvaceae

Malva neglecta Wall.

79.

Ghunti-jhar

Orchidaceae

Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze

78.

Jeewak

Boraginaceae

Family

Maharanga emodi (Wall.) DC.

Local name

77.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

3000–3400

3000–3600

3600–4800

2800–3800

2700–3500

3000–4000

3500–4000

3000–3500

1200–3200

1500–3600

2700–3200

2800–3100

Altitude range (m)

Bulb4

Leaves3

Vigorous4

Tuberculosis3

Rheumatism3; stimulant, heart tonic6

Root ; Rhizome 3

Bruises6 6

Wounds and incense2; burns and boils4

Cholera, dysentery, vomiting, indigestion, diuretic, headache5

Ulcer, fever, dyspepsia6

Backache4, narcotic, renal pain6

Urinary complaints6

Laxative6

Burns, wounds, bone fracture5

Abdominal pain, fever, wounds, piles4

Uses

Leaves6

Root2,4,5

Leaves5

Root, Leaves6

Root4,6

Tubers 6

Leaves6

Bulb and whole plant5

Leaves 4

Part used

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region 129

Phytolacaceae Plantaginaceae Apiaceae

Apiaceae

Chandraya

Nirbis

Phutkya

Peonia emodi Royle

Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle

Pedicularis bicornuta Klotz.

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle

Pleurospermum angelicoides (Wall. ex DC.) Benth. ex C. B. Clarke

Pleurospermum brunonii Cl.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

Lasser

Kakti, Karui

Polygonaceae

Kailashi, Khattiimli

Oxyria digyna Hill

91.

2000–3000

3000–3600

3000–3800

3300–4200

2900–3500

Altitude range (m)

2500–4000

1500–3200

1500–3000

2300–3200

Scrophulariaceae 1800–4200

Celastraceae

Peoniaceae

Orobanchaceae

Orobanche solmsii Cl. ex Hook.f.

Lamiaceae

90.

Van tulsi

Family

Origanum vulgare L.

Local name

89.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

Root6, whole plant7

Leaves6, roots7

Anti-helmintic6; leucorrhoea, eczema, menstrual disorder7

Gastric problems6, typhoid, dyspepsia, bodyache, dysentry7

Fever, stomachache5,6

Root ; whole plant6 4

Bodyache5

Food poisoning6, rheumatism, gout, inflammation7

Antidote of snake bite2, Boils4

Whooping cough, diarrhea, intestinal spasms2; uterine diseases4,6

Wounds, rheumatism4

Leaves5

Whole plant6, tuber7

Root2,4

Roots and flower infusion2, tuber6 and leaves4

Leaves4

Treatment of dog bite6

Bronchitis, colic and diarrhea2, toothache, swelling4

Plant extract , leaves4 Root6

Uses 2

Part used

130 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Polygonaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae

Salam-misri

Deoringal, khol

Bajra Danti

Ram Jayan

Archa

Tatar

Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle

Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All.

Polygonum aviculare L.

Potentilla atrisanguinea Lodd.

Potentilla lineata Trevir

Primula macrophylla D. Don

Rheum australe D. Don

Rheum moorcroftianum Royle

101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

107.

108.

Polygonaceae

Polygonaceae

Primulaceae

Liliaceae

Liliaceae

Podophyllaceae

Van Kakri

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle

100.

Apiaceae

Takkar

Family

Pleurospermum candollei (DC.) Cl.

Local name

99.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

2700–3500

3000–4000

1800–4500

3000–3400

3000–4200

2500–4200

1400–4000

1600–3600

3000–4000

3000–4000

Altitude range (m) 6, 7

Root4

Rhizome1,6, 7

Flower6

Root6, 7

Root6, Leaves7

Leaves6

Root2, 4, 6,7

Root4,6

Root4 and Fruit6

Whole plant

Part used

Dysentery, internal wounds4

Internal Pain1, wounds6, spasm7

Urinary ailments6

Astringent6, toothache, dysentery, burns, wounds, stomach disorders7

Gum infection6; wound pain killer7

Septic wounds6

Gastric problems4, wounds and cuts2,7; fever, strangury, seminal weakness, anorexia and general debility7; urino-genital disorders, nerve tonic6

Blood purifier, cold, cough6,4

Wounds 5,6

Body massage6,7

Uses

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region 131

Zingiberaceae

Polygonaceae Lamiaceae

Kunj

Sepala

Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Rosa sericea Lindl.

Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle

Roscoea alpina Royle

Rumex acetosa L.

Salvia hians Royle ex Benth.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

117.

Amlya

Garur panja

Rosaceae

Simru

Rhododendron campanulatum D.Don

111.

Rosaceae

Rosaceae

Ericaceae

Ericaceae

Bhotiachai

Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don

110.

Polygonaceae

Archu, Dolu

Family

Rheum webbianum Royle

Local name

109.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

3000

3000

3600–4600

3500–4000

2700–3400

3500–4000

3000–4300

3000–3800

3500–4800

Altitude range (m) 7

Urinary problems6,7

Headache, Piles4; cold and cough7,6

Stimulant for aged people4,6; wounds, cuts, cough, giddiness7

Wounds, cuts, headache, burns, swelling, ulcer and piles7

Uses

Leaves6,2; Root4

Whole plant6, 7

Plant extract, leaf powder2, Root4, 7

Flower and fruits6

Arthritic, pain and eczema, body swelling2, cold, coughs and anxiety4; diuretic, purgative6

Cuts and wounds6, 7

Cuts and wounds2, urinary diseases and tuberculosis 4 ; diabetes, leucoderma, diarrhea, dysentery, urinary problems7

To check nasal bleeding6

Flowers2, Fruits4 Bowel complaints2, and bark7 headaches and liver complaints4, eye disease, epilepsy and skin infection7

Fruit, Root6,7

Leaves 4,6,7

Leaves4; Whole plants6,7

Leaves, roots

Part used

132 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Apiaceae Apiaceae Thymelaeaceae Gentianaceae

Oleaceae Asteraceae

Bhutkesh

Moor

Sedum quadrifidum Pall.

Selinum candollei DC.

Selinum vaginatum Clarke

Selinum wallichianum DC.

Stellera chamaejasme L.

Swertia chirata Buch. Ham. ex Wall.

Syringa emodi Wall. ex G. Don

Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam.

Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex DC.

121.

122.

123.

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

129.

Guggul-dhoop

Chirayata

Crassulaceae

Brahma kamal

Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew.

120.

Asteraceae

Apiaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Phen kamal

Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don

119.

Asteraceae

Kooth

Family

Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.

Local name

118.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

3000–3600

3000–3450

3000–3500

2800–3600

4100–5500

3500–4200

3000–3800

3000–4000

3000–3900

4000–5600

3500–4800

3000–4000

Altitude range (m)

6

Leaves4

Roots7

Flowers; seed4,6

Stem1, leaves4, whole plant 7

Flowers6

Leaves, stem

Root4

Root 2,4

Young shoots4

Root4, whole plant6

Stomachache and indigestion4

Gout, rheumatism, ulcer, headache, bodyache7

Fever4,6

Malarial fever1; blood diseases4; asthma and liver disorder7

Fever, broken skull and as a purgative6

Toothache6

Toothache4

Toothache4; asthma, cough, hysteria2

Headache, Piles4

Cough4,6

Asthma, skin diseases4; rheumatism6, 7

Lumber pain, menorrhea, headache6; stomachache, toothache, typhoid 7

Whole plant , root7 Flowers4; leaves, roots6,7

Uses 6

Part used

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region 133

Ranunculaceae

Zygophyllaceae Liliaceae

Nal jara

Mamiri

Van-ajwain

Satwa

Nahani, samawa

Banfsha

Thalictrum cultratum Wall.

Thalictrum foliolosum DC.

Thymus linearis Benth.

Tribulus terrestris L.

Trillidium govanianum (D. Don) Kunth.

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Viola bifora L.

Waldheimia tomentosa (Decne.) Regel

132.

133.

134.

135.

136.

137.

138.

139.

3000–3200

2500–3200

2800–3200

2700–3500

1800–4500

2000–4500

1200–2200

3500–4300

1100–3650

2700–3400

Altitude range (m)

7

Leaves, roots

Leaves6

Root4

Root

2, 4

Tuber4

Leaves6, flowers4, whole plant 7

Root 4

Root6

Leaves, bulb6

Bark 2,4, 7

Part used

1

Kala (1999); 2Gaur (1999); 3Phondani et al. (2010); 4Singh and Rawat (2011); 5Pandey et al. (2006); 6Rawat (2005); 7Negi (2010).

Asteraceae

Violaceae

Valerianaceae

Lamiaceae

Ranunculaceae

Taxaceae

Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

Taxaceae

131.

Thuner

Family

Taxus baccata L.

Local name

130.

S. No. Plant name

TABLE 4.1 (Continued)

Septic wounds, incense7

Tonic6

Wound4

Urinary disorder, joint pains2; energetic tonic4

Tonic4

Cuts and wounds6,4; urinary disorders, cold and cough, epilepsy, menstrual disorder, stomachache7

Eye inflammation, snake bite4

Chronic fever, eye infection, bile and stomach disorders6

Tonic, anti-cancerous6

Breast pile4, plaster on fractured bones, headache2; uterine and breast cancer7

Uses

134 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region

135

A. Bhoxa: The Bhoxa community is one of the important indigenous communities of Uttarakhand, scattered in different districts of SubHimalayan belt of the state. It is the third largest indigenous community in Uttarakhand. Bhoxa come from Mongoloid stock, and are marked with Mongoloid facial features. They follow Hindu religion and speak Hindi language with dialect quite similar to the neighboring districts. B. Jaunsari: Janusar region is the part of the undulating terrains of Gahrwal Himalaya in Dehradun district. The people of this area are socio-economically backward and most of them are below poverty line. C. Tharu: The Tharu tribe is a most popular tribe of India and Nepal. People of the community are indigenous people living in the Terai plains on the border of Nepal and India. The population of Nepal is 28,287,147 (July 2006 est.), of which the Tharu people make up 6.6%. Population of Tharu tribe is 83,544 in Uttar Pradesh and 85,665 in Uttarakhand state. 4.2.4.1  Main Tribal Communities of Sub-Alpine and Alpine Region of Uttarakhand 1. Bhotia: Bhotias, a Mongoloid ethnic community, traditionally lived in the high Himalayan region, close to the Tibetan border. The term Bhotia comes from “Bo” which is the native Tibetan word for Tibet. In the winter, they migrate to southern climes, although recently, many have begun settling permanently in the mid-Himalayas. Bhotias are subdivided into three main categories: The Jadhs of Uttarkashi, the Marchas (once mainly traders) and Tolchas (farmers) of Chamoli, and the Shaukas of Pithoragarh (near Dharchula). Apart from cultural differences, the three Bhotia groups resemble one another in their distinctive Tibetan-like physical appearance. Furthermore, the Jadhs are followers of Buddhism and the Shaukas hold to their own Hindu- Buddhist faith, although both rely on Lamas to conduct ceremonies and rituals. The central Marcha/ Tolcha group are the most Hinduized, sharing Rajput sects (family names) with their Garhwali neighbors. Bhotias observe some aspects of the caste system as they, like their Garhwali and Kumaoni counterparts, depend on lower castes (Doms) for many services.

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Trade has been the mainstay of the Bhotia economy. This community is known as the international traders’ community who used to perform their trades between China (Tibet) and India. But today a considerable number of the Bhotia population is engaged in government services and also in settled business pursuits. The Bhotia is an agricultural cum pastoral community. Weaving of woolen yarn and making woolen stuffs like carpet, blanket, sweater and also their traditional costumes have been the specialty of the community. This art is handed over to the daughter by her mother. They rear goats and sheep which have multipurpose uses in Bhotia community. They can get raw wool and meat from the goat and sheep and also use them as transport animals. They also rear yaks. The staple food of the Bhotia consists of millets, potatoes, barely, rice and wheat. They are very fond of eating rice. All Bhotia are fond of drinking liquor, both fermented and distilled. There is hardly any socioreligious ceremony in which liquor is not used. They also smoke beedis, tobacco and cigarettes. All Bhotia groups are multi-lingual. They can speak Tibetan, Kumaoni, Garhwali and Hindi. 2. Raji: Rajis are a primitive and numerically very small tribal community in northern India with a very meager material culture and crude form of technology. They have been recognized as one of the primitive group among the 75 groups declared by the government of India. The Rajis, socially and economically, are the most underdeveloped tribal community of the region. They were recognized as a scheduled tribe in 1967 and as a primitive tribe in 1975 by the government of India. They are also described as Van-Rawat (King of forest), Van-Raji (Royal people of forest) or Van-Manush (Wild man or man of forest), who claim themselves to be Rajputs and the original inhabitants of Central Himalaya, though anthropologically they belong to Tibeto-Burman family and until recently they were a community of nomadic hunters and gatherers. Land and forests are the primary economic resources of the Raji. At present they are engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry, tailoring and some other occupations. Their traditional occupation of hunting and gathering now occupies a secondary position. Many of them work as agricultural or forest laborers. They inhabit the woods around Ascot in southern Pithoragarh (now Champawat district), and hold to a tradition of saluting no one except the Ascot Raja. Rajis are nomadic shy people. They move from forest to forest. The Rajis have been a community of food gatherers, small game trappers, cultivators and labor, etc. but still

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Subalpine and Alpine Region

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they depend on forest produce. The cereal crops grown by them are of very poor quality and yield is also very low. Rajis are famous for making wooden bowls and agricultural tools. They were once famous for the barter trade of wooden bowls with cereals, edibles, clothes, etc. This system has now almost vanished due to non availability of Genthi wood. The Rajis have their own dialect which is quite different from that of neighboring tribal and non-tribal communities. However, they can speak and interact in Kumauni-Pahari dialect as well as in broken Hindi language. The Raji religion also reflects their unique worldview that keeps them aloof from most others around them. For their own gods and some adopted Hindu ones, the Raji construct simple open-air altars with prayer flags and cloth swaying in nearby trees.

4.3  ETHNOBOTANICAL PLANTS A total of 139 ethnomedicinally plants were identified from various alpine region of Uttarakhand (Table 4.1). 139 species belonging to the 50 families and 98 genera are found so far from the study. Maximum number of plants used by local communities for the treatment of various ailments belong to the families Ranunculaceae, Polygonaceae, Asteraceae with 13 species each followed by Apiaceae (10), Lamiaceae (9), Liliaceae and Rosaceae (5), Amryllidaceae (4), etc. Roots/rhizome/tubers/bulb are used maximum by with species 78 followed by leaves (46), whole plant (30), fruits/seeds (29), flowers (10), stem/stem bark (9) etc. in the treatment of various ailments. The above observations suggested that the utilization of underground parts is the major threat to the alpine plants used for medicinal purposes among the local people. Similarly, flowers and their fruits are also commonly used among the communities, which is playing significant role in dispersal as well as reproduction of the plant. That is why the reproduction as well as multiplication of these plants gets affected and showing population reduction day-by-day. Due to this, the dependent or associated species are not able to get their desired habitat which ultimately causes loss in plant diversity of the particular area. Most of the cases people are suffering from skin related problems where they used 36 plant species followed by stomach problems (26), fever (20), cough and cold (21), headache (18), urinary problem (15), ear and eye problem (11), toothache and tonic (10), jaundice (7), respiratory (6), etc.

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The diseases are categorized like in skin problem constitutes wounds, cuts, leprosy, burn, boils, eczema, similarly, other diseases such as stomach problem (gastric, stomachache, diarrhea, constipation, appetizer), fever (fever, malaria, typhoid), kidney diseases (renal, stone, diuretic, urinary), liver complaints (liver disorder, jaundice), etc. Many of the plant species are rare, endangered and threatened viz., Aconitum heterophyllum, A. violaceum, A. atrox, A. ferox, Angelica glauca, Betula utilis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Delphinium brunonianum, Dioscorea deltoidea, Fritillaria roylei, Gentiana moorcroftiana, Habenaria intermedia, Heracleum rhamnoides, Hyoscyamus niger, Lilium polyphyllum, Malaxis muscifera, Meconopsis aculeata, Megacarpaea polyandra, Nardostachys grandiflora, Peonia emodi, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Podophyllum hexandrum, Polygonum cirrhifolium, P. verticillatum, Rheum australe, R. moorcroftianum, Saussurea costus, S. gossypiphora, S. obvallata, Selinum candollei, Swertia chirata, Tanacetum dolichophyllum, Trillidium govanianum, Valeriana hardwickii, etc. due to their heavy use in the commercial market. These are important medicinal plants which have many potential secondary compounds responsible for the treatment of various ailments. About 17% of these species, which include Picrorhiza kurrooa, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Arnebia benthamii, Podophyllum hexandrum, Polygonatum verticillatum, Rheum australe, and Angelica glauca, etc., have become threatened due to several natural and anthropogenic pressures. Sustainable utilization of these valuable plant species is an urgent need of hour. All ethnomedicinal plants and related traditional knowledge are very important; therefore, both should be protected for local people where there is a lack of modern health care facilities. Local Vaidyas generally avoid sharing their traditional knowledge and secrets of healing properties of plants to outside the family members. Such knowledge should be documented properly and utilized in conservation and cultivation of valuable ethno-medicinal plants by providing some incentives for the local Vaidyas in the form of financial help so that the raw material could be made available as and when required. 4.4  CAUSES OF DECLINE OF ALPINE FLORA Alpine flora is sensitive to climate; they adapt themselves in a particular and harsh condition. There are many causes which affect the alpine flora; it may be due to natural calamities, their unscientific exploitation, uprooting for fuel, overgrazing, road construction and other activities. The unscientific

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collection of plants by the local people and traders and habitat destruction has rendered many species endangered and threatened. 4.5  METHODS OF CONSERVATION Now days, the conservation of these important alpine flora is needed due to their decline in the nature. There are many methods like in-situ conservation (alpine conservation areas) and ex-situ conservation (tissue culture and provide such conditions to the plants), conservation through gene banks, education and awareness programs among the local as well as modern people, recent development and establishment of medicinal plant conservation areas, conservation and development and harvest plans in a sustainable manner, species recovery program for endangered species, community based conservation, etc. 4.6 CONCLUSION The alpine regions of Uttarakhand are most important but fragile ecosystems having many rare and endangered plant species. It is important to conserve them by taking suitable scientific methods. A large number of local and migratory pastoral communities depend on the alpine meadows for livestock grazing and medicinal plants. The culture and tradition of the local people is unique in terms of their policies towards conservation and utilization of the natural products. There is lot of scope for researchers in various scientific areas but, due to harsh conditions and difficult mountains of the region, it is a big challenge. This sensitive ecosystem is one of the important regions of the world which conserve alpine flora which directly and indirectly affects the life of the environment. KEYWORDS •• •• •• ••

alpine zone conservation ethno-medicinal plants Uttarakhand

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REFERENCES 1. Adnan, M., Ullah, I., Tariq, A., Murad, W., Azizullah, A., Khan, A. A., & Ali, N. (2014). Ethnomedicine use in the war affected region of Northwest Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed., 10, 16. 2. Ahluwalia, K. S. (1965). Medicinal plants of Har-Ki-Dun. Tons Division, U.P. Nararjun, 8, 135–139. 3. Anonymous, (1989). The State of Forest Report 1989. Forest Survey of India, Government of India, Dehradun. 4. Aumeeruddy, Y. S. J. P. (2003). Applied Ethnobotany; case studies from the Himalayan region. People and plants working paper 12. Godalming: WWF, 3–4. 5. Bartwal, M., Chandra, V., & Rajwar, G. S. (2011). Ethnomedicinal plant diversity among the Jaunsaries in Tons Valley, Uttarakhand. National Conference on Forest Biodiversity: Earth’s Living Treasure, 22 May, pp. 109–114. 6. Bisht, C., & Badoni, A. (2009). Distribution and indigenous uses of some medicinal plants in district Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand, India. Researcher, 1(6), 38–40. 7. Chandra, K., & Pandey, H. C. (1983). Collection of plants around Agora-Dodital in Uttarkashi district of U.P. with medicinal value and folk-lore claims. Intern. J. Crude Drug Res., 21, 21–28. 8. Chauhan, R. S., Nautiyal, B. P., & Nautiyal, M. C. (2013). Trade of Threatened Himalayan medicinal and aromatic plants: Socioeconomy, management and conservation issues in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Global J. Med. Res. Microbiol. Pathol., 13(2), 9–17. 9. Dangwal, L. R., Rana, C. S., & Sharma, A. (2011). Ethno-medicinal plants from transitional zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour., 2(1), 116–120. 10. Gangwar, K., Deepali, K., & Gangwar, R. S. (2010). Ethnomedicinal plant diversity in Kumaun Himalaya of Uttarakhand, India. Nature and Science, 8(5), 66–78. 11. Gaur, R. D. (1999). Flora of the district Garhwal, North West Himalaya with Ethnobotanical Notes. Transmedia Srinagar (Garhwal), U.P. India. 12. Gaur, R. D., Semwal, J. K., & Sharma, M. P. (1980). Ethnotoxic plants of Garhwal hills. The Eastern Anthopologist, 33, 159–163. 13. Gaur, R. D., Semwal, J. K., & Tiwari, J. K. (1983). A survey of high altitude medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalayas. Bull. Med. Ethnobot. Res., 4, 674–686. 14. Gaur, R. D., Sharma, J., & Painuli, R. M. (2010). Plants used in traditional healthcare of livestock by Gujjar community. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour, 1(1), 243–248. 15. Gorenflo, L. J., & Brandon, K. (2005). Agricultural capacity in high biodiversity forest ecosystems. Ambio., 34, 199–204. 16. Issar, R. K. (1981). Traditionally important medicinal plants and folk-lore of Uttarakhand Himalayas for animal treatment. J. Sci. Res. Plants and Med, 2, 61–66. 17. Jain, S. K., & Saklani, A. (1991). Observations on Ethno-botany of the Tons Valley Region of Uttarkashi District of North-West Himalayas. Mountain Res. Dev., 11, 177–183. 18. Joshi, G. C., Tewari, K. C., & Tewari, V. P. (1995). Alpine environs around Kumaon and Grahwal in Central Himalaya India with special reference to herbal resources. Bull. Med. Ethnobot. Res., 16, 114–122. 19. Kala, C. P. (2007). Local preferences of ethnobotanical species in the Indian Himalaya: Implications for environmental conservation. Curr. Sci., 93(12), 1828–1834.

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20. Kala, C. P. (2011). Medicinal plants used for dermatological disorders: a study of Uttarakhand state in India. Austr. J. Medi. Herbalism., 23(3), 132–137. 21. Kala, C. P. (2015). Medicinal and Aromatic plants of Tons watershed in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Appl. Ecol. and Environ Sci., 3(1), 16–21. 22. Kehar, S., Thakur, M. K., Bawa, R., Rainer, W., & Bussmann. (2014). Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870. 23. Khan S. M., Page S. E., Ahmad, H., & Harper D. M. (2013). Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane ecosystems: the western Himalayas as a case study. Ann. of Bot., 1–23 doi:10.1093/aob/mct125. 24. Kumar, A., Mitra, M. M., Adhikari, B. S., & Rawat, G. S. (2016). Flora of Niti valley: a cold arid region of Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve, Western Himalaya, India. Checklist 12(1), 1–16. 25. Kumari, P., Joshi, G. C., & Tewari, L. M. (2012). Indigenous uses of threatened ethnomedicinal plants used to cure different diseases by ethnic people of Almora district of Western Himalaya. Int. J. Ayurvedic and Herbal Med., 2(4), 661–678. 26. LaSorte, F. A., & Jetz, W. (2010). Projected range contractions of montane biodiversity under global warming. Proc. Roy. Soc. B: Biol. Sci., 277, 3401–3410. 27. Malhotra, C. L., & Balodi, B. (1984). Wild medicinal plants in the use of Johari Tribals. J. Econ. Taxon Bot., 5, 841–843. 28. Mondoni, A., Probert, R. J., Rossi, G., Vegini, E., Hay, F. R. (2011). Seeds of alpine plants are short lived: implications for long-term conservation. Annals of Botany., 107, 171–179. 29. Mondoni, A., Rossi, G., Orsenigo, S., Probert, R. J. (2012). Climate warming could shift the timing of seed germination in alpine plants. Annals of Botany, 110, 155–164. 30. Nautiyal, A. R., Nautiyal, M. C., & Purohit, A. N. (eds.). (1997). Harvesting Herbs – 2000, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. 31. Negi, C. S. (2010). Askote Conservation Landscape (Culture, Biodiversity and Economy). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. 32. Paliwal, G. S., & Badoni, A. K. (1990). Ethnobotany of the hill tribes of Uttarkashi 1. Medicinal Plants. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 14(2), 421–442. 33. Pande, P. C., Tiwari, L., & Pande, H. C. (2006). Folk-medicine and aromatic plants of Uttaranchal. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. 34. Pangtey, Y. P. S., Samant, S. S., & Rawat, G. S. (1989). Ethnobotanical notes on the Bhotia tribes of Kumaun. Indian J. Forestry., 12(3), 191–196. 35. Phondani P. C., Maikhuri R. K., Rawat L. S., Farooquee N. A., Kala C. P., Vishvakarma S. C. R., Rao K. S., & Saxena K. G. (2010). Ethnobotanical uses of plants among the Bhotiya Tribal Communities of Niti Valley in Central Himalaya, India. Ethnobotany Research & Applications., 8, 233–244. 36. Ratha, K. K., Rungsung, W., Dutta, S., Joshi, G. C., & Hazra, J. (2014). Some important herbaceous medicinal flora of Alpine and Sub-Alpine ecosystem of Western Himalaya. Amer. J. Pharmand Health Res., 2(9). 37. Ratha, K. K., Joshi, G. C., Rungsung, W., & Hazra, J. (2015). Use pattern of high altitude medicinal plants by Bhotiya tribe of Niti valley, Uttarakhand. World J. Pharm. Pharmaceuti. Sci., 4(6), 1042–1061. 38. Rawat G. S. (2005). Alpine Meadows of Uttaranchal. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. 39. Rawat, G. S., & Pagtey, Y. P. S. (1987). A contribution to the ethnobotany of alpine regions of Kumaun. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 2(1), 139–147.

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40. Sahni, K. C., & Raizada, M. B. (1957). Observations on the vegetation of Panch Chuli. Indian Forester., 81, 3000–317. 41. Samant, S. S., & Pal, M. (2003). Diversity and conservation status of medicinal plants in Uttaranchal State. Indian Forester, 129(9), 1090–108. 42. Samant, S. S., & Pant, S. (2006). Diversity, distribution pattern and conservation status of the plants used in liver diseases/ailments in Indian Himalayan region. J. Mountain Sci. 3, 28–47. 43. Satyal, G. S., Samant, S. S., & Kumar, K. (2002). Indigenous knowledge and Conservation of medicinal plants used by the Bhotia tribes in Kumaun Himalaya. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol., 9, 159–166. 44. Semwal, D. P., Saradhi, P. P., Nautiyal, B. P., & Bhatt, A. B. (2007). Current status, distribution and conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, Central Himalayas, India. Curr. Sci., 92, 1733–1738. 45. Semwal, J. K., & Gaur, R. D. (1981). Alpine flora of Tungnath in Garhwal Himalaya. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 78, 498–512. 46. Shah, N. C., & Joshi, M. C. (1971). An ethnobotanical study of the Kumaon Region of India. Econ. Bot., 25, 414–422. 47. Singh, D., & Pundir, Y. P. S. (2004). Wild medicinal plants of Jaunsar-Bawar Western Himalayas), Uttaranchal-1. Indian Forester., 140(12), 1259–1271. 48. Singh, G., & Rawat G. S. (2011). Ethnomedicinal survey of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary in Western Himalaya, India. Indian J. Fundam. Appl Life Sci., 1(1), 2231–6345. 49. Singh, H. (2008). Importance of local names of some useful plants in ethnobotanical study. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 7(2), 365–370. 50. Singh, H., Husain, T., Agnihotri, P., Pande, P. C., & Khatoon, S. (2014). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. J. Ethnopharmacol., 154(1), 98–108. 51. Singh, V., & Pandey, R. P. (1980). Medicinal plant lore of the tribals of Eastern Rajasthan (India), J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 1, 137–147. 52. Uniyal, M. (1968). Medicinal plants of Bhagirathi valley lying in Uttarkashi forest division. Indian Forester., 94, 407–420.

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PLATE 1 A: Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don; B: Potentilla atrisanguinea Lodd.; C:  Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth.; D: Caltha palustris L.; E: Gaultheria trichophylla Royle; F: Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle; G: Origanum vulgare L., H: Podophyllum hexandrum Royle.

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PLATE 2 A: Allium humile Kunth; B: Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo; C: Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew.; D: Trillidium govanianum (D. Don) Kunth.; E: Fritillaria royeli Hook.; F: Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

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PLATE 3 A: Betula utilis D. Don, B: Hippophae rhamnoides L., C: Heracleum candidans Wall. ex DC., D: Oxyria digyna Hill, E: Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss., F: Nomocharis oxypetala (Royle) E. H. Welson, G: Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex DC.; H: Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.

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PLATE 4  A: Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle; B: Meconopsis aculeata Royle; C: Impatiens sulcata Wall.; D: Aconitum laeve Royle; E: Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf.; F: Salvia hians Royle ex Benth.

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PLATE 5  A: Pindari bugyal; B: Kedarnath shrine: C: Vasudhara (Mana valley); D: Neelkanth mountain; E: Har ki doon; F: Tungnath shrine; G: Gangotri bugyal showing population of Brahmkamal; H: Yamnotri shrine.

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PLATE 6.  A-G: Local tribe of Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya: H: Local Trade of ethnomedicinal plants; I: A wooden home in alpine of Har ki doon.

CHAPTER 5

ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL HIMALAYAS BASANT BALLABH1, O. P. CHAURASIA2, P. C. PANDE3, and T. PULLAIAH4 Defence Institute of Bio-Energy Research, Defence Research & Development Organization, Goraparao, Haldwani, Uttarakhand, India, E-mail: [email protected] 1

Defence Institute of High Altitude Research, Defence Research and Development Organization, Leh-Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India

2

Department of Botany, Kumaum University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India

3

Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur – 515003, A.P., India, E-mail: [email protected] 4

CONTENTS Abstract......................................................................................................150 5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................150 5.2  Medicinal Wealth and Traditional Medical System..........................158 5.3  Stages of Collection of Plant Parts ...................................................160 5.4  Storage of Raw Materials..................................................................161 5.5  Cultivation and Conservation Aspects of Medicinal Plants..............162 5.6  Review of the Literature...................................................................164 5.7  Medicinal Plants Remedies As a Source of Income.........................185

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5.8 Discussion.........................................................................................187 5.9 Conclusion........................................................................................273 Keywords...................................................................................................274 References..................................................................................................274 ABSTRACT The Himalayan medicinal plants are major source of traditional herbal health care for the local inhabitants since a long back which provide cure to the poor and tribal population of these regions. There are different traditional medical systems prevalent in Western and Central Himalayan region of our country. The traditional herbalists play a major role in skillful utilization of wild medicinal plants with certain other combinations. The Western Himalayan region is considered natural abode of certain important medicinal plants as well as rare, threatened and endangered plants of medicinal value. The climate and environmental conditions prevail in the Himalayan region are suitable for high quality drug development. The western and central Himalaya shares more than 1000 species of medicinal plants of which maximum herbs followed by shrubs and trees are mainly used in traditional medicine. A maximum number of underground parts followed by leaves, whole plant, bark and wood, etc. are the common plant parts used in the preparation of remedies. According to published literature a maximum of 1338 species of ethnomedicinal plants were reported from Uttarakhand by Pande et al. (2006) followed by 948 species from Jammu & Kashmir state by Gairola et al. (2014) and 643 species from Himachal Pradesh by Samant et al. (2007). This chapter on ethnomedicinal plants of western and central Himalayas is a review of information available on medicinal plants from various sources and from the published literature which will be highly useful for researchers and scientists associated with ethnobotany, traditional medical practitioners and other allied fields of plant sciences. 5.1 INTRODUCTION Elementary needs of pre-historic man were fulfilled by the plants of his surroundings. He was totally dependent on these plants for food, medicine and

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other domestic purposes. This interaction between man and plants in dayto-day life continued over long period and a systematic study of its nature came to be known as a science of ethnobotany in recent past. The plant wealth constitutes a good source of food, medicines, shelter and other necessities for the human beings since the time immemorial. The rate and scale of environmental changes brought about by increasing population pressure and fast development activities are threatening the Himalayan ecosystem, thereby causing loss of habitats, which are rich in characteristic flora and fauna. Conservation of wild medicinal plants will play a vital role to protect the existing diversity of medicinal flora and will be helpful for sustainable exploitation of these valuable resources in the Himalaya for overall economic development of these regions (Kaul, 1997; Chaurasia et al., 2007). India is very rich in diverse biological wealth. About 17,000 species of higher plants reported from the forests of India, of which 7500 are known for their medicinal properties (Shiva, 1996). About 340 drugs and their indigenous use were reported about 300 B.C. in Charak Samhita (Prajapati et al., 2003). The World Health Organization (WHO) has listed 21,000 plants of medicinal use around the world. The great Indian Himalaya called as “abode of snow” is a mountain range in the Indian subcontinent which separates the Indo-Gangetic plain from the Tibetan Plateau. This range is home to 9 of the 10 highest peaks on Earth, including the highest Mount Everest. The Indian Himalaya is spread over 13 States in India having a total of about 5,94,427 km2 geographic area which is about 18% area of the country. Over 50 millions people (over 6% of total Indian population) live in these areas. Length of Indian Himalaya is about 2,400 km and width is around 240–320 km.

5.1.1  THE CENTRAL WESTERN HIMALAYA The Central Western Himalaya covers the Uttarakhand, which includes the major divisions of Kumaun and Garhwal. A number of tribes and people – Protoaustroloids, Mundas, Kiratas, Mongoloids, Indo-Aryans, Khasas, Sakas and others have developed a variety of culture and knowledge in this region since a long back. It is interesting to know that the region has more powerful local gods and goddesses than the Brahmanical gods. The cultural groups of the Central Himalayan Region include the Kumaunis, Garhwalis, and some

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tribes like Bhotias, Rajees, Tharus, Boxas, Jaunsarees, which have their own different cultures, traditions, languages, customs, etc. Thus the Central Himalayas provide excellent opportunities for studying the Traditional Knowledge Systems (Agrawal and Kharakwal, 1998). The Indian Central Himalayan Region is very rich in medicinal wealth and traditional knowledge. It is recognized as one of the world’s top 12 mega biodiversity regions, and possesses rich flora that includes about 45,000 species of plants. Majority of them are known for medicinal values. There are different traditional health care systems that exist in this region and are known as classical Indian systems of medicines. About 95% medicinal plants are collected from naturally growing forest areas. The collection process is usually devastative because of the use of plant parts like roots (29.6%), leaves (25.8%), barks (13.5%), wood (2.8%), rhizome (4%), and whole plants (24.3%). Vegetation of the region can be categorized from the tropical deciduous to the alpine pastures. Most of the floral species are vulnerable to extinct. It has been estimated that over 350 species of plants are vulnerable in this region, out of which, 161 species belongs to rare and threatened categories (Pondhani et al., 2011). The vegetation of Indian Central Himalayan Region is considered as rich source of medicinal plants; however, various factors such as habitat devastation, over grazing, illegal exploitation, changing climate, etc., decreased the availability of medicinal plants in the wild (Maikhuri et al., 1998). The Uttarakhand State was declared ‘Herbal State’ in 2003 and the State Government has now started cultivating medicinal plants in the suitable agro-climatic zones of mid-altitudes and the high altitudes. The western Himalayan region has rich heritage of medicinal and aromatic flora which covers about 3,29,032 km2 lying in the west of Nepal. 67.5% of total area lies in Kashmir and about 17% area lies in Himachal Pradesh. The hilly districts of Uttarakhand state, i.e., Kumaun and Garhwal regions cover a total area of 51,125 km2. The Western Himalaya can be divided into following climatic zones: a. b. c. d. e.

Tropical zone: up to 1000 m above mean sea level; Sub tropical zone: between 1001 m to 1800 m above mean sea level; Temperate Zone: between 1801 m to 2800 m above mean sea level; Alpine temperate: between 2801 m to 3800 m above mean sea level; Glacial temperate: above 3800 m above mean sea level.

A number of plants of medicinal value were reported from different zones. Some common species of these zones are given as under:

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5.1.1.1  Tropical and Sub-tropical Zone < 1800 m Justicia adhatoda, Achyranthes aspera, Mangifera indica, Apium graveolens, Rauwolfia serpentina, Acorus calamus, Calotropis gigantea, Asparagus adscendens, A. racemosus, Azardirachta indica, Artemisia absinthium, A. japonica, Tagetes minuta, Berberis asiatica, Rorippa indica, Bauhinia variegata, B. vahlii, Caesalpinia decapetala, Cassia fistula, Terminalia alata, T. arjuna, T. chebula, Cyperus rotundus, Dioscorea bulbifera, Emblica officinalis, Swertia angustifolia, Hypericum perforatum, Curculigo orchioides, Ajuga parviflora, Mentha arvensis, M. piperata, Ocimum canum, O. sanctum, Salvia plebeia, S. lanata, Cinnamomum tamala, Aloe barbadensis, Woodfordia fruticosa, Tinospora cordifolia, Syzygium cuminii, Malaxis acuminata, Zizipus mauritiana, Prinsepia utilis, Rubia cordifolia, Zanthoxylum armatum, Sapindus mukorossii, Bergenia ligulata, Bacopa monnierii, Withania somnifera, Atropa belladonna, Urtica parviflora, Hedychium spicatum, Elaeagnus conferta, etc. 5.1.1.2  Temperate Zone 1801–2800 m Ferula jaeschkeana, Heracleum candicans, Asparagus filicinus, Ainsliaea aptera, Berberis aristata, Betula alnoides, Sagina saginoides, Corylus jacquemontii, Rosularia rosulata, Gentiana kurroo, Skimmia laureola, Geranium nepalense, Elsholtzia fruticosa, Rhododendron arboreum, Malva verticillata, Oxalis corniculata, Phytolacca acinosa, Polygala sibirica and Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana, etc. 5.1.1.3  Subalpine Zone 2801–3800 m Allium humile, Bunium persicum, Malaxis muscifera, Carum carvii, Geranium wallichianum, Angelica glauca, Archangelica himalaica, Bupleurum falcatum, Heracleum lanatum, Arisaema flavum, Saussurea auriculata, S. costus, Tanacetum gracile, T. tenuifolium, T. tomentosum, Impatiens glandulifera, Arnebia benthamii, Eritrichium canum, Rhododendron campanulatum, Ribes orientale, Polygonatum multiflorum, P. verticillatum, Plantago depressa, Aconitum ferox, A. leave, A. heterophyllum, A. falconeri, Pedicularis pectinata, Polygonatum verticillatum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Picrorhiza kurrooa, etc.

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5.1.1.4  Alpine Zone > 3800 m Cortia depressa, Selinum tenuifolium, Heracleum wallichii, Inula royleana, Saussurea graminifolia, S. obvallata, S. simsoniana, S. gossypiphora, Arnebia euchroma, Corydalis meifolia, C. govaniana, Iris kumaonensis, Fritillaria roylei, Polygonum affine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Rheum australe, R. moorcroftianum, R. webbianum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Aconitum heterophyllum, A. rotundifolium, A. violaceum, A. spicatum, Delphinium cashmerianum, D. vestitum, Nardostachys grandiflora, etc. Utilization of plants for medicinal purposes in India has been documented long back in ancient literature. However, organized studies in this direction were initiated in 1956 (Rao, 1996) and off late such studies are gaining recognition and popularity due to loss of traditional knowledge and declining plant population. In the interior areas of western Himalaya plants become the only source of medicine and well being. Due to remoteness and lack of modern health facilities dependence on plants for medicine is very high in the interior parts of Himalaya. The role of market economy in depletion of traditional knowledge has been well documented in many parts of Himalaya (Uniyal et al., 2003). Thus many important leads to drug discovery may be lost in absence of proper documentation. The demand of herbal products and plant-based drugs has sudden rise across the world resulting in the heavy exploitation of medicinal plants in recent years. Habitat degradation, unscientific, unsustainable harvesting and over-exploitation to meet the demands of the mostly illegal trade in medicinal plants have already led to the extinction of more than 150 plant species in the wild (Singh and Rawat, 2011; Dhar et al., 2000). More than 90% of medicinal plants used in the herbal industries are exploited from the wild and about 70% of the medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya are subject to unscientific and destructive harvesting and the majority of these plants and their stems from alpine and sub-alpine zones of the Himalaya (Singh and Dey, 2005). The significance of ethnobiological knowledge on plants and ecology can provide leads for new paths in scientific research and conservation has received attention in resource management worldwide. 5.1.2 UTTARAKHAND The Uttarakhand is located between latitude 29°5’–31°25’N and longitude 77°45’–81° E covering an area of 53,485 Km2. It is situated between

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300 to 7817 m above mean sea level which resulted in complex diversity in topography, meteorology, flora and fauna. The main tribal groups living in Uttarakhand are Bhotia, Rajees, Tharu and Boxas. The State covers the major part of Indian Central Himalaya (Pande et al., 2007). About 2,500 plants species are being used in different system of medicines in India and 1750 herbal species are reported as native to the Indian Himalaya, in which western Himalaya has a share of about 1000 species which are still in use. This proportion of medicinal plants reported to be highest proportion of known medicinal plants of any country in the world against existing flora of that respective country (Kala, 2002). According to National Medicinal Plant Board about 1200 species are estimated to have medicinal value in Uttarakhand state. The natural environment of this region has been affected to a great extent due to overgrazing, cultivation in slopes, sub marginal lands, destruction of forest, change in weather pattern and unplanned development activities like construction of roads, buildings and tourists’ resorts, etc. The indiscriminate and unscientific exploitation have severely disturbed the ecological balance (Pandey et al., 2006). The Himalayan range in the northern part of India harbors a great diversity of medicinal plants. Of the approximately 8000 species of angiosperms (40% endemic), 44 species of gymnosperms (16% endemic), 600 species of pteridophytes (25% endemic), 1737 species of bryophytes (33% endemic), 1159 species of lichens (11% endemic), 6900 species of fungi (27% endemic) have been reported in the Indian Himalaya (Singh and Hajra, 1996). Among these some of 1748 species (1685 angiosperms, 12 Gymnosperms, 51 Pteridophytes) including 1020 herbs, 335 shrubs and 330 trees are known for their medicinal properties (Samant et al., 1998a), 675 species are wild edible (Samant and Dhar, 1997), 118 medicinal plants yielding essential oil, 279 species of fodder plants, 155 sacred plants species (Samant and Pant, 2003), 121 rare, endangered plants (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990). Out of total 1748 medicinal plants reported from IHR 31% are native, 15.5% are endemic and 14% threatened. About 1717 species of them are reported from 1800 m elevation range. The state of Uttarakhand in the central -western Himalaya, still maintains a dense vegetation cover (65%). On regional scale maximum number of medicinal plants has been reported from Uttarakhand followed by Sikkim and North Bengal (Kala, 2004; Kala and Mathur, 2002). About 337 species of medicinal plants reported from the trans-Himalaya which is low as compared to other areas of the Himalaya due to the divergent geography and ecological conditions (Kala, 2002, 2005a).

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5.1.3  HIMACHAL PRADESH Himachal Pradesh located in the north-western Himalaya gifted with the lush green beautiful landscapes and natural scenarios. It has 55,673 Km2 geographical area (about 1.7% of the country’s geographical area), which lies between latitude 30°22′40″ to 33°12′40″ N to longitude 75°45′55″ to 793°04′20″ E and includes parts of Trans and Northwest Himalaya covering 9% of total Indian Himalayan Region. Like other parts of IHR the state Himachal Pradesh has a representative, natural and socio-economically important biodiversity in between large altitudinal range (200–7109 m) with diverse habitat, species, populations, communities and ecosystems. The vegetation of Himachal Pradesh is varied from tropical in the lower parts to subtropical (500–1800 m) to temperate (1801–2800 m) to subalpine (2801–3800 m) to alpine above 3800 m which is usually found at 3300 m in the valleys. More than 3500 flowering plants have been reported from HP (Chowdhery, 1992), of which almost 500 plants are believed to be of medicinal importance (Chauhan, 2003). Samant et al., (2007) reported a maximum number of about 643 species of medicinal plants from Himachal Pradesh, of these 417 were found in the tropical and sub-tropical zone (3800 m). Forest department of the Himachal Pradesh estimated more than 3500 species of flowering plants, out of which about 800 species are known to be used for medicinal purposes within and outside the State. 5.1.4  JAMMU AND KASHMIR Jammu and Kashmir state is most beautiful place on the earth which is expanded over an area of 2,22,235 km2. It is surrounded by China in the north, by an autonomous region of Tibet in the east, by Himachal Pradesh and Punjab in the south, and by the Pakistani city Rawalpindi towards the west. Afghanistan is located towards the North Western side of J&K. Out of the 2,22,235 km2 are 48% area is under India, 35% is under Pakistan and rest 17 per cent is under the control of China. Thus Jammu and Kashmir has remaining actual geographic area of 1,01,387 km2 and situated in between altitudes range 1,700 to 5,500 m above mean sea level. It lies between latitude 32°17′ and 37°05′ N. and

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longitude 72°31′ and 80°20′ E. The State is divided into three geographic regions viz. Jammu, Kashmir Valley and Ladakh. The higher areas are covered by Pir Panjal, Karakoram and inner Himalayan range of mountains. The important rivers of the State are the Chenab, the Tawi, the Jhelum and the Indus. Vegetation and climate can broadly be categorized into sub-­ tropical, temperate and alpine zones with wide diversity of flora and fauna. It is reported that about 572 plant species belonging to 109 different families have medicinal value. The forest covers an area of 20,230 Sq. Kms. which constitutes 19.95% of geographical area of the State. There are five forest types found in the State Viz. Subtropical Dry Evergreen, Himalayan Moist Temperate, Himalayan Dry Temperate, Subtropical Pine and Sub-alpine and alpine Forests. Forest is mainly found in Kashmir and Jammu divisions while Ladakh is devoid of forest. According to Gairola et al. (2014) a total of 948 plants of medicinal use were recorded from the whole Jammu & Kashmir state. The traditional medicine has a long history of utilization by the tribal communities of the region. Some significant contributions on biological resources include Sharma (1991), Naqshi et al. (1992), Singh (1994), Siddique et al. (1995), Kaul (1997), Virendra et al. (2002), Ganaie and Nawchoo (2003), Khan et al. (2004), Tantray et al. (2009) and Malik et al. (2011a, b). 5.1.5  THE NORTH-WESTERN HIMALAYA THE TRANS HIMALAYA The cold arid regions of India are called “Trans Himalayan region” lies in the western edge of the Himalayas. It comprises Ladakh in J&K, Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur, Pangi Valley of district Chamba in Himachal Pradesh, and Niti and Nelong Valley of Uttarakhand. The vegetation here is subjected to extreme climatic conditions such as temperature variation (low temperature), scanty rainfall, speedy winds, exposure to ultraviolet radiations, reduced oxygen levels, low humidity, and many small glaciers (Chaurasia and Gurmet, 2004). The major part of Indian cold desert covers the Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir which lies between 32° 36’ to 36° 30’ North latitude and 74° 30’ to 80° 30’ East longitude. It covers approximately 68,321 sq. Km, besides 27,555 Sq. Km areas, which is under illegal occupation of Pakistan and China (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006).

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More than 85% of the area of Ladakh lies above 5000 m or more above mean sea level. The Indus River is the main river, which follows the course from southeast to northwest through the greater part of the country. The region is famous for several lakes viz. Pangongtso (4,384 m), Tsomoriri (4354 m), Tsokar, etc. Similarly a number of hot springs abound in Ladakh, of which Puga and Panamik are well known and Indus, Nubra, Changthang, Zanskar and Suru valleys are also famous.

5.2  MEDICINAL WEALTH AND TRADITIONAL MEDICAL SYSTEM In India, over 7500 plants species are estimated to be used by approximately 4635 ethnic communities for human and veterinary health care across the various ecosystems ranging from Ladakh in the trans Himalayan cold desert to the southern coastal tip of Andaman & Nicobar Islands and from the deserts of Rajasthan and Kutch to the Hills of the north east. It is estimated that the medicinal plants used in different medical system are Ayurveda 1769 species, Folk medicine 4671 species, Homeopathy 482 species, Siddha 1121 species, Tibetan or Amchi 279 species and Unani 751 species. The Himalayas are very rich in medicinal wealth and traditional medicinal knowledge. The Central Himalayan Region covers the new state of India, i.e., Uttarakhand, which is a storehouse of variety of herbs of medicinal and aromatic value. The Indian Himalayas alone supports about 18,440 species of plants of which about 45% are having medicinal properties. According to Samant et al. (1998b) out of the total species of vascular plants, 1748 spp. species are of medicinal importance. In the Himalayan regions the traditional medicine is generally prescribed by skilled person of the family very efficiently since a long back. The household ladies in Himalayan region use herbal drugs for most of the ordinary ailments of infants and children. The herbal drugs are generally available from their kitchen stock, kitchen garden or village fields and from the village bazaar. The rhizome of Curcuma domestica (Haldi) is used for cuts, burns and scalds; the fruits of Piper nigrum (black pepper, Kali-mirch or gol-mirch) for colds and coughs; the fruits of Trachyspermum ammi (ajawain); and resin of Ferula spp. (heeng) for stomach troubles and whooping cough; the seeds of Sesamum indicum (Til) for ulcers and boils, etc., are well known to elderly housewives.

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The infusion of the leaves of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) is used for colds and coughs and mild fever, fomentation with the hot leaves of Ricinus communis (Erand) and Aloe barbadensis (Geekuar) for relieving inflammations, swellings of joints and sprains, and many other home remedies are learnt traditionally in the home. The elderly persons, Pujari, Ojhas, and priests, etc., of the villages know certain herbal drugs, which grow nearby areas and try them effectively and free of cost without any hesitation against several common ailments and diseases. Traditional herbalists are mostly illiterate but highly skilled and have considerable knowledge of the herbal drugs and their uses. They keep stocks of crude drugs for sale and prescribe these for common ailments. Usually the traditional herbalists maintain small shop of herbal remedies. There is another kind of herbalist, who is a wanderer. Among these there are two categories: those who administer a ground mixture of herbal drugs, and those who prescribe and also supply the herbal drugs as such. The herbalists also store their crude drugs in glass jars and often display them towards roadside. They procure drugs from North Indian established crude drug markets. They administer drugs mainly for various ailments and also as tonics and aphrodisiacs. The most commonly available drugs are the tuberous roots of Orchis species. (Salam panja or Salam gatta), the roots of Asparagus spp. (Satawar), Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), the fruits of Tribulus terrestris (Chota gokhru), and Pedalium murex (Bara gokhru), seeds of Mucuna pruriens (Kiwanch), Entada pursaetha (Chian, gila), stems of Tinospora cordifolia (Giloya), the tubers of Pueraria tuberosa (Vidari kanda), and others. The herbalist also administers the herbal drugs directly without pounding; they keep only a limited number of crude drugs for day-to-day use. The common drugs of this category are fruits of Terminalia chebula (Harra), T. bellerica (Bahera), Emblica officinalis (Awanla), Helicteres isora (Marorphali), bark of Symplocos species (Pathani lodhra), roots of Withania somnifera (Aswagandha nagori), and seeds and oleoresins of various plants. The herbalists in hilly regions often use certain crude drugs procured from the alpine zones, like Rheum spp. (Dolu), Aconitum heterophyllum (Atis), Picrorhiza kurooa (Karu), Angelica glauca (Chora or gandrayan), Nardostachys jatamansi (Mansi), and the aromatic leaves of Allium govanianum and other Allium spp. (Uambu or Jamboo), and many others.

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The traditional medical system exists in Nepal, Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti, Eastern Himalayan States and some tribal regions of Uttarakhand is known as “Amchi system of medicine” (based on Tibetan Medicine) and the practitioners are called Amchis (Buddhist medicine man-Superior of all). Amchi medicine is based on skillful uses of plants, minerals and animal products. The origin of Amchi medicine is traced back to India, where more than 2500 years ago Lord Budha delivered a medical practice called Bzi (Chatus tantre) which was translated in Tibetan language during 8th century AD by Acharya Chandrananda and Varochana. In order to popularize these texts in Tibet, the senior Yusthog Youthan Gonbo had made some changes in it to make it harmonious with the culture and environment of Tibet. Since then this system is very popular in Tibet and in most parts of the Himalayan belt. This system was introduced in cold arid zones during 10th/11th century AD approximately (Chaurasia et al., 2007). The traditional practitioners in the Himalayan regions are looking after more than 80% of public health. The herbal healers have not only theoretical texts but also practical experience handed over from generation to generation. They have also a reputation of having high ethical standard in social system. Generally single herbal preparation and combinations of two or more herbs are prescribed and administered (Kala, 2002; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2008; Chaurasia et. al., 2000).

5.3  STAGES OF COLLECTION OF PLANT PARTS Potency and efficacy of medicinal plants depend upon collection/harvesting of different plant parts at their right stage (Chaurasia et. al., 2007).

5.3.1  ROOTS, RHIZOMES, TUBERS AND BULBS The underground parts are the storage organs of the plant and accumulate active bioconstituents during summer months. Roots and rhizomes of the perennials are usually harvested after two to five years of growth either at the end of growing season or in the beginning of growing season. The underground parts of annuals are not generally collected.

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5.3.2  AERIAL PARTS These include all the parts of the plant growing above ground – stems, leaves, flowers. Stems are usually cut just above ground at the beginning of flowers while the perennials may be cut higher above ground to encourage further crops. Leaves are harvested throughout the growing season. Usually tender or young leaves are considered to have maximum content of bioactive constituents. Similarly flowers or the entire inflorescences are collected at the beginning of flowering period.

5.3.3  FRUITS AND BERRIES These plant parts are collected when they are fully ripened. They are picked individually or in bunches.

5.3.4 SEEDS Seeds are usually collected when fruits/berries fully mature and seeds are gathered before scattering.

5.3.5 BARK This plant part is collected either in spring when the trees or shrubs start to sprout or in autumn when they shed their leaves because during this time the flow of sap is considered to be a maximum and barks readily detach from the wood.

5.4  STORAGE OF RAW MATERIALS Processing and proper storage of medicinal plants parts are the most important steps for retaining maximum potency and quality. Under ground parts/ leaves/stems/bark are thoroughly washed, cleaned and dried in shed or ovens at proper temperature. Similarly fruits and seeds should be properly dried.

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Storage of raw materials is very important for maintaining the quality of crude drugs. Leaves, roots, flowers and other plant parts should be stored in sterilized, dark glass containers with airtight lids or they may also be stored in brown paper/cotton bags and should be kept in dry and cool places to protect from insect damage and molds. 5.5  CULTIVATION AND CONSERVATION ASPECTS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS It has been reported that certain species of commercially viable medicinal plants has been successfully cultivated in central and western Himalayan regions. Maikhuri et al., (1997) studied the cultivation of medicinal plants of Indian central Himalayan region. Atal and Kapur (1982) studied the cultivation aspects of 71 species of Jammu & Kashmir. Jee Vir et al. (1984) reported 26 medicinal plants under cultivation in Rajaori district of Jammu & Kashmir. Silori and Badola (2000) discussed cultivation of 12 species of commercially viable medicinal plants of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. It has been reported that in Uttarakhand about 3000 farmers involved in cultivation of medicinal plants. Due to increase of human interventions, tourist’s activities, construction of roads and buildings, unscientific exploitation of natural resources, water and wind erosion in the Himalayan region the loss of existing medicinal flora has increased manifold. Certain important species of medicinal plants has already kept in red data book of IUCN. Ex-situ and in-situ conservation and sustainable utilization of these valuable resources is need of present hour. Some conservation strategies suggested by various workers on conservation aspects are as under:



i. Quantitative assessment and identification of threatened and commercially viable medicinal plants should be done with a particular attention to those species on which people’s livelihood depends. ii. There is urgent need of prioritizing study areas on limiting factor of loss of valuable medicinal flora. iii. There is need to adopt more realistic approach through recent techniques like RS and GIS by continuous monitoring, suggestion and amendment on conservation plan.

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iv. Implementation of environmental education awareness among society towards conservation of valuable medicinal resources. v. By adopting traditional success mechanism with regards to conservation strategies of life saving drug yielding medicinal resources. vi. Establishment of well-equipped laboratories in the Indian Himalayan States at different altitudes for identification of eco-physiological characteristics of alpine and Himalayan medicinal plants. vii. By adopting in-situ conservation plan for valuable threatened and endangered medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya. viii. To promote community based conservation. ix. By adopting ex-situ conservation mainly tissue culture and MAP nurseries/gardens, etc. to conserve natural resources. x. Establishment of herbaria which has an indirect role in detection, assessment and monitoring of important rare and threatened medicinal plants species there by augmenting ex-situ and in-situ conservation. xi. To develop conservation technology, i.e., in vitro and agro-technology for commercially viable threatened and economically important medicinal plants to enhance mass production as well as reduce pressure on natural habitat. xii. A P4 management strategy of prediction, prevention, prescription and public awareness need to be adopted to stem out the tide of biological invasion. It is expected that this chapter will be of much significance to the ethnobotanists and workers in related fields in view of the following. a) It will bring forth the heretofore-unknown knowledge on ethnomedicinal plants of Central and Western Himalaya. b) It will bring forth the knowledge of the ways and means in which tribal people are utilizing different vegetational resources of their surrounding environment for different purposes. c) It will underline the strategy for better and balanced utilization of plant resources in the tribal community in the Central and Western Himalayas. d) It will also underline the strategy for sustainable utilization of plant resources and conservation of rare, threatened and endangered medicinal and other useful ethnomedicinal flora of Indian Himalayan Region.

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5.6  REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The history of Indian medical botany is traced back to the Vedic era. India is very rich in ethnobotanical information, which can be tapped for information on medicinal, edible and other folk-lore of plants. According to Jain and Mitra (1991), “Ethnobotanical knowledge is very ancient in India. Ever recorded ethnobotany of India might well be among the earliest in the world.” A brief account of literature review on ethno-medico botany in the western and central Himalaya which has been studied by a number of workers since a long back is as follows. Stewart (1916–17) studied the flora of Ladakh and Western Tibet and reported various useful plants. Many useful plants of Himalaya were mentioned in “Wealth of India- Raw Materials” (Annonymus, 1948–1976). Medicinal plants of Himalayan region were studied by Kapoor et al. (1957). Gupta (1960a) presented ethnobotanical study of some useful and medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalaya. Gupta (1960b) studied useful and medicinal plants of Nainital district of Kumaun Himalaya. Juyal and Uniyal (1960) studied medicinal plants of commercial and traditional importance in Bhillanganga valley of Tehri Garhwal. Juyal and Uniyal (1966) studied medicinal plants of Bhagirathy valley. Gupta (1962) studied the medicinal plants of west Himalaya. S. K. Jain, considered as father of modern ethnobotany of India, studied the ethnobotany of different states of India in collaboration with other workers and he covered many species of Himalaya in his literature (Jain, 1981, 1987, 1991). Ahluwalia (1965) documented medicinal plants of Toon division in Har-ki-Dun areas. Shah (1971) conducted medico-botanical study of Dronagiri the mythic hill in Kumaun. Shah and Joshi (1971) conducted an ethnobotanical study of Kumaun region of India. Naithani (1973) documented medicinal plants of western Garhwal. Raghunathan (1976) compiled and edited a book entitled “The study of herbal wealth of Ladakh.” Plants along with their uses were described by Singh and Arora (1978). Koelz (1979) gave notes on ethnobotany of Lahaul-Spiti area in Himachal Pradesh. Mehrotra (1979) surveyed medicinal plants around Kedarnath shrine of Garhwal Himalaya. Shah et al. (1980) surveyed some medicinal plants of Dharchula block in Pithoragarh district. Gupta et al. (1980, 1981) carried out phytochemical screening of ethnobotanically important plants of Ladakh.

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Srivastava et al. (1976, 1981, 1982, 1986) studied the various aspects of ethnobotany of Ladakh. Shah (1981) studied the role of ethnobotany in relation to medicinal plants in India. Nautiyal (1981) highlighted traditional use of some medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalaya. A preliminary study of medicinal plants from Suru valley in Ladakh was carried out by Uniyal (1981). Joshi et al. (1982) highlighted some medicinal plants of Rudranath Bugyal (District Chamoli). Kak (1983) presented ethnobotany of Kashmiris. Rajwar (1983) studied low altitude medicinal plants of south Garhwal. Chopra et al. (1984) referred some poisonous plants of the Himalayan region. Dar et al. (1984) conducted a survey on ethnobotany of KashmirSind valley and reported the medicinal use of 57 species. Jee et al. (1984) conducted taxo-ethnobotanical studies of 36 species in the rural areas of Rajouri district. They reported 36 medicinal plants, 17 fodder plants, 16 fuel and fire wood plants along with 26 species under cultivation. Brown (1984) formulated methods for collection of data of botanical life forms and folktaxonomy. Viswanathan and Mankad (1984) published a paper on medicinal plant of Ladakh. Gaur et al. (1984) presented a survey of high altitude medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalaya. Jain and Puri (1984) conducted an ethnomedicobotanical survey of Jaunsar-Bawar, a hilly tribal inhabited area in Uttarakhand and documented the traditional medicinal use of about 100 plants by the local Jaunsari tribe against treatment of various ailments. Maheshwari and Singh (1984) contributed to the ethnobotany of Boxa tribes of Bijnor and Pauri Garhwal district. Malhotra and Balodi (1984) listed wild medicinal plants in the use of Johari tribals. Malhotra and Bashu (1984) presented a preliminary survey of plants resources of medicinal and aromatic value from Almora district. Rajwar (1984) highlighted exploitation of medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalaya. Mishra (1985) studied medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal. Negi et al. (1985) conducted an ethnobotanical study on economic importance of some common trees in Garhwal Himalaya. Ansari and Nand (1985) reported certain medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal region. Kaul et al. (1985) studied an ethnobotany of Notrthwest and Trans-Himalaya; contribution to the wild food plants of Ladakh. Purohit et al. (1986) conducted an ethnobotanical study on some medicinal plants used in skin diseases from Raath, Pauri Garhwal Himalaya. Gaur et al. (1986) highlighted the folk utility of multieconomic tree Eunymus tingens Wall. in Raath region of Garhwal Himalaya. Uniyal and Joshi (1986) highlighted traditionally used family planning drug “Babila ghass” from Garhwal Himalaya. Dhasmana (1986a) documented

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the medicinal plants of family Lamiaceae of Pauri town and adjacent area of Garhwal Himalaya. Dhasmana (1986b) documented the medicinal plants of family Compositae of Pauri town and adjacent area of Garhwal Himalaya. Aswal and Mehrotra (1987) studied ethnobotany and flora of Lahul valley (Northwest Himalaya). Ethnobotany of Kashmir was investigated by Kachroo and Nahvi (1987). Rao and Hajara (1987) gave a reference of Amchis of Ladakh. Medico-ethnobotanical survey carried out by CCRAS in Ladakh along with other states was compiled by Raghunathan (1987). Sand and Badola (1987) conducted an ethno-botanical study of J&K state of North-West Himalaya. Shah (1987) submitted a PhD thesis on ethnobotany in the mountain region of Kumaun Himalaya. Uniyal and Issar (1988) studied the utility of hitherto unknown herbal drugs traditionally used in Ladakh. Gaur and Tiwari (1987) presented ethnobotanical study of some little known medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalaya. Dhasmana (1987) documented the medicinal plants of Pauri town and adjacent area of Garhwal Himalaya. Badoni (1987–88) studied the ethnobotany of hill tribals of Uttarkashi and plants used in rituals and psychomedicinal practices. Bisht et al. (1988) presented an ethnobotanical study on folk medicine of Arakot valley in Uttarkashi. Kalakoti and Pangety (1988) described ethnomedicine of Bhotiya tribes of Kumaun Himalaya. Singh (1988) highlighted ethnobiological treatment of piles by Boxas of Uttar Pradesh. Aswal and Goel (1989) reported less known medicinal uses of western Himalaya. Kaul et al. (1989) investigated some aspects of ethnobotany of ‘Pahari’ community living in Basohli-Bani region of Jammu and Kashmir and reported uses of 39 plant species. Kimothi and Shah (1989) described some medicinal plants of Gopeshwar-Tungnath region. Lal et al. (1989) had given a contribution to the medicinal plants lore of Garhwal region. Irshad et al. (1989, 1990) discussed ethnobotany of Ladakh India. Tewari et al. (1989) highlighted Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. as a drug for treatment of asthma from Himalayan region. Badoni (1990) carried out an ethnobotanical study of Pinswari community. Kapahi (1990) investigated ethnobotany of Lahul in Himachal Pradesh. Katiyar et al. (1990) reported nutritive value and medicinal beliefs of some novel wild plants of Gurez valley in Kashmir. Kaul et al. (1990) studied Home remedies for Arthritis in Kashmir Himalaya. Kumar and Naqshi (1990) studied the ethnobotany of Pirpanjal range of Banihal. Maheshwari and Singh (1990) discussed herbal remedies of Boxas of Nainital district. Mumgain and Rao (1990) studied some medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal.

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Ansari (1991) gave ethnobotanical notes on some plants of Khirsu in Pauri Garhwal. Bhattacharyya (1991) studied the ethnobotany of Ladakh and reported 57 species used as vegetable, for ceremonies, personal hygiene and as fodder. Kapur (1991) studied the traditionally important medicinal plant of Dudu valley and reported 71 species used by Gujjars, Bakarwals and Gaddhi tribes. Sharma (1991) reported some economic plants from the Jammu &Kashmir areas, which are used against rheumatic pain by different ethnic groups like phalaris, Gujjars Bakarwals, Dards and Ladakhis. Jain and Saklani (1991) presented observations on the Tons valley region in the Uttarkashi district of North-West Himalaya. Joshi and Uniyal (1991) presented folk medicinal importance of Peonia emodi and its cultivation strategy from western Himalaya. Kaul et al. (1991) contributed to the ethnobotany of Padaris of Doda in J&K State. Ara and Naqshi (1992) conducted ethnobotanical studies in Gureij valley of Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya. Aswal (1992) reported less known medicinal uses of 3 plants of Kumaun Himalaya. Gohil and Qadri (1992) studied medicinal plants of Kargil (Ladakh) used by Balti, Dard and Brokpa races. Gaur and Singh (1993) studied ethnomedicinal plants of Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh. Kapahi et al. (1993) reported folklores of 56 plants species belonging to 50 genera and 28 families and their mode of administration from the area. Kapur (1993) studied ethnomedicinal plants of Kangra valley (Himachal Pradesh). Navchoo and Buth (1992) studied the medicinal, edible, fodder and fuel plants of Ladakh- used by the locals. Singh and Maheshwari (1992) presented traditional remedies for snakebite and scorpion sting among the Boxas of Nainital district. Singh and Maheshwari (1993) studied the phytotherapy for diphtheria by the Boxas of Nainital district. Datt and Lal (1993) studied some less known medicinal uses of plants of Pithoragarh of Kumaun Himalaya. Dhar and Siddique (1993) presented ethnobotanical studies and biological diversity of Suru valley (Zanskar). Pande (1993a) studied the use of Amees as traditional drug of Uttarakhand. Pande (1993b) studied the use of Ganjiyatri as traditional drug of Uttarakhand. Pande (1994) studied the use of a traditional medicinal plant Kubjak of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Mehta et al. (1994) studied the folklore medicinal plants of Talla Johar of Eastern Kumaun. Negi (1994) studied the ancient traditional therapeutic wealth of Pauri and Tehri Garhwal. Joshi et al. (1994) studied Dioscorea kumaunensis Kunth. a new source of antirheumatic drug from Kumaun Himalaya. Samant and Mehta (1994) studied the folklore medicinal plants of Johar valley. Bisht (1994) had written a

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Hindi article regarding usefulness of Pyrecantha sp. as cardiac tonic. Shah (1994) presented ethnobotany of some well known Himalayan Compositae. Singh and Maheshwari (1994) studied the traditional phytotherapy of some medicinal plants used by the Tharus of Nainital district. Singh et al. (1995) studied ethnobotanical work of Indus valley and botanical curiosities in the alpine flora of Khardungla. Pant and Pande (1995) conducted an ethnobotanical study on medicinal flora of Tharu tribal pocket in Kumun region. Joshi et al. (1995a) highlighted indigenous system of medicine and drug abuse. Joshi et al. (1995b) discussed Taxus baccata as an emerging anticancer plant. Farooquee and Saxena (1996) studied the conservation and utilization of medicinal plants by the local inhabitants of high hills of central Himalaya and reported that fifteen cooperatives with a 1992 membership of 7009 herb collectors and sales people exist in the Dharchula block, and marketing is done through two specialist government agencies. Joshi et  al. (1996–97) have given botanical identification of new folk medicine for snakebite from Kumaun Himalaya. Kapur and Nanda (1992, 1996) reported certain medicinal plants used by the tribal people of Bhaderwah hills of Jammu. Kapur (1996a, b) reported medicinal plants in Bhaderwah hills of Jammu Province. Kapur and Singh (1996) published 88 traditionally important plants in Udampur district of Jammu. Plants used as ethnomedicine and supplement food by the Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh was given by Lal et al. (1996). A book entitled “Amchi System of Medicine – A Research Profile” was compiled and edited by Goyal et  al. (1996–1998). A total of 111 ethno-medicinal plants of Kashmir and Ladakh were documented by Kaul (1997) and published a book entitled “Medicinal Plants of Kashmir & Ladakh.” Purohit (1997) studied the Himalayan medicinal plants focus on Uttarakhand. Singh et al. (1997) mentioned plant biotechnology and herbal flora of Ladakh and also published a paper on medicinal flora of Indian cold desert. Singh and Rawat (1998) had compared the traditional versus commercial use of wild medicinal plants of great Himalayan National park. Kaul et al. (1998) have carried out an investigation on “Crude Drugs of Zanskar” (Ladakh) used by Amchi system of medicine. Biodiversity in herbal medicines was studied by Singh et al. (1998). Gurmet et al. (1998) discussed some traditional medicinal plants of Khardungla and Changla used in Amchi medicine of Ladakh. Maikhuri et al. (1998) discussed role of medicinal plants in the traditional health care system in the biosphere reserve. Saklani (1998) had presented traditional practices and knowledge of wild plants among

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ethnic communities of Garhwal Himalaya. Samant et al. (1998a) published a book on Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya, diversity, distribution potential value. Singh and Pruthi (1998) reported biodiversity in herbal medicine. Ethnobotanical study of tribal areas of Almora district was carried out by Arya et al. (1999) and Arya and Prakash (2003). Chauhan (1999a) published a book on Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh and discussed 174 plants and their medicinal uses in detail. Chaurasia et al. (1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007) carried out extensive ethnobotanical survey of cold arid zones of Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti and documented the important ethnobotanical information. Gaur (1999) gave an account of flora of Garhwal district along with ethnobotanical note. Kala and Manjrekar (1999) documented ethnobotanical and medicinal uses of 40 plant species from an ecologically fragile cold desert area of Lahaul-Spiti in Himachal Pradesh. Pande et al. (1999) edited a book on Ethnobotany of Kumaun Himalaya. K. K. Singh (1999) conducted ethnobotanical studies of the Tharus of Kumaun Himalaya. G. S. Singh (1999) documented a brief ethnobotanical account of 109 plant species belonging to 41 families and 86 genera found in Chhakinal watershed, Kullu District, in Himachal Pradesh, India, in the northwestern Himalayas. Out of the total recorded species, 1 belongs to the fungi, 1 to pteridophytes, 6 to gymnosperms and 101 to the angiosperms. Ninety-three species were found inside the forest boundary while 16 species were found near the settlements and farm fields. 73 medicinal plants were found to be used to cure several diseases. Other uses for food, timber, Fuel wood, fodder, religious ceremonies, etc. of 61 species besides medicinal value of some plants were also reported. Viswanathan (1999) worked out some edible and medicinal plants available in Ladakh. Kim et al. (1999) taken an ethnobotanical observation on Gymnosperms of Poonch district of J&K State. Chaurasia et al. (2000) published a chapter on Ethnobotany of Ladakh Himalaya. Dhar et al. (2000) analyzed various aspects of medicinal plants of the Indian Himalayan region. 20 top ranking medicinal plants were identified for conservation in each life form. Joshi and Pandey (2000) discussed ethnobotany of Tarikhet block of Kumaun Himalaya. Silori and Badola (2000) conducted a case study in the buffer zone of the Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, in the Western Himalaya and reported out of 71 families 90% of medicinal plants were cultivated on 78% of the total reported cultivated area (15.29 ha). It was estimated that an average family could earn between Rs. 4362 and Rs. 86,500 from the sale of medicinal herbs. Singh and Chaurasia (2000) published a paper entitled “Medicinal Flora of Indian Cold Desert.”

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Samant and Palni (2000) attempted to prepare an inventory of essential-oilyielding medicinal plants and analysis of species for distribution and utilization patterns, characterization of essential-oil-yielding medicinal plants and compilation of a list of species with known pharmacology, phytochemistry, cultural technique and propagation protocols. Chaurasia et al. (2001) investigated potential aromatic flora of Himalaya cold desert: Ladakh and Lahul-Spiti. Samant et al. (2001) contributed a chapter on diversity, distribution indigenous uses of threatened medicinal plants of Askot wildlife sanctuary in west Himalaya conservation and management aspects. Kaul and Handa (2001) documented medicinal plants of crossroads of western Himalaya. Khullar (2001) had given some ideas on ferns in medicine and how to identify them. Kim and Kapahi (2001) given an ethnobotanical notes on some fern and fern allies of Jammu and Kashmir state, India. Pande and Joshi (2001) described the cultivated plants of Kumaun Himalaya used for medicinal purpose. Tripathi (2001) presented indigenous knowledge and traditional practices of some Himalayan medicinal plants. Badoni and Badoni (2001) presented a chapter on ethnobotanical heritage of Garhwal Himalaya in the book on Garhwal Himalaya, nature, culture and society. Nautiyal et al. (2001) reported medicinal plant resources of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve in the central Himalaya. A total of 100 medicinal plants were found to be used by local inhabitants of the region. Out of these 28 species were used to cure wound/boils; 22 species to cure gastritis and liver disorders; 19 species to relieve from muscular, rheumatic pain and headache; 16 species to cure cold, cough and promote disease resistance; 7 species to treat eye problems; 3 species to cure skin infection and 2 species to treat urinary disorders. Ballabh (2002) submitted a thesis to Kumaon University, on ethnobotany of Boto tribe of Ladakh Himalaya, which consists 637 species (including 64 species from literature) belonging to 286 genera of 60 families of ethnobotanical importance including 314 species of ethno-medicinal use. Out of 314 ethno-medicinal plants, 54 species were used in fever, 47 species were used in veterinary medicines, 33 species were used in energetic medicine, weakness and health tonic, 29 species were used in cuts, wounds, swelling and bubo, 29 in diuretic and urinary problems, 26 in skin diseases and itching, 23 in dysentery and diarrhea, 22 in stomachache, abdominal and stomach disorders, 21 in cold and cough, 18 in kidney disorders, 16 in lungs problems, congestion and breathing problems, 14 against anti-worm, worm infestation and intestinal parasite, 12 as antiseptic and blood purification,

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11 in asthma, bronchitis, eye and ear trouble and in swellings, 10 in gout, joints pain, insect repellant, against intoxication and poisoning, 9 in headache, mountain sickness and toothache, 8 as appetizer/digestive, jaundice and rheumatism and arthritis, 7 against infections, 6 in inflammation due to different poisoning, boils, burns, blisters and colic, 5 in ulcers, chest problems, 4 in bone-fracture, constipation, as hair dye, lipstick and shampoo, against menstrual regulation and pneumonia, 3 in insect-bite, worm infestation, insect-sting, dropsy, as cooling, against gall bladder and heart problems, pus formation, sprains, bleeding and antidote, 2 in pulmonary disorders, dermatitis, diphtheria, eczema, as febrifuge, foot and mouth diseases of cattle, leprosy, liver disorders, malaria, against muscular pain and as analgesic, 1 as astringent, backache, in delivery of child, nerve disorder, obesity and fatness, poultice, purgative, scrofula, sedative, sleeplessness, cold injury, throat problems, tumor, venereal disease, vomiting, waist pain. Negi et al. (2002) reported the use ethnomedicinal plants by a small tribal community (Raji) ‘Van Raut’ of Central Himalaya. A total 50 species were used for curing various ailments however, 3 plants were commonly used species by all the tribes. 11 major ailments viz. fever, spasm, delivery, jaundice, headache, toothache and skin diseases, etc. The maximum number of herbs is used in preparation of remedies followed by tree, shrub species and climbers. Most frequently used plants parts were roots (29%), followed by leaf (19%), latex and resin (12%), bark/stems (10%) and least number of flowers. Negi and Subramani (2002) carried out ethnobotanical study in the village Chhitkul of Sangra valley in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. Beigh et al. (2003) studied plants used in traditional medicine of Kashmir Himalaya. Chandrasekar and Srivastava (2003) conducted ethnomedicinal studies in Pin valley National park, Lahul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh. Kala (2003) has published a book on Tibetan use of medicinal resources in medicinal plants of Indian Trans-Himalaya. A total of 337 plant species, 38 species of animals and 6 minerals were recorded. Uniyal (2003) described the indigenous knowledge of women in utilization of 25 plant species for curing various diseases. Chandra (2004) studied the variations in morphological parameters and energy exchange characteristics on five herbaceous medicinal crops from the alpines of Central Himalayas. All the species absorb higher amount of energy at lower altitudes, which indicates their adaptability to warm temperatures at low altitudes (up to 550 m). Chaurasia and Gurmet (2004) published a “Checklist of on medicinal and aromatic plants of trans Himalayan cold desert (Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti).” Samal et al.

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(2004) represented linkage of indigenous healthcare practices with bioresources conservation and socio-economic development in central Himalayan regions and documented more than fifty indigenous healthcare practices. Kala et al. (2004) reported a total of 300 medicinal plant species used against curing of 114 ailments by the various ethnic and non-ethnic communities of Uttaranchal State. These 114 ailments were further grouped into 12 broad classes of diseases in order to project the indigenous uses of medicinal plants for various ailments. It was found that herbs contributed the highest number of medicinal plants (65%), followed by shrubs (19%) and trees (16%). The maximum number of plant species was used to cure generalized body aches and colic, followed by gastrointestinal and dermatological problems. Vitex negundo was the most important species, used for the treatment of more than 48 ailments. Azadirachta indica, Woodfordia fruticosa, Centella asiatica, Aegle marmelos, Cuscuta reflexa, Butea monosperma, Phyllanthus emblica, and Euphorbia hirta were among other important medicinal plants based on their high use values. The underground parts of the plant were used in the majority of cases. Of 300 medicinal plants, 35 were rare and endangered species, of which about 80% was restricted to the high altitude alpine region of Uttaranchal Himalaya. A priority list of 17 medicinal plant species was prepared on the basis of endemism, use value, mode of harvesting and rarity status. Srivastava and Chandrasekar (2004) studied ethnomedicine of Pin valley National Park, Himachal Pradesh and reported plants used in treating dysentery. Chandrasekar and Srivastava (2005) presented new reports on aphrodisiac plants from Pin valley National park, Himachal Pradesh. Kala (2005a) studied the current status of medicinal plants used by traditional Vaidyas in Uttaranchal of Central Himalayan region. A total of 243 herbal formulations prepared from 156 medicinal plants by Vaidyas for treating 73 different ailments were documented. Of these 55% were cultivated and 45% were wild species. Among the cultivated species 80% were grown in the kitchen gardens and 20% in the agricultural fields. Relatively a higher percentage of, i.e., 87% of kitchen garden species were used in 243 formulations. The 55% medicinal plants growing in the wild were also used in preparing herbal formulations. Kala (2005b) monitored the population density of threatened medicinal plant species in seven protected areas in the Indian Himalayas and also documented the indigenous uses of threatened medicinal plants through interviews with 138 herbal healers (83 Tibetan healers and 55 Ayurvedic healers) residing in the buffer zone villages of these protected areas. Twenty-two percent of threatened medicinal plant species

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were critically endangered, 16% were endangered, and 27% were vulnerable. Thirty-two threatened medicinal plant species were endemic to the Himalayan region. The density of threatened medicinal plant species varied with protected areas. Kala (2005c) published a report on health traditions of Buddhist community and role of Amchis in trans-Himalayan region of India. Negi (2005) studied socio-cultural and ethnobotanical value of a sacred forest, Thal Ke Dhar, Central Himalaya. Tyagi (2005) published a book on field guide for medicinal plants. The Valley of Flowers protected area had the highest number of threatened medicinal plant species. The local healers used these threatened species for curing about 45 different ailments. Traditional practice followed to cure pinworm and diarrheal problems among infants by using herbal materials along with their scientific validation was presented by Sharma and Maheshwari (2005). Ballabh and Chaurasia (2006) published a paper on Ethnobotanical studies on Boto ribe in Ladakh. Bisht and Jain (2006) reviewed ethnobotanical studies of genus Rubus (Rosaceae) from North-Western Himalayas. Kala (2006) recorded 335 medicinal plant species of the high altitude cold desert in India and their diversity, distribution and traditional uses were discussed. Of which 45 species were rare and endangered. The main part of the plant used in preparing remedy was the leaf, followed by the flower, root, shoot, seed and fruit. The distribution pattern of the medicinal plants was, generally, localized because most (27%) were restricted to marshy and moist areas, followed by dry scrub (13%), rocks (12%), boulders (10%) and undulating land or alpine meadows (9%). The maximum rare species were found in the Pin valley, followed by the Zanskar and Leh valleys. Kanwar et al. (2006) conducted a research work in six villages of Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh to study the home scale use in treating various ailments. A total of thirty-one medicinal plants used for the treatment of various ailments at home scale level by the villagers were reported. Twenty plant species were used for curing more than one disease. Three plants, Aloe barbadensis Mill., Asparagus racemosus Roxb. and Tinospora cordifolia Willd. were used against more than five diseases. The tendency of elder people was observed towards the use of herbal medicines in comparison to middle and young people. Bhatt and Negi (2006) discussed ethnomedicinal plants of Jaunsari tribes of Garhwal Himalaya and found 66 plant species from 52 genera and 41 families were used for treatment of 64 different diseases. Out of 66 plant species 9 were tree species, 11 shrubs and 46 herb species. Various plant parts like roots of 31 plants, leaves and fruits of 23 plants, wood and bark

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of 9 plants and whole plants 18 species were used in preparation of remedies. The common diseases cured by the tribal community are tuberculosis, asthma, paralysis, diarrhea, jaundice, ophthalmic, kidney stone, bone fracture, mental disorder, arthritis, urinogenital disorders, snakebite, wounds and cuts, etc. Out of 66 plant species 13 fall in rare, 7 in endangered and 1 in vulnerable categories, however five species of plant kept under endangered and rare categories are common to this area. Helle and Olsen (2006) estimated that the trade of medicinal plants for herbal remedies is large and probably increasing. The trade has attracted the attention of scientists and development planners interested in the impact on plant populations and the potential to improve rural livelihoods through community based management and conservation. Pande et al. (2006) published a book on folk medicinal and aromatic plants of Uttaranchal which deals with 1338 ethnomedicinal plants and 364 ethnoveterinary plants followed by diversity of MAPs, MAPs available in Uttaranchal used in Indian System of Medicines (ISM), biologically active MAPs, rare and threatened MAPs, ethno-medico-zoological wisdom and alternative systems of therapies prevailing in Uttaranchal. Verma and Chauhan (2006) studied ethno-medico-botany of Kunihar forest division of district Solan (H. P.). Uniyal et al. (2006) enlighted traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, western Himalaya. A total of 35 plant species were used to cure various ailments, out of which 25 were herbs, 5 trees and 4 shrubs and one climber however, stem and flowers were reported as least used plant parts. Chaurasia et al. (2007) published a book entitled “Ethnobotany and Plants of Trans-Himalaya” which includes a total of 643 plant species belonging to 285  genera and 63 families. The major use of floral diversity is commonly for medicinal purposes (271) followed by (170) fodder, (96) edible, (45) ornamental, (42) fuel and (19) forest development, etc. Maximum plant species in the family Asteraceae (92), followed by Poaceae (61), Fabaceae (55), Brassicaceae (46), Caryophyllaceae (25), Lamiaceae (24), Polygonaceae (19), Boraginaceae (19), Apiaceae (18), Gentianaceae (14) respectively. Similarly the dominant genera are Astragalus (25 sp) followed by Artemisia (16 sp), Nepeta (13 sp), Polygonum (10 sp), Salix (10 sp), Allium (10 sp), Potentilla (9 sp), Poa (8 sp), Gentiana (7 sp), respectively. Samant et al. (2007) reported 643 medicinal plants belonging to 388 genera and 137 families used by the local communities of Himachal Pradesh in the north western Himalaya. The medicinal plants represents various life forms 106 trees, 121 shrubs and 416 herbs. Various plant parts viz. root, rhizomes

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and tubers (224 spp); whole plants (185 spp); leaves (164 spp); seeds (82 spp); fruits (81 spp); bark (72 spp); flowers (49 spp); stems (24 spp); latex (13 spp); resin (10 spp); aerial parts (8  spp); inflorescence (7  spp); fronds, gum, nuts, wood, oil and grains of (2 spp each); wax, cone and twigs of (1 species each) were used in preparation of remedies. Ballabh et al. (2007) reported the development of herbal products from medicinal plants of Ladakh. Ballabh and Chaurasia (2007) presented 56 medicinal plants of Ladakh used against cold, cough and fever. Kak (2007) studied ethno-botany of macrophytes of North Western Himalayas. Ballabh et al. (2008a) highlighted the utility of 68 ethno-medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh against kidney and urinary disorder. Ballabh et al. (2008b) studied traditional medicinal plant of cold desert Ladakh used in treatment of Jaundice. Chak et al. (2008) conducted an ethnomedicinal study of some important plants used in the treatment of hair and boils in district Pulwama of Kashmir. Lata et al. (2008) gave an overview of ethnobotanical studies on Uttarakhand state. Lal and Singh (2008) presented an indigenous herbal remedies used to cure skin disorders by the natives of Lahau-Spiti in Himachal Pradesh. Lata et al. (2008) gave an overview of ethnobotanical studies on Uttarakhand state in North India. Mahmud et al. (2008) studied ethno-medico-botany of some important aquatic plants of Jammu province (J&K). Ballabh and Chaurasia (2009) published a paper on medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh used in treatment of stomach disorders. Chak et al. (2009) conducted an ethno-medicinal study of some important plants used in the treatment of hair and boils in district Pulwama of Kashmir. Kharkwal (2009) studied the diversity and distribution of medicinal plant species from the Indian central Himalaya and recorded 126 trees, 129 shrubs and 548 herbs between 200–5800 m a.s.l. The Fabaceae and Rutaceae were found to be the most dominant family in tree species; Verbenaceae and Fabaceae in shrub species whereas in case of herbs, Asteraceae was found to be the dominant family. The total number of species including all growth forms was maximum near low altitude to mid altitude and decreased consistently with increase in altitudes. Guleria and Vasishth (2009) studied ethnobotanical uses of wild medicinal plants by Guddi and Gujjar tribes of Himachal Pradesh. Pant et al. (2009) reported that 33 plant species are used traditionally to cure various diseases/ailments by the inhabitants surrounding Mornaula reserve forest in Western Himalaya. Bisht and Purohit (2010) discussed the medicinal and aromatic plant diversity of Asteraceae family in Uttarakhand. Gangwar et al. (2010) estimated ethnomedicinal plant

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diversity in Kumaun Himalaya and observed 102 species from 48 families are being used in folk-medicine system. He covered Almora, Champawat, Bageshwar and Pithoragarh. Pala et al. (2010) studied the traditional uses of 61 medicinal plants belonging to 28 families of Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand used by local communities for treating various ailments. Out of 61 medicinal plants 12 plants belong to Asteraceae, 9 plants each belong to Rosaceae and Lamiaceae, 3 plants belong to Pinaceae family and roots/rhizomes of 13 species, fruits/flowers of 7 species, seeds of 8 species/leaves of 10 species were used in preparation of various remedies. About 10 plant species were also used to cure certain diseases of cattle by the local communities. Pant and Samant (2010) carried out an ethnobotanical survey in the Mornaula reserve forest of Kumoun in western Himalaya and recorded 337 economically important species including medicine (221 species). Semwal et al. (2010) documented 60 species of medicinal plants used by the local vaidyas against treatment of 34 different ailments viz. headache, fever, cancer, female disorders and intestinal problems, etc. of Ukhimath block in Uttarakhand State. Out of 60 medicinal plants 45 herbs, 8 trees, 5 shrubs and 2 climbers were used in preparation of remedies from various plant parts such as roots and rhizomes (41.66%) followed by leaves (31.66%); fruits and seeds (15%). Samal et al. (2010) reported indigenous medicinal practices of Bhotia tribal community in Indian central Himalaya and documented 40 plants species used in preparation 50 indigenous medicines and treatment practices against 45 different kinds of ailments by the Bhotia tribes. Ballabh and Chaurasia (2011) emphasize the medicinal use of 51 species of cold desert plants against gynecological disorders. Dad and Khan (2011) documented threatened medicinal plants of Gurez valley of Kashmir Himalayas their distribution pattern and conservation status. Badola and Aitken (2011) studied the Himalayan medicinal plant as a major source of raw material for various pharmaceutical companies, ethnomedicinal practitioners and exporters. 13 medicinal plant species used by people of Mandi district in Himachal Pradesh for treating different disease conditions was given by Kaur et al. (2011). Kala (2011) studied the floral diversity and distribution of 647 species of high altitude plants of cold desert Ladakh. Gupta (2011) submitted PhD thesis on Ethnobotanical studies of Gaddi tribe of Bharmor area of Himachal Pradesh. Kumar et al. (2011) reported that 57 species of plants are being used by the ethnic people of Garhwal Himalayas for medicine. Phondani et al. (2011) conducted a study on ethnobotanical use of plants among Bhotiya tribes of Niti valley in Central

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Himalaya and discussed 86 medicinal plant species used for curing 37 common ailments by them. Kumari et al. (2011) describes the distribution and traditional uses of 188 medicinal plants belonging to 80 families in which 35 species were trees, 112 were herbs, 35 were shrubs and 6 were climbers. Various plant parts viz. 55 whole plant, 47 roots, 32 each of fruits and seeds, 41 leaves, 23 barks, 14 flowers, 11 stems, 2 inflorescence, 8 bulbs, 6 rhizomes, 3 latex and 5 oil were used in treatment of various ailments. Dangwal et al. (2011) presented ethno-medicinal information on 21 plant species belonging to 20 families of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, Chamoli. The remedies are given as a single drug in the form of decoction, extract, oil, powder and pellets. These are prepared from leaves, petiole, bark, stem, roots, flowers, seeds, latex or entire plant. The common health problems are skin ailments, cuts, wounds, cold, cough, chronic fever, headache, stomachache, urinary complaints, respiratory disorders and gynecological disorders, etc. Bisht et al. (2011) reported anticancerous values of 24 plants. These include Acorus calamus, Aegle marmelos, Aloe vera, Andrographis paniculata, Asparagus racemosus, Betula utilis, Bidens bipinnata, Cassia fistula, Catharanthus roseus, Centella asiatica, Cleome viscosa, Curcuma domestica, Nelumbo nucifera, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Phyllanthus amarus, Piper longum, Plumbago zeylanica, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rubia cordifolia, Taxus baccata, Terminalia arjuna, Tinospora cordifolia, Trigonella foenum-graecum and Withania somnifera. These plants are used for the treatment of various types of tumor/cancer such as sarcoma, lymphoma, carcinoma and leukemia. Most of them were effective in experimental as well as clinical cases of cancers. Kumar and Hamal (2011) studied herbal remedies used against arthritis in Kishtwar High Altitude National Park. Malik et al. (2011a, b) described the ethnomedicinal uses of 30 plants, belonging to 30 genera and 22 families and conservational aspects of medicinal plants in the Kashmir Himalaya. The medicine in different mode of preparation used to heal external burns, abrasions and wounds; orally taken to cure digestive, respiratory, skin and muscular disorders; and also used as diuretic, antipyretics, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, febrifuge, etc. Rana and Samant (2011) documented 270 medicinal plants belonging to 84 families and 197 genera from Manali wildlife sanctuary in north western Himalaya. Out of the total, 162 medicinal plants were native and 98 were endemic to the Himalayan region. Maximum species were used for stomach problems, followed by skin, eyes, blood and liver problems. Thirty-seven species were identified as threatened. Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Aconitum heterophyllum,

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Arnebia benthamii, Lilium polyphyllum, Swertia chirayita, Podophyllum hexandrum, Jurinella macrocephala, Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana, etc. were highly preferred species and continuous extraction from the wild for trade has increased pressure which may cause extinction of these species in near future. Angmo et al. (2012) shown changing aspects of traditional healthcare system in Western Ladakh. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by the people of Ganderabal district in Western Himalayas was carried out by Baba et al. (2012), Bhellum and Singh (2012) recorded 35 species of medicinal plants belonging to 32 genera and 22 families of district Samba of Jammu and Kashmir State. The promising species include Ageratum conyzoides L., Ajuga bracteata Benth., Barleria prionitis L., Centella asiatica L., Bauhinia purpurea L., Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz, etc. Kala and Ratajc (2012) highlighted the ethnobotanical similarities of high altitude biodiversity of the Alps and the Himalaya. A total of 59 ethnobotanical species belonging to 17 families found common in both the Indian Himalayas and the Slovenian Alps. Of these 78% species were having medicinal properties and traditionally used for curing various ailments by the local people. In Indian Himalayas 73% people use the remedies which are comparatively higher than the people of Slovenia (42%). Out of the total medicinal plants, only 7 plant species such as Acorus calamus, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Hypericum perforatum, Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum and Urtica dioica had some common uses in both the places. In the Slovenian Alps, 61% had wide distribution range whereas in the Indian Himalayas 62% had localized distribution. Though 27% of common ethnobotanical species belonged to different threat categories, but only 2 species Taxus baccata and Hippophae rhamnoides – are placed under similar threat category in these two different mountain areas. Khan et al. (2012) presented ethnomedicinal plants used for toothache in Poonch district of Jammu and Kashmir (India). Kumar and Bhagat (2012) studied ethnomedicinal plants of district Kathua (J&K). Mahajan et al. (2012) made an inventory on ethnobotanical and medicinal plants of North Western Himalayas. Mala et al. (2012) surveyed ethno-medicinal plants of Kajinaag range of Kashmir Himalaya. Rashid (2012a, b) studied ethnomedicinal plants used in the traditional phytotherapy of chest diseases and rheumatism by the Gujjar-Bakerwal tribe of district Rajouri of Jammu & Kashmir state. Rokaya et al. (2012) studied the distribution patterns and trends of plant parts used among different groups of medicinal plants, geographical regions. Total number of medicinal plants as

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well as different groups showed unimodal relationship with elevation. Shah et al. (2012) conducted an ethnobotanical study of some medicinal plants from tehsil Budhal, district Rajouri (Jammu and Kashmir). Sharma et al. (2012) studied medicinal plants used for treatment of jaundice by the indigenous communities of the Sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand. A total of 40 medicinal plants belonging to 31 families and 38 genera were recorded. The local communities used the medicinal plants in 45 formulations as a remedy of jaundice. Bhoxa, nomadic Gujjars and Tharu communities used 15, 23 and 9 plants, respectively. Eight plants reported as new remedy of jaundice in India viz., Amaranthus spinosus L., Cissampelos pareira L., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Holarrhena pubescens Wall., Ocimum americanum L., Physalis divaricata D. Don, Solanum incanum L., and Trichosanthes cucumerina L. It is also reported that a total of 214 species from 181 genera and 78 families; 19 species from 18 genera and 12 families and 14 species from 14 genera and 11 families are used as internal, external and magicoreligious remedies for jaundice, respectively by various communities in various parts of India. Most commonly used hepatoprotective plant species for treatment of jaundice in India is Boerhavia diffusa L. followed by Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers, Saccharum officinarum L., Phyllanthus amarus Schumach., & Thonn., Ricinus communis L., Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, Lawsonia inermis L., and Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Tariq and Tantry (2012) conducted preliminary study on plants with anthelmintic properties in Kashmir. Yousuf et al. (2012) presented traditional plant based therapy among rural communities of some villages of Baramulla district (Jammu and Kashmir). Azad and Bhat (2013) recorded ethnomedicinal plants from Rajouri-Poonch districts of J&K state. Dangwal and Singh (2013) conducted an ethno-botanical study of some forest medicinal plants used by Gujjar tribe of district Rajouri (J&K), India. Gupta et al. (2013) conducted an ethno-botanical study of medicinal plants of Paddar valley of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Hassan et al. (2013) carried out an ethnobotanical study in Budgam district of Kashmir valley. Jeelani et al. (2013) studied some polypetalous plants of Kashmir Himalaya and recorded a total of 38 species belonging to 18 families of Polypetalae from various higher altitudes parts of Kashmir. Certain important ethnobotanical information about Alchemilla vulgaris, Ranunculus palmatifidus, Saxifraga siberica, Sedum wallichianum and Sedum heterodontum is reported for the first time from Kashmir Himalaya. Most of the species are used against general health problems and wound healings besides the treatment of diseases

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of skin, gastric, cough, etc. The roots are the frequently used plant parts followed by leaves, flowers, whole plant, seeds and others (bark/aerial parts), etc. Kumari et al. (2013) surveyed an ethnobotanical and medicinal plants used by Gujjar community of Trikuta Hills in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Singh (2013) conducted an ethnobotanical survey among Lahaulas in Lahaul and Bhotias in Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh of Indian western Himalaya and highlight 86 plant species belonging to 69 genera and 34 families are used to cure about 70 different ailments by the traditional healers. Maximum number of plant species used in herbal formulations belonged to families Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Gentianaceae, and Polygonaceae. Both single herbal preparations and polyherbal formulations are prescribed and administered by local healers known as Larje in Lahaul and Amchis in Spiti. Most of the remedies are prescribed in a powder form, some as juice and decoctions. Among plant parts, leaves were recorded to be used to a large extent as a remedy, followed by flowers. The maximum numbers of plants were used to cure stomach disorders, while the highest extent of phytotherapeutic use among all the species had Hippophae rhamnoides (17.14%). Rawat et al. (2013) described 76 ethnomedicinal plants belonging to 27 families and 56 genera of Sunderdhunga valley in Western Himalaya. Under the use value 13 species are used for cut and wounds, 8 for fever, 7 for cold, cough and stomach pain, 2 for insect sting, respiratory problems, muscle pain, toothache, joints pain, etc. Bhatt et al. (2013) documented indigenous uses of medicinal plants by Vanraji tribes of Kumaun Himalaya. A total of 48 common plants were used to treat various ailments, out of which 22 were herbs, 18 shrubs and 8 trees. A maximum of 30% leaves were used in preparation of remedies followed by 21% underground parts, 16% whole plants, 8% bark, flowers and inflorescence, 6% seeds, oil, resin and latex and 5% stems. The highest number of medicinal plants used in treatment of dermatological disorders (13 species 21%) followed by digestive disorders, generalized bodyache and reproductive disorders (6 species 10% each), musculoskeletal disorders (5 species 8%), antidotes to snake bite and scorpion sting, ophthalmic disorders, veneral and urinogenital disorders (4 species 7% each), respiratory problems (3 species 6%), dental, liver and gall bladder disorders (2 species 4%). The most prevalent ailments were skin disorders followed by digestive disorders such as diarrhea and dysentery. Mehta et al. (2013) conducted a study on herbal-based traditional practices of Bhotiya and Gangwals of Central Himalaya and recorded 78 plants species belonging to 39 families and 61 genera used in treatment of 68 different diseases.

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Out of 78 plants roots and rhizomes of 26 species are used in preparation of remedies followed by leaves of 20 species, fruits of 10 species, whole plants of 10 species, aerial parts of 4 species, seeds, bark and flowers of 7 species each, latex of 2 species and aerial bulb and resin of 1 species each. About 7 species were commonly used for treating wounds/sores followed by 5 species for treating fever and headache, 4 species each for pregnancy problems, sprains, urine problems and cold, cough. Twenty-one species were reported to be used to cure more than one disease while 57 species have single therapeutic application. A maximum of 7 plants were reported to be used to treat wounds/sores followed by 5 plants each for fever and headache, 2 each for cold, cough, pregnancy sprain and uterine disorder, 3 each for bone fracture, rheumatism, tumors and jaundice, 2 each for abdominal pain, asthma, burn, cancer, cataract, colic pain, diarrhea, dysentery, epilepsy, eye treatment, snake bite, scorpion sting, toothache, vomiting and whooping cough and 1 species each for 51 different ailments by the Bhotiya and Gangwal communities in the Central Himalayan regions. Bhat et al. (2013) reported a total of 152 medicinally important plant species from Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary, in which 103 were herbs, 32 shrubs and 17 were tree species which belonging to 123 genera and 61 families. 18 plant species were also reported to be rare, endangered (critically endangered) and vulnerable status categories. The medicinal herbs were the first choice and were used as main ingredients of traditional therapies, and considered a main lifeline. Certain medicinal plants like Cordyceps sinensis used as an aphrodisiac, Berberis asiatica for eye problems, Bergenia ciliata for disintegration of calculi, Sapindus mukorossi for dandruff, and Zanthoxylum armatum for toothache, etc. Bhushan and Kumar (2013) studied ethnobotanically important medicinal plants of Tehsil Billawar, District Kathua, J&K. Lone et al. (2013 a, b) and Lone and Bhardwaj (2013 a, b) reported certain aspects of plant species traditionally used by the inhabitants of Bandipora district of J&K. The ethnomedicinal uses of (17) species of Artemisia were reported in J&K (Bhellum, 2013). 6 species of medicinal plants were recorded from family Asteraceae and 4 from Apiaceae and 2 species each from Cucurbitaceae, Rosaceae, Nymphaeaceae. The major plant parts used (31% species) were leaves, flowers, seeds, barks, rhizomes, thorns, stolons and fruits, etc. followed by whole plants (24%), fruits (17%), seeds (14%), leaves (7% each), bulb (4%) and roots (3%) to cure various ailments. Most of the combinations for remedies were prepared from a single species; however some applications were always prepared with a mixture of

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plants. A medicine used in the form of paste was more common followed by decoction, poultice, infusion, powder, juice and latex. Medicinal plants used for curing various ailments such as rheumatism, chilblains, urinary disorders, jaundice, indigestion, cough, general body weakness, gaseous bloat, fever, cold, headache, hair fall, warts, skin infections, etc. Shapoo et al. (2013) conducted an ethnobotanical survey and documented some orchid species of Kashmir Himalaya, J&K. Trak et al. (2013) carried out ethnobotanical survey of important plants used by locals of Kishtwar district in Jammu and Kashmir State. An ethnobotanical study of Murari Devi and surrounding areas in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh was carried out by Sharma et al. (2013, 2015) and recorded ethnobotanical uses of 384 and 220 plant species respectively. Devi et al. (2014) assessed ethnomedicinal plants of Shivalik hills of northwest Himalaya and documented 143 species of medicinal plants belonging to 123 genera and 59 families used in treatment of 17 different categories of ailments. Majority of the species were used for treating dermatological disorders followed by gastrointestinal, skeleto-muscular, respiratory and common fever, etc. About 58% species were collected from wild sources, 16% from cultivated home gardens and 26% from both cultivated and wild sources. Gairola et al. (2014) analyzed medicinal plants for cross cultural aspects in the Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh region. A total of 948 plant taxa (923 angiosperms, 12 gymnosperms and 13 pteridophytes) belonging to 129 families, 509 genera and 11 varieties have been reported to have a traditional medicinal use by local communities of J&K and Ladakh. Asteraceae (60 genera, 132 species) was the dominantly used family followed by Fabaceae (32 genera, 50 species) and Lamiaceae (27 genera, 55 species). A total of 514 species were reported from Jammu followed by 415 species from Kashmir and 397 species from Ladakh. 68 taxa were used in all the three divisions, whereas 95 taxa were common between Ladakh and Jammu, 127 taxa between Ladakh and Kashmir, and 216 taxa between Jammu and Kashmir. Maximum numbers of plants were used for treating dermatological problems (321), followed by cold, cough and throat related ailments (250), fever (224), joint and muscle related ailments (215), gastrointestinal disorders (210), urogenital ailments (199), respiratory ailments (151), body pain (135) and gynecological disorders (127). Other important genera of the State are Saussurea (12 spp.). Taxonomically very important genus Saussurea has 62 species reported from Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), out of which 37 species are native, 8 endemic and 21 near endemic

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to this region. 12 species of Nepeta; 11 species of Ranunculus; 10 species of Gentiana; 9 species each of Euphorbia and Potentilla; 8 species each of Allium, Berberis and Clematis; 7 species each of Astragalus, Geranium, Persicaria, Rhodiola, and Viola; 6 species each of Amaranthus, Tanacetum, Iris, Epilobium, Pedicularis, Corydalis, Plantago, Delphinium, Saxifraga; 5 species each of Anaphalis, Erigeron, Inula, Mentha, Ficus, Nymphaea, Rheum, Rumex, Rosa and Solanum. Bhatia et al. (2014) studied ethnomedicinal plants used by the villagers of district Udhampur, J&K, India. Mir (2014) studied medicinal plants used to cure skin diseases by tribal’s of Kupwara, Jammu & Kashmir. A total of 36 plant species belonging to 25 families were reported to be used to cure various skin diseases like cuts, wounds, boils, blisters, itching, leucoderma, swelling, scabies, rash, inflammation, etc. Different parts of plants such as leaf, fruit, and roots are taken in different forms. The primary source of remedies were wild herbs (69.44%), wild shrubs (11.11%) cultivated herbs (8.33%), wild trees (5.55%), cultivated trees (5.55%). The most important species based upon their medicinal properties Podophyllum hexandrum, Aconitum heterophyllum, Arisaema jacquemontii, Artemisia absinthium, Cuscuta reflexa. The people have a strong belief on Fritillaria roylei that it can cure more than 80 diseases so it has been assigned as ‘Sheethkhar’. Ethnomedicinal uses of some plants of Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh for treatment of piles was given by Kumari et al. (2014). Mehra et al. (2014) discussed the diversity, use and sacred value of ethno-medicinal plants of Kumaun Himalaya. A total of 58 species of ethno-medicinal plants from 38 families and 15 sacred plants from 13 families were studied. Of these 11 species were trees, 30 species were herbs, 14 species were shrubs and 2 species were climbers. Mir and John (2014) carried out ethnobotanical study of Pulwana tehsil in Jammu and Kashmir state. Rana et al. (2014) documented 67 plant species belonging to 59 genera and 36 families along with their medicinal parts used, and traditional usage. The new ethnomedicinal and other use of 35 plants were also documented. These tribal communities and migrants depend on wild resources for food, medicines, shelter, fuel, fiber, timber, and household articles, handicraft, veterinary and fodder for their livelihood security. Shaheen et al. (2014) conducted a study on cosmetic ethnobotany practices by the tribal women on Kashmir Himalaya. About 39 plants species belonging to 20 families were reported to be used for various cosmetic purposes. The locals traditionally using the indigenous species against problems like pimples, acne (16%),

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hair growth, shine and dandruff (11%), mouth tartar and smell (12%), facial spots (9%), allergy, itching and warts (9%), skin freshness and softening (8%), skin fairness (8%), wrinkles and freckles (8%), eyes care (6%), lips care (3%), body smells (3%); and facial hair (2%). Seventy different recipes were practiced by locals using herbal parts. The fruit (32.8%), leaves (25.2%), seeds (13.4%), roots (8.9%), bulbs and rhizomes (4.5%), bark (2.9%) and stem (2.9%) are the major plant parts used in traditional herbal recipes of cosmetics. Singh (2014) reviewed indigenous uses of 80 species of medicinal and edible plants belonging to 53 families of Nandadevi biosphere reserve. Shah et al. (2014) documented medicinal plants of oak dominated forest areas in Nainital catchment area of Uttarakhand and recorded 113 plants representing 99 genera and 56 families out of which majority of herbs (56.64%) followed by shrubs (30.97%) and trees (12.39%). The dominant family was Asteraceae with 15 species followed by Lamiaceae 9 species and Rosaceae 7 species. Of these 113 plants, roots, rhizomes and bulbs of 40 species, leaves of 35 species, plant extract, whole plants of 19 species, flower, fruits of 18 species, bark of 12 species and seed of 10 species has got medicinal importance. Sheikh (2014) presented phytochemical analysis of 12 medicinal plants from Kashmir Himalaya and recorded more than 50% of species described in British pharmacopeia were grown in Kashmir valley, among them 570 species have got medicinal importance. Thakur et  al. (2014) carried out ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Barmor forest division in Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh and recorded the uses of 54 plant species. Kala (2015) studied medicinal and aromatic plants of Tons watershed in Uttarakhand Himalaya. A total of 84 medicinal, aromatic and spice plant species were recorded for curing 44 different ailments, out of which 19 species were trees, 12 species were shrubs and 53 species were herbs. Majority of (57%) aboveground plant parts were used against 43% below ground plant parts. Different below ground plant forms such as root, tuber, rhizome and bulb were used for preparing herbal medicine for curing ailments. Whole plants of 8 species were used in preparations. About 17% of these species, which include Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth, Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo, Arnebia benthamii (D. Don) Johnston, Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All., Rheum australe D. Don and Angelica glauca Edgew. have become threatened due to several natural and anthropogenic pressures. The highest number of plants species (12 spp) were used as general healthcare tonic, about 11 species used to cure skin disorders,

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10 species against fever, 9 species to cure cut and wounds and 7 species each against cold, cough, diarrhea and dysentery. Malik et al. (2015) studied traditional uses of about 97 medicinal plant species belonging to 83 genera and 52 families against various ailments like fever, cold, cough, indigestion, constipation, menstrual disorders, etc. in the Western Himalayan region. Out of 97 plant species, 21 are rare or threatened. The most frequently used plant part was the root/rhizome (33%) followed by leaf (27%). In some cases whole plant was utilized. A few medicinal plants had also been reported for their certain veterinary uses. Prakash (2015) documented certain medicinal plants used by tribal communities of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Rani et al. (2015) reported that 47 plant species are being used by the local people in four districts (Chamba, Kangra, Hamirpur and Mandi) of Himachal Pradesh. Tariq et al. (2015) reviewed ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological evidence of Himalayan anticancer plants. Other important publications on ethnobotany of Western and Central Himalayas include Srivastava and Gupta, (1982), Kumar et al. (1993, 2009), Srivastava et al. (1984), Singh and Rawat (1998), Singh (1999), H. Singh (1988, 2006, 2013), Sharma and Chauhan (2000), Singh and Kumar (2000), Sood et al. (2001), Sharma et al. (2004, 2005), Singh (2004), Sood and Thakur (2004), Singh and Chauhan (2005), Sharma and Sood (2013), Sharma and Lal (2005).

5.7  MEDICINAL PLANTS REMEDIES AS A SOURCE OF INCOME It has been reported that wild medicinal plants were used along with certain cultivated or purchased species from market. These plants are used for preparation of one or more remedies in combination of more than 6 other minerals, salts or 38 animal products, etc. in different States of western and central Himalaya. Majority of taxa have multiple use that means these plants are used in preparation of more than one remedy as well as used for food, fodder, fuel, shelter and esthetic value (Kala, 2003; Chaurasia and Gurmet, 2004; Chauraisa et al., 2007). The Uttarakhand state, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir are good exporters of Himalayan medicinal plants. Emblica officinalis, Hippophae rhamnoides, Prunus armeniaca, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellirica and Salix alba, etc. are commercially used in medicines, food processing and other preparations. Wild medicinal plants are generally used in preparation of remedies by the herbal practitioners. However some species

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like Hippophae rhamnoides (Seabuckthorn) has got special attention in past few years due to its high medicinal value and use as medicated herbal beverage. This single plant species, Hippophae taking a shape of industry in Ladakh & Lahaul Spiti because the tribal families are earning more than 1–2 crore per annum from sale of its fruits and leaves (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006). Besides the Hippophae rhamnoides a number of other cultivated medicinal plants including Aconitum spp., Arnebia euchroma, Bunium persicum, Carum carvi, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Ephedra gerardiana, Inula racemosa, Prunus armeniaca, Rhodiola imbricata, Saussurea lappa, and Urtica spp. are also a good source of income generation in different parts of western and central Himalaya by the local communities. 5.7.1  SOME IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS Many plants species used in preparation of different traditional as well as pharmaceutical preparations. Some mostly used species in number of pharmaceutical preparations are given below (Ved et al., 2001). Terminalia chebula Hararrh 219 Terminalia bellirica Bahera 219 Emblica officinalis Amla 219 Glycyrrhiza glabra Yashtimadhu 141 Justicia adhatoda Vasaka 110 Withania somnifera Ashwagandha 109 Cyperus rotundus Mustaka 102 Tinospora cordifolia Gulancha 88 Berberis aristata Daruharidra 65 Tribulus terrestris Gokshuru 65 Aegle marmelos Bael 60 Boerhaavia diffusa Punarnava 52 Acorus calamus Vacha 51 5.7.2  MEDICINAL PLANTS OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL HIMALAYA IN TRADE IN DIFFERENT MARKETS OF THE COUNTRY A number of medicinal plants of western and Central Himalayas are being traded in the different markets of the country. The nearby markets like Delhi,

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 187

Saharanpur, Dehradun, Amritsar and Solan are common trade center of the raw medicinal plants of this region. Names of few important plants in trade are given as under (Sultan and Singh, 2006): Aconitum heterophyllum, Acorus calamus, Aegle marmelos, Aloe vera, Andrographis paniculata, Asparagus racemosus, Berberis aristata, Bergenia ligulata, Boerhavia diffusa, Cassia fistula, Centella asiatica, Cinnamomum tamala, Commiphora wightii, Curculigo orchioides, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Derris indica, Eclipta alba, Emblica officinalis, Eulophia campestris, Evolvulus alsinoides, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Gymnema sylvestre, Hedychium spicatum, Malaxis muscifera, Mucuna pruriens, Murraya koenigii, Myrica esculenta, Nardostachys grandiflora, Ocimum sanctum, Picrorrhiza kurrooa, Piper longum, Pistacia integerrmia, Plumbago zeylanica, Rauvolfia serpentina, Sapindus mukorossii, Saussurea costus, Solanum nigrum, Swertia chirata, Syzygium cumini, Taxaus baccata, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Tinospora cordifolia, Tribulus terrestris, Valeriana jatamansi, Withania somnifera, etc. 5.8 DISCUSSION The Indian western and central Himalayan region is considered very rich in certain valuable medicinal plants. Since primitive days our ancestors had been using herbs for the daily needs of human beings. More than 40% vegetation of western and central Himalaya is used for medicinal purposes by the local communities in these regions. There are different tribal groups found in western Himalayan region which still prefer herbal prescriptions, based on traditional system of medicine, which is practiced by specialized local herbalists. Usually the specific parts or the whole plant or mixture of two or more plants, are used in preparation of remedies. About 1000 species of this region are reported to be used as medicine (Abrol and Chopra, 1962; Jain, 1991; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Singh and Chaurasia, 2000; Chopra et al., 1956; Kritikar and Basu 1935; Navchoo and Buth, 1989). According to Samant et al. (2007) 643 species of medicinal plants have been utilized in Himachal Pradesh. Out of which majority of medicinal plants (417 species) found in tropics and subtropics followed by 356 species in temperate zone, 303 in subalpine zone and 158 in alpine zone. The decrease in number of medicinal plants was reported with the increasing of altitude in all parts of Indian western and central Himalaya. About 1200 species of medicinal plants were estimated by National medicinal plant board

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recently from Uttarakhand. However Pande et al. (2006) published a book on folk medicinal and aromatic plants of Uttaranchal which deals with 1338 ethnomedicinal plants and 364 ethnoveterinary plants of Uttaranchal. Gairola et al. (2014) reported the medicinal use of about 948 species of medicinal plants from entire Jammu & Kashmir state including Ladakh. The use of alternative medicine is increasing because of its reasonable costs and increasing faith in herbal medicine. Allopathic medicine has wide range of application; however, its high prices and side-effects are causing many people to return to herbal medicines which tend to have fewer side effects (Kala, 2005). Most of the traditional knowledge on medicinal plant species still passes through oral transmission by indigenous people. In the mountainous regions of Himalayas where accessibility is comparatively poor and slow rate of modern development activities this system still exists (Kala, 2005; Farooquee et al., 2004). With the fast acceleration of market need for herbal medicines, and recent controversies related to access, benefit sharing and bio-piracy, the documentation of indigenous knowledge is of urgent priority (Heywood, 1995; Loreau and Oteng 2006; Naranjo; 1995; Mukherjee, 2005; Utkarsh, 2001). By using latest scientific approaches, indigenous knowledge can be transformed into a suitable model of sustainable development which will be economically viable, environmentally beneficial and socially useful (Shinwari and Gilani, 2003). At present, approximately 25% of allopathic drugs are derived from plant based compounds, and many others are synthetic analogs built on prototype compounds isolated from plant species (Rao et al., 2004). In the western and central Himalayan regions the herbal healers are well acquainted about the remedies based on medicinal plants and they have been practicing the traditional medical system for many centuries. More than eighty percent of tribal population in Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) still prefers traditional medicine. The knowledge gained by the medicine men from their ancestors usually passes to their progeny, if they died without giving such knowledge to any other descendant the empirical knowledge would be lost for ever. Generally the medicine men who are well-acquainted with ethno-medicinal uses of these plants, have the tendency to give medicine in the form of paste, powder, fomentation, poultice, ointment, decoction or extract and not to tell the name of the part(s) used of the plant as medicine. A list of ethnomedicinal plants in Western Himalayas, parts used and ethnomedicinal uses are given in Table 5.1.

Parts used

Bark, resin

Gum, leaves

Leaves

Bark, hard woods, stems

Bark

Bark, flowers, gum, leaves, roots

Plant ash

Whole plant, leaves

Roots, ash, seeds

Name of the plant species

Abies pindrow Royle

Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb.

Abrus precatorius L.

Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd.

Acacia modesta Wall.

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile [Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd.]

Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss.

Achillea millefolium L.

Achyranthes aspera L.

S. No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Dental problems, scorpion stings, asthma, cough, hemorrhoids, bleeding after abortion, joint pain, cough

Cold, fever, liver complaints, toothache, gastric problems, fever, piles, skin infections, stomach complaints, bruises of snake bite

Cardiac disorders

Anthelmintic, diabetes, piles, skin diseases, diarrhea, tonic, asthma, itching, sore, sore throat, dysentery, urinogenital disorders, wounds

Astringent

Mouth ulcer, oral ulcers, pharyngitis astringent, cough, diarrhea, throat infection

Cough, cold

Headache, antiperiodic, asthma, astringent, bronchitis, stomachic, carminative, expectorant

Rheumatism, cuts, wounds

Purpose

TABLE 5.1  Ethnomedicinal plants of Western and Central Himalayas

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kapahi et al., 1993; Sharma and Lal, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009; Malik et al., 2011a

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Angmo et al., 2012

Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Azad and Bhat, 2013

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Jee et al., 1984; Bhatia et al., 2014; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Kim et al., 1999

Kumar et al., 2009

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 189

Diarrhea, dysentery astringent, sore throat, stomachic, tonic Neurological problem, rheumatism

Flowers, leaves

Acomastylis elata var. elata Roots, whole plant [Geum elatum Wall. ex G.Don]

Roots

Roots, rhizome

Whole plant

Tuber, root

Acogonum alpinum (All.) Schur.

Aconitum chasmathum Stapf ex Holmes

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle

Aconitum rotundifolium Kar., & Kir.

Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Toothache, fever, cough, cold, gout, arthritis, leprosy, paralysis, appetizer

Antidote, antipyretic, headache

Diarrhea, dysentery, enlargement of spleen, toothache, high fever, stomach disorders, headache, antidiabetic, cough, cold

Kidney pain

Abdominal pain, fever, insect bite, mouth blisters, scorpion sting, skin eruptions, snake bite, pneumonia

Leaves, roots

Achyranthes bidentata Blume

10.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kapahi et al., 1993; Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Kumar et al., 2009

Srivastava et al., 1981

Kapahi et al., 1993; Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kaur et al., 2011; Malik et al., 2011a; Jeelani et al., 2013

Kapahi et al., 1993;

Singh, 2002; Naqshi et al., 1992

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Kumari et al., 2013; Kapur, 1991; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Reference(s)

190 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Rhizome, leaves, whole plant, roots

Whole plant

Fruits, roots

Leaves, roots

Fronds, rhizomes, whole plant

Whole plant

Name of the plant species

Acorus calamus L.

Actaea cimicifuga L. [Cimicifuga foetida L.]

Actaea spicata L.

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Adiantum capillus-veneris L. [Adiantum capillus Sw.]

Adiantum lunulatum Burm. f.

S. No.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Eczema

Bladder stone, chest infection, chest pain, chilblain, dandruff, febrifuge, fever, headache, jaundice, kidney stone, nasal catarrh, respiratory problems, swelling, tumor, urinary problem, demulcent, diuretic, tonic, wound, bronchial disorder, cough, emmenagogue, expectorant, piles, febrifuge, fissure, hair tonic, stomach pain

Asthma, bronchitis, cough, rheumatism

Paralysis, emetic, snake bite, nerve sedative, purgative, sprain, wounds

Rheumatism, bronchitis, purgative, emetic

Joint pain, emetic, stomachic, cold, bronchitis, fever, headache, liver ailments, stomachache, kidney trouble, abdominal pain, chest congestion, cough, acidity, dyspepsia, anthelmintic, rheumatism, diarrhea, toothache antiallergic, appetizer; lung diseases, asthma, wounds, worms, eye ailments

Purpose

Kumar et al., 1993

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Kapur, 1991; Azad and Bhat, 2013; Naqshi et al., 1992

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Srivastava et al., 1984; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Rashid, 2012b

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Singh, 2002; Malik et al., 2011b, Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b; Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Rashid, 2012b; Bhatia et al., 2014; Naqshi et al., 1992; Kak, 2007; Mahmud et al., 2008; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 191

Appetizer, cooling drink, asthma, digestion, jaundice, dysentery, laxative, stomach disorder, fever, diuretic

Fruits, leaves, root bark, seeds

Whole plant

Leaves

Kernels, bark

Leaves

Bark, leaves

Roots

Flowers, leaves

Whole plant, leaves, roots

Aegle marmelos (L.)

Aerva lanata (L.) Juss.

Aerva sanguinolenta Blume

Aesculus indica (Cambess) Hook.

Ageratum conyzoides L.

Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.

Ainsliaea aptera DC.

Ajania fruticulosa (Ledeb.) Poljakov [Tanacetum fruticolosum Ledeb.]

Ajuga integrifolia Buch.Ham. Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

Bitter tonic, earache, pneumonia, jaundice, bronchitis, gastric pain, typhoid and malarial fever, mouth ulcers, snake bite

Gastric disorders

Stomachache, vermicide, diarrhea

Asthma

Wounds, nerve tonic

Tonic for ladies after delivery, dislocated joints, rheumatism

Cuts

Diuretic

Astringent, biliousness, chest inflammation, cold, cough, diarrhea, digestive, diuretic, emetic, fever, emmenagogue, expectorant, headache, jaundice, ophthalmia, piles, stomach ailments, tonic, tumor, urinary disorder, wound, tooth sticks

Adiantum venustum D. Don Fronds, stolons

Purpose

23.

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009; Kaur et al., 2011

Chaurasia et al., 2003

Sharma et al., 2005

Singh, 1995

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Sharma et al., 2005; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Kapur, 1991; Bhatia et al., 2014

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Kapur, 1991; Yousuf et al., 2012; Dar et al., 1984; Kumar and Nanda, 1992; Beigh et al., 2003; Lone et al., 2013a

Reference(s)

192 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Bark

Seeds, bark, flowers, roots

Flowers, roots, whole plant

Leaves

Leaf oil

Bulb, leaves, whole plant

Bulbs, leaves

Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr.

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.

Alcea rosea L. [Althaea rosea (L.) Cav.]

Alchemilla xanthochlora Rothm. [Alchemilla vulgaris auct.]

Alhagi pseudalhagi (M. Bieb.) Desv. ex B. Keller & Shap.

Allium carolinianum DC.

Allium cepa L.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

Vomiting, cuts, wounds, sores, hair health

Constipation, feminine problems, indigestion, joint pain, swollen joints

Rheumatic pain

Boils

Cough, asthma, throat infection, urinary irritation, boils, kidney pain, jaundice, gynecological disorders, dandruff

Wounds, Asthma, Impotency, cough, stomach infection, earache, aphrodisiac

Cuts, wound

Leaves, roots, whole Cough, fever, intestinal infection, plant indigestion, stomach problems, piles, malarial fever, gonorrhea, purgative, diuretic

Ajuga parviflora Benth.

33.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Chak et al., 2008

Angmo et al., 2012; Srivastava and Gupta 1982; Navchoo and Buth; 1989

Rashid, 2012b

Jeelani et al., 2013

Ballabh et al., 2008b; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b; Dar et al., 1984; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011; Beigh et al., 2003

Sharma and Sood, 2013, Bhatia et al., 2014; Rashid 2012a, Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Kapur, 1991; Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b; Khan et al., 2004

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 193

Bulb

Leaves

Bulb

Bulb, seeds, roots, leaves

Bulb

Leaves, bulb

Leaves, latex, whole Burns, abscess, headache, boils, gonorrhea, Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Bhatia plant irregular periods, purgative, skin diseases, et al., 2014; Kapur, 1991; Mahajan wounds; refrigerant, skin diseases, diabetes, et al., 2012; vermicidal

Shoots

Allium proliferum (Moench) Schrad. ex Willd.

Allium przewalskianum Regel

Allium rubellum M.Bieb.

Allium sativum L.

Allium stoliczki Regel

Allium victoralis L.

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Aloe barbadensis Mill.)

Alternanthera caracasana Kunth. [Alternanthera peploides (Humb., & Bonpl. ex Schult.) Urb.]

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

Eye sores or irritation

Toothache, diarrhea

Aphrodisiac

Digestion, appetite, baldness, dandruff, abscess, alopecia, anthelmintic, baldness, boils, earache, fertility, hair regeneration, joint pain, nausea, otalgia, potency male, skin diseases, stomach acidity, toothache, vomiting, digestion

Earache, expectorant, giddiness, insect bite, respiratory troubles

Dysentery, stomach disorders

Joint pain, pus

Kak, 2007

Khan et al., 2012; Katiyar et al., 1990; Kaul et al., 1990

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Malik et al., 2011b; Baba et al., 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014; Angmo et al., 2012; Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Lone et al., 2013a; Mala et al., 2012; Khan et al., 2004; Ganai and Nawchoo, 2003

Kapur, 1991

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Lone et al., 2013b

Naqshi et al., 1992

42.

Aphrodisiac, stimulant

Bulb

Allium consanguineum Kunth

Reference(s)

41.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

194 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Abscess, boils, eczema For warmth, abscess, emollient, piles, wound, laxative, promotes kidney function,

Roots

Roots

Leaves, whole plant

Seeds

Leaves, seeds

Roots

Whole plant

Leaves

Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.

Amaranthus caudatus L.

Whole plant Amaranthus cruentus L. (Amaranthus paniculatus L.)

Seeds

Althaea officinalis L.

Amaranthus spinosus L.

Amaranthus tricolor L. (Amaranthus gangeticus L.)

Amaranthus viridis L.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch

Anagallis arvensis L.

Anaphalis busua (Buch.Ham.) DC.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

Cold, Cough

Allergy, Epilepsy, Lice control, Skin itches

Swollen parts

Leucorrhea, leprosy, labor pain

Diarrhea, dysentery, joint pain

Fever, diarrhea, kidney complaints, boils, expectorant, fever

Cough

Asthma, cough, throat infection, urinary irritation

Antiphlogistic, snake bite, febrifuge

Leaves, whole plant

Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC.

50.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Angmo et al., 2012

Malik et al., 2011b, Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Singh, 2006

Rashid, 2012b; Bhatia et al., 2014

Rashid, 2012a; Jee et al., 1984

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Kapur, 1991

Baba et al., 2012; Yousuf et al., 2012; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a; Malik et al., 2011a

Srivastava et al., 1981

Baba et al., 2012; Singh, 1995

Bhatia, et al., 2014, Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 195

Parts used

Leaves

Whole plant

Whole plant

Leaves, flowers, fruits, stem

Whole plant

Stems, whole plant

Whole plant

Rhizomes, whole plant

Whole plant

Roots

Name of the plant species

Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth., & Hook.f. [Anaphalis cinnamomea (DC.) C. B. Clarke]

Anaphalis nepalensis var. nepalensis

Anaphalis nubigena DC.

Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims.) C. B. Clarke var. monocephala (DC.) Airy Shaw

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees

Androsace aizoon Duby

Androsace mucronifolia Watt

Androsace rotundifolia Hardw.

Anemone falconeri Thomson

Anemone obtusiloba D.Don

S. No.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Boils

Cold, fever, gastritis

Ophthalmic disorder, tonic

Abdominal pain, Ringworm

Cough, fever, indigestion cough, indigestion

Kidney complaints

Acidity, wounds; genital problems

Skin eruptions, wounds

Skin diseases

Cuts, wounds

Purpose

Jeelani et al., 2013

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Khan et al., 2004, Angmo et al., 2012

Chaurasia et al., 1999; Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Angmo et al., 2012

Azad and Bhat (2013)

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Angmo et al., 2012

Malik et al., 2011b

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Reference(s)

196 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Backache Expectorant

Anemone tetrasepala Royle Whole plant

Root, fruit

Fruits, roots

Roots

Flower

Flowers

Roots

Leaves

Root

Juice, roots

Angelica archangelica var. himalaica (C. B.Clarke) Krishna & Badhwar

Angelica archangelica var. himalaica (C. B. Clarke) Nasir

Angelica glauca Edgew.

Aquilegia fragrans Benth.

Aquilegia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Royle

Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle

Aquilegia vulgaris L.

Arctium lappa L.

Argemone mexicana L.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

Leprosy, sores, conjunctivitis, scabies, eye ailments, eczema, worm, ringworm

Diuretic, kidney stone, astringent, blisters, burns, ulcer

Muscular swelling

Snake bite

Asthma

Boils

Cardiac stimulant, mental disorders dyspepsia, stomachache, liver tonic

Diaphoretic, expectorant, stimulant

Asthma, indigestion

Whole plant, fruits

Anemone rivularis Buch.

71.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Navchoo and Buth, 1989; Kapur, 1991, Bhatia et al., 2014

Kapahi et al., 1993; Ballabh et al., 2008b; Angmo et al., 2012

Singh, 2002

Shah et al., 2012

Singh, 1995

Lal and Singh, 2008

Kapahi et al., 1993; Sharma and Lal, 2005; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Gupta et al., 1981; Srivastava et al., 1984; Kapahi et al., 1993

Kapahi et al., 1993;

Naqshi et al., 1992

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 197

Parts used

Roots

Tubers

Rhizome, roots, tuber

Bulbs, seeds

Rhizome, root

Roots

Roots

Herb, leaves, inflorescence

Flowers, leaves

Seeds

Leaves

Name of the plant species

Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. [Agrimonia pilosa var. nepalensis (D.Don) Nakai]

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott.

Arisaema jacquemontii Blume

Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott

Arnebia benthamii I. M. Johnst.

Arnebia euchroma L.

Arnebia guttata Bunge

Artemisia absinthium L.

Artemisia annua L.

Artemisia biennis Willd.

Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC.

S. No.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Worms in intestine, stomach problems

Obesity

Jaundice

Epilepsy, stomach pain, fever, roundworm, dandruff, diabetes, intestinal worms, joint pain, anthelmintic

Blood purifier, hair tonic

Skin infections

Cold, cough, fever, pneumonia

Snake bite, stomachache

Respiratory disorders, blister, muscular strength, pimples, boils, burn

Snake bite

Cough

Purpose

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Ballabh et al., 2008a

Kapahi et al., 1993; Malik et al., 2011b; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b; Dar et al., 1984; Beigh et al., 2003; Tariq and Tantry, 2012

Chaurasia et al., 2003; Angmo et al., 2012

Lal and Singh, 2008

Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011b

Azad and Bhatt 2013

Naqshi et al., 1992; Khan et al., 2004, Baba et al., 2012; Chak et al., 2009; Tantray et al., 2009; Mala et al., 2012

Kumar et al., 2009

Srivastava et al., 1984

Reference(s)

198 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Whole plant

Leaves, flowers

Leaves, flowers

Aerial parts

Roots

Whole plant

Herb, root, leaves

Leaves, whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Leaves, stem

Name of the plant species

Artemisia desertorum Spreng.

Artemisia dracunculus L.

Artemisia gmelini Web.ex Stechm.

Artemisia japonica Thunb.

Artemisia laciniata Willd.

Artemisia macrocephala Jacquem. ex Besser.

Artemisia maritima L.

Artemisia moorcroftiana Wall. ex DC.

Artemisia nilagirica (C. B.Clarke) Pamp.

Artemisia parviflora D. Don

Artemisia roxburghiana Wall. ex Besser

S. No.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

102.

103.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Allergy, abscess

Diuretic, gynecological disorders, promotes urination

Asthma, nervous disorder

Abdominal pain, gas formation, indigestion, abdominal pain, fever, malarial fever, wormicide

Boils, stomach problems, vermicide

Joint pain, rheumatism, skin infections

Cuts, wounds

Skin infections, diarrhea

Headache, cold, cough, abdominal upsets

Dysentery, stomachache, toothache, urinary problems, intestinal disorder

Antiseptic, vermifuge

Purpose

Dangwal and Singh, 2013

Chaurasia et al., 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011; Ballabh et al., 2008b

Srivastava et al., 1984

Kaul et al., 1990; Singh, 2002; Malik et al., 2011b; Angmo, et al., 2012

Kapahi et al., 1993; Lal and Singh, 2008; Kumar et al., 2009

Gupta et al., 1981; Kaul et al., 1990

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Kaul et al., 1990

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Gupta et al., 1981

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 199

Parts used

Leaves

Leaves, whole plant

Whole plant

Leaves, flowers

Rhizome

Leaves

Leaves, roots

Roots, seeds

Seeds

Leaves

Seeds

Flowers

Flowers, stems

Name of the plant species

Artemisia sieversiana Willd.

Artemisia vulgaris L.

Arum jacquemontii Blume

Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fernald

Arundo donax L.

Asclepias curassavica L.

Asparagus adscendens Roxb.

Asparagus filicinus Buch.Ham. ex D.Don

Asparagus officinalis L.

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Asperugo procumbens L.

Aster diplostichoides (DC.) Cl.

Aster flaccidus Bunge

S. No.

104.

105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Eye treatment, fever, liver ailments

Influenza, fever, bleeding, cold, cough, poisoning

Rheumatism

Cuts, wounds

Easy delivery, rheumatism

Anthelmintic, easy delivery

Skin eruptions, for vigor, to stop hair fall

Intestinal worms

Stimulate menstrual flow

Dysentery

Rheumatism

Nose bleeding, measles

Abortifacient, wounds, bladder/urine tract burning sensation, kidney pain/ inflammation, skin diseases

Purpose

Angmo et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Srivastava et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Naqshi et al., 1992

Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Khan et al., 2004

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Bhatia et al., 2014

Abrol and Chopra, 1962

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Naqshi et al., 1992

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kaur et al., 2011; Ballabh et al., 2008b; Singh, 2002

Reference(s)

200 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Roots

Roots

Roots, whole plant

Roots

Roots

Whole plant

Roots, seeds

Leaves, roots, whole Analgesic, diuretic, mydriatic, narcotic, plant sedative, abdominal pain, analgesic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, boils, asthma, burns, cough, diuretic, eye ailments, inflammation, joint dislocated, mydriatic, narcotic, neuralgia

Whole plant

Astragalus himalayanus Klotzsch

Astragalus munori Bunge

Astragalus polyacanthus Benth.

Astragalus rhizanthus Royle ex Benth.

Astragalus rhizanthus subsp. candolleanus (Benth.) Podlech

Astragalus tribulifolius Bunge

Astragalus zanskarensis Bunge

Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl.

Atropa belladonna L.

118.

119.

120.

121.

122.

123.

124.

125.

126.

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Reference(s)

Arthritis, intestinal cramps

Intestinal worms, anthelmintic

Bladder irritation reduction, diuretic, kidney complaints, promotes urination

Cold, cough, chronic bronchitis, tonic

Skin infection

Kumari et al., 2013

Srivastava et al., 1984; Naqshi et al., 1992; Kapahi et al., 1993; Mala et al., Gupta et al., 2013; Singh, 2002; Yousuf, 2012, Malik et al., 2011b

Angmo et al., 2012, Sand and Badola, 1987

Ballabh et al., 2008b; Chaurasia et al., 1999

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ophthalmic diseases, toothbrush, toothache, Malik et al., 2012a colic complaints, leprosy

Cold, cough, chronic bronchitis, tonic

Cold, cough, chronic bronchitis, tonic

Vomiting

Roots

Astragalus grahamianus Benth. [Astragalus cicerifolius Fisch.]

117.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 201

Bark, flowers, fruits, Antiperiodic, astringent, malarial fever, leaves skin diseases, white discharge cure in ladies, malarial fever, stomachic, tonic cracked skin acne, antipruritic, antiseptic, blood purifier, boils, dandruff, eczema, headache, intestinal worms Appendicitis, chest pain, pneumonia

Nervous disorder, constipation

Seeds Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench [Centratherum anthelminticum (L.) Kuntze ex Gamble]

Whole plant

Roots

Leaves, roots

Leaves, roots

Bark, bud, leaves, roots

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. [Melia azadirachta L.]

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.

Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss [Bambusa arundinacea Willd.]

Barleria cristata L.

Barleria prionitis L.

Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. [Phanera vahlii (Wight & Arn.) Benth.]

128.

129.

130.

131.

132.

133.

134.

Diarrhea, piles, dysentery, dyspepsia, intestinal cramps, cold

Cough, whooping cough, asthma

Anemia, cough, snake bite

Kidney stone

Burning sensation of urine, sedative, regulates urine discharge

Seeds

Avena sativa L.

127.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Rashid, 2012a, Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Srivastava et al., 1981; Bhatia et al., 2014

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Rashid, 2012a; Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhatia et al., 2014

Azad and Bhat, 2013

Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Kapur, 1991; Bhatia et al., 2014

Ballabh et al., 2008b

Reference(s)

202 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Intestinal ulcers, lung diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, vomiting blood

Roots

Bulb, roots

Roots, fruits, tender shoots

Roots

Leaves, roots

Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.

Berberis brandisiana Ahrendt

Berberis lyceum Royle

Berberis pachyacantha subsp. zabeliana (C. K. Schneid.) Jafri (Berberis zabeliana C. K. Schneid.)

Berberis pseudumbellata R. Parker

Berberis ulicina Hook.f., & Root Thoms.

Berberis vulgaris L.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

Roots

Body pain

Root, fruit, flowers

Berberis aristata DC.

136.

Throatache, intestinal disorder

Fever

Cough, chest pain, throat troubles, eye problems, diarrhea, stomachache, wounds, indigestion, skin diseases, constipation

Eye ailments, tonic

Backache, joint pain

Eye diseases, skin diseases, jaundice, piles, malaria, diarrhea, fever, dysentery, laxative, acidity

Tuberculosis, hemorrhage, skin diseases, dysentery, piles, expelling worms, antidote for snake poisoning

Bark, flowering buds, roots

Bauhinia variegata L.

135.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Jee et al., 1984

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Malik et al., 2011b; Jeelani et al., 2013; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Angmo et al., 2012

Singh, 2002

Negi, 2005; Sharma et al., 2005; Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Kumar et al., 2009; Kaur et al., 2011

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 203

Boils, rheumatism Dysentery

Leaves, roots/ rhizomes

Roots, rhizome, bark

Bark

Whole plant

Whole plant

Roots

Leaves, whole plant

Plant juice

Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f., & Thoms.) Engl.

Betula utilis D.Don

Biebersteinia emodi Jaub., & Spach

Biebersteinia odora Stephan ex Fischer

Bidens cernua L.

Bidens pilosa L.

Bidens tetraspinosa Majeed Leaves Kak & Javeid

Tender shoot

Bergenia pacumbis (Buch.Ham. ex D.Don) C. Y. Wu & J. T. Pan [Bergenia ligulata Engl.]

Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Greene

Bistorta vaccinifolia (Wall. ex Meisn.) Greene

145.

146.

147.

148.

149.

150.

151.

152.

153.

154.

Dysentery

Eye pain, ulcer, cold, cough

Fever, headache

Cuts, wounds, burns, skin sores,

Cuts, wounds, peptic ulcers

Antiseptic, cough, carminative, obesity, urinogenital diseases

Stomach complaints, febrifuge, swollen joints, cuts, wounds, ulcers and blisters in mouth, stone problems, urinary problem

Wounds, intestinal complaints, stomach ulcers, acidity, cough, dysentery, fever, kidney stone, diarrhea, headache, internal injuries, ophthalmia, tonic

Tonic, kidney stones, fever, swollen joints, fever

Rhizome, leaves

Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.

144.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003

Srivastva and Chandrasekar, 2004

Kak, 2007

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007; Rashid, 2012b

Kak, 2007

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Kapahi et al., 1993; Kumar et al., 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009; Jeelani et al., 2013; Angmo et al., 2012

Sand and Badola, 1987; Mala et al., 2012; Malik et al., 2011b; Srivastava et al., 1984; Kapur, 1991

Kapahi et al., 1993; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Reference(s)

204 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Aerial part

Plant

Rhizomes

Bark, roots

Plant

Leaves

Seeds

Plant, roots

Roots

Flowers, whole plant

Boenninghausenia albiflora Hook.f.

Boerhavia repens L.

Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla [Schoenoplectus maritimus (L.) Lye]

Bombax ceiba L.

Brunella vulgaris L.

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch.

Bupleurum falcatum L.

Bupleurum hoffmeisteri Klotzsch [Bupleurum falcatum var. hoffmeisteri (Klotzsch) C. B. Clarke]

Bupleurum longicaule Wall. ex DC. (Bupleurum himalayense Klotzsch)

156.

157.

158.

159.

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

Tonic, stomachache, gastric disorders, gastrointestinal disorder, hepatitis, renal colic, antidote

Liver ailments

Liver troubles

Indigestion, dysentery, carminative, laxative

Wounds

Piles, fever, expectorant

Wounds, bladder ulceration, kidney ulceration, tonic, aphrodisiac, diarrhea

Laxative, Vomiting

Swellings, asthma, dropsy, jaundice, eye disease, whooping cough

Wounds, toothache

Leaves, roots, whole Febrifuge, diuretic, astringent, cholera plant anthelmintic, antipyretic

Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC.

155.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Angmo et al., 2012; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Srivastava et al., 1981

Srivastava et al., 1984

Kapahi et al., 1993

Kapahi et al., 1993; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Mahajan et al., 2012

Kapahi et al., 1993;

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Kak, 2007

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 205

Parts used

Roots

Gum, seeds, whole plant

Leaves, roots

Whole plant

Flowers, leaves

Whole plant

Leaves

Leaves

Flowers, latex, leaves, roots

Leaves, root, shoot, flowers

Leaves, seeds

Roots, stems

Name of the plant species

Bupleurum marginatum Wall. ex DC.

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

Butomus umbellatus L.

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.

Calendula officinalis L.

Callitriche fehmedianii Majeed Kak & Javeid

Callitriche palustris L.

Callitriche stagnalis Scop.

Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.

Caltha palustris L.

Cannabis sativa L.

Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

S. No.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

172.

173.

174.

175.

176.

177.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Inflammation, Rheumatism,

Sedative, appetizer, narcotic, dandruff, arthritis

Cough, diuretic, urinary infections, inflammation

Asthma, boils, cough, skin diseases, abscess, scorpion sting, toothache, wounds joint pain, swelling toothbrush, skin diseases, diarrhea, dysentery

Wounds

Sores, urinary bladder pain

Burns, cuts, wounds

Skin diseases, burns

Fever

Throatache, Intestinal disorders

Diarrhea, worms, blood pressure, skin ailments

Liver ailments

Purpose

Rashid, 2012b

Kumar et al., 2009; Kaur et al., 2011

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Kumar et al., 2009

Kapur, 1991; Rashid, 2012a; Kumar et al., 1993; Bhatia et al., 2014; Jee et al., 1984

Kak, 2007

Kak, 2007

Kak, 2007

Kumar et al., 2009

Gupta et al., 1981

Kak, 2007

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Kumari et al., 2013

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Reference(s)

206 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Root bark

Whole plant

Fruits

Stems

Stems

Whole plant

Flowers

Fruits

Leaves

Fruits, seeds

Fruits, leaves, root bark, seeds, whole plant

Roots, leaves

Name of the plant species

Capparis spinosa L.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.

Capsicum annuum L.

Caragana versicolor Benth.

Cardamine flexuosa With.

Cardamine macrophylla Willd.

Carduus onopordioides Fisch. ex M.Bieb.

Carica papaya L.

Carissa carandas L.

Carum carvi L.

Cassia fistula L.

Catharanthus roseus L.

S. No.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

186.

187.

188.

189.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Hypertension, diabetes

Snake bite, rheumatism laxative, aperients, toothache, fever, throat ache, skin diseases

Abdominal ailments, menstrual disorders, leucorrhoea, skin infections

Fever, tuberculosis

Piles, stones

Blood purifier, febrifuge

Asthma, diuretic, fever, tumor, wormicide

Toothache

Fever, food poisoning, throat infection

Appetizer, toothache

Kidney problems, swelling, body pain, vomiting, nerve disorders

Tonic, expectorant, anthelmintic, splenic disorders, rheumatism

Purpose

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Naqshi et al., 1992; Jee et al., 1984; Kapur, 1991; Bhatia et al., 2014

Kapahi et al., 1993; Lal and Singh, 2008

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Bhatia et al., 2014

Srivastava et al., 1984

Malik et al., 2011b

Kak, 2007

Angmo et al., 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014; Tariq and Tantry, 2012

Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Abrol and Chopra, 1962

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 207

Parts used

Heartwood, oil, bark, stem oil, wood

Seeds

Roots

Whole plant

Heads, leaves

Whole plant

Seeds

Leaves, shoots, whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Name of the plant species

Cedrus deodara (D.Don) G.Don

Celastrus paniculatus Willd.

Celtis australis L.

Centaurea depressa M.Bieb.

Centaurea iberica Trevir.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban.

Centrantherum anthelminticum (Willd.) Kunze

Cerastium cerastoides (L.) Britton

Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. [Cerastium vulgatum L.]

Ceratocephalus falcatus (L.) Pers.

Ceratophyllum demersum L. Leaves

S. No.

190.

191.

192.

193.

194.

195.

196.

197.

198.

199.

200.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Diarrhea, fever

Skin diseases, ringworm, warts

Hemorrhage, refrigerant

Bodyache, headache, renal colic

Leprosy

Leprosy, boils, skin diseases, memory enhancer

Eczema, eyesight, lactation, burns, skin rashes

Chest pain, fever, headache, stomach disorders, cold, cough

Cuts, wounds

Backache, gout, rheumatism

Boils, skin itching, rashes, ulcers, rheumatic pain, headache, kidney stone, piles, pulmonary disorder, urinary disorder

Purpose

Mahmud et al., 2008

Singh, 2002

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Angmo et al., 2012; Gupta et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta 1982

Kaur et al., 2011

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Dar et al., 1984; Lone et al., 2013a; Beigh et al., 2003

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Chaurasia et al., 2007

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Jee et al., 1984; Rashid 2012b; Kumari et al., 2013

Lal and Singh, 2008; Kumar et al., 2009; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Reference(s)

208 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Roots

Leaves, whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Leaves

Whole plant

Leaves

Roots

Fruits

Leaves

Root, leaves

Name of the plant species

Chaerophyllum reflexum Lindl.

Chenopodium album L.

Chenopodium botrys L.

Chenopodium foliosum (Moench.) Asch.

Chenopodium glaucum L.

Chesneya cuneata (Benth.) Ali [Caragana cuneata (Benth.) Baker]

Christolea crassifolia Camb.

Cicer songaricum DC. [Cicer soongaricum DC.]

Cichorium intybus L.

Cinnamomum tamala Nec., & Eberm.

Cissampelos pareira L.

S. No.

201.

202.

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

211.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Laxative, dysentery, urinary trouble, septic ulcers, colic, cuts, wounds

Mouth freshener

Liver, spleen, menstrual disorders, typhoid, wound, blood purifier, fever

Expectorant, adaptogenic properties

Eye sight

Ulcers of gastro-intestinal tract, gastrodeudenol

Purgative

Urination disorders

Humeral, asthma, anthelmintic

Laxative, painful urination, stomachache, biliousness, piles, eye ailments, anthelmintic, anemia, constipation

Anemia, stomach problem

Purpose

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Kapahi et al., 1993; Khan et al., 2004; Baba et al., 2012; Chak et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011b; Mala et al., 2012

Uniyal, 1981; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Angmo et al., 2012

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Ballabh et al., 2008b; Rashid, 2012a; Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Srivastava et al., 1984

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 209

Parts used

Roots

Fruits

Leaves

Root, shoot

Twigs

Twigs

Leaves, seeds

Rhizomes

Whole plant

Roots

Leaves, fruit

Roots

Roots

Name of the plant species

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck

Citrus medica L.

Clematis ladakhiana GreyWilson

Clematis orientalis L.

Clematis tibetana Kuntze

Cleome gynandra L. [Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq.]

Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) Kuntze [Calamintha umbrosa (M. Bieb.) Fisch., & C. A. Mey.]

Clinopodium vulgare L.

Cnicus wallichii DC.

Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) C. B.Clarke

Codonopsis ovata Benth.

Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth.

S. No.

212.

213.

214.

215.

216.

217.

218.

219.

220.

221.

222.

223.

224.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Aphrodisiac, cutaneous eruptions

Ulcers, wounds

Joints’ pain, abscess

Cooling, fever

Astringent, carminative, cardiotonic

Astringent

Rheumatism, rubefacient, otalgia, intestinal worms

Promote digestion

Indigestion

Stomach pain

Tonsillitis

Dandruff, hair fall, hematuria

Toothache, rheumatism

Purpose

Gupta et al., 2013; Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Kapahi et al., 1993

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Srivastava et al., 1984

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Rashid, 2012b; Kumari et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, 2003

Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhatia et al., 2014

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Reference(s)

210 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Anthelmintic, astringent, cholera, diuretic, dropsy, dysentery Diarrhea

Bleeding in menstruation Cold, fever

Leaves

Flowers

Fruits

Aerial parts

Whole plant

Whole plant

Conium maculatum L.

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Cordia myxa L.

Cortia depressa (D.Don) C. Norman

Corydalis crassifolia Royle Whole plant

Shoots

Comastoma tenellum (Rottb.) Toyok. [Gentiana borealis Bunge]

Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. Fruits

Leaves

Colebrookia oppositifolia Smith

Corydalis falconeri Hook.f., & Thomson

Corydalis flabellata Edgew.

226.

227.

228.

229.

230.

231.

232.

233.

234.

235.

Fever

Abdominal ailments, stomachic, sedative, rheumatism

Fever, kidney pain

Anodyne, cancer, antispasmodic, sedative

Cough, fever, respiratory disorders

Mouth ulcers, wounds, bruises, sores, abscess, bruises, headache, wound, eye sores, joint pain, sprain, stomachache, toothache

Stomach complaints, gout, joint pain, weakness

Corms, seeds, flowers

Colchicum luteum Baker

225.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Gupta et al., 1981

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003

Srivastava et al., 1981

Kumari et al., 2013

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Shah et al., 2012

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Naqshi et al., 1992

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Jee et al., 1984; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kumari et al., 2013; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Bhatia et al., 2014

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Chaurasia et al., 2007

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 211

Parts used

Flower, leaves, aerial parts, roots

Whole plant

Whole plant

Herb

Whole plant

Whole plant

Fruits

Aerial parts, roots, whole plant

Flowers, leaves, roots, shoots

Fruits

Bark

Stem

Name of the plant species

Corydalis govaniana Wall.

Corydalis megacalyx Ludlow & Stearn

Corydalis meifolia Wall.

Corydalis ramosa Wall.

Corydalis rutifolia (Sm.) DC.

Cotinus coggygria Scop. [Rhus cotinus L.]

Cotoneaster microphyllus Wallich ex Lindley

Cotula anthemoides L.

Cousinia thomsonii C. B. Clarke

Crataegus songarica G. Koch

Crateva adansonii DC.

Cremanthodium arnicoides (Wall.) R. Good

S. No.

236.

237.

238.

239.

240.

241.

242.

243.

244.

245.

246.

247.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Dysentery

Appetizer, laxative, stimulant, urinary infection

Constipation, heart diseases, heart palpation, hypertension

Arthritis, bodyache, sprain, diuretic

Bone-fracture, cold, rheumatism, fever, constipation, hair fall, chilblain, headache, rheumatism muscular pain

Regulate menstrual cycle, astringent

Dysentery, diuretic

Skin diseases

Eye diseases

Fever, headache, hepatoprotective, liver ailments, stomachic

Pus

Headache, vermicide, whooping cough, asthma, respiratory disorders, dysentery

Purpose

Srivastava and Chandrasekar, 2004

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Kumar et al., 2009; Naqshi et al., 1992; Lone et al., 2013b

Angmo et al., 2012; Sand and Badola, 1987

Bhat et al., 2012; Dar et al., 1984; Naqshi et al., 1992; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Kapahi et al., 1993

Angmo et al., 2012; Gupta et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Angmo et al., 2012

Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011b; Jeelani et al., 2013

Reference(s)

212 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Hemorrhage Cooling drink

Whole plant

Stalks

Latex, whole plant

Plant

Whole plant

Fruits, seeds

Flowers

Rhizomes

Cremanthodium retusum (DC.) R. D. Good

Crepis nicaeensis Balb. ex Pers. [Crepis flexuosa Kit.]

Crocus sativus L.

Crucihimalaya himalaica (Edgew.) Al-Shehbaz, O’Kane & R. A. Price [Arabidopsis himalaica (Edgew.) O. E. Schulz]

Whole plant Cucubalus baccifer L. [Silene baccifera (L.) Roth]

Seeds

Cremathodium ellisii (Hook.f.) Kitam.

Cucumis melo L.

Cucumis sativus L.

Cucurbita pepo L.

Curcuma aromatica Salisb.

Curcuma longa L. [Curcuma Rhizomes domestica Valeton]

249.

250.

251.

252.

253.

254.

255.

256.

257.

258.

259.

Toothache

Wounds

Diarrhea

Fever, headache, burning sensation of urine, kidney stone, stomach heat-up

Appetizer, indigestion

Nerve sedative, stimulant, aphrodisiac

Constipation, fever, abdominal ailments, backache, urinary problem

Joint pain

Analgesic, fever, reduce pain

Bodyache, sedative

Whole plant

Cremanthodium decaisnei C. B.Clarke

248.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Khan et al., 2012

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Dar et al., 1984

Lone et al., 2013a

Dar et al., 1984

Srivastava et al., 1984

Angmo et al., 2012; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Kumar et al., 2009

Gupta et al., 1981; Angmo 2012

Katiyar et al., 1990

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Gupta et al., 1981

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 213

Parts used

Whole plant

Whole plant

Stem, whole plant

Plant

Flowers

Whole plant, leaves

Leaves

Flowers, leaves, roots

Plant

Leaves

Whole plant

Tubers

Name of the plant species

Cuscuta approximata Bab.

Cuscuta capitata Roxb.

Cuscuta europaea L.

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Cydonia oblonga Mill.

Cynodon dactylon Pers.

Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wallich ex Benth. [Cynoglossum wallichii var. glochidiatum (Wall. ex Benth.) Kazmi]

Cynoglossum wallichii G.Don

Cynoglossum zeylanicum Wall. ex Lehm.

Cyperus difformis L.

Cyperus glomeratus L.

Cyperus rotundus L.

S. No.

260.

261.

262.

263.

264.

265.

266.

267.

268.

269.

270.

271.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Spermatorrhoea

Nervous stimulant

Diarrhea

Cuts

Cough, swelling, vomiting, wounds antiallergic

Abscess

Cold, nasal bleeding

Asthma, cold, cough, muscular pain

Washing wound, intestinal worms

Hair fall, testicle swelling, abdominal ailments, backache, chest, lung infection, gynecological disorders

Antiseptic, bladder irritation reduction, blood diseases, cuts, fever, melancholia, promotes urination, ulcer, wounds

Warts

Purpose

Singh, 2003

Kak, 2007

Kak, 2007

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Angmo et al., 2012; Naqshi et al., 1992

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Kaur et al., 2011; Malik et al., 2011a

Lone et al., 2013a

Kapahi et al., 1993; Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Dhar and Siddique, 1993; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011; Beigh et al., 2003

Srivastava et al., 1981, Uniyal, 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Ballabh et al., 2008b

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Reference(s)

214 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Kapur and Nanda, 1992 Rashid, 2012b

Tubers, roots, rhizome

Dactylorhiza incarnata (L.) Roots, tubers, whole Aphrodisiac, cough, cuts, nervous disorder, plant tonic, wounds, astringent, expectorant Soo [Orchis latifolia L.]

Roots

Whole plant

Fruits, leaves

Leaves

Roots

Bark, leaves, roots

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo

Datisca cannabina L.

Datura innoxia Mill.

Datura metel L.

Datura stramonium L.

Daucus carota L.

Dalbergia sissoo DC.

Bark, stem, twigs Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper & J. R. I. Wood [Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) Rendle]

Delphinium brunonianum Royle

274.

275.

276.

277.

278.

279.

280.

281.

282.

Leaves, stem, flower Intestinal pains

Tuberculosis, otalgia

Leprosy, skin diseases; arthralgia, eyesight, toothache, boils, leprosy, skin diseases, vomiting

Stomachache, dysentery

Swellings, headache, boils, skin diseases, wounds

Dandruff, hair fall, skin infections, asthma, whooping cough

Pain relief

Sedative, rheumatism

Urine and kidney problems, wounds, round worms, diabetes, loose motions, impotency

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Dangwal and Singh, 2013; Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhatia et al., 2014; Azad and Bhat, 2013; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kumar et al., 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Mahajan et al., 2012; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009; Chaurasia et al., 2007; Lal and Singh, 2008; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

273.

Tonic, heart palpitation, joint pain

Rhizomes

Cypripedium cordigerum D.Don

Reference(s)

272.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 215

Parts used

Leaves, flowers, young shoot

Roots, plant juice, seeds

Seeds

Roots

Leaves

Shoots, seeds

Leaves

Roots

Leaves

Leaves, whole plant

Whole plant

Name of the plant species

Delphinium cashmerianum Royle

Delphinium denudatum Wall.

Delphinium roylei Munz.

Delphinium vestitum Wall.

Daphniphyllum himalayense (Benth.) Mull. Arg.

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb. ex Pren.

Desmodium elegans DC.

Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.) DC.

Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.

Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees

Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I. Darbysh. [Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt]

S. No.

283.

284.

285.

286.

287.

288.

289.

290.

291.

292.

293.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Pyrexia, arthralgia

Hematuria, tonic

Boils, eye ailments, spleen disorders, wounds

Female reproductive problems

Cuts, wounds

Gastric trouble, intestinal disorders, pain killer, fever

Leucorrhea

Cuts, wounds

Skin eruptions

Toothache, lice, cuts, piles, muscular atrophy, gout, skin eruptions

Cough, cold, dysentery, fever

Purpose

Bhatia et al., 2014

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014

Kumar and Naqshi, 1990; Azad and Bhat, 2013

Kumari et al., 2013

Kumar et al., 2009

Jeelani et al., 2013

Dangwal and Singh, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kumar et al., 2009

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Jeelani et al., 2013; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Srivastava and Chandrasekar, 2004; Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Reference(s)

216 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Plant

Leaves

Leaves, whole plant

Bulb

Leaves, rhizome

Tubers

Tubers

Flower

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves, whole plant

Name of the plant species

Dicliptera roxburghiana Nees

Digitalis lanata Ehrh.

Digitalis purpurea L.

Dioscorea bulbifera L.

Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.

Dioscorea melanophyma Prain & Burkill

Dioscorea pentaphylla L.

Dipsacus inermis Wallich

Diospyros montana Roxb. [Diospyros cordifolia Roxb.]

Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.

Dontostemon glandulosus (Kar., & Kir.) O. E. Schulz [Arabis glandulosa Kar., & Kir.)

S. No.

294.

295.

296.

297.

298.

299.

300.

301.

302.

303.

304.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Abdominal pain, diarrhea

Arthralgia, abortifacient, burn, febrifuge, styptic, worm intestinal, wound

Abscess, toothache

Abscess

Joints swelling

Rheumatism

Ophthalmic infection, rheumatic diseases

Abdominal pain, dysentery, piles

Epilepsy, heart tonic asthma, boils, cough, eyesight, heart diseases, urinary irritation, wounds

Cardiac stimulant, tonic

Bites of wasps and bees

Purpose

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Chaurasia et al., 1999

Bhatia et al., 2014; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Jee et al., 1984

Bhatia et al., 2014

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Sharma, 1991

Sharma, 1991

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011a

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kumari et al., 2013; Malik et al., 2011b; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Naqshi et al., 1992

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 217

Cough, headache Constipation, dysentery, Worms

Dracocephalum stamineum Whole plant Kar., & Kir.

Leaves, rhizomes

Rhizomes

Leaves

Whole plant

Whole plant

Flowers, roots, stems, whole plant

Aerial parts, leaves, whole plant

Bark

Twigs

Whole plant

Dryopteris barbigera (T. Moore ex Hook.) Kuntze

Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott

Duranta repens L.

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link

Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.

Echinops cornigerus DC.

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L [Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.]

Ehretia laevis Roxb.

Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.

Elsholtzia densa Benth.

306.

307.

308.

309.

310.

311.

312.

313.

314.

315.

316.

Kak, 2007

Kak, 2007

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kapur, 1991

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Gynecological disorders

Toothache

Diphtheria

Snake bite, abscess, acidity, antipyretic, cold, Cough, epistaxis, hair baldness, hair fall, skin diseases, tuberculosis, wounds

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011

Khan et al., 2012

Singh, 2006

Bhatia et al., 2014; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Kak, 2007

Food poisoning, tonic, cough, fever, general Angmo et al., 2012; Srivastava and weakness, jaundice Gupta, 1982

Mouth diseases Spleen diseases

Spleen diseases

Wounds

Vermifuge

Cold, cough, headache

Flowers, leaves

Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth.

305.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

218 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Constipation

Stomach diseases, eye infection, fever, arthritis

Stomachache, abdominal pain, renal complaints Joint pain, abscess, headache

Fruits Elsholtzia fruticosa (D.Don) Rehder [Elsholtzia polystachya Benth.]

Fruits

Roots, stems, branches, whole plant, fruits, leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Whole plant

Leaves

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf

Epilobium angustifolium L. Whole herb

Flowers, leaves

Emblica officinalis Gaertn.

Epilobium latifolium L.

Epilobium laxum Royle.

Epilobium paluster L.

Epilobium roseum (Schreb.) Schreb.

Epilobium royleanum Hausskn.

318.

319.

320.

321.

322.

323.

324.

325.

326.

Inflammation

Astringent

Toothache

Gum pain, mouth sores

Fever, bronchial asthma, blood diseases, liver ailments, heart stimulant, fever, hepatic disease, respiratory disorders, hay fever, sunburn, toothbrush, bile complaints, rheumatism

Pathogenic diseases

Stems, leaves, flowers

Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth.) Benth.

317.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kak, 2007

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kak, 2007

Kak, 2007

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Uniyal 1981; Gupta et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Gupta et al., 2013; Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Kapur, 1991

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 219

Plant

Rhizomes

Shoots, whole plant

Whole plant

Leaves, shoots, whole plant

Leaves, shoots

Leaves, whole plant, Cough, cooling effect, fever, internal roots injuries, stomach gases, styptic astringent, bronchial catarrh, cystitis, diarrhea, diuretic, dysentery, hemostatic, scabies, stimulant

Whole plant

Epipactis latifolia All.

Epipactis royleana Lindl.

Equisetum arvense L.

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf.

Eremogone griffithii (Boiss.) Ikonn. [Arenaria griffithii Boiss.]

Erigeron bonariensis L.

Erigeron canadensis L. [Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist]

Erigeron multiradiatus Benth.

328.

329.

330.

331.

332.

333.

334.

335.

Shapoo et al., 2013

Kapahi et al., 1993

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Brain tonic, renal pain, stomach pain

Heart burn sensation

Bile disorder, menstrual disorder, gynecological disorders

Swelling

Gupta et al., 1981

Lone et al., 2013a; Bhatia et al., 2014; Naqshi et al., 1992

Kumari, et al., 2013; Kaul et al., 1990

Angmo et al., 2012; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011

Gupta et al., 1981

Diabetes, urinary irritation, acidity, diuretic, Kaul et al., 1990; Srivastava et al., dropsy, dyspepsia, kidney stone, scabies, 1981; Angmo et al., 2012; Malik toothbrush, urine infection, toothache, et al., 2011b; Hassan et al., 2013 weakness

Aphrodisiac, general weakness, seminal debility, wounds

Heart pain

Blood purifier

Root

Epipactis helleborine (L.) Crantz

327.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

220 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Whole plant

Whole plant

Leaves

Flowers, stems, seeds

Leaves

Plant, leaves

Aerial parts, latex, whole plant

Whole plant

Latex, roots

Whole plant

Plant

Name of the plant species

Erigeron poncinsii (Franch.) Botsch. [Psychrogeton andryaloides (DC.) Novopokr. ex Krasch.]

Erigeron umbrosus (Kar., & Kir.) Boiss. (Brachyactis umbrosa (Kar., & Kir.) Benth.)

Eriocaulon cinereum R.Br.

Erodium tibetanum Edgew., & Hook.f.

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Euphorbia hirta L.

Euphorbia hispida Boiss.

Euphorbia neriifolia L.

Euphrasia officinalis L.

Euphorbia pilosa L.

S. No.

336.

337.

338.

339.

340.

341.

342.

343.

344.

345.

346.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Fistula sores

Eye problems, jaundice

Anthelmintic, toothache, asthma

Antidermatotic, leprosy, wounds

Asthma, bronchial infection, cough, anthelmintic, liver ailments, piles

Wounds, cough

Wounds, sores

Burns, hair tonic, wounds, flatulence, constipation

Pimples

Rheumatism

Worms, wounds

Purpose

Kapahi et al., 1993

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Kapur, 1991; Khan et al., 2012; Singh, 1995

Naqshi et al., 1992; Dar et al., 1984

Kapur, 1991; Rashid, 2012a; Bhatia et al., 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Angmo et al., 2012; Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Kak, 2007

Sharma, 1991

Srivastava et al., 1981; Angmo et al., 2012

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 221

Parts used

Aerial parts, latex, whole plant

Latex, whole plant

Latex, roots

Latex, leaves, rhizomes, seeds whole plant

Plant

Leaves

Whole plant

Latex, fruit

Resin, latex, leaves

Leaves

Name of the plant species

Euphorbia royleana Boiss.

Euphorbia thomsoniana Boiss.

Euphorbia tibetica Boiss.

Euphorbia wallachii Hook.f.

Euphrasia officinale L.

Eurycarpus lanuginosus (Hook.f., & Thomson) Botsch. [Ermania lanuginosa (Hook.f., & Thomson) O. E. Schulz]

Evolvulus alsinoides L.

Ficus palmata Forssk.

Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke

Ficus benghalensis L.

S. No.

347.

348.

349.

350.

351.

352.

353.

354.

355.

356.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Internal injury, diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, tonic, aphrodisiac, toothache

Rheumatism, poultice, gastric problems, wound healing, gastric disorders, chest pain

Skin diseases, constipation

For strength, appetite

Cuts, hemorrhage of kidney

Jaundice

Skin infections, warts, digestive, dropsy, nerve troubles, purgative, skin infections, asthma, boils

Purgative, Inflammation, Purgative

Anthelmintic eruptions, skin diseases, purgative

Anthelmintic, ear ailments, abscess, leucoderma

Purpose

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kapur, 1991; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Jeelani et al., 2013; Angmo et al., 2012

Kumar et al., 2009

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Chaurasia et al., 1999; Ballabh et al., 2008b

Kapahi et al., 1993

Kak, 2007; Baba et al., 2012; Malik et al., 2011b; Tantray et al., 2009; Mala et al., 2009; Kapur, 1991

Gupta et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Srivastava et al., 1981

Bhatia et al., 2014; Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Jee et al., 1984

Reference(s)

222 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Wound Bowel complaints, fever Jaundice

Fruits, latex, leaves

Bark, fruits, latex, twigs

Bark, fruits, latex, leaves, roots, seeds

Whole plant

Ficus palmata Forssk.

Ficus racemosa L. [Ficus glomerata Roxb.]

Ficus religiosa L.

Filago arvensis L.

Filipendula vestita (G.Don) Leaves Maxim.

Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Whole plant Vahl

Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Fruits Merr.

358.

359.

360.

361.

362.

363.

364.

Gout, rheumatism

Astringent, scabies, white discharge cure in ladies, antidote, asthma, cooling effect, laxative, tonic, piles, constipation, purgative, gum diseases, whooping cough, urinary trouble, skin diseases

Antispasmodic Analeptic, Cough, carminative, diarrhea, kidney complaints, wounds, dysentery, toothbrush

Constipation, lung diseases, skin diseases, bladder diseases, demulcent, laxative, skin diseases, abscess, styptic

Abdominal pain, anthelmintic, asthma, blood purifier, cold, constipation, cough, face nourishment, gallbladder stones, heart diseases, indigestion, jaundice, kidney stone, lactation, skin diseases

Fruits, latex, leaves, shoots

Ficus carica L.

357.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Kak, 2007

Jeelani et al., 2013

Gupta et al., 1980; Sharma, 1991; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Kumar and Naqshi, 1992; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Mahajan et al., 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Kapur, 1991; Kumar et al., 1993; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Kumar et al., 2009; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Azad and Bhat, 2013

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a; Yousuf et al., 2012; Beigh et al., 2003

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 223

Cutaneous eruptions, diuretic, epilepsy, hysteria

Bulbs

Whole plant

Herb

Shoots

Plant

Rhizomes

Bulb, flowers, whole plant

Whole plant

Aerial parts

Fritillaria cirrhosa D.Don

Fritillaria imperialis L.

Fritillaria roylei Hook. f.

Fumaria indica (Hausskn) Pugsley

Fumaria parviflora Lam.

Gagea gageoides (Zucc.) Vved.

Gagea serotina (L.) Ker Gawl. [Lloydia serotina (L.) Rchb.]

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Galium aparine L.

Leaves, whole plant Galium hypocarpium (L.) Endl. ex Griseb. [Galium pauciflorum Willd. ex DC.]

Galium rotundifolium L.

367.

368.

369.

370.

371.

372.

373.

374.

375.

376.

377.

Whole plant

Throat infection, fever, throat infection

Stem bark

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Wall. ex G.Don

366.

Wounds

Painful joints

Blood purifier, eye ailments, fever, ophthalmic diseases

Whooping cough

Boils, cuts

Diarrhea, cooling, fever, liver tonic

Tuberculosis, asthma

Diuretic, emollient

Bone fracture

Bone fracture wounds

Constipation, wounds, skin rashes

Seeds, leaves

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

365.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007; Angmo et al., 2012; Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Lal and Singh, 2008

Lone et al., 2013b

Chaurasia et al., 1999; Angmo et al., 2012; Uniyal, 1981

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Jeelani et al., 2013

Kapahi et al., 1993

Naqshi et al., 1992

Sharma et al., 2005

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Lal and Singh, 2008

Kumar et al., 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Reference(s)

224 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Backache, headache, fever, cough, acidity

Flowers

Roots

Roots

Roots

Roots, whole plant

Leaves

Whole plant

Roots

Roots

Rhizome, whole plant

Gentiana algida Pallas

Gentiana argentea (Royle ex D.Don) Royle ex D.Don

Gentiana carinata (D.Don) Griseb.

Gentiana decumbens L.f.

Gentiana kurroo Royle

Gentiana nubigena Edgew.

Gentiana prostrata Haenke

Gentiana squarrosa Ledeb.

Gentiana tenella Fries

Gentiana tianschanica Rupr. ex Kusn.

Gentiana tubiflora (G.Don) Whole plant Griseb.

Gentianella moororoftiana Wall. ex G.Don

380.

381.

382.

383.

384.

385.

386.

387.

388.

389.

390.

391.

Flowers, leaves

Appetite loss, cough, joint pain, stomach disorder

Flowers

Galium verum L.

379.

Appetizer, blood purifier, antipyretic

Tonic, febrifuge, stomachic

Burning sensation of urine, sedative, regulates urine discharge

Tonic

Cold, cough, bronchitis, throat infection

Blood tonic, blood purifier, cough, fever, liver ailments, headache

Stomachic

Appetizer, tonic, stomach ailments

Stomachic, febrifuge, tonic, urinary disorder

Bronchitis, cough, fevers

Fever, cold

Diuretic, kidney complaints, painful urination, promotes urination, purgative

Leaves

Galium serpylloides Royle ex Hook.f.

378.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Singh and Chauhan, 2005;

Angmo et al., 2012

Naqshi et al., 1992; Uniyal, 1981; Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Abrol and Chopra, 1962

Ballabh et al., 2008b

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Angmo et al., 2012

Mahajan et al., 2012; Gupta et al., 2013

Abrol and Chopra, 1962; Mahajan et al., 2012

Shah et al., 2012; Chaurasia et al., 1999

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Chaurasia et al., 1999; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 225

Parts used

Flowers

Flowers

Whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant, leaves, roots, flowers

Flowers, whole plant, roots

Leaves

Whole plant

Roots, herb

Name of the plant species

Gentianopsis detonsa (Rottb.) Ma [Gentianella detonsa (Rottb.) G.Don]

Gentianopsis paludosa (Hook.f.) Ma [Gentiana stracheyi (C. B.Clarke) Kitam.]

Geranium mascatense Boiss. [Geranium ocellatum Jacquem. ex Cambess.]

Geranium nepalense Sweet

Geranium pratense L.

Geranium rivulare Vill. [Geranium aconitifolium L’Her.]

Geranium sibiricum L.

Geranium tuberaria Cambess.

Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet

S. No.

392.

393.

394.

395.

396.

397.

398.

399.

400.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Toothache, eye troubles, rheumatic pain, tonic, diarrhea, dysentery, kidney stones

Painful urination

Diarrhea

Insect bite, rheumatism, blood purifier, cold, cough, fever, headache

Influenza, dysentery, diarrhea, asthma, lungs pain

Astringent, renal disorder

Astringent, diuretic

Boils

Cough, fever, headache, nausea

Purpose

Sharma et al., 2005; Kumar et al., 2009; Jeelani et al., 2013; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Ballabh et al., 2008b

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Srivastava et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Kumar & Bhagat, 2012

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Dhar and Siddique, 1993

Gupta et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Reference(s)

226 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Fever, joint swelling, headache, gonorrhea swelling Abdominal pain, bronchitis, chest and lung infection, cold, cough, throat sore, ulcer

Leaves, roots Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis [Girardinia heterophylla (Vahl) Decne.]

Roots

Roots, shoots

Leaves

Leaves, roots

Bark, roots

Whole plant

Leaves, berry

Leaves

Rhizomes

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Gnaphalium stewartii (Holub) C. B.Clarke ex Hook.f.

Gnaphalium affine D.Don

Goodyera repens (L.) R.Br.

Grewia subinaequalis DC. (Syn.: G. asiatica L.)

Halerpestes tricuspis (Maxim.) Hand.-Mazz.

Hedera helix L.

Hedera nepalensis K.Koch

Hedychium spicatum Sm.

402.

403.

404.

405.

406.

407.

408.

409.

410.

411.

Hypoglycemic, anti inflammatory

Cathartic, diaphoretic, rheumatism, stimulant

Cough, bronchitis cathartic, diaphoretic, rheumatism, ulcer, purgative, stimulant

Stomachic, gastro-intestinal troubles

Bone fracture, dysentery

Insect bite, irregular menstruation, toothache

Burns

Antipyretic

Chest complaints, earache

Whole plant

Gerbera maxima (D.Don) Beauverd [Gerbera nepalensis (DC.) Sch.Bip.]

401.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kapur, 1991

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Kumari et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Mahajan et al., 2012; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Singh, 2006

Shapoo et al., 2013

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Naqshi et al., 1992; Beigh et al., 2003

Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Dangwal and Singh, 2013

Naqshi et al., 1992

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 227

Aphrodisiac, dysentery, joint pain

Headache

Heracleum candicans Wall. Fruit, young shoot, roots ex DC.

Flowers, leaves

Root

Whole plant

Bulbs

Whole plant

Fruits, bark

Bark, fruits

Heracleum lallii Norman

Heracleum pinnatum

Herinaria hirsuta L.

Herminium monorchis (L.) R.Br.

Hippolytia senecionis (Jacquem. ex Besser) Poljakov ex Tzvelev [Tanacetum senecionis (Jacquem. ex Besser) J.Gay]

Hippophae rhamnoides L.

Hippophae salicifolia D.Don

413.

414.

415.

416.

417.

418.

419.

420.

Wounds, appetizer

Hepatic enlargement, fever, cough, cold, headache, blood purifier, wounds, ulcers, digestion

Colic complaints, earache, otorrhea

Substitute of Dactylorhiza hatagirea

Throat sore

Inflammation, pain, intestinal worms

Burning sensation of bladder and urine, gynecological disorders, kidney pain/ inflammation, painful joints, whooping cough

Seeds

Helianthus annuus L.

412.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Kapahi et al., 1993; R. Singh et al., 2003, Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Naqshi et al., 1992

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Kapahi et al., 1993; Srivastava and Chandrasekar, 2004; Jeelani et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007, 2011; Lone et al., 2013a

Reference(s)

228 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Bleeding from nose, dysentery Urinary disorder, eye inflammation

Holarrhena antidysenterica Roots, seeds, bark Wall.

Grains, leaves

Whole plant

Roots, seeds

Herb, leaves, fruits, seeds

Leaves, roots, seeds

Whole plant

Seeds

Roots

Leaves, whole plant

Hordeum vulgare L.

Hydrilla verticillata (L.f) Royle

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Asteracantha longifolia Nees)

Hyoscyamus niger L.

Hyoscyamus pusillus L.

Hypecoum leptocarpum Hook.f., & Thoms.

Hypericum cernuum Roxb

Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy

Hypericum perforatum Hook.f., & Thoms.

422.

423.

424.

425.

426.

427.

428.

429.

430.

431.

Wounds, cuts, rheumatism, urinary irritation

Antispasmodic, Bronchodilator

Rheumatism

Stomachache

Antiseptic, diuretic, expectorant, vermifuge

Asthma, whooping cough, toothache, asthma

Diuretic, rheumatism

Boils, cuts

Rejuvenating, appetizer, revitalizing

Flowers, fruits, leaves, stems

Hippophae tibetana Schltdl.

421.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Jeelani et al., 2013

Kumari et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Angmo et al., 2012; Uniyal, 1981

Kapahi et al., 1993; Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Malik et al., 2011b

Rashid, 2012b

Kak, 2007

Dar et al., 1984, Beigh et al., 2003

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Angmo et al., 2012

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 229

Cough, bladder stones, chest pain Cuts, wounds

Indigofera cassioides Rottl. Roots ex DC.

Leaves

Stems

Stem bark, seeds

Whole plant

Roots

Roots

Root

Whole plant

Roots

Indigofera hebepetala Benth. ex Baker

Indigofera heterantha Graham

Indigofera pulchella Roxb.

Indigofera tinctoria L.

Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) DC

Inula cuspidata C. B.Clarke

Inula grandiflora Willd.

Inula obtusifolia A. Kerner

Inula racemosa Hook.f.

Inula rhizocephala Schrenk Roots, whole plant

433.

434.

435.

436.

437.

438.

439.

440.

441.

442.

443.

Chest complaints, cold, cough, fever, chest pain, constipation, intestinal infections, ulcer

Asthma, bronchitis, boils, skin eruptions, blisters

Headache

Cough, cold, throat irritation

Expelling worms

Edema, mouth ulcers

Boils, bronchitis, epilepsy, nervous disorder, ulcer

Toothache, hair fall

Toothache

Kidney stones, boils, skin eruptions, colds, cough, lung complaints

Plant juice, flowers, leaves

Hyssopus officinalis L.

432.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Chaurasia et al., 1999; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007; Angmo et al., 2012

Kapahi et al., 1993; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Lal and Singh, 2008

Gupta et al., 1981

Sharma et al., 2005

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kumari et al., 2013

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Rashid, 2012b

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Jeelani et al., 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Sharma and Lal, 2005; Lal and Singh, 2008

Reference(s)

230 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Root, herb

Leaves

Whole plant

Leaves

Roots

Roots

Roots, whole plant

Bulb, rhizomes

Rhizomes

Bulb, rhizomes, roots

Leaves

Leaves

Name of the plant species

Inula royleana DC.

Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. ex Choisy [Ipomoea carnea subsp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) D. F. Austin]

Ipomoea hispida Zuccagni

Ipomoea pes-tigridis L.

Iris decora Wall. [Iris nepalensis D.Don]

Iris ensata Thunb.

Iris hookeriana Foster

Iris kashmiriana Baker

Iris kemaonensis Wall. ex D.Don

Iris germanica L. [Iris nepalensis Wall. ex Lindl.]

Jacaranda mimosifolia L.

Jasminum arborescens Roxb.

S. No.

444.

445.

446.

447.

448.

449.

450.

451.

452.

453.

454.

455.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Emetic

Wounds

Joints swelling, boils, pimples, sores, expectorant, rheumatic pain, throat swelling, boils

Joint pain

Rheumatism, general weakness, joint pain, eczema, rheumatism, wounds

Frozen feet, burning sensation of urine, regulates urine discharge, sedative

Asthma, fever, rheumatism, blood purifier, dropsy, liver ailments

Boils, bilious troubles, pimples, sores, diuretic

Acne

Rheumatism

Joint pain, abscess

Expectorant, skin diseases

Purpose

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Naqshi et al., 1992; Singh, 2002; Malik et al., 2011b; Chak et al., 2009

Kumar and Hamal, 2011

Dar et al., 1984; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b; Naqshi et al., 1992

Baba et al., 2012; Ballabh et al., 2008b

Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Naqshi et al., 1992

Chak et al., 2008; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Bhatia et al., 2014

Rashid et al., 2012b

Bhatia et al., 2014

Kapahi et al., 1993

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 231

Parts used

Leaves, flower oil

Root, leaves, flowers

Flowers, leaves, roots

Whole plant

Seeds

Fruit, leaves, bark, green pericarp of fruit

Plant, heartwood

Fruits, leaves, roots

Fruits, leaves, oil

Roots, whole plant

Name of the plant species

Jasminum grandiflorum L.

Jasminum humile L.

Jasminum multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andrews

Jasminum officinale L.

Jatropha curcas L.

Juglans regia L.

Juniperus communis L.

Juniperus polycarpos var. seravschanica (Kom.) Kitam. [Juniperus macropoda Boiss.]

Juniperus recurva Buch.Ham. ex D.Don

Jurinea ceratocarpa (Dcne.) Benth., & Hook.f.

S. No.

456.

457.

458.

459.

460.

461.

462.

463.

464.

465.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Asthma, backache, bronchitis, constipation, headache, tuberculosis, vision improvement, headache, lumbar pain, renal colic

Emetic, cough, kidney complaints, skin diseases, paralysis, diarrhea, indigestion, rheumatism

Gynecological disorders, inflammation and bleeding of kidney, kidney complaints, urinary disorder, anthelmintic, asthma

Joint pain, boils, skin itching

Gums and teeth problems, cough, dysentery, paralysis, kidney stone, scrofula, rickets, leucorrhoea, skin diseases

Arthritis

Ringworm

Emetic, ulcer, snake bite

Ringworm, wounds, boils, headache

Mouth ulcer, gum infection, skin disorders, headache eye ailments

Purpose

Angmo et al., 2012; Navchoo and Buth, 1989; Srivastava et al., 1981; Tantray et al., 2009

Ballabh et al., 2008b; Kim et al., 1999; Angmo et al., 2012, Kumar et al., 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011; Ballabh et al., 2008b; Tariq and Tantry, 2012

Sharma and Lal, 2005; Lal and Singh, 2008; Kumar et al., 2009

Kapahi et al., 1993; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kumar et al., 2009

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Kumar and Naqshi, 1992

Negi, 2005; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Reference(s)

232 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Tuberous roots

Root

Leaves, roots, flowers

Leaves

Whole plant

Leaves

Leaves, shoots, whole plant

Flower heads

Seeds

Leaves, whole plant

Name of the plant species

Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss.

Jurinea macrocephala Benth.

Justicia adhatoda L.

Koenigia delicatula (Meissn.) Hara

Koelpinia linearis Pall.

Krascheninnikovia ceratoides (L.) Gueldenst.

Lactuca lessertiana (Wall. ex DC.) Wall. ex C. B. Clarke

Lactuca orientalis (Boiss.) Boiss.

Lactuca serriola L. (Lactuca scariola L.)

Lactuca tatarica (L.) C. A.Mey.

S. No.

466.

467.

468.

469.

470.

471.

472.

473.

474.

475.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Fever, headache, internal wounds, vomiting, gastric disorders, rheumatism

Asthma

Headache

Rheumatism, renal colic

Hyperacidity

Rheumatism

Dysentery

Cough, malarial fever, leprosy; bronchial trouble, chest pain, diarrhea, tumor, dysentery, asthma, abscess, whooping cough, blood purifier, headache, bronchitis, pruritus

Colic pain

Aphrodisiac, skin eruptions, gout, rheumatism

Purpose

Angmo, et al., 2012; Uniyal, 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Singh, 1995

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Srivastava et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Srivastava and Chandrasekar, 2004

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kaur et al., 2011; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Rashid, 2012b; Bhatia et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 1993

Kapahi et al., 1993

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2005; Kumar et al., 2009

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 233

Headache, skin inflammation

Rheumatic pain. mumps in children

Roots, whole plant

Whole plant, leaves

Bark

Leaves

Leaves, whole plant

Leaves

Leaves

Lancea tibetica Hook.f., & Thoms.

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Lantana camara L.

Lantana aculeata L. [Lantana camara var. aculeata (L.) Moldenke]

Flowers Lavandula angustifolia Mill. [Lavandula officinalis Chaix]

Root, flowers

Lamium album L.

Lavetera kashmiriana Camb.

Lawsonia inermis L.

Leontopodium himalayanum DC.

477.

478.

479.

480.

481.

482.

483.

484.

485.

Headache, septic wounds

Antiphlogistic, itching, toothache, leucoderma

Alopecia, eczema, malaria, rheumatism, tetanus

Antiseptic, scabies, skin itches, wounds

Boils, burns, toothache, astringent, ulcer

Tonic, wounds

Astringent, burns, nose bleeding, wounds

Cold, cough, chest pain, fever, kidney stone, stomach heat-up, stomach ulcers

Fruits

Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.

476.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Angmo et al., 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014; Ganai and Navchoo, 2003

Kapahi et al., 1993; Malik et al., 2011b; Jeelani et al., 2013

Bhat et al., 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Bhatia et al., 2014; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Srivastava et al., 1984; Malik et al., 2011b

Lone et al., 2013a

Reference(s)

234 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Roots

Whole plant

Leaves, whole plant

Whole plant

Root, leaves

Leaves

Whole plant

Leaves, whole plant

Leaves

Roots

Name of the plant species

Leontopodium nanum (Hook.f., & Thomson) Hand.-Mazz.

Leontopodium nivale subsp. alpinum (Cass.) Greuter [Leontopodium alpinum Colm. ex Cass.]

Leonurus cardiaca L.

Lepidagathis cristata Willd.

Lepidium latifolium L.

Lepidium sativum L.

Lespedeza gerardiana Graham ex Maxim.

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link

Leucas mollissima Wall.

Ligularia jacquemontiana (Decne.) M. A. Rau [Senecio jacquemontianus (Decne.) Benth. ex Hook.f.]

S. No.

486.

487.

488.

489.

490.

491.

492.

493.

494.

495.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, 2003;

Kapur, 1991

Srivastava et al., 1984; Singh, 2002

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Angmo et al., 2012

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Reference(s)

Nerve tonic, rheumatic pain, joint pain, boils

Cuts, sores, wounds, bites of poisonous insects, headache

Dar et al., 1984; Srivastava et al., 1984; Kapahi et al., 1993

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Eye redness, psoriasis, rheumatism, scabies, Kapur, 1991; Rashid 2012b; Uniyal, stimulant 1981

Burns, abscess

Bleeding piles

Stomach pain, skin diseases

Antiallergic

Abdominal pain, stomachic, diaphoretic

Cold, cough, fever, general weakness, headache, septic wounds

Dysentery

Purpose

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 235

Parts used

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Seeds

Bark, leaves

Whole plant

Whole plant

Fruits

Leaves

Roots, flowers

Leaves

Name of the plant species

Lindelofia longiflora (Benth.) Baill.

Lindelofia macrostyla (Bunge) Popov [Lindelofia anchusoides (Lindl.) Lehm.]

Lindera pulcherrima Benth.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) Robins

Lomatogonium carinthiacum (Wulfen) A.Braun

Lomatogonium rotatum (L.) Fr. ex Fernald

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.

Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl.

Lychnis coronaria Lamk.

Lycium ruthenicum Murray

S. No.

496.

497.

498.

499.

500.

501.

502.

503.

504.

505.

506.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Removes blocked urine, diuretic

Lung troubles

Boils, wounds

Boils

Cold, Cough

Blood purifier, cold, cough, antipyretic, fever

Bone fracture, wounds, bruises

Abscess, arthritis, boils, demulcent, laxative, purgative, rheumatic pain

Injury

Hypertension

Wounds

Purpose

Ballabh et al., 2008b; Chaurasia et al., 1999

Jeelani et al., 2013

Yousuf et al., 2012

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007

Srivastava et al., 1981; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Bhatia et al., 2014; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b; Naqshi et al., 1992; Lone et al., 2013a

Negi, 2005

Dhar and Siddique, 1993

Lal and Singh, 2008

Reference(s)

236 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Febrifuge, ulcers Diuretic

Leaves, flowers

Macrotomia benthamii DC. Root

Berries

Fruits, seeds

Leaves

Leaves, seeds

Stem, petiole, seeds

Fruits

Leaves

Leaves, bark, fruit

Leaves, whole plant

Aerial parts, flowers, leaves

Lyonia ovalifolia Drude

Mahonia napaulensis DC.

Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Mull.Arg.

Malva neglecta Wallr.

Malva parviflora L.

Malva sylvestris L.

Malva verticillata L.

Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke

Mangifera indica L.

Marrubium vulgare L.

Matricaria chamomilla L.

508.

509.

510.

511.

512.

513.

514.

515.

516.

517.

518.

519.

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Malik et al., 2011b

Bhatia et al., 2014; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Kumar et al., 2009

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Bhushan and Kumar, 2013; Jee et al., 1984

Negi, 2005

Kapahi et al., 1993

Negi, 2005

Bhatia et al., 2014

Reference(s)

Anthelmintic, toothache, insect bite, thread worm

Singh, 2002; Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Khan et al., 2012

Arthritis, boils, cough, diuretic, Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013b; Lone expectorant, eye swelling, chilblain, et al., 2013a; Kumar and Naqshi, rheumatism, abdominal pain, muscular pain 1990; Dar et al., 1984

Burns, diabetes, wounds, piles

Wounds, sores

Dropsy, diarrhea, infected sores

Laxative, cough, fever

Cold, cough, pyrexia, fever

Laxative

Anthelmintic, cathartic, intestinal worms, styptic

Skin allergy

Ringworm, styptic

Leaves

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

507.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 237

Swelling of legs, ulcers, disorders of lungs, inflammation of liver, stomachache Wounds

Meconopsis aculeata Royle Leaves, whole plant

Aerial parts

Leaves, stem, fruits flowers,

Leaves

Leaves, whole plant

Fruit

Whole plant

Leaves, aerial portion

Leaves, tender shoots

Flowers, leaves, oil, whole plant

Leaves

Medicago falcata L.

Medicago lupulina L.

Melia azedarach L.

Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall.

Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn.

Mentha aquatica L.

Mentha arvensis L.

Mentha longifolia L.

Mentha piperita L.

Mentha spicata L.

521.

522.

523.

524.

525.

526.

527.

528.

529.

530.

531.

Diarrhea, intestinal troubles

Diarrhea, flatulence, nausea, vomiting, dysentery, headache, nausea, stomach trouble, vomiting, antiseptic, cough, rheumatic pain, stomach disorders

Carminative, vermicide, cooling, dysentery, diarrhea, vomiting, wound, stomachache

Carminative, cough, sore throat, indigestion, constipation

Diarrhea, Stomach troubles

Spermatorrhoea

Conjunctivitis, antidote, asthma, infectious diseases

Wounds, boils

Disorders of lungs, cough, wounds

Diuretic, intestinal worms

Leaves

Mattiastrum thomsonii (C. B. Clarke) Kazmi

520.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kak, 2003

Naqshi et al., 1992, Dar et al., 1984; Kak, 2007

Kapahi et al., 1993; Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Kapahi et al., 1993; Malik et al., 2011a

Kak, 2007

Sharma et al., 2005

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Lal and Singh, 2008

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Reference(s)

238 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves, roots, tubers Demulcent, constipation, abscess, bodyache, eye inflammation, pain, piles

Leaves, fruits

Roots

Whole plant

Leaves

Flowers, rhizomes, stems

Whole plant

Leaves

Leaves

Fruits, leaves

Aerial parts

Leaves

Bulb

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Momordica charantia L.

Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.

Morina longifolia Wall.

Murraya koenigii Spreng.

Musa paradisiaca L.

Myosotis sylvatica Hoffm.

Myricaria elegans Royle

Myricaria squamosa Desv.

Myrsine africana L.

Myrtama elegans (Royle) Ovch & Kinz.

Najas marina L.

Narcissus tazetta L.

533.

534.

535.

536.

537.

538.

539.

540.

541.

542.

543.

544.

545.

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Angmo et al., 2014

Naqshi et al., 1992

Jee et al., 1984; Bhatia et al., 2014

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Sharma and Maheshwari, 2005; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Bhatia et al., 2014

Gupta et al., 1981; Uniyal, 1981; Ballabh et al., 2008a

Reference(s)

Anemia, boils

Boils, goiter

Rheumatism

Naqshi et al., 1992; Dar, 1984; Jee et al., 1984

Kak, 2007

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003

Anthelmintic, ringworm, tapeworm, dropsy, Negi, 2005 colic pain

Absciatic pain

Blood purifier

Rheumatic pain

Whooping cough, tonsillitis, menorrhea

Diabetes

Indigestion

Bowel infections, piles, urinary complaints

Cures pinworms, diabetes

Lung diseases, ulcers internal cough, pulmonary diseases

Roots, whole plant

Microula tibetica Benth.

532.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 239

Arthritis Diarrhea, dysentery, fever, toothache, vomiting, worms, abdominal pain, anthelmintic, bodyache, cough

Flowers, leaves, rhizome, seeds, whole plant

Nepeta annua Pall. [Nepeta Whole plant botryoides Aiton]

Leaves, whole plant

Flowers, leaves, seeds

Whole plant

Leaves

Whole plant

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn [Nelumbium nuciferum Gaertn.]

Nepeta cataria L.

Nepeta ciliaris Benth. [Nepeta leucophylla Benth.

Nepeta coerulescens Maxim.

Nepeta discolor Royle ex Benth.

Nepeta eriostachya Benth.

547.

548.

549.

550.

551.

552.

553.

Eyesight, eye redness

Cold, cough, fever

Dysentery, stomachache

Cardiotonic, carminative, Stimulant

Cardiotonic, jaundice, constipation, dysentery, stomach problems, ringworm, semen deficiency, urinary problem, vomiting, anthelmintic, fever

Eye sight, stomach ulcers, intestinal infections

Whole plant, leaves

Nasturtium officinale R.Br.

546.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Srivastava et al., 1981, Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Chaurasia et al., 1999; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Lone et al., 2013b; Dar et al., 1984; Naqshi et al., 1992; Yousuf et al., 2012; Malik et al., 2011b; Singh, 2002; Tariq and Tantry, 2012

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Mahmud et al., 2008; Lone et al., 2013

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Malik et al., 2011a; Jeelani et al., 2013

Reference(s)

240 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Cerebral tonic, madness

Inflammation of stomach and liver

Flowers, leaves

Flowers

Whole plant

Leaves, roots

Latex, leaves

Leaves

Bulb

Leaves

Flowers, leaves, rhizomes, whole plant

Rhizome, roots, seeds

Nepeta laevigata D.Don

Whole plant Nepeta leucolaena Benth. ex Hook.f. [Nepeta salviifolia Royle ex Benth.]

Whole plant

Nepeta glutinosa Benth.

Nepeta longibracteata Benth.

Nepeta podostachys Benth.

Nerium indicum Mill.

Nerium oleander L. (Nerium indicum Mill.)

Nicotiana tabacum L.

Notholirion thomsonianum (Royle) Stapf

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Nymphaea alba L.

Nymphaea lotus L.

555.

556.

557.

558.

559.

560.

561.

562.

563.

564.

565.

566.

Diarrhea, piles, constipation, stomachache

Boils, diarrhea, anthelmintic

Intestinal worms

Menstrual disorder, muscular pain

Scorpion stings, skin diseases

Abscess, hair growth, insect bite, blisters, boils

Cardiac tonic, snake bites, headache, cuts, wounds, joint inflammation

Promotes kidney function

Cough, weakness, eye problems

Diarrhea, dysentery stomachache

Malaria, fever, cough

Leaves

Nepeta floccosa Benth.

554.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Mahmud et al., 2008

Dar et al., 1984; Beigh et al., 2003; Lone et al., 2013a; Tariq and Tantry, 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014

Lone et al., 2013b

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Bhatia et al., 2014; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Ballabh et al., 2008b

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Gupta et al., 1881; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 241

Parts used

Flowers, rhizomes

Flowers

Petiole

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves, plant, seeds

Leaves

Leaves

Twigs

Leaves

Root

Name of the plant species

Nymphaea mexicana Zucc.

Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. [Nymphaea stellata Willd.]

Nymphaea tetragona Georgi

Ocimum americanum L.

Ocimum basilicum L.

Ocimum canum Sims.

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. [Ocimum sanctum] L.

Oenothera rosea L’Her. ex Aiton

Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall., & G. Don) Cif. [Olea cuspidata Wall., & G.Don]

Olea ferruginea Wall. ex Aitch.

Onosma hispidum Wall. ex DC.

S. No.

567.

568.

569.

570.

571.

572.

573.

574.

575.

576.

577.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ulcers, kidney stones

Antipyretic, astringent, debility, fever, gonorrhea, whooping cough

Toothache

Colic complaints

Cold, maggots

Earache, cold, stomachache

Stomachache, vomiting

Stomachache

Laxative

Diabetes, indigestion, kidney stone

Fever, heart palpation, liver ailments, urinary problem, boils, hair fall, diabetes, rheumatism

Purpose

Kapahi et al., 1993

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Khan et al., 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Kumari et al., 2013

Kak, 2007

Baba et al., 2012; Malik et al., 2011b

Lone et al., 2013a

Reference(s)

242 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Whole plant

Root

Plant, leaves, terminal shoots

Plant

Fruits, leaves, Stem bark

Aerial parts

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Whole plant

Flowers

Leaves

Fruit latex, fruits flowers, seeds

Name of the plant species

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (Opuntia vulgaris Mill.)

Orchis latifolia L.

Origanum vulgare L

Orobanche hansii Ker.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

Oxalis corniculata L.

Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill.

Oxytropis microphylla (Pallas) DC.

Oxytropis mollis Royle

Oxytropis tatarica Baker

Papaver dubium L.

Papaver nudicaule L.

Papaver somniferum L.

S. No.

578.

579.

580.

581.

582.

583.

584.

585.

586.

587.

588.

589.

590.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Angmo et al., 2012

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Gupta et al., 1980; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009, Angmo et al., 2012

Kumar et al., 2009; Jeelani et al., 2013

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Kapahi et al., 1993; Sharma and Lal, 2005

Kapahi et al., 1993

Uniyal, 1981

Reference(s)

Wounds, diarrhea, bronchitis, potency male, Sharma and Sood, 2013; Mala et al., stomach disorder, cough, weak memory 2012; Lone et al., 2013b

Analgesic, cold

Memory enhancer

Ascites, diuretic

Swelling of hands and abdomen

Fever, inflammation, wounds

For digestion and gastritis, appetizer

Boils, abscesses, wounds, eczema, malaria, hepatitis B, abdominal pain

Cough, cardiac ailments, piles, stomachache, scabies

Kidney function, check hemorrhage

Menstrual suppression, boils, cuts, wounds, ulcers, eczema

Aphrodisiac

Otalgia

Purpose

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 243

Parts used

Flowers, leaves, stems

Roots

Whole herb

Leaves, flowers, roots

Whole plant, flowers

Whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Seeds

Name of the plant species

Paraquilegia microphylla (Royle) J. R. Drumm., & Hutch.

Parasenecio chenopodifolius (DC.) Grierson (Senecio chenopodifolius DC.)

Pedicularis cheilanthifolia Schrenk

Pedicularis oederi Vahl

Pedicularis longiflora Rudolph

Pedicularis oederi Vahl

Pedicularis pectinata Wall. ex Benth.

Pedicularis pyramidata Royle ex Benth.

Peganum harmala L.

S. No.

591.

592.

593.

594.

595.

596.

597.

598.

599.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Anthelmintic, abortifacient, used for treatment of more than 70 ailments in Ladakh

Headache

Increase urine flow, dysentery

Sedative, backache, bodyache, food poisoning, headache

Dysentery, oedema, inflammation of liver and gall bladder

Kidney pain, lungs pain

Stomach

Joint swelling

Blood diseases, gynecological disorders, uterine tumors,

Purpose

Abrol and Chopra, 1962; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Srivastava et al., 1981

Kapahi et al., 1993; Srivastava and Chandrasekar 2004

Angmo et al., 2012

Srivastava and Chandrasekar 2004; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Kaul, 1990

Angmo et al., 2012

Reference(s)

244 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Eye ailments, urinary infection

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a; Kaul Abdominal pain, blood pressure high, dysuria, hair regeneration, intestinal worms, et al., 1990; Singh, 2002; Mahmud jaundice, toothache, skin allergies, boils, et al., 2008 antiseptic, burns, cuts, wounds

Leaves, roots, rhizomes

Persicaria capitata (Buch.- Aerial parts Ham. ex D.Don) H. Gross [Polygonum capitatum Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don]

Leaves, roots, seeds

Whole plant

Leaves

Persicaria amplexicaulis (D.Don) Ronse Decr. [Polygonum amplexicaule D.Don; Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene]

Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre [Polygonum hydropiper L.]

Persicaria maculosa Gray [Polygonum persicaria L.]

Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) Miyabe [Polygonum nepalense Meisn.]

602.

603.

604.

605.

Burns

Cold, cough

Fever, joint pain, asthma, burns, cold, cough, fever, headache, heart stimulant, tonic, indigestion, wound, rheumatism, stomach pain

Kapur, 1991

Rashid, 2012b

Kumari et al., 2013

Mahajan et al., 2012; Naqshi et al., 1992; Kumari et al., 2013; Shah et al., 2012; Lone et al., 2013b; Malik et al., 2011b

Kaul et al., 1990; Naqshi et al., 1992; Singh, 2002

601.

Astringent, backache, bone fracture, joint swelling

Roots

Persicaria alpina (All.) H.Gross [Polygonum alpinum All.]

Reference(s)

600.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 245

Parts used

Flowers, roots, stems, whole plant

Leaves, twig

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves, flowers

Whole plant

Leaves, roots

Fruit

Leaves, whole plant

Name of the plant species

Persicaria vivipara (L.) Ronse Decr. [Bistorta vivipara (L.) Delarbre; Polygonum viviparum L.]

Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees

Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brum.

Perovskia abrotanoides Kar.

Phlomoides bracteosa (Royle ex Benth.) Kamelin & Makhm. Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth.

Phlomoides rotata (Benth. ex Hook.f.) Mathieson [Phlomis rotata Benth. ex Hook.f.]

Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb.

Physalis alkekengi L.

Physalis minima L.

S. No.

606.

607.

608.

609.

610.

611.

612.

613.

614.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Otalgia, earache, laxative, purgative, diuretic

Gout, rheumatism, urinary disorders, fever

Diarrhea, dysentery, toothache

Bone fracture, joint swelling

Arthritis, cough, cold, toothache, laxative

Controls painful urination, fever

Antiseptic

Antiseptic, bone fracture

Abdominal pain, backache, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, hemorrhage, sore throat, astringent, chest complaints, leucorrhea, ulcer, lung diseases

Purpose

Bhatia et al., 2014; Kapur, 1991

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Kapur, 1991; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Angmo et al., 2012

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Kumar et al., 2009

Ballabh et al., 2008

Singh, 2006

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Angmo et al., 2012; Naqshi et al., 1992; Kaphai et al., 1993; Singh, 2002; Srivastava et al., 1981

Reference(s)

246 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Carminative Sprains, septic wounds

Leaves, twigs, roots

Resin

Roots

Stem bark, resin

Whole plant

Seeds

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Flowering shoots

Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss.

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.

Pimpinella diversifolia DC. Plant

Resin

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

Pinus roxburghii Sarg.

Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson

Plantago depressa Willd.

Plantago lanceolata L.

Plantago major L.

Plantago tibetica Hook.f.

Plectranthus rugosus Wall. ex Benth.

Pleurospermum brunonis (DC.) C. B.Clarke

Stem and root Pluerospermum candollii (DC.) Benth. ex C. B.Clarke

616.

617.

618.

619.

620.

621.

622.

623.

624.

625.

626.

627.

628.

Reference(s)

Dysentery

Fevers

Stomachache, acidity

Constipation, abscess

Boils

Purgative

Stomach pain, dysentery, diarrhea

Bone fracture, cuts, wounds

Jaundice, bitter tonic, skin infection, stomachache, fever, cooling, appetizer

Cracked heals, wounds

Sedative, joint pain

Srivastava and Chandrasekar 2004;

Sharma et al., 2005

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Lal and Singh, 2008

Kapahi et al., 1993

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Sharma et al., 2005; Kumar et al., 2009

Negi, 2005

Kapahi et al., 1993

Kapahi et al., 1993; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Kim et al., 1999; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Kumar et al., 2009

Toothache, vermifuge, wounds, tumors, eye Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, diseases 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Seeds, leaves

Physochlaina praelta (Decne) Miers

615.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 247

Parts used

Roots

Roots, leaves, fruit

Leaves

Rhizomes

Roots

Bark

Bark, leaves

Bark

Leaves, bark

Seeds

Name of the plant species

Plumbago zeylanica L.

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle

Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm.f.) Kuntze

Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All.

Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Populus alba L.

Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle

Populus nigra L.

Populus nigra var. italica Munchh.

S. No.

629.

630.

631.

632.

633.

634.

635.

636.

637.

638.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Wounds

Cold, anthelmintic

Blood purifier, tonic

Anthelmintic, rheumatism

Eczema, malaria

Kidney problems, wind diseases, appetizer, spermatorrhoea, hemorrhoids

Astringent, female weakness, tonic gynecological disorders, painful urination, promotes urination

Cold, cough, dyspepsia

Hepatic enlargement, skin and gastric problems, regulate menstrual cycle, cancer

Fever, sores, abortion

Purpose

Dar et al., 1984

Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Kapur and Naqshi, 1990

Srivastava et al., 1984

Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Rashid, 2012b

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009; Kaur et al., 2011

Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007; 2011

Bhatia et al., 2014

Kapahi et al., 1993; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009; Jeelani et al., 2013

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kaur et al., 2011

Reference(s)

248 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Boils Tonsillitis

Leaves

Leaves

Roots

Roots

Roots, seeds

Seeds

Flowers, shoots, whole plant

Leaves

Potentilla anserina L.

Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Leaves

Rhizomes

Portulaca grandiflora Hook.

Potentilla nubicola (Hook.f.) Mabb.

Potentilla reptans L.

Potentilla supina L.

Prangos pabularia Lindl.

Premna barbata Wall. ex Schauer

Primula denticulata Sm.

Primula inayatii Duthie

640.

641.

642.

643.

644.

645.

646.

647.

648.

649.

Ringworm

Diabetes, urinary ailments, cold, gastric disorders, headache, anodyne, bowel complaints, giddiness, headache, piles, pulmonary diseases

Bodyache

Urinary problems, carminative, indigestion, diuretic, stimulant, stomachic, gynecological disorders, bleeding of kidney, itching, rheumatism, diabetes

Astringent, febrifuge, tonic

Headache, muscular pain

Diarrhea, dysentery, kidney stones

Aperients, diuretic

Vermifuge, blood purifier, bodyache, constipation, cough, eyesight, heart diseases, liver ailments, weakness

Seeds, whole plant

Portulaca oleracea L.

639.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kak, 2007

Dangwal and Singh, 2013; Angmo et al., 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014

Gupta et al., 1980; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007, 2009; Srivastava et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Angmo et al., 2012

Naqshi et al., 1992; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Lone et al., 2013b; Gupta et al., 1980

Jeelani et al., 2013

Jeelani et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Naqshi et al., 1992; Malik et al., 2011b; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 249

Parts used

Leaves, root stocks

Roots

Seed oil, roots

Flowering tops, leaves, roots, whole plant

Seeds oil

Kernel

Fruits, leaves

Flowers, leaves

Fruits, leaves

Petiole

Name of the plant species

Primula macrophylla D.Don

Primula rosea Royle

Prinsepia utilis Royle

Prunella vulgaris L.

Prunus amygdalus Roxb.

Prunus armeniaca L.

Prunus persica (L.) Batsch

Pseudognaphalium hypoleucum (DC.) Hillard & B. L. Burtt (Gnaphalium hypoleucum DC.)

Psidium guajava L.

Pteris vittata L.

S. No.

650.

651.

652.

653.

654.

655.

656.

657.

658.

659.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Wounds

Headache, oral ulcers, toothache

Throat problems, astringent, vulnerary troubles

Indigestion, abdominal pain, burns, chilblain, cough, joint pain, vermicide, wound

Skin diseases, rheumatism, tumor, constipation, worm lodging, toothache

Laxative, inflamed joints

Headache, fever, body muscular pain, brain disorders, cerebral disorders, cold, cough, diarrhea, fever, frost bite, gastric disorders, hair fall, breathing problems, liver ailments, lung troubles, piles, rheumatism, swelling

Rheumatic complaints, arthritis, wounds

Muscular pain

Cold, cough, control acidity, ulcer

Purpose

Kapur, 1991

Bhatia et al., 2014

Kumar et al., 2009; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Yousuf et al., 2012; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a; Malik et al., 2011b

Kumar et al., 2009; Bhatia et al., 2014; Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Bhat et al., 2012

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Malik et al., 2011b; Gupta et al., 1980; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Lone and Bhardwaj 2013b; Dangwal and Singh, 2013; Sand and Badola, 1987; Srivastava et al., 1981

Sharma et al., 2005; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kaur et al., 2011; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Angmo et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Reference(s)

250 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Roots

Fruit rind, fruit juice, seeds juice

Rhizomes, whole plant

Root

Flowers

Fruits

Twigs

Seeds

Leaves, whole plants

Name of the plant species

Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC.

Punica granatum L.

Pycreus sanguinolentus (Vahl) Nees

Pyracantha crenulata Roem.

Pyrethrum pyrethroides (Kar., & Kir.) B. Fedtsch. ex Krasch. [Chrysanthemum pyrethroides (Kar., & Kir.) B. Fedtsch.]

Pyrus communis L.

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Quercus oblongata D.Don, Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus

Ranunculus arvensis L.

S. No.

660.

661.

662.

663.

664.

665.

666.

667.

668.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Eczema, asthma, fever, constipation, diarrhea, eczema

Dysentery, diarrhea, Toothache, piles, astringent

Toothache

Constipation, diuretic, heart palpitation, kidney stone

Fever, boils, wounds

Body pain

Pain relief neck and shoulder, demulcent, tonic, diarrhea

Intestinal worms, jaundice, anemia, cooling, appetizer, diabetes

Rheumatism

Purpose

Beigh et al., 2003; Jee et al., 1984; Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Bhat et al., 2012; Lone et al., 2012b

Sharma and Sood, 2013; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014

Khan et al., 2012

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2007; Chaurasia et al., 2007

Negi, 2005

Kak, 2007

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kumar et al., 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Rashid, 2012b

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 251

Parts used

Fruits, leaves, stems

Whole plant

Leaves, flowers

Whole plant

Seeds

Latex, roots, whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Roots

Whole plant

Plant juice, roots, leaves

Root bark, leaves

Name of the plant species

Ranunculus brotherusii Freyn

Ranunculus distans D.Don

Ranunculus diffusus DC.

Ranunculus hirtellus Royle

Ranunculus hyperboreus Rottb.

Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Hook. f., & J. W. Thomson

Ranunculus lingua L.

Ranunculus muricatus L.

Ranunculus rionii Lagger

Ranunculus sceleratus L.

Ranunculus trichophyllus Chaix.

Raphanus sativus L.

Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz.

S. No.

669.

670.

671.

672.

673.

674.

675.

676.

677.

678.

679.

680.

681.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Vomiting, pneumonia

Kidney stones, jaundice, scorbutic condition, diarrhea, piles, urinary and gastric troubles

Diarrhea

Nausea

Stomach ailments

Asthma, fever

Swollen parts pain

Hair growth, toothache, malaria

Fertility and vitality

Cooling effects, anthelmintic

Burns, cough, cold

Rheumatism, asthma, fever, gout

Indigestion

Purpose

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Dangwal and Singh, 2013

Kak, 2007

Kumar and Naqshi, 1990

Kak, 2007

Bhatia et al., 2014, Naqshi et al., 1992

Navchoo and Buth, 1989

Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Srivastava et al., 1984

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Srivastava et al., 1981,1984; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Angmo et al., 2012

Reference(s)

252 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Leaves

Leaves, roots

Whole plant

Roots

Flowers, root, rhizome

Peduncles

Roots, leaves

Roots, stems

Stem bark

Roots

Name of the plant species

Rhabdosia rugosa Wall. ex Benth.

Rhamnus prostrata Jacq.

Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo [Acroptilon repens (L.) DC.; Centaurea picric Pall.]

Rheum australe D.Don

Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissn.

Rheum spiciforme Royle

Rheum webbianum Royle

Rhodiola heterodonta (Hook. f., & Thomson) Boriss. [Sedum heterodontum Hook. f. & Thomson]

Rhodiola himalensis (D.Don) S. H. Fu

Rhodiola imbricata Edgew.

S. No.

682.

683.

684.

685.

686.

687.

688.

689.

690.

691.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Cold, cough, fever, loss of energy

Tooth infection

Cold, cough, fever, constipation, indigestion

Indigestion, abdominal disorders

Aphrodisiac

Indigestion, boils, wounds, skin eruptions

Stomach problems, cuts, wounds, muscular swellings, tonsillitis, mumps, joint pain

Antipyretic, blood purifier, skin diseases

Fever

Stomach pain, vermicide

Purpose

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Kumar et al., 2009

Ballabh et al., 2008a; Jeelani et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Chandrasekar and Srivastva, 2005

Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Lal and Singh, 2008; Malik et al., 2011a

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Gupta et al., 1981; Srivastava et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kumar et al., 2009

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 253

Flowers, roots, whole plant

Stem bark

Leaves, flowers

Leaves

Leaves

Fruits

Fruits, whole plant

Leaves, seeds, oil, roots

Flowers, leaves, roots

Rhodiola trifida (Hook.f., & Thomson) Jacobsen [Sedum trifidum Hook. f., & Thomson]

Rhodiola wallichiana (Hook.) S. H. Fu [Sedum wallichianum Hook.]

Rhododendron anthopogon D.Don

Rhododendron arboretum Sm.

Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don

Rhus cotinus L.

Rhus succedanea L.

Ricinus communis L.

Robinia pseudoacacia L.

693.

694.

695.

696.

697.

698.

699.

700.

701.

Chilblain, fever, hernia, joint swelling, digestive ailments, wound toothache

Joint pain, skin ulcers, constipation, for abortion, cuts, bruises

Colic complaints, allergy, tuberculosis (phthisis), vesicating

Gastrointestinal disorders

Cold

Cuts, wounds

Skin problems, cough, cold

Toothbrush

Expectorant, emetic, Ascites, urogenital disorders

Flower, roots, whole Expectorant, emetic, laxative, ascites, plant urogenital disorders

Rhodiola tibetica (Hook. f., & Thomson) S. H. Fu [Sedum tibeticum Hook. f., & Thomson]

692.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Lone et al., 2013b; Malik et al., 2013b

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kapur, 1991; Naqshi et al., 1992

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kumar et al., 2009

Negi, 2005

Kumar et al., 2009

Jeelani et al., 2013

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Uniyal and Issar, 1988; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Reference(s)

254 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Roots

Seeds

Flowers, petals

Flowers

Fruit

Root

Flowers, roots

Flowers, fruits, petals, whole plant

Whole plant

Leaves

Roots, stems

Name of the plant species

Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbas

Rorippa sylvestris (L.) Besser

Rosa damascena Herrm.

Rosa indica L.

Rosa foetida Herrm.

Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Rosa moschata Herrm. [Rosa brunonii Lindl.]

Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle

Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne

Roylea eleganse Wall.

Rubia cordifolia L.

S. No.

702.

703.

704.

705.

706.

707.

708.

709.

710.

711.

712.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Bhatia et al., 2014; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Kumar et al., 2009

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Bhatia et al., 2014

Yousuf et al., 2012; Lone et al., 2013b; Naqshi et al., 1992

Khan et al., 2004

Lone et al., 2013b; Kak 2007

Reference(s)

Stomachache, irregular menstruation, eyes and ear diseases, pimples and blemishes, indigestion

Sneezing, diabetes

Respiratory disorders, Stomach disorders

Kapahi et al., 1993; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Kak, 2007

Cold, cough, liver ailments, bleeding, fever, Mala et al., 2012; Ballabh and jaundice, liver ailments, nasal bleeding, Chaurasia, 2007; Chaurasia et al., liver ailments 2003; Angmo et al., 2012, Srivastava et al., 1981

Acne, eye inflammation, eye ailments

Eye troubles, burns

Dysentery, weakness

Aperients, dyspepsia, flatulence

Asthma, bronchitis, chicken pox, cold, cough, diarrhea, fever, headache, measles, muscular pain, skin diseases, throat infection, chest infections

Cold, Headache

Asthma, diuretic, measles

Purpose

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 255

Parts used

Roots, leaves

Root

Roots, fruits

Roots

Leaves, root

Root

Leaves, fruits

Root

Fruit, root

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Whole plant

Tuber

Name of the plant species

Rubus biflorus Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.

Rubus contennifer Kurz.

Rubus ellipticus Sm.

Rubus foliosus D.Don

Rubus fruticosus L.

Rubus himalayense Royle ex D.Don

Rubus hoffmeisterianus Kunth & Bouche

Rubus nepalensis (Hook.f.) Kuntze

Rubus niveus Thunb.

Rubus paniculatus Smith

Rumex hastatus D.Don

Rumex nepalensis Spreng.

Saccharum spontaneum L.

Sagittaria latifolia Willd.

S. No.

713.

714.

715.

716.

717.

718.

719.

720.

721.

722.

723.

724.

725.

726.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Dermal diseases

Lactagogue, urinary disorder, uterine bleeding

Skin eruptions, cuts, wounds

Fever, nasal bleeding

Skin diseases

Colic pain, relaxing uterus muscles, dysmenorrhea, antidote for snake bite, cuts, wounds

Burns, scalds

Skin diseases

Eye infection

Cough, respiratory disorders, diarrhea, dysentery

Infectious wounds

Cuts, wounds, stomach troubles, dysentery

Dysentery

Diarrhea

Purpose

Kak, 2007

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kumar et al., 2009; Kaur et al., 2011

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Kaur et al., 2011

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Negi, 2005; Bisht and Jain, 2006

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Kumar et al., 2009

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Negi, 2005; Bisht and Jain, 2006

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Bisht and Jain, 2006

Reference(s)

256 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Whole plant

Bulb

Leaves, twigs

Bark

Leaves, stem

Leaves, bark, fruits

Flowers, leaves

Leaves, flowers

Seeds

Roots, seeds

Leaves

Whole plant

Fruits, roots, leaves

Wood

Roots, fruits

Name of the plant species

Sagittaria sagittifolia L.

Sagittaria trifolia L.

Salix acmophylla Boiss.

Salix alba L.

Salix denticulata Anderson

Salix disperma Roxb. ex D.Don. Salix wallichiana Andrs.

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Salvia campanulata Wall. ex Benth.

Salvia hians Royle ex Benth.

Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth.

Salvia plebeia R.Br.

Salvia sclarea L.

Sambucus wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn.

Santalum album L.

Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.

S. No.

727.

728.

729.

730.

731.

732.

733.

734.

735.

736.

737.

738.

739.

740.

741.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Treating poison, epilepsy, emetic

Gynecological disorders

Purgative, stomach disorders, diuretic

Burns, Wounds

Diarrhea

Cough, stomach pain, dysentery

Hemorrhoids

Fever, cough

Gastrointestinal problems, skin rashes

Fever, body pain, eyesight, heart diseases

Joint pain, menstrual disorder

Antiseptic, to clean teeth

Boils, chilblain, fever, hernia, joints swelling stomach problems, toothache

Health promoting

Skin allergies

Purpose

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011

Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011b

Malik et al., 2011b

Kumari et al., 2013

Kumar et al., 2009

Naqshi et al., 1992

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Malik et al., 2011a; Dangwal and Singh, 2013

Angmo et al., 2012

Kumar et al., 2009

Lone et al., 2013b

Kak, 2007

Mahmud et al., 2008

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 257

Parts used

Leaves,

Roots

Roots

Flowering buds

Root, rhizome

Fresh plant

Flowers, leaves, roots, whole plant

Wooly hair, aerial parts

Whole plant

Leaves

Name of the plant species

Sarcococca hookeriana Rehd. ex Wilson

Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. (Sarcococca saligna Mull.Arg.)

Saussurea albescens Hook. f & Thomson

Saussurea bracteata Decne

Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipschitz.

Saussurea glacialis Herd

Saussurea gnaphalodes (Royle ex Royle) Sch. Bip.

Saussurea gossypiphora D.Don

Saussurea gracilis Maxim.

Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz.

Saussurea jacea (Klotz.) Cl. Whole plant

S. No.

742.

743.

744.

745.

746.

747.

748.

749.

750.

751.

752.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Stomachache

Cooling effect, styptic

Cardiac ailments, liver ailments, mental disorders

Asthma, cuts, wounds

Depression, retardness, promotes urination, painful urination

Aphrodisiac

Boils, blisters, fever, leprosy, joint pain, back pain, sole ulcers, dysentery

Cuts, boils, influenza, fever, intestinal pain, poisoning, arthritis, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, arthritis, bronchial asthma, bronchitis, cardiac stimulant

Skin diseases

Anxiety, heart diseases, jaundice, worms stomach

Fever, rheumatism, reduce blood pressure

Purpose

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Bhatia et al., 2014

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Sharma et al., 2005

Angmo et al., 2012; Ballabh et al., 2008b

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2005

Lal and Singh, 2008; Malik et al., 2011b

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Kaul et al., 1990; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a; Kumari et al., 2013; Baba et al., 2012; Bhat et al., 2012; Srivastava et al., 1984

Kaul, 1990

Dangwal and Singh, 2013

Negi, 2005

Reference(s)

258 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Roots

Roots

Whole plant

Flowers, leaves

Whole plant

Leaves, whole plant

Leaves

Whole plant

Leaves

Whole plant

Leaves

Name of the plant species

Saussurea lappa (Decne) Sch.- Bip.

Saussurea obovallata (DC.) Edgew.

Saussurea simpsoniana (Fielding & Gardner) Lipsch. [Saussurea sacra Edgew.]

Saussurea stoliczkae C. B.Clarke

Saussurea taraxacifolia (Lindl.) Wall. ex DC. [Saussurea caespitosa Wall.]

Saxifraga flagellaris Willd.

Saxifraga jacquemontiana Decne

Saxifraga oppositifolia L.

Saxifraga sibirica L.

Saxifraga stenophylla Royle

Saxifraga stolonifera Curtis [Saxifraga ligulata Murray]

S. No.

753.

754.

755.

756.

757.

758.

759.

760.

761.

762.

763.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Leucorrhea, kidney stone, wounds

Gynecological disorders

Wounds

Tonic

Wounds

Wounds, life span increasing

Headache

Fever

Asthma, astringent, boils, gynecological disorders, tonic, stimulant, cough, toothache, respiratory disorders

Cuts, bruises

Asthma, digestive problems, rheumatism, joint pains

Purpose

Kumari et al., 2013

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011

Jeelani et al., 2013

Chaurasia et al., 1999

Kumar et al., 2009

Navchoo and Buth, 1989, Angmo et al., 2012

Srivastava et al., 1981; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Navchoo and Buth, 1992

Naqshi et al., 1992; Gupta et al., 2013; Baba et al., 2012; Chak et al., 2009; Khan et al., 2012

Sharma et al., 2005

Kapahi et al., 1993; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Kumar et al., 2009

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 259

Tuber

Seeds

Whole plant

Flowers

Plant

Leaves, plant, flowers

Flower, roots, whole Expectorant, emetic, ascites, urogenital plant disorders

Stem

Whole plan

Whole plant, flowers, root

Schoenoplectus triqueter (L.) Palla

Scrophularia koelzii Pennell

Scorzonera divaricata Turcz.

Scrozonera virgata DC.

Scutellaria repens Ham.

Sedum ewersii Ledeb.

Sedum quadrifidum Pall.

Sedum heterodontum Hook.f., & Thoms.

Selinum vaginatum C. B. Clarke

Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

765.

766.

767.

768.

769.

770.

771.

772.

773.

774.

Dysentery, wounds, rheumatic pain

Carminative, fever, worms

Indigestion, constipation

Gastric problems, burns, dysentery, headache, pain in lungs, soothing

Nose bleeding

Cough, weakness

Rheumatism

Rheumatic pain, sciatica

Diuretic

Sores, wounds, fever, constipation

Fruits, roots

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (C. C.Gmel.) Palla [Scirpus validus Vahl]

764.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Kapur, 1991; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Jeelani et al., 2013

Uniyal and Issar, 1988

Sharma et al., 2005; Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Sharma, 1991; Srivastava et al., 1981

Kak, 2007

Mahmud et al., 2008

Reference(s)

260 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Skin troubles, purgative Stimulant, vulnerary

Root

Whole plant

Leaves

Resin

Whole plant

Whole plant

Seeds

Leaves

Leaves

Senecio krascheninnikovii Schischk. (Senecio pedunculatus Edgew.)

Senecio tibeticus Hook.f.

Senna occidentalis (L.) link Seeds, leaves [Cassia occidentalis L.]

Shoots, whole plant

Senecio jacquemontianus Benth.

Seseli libanotis (L.) W. D. J. Koch

Shorea robusta Gaertn.f.

Sigesbeckia orientalis L.

Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke

Sisymbrium sophia L.

Sium latijugum C. B. Clarke

Skimmia anquetilia N. P. Taylor & Airy Shaw

776.

777.

778.

779.

780.

781.

782.

783.

784.

785.

786.

Abdominal pain, sore throat, whooping cough, muscular pain, dysentery, urinary infection

Boils, burns, skin diseases, vermifuge, worm infest

Stomachache

Skin diseases, scabies

Cardiac ailments, rheumatism, skin diseases, ulcer

Redness in eyes

Burning sensation of urine, sedative, regulates urine discharge

Headache

Nervine tonic

Appetizer, cooling effects, skin irritation,

Leaves, whole plant

Senecio graciliflorus (Wall.) DC.

775.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Lone et al., 2013a

Kak, 2007

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003

Kapur, 1991

Singh, 2006

Gupta et al., 1981; Naqshi et al., 1992

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012

Ballabh et al., 2008b

Gupta et al., 1980; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Kapahi et al., 1993

Katiyar et al., 1990; Kaul et al., 1990

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 261

Parts used

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Fruits

Fruits, roots, whole plant

Tuber

Leaves

Rhizomes

Plant

Name of the plant species

Skimmia arborescens T. Anderson ex Gamble

Skimmia laureola Franch.

Solanum americanum Mill.

Solanum incanum L.

Solanum khasianum Clarke

Solanum surattense Burm. f.

Solanum tuberosum L.

Solanum verbascifolium L.

Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi

Solidago virgaurea L.

S. No.

787.

788.

789.

790.

791.

792.

793.

794.

795.

796.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Carminative, diuretic

Diarrhea

Swellings, pains, burning sensation

Burns

Arthralgia, toothache, intestinal infection, swollen part

Wounds

Antiseptic

Stomachache, cold, constipation, cough, eyesight, fever, gynecological disorders, heart palpitation, jaundice, painful urination, piles, promotes urination, acne, boils, eye inflammation, goiter, kidney inflammation, oedema, pimples, stomachache, appetizer, asthma, dysentery, hepatitis, laxative, skin diseases, tonic, rheumatism, ulcer

Abdominal pain, small pox, wormicide

Urinary infection

Purpose

Kapahi et al., 1993

Khan et al., 2004

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Malik et al., 2011b

Bhatia et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2012; Jee et al., 1984

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Mahajan et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007, 2009, 2011; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a; Bhatia et al., 2014; Azad and Bhat, 2013; Kumari et al., 2013; Malik et al., 2011a; Naqshi et al., 1992; Singh, 2002; Dar et al., 1984

Malik et al., 2011b; Kapur, 1991

Khan et al., 2004; Tantray et al., 2009

Reference(s)

262 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Latex, roots

Latex

Leaves, whole plant

Leaves

Flowers

Grains

Leaves, roots, seeds

Flowers, whole plant

Roots

Fruits, leaves, seeds

Whole plant

Name of the plant species

Sonchus arvensis L.

Sonchus asper (L.) Hill

Sonchus oleraceus (L.) L.

Sonchus wightianus DC.

Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder

Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench [Sorghum vulgare Pers.]

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.

Spathipappus griffithii (C. B.Clarke) Tzvelev [Chrysanthemum griffithii C. B. Clarke]

Spermadictyon suaveolens Roxb. [Hamiltonia suaveolens (Roxb.) Roxb.]

Spinacia oleracea L.

Stachys floccosa Benth.

S. No.

797.

798.

799.

800.

801.

802.

803.

804.

805.

806.

807.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Jee et al., 1984; Kumar and Naqshi, 1990

Ballabh and Bhaurasia, 2009

Kumar et al., 2009

Bhatia et al., 2014

Malik et al., 2011b

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a; Rashid, 2012b

Reference(s)

Emmenagogue, tonic, diuretic

Bladder irritation reduction, promotes urination, jaundice

Fever, wounds

Naqshi et al., 1992

Ballabh et al., 2008b

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Burning sensation of bladder, urine, kidney Ballabh et al., 2008b; Navchoo and pain/inflammation, gynecological disorders, Buth, 1989 joint pain

Snake bite, antidote, boils, skin infections demulcent, diuretic

Appetizer, cooling agent, constipation

Burns, wounds

Abscess, boils

Jaundice, fever, infection, indigestion, ulcer internal

Wounds, cuts

Boils, wounds, asthma, bronchitis, cough, whooping cough

Purpose

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 263

Tetanus, fever

Fever, anal diseases, cough, cold, leprosy

Seeds, leaves

Leaves

Whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Bark

Leaves

Bark, leaves, seeds

Strobilanthes atropurpureus Nees

Bark, flowers, Strobilanthes dalhousieanus (Nees) C. B. leaves Clarke

Roots, stem leaves

Stellaria media L.

Swertia chirata Buch.Ham. ex Wall.

Swertia cordata (Wall. ex G. Don) C. B. Clarke

Swertia petiolata Royle ex D.Don

Swertia thomsonii Cl. ex Hook.f., & Thoms.

Symplocos ramosissima Wall. ex G.Don

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

809.

810.

811.

812.

813.

814.

815.

816.

817.

818.

Diarrhea, oral ulcers, piles, diabetes

Styptic

Eye disease

Stomachache

Fever, bodyache, headache

Antipyretic, cough, joint pain, leucoderma, stomachache

Abscess

Skin infection, allergy, wounds caused by burning

Lice control, fever

Shoots, whole plant

Stachys tibetica Vatke

808.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Rashid 2012a; Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhatia et al., 2014

Negi, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Gupta et al., 2013

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kaur et al., 2011

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kumar and Hamal, 2011

Malik et al., 2011b; Jeelani et al., 2013

Angmo et al., 2012; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007

Reference(s)

264 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Parts used

Leaves

Flowers, leaves, oil, roots

Leaves, flowers

Leaves, flowers

Leaves

Whole plant

Whole plant

Whole plant

Roots, whole plant, leaves, flowers

Flower, latex, leaves, roots

Name of the plant species

Tagetes erecta L.

Tagetes minuta L.

Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam.

Tanacetum gracile Hook.f., & Thoms.

Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex DC.

Tanacetum macrophyllum (Waldst., & Kit.) Sch. Bip.

Tanacetum tenuifolium Jacquem. ex DC.

Tanacetum tomentosum DC.

Taraxacum officinale Weber

Taraxacum sikkimense Hand.-Mazz.

S. No.

819.

820.

821.

822.

823.

824.

825.

826.

827.

828.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Fever, warts, anemia, burning sensation of urine, sedative, regulates urine discharge

Jaundice, for smooth delivery, backache, stomach complaints, snake bites, boils, blisters, bone fracture, diuretic, tonic, laxative, aperients, wounds, irritating bowls

Colic complaints, diarrhea, earache

Angina pectoris, bodyache, headache, renal colic

Cold, fever, intestinal problems, mouth ulcers, gastric disorders

Antispasmodic

Intestinal worms

Intestinal worms, stomach pain, indigestion

Blood purifier, ulcer dyspepsia, fever, bronchodilator

Aperients, otalgia, removes blocked urine

Purpose

Kak, 2007; Bhat et al., 2012; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007

Kapahi et al., 1993; Sharma and Lal, 2005; Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Lal and Singh, 2008; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011b; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Gupta et al., 1981

Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Gupta et al., 1981

Dangwal and Singh, 2013

Sharma et al., 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006, 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Kumar et al., 2009

Naqshi et al., 1992; Rashid 2012b

Bhatia et al., 2014; Ballabh et al., 2008b

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 265

Parts used

Bark

Roots

Fruit

Fruits

Roots

Roots, whole plant

Roots

Rhizome

Whole plant

Fruits

Juice, plant decoction

Plant, flowers, leaves

Name of the plant species

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. [Taxus baccata Hook.f. subsp. wallichiana (Zucc.) pilg.]

Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.

Terminalia bellerica Roxb.

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Thalictrum alpinum L.

Thalictrum foetidum L. [Thalictrum vaginatum Royle]

Thalictrum foliolosum DC.

Thalictrum minus L.

Thermopsis inflata Cambess.

Thlapsi alpestre L. ex Hook.f., & Thoms.

Thymus linearis Benth.

Thymus serpyllum L.

S. No.

829.

830.

831.

832.

833.

834.

835.

836.

837.

838.

839.

840.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Flatulence, menstrual disorders, cold, cough, fever, stomach problems, vermicide, itches, skin eruptions, baldness

Fever, cough, colds, stomach complaints, indigestion

Cough, kidney problems, vaginal discharge

Swelling

Ophthalmic diseases

Eye diseases

Eye ailments

Abdominal pain, eye ailments

Constipation

Constipation, eyes, heart and ear problems

Cough, lung pain, rheumatism, typhoid

Asthma, bronchitis, refreshing, energetic

Purpose

Kapahi et al., 1993; Sharma et al., 2005; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009; Malik et al., 2011b

Sharma and Lal, 2005

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Angmo et al., 2012

Abrol and Chopra, 1962

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Sand and Badola, 1987; Gupta et al., 1980

Uniyal, 1981

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Sharma and Maheshwari, 2005; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Rashid, 2012b; Bhatia et al., 2014

Kapahi et al., 1993; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Kim et al., 1999

Reference(s)

266 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Laxative

Appetizer, liver ailments, Gout, rheumatism Srivastava et al., 1981, 1984; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982

Flowers, leaves

Seeds

Latex

Fruits

Fruits

Whole plant

Leaves

Herb

Leaves, seeds

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague

Tragopogon dubius Scop.

Tragopogon gracilis D.Don Flowers

Roots, whole plant

Toona ciliata M.Roem. [Toona hexandra M. Roem.]

Tragopogon pratensis L.

Trapa natans L.

Tribulus terrestris L.

Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm.

Tridax procumbens (L.) L.

Trifolium pratense L.

Trigonella emodi Benth.

843.

844.

845.

846.

847.

848.

849.

850.

851.

852.

853.

Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Sharma, 1991

Kaul et al., 1990

Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhushan and Kumar, 2013

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Rashid, 2012a; Bhatia et al., 2014; Jee et al., 1984

Anemia, fever, peptic ulcers,

Expectorant

Styptic

Cough, fever, flatulence

Angmo et al., 2012

Kapahi et al., 1993

Uniyal, 1981

Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Bhatia et al., 2014

Kidney diseases, liver disorders, impotency, Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; cold, cough, urinary disorders, gout, Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Jeelani diuretic, lithontriptic et al., 2013

Cancer, diabetes, constipation, leucorrhea

Wounds

Abdominal spasms, appetizer, flatulence

Menstrual disorder, tonic, dysentery

Expectorant, antipyretic, asthma, dengue, jaundice, hyperpyrexia, stomach troubles, urinary disorder

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Leaves

Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f., & Thoms.

Headache

Leaves, flowers

Thymus vulgaris Roxb.

842.

Reference(s)

841.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 267

Grains

Leaves, roots

Rhizomes

Roots, leaves, whole Cyst of feet and hands, joint pain, cuts, plant wounds, dandruff, boils, anthelmintic, hypertension, blood purifier, hair stimulant, skin infections, wounds, rheumatism, anthelmintic, astringent, diuretic, jaundice, nephritic, blister, cuts, toothache, bone fracture, fever, gastric disorders, gout, hyperacidity, sprain

Whole plant

Leaves

Root

Root

Triticum aestivum L.

Tussilago farfara L.

Typha elephantina Roxb.

Urtica dioica L.

Urtica hyperborea Jacq. ex Wedd.

Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Valeriana jatamansi Jones

855.

856.

857.

858.

859.

860.

861.

862.

Stomachache, insomnia, antispasmodic, carminative

Hysteria, epilepsy

Bladder irritation reduction, Promotes urination

Cold, cough, gout, rheumatism, stomachache, stomachic

Diuretic

Asthma, Bronchitis

Backache, fever, toothache, wormicide

Sore throat, cold, arthralgia, worms, backache, diabetes constipation, eye itching, heart problems, intestinal infection, liver ailments, lumbago, menstrual problems, stomach problems

Leaves, seeds

Trigonella foenumgraecum L.

854.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Sharma et al., 2005; Sharma and Lal, 2005

Kapahi et al., 1993

Ballabh et al., 2008b

Srivastava et al., 1981; Chaurasia et al., 2003; Angmo et al., 2012

Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011b; Naqshi et al., 1992; Tariq and Tantry, 2012; Dangwal and Singh, 2013; Dar et al., 1984; Srivastava et al., 1984; Chak et al., 2008; Hassan et al., 2013;

Kak, 2007

Singh, 2002

Malik et al., 2011a; Lone et al., 2013b

Bhat et al., 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014; Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013a

Reference(s)

268 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves

Leaves, flowers

Leaves, roots, whole Nervous disorder, joint disease, plant rheumatism, snake bite, anthelmintic, boils, food poisoning, wounds, indigestion, nervous disorder, menstrual disorder

Whole plant

Immature fruit

Whole plant

Fruits

Leaves, seeds, fruits, flowers, twigs, whole plant

Plant

Vallisneria spiralis L.

Verbascum thapsus L.

Verbena officinalis L.

Veronica beccabunga L.

Veronica biloba L.

Veronica persica Poir.

Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don

Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. (Viburnum foetens Decne.)

Viburnum nervosum D.Don

864.

865.

866.

867.

868.

869.

870.

871.

872.

Diuretic, dropsy, expectorant, purgative

Abdominal pain, typhoid, whooping cough, eye infections, laxative, blood enrichment, blood purifier, cough, eyesight, constipation, eczema, respiratory disorders, toothache, fracture

Kwashiorkor, marasmus

Dermatitis, indigestion

Dysentery

Burns, Ulcer

Asthma, pulmonary diseases, boils, stomach pain, vomiting, mental relaxation, wounds, cold, dysentery

Stomachache

Dandruff

Roots, rhizomes

Valeriana officinalis L. (Valeriana dubia Bunge)

863.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011b; Tantray et al., 2009; Kumar and Naqshi, 1990; Mahajan et al., 2012; Lone et al., 2013b; Malik et al., 2011b; Khan et al., 2004; Khan et al., 2012

Bhat et al., 2012

Bhat et al., 2012

Srivastava and Chandrasekar, 2004;

Srivastava et al., 1984

Kumari et al., 2013; Malik et al., 2011b

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Sharma et al., 2005; Singh and Chauhan, 2005; Lal and Singh, 2008; Kumar et al., 2009

Mahmud et al., 2008

Kumar et al., 2009

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 269

Parts used

Whole plant

Flowers, leaves, whole plant

Flowers, whole plant

Flowers, petals, whole plant

Flowers

Flowers

Plant, flowers

Plant

Whole plant

Leaves

Stem

Name of the plant species

Vincetoxicum canescens (Willd.) Decne. (Cynanchum canescens (Willd.) K. Schum.)

Viola biflora L.

Viola canescens Wall.

Viola indica W. Becker

Viola kunawurensis Royle

Viola odorata L.

Viola pilosa Blume [Viola serpens Wall.]

Viola sylvatica Fries

Viscum album L.

Vitex negundo L.

Vitis heyneana Roem., & Schult. [Vitis lanata Roxb.]

S. No.

873.

874.

875.

876.

877.

878.

879.

880.

881.

882.

883.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Eyes sore

Rheumatic joints, internal injury

Rheumatism, joint pain, enlarged spleen

Cough, cold

Expulsion of phlegm, throat problems, cough, cold, jaundice

Cough, sore throat, fever, sleeplessness

Heart diseases

Demulcent, lung diseases, throatache, antipyretic, diaphoretic

Cough, sore throat, pulmonary problems

Antiseptic, skin irritation, skin eruptions, pectoral, asthma, cold, cough, diaphoretic, fever, diaphoretic

Dysentery

Purpose

Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kapahi et al., 1993; Sharma and Lal, 2005

Kapahi et al., 1993

Sharma et al., 2005; Kumar et al., 2009; Jeelani et al., 2013; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Malik et al., 2011b; Jeelani et al., 2013

Angmo et al., 2012

Naqshi et al., 1992

Kumar and Bhagat, 2012; Rashid, 2012b

Kapur and Nanda, 1992; Malik et al., 2011b

Gupta et al., 1981

Reference(s)

270 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Septic wounds Dysentery

Waldheimia glabra (Decne) Whole plant Regel

Floral buds

Leaves, flowers

Bark

Whole plant, roots

Root, flowers, leaves

Flowers, roots

Fruits, seeds leaves, bark

Grains, Dandruff, kidney stone, warts, stomach inflorescence, sepals ache, promotes kidney function, diuretic

Rhizomes

Seeds

Waldheimia stoliczkai (C. B.Clarke) Ostanf.

Waldheimia tomentosa (Decne) Regel

Wickstroemia canescens Meissn.

Withania somnifera Dunal

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz.

Xanthium strumarium L.

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

Zea mays L.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

885.

886.

887.

888.

889.

890.

891.

892.

893.

894.

895.

Jaundice

Cold, cough, pyrexia, toothache, gynecological disorders

Tooth pain

Toothache, boils, ulcer, tonic

Muscular pain, piles, dysentery, cough, conjunctivitis

Child bearing, painful swelling, nervous disorders, memory enhancer, obesity, stomachache

Purgative

Sprains, rheumatism, wounds

Skin rashes, sores, eruptions

Leaves

Vitis vinifera L.

884.

Purpose

Parts used

Name of the plant species

S. No.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Jeelani et al., 2013

Bhatia et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2012; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2011

Bhat et al., 2012; Ballabh et al., 2008b; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2009

Negi, 2005; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Kaur et al., 2011

Kumar and Naqshi, 1990

Sharma et al., 2005; Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Verma and Chauhan, 2006; Sharma and Sood, 2013; Bhatia et al., 2014; Kapur and Nanda, 1992

Negi, 2005

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Srivastava and Chandrasekar, 2004

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Malik et al., 2011b

Reference(s)

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 271

Parts used

Leaves

Stem bark

Fruits

Stem bark, leaves

Name of the plant species

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.

Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn.

Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew.

Ziziphus xylopyrus Willd.

S. No.

896.

897.

898.

899.

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Hysteria, headache, urinary trouble

Bronchitis, throat disorder

Diarrhea

Skin rashes

Purpose

Verma and Chauhan, 2006

Gupta et al., 1981; Baba et al., 2012

Kapur, 1991

Malik et al., 2011b

Reference(s)

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Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 273

5.9 CONCLUSION The people of Himalaya keep close relationship with the nature. They use both psycho-somatic treatments (depends on gods/spirits, etc.) as well as on herbal and mineral medicine. The Himalayan medicine system (HMS) depends upon an oral tradition which is not at all systematic. The herbal healer has got the traditional knowledge and prescribes medicines. Certain Himalayan medicinal plants widely known for trading beyond country like Kuth (Saussurea costus) mentioned in Atharvaveda exported to China. Over 1000 species of medicinal plants reported from the western and Central Himalayas used in different system of herbal medicine needs to be thoroughly studied and used for overall economic development of the local population as well as for the medical benefit of human beings. In fact the Materia medica of Ayurveda and the Chinese medicine system might have been borrowed mostly from the Himalayan medicine system. There are certain effective medicines available in Himalayan medicine system even for many untreatable diseases. Besides medicinal use, wild plants are good source of genes for imparting tolerance/resistance to many stresses like pathogens, pests, drought, extreme cold, etc. as well as enhancement of drug quality or quantity in the cultivated medicinal and food crops. These wild medicinal resources can also be utilized in the modern breeding programs including genetic engineering. In this part of Himalaya, the rate and scale of environmental changes brought out by pressure of population and development activities, are causing damage to the ecosystem and thereby loss of habitat, rich in characteristic flora. Similarly the medicinal resources have been used for treatment of various ailments since a long time. Their unscientific exploitation, overgrazing, uprooting for various uses, have made several important taxa rare, endangered and threatened which need immediate attention and care for their future availability in the benefit of mankind. Cultivation of wild medicinal plants can play an important role in conservation of rare and endangered species from their fast depletion. The effect of several factors like migration of inhabitants from one place to another, due to modernization, increasing medical facilities in the towns and nearby places, the use of traditional medicine is decreasing day-by-day in the entire Himalayan regions. The traditional knowledge of medicinal plants will soon disappear in the changing scenario if not preserved today.

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The present chapter on ethnomedicinal plants of Western and Central Himalayas will be useful for researchers in various disciplines of Botany, Anthropology, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Archeology and other related sciences. It may also act as information source for medical practitioners and ethnobotanists in the Himalayan region. KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• ••

ethnomedicinal plants herbalists remedies traditional Western and Central Himalayas

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239. Rashid, A. (2012a). Plant diversity used for traditional phytotherapy of rheumatism by the Gujjar-Bakerwal tribe of district Rajours, Jammu and Kashmir state. Asian J. Exper. Biol. 3, 816–821. 240. Rashid, A. (2012b). Ethnomedicinal plants used in the traditional phytotherapy of chest diseases by the Gujjar-Bakerwal tribe of district Rajouri of Jammu & Kashmir state. Inter. J. Pharmaceutical Sci. 4, 328–333. 241. Rawat, B., Sekar, K. C., & Gairola, S. (2013). Ethnomedicinal plants of Sunderdhunga valley, Western Himalaya, India – Traditional use, current status and future scenario. Indian For. 139(1), 61–68. 242. Rokaya, M. B., Münzbergova, Z., Shrestha, M. R., & Timsina, B. (2012). Distribution patterns of medicinal plants along an elevational gradient in central Himalaya, Nepal. J. Moun. Sci. 9(2), 201–213. 243. Saklani, P. M.. (1998). Traditional practice and knowledge of wild plants among the ethnic communities of Garhwal Himalaya. Puratattva, 29, 89–99. 244. Samal, P. K., Dhyani, P. P., & Dollo, M. (2010). Indigenous medicinal practices of Bhotia tribal community in Indian Central Himalaya. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 9(1), 140–144. 245. Samal, P. K., Shah, A., Tiwari, S. C., & Agarwal, D. K. (2004). Indigenous healthcare practices and their linkage with bioresources conservation and socio-economic development in central Himalayan region of India. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 3(1), 12–26. 246. Samant, S. S., & Dhar, U. (1997). Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. Int. J. Sustinable Dev. World Ecol. 4(3), 179–191. 247. Samant, S. S., & Mehta, I. S. (1994). The folklore medicinal plants of Johar valley. Higher Plants of Indian Subcontinent. Indian J. For. (Addl. Ser.), 3, 143–159. 248. Samant, S. S., & Palni, L. M. S. (2000). Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of essential oil-yielding medicinal plants of the Indian Himalayan region. J. Med. Arom. Pl. Sci. 22(1B), 671–684 249. Samant, S. S., & Pant, S. (2003). Diversity, distribution pattern and traditional knowledge of sacred plants in Indian Himalayan region. Indian J. Forestry 26(3), 222–234. 250. Samant, S. S., Dhar, U., & Palni, L. M. S. (1998a). Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya: Diversity distribution potential values. G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora. 251. Samant, S. S., Dhar, U., & Palni, L. M. S. (1998b). Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya: Diversity, distribution potential value. Himavikas publication No. 13. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital. 252. Samant, S. S., Dhar, U., & Rawal, R. S. (2001). Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of threatened medicinal plants of Askot Wildlife Sanctuary in West Himalaya: Conservation and management perspectives. In: Samant, S. S., Dhar, U., & Palni, L. M. S.(eds.). Himalayan medicinal plants: potential and prospects. Gyanodaya Prakasan, Nainital. pp. 167–185. 253. Samant, S. S., Pant, S., Singh, M., Lal, M., Singh, A., Sharma, A., & Bhandari, S. (2007). Medicinal plants in Himachal Pradesh, North Western Himalaya, India. Inter. J. Biod. Sci. Manag., 3(4), 234–251. 254. Sand, B. N., & Badola, D. P. (1987). An ethno-botanical study of J&K state of North-West Himalaya. Bull Medico-Ethno-Bot Res. 8, 147–154. 255. Semwal, D. P., Saradhi, P. Pardha, Kala, C. P., & Sajwan, B. S. (2010). Medicinal plants used by local vaidyas in Ukhimath Block Uttarakhand. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 9(3), 480–495.

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 287 256. Shah, A., Abass, G., & Sharma, M. P. (2012). Ethnobotanical study of some medicinal plants from tehsil Budhal, district Rajouri (Jammu and Kashmir). Intern. Multidiscipl. Res. J. 2(6), 5–6 257. Shah, K. K., Palni, S. K., & Singh, H. (1980). Survey of some medicinal plants of Dharchula block in Pithoragarh district of U.P. Bull. Medico. Ethnobot. Res., 1, 8–24. 258. Shah, N. C., & Joshi, M. C. (1971). An ethnobotanical study of Kumaun region of India. Econ. Bot., 25(4), 414–422. 259. Shah, N. C. (1971). Medico-botany of Dronagiri-The mythic hill in Kumaun (U.P.). J. Res. Indian Med., 8(1), 47–59. 260. Shah, N. C. (1981). The role of ethnobotany in relation to medicinal plants in India. In: Jain, S. K. (ed.) Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany Oxford & IBH Publications, New Delhi. pp. 69–80. 261. Shah, N. C. (1987). Ethnobotany in the mountain region of Kumaun Himalaya. PhD Thesis (Unpublished). Kumaun University, Nainital. 262. Shah, N. C. (1994). Ethnobotany of some well known Himalayan Compositae. In: Proceedings of the International Compositae Conference, New Biology and Utilization. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. pp. 415–123. 263. Shah, S., Ram, J., Pala, N. A., Tripathi, P., & Kumar, M.. (2014). Medicinal plant wealth of oak dominated forest in Nainital catchment area of Uttarakhand. Amer. J. Med. Pl. Res. 2(1), 6–13. 264. Shaheen, H., Nazir, J., Firdous, S. S., & Khalid, A. R. (2014). Cosmetic ethnobotany practiced by tribal women of Kashmir Himalayas. Avicenna J. Phytomed. 4(4), 239–250. 265. Shapoo, G. A., Kaloo, Z. A., Ganie, A. H., & Singh, S. (2013). Ethnobotanical survey and documentation of some orchid species of Kashmir Himalaya, J&K-India. Inter. J. Biolo. Pharmaceut. Res. 4, 32–40. 266. Sharma P., Patti, P., & Agnihotry A. (2013). Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal uses of floristic diversity in Murari Devi and surrounding areas of Mandi district in Himachal Pradesh, India. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci., 16(10), 451–468. 267. Sharma, B., & Maheshwari, S. (2005). Traditional medical practices of Gaddi tribes in Kangra district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4(2), 169–172. 268. Sharma, M., & Sood, S. K. (2013). Ethnobotanical survey for wild plants of district Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India. Intern. J. Environment. Bio. 3(3), 87–95. 269. Sharma, P., Agnihotry, A., & Sharma, P. P. (2015). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Murari Devi and surrounding areas (Mandi district), Himachal Pradesh, India. Indian Forester 141(1). 270. Sharma, P. K., & Chauhan N. S. (2000). Ethnobotanical studies of Gaddi – a tribal community of district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. In: Kohli, R. K. Singh, H. P., Vij, S. P., Dhar, K. K., Batish, D. R., & Dhiman, B. K. (eds.). Man and Forest. Punjab University, Chandigarh, pp. 301–302. 271. Sharma, P. K., & Lal, B. (2005). Ethnobotanical notes on some medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4(4), 424–428. 272. Sharma, P. K. (1991). Herbal remedies for treating rheumatic pains in Jammu & Kashmir, Indian J. For., 14(3), 206–210. 273. Sharma, P. K., Chauhan, S., & Lal, B. (2004). Observations on the traditional phytotherapy among the inhabitants of Parvati valley in Western Himalaya, India. J. Ethnopharmacol. 92, 167–176.

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274. Sharma, P. K., Chauhan, S. N., & Lal, B. (2005). Studies on plant associated indigenous knowledge among the Malanis of Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4(4), 403–408. 275. Sharma, J., Gairola, S., Gaur, R. D., & Painuli, R. M. (2012). The Treatment of Jaundice with medicinal plants in Indigenous communities of the Sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand, India. J. Ethnopharmacol., 143(1), 262–291. 276. Sheikh, M A. (2014). Phytochemical use of some of the medicinal plants of Kashmir Himalaya-A review. Int. J. Biol. Phar. Alld. Sci. 3(3), 462–489. 277. Shinwari, S. K., & Gilani, S. S. (2003). Sustainable harvest of medicinal plants at Bulashbar Nullah, Astore (Pakistan) J. Ethnopharmacol., 84,289. 278. Shiva, V. (1996). Protecting our biological and intellectual heritage in the age of biopiracy. The Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Natural Resources Policy, New Delhi, India. 279. Siddique, M. A. A., John, A. Q., & Paul, T. M. (1995). Status of some important medicinal and aromatic plants of Kashmir Himalaya. Adv. Pl. Sci. 8, 134–135. 280. Silori, C. S.& Badola, R. (2000). Medicinal plant cultivation and sustainable development. A case study in the buffer zone of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya, India. Mount. Res. Dev., 20(3), 272–279. 281. Singh, B., Chaurasia, O. P., & Singh, D. V. (1997). Plants Biotechnology and Herbal Flora of Ladakh. In: Proceedings of National Sym. on Herbal Medicines: Application of Biotechnology and Futuristic Approach. 27–29 Mar. 282. Singh, B., & Chaurasia, O. P. (2000). Medicinal flora of Indian cold desert. Acta Hort. 523(13), 65–72. 283. Singh, B., & Pruthi, T. D. (1998). Biodiversity in herbal medicines. Science Reporter. pp. 52–58. 284. Singh, B., Chaurasia, O. P., & Jadav, K. L. (1995). An ethnobotanical study of Indus. valley (Ladakh). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 12(addl. Ser.), 92–101. 285. Singh, D. K., & Hajra, P. K. (1996). Floristic Diversity. In: Gujral, G. S., & Sharma, V. (Eds.).Changing perspective of biodiversity status in the Himalaya. British Council Division, British High Commission Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, pp. 23–38. 286. Singh, G., & Rawat, G. S. (2011). Ethnomedicinal survey of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary in Western Himalaya, India. Indian J. Fundam. Appl. Life. Sci., 1 (1), 35–36. 287. Singh, G. S. (1999). Ethnobotanical study of useful plants of Kullu district in North Western Himalaya, India. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 23(1), 185–198. 288. Singh, G. S. (2004). Ethnobiological and bio-medicinal wealth of Western Himalaya, India. J. Med. Arom. Pl. Sci. 26(3), 517–526. 289. Singh, H., & Maheshwari, J. K. (1992). Traditional Remedies for Snake-bite and Scorpion Sting among the Boxas of Nainital District, U. P. Aryavaidyan, 6(2), 120–123. 290. Singh, H., & Maheshwari, J. K. (1993). Phytotherapy for Diphtheria by the Bhoxas of Nainital District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Ethnobotany 5, 63–65. 291. Singh, H. (1988). Ethnobiological Treatment of Piles by Bhoxas of Uttar Pradesh. Anc. Sci. Life., 8, 167–170. 292. Singh, H. (2003). Herbal recipe for spermatorrhoea by Bhoxa tribe of Uttaranchal. Ethnobotany 15, 115–117. 293. Singh, H. (2006). Some unrecorded dye-yielding plants and their less-known ethnomedicinal uses in Uttaranchal. Ethnobotany 18, 119–121. 294. Singh, H. B., & Arora, R. K. (1978). Wild Edible Plants of India. I. C. A. R., New Delhi.

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 289 295. Singh, K. N. (2013). Traditional knowledge on ethnobotanical uses of plant biodiversity: a detailed study from the Indian western Himalaya, Biodiv. Res. and Conser., 28, 63–77. 296. Singh, K. K., & Kumar, K. (2000). Ethnobotanical wisdom of Gaddi tribe in Western Himalaya. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. 297. Singh, K. K., & Maheshwari, J. K. (1994). Traditional phytotherapy of some medicinal plants used by the Tharus of the Nainital district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Int. J. Pharmacog., 32, 51–58. 298. Singh, K. K. (1999). Ethnobotanical Studies of the Tharus of Kumaun Region, Uttar Pradesh. In: Pande, P. C., Pokharia, D. S., & Bhatt, J. C. (ed.). Ethnobotany of Kumaun Himalaya Scientific Publishers, Jodhapur. pp. 1–13. 299. Singh, M. P., & Dey, S. (2005). Indian Medicinal Plants. India: Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi. 300. Singh, R.V. (2014). Indigenous uses of medicinal and edible plants of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve – A review based on previous studies. Global J. Res. Med Pl. Indig. Med. 3(2), 57–66. 301. Singh, R., Dwivedi, S. K., Raut, B., & Mishra, S. N. (2003). Ethnobotany of Hippophae ‘Seabuckthrn’ in Ladakh. Ethnobotany 15, 1–5. 302. Singh, S. K., & Rawat, G. S. (1998). Traditional versus commercial use of wild medicinal plants of Great Himalayan National Park. “Proceeding Mountain Meet, 98”. 303. Singh, S. K. (1999). Ethnobotanical study of useful plants of Kullu district in Northwestern Himalaya, India. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 23(1), 185–198. 304. Singh, V. (2002). Herbal remedies in the Traditional medicines of the Lolab Valley in Kashmir Himalaya, India. Recent Progress in Medicinal Plants. Ethnomed. Pharmacog., 1, 63–71. 305. Singh, V., & Chauhan, N. S. (2005). Traditional practices of herbal medicines in the Lahul valleys, Himachal Himalayas. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4(2), 208–220. 306. Singh, V. (1994). Ethnobotanical observations on Dards tribe of Gurez valley in Kashmir Himalaya. Ethnobiol. Human Welfare (Abst.) Fourth International Congress of Ethnobotany, Lucknow, India, p. 316. 307. Singh, V. (1995). Traditional remedies to treat asthma in North West and TransHimalayan region in J., & K. state. Fitoterapia 66, 507–510. 308. Sood S. K., & Thakur S. (2004). Ethnobotany of Rewalsar Himalaya. Deep Publications, New Delhi. 309. Sood, S. K., Nath, R., & Kalia, D. C. (2001). Ethnobotany of cold desert tribes of Lahul-Spiti (Northwest Himalaya). Deep Publications, New Delhi. 310. Srivasatava, T. N., Gupta, O. P., Uniyal, M. R., & Shah, N. C. (1976). Preliminary technoeconomic survey of natural resources and herbal wealth of Ladakh. (Eds. Raghunathan, K.) CCRIMH Publication, 21 (1st edn). (2nd ed. 1996). 311. Srivastava, S. K., & Chandrasekar, K. (2004). Ethnomedicine of Pin valley National Park, Himachal Pradesh: Plants used in treating dysentery. Ethnobotany 16, 62–63. 312. Srivastava, T. N., & Gupta, O. P. (1982). Medicinal plants used by amchies in Ladakh. In: Atal, C. K., & Kapur, B. M. (eds.), Cultivation and utilization of medicinal plants; Regional Research Laboratory. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi, 519–526. 313. Srivastava, T. N., Badola, D. P., & Gupta, O. P., 1981. Medicinal herbs used by Amchies of Ladakh. Bull. Medico-Ethno-Bot. Res. 2, 193–202.

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314. Srivastava, T. N., Badola, D. P., Shah, D. C., & Gupta, O. P. (1984). Ethnomedico-botanical exploration of Gurez valley, Kashmir. Bull. Medico-Ethno-Bot. Res. 142, 15–54. 315. Srivastava, T. N., Rajasekharan, S. S., Badola, D. P., & Shah, D. C. (1986). An index of the available medicinal plants, used in Indian system of medicine from Jammu & Kashmir State. Ancient Science of Life., 6(1), 49–63. 316. Stewart, R. R. (1916–17). The flora of Ladakh and Western Tibet. Bull. Bot. Torry Club, 43, 571–590. 317. Sultan, J., & Singh, C. J. (2006). Herbal market spectrum. Sirmor, Himachal Pradesh: Grameen Vikas Evam Prayavaran Jagran Samiti, Paonta Sahib. 1(2), 1–7. 318. Tantray, M. A., Tariq, K. A., Mir, M. M., Bhat, M. A., & Shawl, A. S. (2009). Ethnomedicinal survey of Shopian, Kashmir (J & K), India. Asian J. Trad. Med. 4, 1–6. 319. Tariq, A., Mussarat, S., & Adnan, M. (2015). Review on ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological evidence of Himalayan anticancer plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 164, 96–119. 320. Tariq, K. A., & Tantry, M. A. (2012). Preliminary studies on plants with anthelmintic properties in Kashmir-The north-west temperate Himalayan region of India. Chinese Medicine 3, 106–112. 321. Tewari, K. C., Joshi, G. C., Tewari, R. N., & Pandey, N. K. (1989). Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. – A drug for asthma from Himalayan folklore. Sachitra Ayurved, 347–348. 322. Thakur, K. S., Kumar, M., Bawa, R., & Bussma, R. W. (2014). Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Barmor forest division district Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evidence Based Complement Alternt. Med. Doi: 10.1155/2014/946870. 323. Trak, T. H., Jahangir, R., Ayub, H., & Updhyay, R. (2013). Ethnobotanical survey of important plants used by locals of Kishtwar district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. IndoAmerican J. Pharmaceut. Res. 3. 324. Tripathi, G. (2001). Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices of some Himalayan medicinal plants. In: Samant, S. S. Dhar, U., & Palni, L. M. S. (eds.). Himalayan medicinal plants: Potential and prospects Gyanodaya Prakasan, Nainital. pp. 151–157. 325. Tyagi, D. K. (2005). Pharma forestry: A field guide to medicinal plants. Atlantic Publishers & Dist., pp. 276. 326. Uniyal, B. (2003). Utilization of medicinal plants by the rural women of Kullu, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl.. 2(4), 366–370 327. Uniyal, M. P., & Issar, R. K. (1988). Utility of hitherto unknown herbal drugs traditionally used in Ladakh & possible alternative medicine, Bull. Medico- Ethnobot. Res., 9(3–4), 96–105. 328. Uniyal, M. R. (1981). A preliminary study of medicinal plants from Suru valley in Ladakh. Bull Medico-Ethno-Bot. Res. 2, 316–326. 329. Uniyal, M. R., & Joshi, G. C. (1986). Traditionally used family planning drug “Babila Ghass” from Garhwal Himalaya. Sachitra Ayurved, 198–400. 330. Uniyal, S., K., Singh, K. N., Jamwal, P., & Lal, B. (2006). Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal, Western Himalaya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed., 2(1), 14–22. 331. Uniyal, S. K., Awasthi, A., & Rawat, G. S. (2003). Developmental processes, changing lifestyle and traditional wisdom: analyzes from Western Himalaya. The Environmentalist, 23, 307–312. 332. Utkarsh, G. (2001). Patenting Life? Biodiversity and Intellectual Property Rights. Resonance 2, p 51.

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 291 333. Ved Prakash (2001). Indian medicinal plants; Current status. In: Samant, S. S., Dhar, U., & Palani, L. M. S. (eds.) Himalayan medicinal plants: Potential and prospects, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital. pp. 45–65. 334. Verma, S., & Chauhan, N. S. (2006). Studies on ethno-medico-botany of Kunihar forest division, district Solan (H. P.). Ethnobotany 18, 160–165. 335. Virendra., S., Singh, V., Singh, V. K., Govil, J. N., & Singh, G. (2002). Herbal remedies in the traditional medicines of the Lolab valley in Kashmir Himalaya. Recent progress in medicinal plants. Vol. 1: Ethnomed. Pharmacog., pp. 63–71 336. Viswanathan, M. V., & Mankad, N. R. (1984). Medicinal Plants of Ladakh. (J&K). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 5(2), 401–407. 337. Viswanathan, M. V. (1999). Edible and medicinal plants of Ladakh (J&K). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 23(1), 151–154. 338. Yousuf, J., Verma, R. K., & Dar, H. (2012). Traditional plant based therapy among rural communities of some villages of Baramulla district (Jammu and Kashmir). J. Phytol. 4, 46–49.

CHAPTER 6

ASHTAVARGA PLANTS: A REVIEW S. JOHN ADAMS1, T. SENTHIL KUMAR2, G. MUTHURAMAN1, and ANJU MAJEED1 R&D-Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy, Sami labs Ltd, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore, India, E-mail: [email protected]

1

Department of Plant Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli – 620024, India

2

CONTENTS Abstract......................................................................................................293 6.1 Ayurveda...........................................................................................294 6.2 Rasayana...........................................................................................294 6.3 Ashtavarga.........................................................................................295 6.4  Brief Account on Candidate Ashtavarga Species..............................297 6.5  Substitution and Adulteration...........................................................303 6.6  How Are Ashtavarga Plants Administered?......................................305 6.7  Conservation of Ashtavarga Plants...................................................306 6.8  Future Studies...................................................................................307 Acknowledgment.......................................................................................308 Keywords...................................................................................................308 References..................................................................................................309 ABSTRACT This review concerns ashtavarga, a group of eight ayurvedic plants, that is used in order to revitalize, rejuvenated and to prolong the life span of

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humans. The review gives the list of these eight plants and also the most commonly used substitute and adulterants. An account on each of these plants along with their chemical constituents, pharmacognostic features (whatever is available) and therapeutic activities are provided. The method of administration is also given. The factors that threaten the species and the conservation strategies to be followed are provided. Finally the list of future research that needs to be undertaken on ashtavarga plants is also provided. 6.1 AYURVEDA Ayurveda, a science of life and health, is often considered as the fifth veda (Thirumulpadu, 2010). Its origin is reported to start with Lord Brahma, the Creator. It is an age-old system of medicine of the world and a way of living life (Caldecott, 2006). This medical system was enhanced by numerous Rishis and Saints of India, notable among them being Ashwani Kumar, Atreya, Bhardwaja, Dhanwantri, Charaka, Susruta, Vagbhata and others. Way back from the old era of Ashwani Kumar’s who had a vast knowledge on plants and their therapeutic uses, Ayurvedic concept of preventing and curing the diseases essentially thorough the herbs and herb-based medication has survived (Balkrishna et al., 2012), in spite of the rapid growth of western allopathic medicines. Moreover Ayurvedic medical principles and medical principles and medicines have tested critically through Western Scientific methods and are found to be valid and effective. 6.2 RASAYANA The documentation of Ayurvedic literature is divided into eight branches or limbs called Astanga, The eight ashtangas are as follows: (i) Kaya cikitsa: general internal medicine; (ii) Bala cikitsa: treatment of infants and children; (iii) Graha cikitsa: treatment of spiritual possession and medical astrology; (iv) Urdhvanga cikitsa: treatment of the eyes, ears, nose and throat; (v) Salya cikitsa: treatment requiring the use of a knife; (vi) Damstra cikitsa: treatment of animal-inflicted wounds, poisoning, etc.; (vii) Jara cikitsa: treatment of aging; and (viii) Vrsa cikitsa: treatment of impotence and sterility. In these eight branches, Jara cikitsa and Vrsa cikitsa together come under Rasayana Tantra. The word Rasayan literally means the path that rasa takes (rasa: the primordial tissue of plasma; ayana: path). According to Ayurveda, the qualities of the rasa-dhatu influence the health of other dhatus (tissues)

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of the body. Any herbal plant that improves the quality of rasa is called a rasayana, these rasayana plants are said to possess the following properties: prevent aging, re-establish youth, strengthen life, strengthen brain and mind, prevent diseases, and promote healthy longevity. According to the words of Charaka, by taking rasayana, one obtains longevity, vitality and vigor, gets a sharp memory, intellect and freedom from diseases, gets a lustrous complexion and horse power. Sushruta describes a rasayana as one which is antiaging, increases life-span, promotes intelligence and memory and increases resistance to diseases. Rasayana may also be compared to alternatives, which work as blood cleansers by their diuretic and antihepatotoxic action. Alternatives also restore the proper functions of the body and increase health and vitality (Pathak et al., 1992; Hoffmann, 1998). Thus, rasayanas help in systemic rejuvenation. Simply taking a spoonful of the rasayana medicine is not rasayana therapy even if it gives relief to some symptoms. The term should be employed only if it performs in a methodical manner. The state of the body is controlled largely by the conditions of the mind and, hence, in rasayana therapy particular attention is given to avoid passions and emotions and to keep the patient in peace and tranquility with thoughts focused on truth, non-violence and kindness. It is alongside the above that the prescribed rasayana treatment regimen has to be strictly followed. 6.3 ASHTAVARGA The literary introduction of ashtavarga first comes in Caraka Samhita where all the eight ashtavarga plants were described but not given the name ashtavarga. Ashwani Kumar gave some of the ashtavarga plants to Cyavana rishi to revitalize and rejuvenate him. But here also ashtavarga name was not mentioned. In Susruta Samhita these eight plants were collected described for the first time, without mentioning the word, ashtavarga. It was Sarangadhara, who first used the word ashtavarga in the formulation called ashtavarga churna in subsequent ayurvedic literature the word ashtavarga became firmly established (Balkrishna, 2012; Balkrishna et al., 2012). However the botanical identity of these eight ayurvedic plant names were not clearly established and even now there is some confusion in this regard. It was Balkrishna (2012), who after using several ayurvedic texts and Nigantus, established in fairly satisfactory manner the botanical identity of these eight ayurvedic ashtavarga plant names. These names are accepted in this review and are given in Table 6.1.

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TABLE 6.1  Ashtavarga plants: Botanical identity and its substitute species Sanskrit name

Botanical identity

Family

Substituted species*

Kakoli

Roscoea purpurea Smith

Zingiberaceae

Withania somnifera, Curculigo orchioides, Roscoea capitata and Roscoea alpina

Ksirkakoli

Lilium polyphyllum D. Don (Syn: Lilium punctatum Jacquem. ex Duch.)

Liliaceae

Withania somnifera, Lilium wallichianum, Chlorophytum arundinaceum and C. borivilianum

Jivaka

Crepidium acuminatum (D.Don) Szlach. (Syn: Microstylis wallichi Lindl., Malaxis acuminata D. Don)

Orchidaceae

Pueraria tuberosa, Centaurea behen, Dioscorea bulbifera, Tinospora cordifolia and also Malaxis cylindrostachya, Malaxis mackinnoni

Rsabhaka

Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze [Syn: Microstylis muscifera (Lindl.) Ridl.]

Orchidaceae

Pueraria tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Tinospora cordifolia, Centauria roxburghii, Orchis spp., Bamboo manna, and Salvia haematoda

Meda

Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) Allioni [Syn: Convallaria verticillatata Linn.]

Liliaceae

Asparagus racemosus, Eulophia campestris and Orchis mascula

Mahameda

Liliaceae Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle (Syn: Convallaria cirrhifolia Wall.)

Asparagus racemosus, A. adscendens and Paederia foetida

Riddhi

Habenaria intermedia D. Don [Syn: Ochyrorchis intermedia (D. Don) Szlach]

Orchidaceae

Fritillaria roylei, Dioscorea bulbifera, Tacca aspera, T. integrifolia, Sida spp.

Vrddhi

Habenaria edgeworthii Hook.f. ex Collett [SynPlatanthera edgeworthii (Hook.f. ex Collett) R. K. Gupta]

Orchidaceae

Dioscorea bulbifera, Tacca aspera, T. integrifolia, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Sida acuta, S. rhomboidea and Orchis latifolia

*Source: Balkrishna (2012); Balkrishna et al. (2012).

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Ashtavarga plants are restricted normally to natural habitats of NorthWest Himalaya. These plants are very good Rasayanas with rejuvenating and health promoting properties and this group of plants is reported for restoring the health immediately; they are known for their antioxidant properties (Mathur, 2003; Pandey, 2005; Sharma and Balkrishna, 2005). These eight plants respectively were named as Kakoli, Kshirkakoli, Jivaka, Rsabhaka, Meda, Mahameda, Riddi, and Vriddhi. Their respective botanical identity, family to which they belong and the substituted/adulterated plants are given in Table 6.1. 6.4  BRIEF ACCOUNT ON CANDIDATE ASHTAVARGA SPECIES 6.4.1  ROSCOEA PURPUREA Roscoea purpurea (Family Zingiberaceae) commonly known as “Rasgari” in Nepal and “Kakoli” in India is a perennial herb of about 20–40 cm tall underground rhizome. It is widely distributed in Nepal, Pakistan, Tibet, India and Bhutan. In India it is found in Central and Eastern Himalaya in alpine grassland, steep, grassy hill sides, damp gullies and stony slopes of Uttarakhand, Assam and Sikkim states between 1800 and 2900 m in altitude (Balkrishna et al., 2012; Watanabe et al., 2013). Rhizomes are widely used as a tonic, aphrodisiac and remedy for wounds and urinary troubles in traditional medicine (Kunwar and Adhikari, 2005). It is also the main part which is used in many formulations. The ethanolic extract of its rhizomes shows immunostimulant potential in mice (Sahu et al., 2010). The rhizome is also well-known for its therapeutic values in treating (i) thoracic diseases like cough, asthma, sinus; (ii) abdominal diseases like renal and urinary bladder diseases; (iii) musculo-skeletal diseases like guot; (iv) dermatological diseases; (v) neurological/psychological disorders; (vi) tuberculosis, remittent fever, general debility; (vii) rejuvenation enhancement, virility strengthening and alexipharmic treatment; and (viii) used as antirheumatic, febrifuge, galactagogue, hemostatic, expectorant and sexual stimulant (Balkrishna, 2012). Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and pitta (Singh, 2006). Pharmacognostic studies have shown the presence of multiseriate medullary rays and ovoid to ellipsoidal starch grains in the rhizome (Rath et al., 2015). The chemical constitution of this plant is given in Table 6.2.

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TABLE 6.2  Chemical constituents of Ashtavarga plants Name

Major chemical constituents

Kakoli

Flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, sapoins, glycosides (Balkrishna, 2012). Kampferide, Kaempferide 3-O-ß-D-glucuronopyranoside, Kaempferol 3-O-ß-D-glucuronopyranoside, (z)-3-hexen-1-ol-beta-D-glucopyranoside, Kaempferol-3-o-methyl ether and adenosine (Miyazaki et al., 2014). Phenolic compounds like Protocatechuic acid, syringe acid, ferulic acid, rutin, apigenin and kaempferol (Srivastava et al., 2015; Misra et al., 2015).

Ksirkakoli

Linalool and α-terpineol, ß-sitosterol-3-glyceryl-2’ linoleiyl-3’-linoleiate, glyceryl-1-n-octadec-9-enyl-2-n-decanoyl-3-n decanoate and Glyceryl-1octadec-9- enoyl-2-octadec-9”, 12”-dienoyl-3-tetracosanoate (Javed et al., 2012; Balkrishna, 2012).

Jivaka

Alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids and ß-sitosterol, piperitone, O-methybatatasin, 1–8-cineole, diterpenes, citronellal, eugenol, glucose, rhamnose, choline, limonene, p-cymene and ceryl alcohol (Balkrishna, 2012).

Rsabhaka

Alkaloids, flavonoids and glycosides (Balkrishna, 2012).

Meda

Lectins (Antoniuk, 1993). Lysine, serine, aspartic acid, asparagines, lactin, phenols digitalis glycoside, saponosides A, B, C and D. Threonine, diosgenin (Sood et al., 2005), ß-sitosterol, sucrose and glucose (Balkrishna, 2012). Rich in Nutrients (macro and micro) and essential nutrients like proteins, fats, carbohydrates and ascorbic acid (Khan et al., 2012).

Mahameda

Rhizomes contain starch, protein, pectin and aspargin (Nautiyal and Nautiyal, 2004). Glucose, sucrose, steroidal saponins, bacoside A and B, n-butanol, steroid terpenoid, polysaccharides, phenol and tannin, α-L-rhamnopyranosyl. ß-d-glucopyranoside, dauvosterol, ß-sisterol, 6-nonadecenoic acid, 6-stearic acid (Singh, 2006; Balkrishna, 2012).

Riddhi

Bitter substances, minerals, starch, scopoletin gallic acid, phenolic compounds, taxol (Balkrishna, 2012).

Vrddhi

Bitter substances, minerals, starch, phenolic compounds and taxol (Balkrishna, 2012).

6.4.2  LILIUM POLYPHYLLUM Lilium polyphyllum (Family: Liliaceae) is a perennial herb up to 50–150 cm in height; plant with narrow bulb, long narrow, sub equal fleshy scales. Stem is slender. Leaves alternate, flower tepals dull yellow or greenish outside, white within with purple streaks. Widely distributed in Pakistan (Chitral, Kurram valley, Swat, Hazara, Murree), Nepal, West China, Tibet and Afghanistan up to an elevation of 1800–3700 m. In India it is found in Western Temperate Himalayas up to an elevation of 2000–4000 m in

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Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh (Balkrishna et al., 2012). It is commonly called Ksirkakoli in India. Therapeutical actions of rhizome include cooling, spermopiotic effect (Singh, 2006), and against cough, bronchitis, vitiated conditions of pitta, seminal weakness, burning, sensation, hyperdiapsis, intermittent fever, hematemesis, rheumatalgia and general disability. Bulbs show the bitter, refrigerant, galactagogue, expectorant, aphrodisiac, diuretic, antipyretic and tonic properties. Preliminary pharmacognosy and phytochemical studies were done on market and genuine materials (Rath et al., 2011). Cyclohexylethylamine and macdougallin were reported by Raval et al. (2015) from the bulbs of Lilium polyphyllum. The bulbs are mainly used as tonic in emaciation and as a source of energy. The soothing, astringent and anti-inflammatory properties are the key characters which help in the reduction of pitta in the human body while taking the drug. Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and pitta (Singh, 2006). Pharmacognostic studies show that the leaves this plant have a hypostomatic condition with anomocytic stomata; ellipsoid pollen with reticulate surface and oil drops inside; bulb with eccentric type starch grains (Dhyani et al., 2009). The chief chemicals of this species are listed in Table 6.2. 6.4.3  CREPIDIUM ACUMINATUM Crepidium acuminatum (Family: Orchidaceae) (Syn: Microstylis wallichii Lindl. and Malaxis acuminata D. Don). Terrestrial in habit sometime epiphytic. Plant with pseudobulbs 5–25 cm in height, perennial, and tender. Widely distributed in Bhutan, Cambodia, China and Australia up to 1400 m height. In India it is found in temperate and subtropical Himalayas at an altitude of 1200–2100 m in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and in Khasi hills at an altitude of 1500–1800 m. It is also found in Andaman Islands, Travancore, Anamallay hills and Madhya Pradesh (Balkrishna et al., 2012). Commonly known as “Jivaka”, the part which is mainly used is the pseudobulb, which has therapeutic actions like cooling effect, febrifuge and spermopiotic, and acts against hematemesis, fever, semen related weakness, burning sensation, dipsia, emaciation, tuberculosis, general debility, bleeding diathesis and phthisis, its ayurvedic dynamics are: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and aggravates kapha (Singh, 2006). A detailed phyto-pharmacognosy study of rhizome was made by Rath et al. (2011). The studies by the former

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author distinguished the genuine sample from market samples. Anonymous (2011) has listed a detailed list of anatomical, powder, and phytochemical characters for this species. It is also proven that ethanolic extract of pseudobulb exhibit analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in experimental animals. The major chemicals of this species are listed in Table 6.2. 6.4.4  MALAXIS MUSCIFERA Malaxis muscifera (Family: Orchidaceae) (Syn: Microstylis muscifera (Lind.) Ridl) is a rare, terrestrial perennial, herb, 15–45 cm in height. This endangered medicinal orchid is commonly called as “Rishbhaka.” It is distributed in Afghanistan, Bhutan, Nepal, China and Pakistan up to an elevation of 2100–4100 m. In Himalaya Mountains it occurs between 2500–3700 m of temperate to sub alpine areas, mainly in Dayara in Uttarkashi, Panwali Kantha and Maggu in Tehri, Baniyakund, Chopta, Tungnath and Madhyamaheshwer in Rudrapryag, Rudranath, Kunwari Pass and Dronagiri in Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya (Chauhan et al., 2008). The part used is pseudobulb which having aphrodisiac, haemostalic, antidiarrheal, styptic antidysentric properties and its tonic used in sterility, vitiated conditions of pitta and vata, semen related weakness, internal and external hemorrhages, dysentery, fever, emaciation burning sensation and general debility. It has cooling effect and acts as a febrifuge and spermopiotic. Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and kapha (Singh, 2006). Rath et al. (2011) has given the pharmacognostic features of the bulbs of this plant and have specifically mentioned about mucilage cells and acicular calcium oxalate crystals. Table 6.2 gives a list of major chemicals of this plant. 6.4.5  POLYGONTUM VERTICILLATUM Polygonatum verticillatum (Family: Liliaceae), is commonly known as “Meda.” It is distributed in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. An erect tall perennial herb of 60–120 cm tall. Leaves are whorled, sessile, 10–20 cm long, linear or lanceolate, acute, glaucous beneath, occasionally ciliolate on margins and veins. The flowering and fruiting takes place June to October. It is distributed in the temperate Himalayas (Garhwal Himalaya) at an altitude of 1800–3900 m (Naithani, 1984; Gaur, 1999; Vashistha, 2006),

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Sikkim at an altitude of 2600–4000 m and Himachal Pradesh (Balkrishna et al., 2012). The thick fleshy creeping sympodial rhizome is used against pain caused by for pyrexias, for burning sensation, phthisis and for treating general debility. Therapeutically shown properties include aphrodisiac, emollient, appetizer, tonic and galactagogue (Balkrishna et al., 2012). The plant shows properties like antinociceptive activity in pain model and also proven in attenuation of both peripheral and central pain mediators (Khan et al., 2010, 2011), antimicrobial activities (Khan et al., 2012a; 2015 and 2016b) antipyretic and anticonvulsant activity (Khan et al., 2013b), bronchodilator activity (Khan et al., 2013a), tracheorelaxant and anti-inflammatory activities (Khan et al., 2013c), antispasmodic and antidiarrheal property through activation of K+ channels (Khan et al., 2016a), has strong antioxidant potential (Khan et al., 2016c), The plants possess diuretic properties and the rhizome of this species is eaten as food in the Kurram valley (Anonymous, 1969). Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet taste, pacifies pitta and aggravates kapha (Singh, 2006). The pharmacognsostic character was described by Lal et al. (1978). The chemical constitution of Meda is given in Table 6.2. 6.4.6  POLYGONATUM CIRRHIFOLIUM Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Family: Liliaceae) is commonly called “Mahameda.” It is also a tall erect, perennial herb, 60–120 cm high with whorled (3–6) sessile, linear leaves having tendril-like tips. Flowers white, green purplish or pink on short stocks and the fruit is round blue-black berry. The plant is found in the temperate Himalayas (Garhwal, Gulabkoti, Sitapur, Sutul and Khirsu) at altitudes of 1200–4200 m (Naithani 1984; Gaur 1999). The fleshy and thick rhizome have a cooling, and mild laxative, effect, it is also a galactagogue, aphrodisiac, depurative, febrifuge, expectorant and tonic. It heals wound. Compounds extracted from its rhizome exhibit fungicidal activities. P. cirrhifolium is reported to be used as a tonic and vulnerary. A root infusion with milk is used as an aphrodisiac and as a blood purifier for tumors and piles. Investigations in China have reported hypoglycemic, hypotensive, antibacterial and antifungal effects. Its ayurvedic dynamics are: sweet in taste, cold in potency, pacifies vata and pitta (Singh, 2006). Rhizome shows actinocytic stomata in the lower leaf epidermis, cortex with the polygonal to isodiametric cells, scattered amphivasal vascular bundles, numerous starch grains and presence of both raphides and druses in

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idioblastic cavities. Powder shows simple and compound ovoid, concentric starch grains (Anonymous, 2011). The important chemicals of this plant are given in Table 6.2. 6.4.7  HABENARIA INTERMEDIA Habenaria intermedia (Family: Orchidaceae) is commonly called as “Riddhi.” This terrestrial orchid is a perennial herb with tuberous roots, shows monopodial growth; stem terete, 25–50 cm long, bears four to many leaves; leaves are rounded at the base, long and acuminate. The flowers are hermaphrodite. It is distributed in the grassy slopes at altitudes of 2000–3000 m in Himalaya region, mainly Kashmir to Sikkim, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh (Chauhan et al., 2007) and in Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal up to an altitude of 2000–3300 m (Balkrishna et al., 2012). Rhizomes are emollient, brain tonic, aphrodisiac, depurative appetizer, antihelmintic, and a rasayana (Rejuvenator). Used to treat the burning sensation, thirst, fever, cough, asthma, muscular, pain, sprains, arthritis, sciatica, insanity, leprosy, skin diseases, anorexia, worms emaciation, gout and general debility. Habenaria intermedia show the protective effect against acute and chronic physical and psychological stress against animal model which be effective like genuine plant (Habbu et al., 2012). Anonymous (2011) has listed the salient pharmacognostic characters which includes long unicellular hairs, raphide crystals, and mucilage canals. Its ayurvedic dynamics includes: sweet in taste, pacifies vata and pitta but aggravates kapha (Singh, 2006). Table 6.2 provides a list of chemical known so far from this plant. 6.4.8  HABENARIA EDGEWORTHII Habenaria edgeworthii (Family: Orchidaceae) is commonly called Vrddhi. It is a tuberous terrestrial orchid, erect, tall up to 30–60 cm. In India, it is distributed in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and North West Himalaya region at an elevation of 2500–3000 m on grassy pastures and is also reported in Pakistan and Nepal (Balkrishna et al., 2012). The rhizome is emollient, brain tonic, aphrodisiac, depurative, appetizer, anthelmintic, and a rasayana. It is used to treat burning sensations, thirst, fever, cough, asthma, muscular-pain, sprains, arthritis, sciatica, insanity, leprosy, skin diseases, anorexia, worms, emaciation, gout, and general debility. Its ayurvedic dynamics include: sweet

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in taste, pacifies vata and kapha (Singh, 2006). The chief chemicals of this species are given in Table 6.2. 6.5  SUBSTITUTION AND ADULTERATION Ashtavarga Plants are very rare and its availability depends on largely proper identification and in proper time of collection, once season of collections gone, demands Ashtavarga will increase with increased price and also leads to substitution and adulteration. There are many herbs which are used as substitutes or adulterants in Ashtavarga formulation in different regions and in different countries. The ancient well-known Ayurvedic physician Bhavamisra (1500–1600 A.D.) suggested few substitute species for ashtavarga in his book “Bhavaprakasa Nighantu”, which been highlighted by Chunekar and Pandey (1969). The following substituted plant species as per Bhavamisra and subsequent Ayurvedic Physicians are mentioned in Table 6.1. Bhavamisra suggested the following substitutions: Kakoli and Ksir Kakaoli can be substituted by Withania somnifera; Jivaka and Rshbhaka can be substituted by Pueraria tuberosa; Meda, Mahameda can be substituted by Asparagus racemosus; and Riddhi and Vrddhi can be substitutes by Dioscorea bulbifera and Tacca aspera or T. integrifolia Later many physicians substituted additional plant species for Ashtavarga plants. And as per their usage the following are the substitutions (Puri, 2003): Tinospora spp. or Centaurea behen For Jivaka: Orchis spp., or Bamboo manna or Salvia haematodes For Rshbhaka: Orchis mascula For Meda: Paederia foetida, Asparagus adscendens For Mahameda: Curculigo orchioides For Kakoli: Chlorophytum arundinaceum or Chlorophytum For Ksir Kakaoli:  borivilianum Sida spp. herb or seed For Riddhi: Orchis latifolia or Sida rhomboidea For Vrddhi: Withania somnifera is used as substitute for Kakoli and Ksirkakoli, therapeutically used for Raktavikara (disorder of blood), Balya Rasayana (Rejuvenating agent) and Vajikara (Aphrodisiac) with combination of other few herbs, due to these therapeutic values it been substituted for Roscoea purpurea in Ashtavarga (Anonymous, 2003).

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Curculigo orchioides rhizome contains yucagenin, a sapogenin and known alkaloid lycorine. Two crystalline compound 21-hydroxytetracontan-20-one and 4-methylheptadecanoic acid reported through hexane extract from the rhizome (Misra et al., 1984). Therapeutically rhizome having sweet, cooling, bitter, emollient, diuretic, aphrodisiac, depurative, appetizer, carminative, viriligenic, antipyretic used against asthma, bronchitis, jaundice, diarrhea, cuts, wounds, dyspepsia, colic, vomiting, ophthalmia, lumbago and gonorrhea (Nadkarni, 1954; Mathew et al., 2005) used as substitute species for kakoli and ksirkakoli. Species like Chlorophytum arundinaceum, C. borivilianum are also used as substitute for Kakoli and Ksirkakoli. Pueraria tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Tinospora cordifolia and species of Malaxis are substituted for Crepidium acuminatum, these species are having therapeutic values same like Genuine Ashtavarga species. Tubers of Pueraria tuberosa reduce dryness of body and eases bowel movement. It strengthens the body and boosts its immunity. Vidaarikanda (Pueraria tuberosa) rejuvenates male reproductive system and increases quality and quantity of semen. This helps to increase sperm count and sperm motility. Dioscorea bulbifera tubers significantly having the properties like purgative, deflatulent, aphrodisiac, rejuvenating, antihelmintic and used in treating the diseases like diabetic disorders, polyuric and skin disorders with infections by microbes (Subasini et al., 2013). These tubers were roasted raw and cooked for treating leprosy, asthma, cough and cold. Powder form of the tubers is used to treat tuberculosis (Ahmed et al., 2009). Dioscorea bulbifera tubers are used in the place of Crepidium acuminatum (Jivaka) as well as for the Habenaria intermedia (Riddhi) under Ashtavarga group of plants. Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna (AST) which is mentioned in Bangladesh National Formulary (BNF) consists of eight medicinal plants equally mixed and used for treating Vata roga (neurological diseases) (Hamid et al., 2011). The plant which is used in AST is given in Table 6.3. As the above table shows, none of the plants which used in AST, is a genuine entity of Ashtavarga plants. The plants which are used in this formulation may have the therapeutic value for treating neurological diseases. However, how they are grouped under Ashtavarga is a leading confusion that needs to be cleared. Plants like Sida and, Zingiber are known to be rasayana plants. These eight species can be adulterated in the place of genuine herbs due to the unavailability of genuine Ashtavatrga herbs in any region.

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TABLE 6.3  Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna (AST), which is mentioned in BNF Sl. No

Ayurvedic name

Botanical name

Parts and amount used

1.

Bala

Sida cordifolia

Root, 125 g/kg

2.

Sahacara (Vajradanti)

Barleria prionitis

Pulp, 125 g/kg

3.

Eranda

Ricinus communis

Root, 125 g/kg

4.

Sunthi

Zingiber officinale

Rhizome, 125 g/kg

5.

Rasna

Pluchea lanceolata

Root/leaf, 125 g/kg

6.

Suradruma (Devadaru)

Cedrus deodara

Heartwood, 125 g/kg

7.

Sinduvara mula (Nigundi)

Vitex negundo

Root, 125 g/kg

8.

Lasuna

Allium sativum

Bulb, 125 g/kg

(Adapted from Hamid, K., Ullah, M. O., Kabir, M. S., Paul, A. K., Alam, M. Z., & Choudhuri, M. S. K. (2011). Changes in lipid profile of rat plasma after chronic administration of Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna (AST)-an ayurvedic formulation. Biology and Medicine., 3, 26–31. https://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Fritillaria roylei (Family: Liliaceae) also noted for cooling and spermopiotic therapeutic values that are characteristic of genuine Ashtavarga plants (Singh, 2006). This species is also reported as antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, febrifuge, galactogogue, hemostatic, ophthalmic and oxytocin properties (Usher, 1974). 6.6  HOW ARE ASHTAVARGA PLANTS ADMINISTERED? Ashtavarga is normally used as a polyherbal formulation. Often it is also used by many physicians as a herbomineral formulation (Singh, 2006). The Ayurvedic literature explains the unique way of administration of plant-based drugs in different formulations that are related to the patients and diseases. The ingredients and parts used were different according to the strength and percentage of sickness caused by the diseases. On the basis of information in the Sanskrit texts, quite a number of minerals/gems/poisonous substances are included in these formulations. They are often used as catalysts for the drug to get into the human body and on the disease causing taught. Ambergris, saffron and musk with many herbs were heated in high temperature to convert into ash-like (bhasma) and become partly soluble in water for bioavailability to the human system (Puri, 2003). Ashtavarga is formulated with minerals in two different ways as all rasayana herbs

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depend on the patients and diseases: (i) Makardhawaj, where gold is used as a catalyst; (ii) Ras Sindur, without gold. Most of ashtavarga herbs mixed in equal amount and taken as churna. Ashtavarga plants which are used in the common formulation were as follows: Ashtavarga churna, Chyavanprash rasayan, Vachadi taila, Chitrakadi taila, Mahakalyan ghrita, Mahamayura ghrita, Jivaniya ghrita, Nagabala sarpi, Vajikaran ghrita, Brahini gutika and Jivaniya gana Churna, and specific formulation which other than common formulations are listed in Table 6.4. Capsule formulation which used for improving the vigor and vitality by intake of 2 capsules thrice a day contains these eight herbs of ashtavarga are added of about 30 mg along with makardhvaja (15 g); Rasa sindhur (15 mg); abhraka bhasma (30 mg); praval bhasma (30 mg); Loh bhasma (30 mg); bang bhasma (30 mg); shudh shilajit (30 mg); Amruta (30 mg) kavacha beej (100 mg); yasthimadhu (30 mg); shatavari (30 mg); musali sweta (20 mg); harar (20 mg); bahera (20 mg); amla (20 mg) (Panda, 2005). Ayurvedic formulation for treating the male reproductive dysfunction also contain most of the Ashtavarga herbs along with many other herbs (Mishra, 2004). Rare species of Ashtavarga like Polygonatum species (Meda and Mahameda) were collectively used as tonic, in treating pain in the kidney and hips, swelling and fullness in the abdominal region, clear the accumulation of fluids in bone joints, skin eruptions and cough (Nautiyal and Nautiyal, 2004). Most of tribal communities and folk healers use the Ashtavarga herbs individually, for example Polygonatum verticillatum can be used as food, as raw or cooked, or as drug; very little quantity is used for treating gastric complaints as well as paste be applied to wounds (Nautiyal et al., 1998; Gaur, 1999). TABLE 6.4  Ashtavarga candidate used in various formulations of Ayurveda Botanical name

Formulations

Dosage

Roscoea purpurea & Lilium polyphyllum

Chitrakadi taila, Nagabala sarpi

Powder 3–6 g or as directed by the Physician

Crepidium acuminatum & Malaxis muscifera

Himvana agada

As directed by the Physician

Polygonatum verticillatum & Polygonatum cirrhifolium

Indrokta rasayan

As directed by the Physician

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6.7  CONSERVATION OF ASHTAVARGA PLANTS The Western Himalaya is known for its sacred and potent medicinal plants which are described in Ayurveda. About 350 medicinal plants which have been used in Ayurvedic formulations are located in Himalayan region. Pharmaceutical sector is using about 175 plants species which are present in Himalaya region and most of them are found only above 1800 m elevation (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Many of these species are also used by the local folk healers and tribal communities in their daily life as a food and or drug. Among these high value medicinal plants species Ashtavarga species are more in demand, as like Aconitum, Berberis, Dactylorhiza, Ephedra, Fritillaria, Podophyllum, Picrorrhiza, Nardostachys, Taxus, etc. (Kumar et al., 2012) and other closely related and substitute species which are used in the place of genuine Ashtavarga candidates. Both genuine and substituted ashtavarga candidates are often exported and used after paying very high price. Overexploitation of ashtavarga plants in traditional folk, ayurvedic and Chinese medical systems is the main reason for their scarcity (Kant et al., 2012). This often leads to adulteration and substitution. The Ashtavarga ecosystems of the Himalaya are also affected by recent changes in vegetation and new crop introduction in the hill area, this along with habitat fragmentation process, occupation, spreading of invasive species, plantation of timber trees and other anthropogenic interferences. Most of Ashtavarga plants are habituated in the grassland ecosystem which is often cleared by humans at least in a year by manmade fire to make grasses to grow much better so that grazing by cattle is facilitated. Fire destroys Ashtavarga plants found in the grassland ecosystem. Studies made by Bhatt et al. (2014) have shown both species of Polygonatum of Ashtavarga group have become highly vulnerable in Uttarakhand. Similarly, Poonam et al. (2011) have found these two species to be threatened in Garhwal Himalayan region. All ashtavarga herbs are very rare and highly priced medicinal plants which should be properly protected by forest department and habitat should be regularly monitored. Implementation of in-situ conservation in the ecosystem will help in protecting the herbs as well as the associated plant species. Ex-situ conservation of rare, endangered herbs of ashtavarga will help to maintain the species and to propagate them in large numbers and in quick time. In vitro micropropagation on Polygonatum verticillatum has been done by Bisht et al. (2012).

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6.8  FUTURE STUDIES A critical reading of this review reveals that there are still several issues regarding Ashtavarga plants that need to be attended to in future. The foremost concerns the issue of substitutes and adulterants. From very early days of ashtavarga use, all the eight species have been substituted, perhaps validly, by ayurvedic physicians. Although they may be therapeutically similar to genuine candidates no detailed phytochemical studies has been done either in genuine candidates or in their substitute to categorically established their phytochemical similarity, this need to be done urgently. Moreover, market gets only the rhizomes/tubers/bulbs collected often by non-botanists and detailed pharmacognostic studies have not been made so far to distinguish the genuine candidate from the substitutes/adulterants. This also needs to be done immediately. The third aspects that needs to be done relates to the effects of individual vis-a-vis combined formulations on humans in order to check the relative roles of the individual components of ashtavarga. Also to be done in this connection is the correct amount of individual components to be added in the formulations. The treatment methods and dosages also need to be standardized. The last but not the least aspect that needs attention is to protect and conserve the ashtavarga plants at the war footing and also to cultivate them either in vivo or in vitro in order to not to lose them. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors are grateful to Dr. M. Majeed, Founder and Chairman, Sami Labs Ltd., Bangalore for providing facilities and sustained encouragement to S. John Adams during the course of study. They are also thankful to Dr. S. Natarajan, Executive Vice President and Prof. K. V. Krishnamurthy, Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs Ltd., Bangalore for helpful suggestions and guidance. KEYWORDS •• ayurveda •• jivaka •• kakoli

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•• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

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ksirkakoli mahameda meda rasayana rejuvenation riddhi rsabhaka vrddhi

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12. Chauhan, R. S., Nautiyal, M. C., Prasad, P., & Purohit, H. (2008). Ecological features of an endangered medicinal orchid-Malaxis muscifera (Lindley) Kuntze in the western Himalaya. The McAllen International Orchid Society Journal. 9(6), 8–12. 13. Chunekar, K. C., & Pandey, G. S. (1969). Bhavprakash Nighantu (in Hindi). Chokhamba Vidya Bhawan, Varanasi, India. 14. Dhyani, A., Bahuguna, Y. M., Semwal, D. P., Nautiyal, B. P., & Nautiyal, M. C. (2009). Anatomical features of Lilium polyphyllum D. Don ex Royle (Liliaceae). J. American Science., 5, 85–90. 15. Gaur, R. D. (1999). Flora of district Garhwal, North West Himalaya (with ethnobotanical notes). Transmedia, Srinagar Garhwal. 16. Habbu, P. V., Smita, D. M., Mahadevan, K. M., Shastry, R. A., & Biradar, S. M. (2012). Protective effect of Habenaria intermedia tubers against acute and chronic physical and psychological stress paradigms in rats. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 22, 568–579. 17. Hamid, K., Ullah, M. O., Kabir, M. S., Paul, A. K., Alam, M. Z., & Choudhuri, M. S. K. (2011). Changes in lipid profile of rat plasma after chronic administration of Ashtavarga Kvatha Curna (AST)-an ayurvedic formulation. Biology and Medicine., 3, 26–31. 18. Hoffmann, D. (1998). The Herbal Handbook. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont. 19. Javed, N. K., Ansari, S. H., Mohammad, A., & Iram, N. (2012). Phytoconstituents from the bulb of Lilium polyphyllum D.Don. Intern. Res. J. Pharmacy. 3 (2), 146–148. 20. Kant, R., Verma, J., & Thakur, K. (2012). Distribution pattern, survival threats and conservation of ‘Ashtavarga’ orchids in Himachal Pradesh, Northwest Himalaya. Plant Archives. 12, 165–168. 21. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. U., Khan, M. A., Dar, A., & Khan, I. (2010). The antinociceptive activity of Polygonatum verticillatum rhizome in pain models. J. Ethnopharmacol. 27, 521–7. 22. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. U., Khan, M. A., Khan, I., & Ashraf, N. (2011). Antiociceptive activity of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum: attenuation of both peripheral and central pain mediators. Phytother Res. 25, 1024–30. 23. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. H., Mehmood, M. H., Rehman, N. U., Muhammad, N., Abbas, M., & Hag, I. U. (2013a). Bronchodilator activity of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum augmented by anti-inflammatory activity: attenuation of Ca2+ channels and lipoxygenase. Phytother Res. 27, 1286–92. 24. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. H. Muhammad, N., Hag, I. U., Ashraf, N., Rehman, N. U., & Haleemi, A. (2013b). Antipyretic and anticonvulsant activity of Polygonatum verticillatum: Comparison of rhizomes and aerial parts. Phytother Res. 27(3), 468–71. 25. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Gilani, A. H. Muhammad, N., Rehman, N. U. Mehmood, M. H., & Ashraf, N. (2016a). Antispasmodic and antidiarrheal activities of rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum maneuvered predominately through activation of K+ channels: components identification through TLC. Toxicol Health. 32(4), 677–85. 26. Khan, H. Saeed, M., Mehmood, M. H., Rehman, N. U., Muhammad, N., Hag, I. U., Ashraf, N., El-Tahir, K. E., & Gilani, A. H. (2013c). Studies on tracheorelaxant and anti-inflammatory activities of rhizome of Polygonatum verticillatum. BMC Complement Altern Med. 13, 197. 27. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Muhammad, N., Ghaffar, R., Khan, S. A., & Hassan, S. (2012a). Antimicrobial activities of rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum attributed its total flavonoidal and phenolic contents. Pak. J. Pharm Sci. 25, 463–467. 28. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Muhammed, N., Khan, F., Ibrar, M., Hassan, S., & Shah, W.A. (2012b). Report: Comprehensive nutrients analysis of rhizome of Polygonatum verticillatum. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 25(4), 871–875.

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29. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Muhammad, N., & Perviz, S. (2016b). Phytochemical analysis, antibacterial, and antifungal assessment of aerial parts of Polygonatum verticillatum. Toxicol Ind Health. 32(5), 841–847. 30. Khan, H. Saeed, M., Muhammad, N., Rauf, A., Khan, A. Z., & Ullah, R. (2016c). Antioxidant profile of constituents isolated from Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomes. Toxicol. Ind. Health. 32(1), 138–142. 31. Khan, H., Saeed, M., Rauf, A., Khan, M. A., & Muhammad, N. (2015). Antimicrobial and inhibition on heat-induced protein denaturation of constituents isolated from Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomes. Nat Prod Res. 29, 2160–3. 32. Kumar, R. K., Sruajani, M. S., Arya, J. C., & Joshi, G. C. (2012). Impact of climate change on diversity of Himalayan medicinal plant: A threat to Ayurvedic system of medicine. Intern. J. Res. Ayurveda and Pharmacy. 3(3), 327–331. 33. Kunwar, R. M., & Adhikari, N. (2005). Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: the plants, their vernacular names and uses. Lyonia. 8, 43–49. 34. Lal, V. K., Wahi, A. K., & Khosa, R. L. (1978). Pharmacognosy of the rhizome of Polygonatum verticillatum. Indian J. Pharmaceutical Sci. 40, 225. 35. Mathew, S., Joy, P. P., Savithri, K. E., Sakaria, B. P., & Kochurani, K. (2005). Variation in phenolic glycosides in kali musli (Curculigo orchioides). J. Med. Arom Plant Sci, 27(1), 43–48. 36. Mathur, S. R. (2003). Yogtarangini. Chaukhambu Vidhya Bhawan. Varanasi, India. 37. Mishra, L. C. (Ed). (2004). Scientific basis for Ayurvedic Therapies. CRC Press. Boca Raton, USA. 38. Misra, A., Srivastava, S., Verma, S., & Rawat, A. K. S. (2015). Nutritional evaluation, antioxidant studies and quantification of poly phenolics in Roscoea purpurea tubers. BMC Res Notes. 8, 324. 39. Misra, T. N., Singh, R. S. Upadhyay J., & Tripathi, D. N. M. (1984). Aliphatic hydroxy ketones from Curculigo orchioides rhizomes. Phytochemistry, 23(8), 1643–1645. 40. Miyazaki, S., Devkota, H. P., Joshi, K. R. Watanabe, T., & Yahara, S. (2014). Chemical constituents from the aerial parts and rhizomes of Roscoea purpurea. The Japanese J. Pharmacognosy. 68(2), 99. 41. Nadkarni, A. K. (1954). Indian Materia Medica, Vol. 1, 3rd Edn. Popular Book Depot Bombay, India. 42. Naithani, B. D. (1984). Flora of Chamoli. Vol. 2., Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, 654 pp. 43. Nautiyal, B. P., Pandey, N., & Bhatt, A. B. (1998). Floristics and vegetational composition in an alpine zone of North West Himalayas. In: Sharma, B. D., & Kumari, T. (Eds.). Himalayan natural resources: ecothreats and restoration study. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi. pp. 28–83. 44. Nautiyal, S., Rao, K. S., Maithuri, R. K., Senwal, R. L., & Saxena, K. G. (2001). Traditional knowledge related to medicinal and aromatic plants in tribal societies in a part of Himalaya. J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci. 22 (4A), 23(1A), 538–541. 45. Nautiyal, M. C., & Nautiyal, B. P. (2004). Agrotechniques for high altitude medicinal and aromatic plants. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. pp. 149–155. 46. Panda, H. (2005). The complete technology book on herbal beauty products with formulations and processes. Asia Pacific Business Press Inc., Delhi, India. 47. Pathak, B., Dwivedi, K. K., & Shukla, K. P. (1992). Clinical evaluation of Snehan, Swedana and an ayurvedic compound drug in sandhivata vis-a-vis osteoarthritis. J. Research and Education in Indian Medicine, 11, 27–34.

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48. Poonam, B., Pratti, P., & Prasad, N. B. (2011). Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All. and Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle: Two threatened vital healers from Ashtavarga nurtured by Garhwal Himalaya, India. J. Plant. Develop. 18, 159–167. 49. Puri, H. S. (2003). Rasayana: Ayurvedic Herbs for Longevity and Rejuvenation. CRC Press, New York. 50. Rath, C., Kumari, S., Bishnupriya, D., Mohanty, R. C. Renu, D., Padhi, M. M., & Ramesh, B. (2011). Phyto-pharmacognostical studies of two endangered species of Malaxis (jeevak and Rishibhak). Pharmacognosy Journal. 3, 77–85. 51. Rath, C., Suman, K., Dhar, B., Mohantly, R. C., Dixit, R., Padhi, M. M., & Babu, R. (2011). Pharmacognostical & Phytochemical studies of Roscea procera (Kakoli) and Lilium polyphyllum (Ksheerkakoli) in comparison with market samples. Pharmacognosy Journal. 3(25), 32–38. 52. Rath, C., Tewari, D., Singh, A., & Mangal, A. (2015). Significance of pharmacognostical & phytochemical study in the identification of an important Ashtavarga plant Kakoli- Roscoea purpurea Smith. Nat Prod. Chem. Res. 3, 6. 53. Raval, S. S., Mandavir, M. K., Manatma, M. K., & Golakiya, B. A. (2015). Separation and identification of phytochemical from Lilium polyphyllum D. Don (Kshirkakali), An ingredient of Ashtavarga. J. Cell & Tissue Research. 15(3), 524–527. 54. Sahu, M. S., Mali, P. Y., Waikar, S. B., & Rangari, V. D. (2010). Evaluation of immunomodulatory potential of ethanolic extract of Roscoea procera rhizomes in mice. J. Pharma Bioalled Sci. 2(4), 346–349. 55. Sharma, B. D., & Balkrishna, A. (2005). Vitality strengthening Ashtavarga plants (Jeevaniya & Vayasthapan Paudhe), Uttaranchal (India). Divya Publishers, Divya Yog Mandir. 56. Singh, A. P. (2006). Ashtavarga: Rare Medicinal Plants. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, 10, 104–108. 57. Sood, S. K., Rana, S., & Lakhanpal, T. N. (2005). Ethnic aphrodisiac plants. Scientific Publishers India, Jodhpur. 58. Srivastava, S., Misra, A., Kumar, D., Srivastava, A., Seed, A., & Rawat, A. (2015). Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography—ultraviolet pholediode array detector validated simultaneous quantification of six bioactive phenolic acids in Roscoea purpurea tubers and their in vitro cytotoxis potential against various cell lines. Pharmacognosy Magazine (supp.), S488–495. 59. Subasini, U., Thenmozhi, S., Sathyamurthy, D., Vetriselvan, S., Victor, G., Rajamanickam, G. V., & Dubey, G. P. (2013). Pharmacognostic and phytochemical investigations of Dioscorea bulbifera L. International J. Pharmacy & Life Sciences. 4(5), 2693–2700. 60. Thirumulpadu, K. R. (2010). Ayurveda and Veda. pp. 15–22. In: Glimpses of Wisdom. I-AIM, Bengaluru, India. 61. Usher, G. (1974). A dictionary of plants used by man. Constable and Company Ltd., London, U.K. 62. Vashistha, R. K. (2006). Ecophysiology and agro-technology of two important Himalayan herbs: Angelica glauca. Edgew. and Angelica archangelica Linn.: D. Phil. Thesis submitted to H. N. B. Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal), Uttarakhand, India. 63. Watanabe, T., Rajbhandari, K. R., Malla, K. J., Devkota, H. P., & Yabara, S. (2013). A handbook of medicinal plants of Nepal supplement I. Ayurseed Life Environmental Institute, Kanagawa. pp. 254–255.

CHAPTER 7

A RECONNAISSANCE OF ETHNIC PSYCHEDELIC PLANTS OF WESTERN HIMALAYA AND THEIR POSSIBLE IDENTITY TO SOMA K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY1 and BIR BAHADUR2 Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore – 560058, Karnataka, India

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Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal – 505009, India

2

CONTENTS Abstract......................................................................................................313 7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................314 7.2  The Rig Vedic Soma.........................................................................314 7.3  Lands of Soma..................................................................................317 7.4  Identity of Soma................................................................................318 7.5 Conclusion........................................................................................322 Keywords...................................................................................................323 References..................................................................................................323 ABSTRACT The western Himalayas and the subjacent States of Punjab and Rajasthan are considered as forming the so-called Soma land, where the Aryans lived and

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created the ancient vedic literature. The Aryans used soma, whose botanical identity is still unresolved. This paper discusses soma plant and soma juice (soma rasa) in relation to the various psychoactive plants known from the soma land. It is concluded that soma, in all likelihood, does not denote any single plant and probably is a mixture of more than two or three psychoactive plants available in that region. It is also likely that “soma” may represent a secretory principle produced in the brain that acts as a psychoactive and hallucinatory trigger.

7.1 INTRODUCTION Soma is considered as a great deity, cosmic power, spiritual principle as well as a plant as per vedic thought (Frawley, 2012). For example, in Rig Veda soma is projected as a mystic entity attributed to ‘light,’ ‘dawn,’ ‘Sunshine,’ ‘luminous,’ ‘bird,’ ‘child,’ ‘deity,’ ‘constellation,’ ‘moon,’ ‘a sacred plant’ etc. The Vedas are known to be the products of the Aryan tribe, who are also called the Vedic people. The modern idea is that the vedic people were a primitive nomadic racial tribe (the Aryans) which, as per the prevalent west-centric theory, invaded north-west India around the third to second millennium BCE from Central Asia-Eastern Europe region (Talageri, 2000), although this idea has been contested by many who hold that vedic Aryans are part of north western Indian region (see detailed arguments in Frawley, 2010). The idea that Rig Veda and other Vedas are said to have been composed all through their migration to India and not exclusively in this region of India after this Aryan invasion took place is also contested; these, according to those who contest the invasion theory, are the ideas that are used to interpret the vedic text but are not ideas that are actually found within the vedic text. These two contrasting theories on Aryans and their vedic texts are to be remembered by the reader of this article while the identity of the some plant is being discussed.

7.2  THE RIG VEDIC SOMA The Rig Vedic soma is also a divine and sacred plant. It is considered as the lord of herbs. It played a very important role in the cultural life of the

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Aryans (Shah, 2015). Of the 10,552 hymns of Rig Veda 1028 hymns are on soma and in the IXth book or Mandala alone there are 114 hymns on soma. According to Wasson (1972) the Vedic hymns have played a very important role in the religious life of the Aryans in which “the rapturous experience produced by the soma led the Brāhmanas to clothe celebration of the sacrament in an amazing ritual, perhaps without parallel in history.” Soma-worship was called hoama. Soma drink was also consumed on ceremonial occasions, rituals, hoamas, yagnas, and before and during chanting of Vedic hymns. In fact, Hymns were composed once soma drink was taken (Padhy and Dash, 2004), in an inebriated mood; these hymns were often composed on the worship and adoration of soma plant (Shah, 2015). This divine king of herbs is one of the greatest healing plants of the Rig Veda; it is also believed to generate all other plants and hence it is given the biggest oblation. The Satapatha Brāhmana says that it is “the nobility and the other plants the common people.” Soma, as per description of vedic texts, is a psychoactive plant (or plants) in that it is a stimulant, a depressant, inebriant, psychomimetic, analgesic, tranquilizer or a hallucinogen (as per the definitions of Cotton, 1997 and Saini et al., 2011). A stimulant acts like coffee, tea, cocoa or Ephedra, a depressant is opposite to a stimulant and acts like Aswagandha (Withania somnifera), an inebriant like any alcoholic drink; an analgesic like opium poppy, a tranquilizer like some Solanaceae alkaloids and, above all, an excellent hallucinogen like the fly-agaric mushroom, Amanita muscaria or Cannabis sativa. The hallucinogens, are substances that “act on central nervous system (CNS) to bring about a dream-like state marked by extreme alterations in consciousness of self, in the understanding of reality in the sphere of experience, and usually by serious changes in perception of time and space; they almost invariably induce a series of visual hallucinations, often in kaleidoscope movement, usually in rather indescribably brilliant and rich and unearthly colors, frequently accompanied by auditory and other hallucinations and a variety of synesthesias” (Schultes, 1963). Hallucinating agents, as a very recent study on LSD has shown, make the human brain a more ‘complete,’ unified and integrated entity. These effects, as the above study show, might account for the religious feelings that people have after taking the hallucinating drug and also to the profound altered state of consciousness where normal sense of self is broken down and replaced by a sense of reconnection with themselves, others and the natural world.

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The Aryans may be said to have used soma to practice a kind of shamanism, which the authors of the present article would like to call “Vedic shamanism.” Shamanism, a Siberian term, is used to describe a complex of religious and ethno-botanico-medico beliefs and practices. Its spiritual leader, called a shaman, has special skills of divination and healing, especially of body disorders of spiritual origin. In many primitive societies, the shamans are both healers and magico-sorcerers and act as intermediaries between the society and the supernatural world. Shamans develop their powers through their own experiences, while subject to some altered state of consciousness—as mentioned in the previous paragraph—which is induced through stimulants, depressants, analgesics, psychomimetics and most frequently, through the use of hallucinogens (Cotton, 1997). Aryans shamans/priests had used soma-induced shamanism during rituals, Yagnas, hoamas, etc. as a means to influence deities, spirits of ancestors and other supernatural powers, both benevolent and malevolent, and particularly as an attempt at ancestral reverence. They pour soma rasa into the holy fire as offering to these (Padhy and Dash, 2004). Thus, they tend to treat ailments, illness and other disorders by mending the soul; alleviating the trauma affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical and mental body of the individual to balance. The “Vedic shamanism” also obtains solutions to problems afflicting the community. Readers should keep in mind that vedic shamanism, like any other shamanism, cannot be strictly defined as medicine, although healing is its main objective. Drinking of soma rasa is believed to bestow a long life, to remove sins of a person, act as a ‘medicine’ for the infirm, give protection against human wickedness and bad omens, encourage truth and destroy untruth and condemn false dignity (Padhy and Dash, 2004). Ceremonies, rituals, chanting of vedic hymns, specific outfits, perfuming with incense, lighting holy fire and invocations as done by vedic priests are in fact part of the Aryan shamanistic world. These shamanistic techniques imply consumption of soma that is regarded as sacred and not to be wrongly called hallucinogenic, since for the western world and for people who believe in modern science alone, the vedic shamanistic world remains strange, mysterious and blatantly superstitious. Thus, the pillar of Aryan culture and its productive system is its shamanism. In general, soma is prepared in three forms: (i) Cooked with grain or barley (yava), milk or curd; (ii) the juice extracted by pressing; and (iii) very elaborately prepared where ghee and/or honey are used and sometimes

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fermentation is used (Frawley, 2012). The soma rasa has a sharp taste, sweet –smelling and yellow/brownish yellow in color.

7.3  LANDS OF SOMA According to Frawley (2012), Yaska, an ancient Indian Scholar, considered Sushoma as the present day Indus, which is the main river of Punjab. Sushoma, which can be split into Su-soma, means ‘good soma’. This name, according to Frawley (2012), also makes sense as the name of the Indus, especially in its upper reaches, particularly above Kashmir in the Himalayas, as there the river is famous for soma. The great ancient Ayurvedic physician/surgeon, Sushruta, had mentioned the upper reaches of the Indus River as the very important place of the soma, in his classical work Sushruta Samhita (Bhishagratna, 1981). One another region for soma is Munjavat, as per one hymn in Rig Veda. This may refer to the present day Munjan region just north of the Hind Kush in Afghanistan (the Badakshan region), across the mountains from the Indus (Frawley, 2012). Sushruta had also mentioned that in the Himalayas Arbudas, Sahyas, Mahendras, Malayas, Sriparvathas, Devagiris, Giris, Devasahas, Pariyatras, Vindhyas, Devasundas and Hladas are the other places of occurrence inhabitant of the soma plant. The second greatest diversity of somas, however, comes from Kashmir and the little manasa in Kashmir. What Sushruta mentioned as Arjikiya, an important region soma, is Kashmir or greater Kashmir (Frawley, 2012), the latter may have extended east into the Beas or north into Ladakh and Leh. Two other Himalayan regions where soma was known to occur are the Sharyanavat and Pastyas, the former perhaps being the most important vedic region of soma. As per a hymn in Rig Veda, Lord Indra, the dragonSlayer was reported to have drunk the soma at Sharanyavat. Sharanyavat is perhaps the greater manasa lake (Manasarovar) at the foot of Kailas or Meru in Tibet, from which the river Sutlej flows. But Munjavat and Sharyanavat mean places “abounding with reeds” (probably denoting a marshy region). Thus, the lands of soma in the W. Himalayan region are essentially restricted to the upper Indus and Kashmir, although Vedic culture included parts of Afghanistan, this appears to be only its Western fringe zone (Frawley, 2012). The Punjab region in the plains also formed a part of the Aryan vedic culture. It is this geographical region that one should keep in mind while

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analyzing the botanical identity of soma; our search for soma identify should be ideally restricted to plants belonging to this geographical region.

7.4  IDENTITY OF SOMA The botanical identification of soma should be proceeded on the basis of the following: (i) the detailed technical description of the soma plant as available in the vedic and other classical literature and corroborating this description with the descriptions of plants which are considered as probable candidates for soma; (ii) the phytogeography/location of soma plant as detailed in the vedic and other texts and compare it with that of the candidate species. The vedic Aryans spent most part of their existence in the western Himalayan mountain regions and in the plains of northwest India (Punjab and part of Rajasthan) even if we accept the theory that they migrated to this territory from Eastern Europe/Central Asia. Most vedic scholars agree that the hymns of Vedas were composed in the territory where they got settled and lived. Since they frequently conducted yagnas, hoamas, rituals and acts of vedic shamanism their requirement of soma should have been regular very heavy and should have been satisfied by some materials that were easily available to them in and near their living territory; (iii) the effects, as described in vedic hymns, of the soma on humans who consume it and compare them with that caused by plants now considered as soma; and (iv) the features of the soma drink/rasa as prepared by the vedic Aryans and compare them with those of the candidate species. If we consider all the above identification procedures, we may say that the identity of the soma plants has not been made thus far to the satisfaction of all. No plant under the name ‘soma’ is now in use anywhere in the world and particularly in the North West of India and adjacent regions (Shah, 2015) defined above as Lands of soma. A serious hunt for vedic soma plant has been made by a number of botanists, vedic scholars, indologists, psychologists and others, but in vain. The detailed description of the soma plant as available in the vedic and other ancient classical texts are as follows: no leaves, no flowers, no fruits, no seeds, no roots, with a pillar-like stem (ansu) and a cap (murdhan/siris), red in color, stem resembles swollen udder, dazzling under day (hari) and silvery white at night (Wasson, 1968, 1972), not mere a plant but a creeper, somewhat twisting, semi-shrub with a series of leaflets, shoots contain an acidulous milky juice, etc. (Padhy and Dash, 2004). None

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of the plants so far suggested as soma have all these characters. It is also not clear whether these characters describe the whole soma plant or a part of the plant that is collected, probably dried, and used for the preparation of the soma drink. It also looks, to the present authors that at least some of the above descriptive terms have been picked out from the various hymns of the Vedas out of context and that accurate translations of the concerned vedic terms have not been made. Although vedic literature has been translated by many western scholars, since the “Vedas are filled with mantras, symbols, cryptic statements, codes” etc., the real meaning of the vedic texts is yet unknown (Frawley, 2012) or ambiguous to a large extent. The following plants have been suggested so far as the candidate species for soma: Ruta graveolens (Roxburgh, 1814), Sarcostemma brevistigma (Roxburgh, 1820–1824) and a few more species, Ephedra species (Chopra et al., 1958; Mahdihassan, 1963, 1991), Amanita muscaria (Wasson, 1968, 1972), Peganum harmala (Damania, 2004), Cannabis sativa (by Mukherjee, 1921–1922; Swamy, 1974), Tamarix species (Damania, 2001), species of Nymphaea and Nelumbium (Spess, 2000), Periploca aphylla (species of Ceropegia (Usman Ali and Narayanaswami, 1970), Papaver somniferum (Sarianidi, 2003), Asclepias acida, Basella cordifolia, Eleucine coracana, Ichnocarpus frutescens, Saccharum, Sorghum species, Vitis vinifera, Humulus lupulus and Saussurea lappa (see Padhy and Dash, 2004) some orchids and lilies. Sushruta Samhita mentions 24 soma plants, growing mainly on Himalayan lakes and named after vedic meters (Frawley, 2012). These 24 soma plants were classified by him according to differences in their habitats, structure, epithets, and potencies (Frawley, 2012). They are as follows: Amshumat, Munjavat (A reed, probably Cyperus rotundus), Chandramah (An aquatic plant with a golden colored raw drug), Rajataprabha (a bulbous plant), Durvasoma, Kaniyan, Svetaksha (yellowish drug), Kanakaprabha (yellowish drug), Pratanavan, Talavrinta, Karavira (Nerium oleander), Amshavan (tubers shine like silver), Svayamprabha, Mahasoma, Garudahrita (drug yellowish), Gayatrya, Traishtubha, Pankta, Jagata, Shankara, Agnishtoma (used in ritual fire), Raivata, Yathokta, and Udupati. None of these except Karavira could be botanically identified so far. All these kinds of somas secure for the user a mastery of chanting vedic hymns. The best kind of soma is Chandramah which is found to be floating here and there in the Indus River in its upper ranges. The Munjavat and Amshumat somas are reported to be present in the same region. Gayatriya, Traishtubha, Pankta, Jagata,

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Shankara, etc. float on the manasarovar lake of Kashmir. He mentions an additional 18 soma-like plants, which are nervine herbs. The Atharva Veda specifically mentions five great plants among which soma is the best; this list includes marijuana (Cannabis), barley, dharba (Kusha or durva) and sahas, whose identity is unknown, along with soma. Let us first take Amanita muscaria, the fly-agaric mushroom which Wasson (Wasson, 1968, 1972) suggested and defended as the Rig Vedic soma plant. He asserted that the Rig Vedic hymns had actually described this mushroom. There are also some Rig vedic hymns describing syena or superna (a hawk) that are often trained to bring from the high mountains the soma plant (here believed as Amanita muscaria) (Talageri, 2000). There are three important points that dispute Amanita as soma: (i) Amanita muscaria is not known from Kashmir/W. Himalayas and adjacent regions, described earlier in this paper as the lands of soma (Shah, 2015); (ii) many vedic scholars including Brough (1972) and Ingalls (1971) have rejected Wasson’s contention that this mushroom was soma; they had based their rejection on internal evidence available in Rig Veda; and, (iii) the archaeological study made by Sarianidi (2003) at the Margiana temple site at Gonur Tepe showed remnants (of 2500 B.C.E.) of Aswamedha Yagna, which included big vessels in which soma drink was kept, along with pounders and pounding containers. The ingredients of this drink included Ephedra (in the form of ephedra alkaloids) Cannabis and poppy (in the form of seeds). Sarianidi (2003) concluded that the excavations belonged to the Aryans and that they left the use of Amanita muscaria when that was in Margiana. However, Wasson (1972) believed that Aryans left this mushroom when they reached the North Western plains of India. The conclusions of Sarianidi and Wasson are based on Aryan invasion theory that is contested by many people. Moreover, the lands of soma discussed earlier in this article does not include the Margiana region. Frawley (2012) also emphasized that while it cannot be said for certain that this mushroom was not a kind of soma for some people, the vedic somas are described in very different ways. Ephedra is suggested as the soma plant. It has ephedrine which increases blood pressure and heart beating, decreases appetite, makes the user feel energetic, promotes concentration, etc. Its vernacular names include ‘huma’ and ‘suma’ (Shah, 2015). Six species of Ephedra including E. gerardiana and E. intermedia are available in the somaland which was already defined in this article and hence it is most likely that this taxon was used as soma itself or as its substitute or as one of the constituents of some rasa.

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Cannabis sativa is also a strong candidate for soma, having been suggested so by many investigators. It is also a strong psychomimetic hallucinogen, with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as a primary psychoactive chemical. Cannabis has been a host of more than 540 chemicals (Kuddus et al., 2013; Grotenhermen and Russo, 2002). Although a native of Western and Central Asia, it has been cultivated (in many places has become feral) for more than 4,500 years. It is found in the W. Himalayas (the somaland and is used extensively) legally and illegally. Kuddus et al. (2013) has a given more than 45 uses which induces hallucinogenic, analgesic narcotic, psychotropic, sleep-inducing effects. Another strong candidate for soma is the opium poppy plant. It has among other alkaloids morphine, which includes sleep and relieves pain. It also brings about a feeling of euphoria. Both opium poppy and blue poppy (Mecanopsis latifolia) are known to occur in the somaland. It is likely to have been used as soma, as it substitute or as an important constituent of soma rasa. Spess (2000) had suggested that soma may be a species of Nymphaea or Nelumbium. Although these appear to have alkaloids as well as glucosides that may act of psychoactive compounds that cause the effects of the soma drink. Susruta Samhita characterizes some varieties of soma as floating water plants on lakes such as Manasa in Kashmir. This as well as the fact that soma is said to govern female water spirits suggest the possibility of these water plants as being soma. The flowers of some species of Nymphaea have been shown to induce ecstasy similar to that caused by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (popularly called “Ecstasy”). Some species of water lilies are known as soma in some tribal languages of this region. Rig vedic hymn IX 69.5. Characterizes Nymphaea as Amrita (=ambrosia). However, Shah (2015) states that it would be difficult to accept the water lilies as soma. The Atharva veda related soma to Kushta (Saussurea lappa). It is found in Western Himalayas. The major chemical compounds of this plants are 5 α-hydroxy-ß-costic acid; 11α,13-dihydroxydehidrocostuslactone; 11,13-dihydro-7,11-dehydro-13-hydroxy-3-desoxyzaluzanin C; 8 α-hydroxyl11ß H-11,13-dihydrodehydrocostuslactone; SoulangianolideA; Syringaresinol; Scopoletin. One or more of these chemicals may have psychoactive effects on humans. Species of Tamarix are reported in western Himalayas (The Soma land) and some species are reported to contain isotamarixen, matairesinol,

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tetepathine, kaempferol, 4’-methylkaempferol, 4’,7-dimethylkaempferol, hexacozyl-3-caffeate, ferulic acid and 3-methoxyl methyl gallate. The Manna reported in Bible is a psychoactive substance and refers to a species of Tamarix. Whether the Western Himalaya Tamarix species have psychoactive principles are not is not known. Ruta graveolens was suggested has a soma plant by Roxburgh (1814). This species available in western Himalayas and one of the chemicals, Robustine, is known to be a psychoactive compound. Peganum harmala, Sarcostemma spp., Periploca aphylla, Basella cordifolia, Asclepias acida are all arid region plants and all distributed in Punjab and adjacent Rajasthan region which where also occupied by the Aryans. All these contain chemicals of Psychoactive nature. Perhaps these might have served as substitutes of soma plant or added as mixture to the soma mixture in the arid regions. Species of Sorghum and Saccharum, Vitis vinifera and Eleucine coracana might have been suggested as soma plants since their fermented products produce an alcoholic inebriant mood. 7.5 CONCLUSION From the above, it is very clear that the search for one single soma plant is misleading (Frawley, 2012). Importantly, soma is likely to be part of an entire science of sacred plant preparations and not just one plant in particular. Frawley (2012) feels that the soma is a “mixture of various herbs purified or prepared with substances like milk, ghee and honey, fermented and strained in various ways.” Many plants listed earlier may form part of this mixture. It is therefore, questionable whether the word ‘soma’ represents a plant at all and whether there existed a plant by the name ‘soma’. It was also suggested that soma was probably a part of human brain secretion which “releases a flood of bliss” throughout the body (called the inner soma) (Frawley, 2012). It is the main subject of vedic hymns and probably of all ancient shamanic practices though outer somas were also important. ‘Soma’ may also represent a transformative substance that is found in some plants or a mixture of plants that has mind-altering properties through substances produced in the brain. As per Ayurveda, soma is the fundamental liquid of life or Kapha, the biological water humor.

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KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• ••

aryan shamanism hallucinogen psychoactive plants soma soma rasa

REFERENCES 1. Bhishagratna, K. L. (Trans.) (1981). Sushruta Samhita. Vol. 1. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. 2. Brough, J. (1971). Soma and Amanita muscaria. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 34(2), 331–62. 3. Chopra, R. N., Chopra, I. C., Handa, K. L., & Kapur, L. D. (1958). Indigenous Drugs of India. U.N. Dhurs & Sons. 4. Cotton, (1997). Ethnobotany: Principles and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. 5. Damania, A. B. (2001). The Ancient use of Ephedra and Tamarix in Zorastrian religious ceremonies. Asian Agri History, 5(3), 249–257. 6. Damania, A. B. (2004). The Origin of Soma-New theories and Myths. Asian Agri History. 6(2), 135–139. 7. Frawley, D. (2010). Gods, Sages and Kings (Vedic Secrets of Ancient Civilization). Lotus Press, Twin Lake, USA. 8. Frawley, D. (2012). The Secret of the Soma Plant. American Institute of Vedic Studies. 9. Grotenhermen, F., & Russo, E. (2002). Cannbis and Cannabinoids pharmacology, Toxicology and therapeutic potential. The Haworth Integrative healing Press. New York. 1–439. 10. https://www.facebook.com/notes/ayurveda/the-secret-of-the-soma-plant-by-davidfrawley/417077750768/. 11. Ingalls, D. H. H. (1971). Remarks on Wasson’s Soma. J. American Oriental Society. 91(2), 1988–191. 12. Kuddus, M., Ginawi, I, A. M., & Al-Hazimi, A. (2013). Cannabis sativa: An ancient wild edible plant of India. Emir. J. Food. Agric. 25(10), 736–745. 13. Mahadihasan, S. (1963). Identifying Ephedra as Soma. Pakistan J. Forestry. NO: October: 370–372. 14. Mahadihassan, S. (1991). The Vedic Gods, Agni, Indra and Soma as interrelated: A Study of Soma. Indian J. Hist. Sci. 26, 11–15. 15. Mukherjee, B. L. (1921–1922). The Soma plant. J. Royal Asiatic Soc. Calcutta. (Volume: not seen in original), p. 241.

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16. Padhy, S., & Dash, S. K. (2004). The Soma Drinker of Ancient India: An EthnoBotanical Retrospection. J. Hum. Ecol. 15(1), 19–26. 17. Roxburgh, W. (1814). Hortus Bengalensis. Calcutta. 18. Roxbrugh, W. (1820–24). Flora Indica. Careys Edition, Serampore, Calcutta. 19. Saini, D. C., Kulshrestha, K., Kumar, S., Gond, D. K., & Mishra, G. K. (2011). Conserving biodiversity based on cultural and religious values. In: National Conference on Forest Biodiversity Board, India. pp. 145–152. 20. Sarianidi, V. (2003). Margiana and Soma-Haoma, Electronic J. Vedic Studies, 9. 1. Discovery Channel.http://www.Heritageinstitute.com/zorastrianism/merv/sarianidi.htm. 21. Schultes, R. E. (1963). Hallucinogenic Plants of the New World. The Harvard Review (Cambride, Mass.) 1.4, Summer, 18–32. 22. Shah, N. C. (2015). Soma, an enigmatic, mysterious plant of the vedic Aryas: An appraisal. Indian J. Hist. Sci. 50, 26–41. 23. Spess, D. L. (2000). Soma: The Divine Hallucinogen. Rochester, Park Street Press, Vermont. 24. Swamy, B. G. L. (1974). Sources for a History of Plant Sciences in India: The Rigvedic Soma plant. Indian J. History of Science. 2, 11–32. 25. Talageri, S. G. (2000). The Rig veda. Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi. http://voiceofdharma.org/books/rig/img.1.jpg. 26. Usman Ali and Narayanaswami, V. (1970). Soma. J. Research in Ind. Med. 3(1), 106–110. 27. Wasson, R. G. (1968). Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality. Harcourt Brac., & World, New York. 28. Wasson, R. G. (1972). Soma and the ‘fly-agaric’. Botanical Museum of Harvard University, Cambridge. Mass. pp. 1–58.

CHAPTER 8

ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINAL PLANTS OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL HIMALAYAS T. PULLAIAH,1 K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY,2 BIR BAHADUR,3 JOHN ADAMS4 and T. N. MANOHARA5 Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur – 515003, A.P., India

1

Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore – 560058, Karnataka, India

2

Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal – 505009, Telangana, India

3

Department of Pharmacognosy, R&D, Sami Labs, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore – 560058, Karnataka, India

4

Bioprospecting and Indigenous Knowledge Division, Rain Forest Research institute. Po. Box. 136, Jorhat, Assam, India.

5

CONTENTS Abstract......................................................................................................326 8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................326 8.2  Review of Literature.........................................................................327 8.3  Ethnoveterinary Plants......................................................................329 Keywords...................................................................................................329 References..................................................................................................354

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ABSTRACT The present review summarizes the published literature on ethnoveterinary plants of Western and Central Himalayas covering the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and part of Punjab. A brief review on published literature is given. Details of about 350 ethnoveterinary plants are given. Name of the plant species, part used, ethnoveterinary use and reference are given in a tabular form. 8.1 INTRODUCTION Pastoralism plays an important role in the ecology of alpine habitats and the economy of rural people in some regions of India. The pastoralists move from lower altitudes of the Himalayas to higher alpine regions in summer and return back to lower altitude villages with the onset of autumn. Animal husbandry is the backbone of the rural sector of the Himalayan region and development of this sector may improve the living standard of rural communities. Livestock provides a wide range of services and products including animal power, wool and supplementary nutrition (Maikhuri, 1992). In spite of environmental compulsions and hardships of remote areas, the spectrum of livestock diversity in this region is rich and varied. Horses and mules are the backbone of the rural transport system in Western and Central Himalayas. Sheep-rearing for wool can be good opportunity for alternative livelihood, whereas Yak is used for the tourism in a few districts. This is evident from the occurrence of different breeds of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, mules, buffaloes and poultry, etc. In these remote areas, where modern veterinary health curative systems are very poor, the traditional societies have evolved several indigenous veterinary health care practices to maintain a variety of livestock populations (Palni et al., 1998; Samal et al., 2004). Ethnoveterinary medicine is a system that is based on folk beliefs, traditional knowledge, skills, methods and practices used for curing diseases and maintaining health of animals. Ethnoveterinary medicines provide the major source for the treatment of diseases in livestock throughout the world even today. Ethnoveterinary medicines are used extensively and quite effectively for primary health care treatment to make domestic animals productive and healthy. The indigenous knowledge of the veterinary health care system acquired by traditional herbal healers (Pashu Vaidyas) is orally transformed

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 327

from one generation to other. Over centuries, people have developed their own system of keeping animals healthy and productive using age-old home remedies, surgical and manipulative techniques, husbandry strategies and associated magicoreligious practices. Cost, inaccessibility and other problems like side effects of modern animal health care system have encouraged the local people to rely on traditional rural wisdom. Ethnoveterinary practices are often cheap, safe, long time tested and based on local resources and strengths. These can provide useful alternatives to modern animal health care systems (Kumar, 2002; McCorkle, 1995). Attempts should, therefore, be made to explore new possible species having medicinal importance especially veterinary and to grow them in suitable areas so as to meet national demands. The present review is expected to provide basic data for further studies aimed at conservation of traditional medicine and economic welfare or rural people of Western and Central Himalayas. 8.2  REVIEW OF LITERATURE Issar (1981) studied the traditionally important medicinal plants and folklore of Uttaranchal Himalaya used for animal treatment. Sharma and Singh (1989) studied the traditional practices and knowledge about 18 plant species used to cure different diseases of their livestock in the North-West and Trans-Himalaya. Chaurasia et al. (1999b) investigated ethno-medicinal plants of arctic desert – Ladakh used in veterinary practices. Tiwari et al. (2000) reported the utilization of plants and plant products in ethnoveterinary medicines of Dwarahat area of Uttarakhand Himalayas and documented traditional veterinary medicinal information against the diseases and disorders. Many of traditional practices and treatments are very unique and effective. Beigh et al. (2004) reported 25 plants within 19 families of Bakerwals and other migratory herders and shepherds for treatment of a variety of animal problems. Tiwari and Pande (2004) have given traditional veterinary practices in south-eastern part of Chamoli district in Uttaranchal. In all 72 plants important in ethnoveterinary medicine, their mode of preparations to the diseases and disorders are given. Pande et al. (2007) reviewed the ethnoveterinary plants of Uttarakhand and found 364 plants of 107 families used for various veterinary ailments by Bhotiya, Boxa, Tharu, Jaunsari and Rajis tribal communities of the State.

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The maximum number of plants recorded from family Asteraceae (23) followed by Fabaceae (22), Rosaceae (18), Poaceae (15), Lamiaceae (14), Apiaceae (12), Cucurbitaceae, Liliaceae, Moraceae and Ranunculaceae (9 each) etc. Among the top genera Ficus (8), Artemisia (6), Asparagus (5), Berberis, Bassica, Quercus, Rubus and Solanum (4 each) etc. Out of 364 ethnoveterinary plants 66 species were used in treatment of dermatological disorders (Skin diseases dermatitis, eczema, ricket, scabies, infarction, chhiparh) followed by 66 species in stomachache, stomachic, indigestion, vomiting, digestive disorders, loss of appetite, impaction and alimanty diseases; 62 species in wounds, cuts and contusion; 51 species in bone fracture and dysentery, diarrhea, dehydration; 47 species for lactation, 40 species for removing external and internal parasites; 39 species in foot and mouth diseases; 38 species in tympany and flatulence; 35 species in blisters and sores; 33 species in cold and cough; 30 species in eye disease and conjunctivitis; 29 species for tonic and strength; 28 species for food poisoning; 21 species in broken horn; 20 species in mastitis and sore in nipple; 18 species in boils, pimples, carbuncles and retention of placenta; 17 species in internal injury and inducing fertility; 16 species in tonsil, lockjaw (tetanus), burns and dog bite, snakebite and scorpion stings; 15 species in paralysis and paraplegia; 13 species in swelling and inflammation; 10 species in rheumatism, pain and arthritis; 9 species in hematuria; 7 species in post calving care and liver disorders; 6 species in giddiness and insanity; 5 species in urinary troubles; 4 species to remove sterility and 2 species in piles. Besides this, 12 species are also used in treatment of bird (hen/cocks). The leaves of 103 species are used in ethnoveterinary and animal healthcare practices followed by bulb, root, rhizome and tubers of 97 species; seeds of 57 species; whole plant of 54 species; bark of 39 species; fruits and nuts of 38 species; stem, shoot and wood of 31 species; gum, latex, resin and oil of 17 species; thorn of 3 species; aerial parts, buds and pseudostems of 2 species each and epicarp, cob and flowers of 1 species each. The diverse use of these species was also reported such as edible (183 species); folk-culture (130 species); fodder (112 species); oil (90 species); wood (68 species); household goods (53 species); beverages (41 species); fiber (28 species) and (109 species) in other traditional system. Besides ethnoveterinary uses 283 species are also used in treatment of human diseases.

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 329

Shah et al. (2008) described the uses of 57 plant species for treating 24 most common livestock diseases and disorders. The biomedicines are composed of single drug or combination of drugs. Kumari et al. (2009) discussed the 111 veterinary ethnomedicinal plants of Uttarakhand in central Himalayan region. Phondani et al. (2010) reported the plants and household remedies for curing veterinary ailments. About 34 ailments commonly found in nine different categories of livestock/animals (i e., buffalo, cow, oxen, sheep, goat, horse, mule, dog and cat) and their treatment with 73 medicinal plant species belonging to 70 genera and 45 families of forests as well as rural settlement areas. Majority of the people (more than 80%) dependent on traditional (herbal) system of treatments practiced by local healers (Pashu Vaidyas), while rest of the people preferred modern (allopathic) system of treatments for curing veterinary ailments. The important species, i.e., Trachyspermum ammi, Lyonia ovalifolia, Curcuma domestica, Bombax ceiba, Vigna mungo, Coriandrum sativum, Allium cepa, Zingiber officinale, Angelica glauca, Piper nigrum, Sesamum orientale, etc. are commonly used in treatment. However, it is also reported that people prefer allopathic treatment for some of the diseases like sterility, foot and mouth disease, uterus disorder, cataract, etc. 8.3  ETHNOVETERINARY PLANTS Plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine in Western and Central Himalayas are listed in Table 8.1. KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• ••

Central Himalayas ethnoveterinary medicine prescriptions tribals Western Himalayas

Foot and mouth disease, food poisoning Teeth problem, bone fracture, dog bite, galactogogue

Stem, bark

Whole plant, root Root Root Root Plant Root, plant

Fruits, roots Roots Bud, leaf Fruits

Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd.

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile

Achyranthes aspera L.

Achyranthes bidentata Blume

Aconitum balfouria Stapf

Aconitumm heterophyllum Wallich ex Royle

Aconogonum tortuosum (D.Don) Hara

Acorus calamus L.

Actaea spicata L.

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Adina cordifolia Hook.f.

Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa ex Roxb.

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

External parasites, diarrhea, enhance milk production

Wound, fever

Constipation

Paralysis

Hoof disease, fever, pain, lice and ticks infection, external and internal parasites, mouth blisters, snake bite, hematuria, wounds

Fodder for mulching animals

Intestinal worm, fever, stomachache, dysentery, diarrhea, gaseous bloat

Wound, swelling

Laxative

Urinary troubles, dysentery, diarrhea, foot and mouth disease, bone fracture, internal injury, wounds

Cough

Bud

Abies webbiana Lindl.

1.

Uses

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1  Ethnoveterinary plants of Western and Central Himalayas

Pande et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2012

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Pande et al., 2007; Phondani et al., 2010; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Nautiyal et al., 2003; Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010

Kumari et al., 2009

References

330 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Sores, wounds, blood purifier Fodder Mouth blisters, skin disease, internal parasites, indigestion, vomiting, wounds, cataract Arthritis, indigestion, fever

Plant

Whole plant, Leaves Seeds Bulb

Bulbs Bulb, leaves

Ageratum conyzoides L.

Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.

Ainsliaea aptera DC.

Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth.

Ajuga parviflora Benth.

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.

Allium cepa L.

Allium proliferum (Moench.) Schrad. ex Willd.

Allium sativum L.

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Plant

Fiber

Agave americana L.

15

Foot and mouth disease, food poisoning, skin infection, itching, pruritus, ricket, snake bite, ranikhet disease, tympany, arthritis

Frothy bloat

Eczema, scabies, snake bite, foot and mouth disease; oestrus cycle in cows, mange, dysentery, diarrhea, cold, anorexia, scabies, eczema, internal worms

Eye infection

Wounds of cattle

Broken horns, bone fracture, external parasites

Stomachache; colic pain in horses; endoparasites

Seeds, fruit

Aesculus indica (Cambess) Hook.f.

14

Uses

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Samal et al., 2003; Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012; Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Pande et al., 2007

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Pande et al., 2007

Negi, 2005

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Phondani et al., 2010

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 331

Strength Burns, bone fracture, stomachache, indigestion, sterility Termination of pregnancy

Dog bite Cataract, snake bite, flatulence, tympany Lactation To expel the leeches, pain killer Foot and mouth disease Nasal troubles Broken horns, wounds

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Syn.: Aloe Leaves barbadensis Mill.) Root Whole plant

Roots Roots

Alnus nepalensis D.Don

Althaea officinalis L.

Amaranthus caudatus L.

Amaranthus spinosus L.

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

Ampelocissus rugosa (Wal.) Planch.

Anagallis arvensis L.

Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims.) C. B.Clarke

Anemone obtusiloba D.Don

Anemone vitifolia Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Angelic glauca Edgew.

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

Fruit, leaf

Leech remover

Allium wallichii Kunth.

26

Internal injury, indigestion, gastric trouble, anorexia, cold, diarrhea, alopecia

Cough, skin disease, to increase milk yield, hematuria

Stomach problem

Whole plant

Allium stracheyi Baker

25

Uses

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Pande et al., 2007; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Mir, 2014

Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007;

Pande et al., 2007

Kumari et al., 2009

References

332 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Sores, diarrhea, dysentery Liver infection Diarrhea, dysentery, sun stroke, wounds, retention of placenta Internal parasites, round worm Indigestion, sun stroke, loss of appetite Urinary tract infection, internal and external parasites, tetanus Round worm Eye diseases, wounds, cuts, external parasites Hair tonic for horses, hair fall

Tuber Whole plant Seeds, leaves

Leaves Root

Arisaema intermedium Blume

Artemisia absinthium L.

Artemisia dracunculus L.

Artemisia elegantissima Pamp.

Artemisia japonica Thunb.

Artemisia maritima L.

Artemisia nilagirica (C. B.Clarke) Whole plant, leaves Pamp.

Leaf, bud

Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott.

Artemisia parviflora Roxb.

Artemisia roxburghiana Wall. ex Bess.

Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb.

Artemisia scoparia Waldst., & Kitam

Asparagus adscendens Roxb.

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

Leaf, bud

Bud, leaf

To increase milk yield

Whole plant

Aquelegia vulgaris

40

Hematuria, contusions, indigestion, skin disease, diarrhea, blood excreta

To stop intestinal bleeding

Eaten by horses; wounds on the legs

Foot and mouth disease of cattle

To destroy maggots

Annona squamosa L.

Uses

39

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Pande et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012

Guleria and Vasishth, 2009

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Mir, 2014

Pande et al., 2007

Kumar et al., 2009

Mir, 2014

Pande et al., 2007

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 333

To increase milk production

Mastitis Injury, pain killer Diarrhea, dysentery

Broken horns, burn, mange, tympany, Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; skin disease, internal and external Sharma et al., 2012 parasites, wounds, foot and mouth disease, hemorrhage septicemia

Wounds Hoof disease, boils, pimples, carbuncle Internal injury

Tuberous roots Bud

Leaves

Leaves

Asparagus officinalis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Asplenium dalhousiae Hook.

Atropa belladonna L.

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth.

Azadirachta indica A.Juss.

Bambusa arundinacea Willd.

Barleria cristata L.

Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arnott

Bauhinia variegata L.

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

Leaves

Indigestion, gastric troubles

Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

56

Helminthic infection, retention of placenta

Hematuria, tympany, flatulence, cut, wounds, demulcent, indigestion, skin disease, liver problem, for lactation

Lactation, indigestion, gastric troubles

Asparagus curillus Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.

55

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007

Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2005

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Hematuria

References

Asparagus capitatus Backer

Uses

54

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

334 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Neck sore, yoke sore, sunstroke, wounds, food poisoning, eye infection, fever, weakness Fever, dehydration, indigestion, eye diseases, tonic, food poisoning, neck sore, yoke sore, sunstroke, wounds, flatulence, tympany Conjunctivitis Eye disease, conjunctivitis Lactation, intestinal worm, mastitis, hematuria Bone fracture, skin disease, wounds, diarrhea, to enhance milk production Cuts, worm infested wounds Internal injuries, cough, dysentery, rheumatic pain, deep cuts, wounds, alimentary disorders

Stem bark, seeds

Plant

Berberis aristata DC.

Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.

Berberis chitria Edwards

Berberis petiolaris Wall. ex G.Don

Bergenia ciliata (Royle) Raizada

Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engler

Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Betula utilis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Bidens pilosa L.

Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem.

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

Roots

Bone fracture, giddiness or insanity

Fodder

Eczema, skin irritation, induced fertility

Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.

68 Root, stem

Expelling leech

Begonia roxburghii (Miq.) DC.

Uses

67

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Pande et al., 2007

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Pande et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2005; Phondani et al., 2010

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Mir, 2014

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 335

Cuts, wounds, broken horn Constipation, impaction, tympany, foot and mouth disease, internal and external parasites, wounds and boils on the back, enhance milk production, dysentery, skin disease, broken horn, eczema Internal parasites, stomachic Digestive disorders Removal of placenta, wounds Itching, pimples Pain killer

Bark

Bombax ceiba L.

Boschniakia himalaica Hook.f.

Brassica campestris L.

Brassica juncea (L.) Czern

Brassica napus L.

Brassica rapa L. subsp. campestris (l.) Clapham

Buddleja asiatica Lour.

Butea frondosa Koen.

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

Flower, seed

Plant, leaves

Oil, seed

Blood dysentery, dropsy, wounds, skin diseases

Leaves

Boerhavia diffusa L.

80

Boils, pimples, carbuncle

Bone fracture, mastitis, constipation, skin disease, external parasites, foot and mouth disease, pimple, boil, broken horn, bone fracture, constipation, paralysis, flatulence

External parasites

Boenninghausia albiflora (Hook.) Meisen

Uses

79

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Pande et al., 2007

Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2003; Mir 2014

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Phondani et al., 2010

Kumari et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007

References

336 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Worm infested sores, broken horn Food poisoning

Skin disease, fever, internal parasites, Pande et al., 2007 tympany, snake bite, wounds, flatulence, sprain, stomachache Stomachache, dysentery, rheumatism, Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; piles, eczema, internal injury, sprain, Phondani et al., 2010 flatulence, bone fracture, wounds, abdominal pain

Seed oil Leaves Leaves, flowers, latex

Leaves

Whole plant Fruits

Whole plant

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston

Calendula officinalis L.

Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand

Caltha palustris L.

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

Canna indica L.

Cannabis sativa L.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.

Capsicum annuum L.

Cardamine impatiens L.

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

Nervous disease, for vigor

Dog bite, skin disease, indignation, helminthic infection, bruises, cough, foot and mouth disease, diarrhea, neck sore

Skin disease, for vigor

Arthritis, pneumonia, tail gangrene, paraplegia, arthritis

Bleeding

Cattle wounds

Foot and mouth disease

Root

Cactus monacantha

91

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Samal et al., 2003; Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Samal et al., 2003

Pande et al., 2007

Bone fracture

References

Buxus wallichiana Bail.

Uses

90

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 337

Foot and mouth disease Foot and mouth disease

Mouth blisters Bone fracture Urinary troubles

Root bark Bark Fruits

Seed Leaves, pod Leaves Root Roots Oil

Carissa congesta Wight

Carissa spinarum L.

Carpinus viminea Wall.

Carum carvi L.

Caryopteris bicolor (Hardw.) Mabberly

Caryopteris odorata (D.Don) Robinson

Cassia absus L.

Cassia fistula L.

Cassia occidentalis L.

Cautleya spicata (Sm.) Dandy

Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin.

Cedrus deodora (D.Don) G.Don

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

Foot and mouth disease, repellant of lices and ticks, broken horns, hoof and skin diseases, scabies

Dislocation of bones in ox

Internal wounds

Indigestion

Conjunctivitis, constipation, food poisoning

Digestive and gastric troubles, skin disease, fever, mouth infection, hoof disease

Bone fracture, pimple, wounds

Foot and mouth disease, enhance milk yield in goats

Leaves, shoots

Carissa apaca Stapf ex Haines

102

Uses

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Pande et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Sharma et al., 2012

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008

Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012

References

338 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Paralysis Skin disease, eczema, scabies, milk yield, sterility, itching, pruritus, internal parasites Broken horn, wounds, foot and mouth diseases Broken horn, neck sore, yoke sore, tetanus, foot and mouth disease, gastric problems Chest pain, respiratory troubles, wounds, sores, hematuria Eye disease, sunstroke, lactation, hematuria

Leaves, seed Leaves

Seeds

Plant

Leaves

Roots

Chenopodium album L.

Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin

Cicer arietinum L.

Cicer microphyllum Benth.

Cinnamomum camphora Nees

Cinnamomum tamala Nees ex Eberman

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Cirsium verutum (D.Don) Sprengel

Cirsium wallichii DC.

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

Appetizer, food poisoning

Fodder

Broken horns, hoof disease

Cuts, wounds, sores, hematuria, worms

Removing general weakness, increasing milk yield, fever, sunstroke

Whole plant

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban.

115

Uses

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 339

Lice and kilns killer To kill the lice of sheep

Bone fracture, internal injury, sprain Bone fracture Flatulence, tympany Cataract, bone fracture, mouth blisters Skin diseases Neck sore, yoke sore, skin disease Fodder

Leaves, flowers Whole plant

Plant Aerial portion Leaves

Clematis nepaulensis DC.

Cocculus laurifolius DC.

Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) C. B.Clarke

Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth.

Coelogyne cristata Lindl

Ceologyne stricta (D.Don) Schltr.

Coix lacryma-jobi L.

Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.

Coleus barbatus (Andr.) Benth.

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Conyza canadensis

Coriandrum sativum L.

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

Root

Lactation

Fruit juice

Citrus medica L.

127

Fever, dehydration, dysentery, diarrhea, impaction, tympany, food poisoning, constipation, flatulence, chicken pox

Indigestion, dysentery

Asthma, general weakness

Blot

Fever, dehydration, mouth blisters, cough, burns, paralysis, external parasites, diarrhea, impaction, tympany, food poisoning, blot

Fruits

Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.

126

Uses

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Samal et al., 2003; Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008

Mir, 2014

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Pande et al., 2007

Mir, 2014

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Samal et al., 2003; Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008

References

340 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Lactation Intestinal worm Diarrhea, fever, food poisoning, tympany, heat stroke Hematuria, diarrhea, mastitis, ear disease, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, hematuria, eczema, mange Constipation, anorexia, loss of appetite, diarrhea in hen, indigestion, Gastric problem, antiworm, wounds, bone fracture

Bone fracture, tetanus Bone fracture, sprains, skin disease, mastitis, gastric trouble, internal injury, broken horn, sunstroke

Root Rhizome

Cryptolepis buchanani Roem., & Schult.

Cucumis hardwickii Royle

Cucumis sativus L.

Cucurbita maxima Duch. ex Lam.

Cuminum cyminum L.

Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.

Curcuma longa L. (Syn.: C. domestica Valenton)

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

Leaves

Internal wounds, bone fracture, horn fracture, sprains, mastitis, skin disease, blood in excreta of ox, fever, foot and mouth disease, mastitis, yoke galls, burns, pneumonia, hematuria, indigestion

Internal injuries

Costus speciosus (Koen. ex Retz.) Sm

142

Fruit, plant

Wounded shoulders of oxen

Corydalus cornuta Royle

Uses

141

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008

Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Pande et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009

Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 341

Flatulence, tympany Wounds Hematuria

Bone fracture, lactation, pimple, boils, carbuncle Bone fracture

Leaves Seeds Seed Leaves, seeds

Wood Roots Roots Roots Plant Stem, leaves

Cyperus rotundus L.

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo

Dalbergia sissoo DC.

Datura innoxia Mill.

Datura metel L.

Datura stramonium L.

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd.

Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) Rendle

Delphinium denudatum Wall.

Delphinium roylei Munz.

Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle

Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl.

Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees

Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting.

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

Lactation, rheumatism

Bone fracture, cough, pneumonia, strength after delivery

Bone fracture

Ulcers, wounds

Liver infection, rheumatic pain in cattle

Snake bite, cancerous growth

Food poisoning, injury, pain killer, urinary infections

Pain killer

Food poisoning

Tympany, gastric troubles

Cyperus pangorei Rottb.

Uses

152

Part(s)used

Name of the plant

S. No.

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010

Pande et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2005

Jeelani et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2012

Shah et al., 2008

Pande et al., 2007; Pande et al., 2007

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Kumari et al., 2009; Mir, 2014

Kumari et al., 2009

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Phondani et al., 2010

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

Pande et al., 2007

References

342 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Part(s)used Leaves Leaves Seeds Grains Seeds Fruits

Stem Whole plant Seed oil Leaves Seeds, fruits Bark Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves

Name of the plant

Digitalis purpurea L.

Dipsacus inermis Wall.

Dolichos uniflorus Lam.

Echinochloa frumentacea (Roxb.) Link

Eleucine coracana (L.) Gaertn.

Emblica officinalis Gaertn.

Ephedra gerardiana Wall.

Equisetum arvense L.

Eruca sativa Mill.

Ficus religiosa L.

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Wall. ex G.Don

Fumaria parviflora Lamk.

Galium aparine L.

Geranium ocellatum Camb.

Geranium pratense L.

S. No.

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Dysentery in goats and sheep

Insecticide

Wounds

Skin itching

Stomachache

Hookworm, diarrhea

Diphtheria, falling hair

Mange, small pox

Urinary problem

Pain

Foot and mouth disease, jaundice, ephemeral fever, indigestion, stomachache

Dermatitis, dysentery, indignation

Lactation, diarrhea, snout blisters

Diarrhea

To enhance milk production

Burns

Uses

Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, 2003

Kumari et al., 2009

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Kumari et al., 2009

Singh and Chauhan, 2005

Kumari et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012;

Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Phondani et al., 2010

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Kumari et al., 2009

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 343

Part(s)used Roots Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Leaves Root Seeds Plant, leaves, shoots Leaves Seed, bark Seeds

Seed Whole plant Rhizome Plant

Name of the plant

Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet

Glycine soja Sieb.

Glycine max L.

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Gossypium hirsutum L.

Grewia optiva J. R.Drumm. ex Burrett

Hedychium spicatum Ham. ex Smith

Helianthus annuus L.

Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC.

Hippophae tibetana Schlect.

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.

Hordeum vulgare L.

Hyoscyamus niger L.

Hypericum cernuum Roxb.

Iris kashmeriana Baker

Iris lactea Pallas

S. No.

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Fodder

Tonic

Wound

Pain killer

Hematuria, foot and mouth disease, diarrhea, increase milk yield, sterility

Fever, Gastric, dysenteery

Fodder

Giddiness

Tonic

Fever, cough

Internal parasites in calves, galactogogue

Diarrhea, increase milk yield

Hoof disease

Dermatitis, dysentery, diarrhea

Skin disease

Broken horns, enhance milk production

Uses

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006)

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Sharma et al., 2005

Mir, 2014

Kumari et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2012; Phondani et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2012

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Phondani et al., 2010

Shah et al., 2008

Phondani et al., 2010; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

References

344 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Part(s)used Bark, leaves, fruits Fruit Fruit Roots Leaves Seeds Leaves Whole plant, oil cake Leaves Leaves Whole plant Fruit Bark, buds Fruits Leaves, root

Name of the plant

Juglans regia L.

Juniperus communis L.

Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Lawsonia inermis L.

Lens culinaris Medic.

Leucas lanata Benth.

Linum usitatissimum L.

Litsea polyantha Juss.

Litsea umbrosa Nees

Lobelia pyramidalis Wall.

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude

Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muel-Arg.

Malva neglecta Wallr.

S. No.

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Laxative, expulsion of placenta, Diarrhea

Internal parasites

Mastitis, foot and mouth disease

Blot

Liver disease

Bone injury

Injury

For strength, enhance milk production

Expel placenta, diarrhea, dysentery, carbuncles

Increase milk yield

Hematuria

Bone fracture

Yoke gall

Liver disease

Bone fracture, impaction, tympany, stomach problem, antiworm, to increase milk production

Uses

Kumar et al., 2009; Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Sharma et al., 2012

Phondani et al., 2010

Phondani et al., 2010

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2005; Shah et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2012

Phondani et al., 2010

Samal et al., 2003

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Kumari et al., 2009

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Kumari et al., 2009; Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 345

Part(s)used Leaves, fruit Plant Plant Plant Plant Root Leaves Whole plant Whole plant, leaves Leaves Root Leaves Leaves Leaves, fruit, rhizome, pseudostem Bark

Name of the plant

Mangifera indica L.

Marrubium vulgare L.

Medicago falcata L.

Medicago lupulina L.

Medicago officinalis L.

Megacarpaea polyandra

Melia azedarach L.

Melilotus alba Lam.

Mentha arvensis L.

Momordica charantia L.

Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC.

Morus alba L.

Morus serrata Roxb.

Musa paradisiaca L.

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.

S. No.

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Uterus disorder

Eczema, foot and mouth disease, galactogogue, hematuria

Mastitis

Fodder

Intestinal worms

Wounds, to expel maggots

Post pregnancy problems, bloat, dysentery

For stomach problems and indigestion

Bone fracture, foot and mouth disease

Pneumonia

Fodder

Fodder

Fodder

Dysentery

Food poisoning, indigestion, foot and mouth disease

Uses

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Phondani et al., 2010

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012;

Shah et al., 2008

Mir, 2014

Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, 2003

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2012

Phondani et al., 2010

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

References

346 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Part(s)used Whole plant, leaves Leaves Whole plant, leaves Tender shoots Whole plant Seeds, bark Grains; inflorescence Leaves Root Plant Reproductive shoot Leaves Roots, rhizome

Name of the plant

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Nicotiana tabacum L.

Ocimum sanctum L.

Oenothera rosea Ait.

Origanum vulgare L.

Oroxylum indicum Vent.

Oryz sativa L.

Oxalis corniculata L.

Peonia emodi Royle

Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch.

Phanera vahlii (Wight & Arn.) Benth.

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth.

S. No.

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Foot and mouth disease, uterus disorder, pneumonia, tapeworms

Skin diseases

Internal parasites

Bone fracture

Stomach problem

Pimples, impaction, tympany, eye infection

Sprains, hair fall in cattle, cough, fascioliasis, broken horns, constipation, expulsion of placenta

Constipation, skin disease, snake bite

Indigestion

Carbuncles

Fever, bloat, eye infection

Eczema, ectoparasites, cattle wounds

Bloat, external parasites, pyrexia

Uses

Phondani et al., 2010; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Nautiyal et al., 2003

Sharma et al., 2012

Shah et al., 2008

Kumari et al., 2009

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010

Shah et al., 2008; Phndani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Shah et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Shah et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009;

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Sharma et al., 2012; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Sharma et al., 2012

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 347

Part(s)used Seed Needles, resin

Stem bark Seeds Whole plant Leaves, whole plant Seed Leaves, shoots, roots Leaf, root Fruit Leaves

Leaves Leaves Fruits

Name of the plant

Pimpinella diversifolia DC.

Pinus roxburghii Sarg.

Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson

Piper nigrum L.

Plantago lanceolata L.

Plantago major L.

Plantago ovata Forssk.

Plumbago zeylanica L.

Potentilla argyrophylla Wall.

Primula denticulata Sm.

Prunus persica (L.) Batch.

Psidium guajava L.

Pueraria tuberosa DC.

Punica granatum L.

S. No.

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Shah et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009; Mir, 2014

Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010

Sharma et al., 2005

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

References

Garmi

To keep goats healthy

Ephemeral fever

Sharma et al., 2012

Sharma et al., 2012

Sharma et al., 2012

Foot and mouth disease, constipation, Samal et al., 2003; Tiwari and external parasites, worms in wounds, Pande, 2004; Phondani et al., 2010; wounds Sharma et al., 2012; Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Cough

For stomach problem

Constipation, mange

Dysentery

Injury, teeth problems, fever, fodder

To increase milk, yoke galls

Constipation, skin disease, indigestion

Dislocated or fractured parts in sheep and goats

Bone fracture, horn fracture, sprains, wounds, external parasites, sprain, broken horns

For lactation

Uses

348 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Part(s)used Fruits Bark Plant Bark Tuber Leaves Root Fruit Stem Root Leaves Flowers Fruit Whole plant Roots Root Whole plant

Name of the plant

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Quercus dialata Lindl.

Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus

Quercus semecarpinifolia Sm.

Raphanus sativus L.

Reinwardtia indica Dumort.

Reinwardtia trigyna Planch.

Rhamnus virgata Roxb.

Rheum australe D.Don

Rheum emodi Wall.

Ricinus communis

Rosa indica L.

Rosa moschata Herrm.

Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming

Rumex acetosa L.

Rumex dentatus L.

Rumex hastatus D.Don

S. No.

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Skin disease, fever

Cough, gaseous bloat, sprains

Cough, gaseous bloat, sprained body parts

Wound

Leucorrhoea, bleeding, pregnancy termination

Constipation

Internal injury

Bone fracture, broken horns

Bone fracture

Leg swelling

Wound

Wounds

Dysentery

Dysentery

Dermatitis

Dysentery

Eye infection

Uses

Kumari et al., 2009

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Mir, 2014

Shah et al., 2008

Kumari et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Phondani et al., 2010

Shah et al., 2008

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Shah et al., 2008

Phondani et al., 2010

Kumari et al., 2009

Phondani et al., 2010

Kumari et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2012

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 349

Part(s)used Stem juice, leaves Fruit Whole plant Roots Fruit Root Seeds Plant Whole plant Seed Seeds Rhizome Seeds Leaves, Stem Whole plant Plant

Name of the plant

Saccharum officinarum L.

Salix elegans Wall.

Salvia lanata Roxb.

Sambuca wightiana Wall.

Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.

Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.

Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand-Maz.

Sedum ewersii Ledeb.

Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

Senecio rufinervis DC.

Sesamum indicum L.

Silene vulgaris L.

Sisymbrium irio L.

Skimmia anquetilia N. P.Taylor

Solanum melongena L.

Sonchus arvensis L.

Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers

S. No.

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Skin disease, dermatitis

To increase milk production

Dog bite

Cold, cough, indigestion

Cough, cold

To increase milk production

Constipation

Wounds

Skin diseases

To increase milk

Pneumonia, weakness

Tonic

To remove leeches, lice and ticks infection

Foot and mouth disease

Vomiting, pain killer

Ricketts

Diarrhea, constipation, abdominal pain, helminthic infection

Uses

Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010

Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Sharma and Sood, 2013

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumar et al., 2009

Sharma et al., 2012

Bharadwaj et al., 2013

Sharma et al., 2012; Phondani et al., 2010

Bharadwaj et al., 2013;

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

References

350 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Part(s)used Whole plant Flowers Fruit, leaves Fruit Leaves Fruits Fruit, bark Plant, root Aerial portion Whole plant Stem, plant

Seeds

Seeds Whole plant Plant

Name of the plant

Swertia purpurascens Wall.

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr.

Tagetes erecta L.

Tamarindus indica L.

Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wiggers

Terminalia bellerica Roxb.

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Thalictrum foliolosum DC.

Thymus linearis Benth.

Thymus serpyllum L.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f., & Thoms.

Trachyspermum ammi Sprague

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.) Voigt.

Trifolium alexandrinum L.

Trifolium pratense L.

S. No.

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Fodder to increase lactation

Constipation

Diarrhea

Constipation, food poisoning, diarrhea, indigestion, fever, pyrexia, blot

Diarrhea, skin disease, indignation, increase milk yield, garmi, cough, fever and foot diseases

In chest pain

Cold, cough, fever

Foot and mouth disease, boils, ulcers

Indigestion, anorexia

Indigestion

To remain healthy

Foot and mouth disease, snake bite

Vomiting, wound maggots, broken horns

Skin disease

Fever, for weak appetite

Uses

Chandra Sekhar and Srivastava, 2003; Mir, 2014

Sharma et al., 2012

Tiwari and Pande, 2004

Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Guleria and Vasishth, 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009

Bharadwaj et al., 2013; Mir, 2014

Sharma et al., 2005

Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012;

Sharma et al., 2012

Mir, 2014

Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani, 2010; Sharma and Sood, 2013

Shah et al., 2008

Kumari et al., 2009

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 351

Part(s)used Seeds

Rhizome Seeds

Latex Leaves Seeds, leaves, inflorescence Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Seeds Seeds Seed Whole plant Root Root

Name of the plant

Trigonella foenum-graecum L.

Trillium govanianum Wall. ex Royle.

Triticum aestivum L.

Tylophora hirsuta Wight

Ulmus wallichina Planch.

Urtica dioica L.

Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Rchb.f.

Verbascum thapsus L.

Viburnum grandiflorum Wall.

Vicatia stewartii Clarke

Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper

Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczeck

Viola biflora L.

Viola patrini DC.

Viola serpens Wall.

S. No.

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

For liver problems

For liver problems

Heart and skin problems

Bone fracture, wounds, sprains

Bone fracture, galactogogue

Fever, indigestion

Fodder

Bronchitis

Bone fracture

Sprain

Wounds, sprains, neck sore, skin disease, lactation for sterility

Fodder

Eye infection

Constipation, diarrhea, increase milk yield, burns on the skin

Worms

Food poisoning, to keep camels healthy, cows and buffalos for abortion

Uses

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Kumari et al., 2009

Shah et al., 2008

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012;

Samal et al., 2003

Mir, 2014

Kumari et al., 2009

Phondani et al., 2010

Phondani et al., 2010

Shah et al., 2008; Kumari et al., 2009; Phondani et al., 2010

Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006

Sharma et al., 2012;

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Phondani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Shah et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012

References

352 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Part(s)used Fruit, plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant, bark Seeds, cob Rhizome

Name of the plant

Viscum album L.

Vitex negundo L.

Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz.

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC.

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

Zea mays L.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

S. No.

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Constipation, diarrhea, food poisoning, injury, antiworm, fall of temperature

Increase milk yield, lice and ticks infection

Appetizer, fascioliasis, blisters in mouth

Constipation

Stomachache

Stomachache, eye infection

Pregnancy problem, fodder

Uses

Tiwari and Pande, 2004; Shah et al., 2008; Kumari et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Phondani et al., 2010;, Sharma et al., 2012

Phndani et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2012

Shah et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2012

Sharma et al., 2012

Kumari et al., 2009; Sharma and Lal, 2005

References

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 353

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REFERENCES 1. Beigh, S. Y., Nawchoo, I. A., & Iqbal, M. (2003). Traditional veterinary medicine among the Tribes of Kashmir Himalaya. J. Herb. Spic. Med. Pl. 10(4), 121–127. 2. Bharadwaj, A. K., Lone, P. A., Dar, M., Parry, J. A., & Shah, K. W. (2013). Ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of plants of district Bandipora of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Int. J. Trad. Nt. Med. 2(3), 164–178. 3. Bisht, N., Pande, P. C., & Tiwari, L. (2004). Ethnoveterinary practices of Kapkot block of Bageshwar district, Uttaranchal. Asian Agri-History 8, 309–314. 4. Chaurasia, O. P., Singh, B., & Sareen, S. K. (1999). Ethno-medicinal plants of Arctic Desert-Ladakh used in veterinary practices. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 23(1), 161–166. 5. Gaur, R. D., Bhatt, K. C., & Tiwari, J. K. (1992). An ethnobotanical study of Uttar Pradesh Himalaya in relation to veterinary medicines. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 72, 139–144. 6. Gaur, R. D., Sharma, J., & Painuli, R. M. (2010). Plants used in traditional healthcare of livestock by Gujjar community of sub-Himalayan tracts, Uttarakhand, India. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour. 1(2), 243–248. 7. Issar, R. K. (1981). Traditionally important medicinal plants and folklore of Uttarakhand Himalayas for animal treatment. J. Scient. Res. Pl. Med. 2, 61–66. 8. Kanvar, P., & Yadav, D. (2005). Indigenous animal healthcare practices of Kangra district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4(2), 164–168. 9. Khuroo, A. A., Malik, A. H., Dar, A. R., Dar, G. H., & Khan, Z. S., (2007). Ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of some plant species by the Gujjar tribe of Kashmir Himalaya. Asian J. Plant. Sci. 6(1), 148–152. 10. Kumar, D. (2002). The use and relevance of Ethnoveterinary practices in sheep. Indian J. Small Rumin. 8(2), 124–128. 11. Kumari, P., Singh, B. K., Joshi, G. C., & Tewari, L. M. (2009). Veterinary ethnomedicinal plants in Uttarakhand Himalayan region, India. Ethnobot. Leaflets, 13, 1312–1327. 12. McCorkle C M. (1995). Back to the future: Lessons from ethnoveterinary RD&E for studying and applying local knowledge. Agriculture and Human Values, 12(2), 52–80. 13. Mir, M. Y. (2014). Ethnoveterinary studies in tribals in Kupwara, J., & K, India. Int. J. Multidisciplinary Res. Dev. 1(6), 92–96. 14. Nautiyal, S., Maikhuri, R. K., Rao, K. S., & Saxena, K. G. (2003). Ethnobotany of the Tolchha Bhotiya tribe of the buffer zone villages in Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve, India. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 27, 119–142. 15. Pande, P. C., Tiwari, L., & Pande, H. C. (2007). Ethnoveterinary plants of Uttaranchal-A Review. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 6(3), 444–458. 16. Phondani, P. C., Maikhuri, R. K., & Kala, C. P. (2010). Ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants among traditional herbal healers in Alaknanda Catchment of Uttarakhand, India. Afric. J. Trad., Comp. Alter. Med. 7(3), 195–206. 17. Rashid, A., Anand, V. K., & Shah, A. H. (2007). Plant resource utilization in the ethnoveterinary practices by the Gujjar and Bakarwal tribes of Jammu and Kashmir State, India. J. Phytol. Res. 20(2), 293–298. 18. Samal, P. K., Shah, A., Tiwari, S. C., & Agrawal, D. K. (2002). Indigenous animal health care practices and their relevance to bioresources conservation in Indian central Himalaya. Int. J. Sustain Dev. World Econ. 8, 167 19. Samal, P. K., Shah, A., Tiwari, S., Mehara, B., & Agrawal, D. V. (2003). Indigenous animal health care practices in Indian central Himalaya. Empirical evidences. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 2(1), 40–50.

Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western and Central Himalayas 355 20. Shah, R., Pande, P. C., & Tiwari, L. (2008). Traditional veterinary medicines of western part of Almora district, Uttarakhand Himalaya. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 7(2), 355–359. 21. Sharma, P. K., Chauhan, N. S., & Lal, B. (2005). Studies on plant associated indigenous knowledge among Malanis of Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4(4), 403–408. 22. Sharma, R., Manhas, R. K., & Mangotra, R. (2012). Ethnoveterinary remedies of diseases among milk yielding animals in Kathua, Jammu and Kashmir, India. J. Ethnopharmacol, 141(1), 265–272. 23. Sharma, P. K., & Singh, V. (1989). Ethnobotanical studies in north-west and trans Himalaya.- V. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants used in Jammu and Kashmir, India. J. Ethnopharmacol, 27, 63–70. 24. Singh, K. K., & Kumar, K. (2000). Observations in ethnoveterinary medicine among the Gaddi tribe of Kangra Valley, Himachal Pradesh. Ethnobotany, 12, 42–44. 25. Tiwari, L., & Pande, P. C. (2004). Traditional veterinary practices in South-Eastern part of Chamoli district, Uttaranchal. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 3(4), 397–406. 26. Tiwari, L., & Pande, P. C. (2006a). Ethnoveterinary plants of Uttarkashi district, Uttaranchal, India. Ethnobotany 18, 139–144. 27. Tiwari, L., & Pande, P. C. (2006b). Ethnoveterinary medicines of holy Doonagiri hills of Uttaranchal. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. (Suppl.) 30, 151–162. 28. Tiwari, L., & Pande, P. C. (2006c) Indigenous veterinary practices of Darma valley of Pithorgarh district, Uttaranchal. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 5, 201–206. 29. Tiwari, L., & Pande, P. C. (2010). Ethnovetinary medicine in Indian perspective: Reference to Uttarakhand, Himalaya. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 9(3), 611–617. 30. Tiwari, D., Pande, P. C., & Tiwari, L. (2007). Ethno-veterinary herbal medicines of Dwarahat area of Central Himalayas. Indian Forest, 133(3), 379–390.

CHAPTER 9

ETHNOBOTANY OF USEFUL PLANT SPECIES IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA A. RAJASEKARAN1, JOGINDER SINGH2, S. P. SUBRAMANI1, and SHALU DEVI3 Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore – 641002, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

1

Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla – 171009, Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]

2

Faculty of Forestry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Science and Technology, Benihama, Srinagar – 191121, Jammu & Kashmir, India, E-mail: [email protected]

3

CONTENTS Abstract......................................................................................................358  9.1  Introduction.....................................................................................358   9.2 Ethnobotany of Cold Desert or High Altitude Desert-Steppe..................................................................................360   9.3  Fodder Yielding Plants....................................................................361   9.4  Fiber Yielding Plants.......................................................................362   9.5  Dye Yielding Plants........................................................................363   9.6  Timber Yielding Plants....................................................................365   9.7  Agricultural Implements.................................................................365   9.8  Fuel-Wood Species.........................................................................365

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  9.9  Hill Bamboos..................................................................................366 9.10 Wicker.............................................................................................366 9.11  Resin and Essential Oil Yielding Plants..........................................366 9.12  Plants Used as Bio-Fence................................................................367 9.13  Soap Yielding Plants.......................................................................367 9.14  Sacred Plants...................................................................................368 9.15  Other Non-Wood Forest Products in the Region............................368 Keywords...................................................................................................369 References..................................................................................................403 ABSTRACT The North Western Himalayan region owing to varied topography, wide altitudinal range and unique geographical location, harbors rich flora and has been recognized as one of the distinct floristic regions in India. The region has rich wealth of plants having ethno-botanical uses and provide livelihood to the people of the region. Various authors have documented the ethnobotanical knowledge of the people in the region and most of these studies covered traditional knowledge on medicinal and edible plants of the region. Hence in this chapter an attempt was made to prepare comprehensive information on ethnobotanical uses regarding all useful plants other than medicinal, veterinary and edible plants. 9.1 INTRODUCTION The North Western Himalaya has long been recognized as one of the distinct floristic regions in India (Hooker, 1906; Mani, 1974). It extends along the mountain chain from western Nepal (west of the Kali Gandaki valley) through three northern states of India namely Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (Balokhra, 1998). The region has several giant and smaller parallel mountain ranges running northwest to southeast direction like Siwalik ranges, Dholadhar range, Pir Panjal ranges, The Great Himalayan ranges, The Zaskar range, Ladakh range and Great Karakoram ranges. Between these parallel ranges there are a number of wide and fertile valleys such as Kashmir Valley, Kullu Valley, Dun Valley, etc. (Balokhra, 1998).

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species

359

Owing to varied topography, wide altitudinal range and unique geographical location, this region harbors a rich flora and exhibits affinities with the Mediterranean, Siberian, Tibetan and Indo-Malayan regions (Singh and Rawat, 1999). The vegetation range from alluvial grasslands, subtropical broadleaved forests to dominance of conifers in the temperate zone to alpine meadows above the tree line. High-altitude cold desert ecosystems encompass a significant area of the region. The region has rich wealth of plants having ethno-botanical uses such as crop, medicine, vegetable, ornament, etc. People of Himalayan region utilize variety of biological resource for their livelihood. Various parts of plants such as stem, leaves, roots, bark, galls, buds, flower, fruits, and seeds are utilized by human for various purposes. Short reviews on various ethnobotanical studies carried out in this region are briefly mentioned here. Sharma (1976) studied some useful wild plants of Himachal Pradesh. Uniyal and Chauhan (1982) studied commercially important medicinal plant of the Kullu forest division in Himachal Pradesh. Lal et al. (1996) described the plants used as ethno-medicine and supplement food by Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh, India. Thakur (2001) described the ethnobotany of Rewalsar (Mandi), Himachal Pradesh. Sharma et al. (2003) gave an account on the commercial importance of medicinal and aromatic plants of Parvati valley, Himachal Pradesh. Kharwal and Rawat (2012) studied ethno-botanical uses of herbal shampoo of Shivalik hills, Himachal Pradesh. Such details are available for different districts as for Lahaul & Spiti (Aswal and Mehrotra, 1987; Sood et al., 2001; Singh and Chauhan, 2005) and Kullu (Sharma et al., 2005). Several other efforts have been made to document the traditional ethnobotanical knowledge of the people in Himachal Pradesh (Uniyal and Chauhan, 1971; Singh 1999; Sharma and Rana, 1999; Sood et al., 2001; Meenakshi, 2002). The ethnobotanical studies in Jammu & Kashmir have been conducted by Shoukat and Naqshi (1992), Kaul et al. (1982), Nawchoo and Bhat (1994); Virjee et al. (1984), Dar et al. (1984), Singh (1996), and Rashid (2013). The ethnobotany of different parts of Uttarakhand was also studied by various authors (Shah and Joshi, 1971; Badoni, 1988; Negi et al., 1993; Gaur and Bhat, 1994; Pande et al., 1999; Kala, 2002; Singh, 2006; Metha and Bhat, 2007; Gaur, 2008; Bhat et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012; Arya, 2014). However most of the ethnobotanical studies conducted in this region mainly focused on medicinal plants and it is equally important to

360

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document the other uses of plants such as fodder, fiber, flosses, wood, dye, resins, etc. Therefore an account of these different uses of plants used by the indigenous people in the region is discussed in this chapter. 9.2  ETHNOBOTANY OF COLD DESERT OR HIGH ALTITUDE DESERT-STEPPE Cold desert or High altitude desert-steppe is unique ecosystem found particularly in parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in the North Western Himalayan region. In Jammu & Kashmir, the cold desert regions are found in Ladakh region covering ca. 82,655 sq.km areas. These areas in Himachal Pradesh are confined to District Lahaul & Spiti, Pooh sub division of Kinnaur and Pangi area of Chamba Districts covering 15,000 Sq.km area of Himachal Pradesh. Very small pockets of cold desert are also found in Garhwal (Niti and Mana) beyond Badrinath and Nelang region of Uttarkashi district in the state of Uttarakhand (Srivastava 2010). The natural vegetation of cold arid zones may be assigned to Dry alpine scrub (16/C1), Dwarf juniper scrub (16/E1) and Alpine pastures (15/C3) as per Champion and Seth’s forests type classification (1968). The people in this region have small land holdings and the harsh climate and prolonged cold winter prevailing in the cold arid zone enforced the local people to depend upon nature for food, shelter, medicine and other daily requirements. The people follow traditional agro-forestry system in which along with agricultural crops they have boundary plantations of Willow (Salix spp.) and Poplar (Populus spp.) species. These species are also grown in community lands mainly as source of fuel wood and fodder during dry winter months. Apart from these two species most of the woody vegetation in the area is used as fuel wood. Among the wild plants, Astragalus chlorostachys, A. peduncularis, Caragana versicolor, Cicer microphyllum, Hippophae rhamnoides, Medicago falcata, Myricaria albiflora, Populus ciliata, Salix denticulata and S. fruticulosa are used as fodder and fuel purposes. The wood of Juniperus recurva, Populus ciliata and Salix denticulata are used for timber and agricultural implements. Arnebia euchroma, Geranium pratense and Onosma hispidum are used as dye. The incense and perfumes are obtained from Chrysanthemum pyrethroides, Delphinium brunonianum and Waldheimia glabra. Bushes of Hippophae rhamnoides are used for fencing. The green

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vegetation consisting of Cicer microphyllum, Saussurea jacea, Thalictrum foetidum, Poa annua, Festuca sp, etc. are collected for fodder and stored for winter stall-feeding of livestock (Srivastava, 2010). Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) is one of the multipurpose thorny shrub species used by the villagers as food, fuel, fodder, medicine and for fencing agricultural fields. This nitrogen fixing shrub is commonly seen along stream and water course. 9.3  FODDER YIELDING PLANTS Agriculture with animal husbandry is prevalent profession of rural people of North Western Himalayan region and people in this region allow the growth of naturally regenerating tree species along the edges of their agricultural field mainly for fodder (Purohit and Samant 1995; Maikhuri and Semwal, 1997; Vishvakarma et al., 1998). The livestock also rely on fodder extracted from forests and grasslands. In forests, herbs and shrubs are chiefly browsed by goats and sheep, while tree species cater to the fodder of rest of the livestock. The tree species used for fodder in temperate areas from 1500 m to 3300 m altitude, include Aesculus indica, Celtis australis, Cornus macrophylla, Euonymus hamiltonianus, Ficus palmata, Morus serrata, Populus ciliata, Grewia optiva, Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. dilatata, Q. semicarpifolia, Robinia pseudoacacia, Salix wallichiana, Toona serrata, Ulmus villosa and U. wallichiana (Singh et al., 1998; Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Dhanani et al., 2014). Besides, Themeda arundinacea, Brachiaria villosa, Andropogon munroi, Tenaxia cumminsii and Saccharum spontaneum are the common grasses used for fodder (Arya et al., 2011). Traditional agro-pastoral communities namely Gaddis (in Himachal Pradesh), Bhotias (in Uttarakhand), Bakrwals (in Jammu & Kashmir) and Gujjars (in all the three states) migrate with their goats and sheep to high alpine meadows during summer season and to lower Shiwalik ranges during winter for fodder. These migratory nomadic graziers have good knowledge on usefulness of several plants in the region including fodder. Several authors have documented the ethno-botanical knowledge of these communities in different areas of this region (Nawchoo and Bhat, 1994; Lal et al., 1996; Singh and Kumar 2000; Bhat et al., 2009). Some plant species are used as bedding material in livestock sheds. The bedding material is replaced periodically and mixed with dung for

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conversion into manure. Plant species used as bedding material in livestock sheds include Pinus wallichiana, Pinus roxburghii, Boenninghausenia albiflora and dried grasses. Preparation of green manure from fern and fern-allies is another common practice in this region, but has been little investigated. For this purpose, fresh plant parts are laid as bedding for livestock; this material is partially deteriorated by excretory products, frequently replaced, and ultimately stored in an open heap for final decomposition to manure. Local populace use several pteridophytes as palatable fodder for their livestock. Among these, Arthromeris wallichiana, Athyrium schimperi, Diplazium polypodioides, Dryopteris wallichiana and Pteridium aquilinum are much used for this purpose (Gaur and Bhatt, 1994).

9.4  FIBER YIELDING PLANTS Fibers of plant origin were used by man since time immemorial to meet basic requirements of clothing, storage, building material and for items of daily use such as ropes and fishing nets. Forests have been the traditional source for supplying fibers and flosses for rural population. People in the Western Himalayan region also use a variety of fiber yielding plants and these plant fibers are preferred due to its easy availability, durability and flexibility. Though a variety of plants are known to yield fibers, only a few have commercial importance, the rest being collected only in limited quantities for local use and underutilized. The majority of plants yielding useful fibers belong to the families Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Leguminosae, Asclepiadaceae, Ulmaceae, Moraceae and Urticaceae. However, indigenous knowledge of extraction, processing and practice of using of natural fibers has diminished to a great extent due to easy availability of cheap synthetic fibers. Since information on various fibers yielding plants is needed for maximum utilization and to improve the socio-economic status of local people by supporting livelihood and income generation opportunity, various authors have documented the fiber yielding plants in the region (Gaur and Nautiyal, 1993; Pandey and Gupta, 2003; Prjapati, 2004, 2005; Bisht et al., 2005; Anonymous, 2010; Negi et al., 2010; Kholiya et al., 2011). Lepcha et al. (2009) recorded 70 common fiber yielding plants of North-West Himalayas with special reference to Uttarakhand. The GB Pant Institute of Himalayan

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Environment & Development, Almora, Uttarakhand documented 134 fiber yielding plants from Indian Himalayan region (Anonymous, 2010). Status and potential of natural fiber-based products in the Central Himalayan region of India along with enterprise development was discussed by Palni et al. (1999). The physical and chemical characteristics of fibers obtained from Girardinia heterophylla (Dans Kandali) in Pipal Koti Chamoli, Bhimtala and Munsiyari clusters in Uttarakhand, India was studied by Bahuguna et al. (2010). They also reported that the spinned fiber can be used for making various products such as carpets, ropes, shawls, etc. at commercial level for improvement of livelihood status of local people. Himalayan nettle (Girardinia diversifolia) is one of the most important fiber yielding and a perennial plant found growing in temperate and sub tropical Himalayas (1200–2900 m). Himalayan nettle is locally referred as Bichu ghass, Nilgiri, Kandali and Dolan. This plant produces a fine, soft, silky fiber which is used for making ropes and twine. Due to the difficulties and high cost of collecting and cleaning the fiber is not commercially exploited in large scale (Bahuguna et al., 2010). Hibiscus cannabinus locally known as ‘Sann’ in Uttarakhand is another important fiber crop cultivated as a mixed crop during rainy season in rain-fed agriculture for fiber at altitudes ranging from 1200 to 2000 m.s.l. in mountainous regions of Uttarakhand (Negi et al., 2010). Grewia optiva is also a very important fiber yielding species of lower regions of western Himalayas. The fiber obtained is mainly used for making ropes and baskets. Fibers from Cannabis sativa are also used for making ropes.

9.5  DYE YIELDING PLANTS The indigenous people living in the higher elevations of the western Himalayan region depend on woolen garments to withstand the extreme cold. Coloring and dyeing of woolen garments using plant-based dyes is one of the indigenous practices of the people in the region. Apart from coloring the woolen garments people use the plant-based dyes for various other day-to-day uses. Owing to their nontoxic effects, they are also used for coloring various food products. Although indigenous knowledge system has been practiced over the years in the past, the use of natural dyes has diminished over generations due to lack of documentation. These dye-yielding

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plants are distributed throughout different altitudinal zones of North western Himalaya. Dyes are the natural or synthetic compounds used to add a color to or change the color of materials. The majority of natural dyes are made from plant parts such as leaves, flowers, roots, berries, bark, rhizomes, tubers, shoots, sap and wood (Rashid, 2013; Yadav et al., 2014). The amount of dye present in the plants varies greatly depending on the season as well as age of the plants. There are also several factors which influence the content of the dye in each dye-yielding plant. Several authors have documented the dyeyielding plants in the North Western Himalaya (Atkinson, 1882; Joshi and Pande, 1999; Singh and Kumar, 2000; Kala, 2002; Roy et al., 2002; Singh 2006; Gaur, 2008; Sharma et al., 2012; Rashid, 2013). The status of natural dyes and dye yielding plants in India with emphasis on the availability of natural dyes, their extraction, applications, mordant types, advantages and disadvantages are discussed by Siva (2007). Twenty plant species used for preparing dyes by the Gaddi tribes of Himachal Pradesh was documented by Singh and Kumar (2000). Similarly Indigenous knowledge of making natural dye from native plant species by the Bhotiya tribal community of high-altitude Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal was documented by Kala (2002). He recorded a total of eight plant species, namely Rheum australe (Dolu), Rumex nepalensis (Khukhuyinya), Berberis spp. (Kingod), Juglans regia (Akhrot), Corylus jacquamontii (Kapasi), Rheum moorcroftianum (Archa), Geranium nepalense and a few lichens. The indigenous methods of dyeing and coloring in the woolen-based traditional cottage industry in the higher Himalayan region of Kumaun Himalaya were discussed by Roy et al. (2002). Gaur (2008) also documented dye yielding plants from Uttarakhand, he reported 106 dye yielding plants belonging to 63 families from Uttarakhand, along with their vernacular names, habit, part(s) used, nature of dye and distribution. Recently Sharma et al. (2012) reported 46 dye yielding plats belonging to 33 families from Garhwal Himalaya along with traditional method of extraction and processing of dye. They also reported some common plants used for preparation of ink such as Acacia catechu, A. nilotica, Emblica officinalis, Hedychium spicatum, Juglans regia, Punica granatum and Terminalia chebula. Natural dye yielding plants are also reported from District Rajouri, Jammu & Kashmir by Rashid (2013) and he reported fortyeight dye yielding plant species belonging to twenty-seven families. In addition to their dye-yielding characteristics, some of these plants also possess medicinal value.

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9.6  TIMBER YIELDING PLANTS Traditionally people in the North-western Himalaya dependent on forests for timber wood and most of their houses were totally made up of wooden logs. The major timber wood species included Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Juglans regia, Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana, Quercus spp, etc. The pine wood is traditionally used as a source of durable timber in the region. Deodar (Cedrus deodara) has been used since times immemorial in the construction of temples and farm houses in the hills. Till a few decades back, Deodar wood was highly sought after for railway sleepers. However, this use has since been discontinued in the interest of conservation of the species. In Himachal Pradesh, the local people have rights to get timber and it is granted to right holders, who have their recorded rights in the concerned traditional forests settlements. Timber is granted for construction, repairs, addition or alternation of residential houses, cow sheds and for domestic uses. For construction of new house 7 cubic meter standing volume is granted once in fifteen years, while three cubic meters standing volume is granted to repair or alternation work once in five years (Source: Himachal Pradesh State Forest Development Corporation Limited). 9.7  AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS The main occupation of people of North Western Himalayas is traditional agriculture which acts a major source of income. Agricultural practices require certain traditional techniques including tools and implements due to steep and hilly terrain comprising of shallow and stony soils. Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Q. floribunda and Rhododendron arboreum are used for making the plow. Stem of Cotoneaster bacillaris, Pyrecantha crenulata, Carpinus viminea, Juglans regia, Pyrus pashia and Prunus cerasoides are used for handles of pick axe, plow, axe and scythe. Species such as Aesculus indica, Pistacia integerrima, Litsea umbrosa, Prunus persica, etc. are also used for making agricultural implements (Arya, 2014). 9.8  FUEL-WOOD SPECIES Fuel wood gathered from the forests, either by lopping branches, collecting fallen wood or cutting down dry and diseased trees, is the most common source

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of domestic energy in the rural areas of the region. Local people in cold desert areas depend for fuel wood on the plants growing in the area. They uproot and dry the shrubby species of Lonicera, Rosa, Salix, Caragana, Hippophae rhamnoides, Myricaria, Ephedra, etc. resulting into a loss of vegetal cover. 9.9  HILL BAMBOOS Hill Bamboos locally known as Nirgal or Naghal form a very versatile raw material with varied uses. It is represented by Sinarundianaria falcata (Syn. Arundinaria falcata) and Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Syn. Arundianria falcata) (Collett, 1902; Polunin and Stainton, 1984). These species are mainly used in basketry that contributes significantly to the livelihood of rural households engaged in basket weaving. The culms are exported from the state for making fishing rods and ‘hookah’ pipes. Beside these bamboos are used as roofing material for temporary hutments, fodder, live hedges for protection and stakes for local cash crops (Goraya et al., 2008). 9.10 WICKER Wicker is a material made of plant stalks, branches or shoots formed by a kind of weaving into a rigid material, most often used for baskets or furniture. In rural areas of western Himalaya, the practice of making wicker is prevalent in Jammu & Kashmir. Indigofera, Cotoneaster, Parrotia jacquemontiana and Salix spp are mostly used for making wicker. Kangri (firepot) is the most important article made out of osiers of these species. Baskets and other decorative items are made out of osiers of Salix spp. 9.11  RESIN AND ESSENTIAL OIL YIELDING PLANTS In western Himalayan region, Chir pine is the primary species commercially tapped for oleoresin. Oleoresin is commercially extracted by Forest Corporation of State forest department. In Himachal Pradesh, the Himachal Pradesh State Forest Development Corporation Limited has introduced the Rill method of extraction of resin from the tree. Two Rosin and Turpentine factories at Nahan and Bilaspur are being managed by the corporation for the processing of resin extracted from Chirpine (Himachal Pradesh State Forest Development Corporation Limited).

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The alpha-pinene and beta-pinene constituents of turpentine are the starting material of a wide range of fragrance, flavors, vitamins and polyterpene resins and form the basis of a substantial and growing chemical industry. Rosin is chiefly used in paper, soaps, detergents, cosmetics, paints, varnish, rubber and polish industries (Sharma and Lekha, 2013). The oleo-resin of deodar (Cedrus deodara) and the dark colored oil obtained after destructive distillation of the wood are valued as a cure for ulcers and skin diseases. The principal constituent of oil is sesquiterpene. Deodar oil is also used for rubbing on the inflated hides for crossing rivers. Deodar oil is in high demand in perfumery and soap industries. As its needles are available in large quantities, they can also be exploited for large scale distillation of essential oils. Besides, other species such as Eucalyptus spp, Mentha spp, Pelargonium graveolens and grasses such as Cymbopogon martini, C. flexuosus, Vetiveria zizanoides, etc. are also utilized for essential oils. Nardostachys jatamansi, Valeriana jatamansi and Saussurea costus are important source of root essential oils. Jasminum officinale and Rosa spp yield good quality of essential oils, which are mainly used in cosmetic industry. 9.12  PLANTS USED AS BIO-FENCE The indigenous people in the region, to avoid livestock grazing and wild animal, plant suitable plant species either as live plant or dead part around their agricultural fields. Mostly plant species having spines, thorns, unpalatable leaves or frequent branching are mostly preferred over others because they provide effective protection against cattle or wild animals. Sharma and Usha (2013) recorded 61 plants used as bio-fence in Himachal Pradesh. 9.13  SOAP YIELDING PLANTS The indigenous people in the area heavily depended on plant products for their body cleanliness, washing clothes, utensils and oral hygiene. They rely on plant based products for bathing and washing purposes during those days when inorganic soap and detergents were not easily accessible to common people in some of the remote areas in North-Western Himalayan region. The plant based products and ashes of plant parts which were used as fuel wood were used for bathing and washing (Metha and Bhatt, 2007; Rawat and Kharwal, 2010; Sharma et al., 2014).

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9.14  SACRED PLANTS People in western Himalaya worship and revere certain plants which were traditionally revered and therefore never cut. Such traditional and cultural attitudes have made significant contributions to the protection and conservation of various species of trees and plants in western Himalaya. Sacred groves and sacred plants are being considered as an important component in all societies of western Himalaya. The history of sacred grove and sacred plants may be traced back to Vedic periods, the Ramayan period and the Buddha period. Unfortunately the number of groves is declining as social values and religious beliefs are changing due to modernization, urbanization, and loss of faith in traditions and culture. Among the sacred plants, the Deodar (Cedrus deodara) also known as ‘Diar’ (Kashmir) and ‘Kelon’ (Himachal Pradesh and Jaunsar, Uttarakhand), is a highly sacred tree of the hills. It is considered as “The Tree of Gods.” Deodar finds frequent mention in old Sanskrit literature and is referred to as ‘Devadaru’ or ‘Deodaru’. This tree is considered as the most sacred to Lord Mahadeva and it is usual to find magnificent Deodar groves and trees in excellent state of preservation along temples dedicated to this deity in the Himalayas. 9.15  OTHER NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN THE REGION The region harbors a large variety of miscellaneous NTFP species that are collected by its people for self-use or sale to generate a part of their annual income. Some of the important species are also discussed here. 9.15.1 KUTH (SAUSSUREA COSTUS) Saussurea costus locally known as Kuth is an endemic species to limited part of the western Himalayas and grows on moist slopes at altitudes of 2600– 4000 m (Shah, 2006). In India, S. costus is recorded as naturally growing in the Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. In Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, the species has been under cultivation since the 1920s (Butola and Samant, 2010; Kuniyal et al., 2005). The species has been used in traditional healthcare systems of the region since times immemorial. The oil extracted from the roots is known as Costus oil, which is used

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in high-grade perfumes and in the preparation of hair oil. In the Himalayan states of India, the roots are used as insecticide to protect shawls and woolen fabrics, and as incense. In the Lahaul and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh, the dried leaves of S. costus are smoked as tobacco and the upper parts of its plants are used as fuel and fodder (Butola and Samant, 2010). 9.15.2  HOPS CULTIVATION IN LAHAUL VALLEY Humulus lupulus commonly known as Hops is a species of flowering plant in the Cannabaceae family, native to Europe, western Asia and North America. Hops have emerged as one of the main cash crops of the area and are being cultivated in Lahaul Valley of Himachal Pradesh. The female flower clusters, commonly known as cones or strobili are primarily used as a flavoring and stability agent in beer. 9.15.3  SAFFRON AND WILLOW Saffron (Crocus sativus) is being cultivated in limited geographical area in Kashmir region. Role of saffron, in enriching the local cuisine, its medicinal value and its use in important religious rituals is well known. Salix spp are used for preparing cricket bats in some parts of Kashmir. In the present chapter the details regarding some of the important traditional useful plants that are being used by the indigenous people in NorthWestern Himalayan region of India are listed with their botanical names, parts used, purpose of use in Table 9.1 (also see, Figures 1 and 2). KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• •• ••

ethnobotany fodder fiber yielding plants dye yielding plants timber sacred plants

370

FIGURE 9.1

Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species

FIGURE 9.2

371

Wood – timber

Fir, Tosh

Ratti

Khair

Wattle

Phulae

Babul

Maple

Maple

Mandur, MalaPang

Maple

Buthkanda, Puthkanda, Latjiri

Buthkanda, Latjiri

Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle

Abrus precatorius L.

Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd.

Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.

Acacia modesta Wall.

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Brenan

Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis

Acer oblongum Wall. ex DC.

Acer pectinatum Wall. ex G. Nicholson

Acer villosum Wall.

Achyranthes aspera L.

Achyranthes bidentata Blume

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Samant et al., 2007

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007

Anon. 1972; Samant et al., 2007

Gaur, 2008; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Sharma et al., 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Singh et al., 2008

Anon. 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Gaur, 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Sharma et al., 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Gaur, 2008; Sharma et al., 2012

Anon., 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Leaves – fodder; whole plant – black brown dye

Samant et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012

Leaves – for evil spirits, sacred plant, Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Sharma et al., fodder; whole plant – black brown dye 2012; Samant et al., 2007; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – religious and sacred

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder; wood – timber

Wood – timber, tannin; fruit – tannin; fruit rind and gum – black dye

Young branches – fodder

Bark – dye

Wood – agricultural implements; bark, stem and fruits, dark brown dye, tannin

Seeds – black dye

Leaves – fodder

Abelia triflora R.Br. ex Wall.

Uses

1.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1  Ethnobotanically useful plants of Western Himalayas

372 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fodder Leaves and fruits – sacred

Wood – timber; leaves – fodder; stem – gum Wood – timber

Bail, Bael, Bilpatri

Khanor

Kawarpatta

Ghaas

Maharukh

Akola, Ankol

Siris, Oayee

Siris, Sirinh

Gulkhaida

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.

Agave americana L.

Agrostis munroana Aitch., & Hemsl.

Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle

Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin

Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr.

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.

Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. Siris, Safed siris

Alsinia

Aechmanthera gossypina (Wall.) Nees

Albizzia julibrissin Durazz.

Alcea rosea L.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

Flowers – red dye

Leaves and young branches – fodder; wood – timber; bark – dye and tannin

Leaves – fodder; wood – timber; stem – gum

Leaves – fodder

Wood – timber

Aerial parts – fodder

Leaves – fiber, soap

Wood – timber; leaves – fodder; fruits – soap

Rhizome – essential oil, insecticide

Bach, Barian

Acorus calamus L.

14.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Anon. 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Arya et al., 2011; Rashid and Sharma, 2012;

Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Samant et al., 2007

Anon., 1972

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Anthwal et al., 2006; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007

Bhatia et al., 2014

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 373

Leaves – fodder Inflorescence – ornamentals Aerial parts – fodder

Whole plant – incense Leaves – sacred plant

Alder, Kunish, Utees

Champ

Kawargandal

Paralia

Bakli, Dhau, Dhawa, Dhawra, or Dhaora

Tachhla

Ghaas

Ratanjot

Chhambar

Dhoop or Kunju

Alnus nepalensis D.Don

Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl.

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.

Ampelocissus rugosa (Wall.) Planch.

Anaphalis nubigena DC.

Andropogon munroi C. B.Clarke

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill., & Perr.

Apluda mutica L.

Arabidopsis himalaica (Edgew.) O. E. Schulz

Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth.) I. M. Johnson

Artemisia absinthium L.

Artemisia indica Willd.

Artemisia japonica Thunb.

Arthromeris wallichiana (Spreng.) Ching

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Fronds – fodder

Leaves – brown dye

Roots – dyeing

Leaves – fodder

Aerial parts – fodder

Leaves – fodder, tannin; stem – gum

Whole plant – red dye

Leaves and young branches – fodder

Wood – timber; leaves – fodder; bark – dye

Leaves, fruit – dyes

Ganda, Piyaz

Allium cepa L.

27.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Gaur and Bhatt, 1994

Sharma et al., 2012

Singh et al., 2008

Sood et al., 2001

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Chandra et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008

Arya et al., 2011

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Anon. 1972; Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Arya et al., 2011

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Reference

374 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fodder

Tuber – soap Whole plant – sacred plant

Aerial parts – fuel wood; leaf paste – soap Leaves – fodder

Roots – fodder Young fronds – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Bans

Rattphul

Sainspaur, Chitti-musli

Satawar, Satmuli

Ghaas

Keechu, Zoomshing

Asclepias curassavica L

Asparagus adscendens Roxb.

Asparagus filicinus BuchHam. ex D.Don

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl.

Astragalus grahamianus Royle Rangchawag ex Benth.

Ghaas

Arundinella pumila (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Steud.

Astragalus himalayanus Klotzsch

Astragalus marschallianus Fisch.

Astragalus rhizanthus Royle ex Benth.

Athyrium schimperi Moug. ex Fee

Atylosia mollis Benth.

Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

Entire plant – fuel wood

Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – religious and rituals plant

Whole plant – fodder during scarcity

Leaves – fodder

Arundinella nepalensis Trin.

Uses

42.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Gaur and Bhatt, 1994

Sood et al., 2001

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Singh et al., 2008

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 375

Ghaas

Karyal, Kachnar

Kachnar

Semla

Tehar, Maalu, Malo

Kachnar, Kalari, Koral, Karyal

Kashmal, Kilmor Bark and roots – yellow dye; leaves – fodder

Kashmal

Kashmal

Kashmal, Daruhaldi

Kashmal

Barleria cristata L.

Bauhinia purpurea L.

Bauhinia racemosa Lam.

Bauhinia semla Wunderlin

Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.

Bauhinia variegata L.

Berberis aristata DC.

Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.

Berberis chitria Lindl.

Berberis lycium Royle

Berberis petiolaris Wall. ex G.Don

Berchemia lineata DC.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Roots – yellow dye; stem, bark – tannins; leaves – fodder

Roots – yellow dye

Roots – yellow dye; leaves – fodder

Flowers – purple dye; leaves – fodder; stem – gum

Bark – soap; branches – fuel wood; stem – fiber; leaves – fodder

Branches – fuel wood; leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Wood – timber; Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Culm – timber

Bainj

Bambusa nutans Wall. ex Munro

56.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Rashid, 2013

Singh et al., 2008; Kala, 2002

Samant et al., 2007; Roy et al., 2002

Singh et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012; Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Arya et al., 2011; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Chandra et al., 2008; Samant et al., 2007; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Samant et al., 2007

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Reference

376 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Bhoijpatra, Bhuj, Sacred tree; wood – timber; leaves Shah-pang – fodder; stem – fiber; tree – gum – brown colored dye. Leaves – fodder; stem – fiber Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Kandili jari

False nettle

Simbal, Sembal

Malchu

Betula utilis D.Don

Bidens bipinnata L.

Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem.

Boehmeria rugulosa Wedd.

Bombax ceiba L.

Brachiaria villosa (Lam.) A. Camus

Brassaiopsis aculeata (Buch.Ham. ex D.Don) Seem.

Bridelia montana (Roxb.) Willd.

Buddleja asiatica Lour.

Buddleja paniculata Wall.

Bupleurum candollei Wall. ex DC.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

Ghaas

Chindarai

Leaves – fodder; stem – fiber

Saur, Bhoijpatra, Bhuj,Shah-pang, Indian birch

Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

70.

Aerial parts – fodder

Wood – timber; leaves – fodder; flowers – red dye; fruits – fiber

Fruit – fodder

Dried rootstock and leaves – fuel wood

Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f., & Patharthod Thomson) Engl.

Uses

69.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011

Anon. 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Arya et al., 2011; Srivastava et al., 2014; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008

Bhatia et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Singh et al., 2008; Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Singh et al., 2008; Arya et al., 2011; Samant et al., 2007

Sood et al., 2001

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 377

Leaves and twigs – sacred; bark – fiber

Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – religious and rituals Anon., 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Sharma plant; wood – agricultural implements, et al., 2012; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; tannin; bark and pods – brown and Jarngal and Katoch, 2014 black dye Leaves – fodder Whole plant – sacred

Aak, Chiti aak

Nashi-uch

Bhang

Ghaas

Chimkharik

Tolo

Chinkapin

Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.

Caltha palustris L.

Cannabis sativa L.

Carex nubigena D.Don

Carpinus viminea Lindl.

Casearia glomerata Roxb.

Cassia fistula L.

Cassia floribunda Collad.

Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D.Don

Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A.DC.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

Amaltash, Karongal

Leaves – fodder

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Roots – brown dye; stem – fiber; leaves – sacred, fodder

Whole plant – sacred

Samant et al., 2007

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011; Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Kala, 2002; Sood et al., 2001; Singh et al., 2008; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Singh et al., 2014

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Singh et al., 2008; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Singh et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Chandra et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Arya et al., 2011; Sharma et al., 2012; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Surinderkumar et al., 2004;

83.

Sacred plant; wood – timber; branches – fuel wood; leaves – fodder, plates used in various religious rituals; stem – fiber; flowers – yellow orange dye

Plash, Dhak, Palah, Mowa

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

Reference

82.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

378 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Aerial parts – fodder Stem – fiber; leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves and young twigs – fodder Stem – fiber

Khadki

Lasoora

Chimonobambusa jaunsarensis (Gamble) Bahadur & H. B.Naithani

Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov.

Cissampelos pareira L.

Clematis buchananiana DC.

Clematis grata Wall.

Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. Chanda ex DC.

Singi booti

Celtis australis L.

Corchorus aestuans L.

Cordia dichotoma Forst.f.

Cordia obliqua Willd.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

Berkalu

Golda, Manila, Sialmi

Leaves – Fodder

Deodar, Devdar, Diyar, Kalon, Dedar

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don.) G. Don

95.

Singh et al., 2008

Reference

Leaves – fodder

Leaves and young branches – fodder

Wood – timber; branches – fuel wood; leaves – fodder

Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Singh et al., 2014

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2014

Chandra et al., 2008; Arya et al., 2011

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Chandra et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Arya et al., 2011; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Sacred tree, used in religious Anon., 1972; Anthwal et al., 2006; ceremony; wood – timber, essential oil Singh et al., 2008; Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Fruit – tannin

Raada

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng.

94.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 379

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Leaves and young branches – fodder Leaves – fodder Stem – agricultural implements

Leaves – fodder Leaves – essential oil

Masori, Gangra

Ghaas

Hazel nut, Kapasi

Riunsh

Chuti-uch

Cypress, Surai

Sirla

Lemon grass

Ginger grass

Doob, Dhurb

Coriaria nepalensis Wall.

Cornus capitata Wall.

Cortia depressa (D.Don) Norman

Corylus jacquemontii Decne.

Cotinus coggygria Scop.

Cotoneaster affinis Lindl.

Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall. ex Lindl

Cremanthodium arnicoides (DC.ex Royle) R.Good

Cupressus torulosa D. Don

Cyathula capitata Moq.

Cyathula tomentosa Moq.

Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats.

Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

107.

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

117.

118.

119.

120.

Aerial parts – in religious ceremonies

Leaves – essential oil

Leaves – fodder

Wood – timber, fiber; needles – green dye

Whole plant – sacred

Leaves – fodder; fruit cover – camel dye

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Bairola

Cordia vestita (A.DC.) Hook.f., & Thomson

106.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Anthwal et al., 2006; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Singh et al., 2008

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Anon., 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007; Kala, 2002

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

380 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves, seeds and fruit – in religious ceremonies Branches – fuel wood; leaves – fodder

Tali, Shishan

Chavan, Gandiri

Bujr pang

Shisharu

Syanru

Siyaru

Donang-uch

Maggar

Bans

Sakina

Chamlai

Dalbergia sissoo DC.

Daphne papyracea Wall. ex Steud.

Datisca cannabina L.

Datura stramonium L.

Debregeasia hypoleuca (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Wedd.

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd.

Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) Rendle

Delphinium brunonianum Royle

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Munro

Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees

Desmodium concinnum DC.

Desmodium elegans DC.

122.

123.

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

129.

130.

131.

132.

133.

Leaves and young branches – fodder

Young branches – fodder

Culms – used in funeral ceremony; leaves – fodder

Culm – timber

Whole plant – sacred

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Roots – yellowish – red dye

Whole plant – sacred; stem – fiber; bark and fruits – dark red dye

Wood – timber, agricultural implements; leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Shisham

Dalbergia sericea G.Don

121.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007; Rashid and Sharma, 2012 Arya et al., 2011

Arya et al., 2011

Samant et al., 2007; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011 Samant et al., 2007

Chandra et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2008

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Singh et al., 2008; Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Anon., 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 381

Leaves and young branches – fodder; seed – purple dye

Leaves – fodder Whole plant – greenish dye Leaves – fodder Rhizome – soap

Young fronds – manure Bark – soap; leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Patioy

Sandan

Grass

Genthi

Sigli-mingli

Desmodium oojeinense (Roxb.) H.Ohashi

Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf

Deutzia staminea R.Br. ex Wall.

Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) Ban patrang I. Darbysh.

Tarur

Desmodium multiflorum DC.

Dicliptera roxburghiana Nees

Dioscorea belophylla L.

Dioscorea bulbifera L.

Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth.

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) Butter tree H. J.Lam

Dodecadenia grandiflora Nees

135.

136.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

145.

146.

Anon., 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Chandra et al., 2008; Arya et al., 2011; Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Rhizome – dye and tannins

Rhizome – soap

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Samant et al., 2007

Gaur and Bhatt, 1994

Singh et al., 2008

Singh et al., 2008

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Whole plant – in religious ceremonies, Anthwal et al., 2006; Rashid and sacred Sharma, 2012

Wood – agricultural implements; branches – fuel wood, fiber; leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC.

Uses

134.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

382 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fiber

Leaves – fodder Wood – timber

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Somlata

Ghass

Paryara, Madar, Daul dhak

Grass

Kala Chindwara

Doodhli

Dudli

Morgu

Bar, Bargad, Bor

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf.

Epilobium angustifolium L.

Eriophorum comosum (Wall.) Nees

Erythrina suberosa Roxb.

Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C. E.Hubb.

Euonymus tingens Wall.

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Euphorbia stracheyi Boiss.

Eurya acuminata DC.

Fagus grandiflora Ehrh.

Ficus benghalensis L.

Ficus hispida L.f.

Ficus nemoralis Wall. ex Miq.

149.

150.

151.

152.

153.

154.

155.

156.

157.

158.

159.

160.

161.

Thelka

Roots – soap

Bhankar

Ehretia laevis Roxb.

148.

Whole plant – sacred; stem – fiber; Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – yellow dye

Whole plant – sacred

Leaves – fiber

Wood – timber; stem – fiber; bark and flowers – dark Brown dye

Branches – toothbrush

Wood – timber; leaves – fodder

Wood – timber; leaves – fodder

Punna

Ehretia acuminata R. Br.

147.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Arya et al., 2011; Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Samant et al., 2007; Anthwal et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2008; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Singh et al., 2008

Singh et al., 2008 Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Singh et al., 2014

Sood et al., 2001

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Samant et al., 2007; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 383

Leaves – fodder Religious plant; leaves – fodder; bark – reddish, pale brown dye

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Wood – in religious and rituals; leaves – fodder Wood – timber; branches – fuel wood; leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder Wood – poles, plows, carts

Pipal, Brahma, Peepal

Timila, Tyamal

Kandai, Kangu

Buor

Ficus racemosa L.

Ficus religiosa L.

Ficus roxburghii Wall. ex Miq.

Ficus rumphii Blume

Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.

Ficus semicordata Miq.

Ficus squamosa Roxb.

Ficus virens Aiton

Flacourtia ramontchi L’ Herit

Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr.

Flemingia semialata Roxb.

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides (Wall. ex G.Don) A.DC.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

172.

173.

174.

175.

Ash

Khaina

Leaves – fodder

Ficus pumila L.

163.

Leaves, bark – black dye

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Bedu, Fegda, Phagwara

Ficus palmata Forssk.

162.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Chandra et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Arya et al., 2011; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Arya et al., 2011

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Arya et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007; Anthwal et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2008; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Rashid, 2013; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011 Samant et al., 2007; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Reference

384 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Local name

Piploo

Banda

Syunli

Kupar

Dang

Samma

Dhaman, Farsain

Bhimal

Bhimal, Buel, Dhaman

Daman

Kadam

Kapoor Kachri, Bagaldu

Kumaria

Botanical name

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Geranium napalense Sweet

Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet

Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Beauv.

Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Fris

Glochidion velutinum Wight

Grewia eriocarpa Juss.

Grewia oppositifolia Buch.Ham. ex Roxb.

Grewia optiva Drumm. ex Burr.

Grewia tiliifolia Vahl

Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd.

Hedychium spicatum Sm.

Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem., & Schult.

S.No

176.

177.

178.

179.

180.

181.

182.

183.

184.

185.

186.

187.

188.

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Aerial parts – fodder

Rhizome – yellow dye; leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Stem – fiber

Branches – fuel wood; stem – fibers; bark – soap; leaves – fodder; Fruits – yellow orange dye

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Wood – timber; leaves – fodder

Stem – fiber

Leaves – fibers

Roots – red – brown dye

Root – red dye

Whole plant – fodder

Uses

Arya et al., 2011

Samant et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Chandra et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Arya et al., 2011

Arya et al., 2011; Samant et al., 2007

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2014

Singh et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2012

Kala, 2002; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 385

Leaves and twigs – fodder Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – sacred; leaves – yellow, Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Jarngal and red dye; seeds – used in rituals Katoch, 2014; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Leaves – fodder Flowers – red dye

Jau, Jav, Cha

Hops

Gulmehndi

Siro

Kathi

Kathi

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don

Holboellia angustifolia Wall.

Hordeum vulgare L.

Humulus lupulus L.

Hymenopogon parasiticus Wall.

Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy

Ilex dipyrena Wall.

Impatiens balsamina L.

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.

Indigofera atropurpurea Sessé & Moc.

Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex. DC.

191.

192.

193.

194.

195.

196.

197.

198.

199.

200.

201.

Leaves – fodder

Stem – fiber

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Banbakri, Basant Leaves – fodder; flowers – yellow dye

Kayor

Leaves – fodder

Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011; Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Sood et al., 2001

190.

Branches – fencing, fuel wood

Seabuckthorn, Tasru, Bautphut, Miles, Sirma, Tsarap

Hippophae rhamnoides L. subsp. turkestanica Ronsi

Reference

189.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

386 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fodder Roots – incense Leaves and twigs – fodder Leaves – fodder Flowers – essential oil Wood – agricultural implements, furniture, in traditional carvings, timber; bark – in religious and holy fires; brown, black dye; roots – dark violet dye

Whole plant – sacred Whole plant – sacred

Akhrot

Ghaas

Dhoop

Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) DC.

Inula racemosa Hook.f.

Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd

Jasminum dispermum Wall.

Jasminum officinale L.

Juglans regia L.

Juncus himalensis Klotzsch

Juniperus macropoda Boiss.

Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. Shur-pang ex D.Don

Juniperus squamata Buch.Ham. ex D.Don

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

210.

211.

212.

213.

Thelo

Whole plant – sacred; wood – timber; leaves – incense

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder, dye

Indigofera heterantha Wall.

203.

Kathi

Leaves – fodder

Indigofera gerardiana Graham Kathi ex Baker

Uses

202.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Anon., 1972; Sood et al., 2001; Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Sood et al., 2001; Kala, 2002; Roy et al., 2002; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Sharma et al., 2012; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 387

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder; wood – timber Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder; branches – writing pens Leaves – fodder

Ghaas

Pulla

Dhaura

Kalminia, Kaimbla, Jhingan

Laaltan

Mehndi

Kobresia duthiei C. B.Clarke

Kydia calycina Roxb.

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Lantana camara L.

Lawsonia inermis L.

Leptodermis lanceolata Wall.

Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers.

Litsea monticola Gamble

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude

Machilus duthiei King

216.

217.

218.

219.

220.

221.

222.

223.

224.

225.

226.

227.

Ayar, Oon

Kadwi, Gwaun

Vasik, Basuti

Justicia adhatoda L.

215.

Wood – timber

Leaves – yellow – orange dye and tannins

Stem – fiber; whole plant – fuel wood

Stem – fiber; resin – yellow – brown dye

Bark – black dye

Leaves – fodder

Aerial part – fodder

Leaves – yellow – green dye, ripening agent

Roots – sacred, incense, religious ceremonies

Dhoop, Guggal

Jurinea macrocephala (DC.) Benth.

214.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Arya et al., 2011; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007; Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Singh et al., 2014; Chandra et al., 2008

Singh et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Sharma et al., 2012

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Reference

388 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Stem bark – fiber Branch – fuel wood; stem – gum; leaves – sacred; wood – timber bark – black dye

Whole plant – forage Stem – agricultural implements; leaves – fodder; fruit and seeds – insecticidal; wood – timber Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Aam

Vitti Bel

Ghaas

Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.

Malvastrum coromandelianum L.

Mangifera indica L.

Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon

Meconopsis aculeata Royle

Medicago sativa L.

Melia azedarach L.

Meliosma dilleniifolia (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Walp.

Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. var. pungens (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Beus.

230.

231.

232.

233.

234.

235.

236.

237.

238.

Darek

Leaves – fodder

Kamal, Kameela, Fruit – red – orange dye; leaves – Ruina, Rani fodder; branches – fuel wood

Maesa indica (Roxb.) A. DC.

229.

Leaves – fodder

Stem – fiber

Leaves – fodder

Mahaua

Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Macbr. var. latifolia (Roxb.) A. Chev.

228.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Samant et al., 2007; Bhatia et al., 2014; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Chandra et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2008; Anthwal et al., 2006; Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Singh et al., 2014

Singh et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Samant et al., 2007; Chandra et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 389

Leaves – fodder Flowers – pink – red dye

Flowers – incense Leaves – fodder; leaves – yellow dye; wood – timber

Jangli Pudina

Pudina

Gulabans

Sangla, Kaim

Toot, Kimu, Shehtoot

Kanchu, Kimu, Sheltoot, Toot

Kaunch

Kaunch

Banana, Kela

Kaphal, Kafal

Humbu

Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

Mentha piperata L.

Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.

Morina coulteriana Royle

Morus alba L.

Morus serrata Roxb.

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.

Mucuna nigricans (Lour.) Steud.

Musa paradisiaca L.

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Myricaria squamosa Desv.

240.

241.

242.

243.

244.

245.

246.

247.

248.

249.

250.

251.

252.

Tree – sacred; whole plant – sacred

Bark and fruits – red – yellow dye; leaves – fodder

Leaves – sacred; whole plant; sacred

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder; wood – timber

Whole plant – sacred tree

Leaves – essential oil

Whole plant – Dark green dye; leaves – essential oil

Leaves – essential oil

Pudina

Mentha arvensis L.

239.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Sood et al., 2001; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Sharma et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2008; Samant et al., 2007

Anthwal et al., 2006; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Sood et al., 2001

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Singh et al., 2008

Reference

390 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Bark and fruits – black dye Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – fodder; leaves & flower Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Jarngal and – dye Katoch, 2014 Leaves – fodder Leaves – essential oil Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Tulsi

Kahu

Kawu

Ocimum tenuiflorum L.

Olea cuspidata Wall., & G.Don

Olea ferruginea Royle ex Aitch.

Onosma bracteata Wall.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz

Osbeckia stellata Wall.

Oxalis corniculata L.

Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch.

Pelargonium graveolens L’Her.

Pentapanax parasiticus Seem.

Persea gamblei (King ex Hook. f.) Kosterm.

255.

256.

257.

258.

259.

260.

261.

262.

263.

264.

265.

Geranium

Peeli Khatti Booti

Tantia

Roots – dye

Harshingar, Raat ki raani

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Leaves – fodder

Leaves and young twigs – fodder

Whole plant – sacred

Flowers – dye

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Sood et al., 2001

Singh et al., 2008

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Anthwal et al., 2006; Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009;

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

254.

Root and bark – dye

Lal gandira, Nerium

Nerium oleander L.

Reference

253.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 391

Leaves – fodder Acrid juice – Insecticidal

Leaves – fodder Leaves fodder

Leaves – fodder Wood – timber

Pipla

Lalnya

Kahzoor

Aonla, Amla

Spruce, Rai

Persicaria capitata (Buch.Ham. ex D.Don) H.Gross

Persicaria maculosa Gray

Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Roxb. ex Hardw.) Mabb.

Phoebe lanceolata (Nees) Nees

Phoenix humilis Royle ex Becc., & Hook.f.

Phyllanthus emblica L.

Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss.

Pilea scripta (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Wedd.

Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D.Gon

268.

269.

270.

271.

272.

273.

274.

275.

276.

Neoza

Entire plant – fodder

Persicaria alpina (All.) H.Gross

267.

Wood – timber

Whole plant –sacred; leaves – fodder; wood – timber and tannin; fruit – tannin; fruits and bark – dark brown dye

Whole plant – greenish dye

Leaves – fodder

Badrol

Persea odoratissima (Nees) Kosterm.

266.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Anon. 1972

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Sharma et al., 2012; Anthwal et al., 2006; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Bhatia et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

392 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Kail

Kakarsingi

Ghaas

Chaurdia

Ghaas

Poplar

Poplar

Poplar

Poplar

Ghaas

Ghaas

Ghaas

Pinus wallichaina A. B. Jacks.

Pistacia integerrima Stewart

Poa alpina L.

Pogonatherum paniceum (Lam.) Hack.

Polystichum lentum (D. Don) T. Moore

Populus alba L.

Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle

Populus deltoides Marshall

Populus nigra L.

Porana paniculata Roxb.

Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. ex Lehm.

Potentilla atrosanguinea G.Lodd. ex D.Don

Potentilla peduncularis D.Don

278.

279.

280.

281.

282.

283.

284.

285.

286.

287.

288.

289.

290.

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Wood – timber

Wood– timber

Leaves – fodder; wood –timber;

Leaves – fodder; wood – timber

Leaves – fodder

Grasses – fodder

Grasses – fodder

Leaves and twigs –fodder; gall – dye and tannins; leaves – fodder

Bark – black dye; stem – oleoresin wood – timber

Stem – oleoresin; needles – sacred wood – timber

Chir, Saral

Pinus roxburghii Sarg.

277.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Anon., 1972

Samant et al., 2007; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Anon., 1972

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Anon., 1972

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011

Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Singh et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Singh et al., 2008; Anthwal et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 393

Fruit – deep purple dye; leaves – fodder; whole plant – sacred

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Saia, Bhainkal

Khubani

Paiya, Pazza, Paddam

Krun, Jamun

Paja, Pazza

Aaroo, Adu

Prinsepia utilis Royle

Prunus armeniaca L.

Prunus cerasoides D.Don

Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud.

Prunus padus L.

Prunus persica (L.) Batsch

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn

Punica granatum L.

Pyracantha crenulata (D.Don) M.Roem.

Pyrus foliolosa Wall.

Pyrus lanata D.Don

292.

293.

294.

295.

296.

297.

298.

299.

300.

301.

302.

Nashpati

Anardana, Anaar, Root – dye; whole plant – sacred; Darim flower & fruits – yellow – red dye

Tender fronds – Fodder

Leaves and young twigs – fodder; leaves, bark & fruit – gray, green, yellow dye; leaves and root – tannin

Leaves – sacred

Leaves – fodder

Wood –timber; bark – dye and tannins; leaves – sacred, fodder

Leaves and young twigs – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Premna interrupta Wall. ex Schauer

Uses

291.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Surinderkumar et al., 2004; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Sharma et al., 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Gaur and Bhatt, 1994

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Singh et al., 2008

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Singh et al., 2008; Samant et al., 2007; Anthwal et al., 2006

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Rashid, 2013; Samant et al., 2007; Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

394 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Roots – yellow dye

Moru, Bani

Harinj, Bani

Ban

Baanjh, Ban

Kharsu

Dolu

Archa

Buras

Tolo-Moti

Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus

Quercus ilex L.

Quercus lanata Sm.

Quercus leucotrichophora A.Camus

Quercus semecarpifolia Sm.

Randia tetrasperma Benth., & Hook.f. ex Brand.

Rhaphidophora glauca Schott

Rheum australe D.Don

Rheum moorcroftianum Royle

Rhododendron arboreum Sm.

Rhododendron campanulatum D.Don

Rhus semialata Murray

304.

305.

306.

307.

308.

309.

310.

311.

312.

313.

314.

315.

Leaves – fodder

Wood – timber

Wood – timber flowers – red dye

Roots – yellow dye

Leaves – fodder wood – agricultural implements; wood – timber

Leaves –fodder; branches–fuel wood; leaves–fodder; bark – yellowish brown dye; stem – agricultural implements

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Wood – agricultural implements; leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder; Twigs – in funeral and religious ceremonies; fruits – dye; wood – timber

Batangi, Kainth

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

303.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Sharma et al., 2012

Kala, 2002

Kala, 2002; Roy et al., 2002

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011; Anon. 1972; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Chandra et al., 2008; Arya et al., 2011; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011

Anon., 1972; Singh et al., 2008; Arya et al., 2011; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 395

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Kikar, Robinia

Wild rose

Kuja, wild rose

Kuja, wild rose

Kuja, wild rose

Pashu-pang, Shaybala

Manjith

Akhe

Akhe

Akhe

Akhe

Almori

Khukhuyinya, Roots – yellow dye Sayama, Kathura

Ribes glaciale Wall.

Ribes rubrum L.

Robinia pseudo-acacia L.

Rosa damascena Mills.

Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Rosa moshata Mill.

Rosa sericea Lindl.

Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle

Rubia cordifolia L.

Rubus ellipticus Smith.

Rubus niveus Thunb.

Rubus paniculatus Roxb.

Rubus rosifolius Sm.

Rumex hastatus D.Don

Rumex nepalense Spreng.

Rumex patientia subsp. orientalis (Bernh. ex Schult., & Schult.f.) Danser

317.

318.

319.

320.

321.

322.

323.

324.

325.

326.

327.

328.

329.

330.

331.

332.

Leaves – dye

Leaves –fodder; roots – yellow green dye

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – red – brown dye

Leaves – fodder; whole plant – fuel wood

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Flowers – essential oil

Leaves – fodder

Tantari

Rhus succedanea L.

316.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Sood et al., 2001

Kala, 2002; Roy et al., 2002

Samant et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007; Sood et al., 2001

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011

Reference

396 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fiber

Wood – agricultural implements and fuel wood Wood – agricultural implements; leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder Roots – essential oil;

Kansh

Kansh, Munja

Salix

Bisa

Shen-bhuta

Beaunce

Bisa, Beaunce

Salix, Willow

Rentha

Pahri Tahli

Kuth

Donger

Saccharum munja Roxb.

Saccharum spontaneum L.

Salix acmophylla Boiss.

Salix alba L.

Salix denticulata Anderson

Salix fragilis L.

Salix karelinii Turcz. ex Stschegl.

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Salix wallichiana Anderson

Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.

Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth., & Hook.f.

Saurauia napaulensis DC.

Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.

Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew.

334.

335.

336.

337.

338.

339.

340.

341.

342.

343.

344.

345.

346.

347.

Leaves – sacred

Wood – timber

Fruit – dye; fruits – soap; branches and twigs – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Shoots –fodder; wood – timber

Wood – timber

Twigs – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fiber

Leaves – fodder

Sabia campanulata Wall.

Uses

333.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Roy et al., 2002; Kala, 2002; Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Sood et al., 2001

Sood et al., 2001

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2014

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 397

Leaves – fodder Stem – fiber Stem – fiber Stem – fiber Leaves – fodder stem – timber

Phalli

Til

Sal

Bans

Nayr

Smilax

Smilax

Smilax

Kayan kothi, Mikoi

Makoi

Dudoli

Mauli

Senna tora (L.) Roxb.

Sesamum indicum L.

Shorea robusta Gaertn.

Shuteria densiflora Benth.

Sida acuta Burm.f.

Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. Waalk.

Sida rhombifolia L.

Sinarundinaria falcata (Nees) Choa & Renv.

Skimmia laureola Sieb., & Zucc.

Smilax aspera L.

Smilax elegans Wall. ex Kunth

Smilax zeylanica L.

Solanum americanum Mill.

Solanum indicum L.

Sonchus arvensis L.

Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedl.

349.

350.

351.

352.

353.

354.

355.

356.

357.

358.

359.

360.

361.

362.

363.

364.

Leaves – fodder

Whole plant – forage

Fruit – dye

Seed – black dye

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – sacred

Stem – resin; wood – timber

Leaves – sacred

Seeds – black dye

Leaves – sacred

Pagu-uch, Nesar

Selinum sp.

348.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Arya et al., 2011

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Singh et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Samant et al., 2007; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Singh et al., 2014

Singh et al., 2014

Singh et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Rashid, 2013

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Reference

398 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Bark & fruit – black, purple dye; leaves and twigs –fodder; branches – fuel wood; wood – agricultural implements

Leaves – sacred Leaves – fodder

Tallan, Jamun

Fenda, Denda

Bann Gutti

Congress grass

Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers

Strobilanthes atropurpureus Nees

Strobilanthes wallichii Nees

Symplocos paniculata (Thunb.) Miq.

Symplocos ramosissima Wall. ex G. Don

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

Tagetes erecta L.

Tagetes minuta L.

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch.Bip.

Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex DC.

Taraxacum officinale Weber.

367.

368.

369.

370.

371.

372.

373.

374.

375.

376.

377.

Ghaas

Whole plant – insecticide

Flowers – yellow dye

Flowers – yellow dye

Leaves – fodder

Spiraea lindleyana Wall.

366.

Lodh

Leaves – fodder

Spiraea canescens D.Don

Uses

365.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Samant et al., 2007

Surinderkumar et al., 2004

Anon., 1972

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Sharma et al., 2012; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Chandra et al., 2008; Anon. 1972

Samant et al., 2007

Arya et al., 2011

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 399

Fronds – fodder Leaves & bark – reddish dye; wood – timber

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder

Saigon

Arjan

Bahera

Harad

Sen

Alsan

Bans

Ghaas

Ula

Tectaria macrodonta C. Chr.

Tectona grandis L.f.

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Terminalia elliptica Willd.

Terminalia tomentosa (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.

Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch.

Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Trin.) Munro

Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.) Hack.

Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) A.Camus

379.

380.

381.

382.

383.

384.

385.

386.

387.

388.

389.

Sharma et al., 2012; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Gaur and Bhatt, 1994

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Rashid and Sharma, 2012; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Reference

Aerial parts – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Wood – timber

Bark – dye

Root and bark – blue dye; leaves – fodder; fruit – tannin

Fruits – blue dye; leaves – fodder; wood – timber

Arya et al., 2011

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Singh et al., 2008

Sharma et al., 2012; Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2008

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Samant et al., 2007; Anon., 1972

Wood – tannin; bark – light brown dye Singh et al., 2008; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Rakhal, Thuno, Bark – red dye; wood and leaves – Thuner, Birmi, sacred; wood – Timber Brahmmi, Brihmmi, Sungul

Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

378.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

400 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder Whole plant – fodder Leaves – fodder Stem – fiber Wood – timber Leaves – fodder Leaves – fodder; bark – fiber Roots – brown – black dye; leaves – dye; stem – fiber

Giloye

Tooni, Tunu

Toon

Triptra

Chaptal

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers

Toona ciliata M.Roem.

Toona serrata (Royle) M. Roem.

Trachelospermum lucidum K.Schum.

Trachydium roylei Lindl.

Trema orientalis (L.) Blume

Trifolium pratense L.

Trifolium repens L.

Triumfetta pilosa Roth

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.

Ulmus racemosa D.Thomas

Ulmus wallichiana Planch.

Urena lobata L.

Urtica dioica L.

392.

393.

394.

395.

396.

397.

398.

399.

400.

401.

402.

403.

404.

405.

Bicchubuti, Kandali

Elm

Ghaas

Leaves – fodder

Pidlu

Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda

391.

Whole plant – fodder

Flowers and seeds – yellow – brown dye

Wood – timber; flower, seed, leaves – yellow, red dye

Leaves – fodder

Aerial part – fodder

Leaves – fodder

Ghaas

Thlaspi andersonii (Hook. f., & Thomson) O. E. Schulz

390.

Uses

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

Sharma et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2014

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Singh et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Bhatia et al., 2014

Bhatia et al., 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Sharma et al., 2012

Kharwal and Rawat, 2009; Anon., 1972; Jarngal and Katoch, 2014

Samant et al., 2007

Chandra et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Reference

Ethnobotany of Useful Plant Species 401

Leaves – fodder Leaves and twigs – fodder Flower and leaves – red – yellow dye; leaves – fodder; whole plant –fuel wood

Leaves – fodder; leaves –sacred; wood Samant et al., 2007; Anthwal et al., – timber 2006; Kharwal and Rawat, 2009

Vetiver grass

Tushtush

Barie, Ber, Fuadi

Berry

Viburnum cotinifolium D.Don

Vitis heyneana Roem., & Schult.

Wendlandia exserta Blanco

Wendlandia heyneana Wall. ex Wight & Arn.

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Dhai, Dhataki, Dhaula

Tirmir

Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.

Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew.

409.

410.

411.

412.

413.

414.

415.

416.

417.

Pansar

Leaves – fodder

Vishappalla

Vallaris solanacea (Roth) O. Ktze.

408.

Leaves, twigs – fodder

Whole plant – sacred tree, in religious ceremonies

Leaves – fodder

Leaves – essential oil

Leaves – fodder

Rhizomes – oil; roots – in religious ceremonies

Mushkbela, Sugandh bala

Valeriana jatamansi Jones.

407.

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Jarngal and Katoch, 2014; Chandra et al., 2008

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Samant et al., 2007

Singh et al., 2008

Samant et al., 2007

Rashid and Sharma, 2012

Samant et al., 2007

Leaves – fodder

Reference

Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Uses

406.

Local name

Botanical name

S.No

TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

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REFERENCES 1. Anonymous (1972). Indian forest utilization, Forest Research Institute and Colleges, Manager of Publications, Fibers and flosses, Vol. 2, pp. 635–644. 2. Anonymous (2010). Promising fiber-yielding plants of the Indian Himalayan Region, G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development, Almora. 3. Anthwal, A., Ramesh, C. S., & Archana, S. (2006). Sacred Groves: Traditional Way of Conserving Plant Diversity in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal. J. Ameri. Sci., 2(2), 2006, 35–38. 4. Arya, D. (2014). Plant species used as traditional agricultural implements and tools in Garwhal region of Western Himalaya. Ind. J. Sci. Res. and Tech., 22(1), 69–72. 5. Arya, D., Pal, C., Bohra, S., & Tewari, A. (2011). Use of major fodder species in oak and pine dominant zones of Garhwal Himalaya, India – A case study. E-International Scientific Research Journal, 3(3), 187–191. 6. Aswal, B. S., & Mehrotra, B. N. (1987). Ethnobotanical studies on the flora of Lahaul valley (North – West Himalaya). In: Sharma, M. R., & Gupta, B. K. (eds.), Recent Advances in Plant Sciences. Bishen Singh and Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, pp. 116–130. 7. Atkinson, E. T. (1882). The Himalayan Gazetteer, Reprinted, Vol. III. Part I. Cosmo Publications. New Delhi. 8. Badoni, A. K. (1988). Ethno-botany of hill tribes of Uttarkashi: plants used in rituals and psycho-medicinal practices. J. Himal. Studies and Regional Develop, 11–12, 103–115. 9. Bahuguna, A., Tripathi, N., & Chandra, A. (2010). Potential of Girardinia heterophylla (Dans Kandali) as a future fiber in textile/cordage industry. Indian Forester, 136(2), 271–272. 10. Balokhra, J. M. (1998). The wonderland Himachal Pradesh. H. G. Publication, New Delhi, 768p. 11. Bhatia, H., Manhas, R. K., Kumar, K., & Rani, M. (2014). Traditional knowledge on poisonous plants of Udhampur District of Jammu and Kashmir, India. J. Ethnopharmacol., 152, 207–216. 12. Bhatt, D., Joshi, G. C., & Tiwari, L. M. (2009). Culture, habitat and ethno-medicinal practices by Bhotia Tribe people of Dharchula Region of Pithoragarh District in Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, 13, 975–983. 13. Bisht, S. S., Buchar, S. K. Kothyari, B. P., & Palni, L. M. S. (2005). Biochemical changes associated with retting of Grewia bark for fiber extraction. J. Plant Biol., 32(1), 125–127. 14. Butola, J. S., & Samant, S. S. (2010). Saussurea species in Indian Himalayan Region: diversity, distribution and indigenous uses. Intern. J. Plant Biol. 1(1), 43–51. 15. Champion, H. G., & Seth, V. K. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India, Government of India. 16. Chandra, R., Soni, P., & Yadav, V. (2008). Fuel wood, fodder and livestock status in a Himalayan watershed in Mussoorie hills (Uttarakhand, India). Indian Forester, 134, 894–905. 17. Collett, H. (1902). Flora Simlensis: A handbook of the flowering plants Shimla. International Book Distributors, Dehradun. 18. Dar, G. H., Virgee, P., Kachroo, P., & Bhat, G. M. (1984). Ethnobotany of Kashmir-1 Sind Valley. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 5(3), 668–675.

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19. Dhanai, R., Negi, R. S. Parmar, M. K., & Singh, S. (2014). Fuel wood and fodder consumption pattern in Uttarakhand Himalayan Watershed. Intern. J. Environmental Biol., 4(1), 35–40. 20. Gaur, R D. (2008). Traditional dye yielding plants of Uttarakhand, India. Natural Product Radiance, 7(2), 154–165. 21. Gaur, R. D., & Bhatt, B. P. (1994). Folk utilization of some pteridophytes of Deoprayag area in Garhwal Himalaya: India. Economic Bot., 48(2), 146–151. 22. Gaur, R. D., & Nautiyal, S. (1993). A survey of fiber-yielding plants of Garhwal Himalayas. Higher Plants of Indian Subcontinent, 2, 193–208. 23. Goraya, G. S., Mohinder Pal, Kapoor, K. S., & Jishtu, V. (2008). Hill bamboosSocio-economic significance and conservation imperatives: A case study from Himachal Pradesh. Indian Forester,134(3), 351–362. 24. Hooker, J. D. (1906). A Sketch of Flora of British India. London. 25. Jarngal N., & Katoch K. N. (2014). Herbal Dye Yielding Plants of District Kathua, Jammu And Kashmir State, India. Int. Res. J. Biological Sci. 3(12), 73–79. 26. Joshi, C. S., & Pande P. C. (1999). Kumaon kala avam sanskriti mein prakritic rang: ek sarvekshan, In: P. C. Pande, D. C. Pokhriya & J. C. Bhatt (eds.), Ethnobotany of Kumaon Himalaya, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, pp. 439–447. 27. Kala, C. P. (2002). Indigenous knowledge of Bhotiya tribal community on wool dyeing and its present status in the Garhwal Himalaya, India. Curr. Sci., 83, 814–817. 28. Kaul, A. K., Karihaloo, J. L., Irshad, A., & Kiran, H. (1982). Some novel tea substitutes for Kashmir. Indian Forester, 108(4), 310–313. 29. Kharwal, A. D., & Rawat, D. S., (2012). Ethnobotanical notes on indigenous herbal shampoos of Shivalik hills, Himachal Pradesh, (India), Plant Science Feed, 2, 88–90. 30. Kharwal, Anjna D., & Rawat, D. S. (2009). Ethnobotanical Studies on Timber Resources of Himachal Pradesh (H. P.), India, Ethnobotanical Leaflets: 9 (13), 1148–1157. 31. Kholiya, R., Goel, A., & Kholiya, D. (2011). Unconventional fiber plants: a source of sustainable livelihood, Intern. J. Sci. Tech., & Management, 2(1), 27–35. 32. Kuniyal, C. P., Rawat, Y. S., Oinam, S. S., Kuniyal, J. C., & Vishvakarma, S. C. R. (2005). S. costus (Saussurea lappa) cultivation in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley, northwestern Himalaya, India: arising threats and need to revive socioeconomic values. Biodiversity and Conservation 14, 1035–1045. 33. Lal, B., Vats, S. K., Singh R. D., & Gupta A. K. (1996). Plants used as ethnomedicine and supplement food by the Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh, India, In: Jain S. K. (ed.). Ethnobiology in Human Welfare. New Delhi. 34. Lepcha, S. T. S., Bahti, S., & Kumar, A. (2009). Common fiber yielding plants of North-West Himalayas–with special reference to Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand Bamboo and Fiber Development Board (UBFDB), Dehradun. 35. Maikhuri, R. K., & Semwal, R. L., (1997). Agroforestry for rehabilitation of degraded community land: a case study in the Garhwal Himalaya, India. Intern. Tree Crop Journal, 1(9), 89–99. 36. Mani, M. S. (1974). Ecology and Biogeography of India. Junk Publishers, The Hague. 37. Meenakshi. (2002). The study on phyto-diversity of Shilly wildlife sanctuary, HP. M.Sc., Thesis, submitted to Department of Forest Products, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Nauni, Solan. 38. Metha, P. S., & Bhatt, K. C. (2007). Traditional soap and detergent yielding plants of Uttaranchal. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 6(2), 279–284.

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39. Nawchoo, A. I., & G. M. Bhat (1994). Studies on the medicinal plants used by the Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes of Jammu and Kashmir. In: Sahni, K. C. (ed.). Advances in Plant Science Research, International book distributors, Dehradun. 40. Negi Vikram, S., Maikhuri, R. K., Rawat, L. S., & Phondani, P. C. (2010). Current status and future potential of fiber yielding crop Hibiscus cannabinus L. in mountain region of central Himalaya, India. Environ. We Int. J. Sci. Tech., 87–96. 41. Negi, K. S., Tiwari, J. K., Gaur R. D., & Pant, K. C. (1993). Notes on ethnobotany of five districts of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, India. Ethnobotany, 5, 73–81. 42. Palni, L. M. S., Rikhari, Hem C., & Sharma, S. (1999). Enterprise development in natural fiber-based products – a study of the status and potential in the Central Himalayan region of India. MEI Case Study Series, 99/2, 52 pp. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal. 43. Pande, P. C., Pokhria, D. S., & Bhatt J. C. (1999). Ethnobotany of Kumaun Himalaya. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. 44. Pandey, A., & Gupta, R. (2003). Fiber yielding plants of India: Genetic resources, perspectives for collection and utilization, Natural Product Radiance, 4(2), 194–204. 45. Polunin O., & Stainton A. (1984). Flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1–580. 46. Prajapati, U. (2004). Natural fiber based livelihood developments in the hill state of Uttaranchal observations for material research and design interventions, Uttaranchal Bamboo and Fiber Development Board. pp. 1–8. 47. Prajapati, U. (2005). Possibilities with natural fiber resource of Uttaranchal: Uttaranchal Bamboo and Fiber Development Board: pp. 1–10. 48. Purohit, K., & Samant, S. S. (1995). Fodder trees and shrubs of Central Himalaya. Gyanoday Prakashan, 49. Rashid A, Sharma A. (2012). Exploration of economically important fodder plants of district Rajouri, Jammu and Kashmir state. Intern. J. Life Science and Pharma Res. 2, 144–148. 50. Rashid, A. (2013). Dye yielding plant diversity of district Rajouri, Jammu and Kashmir State-India. Int. J. Pharm. Bio. Sci., 4(1), 263–266. 51. Rawat, D., & Kharwal, A. D. (2010). Indigenous traditional method for making liquid detergent “Chhoa” from Zea mays L. In Shivalik Hills (Himachal Pradesh, India). Ethnobotanical leaflets. 14, 5–7. 52. Roy, B., Farooquee, N. A., Sharma, S., & Palni, L. M. S. (2002). Indigenous knowledge of wool dyeing: A Bhotiya practice on its way out in the higher Kumaon Himalaya, Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 1, 40–46. 53. Samant, S. S., Singh, M., Lal, M., & Pant, S. (2007). Diversity, distribution and prioritization of fodder species for conservation in Kullu District, Northwestern Himalaya, India. J. Mountain Sci., 4(3), 259–274. 54. Shah, N. C., & M. C. Joshi. (1971). An ethnobotanical study of Kumaun region of India. Econ. Bot. 25, 414–422. 55. Shah, R. (2006). Nature’s Medicinal Plants of Uttaranchal: (Herbs, Grasses and Ferns). Vol. 1 and 2. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India. 56. Sharma, A., Dangwal, L. R., & Dangwal, M. (2012). Dye Yielding plants of the Garhwal Himalaya, India: A Case Study. Intern. Res. J. Biol. Sci., 1(4), 69–72. 57. Sharma, B. D., & Rana, J. C. (1999). Traditional medicinal uses of plants of Himachal hills. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 23(1), 173–176.

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58. Sharma, B. D., Singh, L., & Kaur, M. J. (2014). Traditional Soap and detergents yielding plants and animal materials of Himachal Himalaya. J. Non-Timber Forest Products, 21(2),75–80. 59. Sharma, K. R., & Lekha, C. (2013). Tapping of Pinus roxburghii (Chir Pine) for Oleoresin in Himachal Pradesh, India. Advances in Forestry Letters, 2(3), 51–55. 60. Sharma, O. P. (1976). Some useful wild plants of Himachal Pradesh, College of Biosciences, HPU, Shimla. 61. Sharma, P., & Devi, U. (2013). Ethnobotanical uses of biofencing plants in Himachal Pradesh, Northwest Himalaya. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 16, 1957–1963. 62. Sharma, P. K., Chauhan, N. S., & Lal, B. (2003). Commercially important medicinal and aromatic plants of Parvati Valley. Himachal Pradesh, J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 27(4), 937–942. 63. Sharma, P. K., Chauhan, N. S., & Lal. B. (2005). Studies on plant associated indigenous knowledge among the Malanis of Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4, 403–408. 64. Shoukat, A., & Naqshi, A. R. (1992). Medicinal herbs and ethnobotany in Gurais, valley. In: Ray Chandra, S. P (ed.). Recent advances in medicinal and spice crops. Vol. 2, 301–303. 65. Singh S. K., & Rawat, G. S. (1999). Floral diversity and vegetation structure in Great Himalayan National Park, Western Himalaya. FREEP/GHN02/05 Final Technical Report Wildlife Institute of India. Dehradun. 66. Singh, G. S. (1999). Ethnobotanical study of useful plants of Kullu district in north western Himalaya, India. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 23(1), 185–198. 67. Singh, H. (2006). Some unrecorded dye-yielding plants and their less known ethnomedicinal uses in Uttaranchal, Ethnobotany, 18, 119–121. 68. Singh, J., Rajasekaran, A., & Sharma, K. D. (2008). Traditional Ethnobotanical knowledge of Kiran Pargana, Shimla District, Himachal Pradesh. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 32, 253–263. 69. Singh, J. S., Singh, S. P., & Ram, J. (1998). Fodder and fuel wood resources of central Himalayan. Problems and solutions. Report Submitted for Study Group on Fuel and Fodder, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi. 70. Singh, K. K., & Kumar, K. (2000). Ethnobotanical wisdom of Gaddi tribe in Western Himalaya, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. 71. Singh, V., & Chauhan, N. S. (2005). Traditional practices of herbal medicines in the Lahaul valleys, Himachal Himalayas. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 4, 208–220. 72. Singh, V. (1996). Ethnomedicobotany of Dards tribe of Gurez valley in Kashmir Himalaya. In S. K. Jain, (ed.). Ethnobiology in Human. Deep Publications, New Delhi. 73. Singh, V., Gaur, R. D., & Bohra, B. (2008). A survey of fodder plants in mid-altitude Himalayan rangelands of Uttarakhand, India. J. Mountain Science, 5(3), 265–278. 74. Singh, A., Dangwal, L. R., & Singh, T. (2014). Some lesser known fiber yielding weeds used by Gujjar and Bekarwal tribes of District Rajouri, Jammu and Kashmir. J. Applied and Nat. Sci., 6 (1), 127–130. 75. Siva, R. (2007). Status of natural dyes and dye-yielding plants in India. Curr. Sci., 92(7), 916–925. 76. Sood, S. K., Nath, R., & Kalia, D. C. (2001). Ethnobotany of cold desert tribes of Lahaul – Spiti (N. W. Himalaya). Deep Publications, New Delhi. 77. Srivastava, S. K. (2010). Floristic diversity and conservation strategies in cold desert of western Himalaya, India. Botanica Orientalis – J. Plant Science 7, 18–25.

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78. Srivastava, S. K., Shashank, K. S., Rajkumar, S. D., & Gautam, R. P. (2014). Inventorisation and documentation of dye yielding plant diversity of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Inter. J. Res. in Engineering and Bioscience, 2(5), 70–75. 79. Surinder Kumar, Rajasekaran, A., & Sharma, K. D. (2004). Sacred and venerated plants of Himachal Pradesh, In: Proceedings of National workshop on conservation of sacred groves (27–28th May 2004), pp. 170–174, organized by Institute of Forest Genetics & Tree Breeding, Coimbatore. 80. Thakur, S. (2001). Study on the ethnobotany of Rewalsar (Mandi District, Himachal Pradesh, India) PhD thesis, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla. 81. Uniyal, M. R., & Chauhan, N. S. (1971). Traditionally important medicinal plants of Kangra valley in Dharmasala Forest Circle, Himachal Pradesh. J. Res. Ind. Med., 8(1), 76–85. 82. Uniyal, M. R., & Chauhan, N. S. (1982). Commercially important medicinal plants of Kullu, Forest Division of Himachal Pradesh, Nagarjuna, 15(1), 4. 83. Virjee, G. H., Dar, P., Kachroo, P., & Bhat, G. M. (1984). Taxo-ethnobotanical studies of Rajouri, Jammu. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 5(4), 832–828. 84. Vishvakarma, S. C. R., Kuniyal, J. C., & Singh, G. S., (1998). Indigenous agroforestry system of North Western Himalaya. Research for Mountain Development. Some Initiatives and Accomplishments, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, pp. 99–118. 85. Yadav, R., Yadav, N., & Dhar, K. M. (2014). A Review: Dye yielding sources and their importance. Intern. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. Res. 6(2), 241–248.

CHAPTER 10

ETHNO-CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA A. RAJASEKARAN1, VANEET JISHTU2, YOGESH GOKHALE3, NAZIR A. PALA4, and JAGDISH SINGH2 Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore – 641002, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: [email protected]

1

Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla-171009, Himachal Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

2

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India, E-mail: [email protected]

3

Department of Forestry, Faculty of Horticulture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari – 736165, Cooch Behar (WB), India, E-mail: [email protected]

4

CONTENTS Abstract......................................................................................................410 10.1 Introduction.....................................................................................410 10.2  Sacred Natural Sites in Himachal Pradesh......................................411 Keywords...................................................................................................440 References..................................................................................................441

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ABSTRACT The North Western Himalaya is considered reverent and the entire mountain stretch is known as “Dev Bhumi” (God’s land) and the indigenous communities in the region practice several traditional practices which often oriented at the sustenance of the natural resources. Many Sacred Natural Sites (SNS) in the region has been conserved since the conservation of nature or natural objects has been considered necessary for survival and sustenance of human beings. Although these Sacred Natural Sites are protected by social taboos and religious faith but they are not immune to anthropogenic disturbances. The number of such sacred groves and other sacred places are declining due to modernization, urbanization, loss of faith in traditions and culture and heavy biotic pressure. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to collect information on different SNS in three North Western Himalayan States of India especially, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir. 10.1 INTRODUCTION Nature worship is an age-old traditional belief based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected and conservation of natural resources has been considered necessary for survival and sustenance of human beings (Khan et al., 2008). Nature or natural objects such as trees, groves, gardens, water bodies, caves, landscapes and mountains are often regarded sacred and revered. Traditional customs and beliefs of human society have played a major role in biodiversity conservation worldwide (Ramakrishnan, 1998). The inhabitants of North Western Himalaya which extends along the mountain chain from western Nepal (west of the Kali Gandaki valley) through three northern states of India namely Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (Balokhra, 1998) also revere mountains, lakes, forests, grasslands and many other landscapes in the nature. Since mountains and landscapes in the mountains are sacred, the indigenous communities living in the region are still maintaining and preserving the important natural resources available in the region often in pristine conditions (Brandis, 1897). These practices are being followed by the people of various religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism in this region. The North Western Himalaya is considered reverent and the entire mountain stretch is known as Dev Bhumi (God’s land) that prompt the local

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people to practice a number of rituals often oriented at the sustenance of the natural resources and ecosystem services received from these natural resources (Sivakumar et al., 2014). Such form of nature worship presents an alternative view of conservation that is led by norms and taboos rather than formal legal frameworks. Mostly such practices were originated near forest fringe villages mainly based on religion which greatly helped in sustaining the pristine natural resources. A wide variety of habitats and species that are excluded from formal protected areas are being protected and hold considerable potential for biodiversity conservation. Several authors have documented the various sacred natural sites in the North Western Himalaya. In this chapter an attempt has been made to collect information on different Sacred Natural Sites (SNS) in three North Western Himalayan States of India especially, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir. 10.2  SACRED NATURAL SITES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH Himachal Pradesh is often referred as Dev-Bhoomi (land of Gods and Goddess) and almost all major peaks have stories and legends associated with them (Anonymous, 2014). Himachal Pradesh is very diverse and rich in its culture and there are many Gods and Goddesses, who form an integral part of its ancient rituals and traditions. There are thousands of temples of varying sizes and other holy places spread all over the state. The people here are God fearing and live in close harmony with each other, irrespective of any religion. In tribal district of Kinnaur, both Buddhism and Hinduism religions are followed and there is a visible sublime harmony amongst them. 10.2.1  SACRED MOUNTAINS IN HIMACHAL PRADESH Hills and mountains (Parvat) have special significance within Himachal Pradesh and have traditionally been regarded as abodes of Gods. Mountains are also held sacred due to their association with deities, mythology and legends. There are many revered mountain peaks in Himachal Pradesh and people from different parts of the country make trek to these peaks especially during the auspicious month of ‘Sawan’ (August). Kinner Kailash (Kinnaur District), Shrikhand Mahadev (Kullu District) and Manimahesh (Chamba District) are the three famous peaks related to Lord Siva. The other

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important peaks are Churashwar Mahadev (Sirmour District) and Kamru Nag (Mandi District). The Manimahesh Peak (5,653 m) in Chamba district is one of the most important religious sites in Himachal Pradesh and the Manimahesh Lake at the base of this peak is also a sacred place. The Kinnaur Kailash (6,500 m) is a mountain in the Kinnaur district and it is considered sacred both by Buddhists and Hindus in the state. Sri Khand Kailash is situated in Shimla and Kullu Districts and people undertake this arduous trek to coincide with the ‘Ashada Poornima’ as per the Vikrami calendar. 10.2.2  SACRED WATER BODIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH The Himachal Pradesh state has been blessed with many sacred water bodies (streambeds and riverbeds and lakes, ponds, hot springs) which are center points of cultural and tourist activities. These water bodies, apart from their ecological significance, play a crucial role in biodiversity, wildlife habitat and socio-economic aspects. A total of 271 high altitude Lakes were delineated constituting 575 ha area that accounts for less than one per cent of total wetland area of the state. Maximum number of lakes (230) in the state is of very small ( 2 hectares). # Efforts have been made not to repeat the sacred groves, to bring out the exact figure of the number of sacred natural sites within the State.

adds up the literature available (Table 11.1, Figure 11.1). However, this figure could extend to 400 or more, since a major part of the sub-alpine and alpine realms still remains to be explored. Only a handful of researchers have actually reported on the existence of SNS within the state (Table 11.1). This apart, what is of more significance remains the fact that only a fraction of the total number of sacred forests have been actually studied for their floristic diversity, even less for their faunal diversity, or the socio-cultural, anthropological role of the SNS! To add to this poor state of knowledge-base as regards SNS, most of the sites reported as sacred, are so degraded, both vegetation-wise, as well as culturally (read denigration of the once-prevailing taboo system) that they can no longer be treated as sacred!

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FIGURE 11.1  Distribution of the sacred natural sites, including the sacred forests being proposed as BHS within the state of Uttarakhand.

FIGURE 11.2  The sacred Brahmkamal (Saussurea obvallata) is harvested only during the festival of Nanda Astami.

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11.3.2.1  Features Common to the Sacred Forests of Uttarakhand Some of the characteristic features associated with the sacred groves/forests, with minor variants, are the following (Negi, 2010a);

i. Sacred forests are most commonly the panchayat or Civil Soyam forests with no legal status; are usually located on the ridges of hills or on their peaks, and in close proximity to the village. ii. As per the habitat or climatic conditions, these sacred forests are usually dominated either by the Banj (Quercus leucotrichophora), Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Surai or Kaimbasing (Cupressus torulosa), Bhojpatra syn. Sya sing (Betula utilis), or by Ratpa (Rhododendron campanulatum) or at greater altitudes, by Dhoop syn. Shir sing (Juniperus communis, J. indica). All these species, in turn are treated as sacred species. iii. Resource use in terms of lopping, felling of trees is strictly prohibited; dead wood or twigs may however be removed from the forest floor, to be utilized only for the purposes of the resident deity of the forest, during specific occasions, viz., annual festival. iv. Usually, the ladies in their periods (menstrual cycle) are restricted from entering the sacred zone, and are completely prohibited from entering the sanctum-sanctorum, which may extend from the precincts of the temple proper to the sacred zone, from where strict adherence to the norms and taboos are practiced, by each folk, irrespective of the gender. What this connotes is the fact that in case of extensive sacred forests, it’s the limited area extending from around 50–100 meters below the summit (the temple), from wherein the forest is treated as sacred, and not the complete forest as more commonly perceived. v. Religious sanction to the use of the resources from the forest may be granted in times or needs through a shaman, locally referred to as Jagariya or Ojha or Pucher, acting as an intermediary for the resident deity of the forest. vi. Some of the sacred groves constitute a community court (e.g., where the presiding deity is very often the law enforcing god or goddess, for example, in Kumaun, the Golu Devata and Kotgyari Devi (Box 1). One can go there to plead not guilty, complain about a known or unknown criminal and beseech the justice of supreme spirits, notably for the re-establishment of innocent’s rights and sanctions of criminals. Similarly, some of the sacred sites (broadly extending to

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landscape, i.e., sacred landscape) constitutes ‘centers of traditional initiations’ to the community life, or places of public meetings, e.g., Sacred Chipla Kedar landscape, Bedini Kund, etc. • Interestingly the sacred groves, through the festival or the religious rites carried within, provides an excellent opportunity to study the social dynamics, where a number of villages are tied together in one common thread, through traditional norms, which are assigned to each one of the surrounding villages, even if the over-all management of the festival is vested with the village within whose jurisdiction or boundary, the sacred grove is situated. This fact alone remains of utmost importance, whereby a sacred grove (and its residing deity) maintains cordial relationship between the more often-than-not factional entities. • Some of the sacred forests harbor astounding biodiversity, both floral and faunal. One of the best examples is the Tarkeshwar Sacred forest, represented by 343 species and inclusive of at least 50 medicinal species (Bisht and Ghildiyal, 2007). Box 1: Dedication of forests to a deity The practice of dedicating forests to a deity is a very recent phenomenon, invariably born out of the need to impede the fast dilution of the traditional taboo system governing the resource utilization, and thus to reinforce or strengthen the same. The deity in invariably all the villages remain the much feared goddess-Kotgyari, and the period for which the forests are dedicated varies from a minimum of 5 to 20 years. It is an effective example of an indigenous conservation practice, utilized by local communities to stop excessive exploitation of community forests and thus to regenerate the same to the extent, wherein a sustainable means of exploitation of fodder could be put into effect. Strict adherence to the norms surrounding the dedicated forests is adhered to, principally out of the inborn fear of the wrath of the presiding deity. Invariably, the communities do not tend to dedicate the complete forest, but rather retain a small patch. There are specified norms governing the use or the extent of the use, to be permitted in the sanctified area, which are priorly ‘defined to the deity’ at the time of the dedication, and enumerated in the paper (a sort of socio-religious legal document). At times of dire need, the community decides to open up the forest, allowing restricted collection of the litter mass and even of fodder.

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11.3.3  TABOO SYSTEM IN PRACTICE Traditional natural resources management system in practice in Uttarakhand, can be classified into the following broad categories: (i) protection of particular ecosystems or habitats (such as sacred groves and forests); (ii) protection of particular animals or plant species (as totem or tabooed species); and (iii) regulation of the exploitation of particular natural resource (such as a closed season for resource harvesting. As already explained above, the taboo system surrounding the sacred natural sites has been dealt as per classification of social taboos (Colding and Folke, 2001), principally into (i) segment taboos, (ii) temporal taboos, (iii) method taboos, (iv) life history taboos, (v) specific-species taboos, and finally (vi) habitat taboos (Table 11.2).

11.3.3.1  Segment Taboos The following group of taboo applies when a cultural group bans the utilization of particular species for specific time periods for human individuals of a particular age, sex, or social status (Colding and Folke, 2001). Thus, certain segments of a human population may be temporarily proscribed from the gathering and/or consumption of species. Anthropologists often refer to such taboos as specific food taboos (Rea, 1981). Segment taboos frequently pertain to pregnant women, children, menstruating females, and parents of newborns. Cultural perceptions, customs, and superstitious beliefs of human health risks are frequently related to such taboos (Osemeobo, 1994). Thus, segment taboos are often related to totemic beliefs, which reflect cognitive and linguistic categories, useful to the natives of these cultures (Posey, 1992). Additionally, few anthropologists have hypothesized that segment taboos may also serve as strategic responses to avoid game depletion (Ross, 1978; Hames and Vickers, 1982). In the present case study, this taboo relates to the complete banning of the lower castes, the harijans from not just the resource exploitation, but also from entering into the sacrosanct zones or the sacred natural sites, i.e., mostly the sacred forests, and the water bodies. This apart, the other most conspicuous extension of the taboo, and the most commonly ascribed, is the ban extended to the parturiting and the menstruating females, who, irrespective of the caste, are banned from entering into the restricted zones. The issue of menstrual blood in traditional beliefs has been treated extensively in

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TABLE 11.2  Broad classification of taboos restricting the resource use in Uttarakhand (adapted from Colding and Folke 2001) S. No. Class of taboo

Example

A. Segment: Segment of population observing the taboo 1

Scheduled castes

A common feature throughout the state of Uttarakhand, where lower castes are debarred to enter the sacred forests. Very often, this often leads to the phenomenon where the debarred caste create their own sacred groves, viz., Ratashila sacred grove in district Pithoragarh

2

Pregnant and menstruating females, women after child birth

The most common sited reason debarring the womenfolk’s entry into the sacred natural sites

3

Pubescent girls

As above

4

Particular caste

Though rare, but at times even a class of upper castes too are tabooed to enter into sacred forests, viz., Aswals, a higher caste Rajputs are debarred from entering into the Tarkeshwar sacred forest in District Pauri Garhwal

B. Temporal: Taboo restricting the resource use (principally from the sacred forests) 1

Exploitation of resource on a seasonal basis

The most commonly observed resource exploitation pattern; very often the case were the sacred forest do not usually constitute the watershed

2

Exploitation of resource on an annual basis

The sacred forests of Chopakya, Jagatnath, and Jujarimal; as well as the sacred meadows of Bhadelguar, Hya Roshe, Kee Pang (all within Askote Conservation Landscape)

3

Complete ban on the resource harvesting

The sacred forests of Maanthaat, Hariyali, Madhkeshwar, Tarkeshwar, Thamri kund and Hokra Devi, among others

C. Method: Taboos primarily restricting the resource use, as well as providing protection 1

All leather goods, especially the shoes

Examples include the famous Nanda Raj Jaat, and the Chipla Kedar Jaat

2

7 days prohibitory period

Examples include the sacred forests of Thamri kund, Kotgyari Devi, Dhoulinag, and Chamunda Devi

3

3 months prohibitory period

Examples include the sacred forests of Kotgyari Devi, and Jyastha Masaani Devi

4

Regulatory means to make use of the sacred water

Defilement of the sacred water is protected by means of certain provisions, where the locals are forbidden to procure water directly from the water body. The best examples are the Thamri kund, Muldi Bai, Syangchu kund (kund syn. Pond).

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TABLE 11.2 (Continued) S. No. Class of taboo

Example

5

Hunting of wild animals on Tuesday, Friday and Saturdays

Hunting, a strict taboo on the prescribed days, viz., in case of the sacred forests of Kalsin, Tiundhar, and Devidhar.

6

Annual harvesting of fishes

During the annual Maun festival in Jaunsar valley in Dehradun district, the locals collectively engage themselves in a large-scale communal hunt of fish, where powder of Timru (Zanthoxylum armatum) is poured into the river in sackfuls. Poisonous affects of the powder makes the fish an easy catch. The whole exercise might be effective towards adjusting the resource harvest practices to sustain yields and thus conserve biodiversity (Gadgil et al., 1993).

D. Life-history: Regulates withdrawal of vulnerable life history stages of species 1

Exploitation of immature Brahmakamal (Saussurea obvallata)

Nanda Astami festival in Martoli village in Johaar valley. This aspect is rather commonly observed throughout the landscape.

2

Hunting of pregnant does

Institution of Mrigoli as practiced in Hariyali Devi Sacred forest forbids hunting of pregnant does

E. Species-specific: Taboo banning the exploitation of the individual species 1

Hunting of wild species

Fiya or Himalayan marmot (Marmot bobak) is a totem; Serow (Cervus unicolor) within the sacred forest surrounding the Thamri Kund

2

Exploitation of sacred species

Khadik (Celtis australis), Malu (Bauhinia vahlii), Paiyan (Prunus cerasoides), Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Shiling (Osmanthus fragrans) are some of the most commonly religiously protected species in the State of Uttarakhand.

F. Habitat taboos: Restricts access and use of resources in time and space 1

Sacred forests and groves

The sacred forests of Maanthaat, Hokra Devi, Danda Ka Deorana, Tarkeshwar, Bhujani, Bombasing and Hariyali Devi offer the best example.

2

Sacred water bodies

Thamri Kund near the township of Munsiari; Kedar Kund within Askote Conservation landscape

3

Stretch of land adjoining the river or even the agricultural field

Latu ka gadera and the small patch of land located in the village Pujeli, Uttarkashi

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anthropology as a source of potent force (Douglas, 1966). It may be conjectured that women, who were considered to be the most frequent users of water, were prohibited from entering the vicinity of rivers, when they were menstruating ‘to prevent degradation or defilement of the sacred water’. In most communities rivulets provide the main source of drinking water (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1995). The exclusion of women from certain religious festivals and ritualistic observances like their periodical segregation during their menstrual period appears to be due not to any assumed inferiority on their status but due to the tribals’ horror of menses, which is supposed to attract evil spirits. From conservation aspect, it seems appropriate that the womenfolk, representing the dominant workforce involved in the resource exploitation (including the banks of the rivulets and rivers, for example, Latu ka gadera, explained later under the sub-heading habitat taboos) throughout the hills, this ban extending for the duration of the menstrual cycle, significantly restricts the resource withdrawal; more so, when this taboo forms the predominant class of taboo, finding expression in nearly all the SNS, solely, as well as admixed with other taboos. 11.3.3.2  Temporal Taboos The temporal taboos apply when a cultural group bans access to resources during certain time periods, and are thus imposed sporadically, daily, or on a weekly to seasonal basis (Colding and Folke, 2001). Taboos imposed on a weekly to monthly basis are often referred to as a ‘closed season,’ which very often coincides with spawning or mating seasons of species. In Uttarakhand, as in rest of the country, many castes abstain totally from consumption of fish, poultry, and meat, and suspend all hunting as well, during the Hindu month of Sravana (roughly August). And thus, temporal taboos function to reduce harvesting pressure on particular subsistence resources (NtiamoaBaidu, 1991). In the present case, temporal taboo extends to periodicity and regulative nature of resource exploitation, primarily from the sacred forests, which again principally concerns with the collection of the litter mass (for biocomposite purpose), as well as coppicing of the fodder species, which remains the predominant use of the sacred forests by the stakeholders, in the region. However, temporal taboo is less marked overall, except in case of the sacred forests, since no exploitation of resources takes place from the sacred groves, borne out their restricted size and resource availability, thereby rendering them non-economical, both in terms of time and space.

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11.3.3.3  Method Taboos The method taboo applies when a cultural group bans the use of certain methods and techniques for the withdrawal or exploitation of the species (Colding and Folke, 2001). Invariably in all the cases of sacred forests, this relates to the precise regulation of coppicing of the major fodder species, i.e., Banj (Quercus leucotrichophora), and the collection of the litter mass from the forests. In case of the alpine habitats, principally in case of the sacred bugyal (alpine meadows), this relates to the methodology applied towards managing the grazing pressure, viz., allowing only the Yaks and their hybrids (Jhuppu and Jomos) in case of Hya Roshe, and only the milching livestock to graze, in case of the Putuk-Tu, both within Askote Conservation Landscape. Additionally, the Van Panchayat (village Forest Council) regularly monitors the grazing pressure and the state of the pasture to make decisions about rotating or relocating herds or even downsizing the size of the grazing herd. Yet, other very effective means of lessening the intensity of resource use from the SNS are strict adherence to certain norms, viz., partaking measures not to eat meat, drink liquor, even certain completely prohibited eatables, such as onion, garlic (the two most commonly referred abhorred items), for a minimum of one week, before one makes a pilgrimage to SNS; the three months prohibitory period extended to each of clan members, when a death occurs in a family; and lastly the phenomenon of restricted days of hunting (Table 11.2). Additionally, the method taboo could be extended to the strict norm of walking bare feet, promulgated during the annual Jaats (pilgrimage) traversing through the sensitive alpine meadows, viz., during the Nanda Astami festival, when sacred Brahmakamal (Saussurea obvallata) collection is carried out; during Chipla Kedar Jaat or during the more famous Nanda Devi Raj Jaat, the devotes traverse the difficult high altitude landscape bare feet. Wearing shoes is a taboo. Obvious connotation to the significance of the practice towards conservation of the flora could be made, since bare feet are less damaging than the shoes! 11.3.3.4  Life History Taboos The following category of taboos applies when a cultural group bans the use of certain vulnerable stages of a species’ life history based on its age, size, sex, or reproductive status (Colding and Folke, 2001). Example offered

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from the landscape, includes the institution of Mrigoli, wherein the hunters do not hunt the pregnant doe, or when they are in a flock. This is more so, when one of the deer has a white mark on its forehead (which is more often the case), and the same is treated as reincarnated departed soul, in all probability, of one of the village elders! In fact, the hunting is restricted to male and older animals. In this way the communities are able to ensure continued population growth of their wildlife resources. 11.3.3.5  Specific-Species Taboos The following category of taboos applies when a cultural group totally bans the killing and detrimental use of specific species in both time and space (Colding and Folke, 2001). Anthropologists often refer to such taboos as general or permanent food taboos, because they apply to all members in a community and often concern foods (Rea, 1981). Example offered from the landscape includes the complete ban on killing of Fiya (Himalayan marmot, Marmot bobak) in Vyas valley, district Pithoragarh. Reasons specified for the behavior in literature, range from species serving as religious symbols (Fargey, 1992), or representing reincarnated humans (Osemeobo, 1994). Such reasons constitute strong sentiments behind self-enforcement of the taboos. However, in the present case, the taboo is enforced out of the fear that ‘the spirits will sanction violators by invoking illness upon people, or will cause the crop failure’. Of particular interest are the taboos imposed on some keystone related plant species, such as Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Paiyan (Prunus cerasoides), Shiling (Osmanthus fragrans), Ratpa (Rhododendron campanulatum), Bil (Juniperus communis) and Raga (Cupressus torulosa), along with the most commonly noted species—Peepal (Ficus religiosa) and Bargad (F. benghalensis). It is important to take note of the fact that in invariably all the cases, these species play pivotal role in the conservation or sustenance of the ecosystem, at large. For example, Ratpa (Rhododendron campanulatum) as well as Bil (Juniperus communis) provide refuge as well as breeding space for two of the most endangered species, Musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) (Figure 11.3) and the Monal pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus). 11.3.3.6  Habitat Taboos The following category of taboos applies, when a cultural group regulates both access to and use of resources from particular habitats in space and time

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FIGURE 11.3  Bhujani, the sacred forest located above the village Martoli in Johaar valley, remains the only refuge for the endangered species of Musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster).

(Colding and Folke, 2001). This taboo, in the present case, obviously extends to each of the SNS covered. A forest, part of a forest, a rivulet, or pond may never be subjugated to harvesting, hunting, fishing, or any other kind of resource use, often being protected by religious taboos and considered sacred to community members. Example from the landscape includes the stretch of land on both the banks of the Latu ka gadera, the small rivulet which runs along the sacred grove of Latu, near Van village, remains a taboo, and hence no agriculture is practiced within the zone. Similarly, a small patch of land measuring around 50 meters by 5 meters, located within the prime agricultural field in the village Pujeli, Uttarkashi is not cultivated. These smaller or larger sacred areas, inclusive of all the SNS, encompass a number of ecological services, including the maintenance of biological diversity, provision of habitat for threatened species, regulation of local hydrological cycles, prevention of soil erosion, pollination of crops, and preservation of locally adapted crop varieties, and serving as wind and fire brakes (Gadgil, 1987). One of the prime examples is offered by the sacred forest site, the Thamri kund, where one can easily sight the herd of serow (Cervus unicolor), as well as other wild animals, who come to drink the water at the site. This little lake located at a height of around 3000 m amsl, is held very sacred, not just by

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the locals of the surrounding villages, but by the populace of the adjoining township of Munsiari. As per one of the locals, ‘No one is allowed to defile the waters, not even drink directly from it!’ (Figures 11.4–6). In summary, as and when the above-mentioned class of taboos is transgressed, an expiation ceremony has got to be undergone. A breach of the law would bring on the entire society divine wrath. Invariably, however, the social taboos need enforcement mechanisms to be effective (North, 1990). The informal institutions like social taboos are self-enforced by the community (North, 1990; Posner and Rasmussen, 1999), the self-enforcement being principally borne out of the fear of religious sanctions and social conventions (Osemeobo, 1994). The precise monitoring of compliance of norms surrounding the resource use from the sacred natural sites, and else, is furthermore facilitated due to the closeness of family members and strong kinship ties (North, 1990). Furthermore, sanctions against violations of taboos may be determined and meted out by chiefs and leaders. Such sanctions include monetary fines, payment in cattle (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1991), or even ‘sacrificing a goat or a sheep,’ as is the usual case in most of the sacred sites encountered. This charge is sufficiently deterrent to scare people from infringing or breaking the taboos.

FIGURE 11.4  Sacred forest of Madhkeshwar; the doors are opened once in 60–70 years! Probably the most feared sacred forest in the State of Uttarakhand, and most extensive too. Even the local deities dare not infringe upon the sacrosanct boundary.

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FIGURE 11.5  The sacred Thamri Kund remains the only water hole for the wild animals, and thus one wishing to sight the animals, such as Sambhar (Cervus unicolor Kerr) or Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis), could easily view these animals drinking water, as hunting is a taboo.

FIGURE 11.6  The sacred forest of Hokara Devi.

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11.3.4  DEVELOPING SACRED FORESTS INTO BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE SITES A number of initial sacred forests listed in Table 11.3 as probable sites for developing into BHS had to be replaced by others, simply for the reason that the stakeholders were not willing to be part of the exercise. It was probably on account of the inherent feeling amongst the stakeholders that the program as laid out, would impinge upon their own rights, or that it would construe as an outside interference. The success of the initiative, it is perceived, would be more, if the sacred forests are selected, which are either remotely located, and with intact taboo system in practice. While convenience in terms of the easier accessibility to the selected sites was one major factor, as related to the selection of the SNS for BHS, it was unfortunate that the intactness of the traditional norms governing the very viability and success of the institution of sacred was inversely related to easier accessibility, i.e., means of transport, and thus development. The same fact, in fact poses the challenge- how to offshoot the decline in taboos system vis-a-vis development. Secondarily, the stakeholders were all-out for the establishment of the BHS in those sites, where their dependence on the sacred forests was inevitably very conspicuous, as in case of the Hariyali Devi. In short, greater the ecosystem services provided by the forest (viz., as the only source of water), greater would be the chance that the stakeholders would extend their active support for the constitution of BMC.

11.3.4.1  Classification of Taboo System 1. Segment taboo: Regulation of the resource use principally on the basis of caste and sex; viz., schedule caste and the womenfolk in menses (irrespective of caste) are prohibited from entering into the sacred forests. 2. Temporal taboo: Regulation of access to resources in time. 3. Method taboo: Regulation of the methodology applied for the resource use. 4. Life history taboo: Regulation of the use/hunting of the vulnerable life history stages of a species. 5. Species-specific taboo: Total protection of one of the species (totem?) in time and space.

Taboo system in practicec 1, 2 & 3

1, 2 & 3

1, 2 & 3

Rare, endangered and threatened species (RET species)b

Flora: Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (V). Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E)

Flora: Berberis aristata DC. (E), Didymocarpus acuminatus R.Br. (E). Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E)

Flora: Benthamidia capitata (Wall.) H. Hara (R), Acer oblongum Wallich ex DC. (E), Aquilegia pubiflora Wallich ex Royle (R), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Carpinus viminea Wall. ex Lindl. (R), Roylea cinerea (D.Don) Baill. (V), Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (V). Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Nemorrhaedus goral Hardwicke (E), Capricornis sumatraensis Bech. (R)

1, 2, 3 &5 Flora: Aquilegia pubiflora Wallich ex Royle (R), Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (R), Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.) D.Don (R), Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb. (R), Skimmia anquetilia Taylor & Airy Shaw (R), Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C. B. Clarke (CR), Senecio graciliflorus (Wall.) DC. (R), Asparagus adscendens Roxb. (R), Cupressus torulosa D. Don (R), Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. (R), Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl (R), Boerhavia diffusa L. (R), Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet (R), Abrus precatorius L. (R), Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (R), Selaginella adunca A. Br. (R), Pteris vittata L. (R), Hedychium spicatum Smith (V), Berberis lycium Royle (E), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (E), Thalictrum foliolosum DC. (V), Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (V), Pyrrosia flocculosa (D.Don) Ching (AR). Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Nemorrhaedus goral Hardwicke (E)

Vegetation profilea

Dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don

Dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don, Pinus roxburghii Sarg.

Dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus, Q. floribunda Rehder

Dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don, Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus

Name of the sacred forest

Bhataar

Dhurka Devi

Sem Mukhim Nag

Tarkeshwar

TABLE 11.3  Biodiversity aspects of the sacred forests selected for developing into Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS) and the taboo system in practice (as per the guidelines under biological diversity act 2002)

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Fauna: Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Panthera pardus L. (E), Capricornis sumatraensis Bech. (R)

1, 2, 3 & 5

Flora: Acer oblongum Wallich ex DC. (E), Trachycarpus takil Becc. (E), Asparagus adscendens Roxb. (V), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Eberm. (T), Rhus semialata Murray (V), Thalictrum foliolosum DC. (V).

Dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus

Thal Ke Dhar

1, 2 & 3

Flora: Benthamidia capitata (Wall.) H. Hara (R), Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. 1, 2, 3 & 4 (R), Desmodium podocarpum (Thunb.) DC. (R), Strobilanthes wallichii Nees (R), Indigofera hamiltonii Duthie & Prain (E), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. (E), Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don (E), Thalictrum foliolosum DC. (V), Hedychium spicatum Smith (V), Bergenia ligulata (Wallich) Engl. (V), Roylea cinerea (D.Don) Baill. (V). Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Martes flavigula Boddaert (R)

Dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia J. E. Smith, Q. leucotrichophora A. Camus

Hariyali Devi

Flora: Skimmia anquetilia N. P. Taylor & Airy Shaw(R), Cupressus torulosa D. Don (R), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Bergenia ligulata (Wallich) Engl. (V), Hedychium spicatum Smith (V), Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (V). Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Nemorrhaedus goral Hardwicke (E), Ophiophagus hannah (E)

1, 2, 3 & 5

Flora: Bergenia ligulata (Wallich) Engl. (V), Hedychium spicatum Smith (V), Malaxis acuminata D.Don (R), Caloplaca himalayana (R), Lecanora japonica (R), Macromitrium rigbyanum Dixon (R), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Valeriana jatamansii Wall. (CR). Fauna: Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Nemorrhaedus goral Hardwicke (E)

Dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don

Chamunda Devi

Serakot Dominated by Quercus dedicated forest leucotrichophora A. Camus, Rhododendron arboreum Smith

Taboo system in practicec

Rare, endangered and threatened species (RET species)b

Vegetation profilea

Name of the sacred forest

TABLE 11.3 (Continued)

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1, 2 & 3

1, 2, 3 & 5

1, 2 & 3

1, 2 & 3

Flora: Cupressus torulosa D. Don (R), Berberis aristata DC (E). Fauna: Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Panthera pardus L. (E)

Flora: Asparagus adscendens Roxb. (R), Thalictrum foliolosum DC. (V). Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E)

Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Martes flavigula Boddaert (R)

Flora: Cleyera japonica Thunb. (R), Cupressus torulosa D. Don (R), Begonia dioica Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don (R), Meliosma arnottiana (Wight) Walp. (R), Asparagus adscendens Roxb. (R), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Carpinus viminea Wall. ex Lindl. (R), Pistacia integerrima J. L. Stewart ex Brandis (R).

Dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia J. E. Smith, Q. leucotrichophora A. Camus

Dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don, Q. leucotrichophora A. Camus

Dominated by Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G. Don

Shyayi Devi

Thatyur

Madhkeshwar

b

a

In order of abundance. E – endangered, R – rare, CR – critically rare, T – threatened, V – vulnerable, AR – at risk. c see Section 11.3.4.1.

Fauna: Panthera pardus L. (E), Nemorrhaedus goral Hardwicke (E)

1, 2 & 3

Flora: Cupressus torulosa D. Don (R), Daiswa polyphylla (Smith) Rafin. (R), Berberis aristata DC. (E), Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Eberm. (T), Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (V). Fauna: Selenarctos thibetanus G. Cuvier (E), Panthera pardus L. (E)

Dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus, Q. floribunda Rehder

Hokara Devi

Simgari Dominated by Quercus dedicated forest leucotrichophora A. Camus and Rhododendron arboreum Smith

Taboo system in practicec

Rare, endangered and threatened species (RET species)b

Vegetation profilea

Name of the sacred forest

TABLE 11.3 (Continued)

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11.4 CONCLUSION Ecological life support systems were preserved because sustainable forms of land use were very often governed by religious beliefs and customary rules that made it sustainable. Biodiversity was maintained as a result of the low pressure exercised over natural system, viz., pastures and by the imposition of religious taboos or through the existence of sacred groves and forests (Sinha, 1995; Basu, 2000; Chandran and Hughes, 2000). Typical examples of change, coupled with maintenance of sustainability in traditional management practices, have been demonstrated in sacred groves (Fargey, 1991; Dorm-Adzobu et al., 1991; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1995; Ntiamoa-Baidu et al., 1992; Gyasi 1996). The breakdown of beliefs that protect these areas has been attributed to western type education and religion, to the immigration of people, who may have no respect for local traditions, and to a lack of modern legislation to reinforce traditional rules (Fargey, 1991; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1995; Falconer, 1992). Falconer (1992) has observed that, as a result of the uneven impact of these factors, ‘sacredness’, the prominence and protection of sacred groves varies considerably between and within communities (Falconer, 1992). Many groves have been encroached upon because the fear which used to be associated with them, no longer operates (Abayie Boateng, 1998). A vast body of recent literature indicates that the surest way to conserve the commons such as sacred forests is by ensuring customary community custodianship, where profligate use of the resource is prohibited through various socio-cultural restraints (Burke, 2001). However, the community can hardly maintain its custodian role, if the resource is owned, and its benefits are usurped, by an external authority, whose interests are divergent from that of the users. There is a need to appreciate that the local communities often value forests in a rather different way than professional foresters or the state organizations do, for the simple reason that a forest for the locals remain an invariable part of their livelihood strategy. Depending on the strategies of resource use of local farmers (Padoch and Vayda, 1983), sacred forests may be integrated in the local resource utilization system because they have one or more of the following functions (Messerschmitt, 1993):

i. production of valuable products for household consumption (construction material, foods, medicines). ii. production of materials for generating income and employment through possible local manufacturing and sale (selected foods, resins/gums, construction material).

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iii. provision of inputs (farm implements, litter, mulching material, erosion control, fodder, bedding material) for agricultural and livestock production. iv. protection of water resources and provision of shelter. v. cultural functions, such as conservation of tribal lands or role in religious beliefs. Since most of the world’s biodiversity exist outside of protected areas (Gadgil, 1998), informal institutions, such as social taboos may play an active role in nature conservation. In fact, a great deal of social mechanisms, such as social taboos, may be highly adaptive from an ecological perspective and which contributes to biodiversity conservation (Colding and Folke, 1997). Taboo often applies to certain sets of natural resources, which are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation; and among local resource users, the imposition of temporal taboos (defining restriction of resource use in time and space), regulates access to resource/s on either a sporadic, daily, weekly, or monthly basis (Colding and Folke, 2001), as is conspicuous, principally in sacred forests. In fact, taboos function to distinguish between sacred and profane entities in a culture (Murphree, 1994); they relate to animist and magical belief systems (Durkheim, 1915); serve psychological ends (Frazer, 1922); and finally taboos serve ecological adaptations (Harris, 1971, 1979; Rappaport, 1968). In fact, it may be difficult to distinguish among ecological, social, or religious origins and functions of taboos. As relates to the development of sacred groves as BHS, the following points needs to be taken care of: 1. Conceptualizing a mechanism whereby a sustainable exploitation of the forest resources could be harnessed. 2. Educating the stakeholders of the vital need to preserve their age-old traditional knowledge-base, pass on the same to the younger generation; emphasize that culture can only be conserved, if practiced. 3. It is important that information related to policies governing conservation, which would directly affect the stakeholders be informed to them on a regular basis. In this effort BMC could (and should) play a vital role. The government agencies should therefore endeavor to facilitate such reciprocal interactions. 4. It would be vital that safeguards are placed to ensure that the financial support given to the BMC, is utilized judiciously and scientifically, keeping the long-term conservation goals in sight; that eco-friendly

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technologies are extended to the BMC; that sound, equitable models of eco-tourism are pursued, and lastly, 5. The BMC be encouraged to safeguard their traditional ecological knowledge-base for the posterity, by making local education more sensitive to their own culture, and ecosystem surrounding them. In brief education should be pro-nature in approach and action. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author gratefully acknowledges the financial help received from the Director, Uttarakhand State Council for Science and Technology, Government of Uttarakhand, Dehradun and Director, GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora. The study, however, would not have been possible without the help of the village residents—the ultimate custodians of the biodiversity. KEYWORDS •• •• •• •• •• ••

biodiversity heritage sites conservation culture sacred natural sites social taboos traditional knowledge-based systems

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27. Harris, M. (1979). Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture. Random House, New York, USA. 28. Joshi, P. C. (1992). Afforestation, development and religion: A case from the Himalayas. In: Himalaya: Environment, Economy and People, pp. 453–465. 29. Kamga-Kamdem, I. S. L. (2008). Ancestral beliefs and conservation: The case of sacred areas in Bandjoun, West Cameroon, African Centre of Applied Forestry Research & Development (CARFAD), West Cameroon, pp. 23. 30. Knight, J. (1992). Institutions and Social Conflict, Cambridge University Press, New York, USA. 31. Kumbhojkar, M. S., & Kulkarni, D. K. (1998). Environmental impacts of sacred groves in Western Ghats of Maharashtra. Science and Culture, 64, 205–207. 32. Malhotra, K. C., & Mark, P. (1989). Forest regeneration through community protection, Forest Department, West Bengal, India 33. Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An account of native enterprise and adventure in the archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, U.K. 34. McNeely, J. A. (1993). Economic incentives for conserving biodiversity: Lessons for Africa. Ambio, 22(2–3), 144–150. 35. Messerschmitt, D. A. (1993). Common forest resource management, annotated bibliography of Asia, Africa and Latin America, (Community Forestry Note No. 11) FAO, Rome, Italy. 36. Murphree, M. W. (1994). The role of institutions in community-based conservation. In: D. Western, R. M. Wright, S. C. Strum (Eds.), Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-based Conservation, Island Press, Washington D.C., & Covelo, California, pp. 403–427. 37. National Biodiversity Act (2002). Guidelines for selection and management of the biodiversity Heritage Sites, National Biodiversity Authority, Chennai, India. 38. Negi, C. S. (2003). Role of traditional knowledge and beliefs in conservation- Case studies from Central Himalaya, India. Man in India 83(3–4), 371–391. 39. Negi, C. S. (2005). Religion and biodiversity conservation: Not a mere analogy. Inter. J. Biodiversity Science and Management 1(2), 85–96. 40. Negi, C. S. (2010a). Askote Conservation Landscape-Culture, Biodiversity and Economy. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh Publishers & Distributors, Dehradun, India. 41. Negi, C. S. (2010b). Culture and Biodiversity Conservation: Examples from Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya. Mountain Research & Development 30(3), 259–265. 42. Negi, C. S. (2010c). The Institution of Taboo and the Local Resource Management and Conservation Surrounding Sacred Natural Sites in Uttarakhand, Central Himalayas. Intern. J. Biodiversity and Conservation 2(8), 186–195. 43. Negi, C. S. (2010d). Traditional knowledge and biodiversity conservation: A preliminary study of the Sacred Natural Sites in Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya. J. Biodiversity 1(1), 43–62. 44. Negi, C. S. (2012). Culture and Biodiversity Conservation: Case Studies from Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 11(2), 273–278. 45. Negi, C. S. (2013). Ethno-biological study and conservation of sacred forests towards evolving sound policy initiatives for their eco-restoration. Project Report GBPI/IERP/ CP/03-04/05/96 (unpublished), G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development, Almora, Uttarakhand, India.

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46. Negi, C. S., Maikhuri, R. K., Rao, K. S., & Nautiyal, S. (2001). Nanda Raj Jaat-Mahakumbha of Uttaranchal: A Socio-ecological and religious perspectives. Man in India 82(3–4), 341–357. 47. North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 48. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. (1991). Conservation of coastal lagoons in Ghana: The traditional approach. Lands. Urban Plann. 20, 41–46. 49. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. (1995). Indigenous vs. Introduced Biodiversity Conservation Strategies: The Case of Protected Area Systems in Ghana. African Biodiversity Series Number 1, May 1995, Biodiversity Support Program, Washington, DC. 50. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y., Gyamfi-Fenteng, L. J., & Abbiw, D. (1992). Management strategy for Sacred Groves in Ghana. Report prepared for the World Bank and the Environmental Protection Council, New York. 51. Osemeobo, G. J. (1994). The role of folklore in environmental conservation: Evidence from Edo State, Nigeria. Intern. J. Sust. Dev. World Ecol. 1, 48–55. 52. Padoch, C., & Vayda, A. P. (1983). Patterns of resource use and human settlement in tropical forest. In: Golley, F. B., & Lieth, H. (Eds). Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems, Structure and Function, Ecosystems of the World No. 14A. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 301–313. 53. Posey, D. A. (1992). Interpreting and applying the “reality” of indigenous concepts: What is necessary to learn from the natives? In: Redford, K. H., & Padoch, C. (Eds.). Conservation in Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use. Columbia University Press, Irvington, New York, pp. 21–34. 54. Posner, R. A., & Rasmussen, E. B. (1999). Creating and enforcing norms, with special reference to sanctions. Inter. Rev. Law and Economics, 19, 369–382. 55. Rappaport, R. A. (1968). Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. 56. Rawat, M., Vasistha, H. B., Manhas, R. K., & Negi, M. (2011). Sacred forest of Kunjapuri Siddhapeeth, Uttarakhand, India. Tropical Ecology 52(2), 219–221. 57. Rea, A. M. (1981). Resource utilization and food taboos of Sonoran desert peoples. J. Ethnobiol. 1, 69–83. 58. Ross, E. B. (1978). Food taboos, diet, and hunting strategy: The adaptation to animals in Amazon cultural ecology. Curr. Anthro. 19, 1–36. 59. Ruttan, L. M. (1998). Closing the commons: Co-operation for gain or restraint? Hum. Ecol. 26(1), 43–66. 60. Ruttan, L. M., & Borgerhoff, M. M. (1999). Are East African pastoralists truly conservationists? Curr. Anthropol. 40, 621–652. 61. Sharma, S., Rikhari, H. C., & Palni, L. M. S. (1999). Conservation of natural resources through religion: a case study from Central Himalaya. Society & Natural resources 12, 599–622. 62. Sinclair, F. L., & Walker, D. H. (1999). A utilitarian approach to the incorporation of local knowledge in agroforestry research and extension. In: Buck, L. E., Lassoie, J. P., & Fernandes, E. C. M. (Eds.), Agroforestry in Sustainable Agricultural Systems. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 245–275. 63. Singh, H., Agnihotri, P., Pande, P. C., & Husain, T. (2011). Biodiversity conservation through traditional beliefs system in Indian Himalaya: a case study from Nakuleshwar sacred grove. Environmentalist 31, 246–253.

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INDEX

A Aalu sarson ki sabzi (potato/mustard seeds), 99 Abelia, 4, 372 Abies pindrow, 47, 50, 189, 365, 372, 421–423 Acacia catechu, 189, 330, 364, 372, 419 Acer, 3 caesium Wall. ex Brandis, 372, 423 cappadocicum, 423 oblongum Wall. ex DC., 372, 468, 469 pectinatum Wall. ex G. Nicholson, 372 villosum Wall., 372, 423 Achyranthes bidentata, 330, 372, 421, 422 Aconitum heterophyllum, 4, 50, 121, 122, 138, 146, 153, 154, 159, 177, 183, 187, 190, 422, 423 violaceum, 121, 138, 154, 423 Acorus calamus, 50, 153, 177, 178, 186, 187, 191, 330 Adiantum venustum, 422 Adulterants, 294, 303, 308 Adulteration, 303, 307 Aegle marmelos, 50, 172, 177, 186, 187, 192, 330, 426 Aerial parts, 161, 175, 180, 181, 258, 328 Aesculus indica, 105, 106 Ageratina adenophora, 439 Ageratum conyzoides L., 178, 192, 331, 439 Agriculture, 14, 15, 24, 29, 117, 136, 363–365, 464 field, 172, 361, 367, 460, 464 intensification, 19 pastoral community, 136 practices, 12, 25, 365 Agro-climatic conditions, 19, 23 Agropastoralism, 15 Agrostis, 4, 373 Agro-technology, 163 Ajuga bracteata, 178

parviflora, 153, 193, 331 Alcoholic drink, 106, 315 Alexipharmic treatment, 297 Alimanty diseases, 328 Alkaloids morphine, 321 Allium, 42, 51, 123, 144, 174, 183, 193, 194, 305, 329–332, 374 govanianum, 159 humile, 153 Allopathic medicine/treatment, 188, 329 Alnus nitida, 421 Aloe barbadensis, 153, 159, 173, 194 Aloe vera, 177, 187, 194 Alpha-pinene, 367 Alpine flora, 138, 139, 168 marshes, 117 meadows, 118, 139, 173, 359, 361, 430, 437, 438, 452, 462 pasture, 120, 152, 424, 425, 438, 439, 453 plant communities, 120 regions, 6, 118–122, 139, 326 screes, 121 zone, 3, 41, 115–117, 139, 154–159, 187 Altitude grazing lands, 118 medicinal plants, 165 Altitudinal range, 119, 156, 358, 359 zones, 121, 364 Amanita muscaria, 315, 320 Amaranthus, 53, 179, 183, 195, 332 spinosus L, 179, 195 viridis L, 47 Ambua, 101 Amchi medicine, 17, 158, 160, 168 Amshavan, 319 Amshumat, 319 Analgesic, 171, 177, 201, 300, 315, 321 Anaphalis, 120, 183, 195, 196, 332, 374 Anaphalis cuneifolia, 120

480 Ancient rituals, 411 spirits, 414 woodland, 25 Andrographis paniculata, 177, 179, 187, 196 Andropogon munroi, 361 Anemone, 4, 120, 196, 197, 332 Anemone rivularis, 120 Angelica archangelica, 120, 197 Angelica glauca, 54, 120, 121, 138, 153, 159, 184, 197, 329, 423 Angiosperm, 421 Animal grazing, 439 health care, 327, 328 healthy, 327 husbandry, 5, 20, 21, 136, 361 interact, 20 Animistic, 24, 413, 419 Anorexia, 131, 302, 331, 332, 341, 351 Anthelmintic, 179, 191, 194, 198, 201, 205–209, 221, 223, 232, 240, 241, 248, 252, 258, 268, 269, 302 Anthropogenic disturbance, 410, 424, 438 influence, 27 interferences, 307 pressures, 138, 184, 439 Anthropologists, 448, 458, 463 Anthropology, 274, 461 Antiasthmatic, 305 Antidiarrheal, 300, 301 Antihelmintic, 302, 304 Anti-inflammatory, 177, 299–301 Antioxidant properties, 297 Antipyretic/anticonvulsant activity, 301 Antipyretics, 177 Antirheumatic drug, 167, 297, 305 Antiseptic, 128, 170, 177, 202, 238, 245 Aphrodisiac, 172, 181, 193, 201, 205, 213, 222, 258, 297, 299–302, 304 Apiaceae, 116, 123, 125, 127, 130–133, 137, 159, 174, 180, 181, 328 Apium graveolens, 153 Appetizer, 138, 171, 190, 191, 206, 228, 229, 243, 247, 248, 251, 262, 267, 301–304 Arabidopsis himalaica, 41, 54, 213

Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4 Archaeological records, 33 study, 320 Archangelica himalaica, 153 Architectural heritage, 33 styles, 26 Arid lands, 20 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume, 47, 54 Arnebia benthamii, 123, 138, 178, 184 euchroma, 54, 154, 186, 360 Aromatic plants, 118, 169, 171, 174, 184, 188, 359 Art forms, 15, 26, 31 Artemisia, 54, 153, 174, 181, 183, 198–200, 328, 333, 374 Artemisia absinthium, 153 Arthritis, 17, 171, 174, 177, 190, 206, 219, 236, 250, 258, 302, 328, 331, 337 Artifacts, 33, 35 Artistic creation, 14 Aryan shamanism, 323 strains, 12, 15 vedic culture, 317 Asclepias acida, 319, 322 Ashada Poornima, 412 Ashtavarga, 4–7, 293–295, 303, 306–308 churna, 306 plants, 7, 307 herbs, 304 Asparagus adscendens, 54, 153, 303, 333, 375, 468–470 filicinus, 54, 153, 200, 375 racemosus, 173, 177, 187, 200, 296, 303, 375 Ashtavarga species, 297 crepidium acuminatum, 299–300 habenaria intermedia, 302–303 lilium polyphyllum, 298–299 malaxis muscifera, 300 polygonatum cirrhifolium, 301–302 polygontum verticillatum, 300–301 roscoea purpurea, 297–298 Asteraceae, 46, 116, 122–128, 133, 134, 137, 174–176, 180–184, 328, 421

Index 481 Asthma, 17, 123, 125, 133, 166, 171, 174, 181, 189, 191–193, 201–209, 212, 215– 224, 226, 229–233, 238, 245, 251, 252, 258, 262, 263, 267, 270, 297, 302, 304 Astragalus, 4, 55, 121, 123, 143, 174, 183, 201, 360, 375 Astringent, 171, 189, 190, 197, 202, 205, 211–215, 234, 242, 246, 250, 251, 259, 268, 299 Aswamedha Yagna, 320 Atharva veda, 7, 320 Athyrium attenuatum, 422 schimperi, 362, 375 Austro-Asiatic language family, 22 Avalanches, 439 Ayurveda, 308 Ayurvedic formulation, 306 physicians, 308 texts, 295 Azardirachta indica, 153, 172

B Bistoria macrophylla, 120 Berberis umbellata, 120 Bistorta vivipara, 120 Babila ghass, 165 Babroo, 101 Babru, 40 Bacopa monnierii, 153 Baglamukhi, 425 Balti, 12, 16, 17, 167 Baltistan, 16 Balya Rasayana, 303 Banis, 438 Bankh ki sabzi, 99 Banraut, 17 Bargad, 383, 463 Baries, 107 Baril, 100 Barleria prionitis L, 178, 202 Barley grains, 105 Basella cordifolia, 319, 322 Bathua ki sabzi, 99 Bauhinia purpurea L, 55, 178, 376 variegata L, 103, 153, 203, 334, 376

Bedding material, 361, 362, 431, 472 Bedu roti, 48, 101 Beduan roti, 40, 101 Beedis, 136 Belize stone collection, 35 Belizean culture, 35 Berberidaceae, 46, 123, 124 Berberis, 4, 46, 108, 120–124, 153, 181, 183, 186, 187, 203, 307, 328, 335, 364, 376, 421, 422, 468–470 jaeschikeana, 120 Bergenia ciliata, 47, 181, 335 ligulata, 153, 187, 335, 469 Beta-pinene, 367 Betula, 4, 56, 124, 138, 145, 153, 177, 335, 377, 456 Bhalla, 43, 101 Bhandari, 427, 428, 434 Bhat ke dubake, 98 Bhaturu, 40, 101 Bhavaprakasa Nighantu, 303 Bhoska, 17 Bhotia, 15, 17, 121, 135, 136, 152, 155, 176, 180, 361 Bhotiya tribal community, 121, 364 Bhoxa community, 135 Bhruni ki sabji, 40, 102 Bhunda, 423 Bidens bipinnata, 177 Bidens pilosa, 44, 335, 439 Biochemical investigation, 42 Biodiversity, 4– 8, 22–24, 36, 37, 117, 121, 152, 156, 169, 178, 410–414, 419, 423, 424, 428–430, 446–451, 457, 460, 468, 471–473 conservation, 410, 411, 424, 429, 448, 472 heritage sites (BHS), 446, 449–451, 455, 467, 468, 472 Management Committee (BMC), 446, 450, 451 Biological diversity, 14, 167, 464, 468 resource, 36, 157, 359 water humor, 322 Biomedicines, 329 Biopiracy, 30, 188 Bistorta affinis, 57, 120, 124, 204

482 Blisters, 171, 183, 190, 197, 230, 241, 258, 265, 328–331, 338, 340, 343, 353 Blood purifier, 123, 202, 209, 223–228, 231, 233, 249, 253, 268, 269, 301, 331 Boenninghausenia albiflora, 205, 362 Boerhavia diffusa, 57, 179, 187, 468 Bombax ceiba, 57, 205, 329, 377, 426, 438 Bone fracture, 125, 174, 181, 245, 265, 268, 328–331, 336, 337, 341 Boraginaceae, 129, 174 Botanical curiosities, 168 identity, 168, 295, 297, 314, 318 Botany, 1, 11, 39, 115, 149, 274, 313, 325 Boti, 17 Brachiaria villosa, 361, 377 Brahini gutika, 306 Brahmakamal, 438, 452, 453, 460, 462 Brāhmanas, 315 Brahmanical gods, 151 Brassica campastris, 41 Brassicaceae, 46, 129, 174 Breathing problems, 170, 250 Breeding pools, 437 British colonialism, 31 Bromus, 4 Bronchodilator activity, 301 Bubble gum, 47–50 Buckwheat Seed flour, 48 Buddhism, 12–15, 26, 135, 410, 411, 424, 437 Buddhist community, 173 people, 424, 425 Budnamel, 46 Buds/pseudostems, 328 Buffer zone, 169, 172 Bugyals, 116, 118, 120, 430, 437 Bugyals-Alpine meadows, 120 Bunium persicum, 58, 153, 186, 205 Bupleurum falcatum, 153, 205 Burman, 5, 12, 15, 22, 64, 136 Burning sensation, 213, 231, 262, 265, 299–302 Butea monosperma, 58, 172, 438 Butter milk, 105 Butterfly corridor, 35 Buxus, 3, 58, 337, 422

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C Caesalpiniaceae, 46 Calotropis gigantea, 153 Candidate species, 318, 319 Cannabaceae family, 369 Cannabis, 47, 58, 101, 206, 315, 319–321, 337, 363, 378 Cannabis sativa, 47, 58, 101, 315, 319, 321, 337, 363 Capparis spinosa, 41, 207 Capsella bursa-pastoris, 58, 178, 207, 337 Caragana versicolor, 207, 360 Carbon stock potential, 429 Carcinoma, 177 Carminative, 189, 205, 210, 223, 240, 249, 268, 304 Carpinus viminea, 338, 365, 423, 468, 470 Cassia fistula, 153, 177, 187, 207, 338, 419, 426 Cassiope, 59, 120, 378 Cassiope fastigata, 120 Caste equity, 427 Catharanthus pusillus, 439 roseus, 177, 207 Cedrus deodara, 48, 305, 365–68, 379, 414–417, 419, 421–423, 428, 456, 460, 463, 468, 469 Centella asiatica, 172, 177, 178, 187, 339 Central nervous system (CNS), 315 Cereal crops, 137 Cereals production, 117 Ceremonial forms, 12, 15 Cha Kholak, 100 Chacha, 102 Chamba district, 184, 412 Chamchuda, 40, 98 Champa, 17 Chandramah, 319 Chappatis, 106 Chaulai ka bhat, 98 Chaulai ka halwa, 40, 98 Chaulai ki kheer, 98 Chaulai leaves, 47 Chemical constituents, 43, 294, 298 industry, 367 Chemoprofile, 43

Index 483 Chenopodium, 44, 46, 60, 99, 209, 339, 439 Chhakinal watershed, 169, 419 Chhang, 40, 100 Chhola roti, 98 Chhurphe, 100, 106 Chilblains, 182 Chilgoza nut, 47 Chitrakadi taila, 306 Chlorophytum arundinaceum, 296, 304 Chronic digestive problems, 17 Chronic fever, 177 Chrysanthemum leaves, 105 pyrethroides, 360 Chubtsos, 100 Chuli Chhu, 100 Chutkani, 48, 99, 101 Chuu kholak, 100 Chyavanprash rasayan, 306 Cicer microphyllum, 339, 360, 361 Cigarettes, 136 Cinnamomum tamala, 153, 187, 209, 339, 469 Circinate leaves, 48, 65 Cissampelos pareira L., 179, 209, 379 Civil Soyam forests, 456 Clannish, 12, 23, 25 Classification of, taboo system, 467 Climate change, 27 Climax vegetation, 414 Codonopsis clematedia, 41 Cold arid zone, 360 Cold desert, 360, 425 area, 169, 425 ecosystems, 359 plants, 176 Colocasia, 44, 62, 99, 101–103, 340 Combretaceae, 46 Commercialization, 13, 108 Commiphora wightii, 187 Community conservation, 139, 174 custodianship, 471 decision making, 5 ecosystems, 119, 156 members, 37, 464 Cordia dichotoma L, 62, 104, 211, 379, 438 Coriandrum sativum, 41, 62, 329

Coriaria, 4, 62, 380, 421 Cornus, 3, 62, 361, 380 Corydalis, 4, 121, 125, 154, 183, 211, 212 Corylus, 3, 62, 153, 364, 380, 423 Cosmeceuticals, 5 Cosmetics, 36, 184, 367 Cotoneaster, 4, 62, 212, 365, 366, 380 Cotoneaster microphyllus, 120 Cough and cold, 116, 137, 304 Cow dung, 102 sheds, 365 Crepidium acuminatum, 296, 299, 304, 306 Crop plants, 414 Cross roads, 27 Crude drugs, 159, 162 Crushed seeds, 106 Cucurbitaceae, 181, 328 Cultivation, 149, 273 Cultural asset, 116 attitudes, 368, 414 beliefs, 438, 439, 448 discoveries, 36 diversity, 14, 450 evolution, 29 festivals, 32 forms, 21, 29, 31–35 heritage, 14, 17, 31–37 industries, 35 mosaic, 118 perceptions, 458 protection and promotion, 30 avenues for practice, 32 conservation focus, 34 conservation of material culture, 33–34 culture based enterprises, 35–36 documentation of related traditional knowledge, 34 eco-museums, 34–35 fairs and functions, 32 government efforts, 30 patenting uniqueness, 36 preservation of language and other intangible cultural forms, 31 preservation of monuments and material cultural forms, 33 research/documentation, 32–33

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region, 18 sovereignty, 27 technique, 170 variation, 19 Cupressus, 4, 380, 421, 422, 456, 463, 468–470 Curative conservation, 33 Curculigo orchioides, 153, 187, 296, 303, 304 Curcuma domestica, 158, 177, 213, 329 Cuscuta reflexa, 172, 178, 183, 341 Cymbopogon martini, 367

D Dactylorhiza, 41, 125, 138, 144, 153, 154, 177, 184–187, 215, 296, 307, 342, 423 Dactylorhiza hatagirea, 41, 125, 138, 144, 153, 154, 177, 184–187, 215, 296, 423 Dahin Bhalla, 101 Damstra cikitsa, 294 Danthonia cachemyriana, 120 Daphne, 4, 381 Darats, 18 Dardi, 12, 16 Dards, 167 Daucus carota, 41, 64, 215 Deforestation, 27, 108, 429 Degradation, 27, 33, 118, 429, 430, 447, 461 Delphinium, 121–126, 138, 154, 183, 215, 216, 342, 360, 381, 423 brunonianum, 125, 138, 360 cashmerianum, 154 Deodar groves, 368 oil, 367 wood, 365 Der Kholak, 100 Dermatitis, 171, 328, 350 Dermatological diseases, 297 disorders, 180, 182, 328 problems, 172, 182 Derris indica, 187 Desi ghee, 49 Destructive distillation, 367 Detection, 163 Detergents, 367

Dev Bhumi, 410, 413 Devagiris, 317 Devasahas, 317 Devbhumi, 119 Development activities, 151, 155, 188, 273 policy, 29 projects, 30 purposes, 439 Deviation, 447 Devotees, 47, 58, 412 Devta, 413, 419, 420, 431, 435, 439 goods, 427 lands, 426 Sahib Bondra, 423 system, 413 Dhoo, 48 Dhumavati, 425 Dialect, 12, 15, 102, 135, 137 Dicotyledons, 45, 47 Digestive disorders, 180, 328 Digital library, 33 Dioscorea bulbifera, 153, 217, 296, 303, 304 deltoidea, 4, 138, 217 kumaunensis, 167 Diplazium esculentum, 104, 108, 382 frondosum, 48 maximum, 422 polypodioides, 55, 362 Dish of lentils, 104 Diversity of flora/fauna, 157 Doltok, 104 Domestic animals, 326 energy, 366 uses, 365 Dough of wheat flour, 105 Dravidian, 5, 22 Dried berries, 48 Drink liquor, 462 Drug markets, 159 Drukap, 17 Dryopteris wallichiana, 362 Durvasoma, 319 Dwarf willows, 120 Dwindling tribe, 28

Index 485 Dye yielding plants, 364, 369 characteristics, 364

E Ear and eye problem, 116, 137 Earthen structures, 26 Eclipta alba, 187, 218 Eco-friendly, 472 Ecological adaptations, 448, 472 balance, 155, 439 conditions, 23, 24, 155 differentiation, 19 dimensions, 419 importance, 414 knowledge, 20, 450, 473 life, 471 perspective, 448, 472 services, 464 significance, 412 status, 429 Ecomuseum concept, 35 Economic development, 151, 273 resources, 136 Ecosystem services, 29, 411, 428, 429, 431, 451, 467 Eczema, 17, 127, 130, 138, 171, 195, 197, 202, 231, 234, 243, 251, 269, 328, 331, 336, 337, 339, 341 Edible plants, 40–47, 184, 358 Education system, 31, 440 Elaeganaceae, 46 Elaeganus, 46 Eleusine coracana, 48, 66, 126, 319, 322, 343 Elsholtzia fruticosa, 153, 219 Emaciation, 299–302 Emblica officinalis, 67, 153, 159, 185–187, 219, 343, 364 Endangered species, 4, 35, 139, 150, 155, 172, 273, 451, 463, 464 Endemic sub-alpine species, 116 Endemism, 172, 449 Environmental changes, 151, 273 compulsions, 326

conditions, 150, 414 heterogeneity, 117 Environmentally beneficial, 188 Ephedra, 67, 120, 126, 186, 219, 307, 315, 319, 320, 343, 366, 383 Ephedra gerardiana, 120, 126, 186, 219, 343 Epilobium, 183, 219, 383 Epiphytic, 299 Epithets, 319 Erigeron, 183, 220, 221, 421 Ethnic art, 26 communities, 5, 7, 8, 106, 107, 121, 135, 158, 169, 172 diversity, 1, 4, 5, 8, 14, 37 central Himalaya, 15–16 western Himalaya, 16 tribal diversity in western/central Himalayas, 16–18 food plants, 6, 40, 41, 106–108 food preparation, 40, 41, 108 peoples, 14, 28 spectra, 18 Ethnobiological heritage, 170 importance, 170 information, 164, 169, 179 knowledge, 154, 358–361 listings, 118 notes, 167, 170 observation, 169 species, 178 studies, 42, 43, 116, 118, 164–171, 173–176, 179, 182–184, 359, 426 survey, 169, 176, 180, 182 treatment, 166 uses, 117, 175, 182, 358, 359 Ethno-botanico-medico beliefs, 316 Ethnobotanists, 41, 274 Ethnobotany, 18, 43, 45, 150, 151, 164–170, 183, 185, 359, 369 Ethnoconservation, 8, 440 Ethno-linguistic group, 17 Ethnomedicinal, 6, 46, 118, 138, 148, 150, 163, 167, 171, 173–183, 185, 188, 274, 329 knowledge, 115, 116

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plants, 6, 118, 138, 139, 148, 150, 163, 167, 168, 170, 171, 173–175, 178–180, 182, 183, 188, 274, 327, 329 study, 175 survey, 46 Ethnomedicine, 166, 168, 172 Ethno-medico-botany, 174, 175 survey, 165 Ethno-medico-zoological wisdom, 174 Ethnoveterinary, 7, 174, 188, 326–329 medicine, 7, 327, 326, 329 plants, 174, 188, 326–328 practices, 327 Eucalyptus citriodora, 221, 438 Eunymus tingens, 165 Euonymus hamiltonianus, 361 Euphorbia royleana Boiss, 48 stracheryi, 121 Evolvulus alsinoides, 187, 222, 468 Expectorant, 189, 191, 194, 195, 197, 205, 207, 215, 229, 231, 237, 269, 297, 299, 301 Exploitation, 29, 31, 108, 151, 152, 154, 165, 440, 446, 451, 457, 458, 460–462, 472 Extraction, 94, 178, 362, 364, 366

F Fabaceae, 45, 46, 123, 125, 174, 175, 182, 328 Fagopyrum esculentum, 48, 126 tataricum, 48, 126 Farming communities, 107 Faunal diversity, 446, 454 Febrifuge, 171, 177, 191, 195, 204, 207, 217, 225, 249, 297, 299–301, 305 Fencing, 360, 361, 386, 440 agricultural fields, 361 Fermentation methods, 107 Fermented grains, 105 mixture, 101 Fertile soils, 19, 23 valleys, 14, 358 Ferula jaeschkeana, 68, 153, 222

Ferulic acid, 298, 322 Festuca, 4, 361 Fiber yielding plants, 362, 363, 369 Ficus, 42, 46, 68, 99, 102, 183, 222, 223, 328, 343, 383, 384, 419, 426, 438, 463 palmata, 361 Flat tablelands, 21 Floral species, 152 Floristic diversity, 454 regions, 358 Fly-agaric mushroom, 315, 320 Food gatherers, 136 patterns, 107 preparation, 40, 44, 49, 99, 107, 108 preparations, 5, 6, 41, 100, 106, 108 value, 46 Foothills, 15–17, 19, 21–23, 31 Forest fringe villages, 411 patch, 428, 430 resources, 472 Fragmentation, 307, 439 Fraxinus, 3, 224, 343, 384 Fritillaria, 69, 127, 138, 144, 154, 183, 224, 296, 305, 307 Fritillaria roylei, 69, 138, 154, 183, 296, 305 Fuel wood, 23, 25, 360, 365–367, 375, 376, 379, 381, 384, 396–399, 402, 420, 428, 431–434, 436

G Gahat ki bedu roti, 98 Gahat ki dal, 40, 99 Galactogogue, 297, 299, 301, 305, 330, 344, 346, 352 Galgal, 101 Gallium aparine, 421 Gandpapar ka saag, 99 Ganga, 2, 119, 432, 437 Garam masala, 101–104 Garhwal Himalaya, 42, 44, 45, 164–166, 169, 170, 173, 176, 300, 364, 430 Garlic-ginger paste, 101 Garudahrita (yellowish drug), 319 Gastrointestinal, 172, 182, 205

Index 487 Gaultheria trichophlla, 120 Gayatriya, 319 Gehun ki khumani, 98 Genthi ki sabzi, 99 Genthi wood, 137 Gentiana, 4, 70, 121, 127, 153, 174, 183, 211, 225 Gentiana kurroo, 4 Gentiana moorcroftiana, 138 Gentianaceae, 127, 133, 174, 180 Geographical area, 116–119, 156, 157, 369 Geographical factors, 23 location, 4, 358, 359 range contraction, 117 region, 317, 318 Geranium, 120, 121, 127, 153, 183, 226, 343, 344, 360, 364, 385, 391, 421 collinum, 120 wallichianum, 127, 153 Geum elatum, 120, 190 Ginjada, 98 Girardinia heterophylla, 227, 363 Glacial cycles, 27 river beds, 120 Global climate, 27 Global warming, 27, 117 Globalization, 5, 34, 37 Glycine max, 43, 48, 70, 101 Glycyrrhiza glabra, 186, 187, 227 Gnaphalium affine, 227, 421 Grasslands, 20, 118, 120, 359, 361, 410 Grassy pastures, 302 Grazing herd, 462 pressure, 452, 462 Great Karakoram ranges, 358 Greenhouse gas emission, 27 Grewia optiva, 70, 361, 363 Groves, 414, 437 Gujjar tribe, 44, 179 Gulgulae, 102 Gur Gur Cha, 102 Gurush ki bedu roti, 98 Gwaral ki sabzi, 99 Gymnema sylvestre, 187 Gymnosperm, 44, 45, 107, 155, 169, 182, 421, 428, 438

Gynecological disorders, 176, 177, 182, 193, 199, 248, 249, 259, 262, 263, 271

H Habenaria intermedia, 127, 138, 296, 302, 304 Habitat, 25, 44, 117, 137, 139, 152, 156, 163, 273, 307, 412, 428, 431, 447, 451, 453, 456, 458, 461, 464 Habitats, 25, 116, 117, 119, 120, 151, 319, 326, 411, 451, 453, 458, 462, 463 Hallucinating agents, 315 Hallucinogen, 315, 321, 323 Hallucinogenic effect, 7 Hallucinogens, 315, 316 Halwa, 106 Harbors rich flora, 358 Harijans, 458 Harvesting, 104, 154, 160, 172, 427, 439, 451, 452, 458–461, 464 Headache, 116, 122, 126, 127, 133, 137, 170, 171, 176, 177, 181, 182, 190–192, 194, 202, 204, 208, 211–219, 225–228, 232, 233, 235, 238, 241, 244, 245, 249, 255, 260, 264, 265, 272 Healing plants, 315 properties, 36, 138, 413 Health care system, 152, 168, 326, 327, 426 treatment, 326 Heavy biotic pressure, 410 Hedychium spicatum, 153, 187, 227, 364, 469 Helvella compressa, 70, 107 Hematemesis, 299 Hematuria, 210, 328–335, 339, 341, 346 Hepatitis, 17, 205, 243, 262 Heracleum candicans, 71, 153 rhamnoides, 138 Herbaceous flora, 184 species, 120 Herbal drugs, 158, 159, 166 industries, 118, 154 materials, 173

488 medicines, 168, 173, 188 practitioners, 185 shampoo, 359 Herbalists, 150, 159, 187, 274 Hermaphrodite, 302 Hibernation, 26 High altitudes, 12, 15, 16, 19, 21–27, 116, 118, 152, 179 desert-steppe, 360 plateau, 20 valleys, 12, 22 species, 117 Hill bamboos, 358, 366 Himachal Pradesh, 1, 3, 4, 11, 16, 34, 41–48, 101–108, 119, 150, 152, 156, 157, 164, 166–169, 171–176, 180, 182–185, 187, 299, 301, 302, 326, 358–361, 364– 369, 409–415, 419, 422, 426, 438, 440 anticancer plants, 185 cultures risks, 27 cultural depletion, 28 medicinal practices, 28–29 melting glaciers/bursting lakes, 27–28 paradigms, 29–30 sacred natural sites, 411–413 mountains, 411–412 valleys, 413 groves, 413–419 water bodies, 412–413 Himalayan communities, 19, 26, 447 Forest Research Institute (HFRI), 424 inhabitation, 18 biodiversity in sacred cliffs, 24–25 ecological differentiation, 19–20 ethnic art, 26–27 inhabitation at mid altitudes, 21 languages, 22–23 lifestyle and nature, 23 low altitudes and foothills, 21–22 nature connectivity, 24 nomadic pastoralism, 20 nomadism at high altitudes, 20–21 religion, 24 rich traditional knowledge, 24 socialability, 25 languages project, 33 medicinal plants, 170

Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4 medicine system (HMS), 273 nettle, 363 range, 19, 155, 157 region, 3–7, 12–22, 26, 28, 32, 33, 37, 41, 44, 48, 49, 100, 117, 135, 150, 152, 158, 160, 162, 165–173, 177, 179, 181, 185, 187, 273, 274, 307, 317, 326, 329, 358–364, 366–369 rivers, 2, 19, 23 states, 369 style, 26 style art, 26 tribes, 31 zone, 3, 41, 107, 108 Hinduism, 12, 14, 17, 19, 23, 26, 410, 411, 424, 437 Hippophae, 43, 48, 71, 120, 128, 145, 178, 180, 185, 186, 228, 229, 344, 360, 361, 386 Hippophae rhamnoides L., 48, 71, 145, 186, 228, 360, 361, 366 Hoamas, 315–318 Hodh, 48 Homogenization, 5, 34 Homogenized processes, 29 Hordeum vulgare L., 48, 71, 229, 386 Human behavior, 446 brain secretion, 322 communities, 446 cultures, 413 disturbance, 25 exploitation, 19 interaction, 19, 447 population, 4, 35, 458 society, 116, 410 Humulus lupulus, 71, 319, 369, 386 Hydrological cycles, 464 Hydropower dams, 30 Hyoscyamus niger L., 138, 229 Hypericum perforatum, 153, 178, 229

I Ichnocarpus frutescens, 319 Ilex dipyrena Wall., 3, 386 Impatiens sulcata, 120, 146 glandulifera, 153

Index 489 Indian System of Medicines (ISM), 174 Indigenous communities, 13, 36, 135, 179, 410 fermented food, 106 knowledge, 13, 20, 43, 44, 115, 116, 170, 171, 188, 326, 362, 363 Indo-Aryan languages, 15 Indo-Europeans, 4 Indo-Gangetic Plain, 2, 11, 13 Indo-Malayan realms, 14 Indus River, 158, 317, 319 Industrialization, 13, 18 Intellectual property rights (IPR), 37 Inula, 4 cappa, 230, 387 cuspidata C. B.Clarke, 230 grandiflora Willd., 230 obtusifolia A. Kerner, 230 racemosa Hook.f., 230, 387 rhizocephala Schrenk, 230 royleana DC., 231 racemosa, 186 royleana, 154 Iris, 120, 128, 154, 183, 231, 344 kumaonensis, 120, 128, 154 Islam, 12, 14–16, 26

J Jadhs of Uttarkashi, 135 Jagariya/Ojha/Pucher, 456 Jagata, 319 Jaggery, 47, 48, 53, 98, 105 Jara cikitsa, 294 Jaundice, 116, 123, 127, 137, 138, 171, 174, 179, 181, 182, 191–193, 203, 205, 218, 221, 223, 240, 245, 251, 252, 255, 258, 262, 263, 267, 268, 270, 304, 343 Jaunsari tribal community, 17, 116, 121, 135, 165, 173, 327 Jhankara ka saag, 99 Jivaka, 296–299, 303, 304, 308 Jivaniya gana Churna, 306 Jivaniya ghrita, 306 Joint Forest Management (JFM)., 430 Juglans, 3, 44, 72, 128, 232, 345, 364, 365, 387, 421, 423 Jumgand, 46

Juniperus communis, 72, 120, 232, 345, 456, 463 Juniperus polycarpos, 232, 419, 425 Juniperus recurva, 232, 360, 387 Jurinea dolomiaea, 120, 128, 145, 233 Jurinella macrocephala, 178 Justicia adhatoda, 72, 153, 186, 233

K Kaandal/khandole, 102, 103 Kaddu ka halwa, 40, 98 Kadi, 40, 103 Kakoli, 127, 296–298, 303, 304, 308 Kanaka, 40, 98 Kapha, 322 Karalen ki sabzi, 103 Karnah, 46 Kathburiya Devi, 452 Kauni ka bhat, 98 Kauni ki kheer, 40, 98 Kauni ki roti, 98 Kaya cikitsa, 294 Keran, 46 Kernels, 49, 89, 93, 192 Kharif, 98 Khasas, 14, 18, 151 Kholak, 40, 100 Khoru, 103 Khura, 40, 100, 103 Khwaire, 107 Kidney stone, 174, 191, 197, 213, 223, 232, 242, 251, 259, 271 Kinnars, 14, 18 Kinnaur district, 45–47, 171, 412 Kirates, 18 Kothiyur ki sabzi, 99 Ksirkakoli, 297, 304, 309 Kullu District, 169, 411, 415, 419 Kutu ki roti, 98

L Lactarius, 72, 107, 108 Lama Pakthuk, 100 Lamiaceae, 45, 46, 116, 126, 128–130, 134, 137, 166, 174, 176, 182, 184, 328, 421 Land of Gods, 119, 411 Lands of Soma, 317, 320 identity of soma, 318

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Lasurae, 104 Lasurae ki sabji, 40 Lathyrus sativus L., 48 Lesuwa roti, 98 Leucoderma, 127, 183, 222, 234, 264 Leukemia, 177 Lilium polyphyllum, 138, 178, 296, 298, 299, 306 Lim Chhi, 49 Lingura ki sabzi, 99 Liver disorders, 170, 171, 267, 328 Liver problems, 17, 177, 352 Livestock, 326 diseases, 329 populations, 118, 326 Lobelia pyramidalis, 166, 345 Lobia ka chaisa, 99 Lobia ki bedu roti, 98 Local bodies, 449 communities, 37, 42–44, 116, 117, 137, 174, 176, 179, 182, 186, 187, 414, 428, 437, 457, 471 cultures, 447 deities, 413, 414, 419, 426, 430, 437, 466 deity, 426 inhabitants, 44, 107, 116, 118, 150, 168, 170, 429, 430, 431 pastoral communities, 118 populace, 26, 362, 451 vaidyas, 176 Lonicera webbiania, 120 Losar, 103 Lungdu, 104 Lycoperdon sp., 75, 107, 108

M Macrofungi, 44, 46, 107, 108 Macrotyloma uniflorum Lam., 48, 75 Madira/Jhangora ki roti, 98 Madua ki badi/roti, 98 Mahakalyan ghrita, 306 Mahameda, 296–298, 301, 303, 306, 309 Mahasoma, 319 Malaxis acuminata, 153, 296, 299, 469 muscifera, 138, 153, 187, 296, 300, 306

Manali harbors, 414 Mandi district, 42, 46, 105, 106, 167, 176, 182, 412, 425 Mangifera indica, 75, 101, 153, 237, 426, 438 Manikaran valley, 420 Manimahesh lake, 412 Margiana region, 320 Mastitis, 328, 335, 336, 341 Masur dal ki sabzi, 99 Materia medica, 273 MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), 321 Meconopsis aculeata, 4, 129, 138, 146 Meda, 309 Medicago falcata, 360 Medicinal aromatic plants (MAPs), 118 flora, 151, 162, 168 plants, 5–7, 43, 116, 118, 138, 139, 150–152, 154–156, 158, 160–188, 273, 304, 307, 327, 359, 422, 423, 426, 436, 438, 439 conservation area (MPCA), 424 conservation potential, 429 practices, 28, 176 properties, 151, 155, 158, 178, 183 purposes, 137, 154, 156, 174, 187 value, 150, 152, 155, 157, 169, 186, 364, 369 wealth system, 158 wealth, 152, 158 Megacarpaea polyandra, 129, 138 Menstrual cycle, 212, 450, 456, 461 Mentha, 76, 129, 153, 183, 238, 346, 367, 390 arvensis, 76, 153 Methi ke laddu, 40, 98 Migratory herders, 327 nomadic graziers, 361 pastoral communities, 139 Mithdoo, 40, 104 Modernization, 12, 28, 41, 273, 368, 410, 439 Monal pheasant, 463 Mongoloid, 5, 12, 15, 18, 25, 135, 151 Moraceae, 45, 46, 328, 362 Morchella, 43, 49, 76, 107, 108, 422

Index 491 conica Pers., 49, 76, 107 deliciosa Fries., 49, 107 esculenta L., 107 semilebra D.C., 49, 107 Mornaula reserve forest, 44, 175, 176 Morus alba, 77, 438 serrata, 361 Mountain peaks, 2, 13, 119, 411 ranges, 2, 18, 23, 27, 358, 437 regions, 19, 318 women, 23, 25 Mucuna pruriens, 159, 187, 390 Multilingualism, 22, 29, 31 Munjavat, 317, 319 Murari Devi, 46, 182 Muscular disorders, 177 Muscular-pain, 302 Musculo-skeletal diseases, 297 Musk deer, 463, 464 Mustard oil, 48, 99, 102, 104 Myrica, 3, 78, 187, 346, 390 Myricaria, 120, 129, 239, 360, 366, 390 Myricaria-Salix Association, 120 Myrsine, 4, 239

N Nagabala sarpi, 306 Namphey, 100, 105, 106 Nanda Astami, 452–455, 460, 462 Nardostachys, 129, 138, 154, 159, 187, 307, 367 grandiflora, 129, 138, 154, 187 Nasturtium, 44, 78, 240 National Biodiversity Authority of India (NBAI), 446, 450 National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), 424 Natural artistries, 35 calamities, 138, 439 development, 34 dyes, 363, 364 environment, 155, 447 fibers, 362 forests, 414 habitats, 25, 297

materials, 17 objects, 410 resources supervision, 117 resources, 13, 24, 29, 46, 117, 162, 163, 410, 411, 429, 430, 438, 446, 448, 451, 458, 472 spirits, 419 vegetation, 360 wealth, 440 worship, 24, 29, 410, 411 Negroid, 12, 15 Nelumbium, 240, 319, 321 Nelumbo nucifera, 177 Nomadic nomadism, 18, 21 nomads, 12, 15, 16, 20, 37 pastoralism, 12, 20 pastoralists, 12, 18, 20, 21 practices, 20 racial tribe, 314 Non-wood forest products, 368 hops cultivation in Lahaul valley, 369 kuth (saussurea costus), 368–369 saffron/willow, 369 North-western Himalaya, 15, 156, 440 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, 241, 426 Nymphaea, 78, 183, 241, 242, 319, 321 Nymphaeaceae, 181

O Ocimum americanum L, 179 Ocimum sanctum, 153, 159, 187, 242, 347 Ocimum tenuiflorum, 177, 242 Onychium contiguum, 422 lucidium, 422 Origanum vulgare, 143, 178, 421, 243, 347 Osmunda claytoniana, 120 Oxalis, 46, 79, 99, 153, 243, 347, 391, 421

P Paba, 40, 100, 104 Pahari Madra, 27, 104 Paharis, 12, 15 Pakorus, 101, 104 Pakthuk, 100 Panch

492 Badri, 119 Kedar, 119 Prayag, 119 Pania ka saag, 99 Pankta, 319 Papaver somniferum, 243, 319 Pastoralism, 15, 19, 24, 326 Pastoralists, 14, 20, 326 Pastureland, 21 Patrode, 40, 103 Pedalium murex, 159 Pedicularis, 130, 153, 183, 244 pectinata, 153, 244 Peganum harmala, 319, 322 Pelargonium graveolens, 367, 391 Peonia emodi, 79, 138, 167, 347 Periploca aphylla, 319, 322 Persicaria, 80, 183, 245, 246, 392 Phlomis bracteosa, 120 Phthisis, 254, 299, 301 Phyllanthus amarus, 177, 179 Physalis divaricata D. Don, 179 Picea smithiana, 49, 81, 247, 392, 423 Picrorhiza kurrooa, 4, 130, 138, 153, 154, 184, 187, 247, 307, 347, 422, 423 Pinalu ka gunuwa, 99 Pinus gerardiana, 49, 81, 392 roxburghii, 247, 362, 365, 419, 438, 468 wallichiana, 49, 247, 362, 421 Piper longum, 177, 187 nigrum, 158, 329 Pir Panjal, 2, 4, 16, 157, 358, 412 Pistacia integerrima, 365, 422, 470 integerrmia, 187 Pitta, 297, 299–302 Plant diversity, 116, 117, 137, 175, 421, 426, 440 Plantago, 82, 153, 183, 247, 348, 422 depressa, 153, 247 Plant parts collection stages, 160 aerial parts, 161 bark, 161 bulbs, 160 fruits/berries, 161 rhizomes, 161 roots, 161

Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4 seeds, 161 tubers, 161 Plectranthes rugosus, 422 Pleurospermum, 120, 121, 130, 131, 247 angelicoides, 120, 130 densiflorum, 121 Pleurospermum sp, 121 Plumbago zeylanica, 177, 187 Poa, 4, 174, 361, 393 Podophyllum, 4, 82, 131, 138, 143, 177, 178, 183, 184, 248, 307, 423 hexandrum, 4, 82, 138, 143, 177, 178, 183, 184 Polygonaceae, 46, 116, 122–126, 130, 131, 137, 174, 180 Polygonatum amplexicaule D. Don, 49 cirrhifolium, 143, 296, 301, 306 multiflorum, 82, 153 polystachyum, 120 verticillatum, 138, 153, 184, 248, 296, 300, 306, 307, 421, 469 Polypodiodes microrhizoma, 422 Population, 16, 19, 25, 117, 119, 156, 1 growth, 117, 463 movement, 26 pressure, 151, 429 strategies, 19 Populus ciliata, 248, 360, 361, 419, 425, 426 Potentilla, 4, 83, 120, 121, 131, 143, 174, 183, 249, 348, 393 Poultice, 171, 182, 188, 222 Presiding deity, 420–424, 456, 457 Prinsepia utilis, 83, 153, 250, 394, 421, 422 Protection, 36, 37, 316, 366–368, 414, 427–430, 440, 448, 451, 458, 459, 467, 471, 472 Protoaustroloids, 151 Prunella vulgaris, 178, 250 Prunus armeniaca, 44, 49, 83, 185, 186, 250, 394, 421 Pteridium aquilinum, 362, 394, 422 Pteridophytes, 44–47, 107, 108, 155, 169, 182, 362, 421, 422, 428 Pteris multifida, 422 Pueraria tuberosa, 84, 159, 251, 296, 303, 304, 348 Pujari, 159, 426, 427

Index 493 Punica granatum, 84, 251, 348, 364, 394 Pyrecantha sp, 168

Q Quantitative assessment, 162 Quercus dilatata, 415, 421 Quercus leucotrichophora, 84, 251, 349, 361, 365, 422, 456, 462, 468, 469

R Raji, 17, 116, 121, 136, 137, 171 Ramaria, 85, 107, 108 Rambans ki sabzi, 99 Ranunculaceae, 116, 122–126, 134, 137, 328, 421 Ranunculus, 85, 120, 121, 179, 183, 251, 252 Ranunculus hirtellus, 120, 252 Raphanus sativus, 41, 85, 252, 349 Rasayana, 295, 302–305, 309 Ratpa, 456, 463 Rauvolfia serpentina, 153, 187, 252 Rejuvenation, 6, 7, 24, 295, 297, 309, 440 Religious beliefs, 368, 414, 420, 439, 471, 472 Remedies, 150, 159, 166, 167, 171–188, 274, 327, 329 Renuka Lake, 412 Rheum australe, 4, 85, 121, 131, 138, 154, 184, 253, 349, 364 Rheum moorcroftianum, 13, 3641, 422 Rheum webbianum, 41, 121 Rheumatalgia, 299 Rheumatic pain, 167, 170, 226, 231, 235, 260, 335 Rheumatism, 17, 123, 127, 130, 133, 171, 178–182, 190–192, 199, 200, 204, 207, 210–212, 215, 219, 223, 226–235, 237, 242, 245–250, 258–262, 266–269, 271, 328, 337, 342 Rhigopogon, 107, 108 vulgaris, 107 Rhizome, 47, 52–56, 62, 63, 78, 84, 94, 97, 191, 196–200, 204, 205, 210, 213, 215, 218, 220, 224–227, 231, 241, 248–251, 262, 266, 268, 271, 297–305, 341, 344, 350–353, 382, 385, 402 Rhizopogon, 86, 107, 108

luteolus Fr, 86, 107 rubescens Tal., 107 Rhodiola, 41, 49, 86, 105, 183, 186, 253, 254 heterodonta, 41, 49, 86, 253 Rhododendron, 3, 49, 86, 120, 143, 153, 154, 254, 395, 417, 456, 463, 469, 470 arboreum, 365 campanulatum, 4, 463 Rhus, 3, 87, 212, 254, 395, 396, 469 Ribes orientale, 120, 153 Ricinus communis L., 87, 179, 254 Riddhi, 309 Rishis, 294 Rituals, 7, 22, 29, 135, 166, 315, 316, 318, 369, 375, 378, 384, 386, 411, 420, 423, 438 Robinia pseudoacacia, 254, 361 Rorippa indica, 153 Rosa, 4, 87, 108, 120, 183, 255, 349, 366, 367, 396, 421, 422 sericea, 120 Rosaceae, 45, 46, 116, 131, 137, 173, 176, 181, 184, 328, 421 Roscoea purpurea, 296, 297, 303, 306 Rsabhaka, 296–298, 309 Rubia cordifolia, 153, 177, 255 Rubus, 4, 46, 49, 88, 108, 173, 256, 328, 396 Rugi ki sabzi, 99 Rumex, 44, 89, 183, 256, 349, 364, 396, 421 Rumex hastatus, 422 Ruta graveolens, 319, 322

S Sacred forests, 43, 173, 429, 432, 436, 437, 446, 448–451, 453–462, 464, 466– 469, 471, 472 groves, 118, 368, 410–420, 423–429, 438–447, 450, 451, 454, 456–459, 461, 464, 471, 472 Himachal Pradesh, 413 other districts of Himachal Pradesh, 425 iodiversity heritage sites, 449 Kinnaur district, 424 Mandi district, 425

494 Shimla district, 422 natural sites (SNS), 409), 410, 411, 428, 429, 438, 439, 440, 446–450, 453–459, 465, 473 plants, 155, 183, 368, 369, 413 water bodies, 412 zone, 456 Sacrosanct boundary, 466 Saffron, 369 Saffron and musk, 305 Sageretia theezans, 421 Sakina ke phoolon ka saag, 99 Salix, 89, 120, 174, 185, 257, 350, 360, 361, 366, 369, 397 denticulata, 360 lindleyi, 120 Salvia moorcroftiana, 257, 422 plebeia, 153, 257 Sapindus mukorossi, 49, 89, 153, 181, 187, 257, 350, 397 Sarcostemma brevistigma, 319 Sarcostemma spp, 322 Satapatha Brāhmana, 315 Saussurea, 4, 89, 121, 133, 138, 144, 145, 153, 154, 182, 186, 187, 258, 259, 273, 319, 321, 350, 361, 367, 397, 438, 452, 455, 460, 462 Saussurea costus, 368 graminifolia, 121 Saxifraga, 4, 121, 179, 183, 259 Scabies, 183, 197, 220, 223, 234, 235, 243, 261, 328, 331, 338, 339 Schedule castes/tribes, 121 Sedum ewersii, 41, 260, 350 Sedum heterodontum, 179, 253, 260 wallichianum, 179, 254 Seera, 40, 105 Segment Taboos, 458 Selinum candollei, 138 vaginatum, 120, 260 wallichianum, 120 Sephe Tagi, 100 Sepubari, 40 Sesamum

Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4 indicum, 158, 350 orientale, 329 Shankara, 319, 320 Shaukas, 17, 135 Shawls, 36, 363, 369 Shorea, 3, 261, 398, 419 Sigesbeckia orientalis, 261, 421 Sinarundianaria falcata, 366 Skin diseases, 17, 165, 170, 171, 183, 189, 194, 202, 203, 206, 207, 215, 218, 223, 231, 232, 235, 241, 253, 255, 261, 262, 302, 338, 367 Skyurchuk, 99 Social conventions, 465 gatherings, 419 structures, 18, 21, 22 taboos, 410, 446, 448, 451, 458, 465, 472, 473 Solanum, 178, 179, 262, 328, 350, 398 incanum L., 179 nigrum, 178, 187, 421 khasianum, 422 Soma, 7, 314–323 rasa, 323 mixture, 322 plant, 7, 314–320 Sorbus, 4, 92, 120, 398 Sorghum, 92, 263, 319, 322 Soybean, 48, 101 Spiraea, 4, 92, 399, 421 Spiritual, 18, 24, 26, 30, 36, 294, 314, 316, 413, 439, 449 flower, 439 site, 413 traditions, 18, 26 Spiti valley, 412 Sriparvathas, 317 Stomachache, 133, 138, 170, 177, 191, 197–199, 203, 205, 209, 211, 238, 240–243, 247, 262, 264, 268, 271, 328, 330, 332, 337, 343 Suru valley, 165, 167 Swelling, 170, 183, 191, 197, 206, 207, 214, 217, 227, 231, 237, 244–246, 250, 254, 257, 271, 306, 328, 330, 349 Swertia angustifolia, 153, 469 Swertia chirata, 138, 187, 264 Syena, 320

Index 495 Symplocos species, 159 Syzygium cumini, 92, 153, 187, 264, 399, 438

T Taboos, 411, 437, 438, 446–448, 451, 452, 456, 458–465, 467, 471, 472 system, 429, 446, 449–454, 457, 458, 467, 468 habitat, 463 life history, 462–463 method, 462 segment, 458–461 specific-species, 463 temporal, 461 Tacca aspera, 296, 303 Tagetes minuta, 153, 265, 399 Tagi Buskhuruk, 99 Tagi Khambir, 99 Tall herbs, 120 Tamarix, 319, 321, 322 Tanacetum, 133, 138, 145, 153, 183, 192, 228, 265, 399 Tanacetum dolichophyllum, 133, 138, 265 Tangthur, 100, 105 Tantur, 40, 49, 86, 105 Tarur ki sabzi, 99 Tattwakhar, 105, 106 Taxus, 93, 134, 153, 168, 177, 178, 266, 307, 400, 417, 422, 423 Taxus baccata, 93, 153, 168, 177, 178, 423 Temple committee, 420, 423, 426, 427, 440 Tenaxia cumminsii, 361 Terminalia, 46, 153, 159, 177, 185–187, 266, 351, 364, 400, 468 bellirica, 185, 187 chebula, 187 Terrain, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 26, 365 Tetepathine, 322 Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 321 Thalictrum foetidum, 361 Thalictrum foliolosum, 134, 351, 421, 422, 468, 469 Thamnocalamus spathiflorus, 366, 400 Tharu, 17, 18, 116, 121, 135, 155, 168, 179, 327 Themeda arundinacea, 361, 400 Thukpa, 40, 49, 100, 106

Tibetan bhotiyas, 16 language, 160 plateau, 11, 13, 20, 151 Tilkuta, 98 Timber, 7, 26, 169, 183, 307, 360, 365, 369, 372–374, 376–381, 383–385, 387–390, 392–395, 397–402, 414, 420, 422, 427, 431–436 yielding plants, 365 plant community, 117 Tinospora cordifolia, 93, 153, 159, 173, 177, 179, 186, 187, 267, 296, 304, 351 Tobacco, 136, 369, 425 Tolchas, 17, 135 Toothache, 116, 137 Topography, 119, 155, 358, 359 Trachydium roylei, 120, 401 Trachyspermum ammi, 158, 267, 329, 351 Traditional agricultural, 28 arts, 35 beliefs and customs, 446 beverages, 42 communities, 438 customs, 410 food species, 6 foods, 5, 49 herbal healers, 326 heritage, 440 knowledge, 1, 5, 32, 33–37, 43, 138, 152, 273, 326, 447 knowledge-based systems (TKBS), 447, 473 medicinal knowledge, 158 medicine, 32 phytotherapy, 168 practices, 168, 173, 327, 410, 438 rural wisdom, 327 therapeutic wealth, 167 Traishtubha, 319 Trans Himalayan region, 157 Trans Himalaya, 42, 43 Trapthuk, 100 Tribal, 43, 48, 165, 166, 329, 461 communities, 4–8, 40, 45, 49, 108, 116, 121, 136, 137, 157, 163, 171, 174, 176, 183, 185, 306, 307, 327 population, 150, 188

496

Ethnobotany of India, Volume 4

practices, 24 Tribulus terrestris, 94, 134, 159, 186, 187, 267 Trigonella foenum-graecum, 177 Trillidium govanianum, 94, 134, 138, 144, 423 Tsampa, 100, 102, 105 Tuberculosis, 174, 207, 218, 232, 254, 297, 299, 304 Turmeric powder, 101–105 Turpentine, 367

U Ulcers, 17, 158, 171, 189, 192, 203–209, 211, 228, 230, 234, 237–240, 243, 250, 254, 258, 264–267, 351, 367 Ulmus, 3, 352, 361, 401, 415, 421 Urbanization, 37, 41, 368, 410, 439 Urdhvanga cikitsa, 294 Urinary disorders, 134, 170, 182, 267 problem, 116, 137, 191, 213 troubles, 297, 328 Urinogenital disorders, 174, 180, 189 Urtica dioica, 178, 268, 401, 421 Urtica hyperborea Jacq. ex Wedd, 49, 106

V Vachadi taila, 306 Vajikaran ghrita, 306 Valeriana hardwickii, 134, 138, 268 Valeriana jatamansi, 187, 268, 367, 422 Vanshiras, 413, 419 Vasishth, 175, 189–192, 197, 200, 208, 209, 215–222, 232, 247–253, 257, 264, 266, 270 Vedic aryans, 314, 318 meters, 319 periods, 368, 413 shamanism, 7, 316 Verbascum thapsus, 269, 421, 422 Verbenaceae, 175 Vetiveria zizanoides, 367 Viburnum, 3, 95, 120, 269, 352, 402

Vigna mungo, 101, 329 Viola canescens, 421, 422 Visual hallucinations, 315 Vitis vinifera, 271, 319, 322 Vomiting, 129, 171, 181, 194, 203, 207, 214, 215, 233, 238–242, 269, 304, 328, 331 Vrsa cikitsa, 294

W Waldheimia glabra, 271, 360 Wallichiana, 58, 81, 93, 134, 153, 178, 254, 257, 266, 337, 361–365, 374, 397, 401, 417, 419, 422 Water bodies, 410, 412, 446, 448, 453, 458, 460 Wetlands, 430, 437 Withania somnifera, 153, 159, 177, 186, 187, 271, 296, 303, 315, 468 Wood carving, 26 Woodfordia fruticosa, 96, 153, 172, 178, 271, 353, 402 Woolen fabrics, 369 garments, 363 yarn, 136 Worm infestation, 170, 171

Y Yagnas, 7, 316 Yamuna, 2, 437 Yotches, 104 Yucagenin, 304

Z Zamashang Phasur, 47 Zanthoxylum armatum, 153, 181, 271, 353, 402, 421, 460, 468, 469 Zaskar range, 358 Zingiber officinale, 97, 271, 305, 329, 353 Ziziphus, 46, 97, 271, 272, 402, 426 jujuba, 46, 271 Zizipus mauritiana, 153