Ethics Research Compendium [1 ed.] 9781622577484, 9781622577477

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Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ETHICS RESEARCH COMPENDIUM

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Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE 21ST CENTURY

ETHICS RESEARCH COMPENDIUM

PETER M. ROBERTS AND

EMILY O. PEREZ Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EDITORS

New York Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2013 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‘ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.

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Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

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Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1

Chapter 2

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Chapter 3

vii Is Justice a Virtue?: Examining the Role of Justice Considerations in Micro-level Health Care Rationing Christina Dineen

1

A Step-by-step Guide to Students: How to Avoid Plagiarism Rakesh Sharma

9

Is the Adoption of Farm Technology Gender Neutral? The Case of Fish Farming Technology in Morogoro Region, Tanzania Kitojo Wetengere

Chapter 4

Well-Being and Disadvantage: What Do People Think? Gillian Brock and Philip McKibbin

Chapter 5

Ethical Disposition of Accounting and Business Management Students: A Comparison of the U. S. and Turkey Filiz Angay Kutluk and Ayten Ersoy

Chapter 6

Effects of Journals Collegating and Self-Citations on Annual Bibliometric Scorings: An Analysis on Electrical and Electronic Engineering Journals Jong Yong Abdiel Foo

21 43

61

85

Chapter 7

Do Merger Restrictions Promote Economic Justice? William Gissy

Chapter 8

Tainted Publications and Their Authors' Publication Trend Profiles: A Study on Singapore from the Year 2004 to 2010 Jong Yong Abdiel Foo

109

From Bioethics to Biopolitics: Contemporary Issues and New Challenges in Women Health Ughetta Vergari

119

Chapter 9

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vi Chapter 10

Contents The Limits of Liberalism: A Republican Theory of Social Justice Michael J. Thompson

153

Chapter 11

Sacred Values Do not Always Elicit Moral Outrage Colin A. Wastell, Paul Wagland and Wajma Ebrahimi

Chapter 12

The ‗Real World‘ of Ethical Decision -making: Insights from Research Pam McGrath

185

The Rights of Future Generations in Environmental Ethics Carlo Petrini

199

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

Surgical Vaccine: Should Male Circumcision Be Mandatory in Sub-Saharan Africa Peter A. Clark, Justin Eisenman and Stephen Szapor Two Different Approaches to Principles of Biomedical Ethics: A Philosophical Analysis and Discussion of the Theories of the American Ethicists Tom L. Beauchamp and James F. Childress and the Danish Philosophers Jakob Rendtorff and Peter Kemp Mette Ebbesen Medical Ethics in Obstetrics: A French Experiment Patrick Leblanc, and Pierre-Olivier Arduin

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Index

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175

213

235 249 267

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PREFACE This book present research in ethics with topics including a step-by-step guide to students; wellbeing and disadvantage; ethical disposition of accounting and business management students; collegiality of journals and self-citation on annual bibliometric scorings; trends of tainted publications and their authors' publication profiles; from bioethics to biopolitics and the limits of liberalism. * Chapter 1 – In health care systems where access to resources is limited, priorities must be set. The Canadian health care system relies on physicians as clinical or micro-level gatekeepers to health care access. Several studies have indicated that physicians do not tend to consider distributive justice concerns when making clinical-level resource allocation decisions. This is concerning, given that the normative literature on micro-level rationing has featured justice considerations as a necessary condition for fair decision-making. The author will first discuss the basics of bedside rationing and some studies which identify a possible justice ―value deficit.‖ The author will then analyze the relevant normative frameworks in the rationing literature to identify if and where decision-making may be falling short. Finally, she will use Beauchamp and Childress‘ fifth and sixth editions of Principles of Biomedical Ethics (2001; 2009) to examine whether justice in micro-level rationing is best conceptualized as a principle or a virtue. Chapter 2 – Plagiarism is growing at rampant rate due to available internet and the growing tendency of wrong practices of hiding the undocumented or documented sources. In academic institutions, plagiarism poses a threat to both students and instructors that ultimately leads to common plagiarism undetected, lost grants or public resources with over all poor quality. A step-by-step approach is proposed to avoid plagiarism for students by correct paraphrasing and quoting the words, sentences and paragraphs piece by piece to give the appropriate credit to the author with existing work of its original author. This approach will avoid the parallel or reproduction of material inappropriately used in any way (plagiarism prevention and detection). Several examples are cited from documented websites of leading universities and institutions to make new freshman students aware of plagiarism and methods to avoid it. Chapter 3 – This chapter is a product of a study undertaken to investigate the influence of gender related factors as regards to adoption of fish farming technology in selected villages of Morogoro Region, Tanzania. Data for this chapter had been collected in various studies *

Versions of chapters 1-5 were also published in the International Journal of Ethics, Volume 7 Issue 1, published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. They were submitted for appropriate modifications in an effort to encourage wider dissemination of research. Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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Peter M. Roberts and Emily O. Perez

conducted earlier and results published by the author about the study area from November 2005 to May 2008. These data were supplemented by primary data which had been collected by the author but not used before, and secondary information from other sources. Descriptive statistics was used to report findings and data were validated by the level of significance and mean percentages. The overall results indicate that the adoption of fish farming technology was not gender neutral. More specifically, the results revealed that the probability of women to adopt fish farming technology was higher than that of men. This was likely because fish farming met women objectives of food security, immobility as they attend to household chores, and lack of alternative opportunities among themselves. Yet, women had lesser access to resources necessary for adoption of fish farming technology and were less reached by extension services than men. This was mainly attributed to the kinship system which favoured men than women, lack of legal information on ownership of productive resources and socialcultural and economic barriers to adoption among women such as high levels of illiteracy, low formal education, immobility, poverty in terms of low income and very heavy workload. In addition, although women participated in all activities of fish farming, men controlled income accruing from the activity. Three recommendations emerge from this study: First, there has to be alignment of extension methodology and activities to the task, needs, objectives, appropriate time and place and socio-cultural and economic barriers of women to technology adoption. Extension staff should be trained to take such aspects into account and plan for training sessions at times and locations suitable for women. Secondly, socio-cultural and economic barriers that hinder women‘s access to productive resources should be identified and dealt with during project design. Finally, efforts should be made by women and other organizations to ensure that they are heard and they should exert pressure, through advocacy and lobbying, in order to bring equal distribution of income accruing from using fish farming technology. Chapter 4 – In this paper the authors discuss the results of a research project on the nature of disadvantage, equality and well-being. The first phase focused on how cross-culturally robust Jonathan Wolff and Avner de-Shalit‘s work on disadvantage is (Wolf and de-Shalit, 2007). The authors began with the question: What is it to be disadvantaged in a particular domain of life and more generally? Following Wolff and de-Shalit (2007), they notice core commonalities to various disadvantages people face and, using the capability theory originally introduced by Amartya Sen (1973, 1984, 1992) and developed by Martha Nussbaum (1993, 2000, 2006), we might describe this commonality as a lack of genuine opportunities for secure functioning (Wolff and de-Shalit, 2007). Vulnerability to risk and insecurity pervades this account of disadvantage, as does the idea that disadvantage has plural dimensions. Two questions are a focus of analysis for Wolff and de-Shalit: Can we compare different kinds of disadvantages, or are they incommensurable? and, What guidance can be offered to governments about identifying the least advantaged and trying to improve their circumstances? Chapter 5 – Ethics education is important in the socialization of the accounting students into the profession and makes them aware of ethical dilemmas. There are several studies that evaluate the ethical development of accounting students or integrating ethics into the curriculum. This study examined the differences in the behavioral intent of accounting and business management students according to gender and ethical disposition. Behavioral intent is measured in both academic and business context by using the situations from the work of Coate and Frey (2000) and the results are compared with those reported for the U.S. Findings

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Preface

ix

reveal, in line with the U.S. data, both male and female mean scores reflect a more ethical disposition in business than in an academic context. † Chapter 6 – Bibliometric scorings like the journal impact factor (JIF) are increasingly viewed as a valuable tool to assess the scientific merits of one‘s research. Previous studies have indicated that self-citations and collegiality as a journal group can be used as a tactics to improve the journal‘s bibliometric scorings. Twelve journals were selected from the subject category of electrical and electronic engineering in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) of the Thomson Scientific. These journals were sub-divided into 3 groups of four; the first 2 groups were collegiate to international professional organizations while the third group was single journals. Bibliometric data of these journals were then extracted from the JCR listing and Web of Science database from the year 2003 to 2007. The trend of JIF values, citations counts, journal self-citations, total articles, and citable articles were obtained and assessed. Using the year 2003 as a reference, the association between the JIF values and the other bibliometric data was assessed using single linear regression analysis. The results suggested that relative changes in JIF values were related to these bibliometric data in various manner; total articles (R²≥0.874), citations counts (R²≥0.570), self-citations (R²≤0.399) and citable articles (R²≤0.228). The effects of collegiality and self-citations on the journal‘s bibliometric scorings were also discussed. Chapter 7 – One important aspect in the area of normative economics is the establishment of standards that serve to promote economic justice. The issue of economic justice brings in the role of property rights and the protection of property rights are seen as essential for the establishment of economic justice, at least within the neo-classical tradition. Recently several writers have questions the legitimacy of antitrust legislation, especially those provisions that restrict mergers. These authors see such restrictions as a needless infringement on property rights and therefore contrary to economic justice. This paper argues that limitations on property rights could be justified in the face of market failures and therefore enhances economic justice. Chapter 8 – In the academic world, there are increasingly pressures to publish and this has affected the conduct of research. Sadly, the lingering effect of such behavior is translated into research misconduct where the scientific community is misled and the confidence of the general public in research being shaken. High-profile cases such as that involving the stem cell researcher, Hwang Woo-Suk, have lasting detrimental effects on himself as well as his home country. For developed nations like Singapore, a large percentage of its annual gross domestic product is invested in research. Between the year 2004 and 2010, a total of 2,427 journal publications were affiliated to an institution in Singapore were extracted from the PubMed database. The retraction data indicated that only 9 or 0.4% of these publications were tainted. The obtained publication trend of the authors associated with these tainted publications was then examined up to-date. It is worth highlighting that the numbers herein may be just a tip of the iceberg of the actual number of tainted publications. In this chapter, the possible implications of research misconduct such as the lasting effects of unpunished offences, the need to promote whistle-blowing and the necessity for a unique author‘s identity are discussed. †

Versions of chapters 6-9 were also published in the International Journal of Ethics, Volume 7 Issue 2, published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. They were submitted for appropriate modifications in an effort to encourage wider dissemination of research. Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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Peter M. Roberts and Emily O. Perez

Chapter 9 – The relationship that binds ethics and politics to human life is becoming increasingly stronger and calls for a reflection on the very concept of human life, embedded in the ―bio‖ prefix which is shared by bioethics and biopolitics. Dwelling upon these issues has led to two certainties. On the one hand, the need for a unitary benchmark for the concept of life and the relevant consideration of the concept of human nature, which might be the only way to avoid evaluations and decisions that could put life in jeopardy. On the other hand, the close relationship that binds biopolitics to bioethics, and these two to bioeconomics, is feasible only by means of the human rights paradigm. The cases studied are related to the Human Papilloma Virus Infection and the relevant vaccine which is on the market, to birth management, and to the far too many cases of Caesarean sections (CS). These are cases that might be considered as emblematical in so far as they portray the broad range of health policies management worldwide, and yet, highlight the dramatic North/South divide. ‡ Chapter 10 – This paper proposes a theory of social justice built from the insights of republican political theory. After critiquing the liberal structure of theories of social justice, the author presents a different argument drawn from the distinct commitments of republicanism. He argues that whereas liberal theory is limited by its emphasis on the ethical neutrality of the state, equality of opportunity, and redistribution as criteria for social justice, republican theory provides us with a deeper, more satisfying set of political values and goals to help us construct a more substantive theory of social justice. He argues that this theory of social justice seeks to maximize ―democratic wealth‖ as opposed to ―oligarchic wealth‖ and he elaborates a theory to construct a more just form of social and economic order which departs from traditional liberal principles. The author then goes on to argue for a series of principles that should guide what I refer to as an ―economy with public ends‖ which would be able to realize the concept of social justice through the maximization of democratic wealth at the expense of oligarchic wealth. In the end, the author argues that these principles should be seen as guiding the logic of political and economic institutions as well as the demands of social movements. Chapter 11 – The role of moral outrage as a reaction to the consideration of taboo tradeoffs is examined. In two samples from different cultural groups, moral outrage scores were found to be substantially different to those reported by Tetlock et al (2000). Moral outrage scores for a western sample from Australia and a Chinese sample were more moderate than a US sample. The two non-US samples exhibited less extreme reactions to a taboo trade-off scenario involving the life of a child. These differences are discussed in terms of possible modifications to the assumed universal relationship of moral outrage as a reaction to the consideration of taboo trade-offs. Cultural factors and cognitive predispositions are suggested as possible moderators of moral outrage reactions. Chapter 12 – In recent years the literature on bioethics has begun to pose the sociological challenge of how to explore organisational processes that facilitate a systemic response to ethical concerns. In this chapter, the author seeks to make a contribution to this important new direction in ethical research by presenting an overview of her program of research that explores notions that inform health professionals‘ ethical decision-making in the ‗real world‘ of health care organisations. The insights gained through the research are translated into ‡

Versions of chapters 10-16 were also published in the International Journal of Ethics, Volume 7 Issue 3-4, published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. They were submitted for appropriate modifications in an effort to encourage wider dissemination of research. Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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Preface

xi

practical strategies that can be utilized to strengthen the process of ethical decision-making in the health care system. The organisational context for the research reported in the chapter is varied and includes insights from studies in acute medicine, emergency medicine, Indigenous health, obstetrics and mental health care. The findings from research conducted over this diverse range of psycho-social health concerns indicates that a core belief informing health professionals‘ ethical decision-making is the notion of patient-centred care – that is, the guiding principle that addresses their sense of the ‗good‘ or the ‗ought‘ is to act in a way that furthers the interest of patients and their families. This chapter explores a range of topics associated with how health professionals operationalise this principle in the context of service delivery including issues of multi-disciplinary team work, advocacy, resolving conflict and tension, obtaining informed consent, dealing with procedural distress, decision-making at end-of-life and the role of the ethics committee. The discussion affirms the importance of a psycho-social, rather than purely philosophical, perspective as a productive new direction in bioethical research. Chapter 13 – Today it is widely recognised that much of the harm done to the environment is not limited by geographical, political or time barriers. From the point of view of environmental ethics, our concern for future generations arises mainly from their position of disadvantage: preceding generations can limit the opportunities bequeathed to later generations by causing irreversible harm and depleting resources. This paper first introduces some historical references; the most significant problems posed by the rights of future generations in regard to the environment are then identified, the notions of ―common heritage‖ and ―capital‖ as referred to the environment are discussed and the relations between ―sustainable development‖ and the rights of future generations are presented. Some social aspects, legal implications and the contributions of philosophers and experts on the question of intergenerational justice in environmental terms are then analysed. An attempt is finally made to define the most significant problems involved. Chapter 14 – Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) are pandemic and are causing unprecedented devastation on societies and economies throughout the world. There is no place in the world that has felt this devastation more than sub-Saharan Africa. The United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that at the end of 2007 there were an estimated 33 million [30 million to 36 million] people living with HIV. The annual number of new HIV infections declined from 3.0 million [2.6 million to 3.5 million] in 2001 to 2.7 million [2.2 million to 3.2 million] in 2007. Approximately 67% of people living with HIV and 72% of AIDS deaths in 2007 came from sub-Saharan Africa. Globally, the number of children 15 years of age and younger living with HIV increased from 1.6 million [1.4 million to 2.1 million] in 2001 to 2.0 million [1.9 million to 2.3 million] in 2007. Almost 90% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Two-thirds (63%) of all adults and children with HIV globally live in sub-Saharan Africa. [1] Recent studies have shown that in some sub-Saharan countries the HIV infection trends appear to be stable. Experts explain that ―in essence this reflects equilibrium: the number of people newly infected with HIV roughly equal the number of people dying of AIDS.‖ [2] Medically and ethically, this is unacceptable. Lives are being lost daily when there are possible procedures available that might lessen the number of infections and deaths. Chapter 15 – Most research within biomedical ethics consists of theoretical reflections regarding which ethical theories or principles are useful to analyse ethical issues in the field

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Peter M. Roberts and Emily O. Perez

of biomedicine. The theories of the American ethicists Tom L. Beauchamp and James F. Childress (2009) and the Danish philosophers Jakob Rendtorff and Peter Kemp (2000) are examples. Beauchamp and Childress examined considered moral judgements and the way moral beliefs cohere and found that the general principles of beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for autonomy, and justice play a vital role in biomedical ethics (Beauchamp and Childress, 2009, p. 13). These authors believe that the four principles are not only specific for biomedical ethics, they are found in all cultures in everyday life because they are part of a cross-cultural common morality shared by all persons committed to morality (Beauchamp and Childress, 2009, p. 4). The four clusters of principles provide a framework of norms to start with in biomedical ethics. As a starting point no principle is weighted higher than the other principles. When occasion arises, the principles are weighted, balanced, and specified. As will become clear, Rendtorff and Kemp do not find the approach of Beauchamp and Childress convincing, and they developed an alternative theory based on the following four basic ethical principles: autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability. Rendtorff and Kemp regard Beauchamp and Childress’ approach as individualistic, and they believe that their alternative fills out an empty space in the American theory by protecting “the fragile and finite, bodily incarnated human person” and thereby leads to a wider view of the human person (Rendtorff and Kemp, 2000, p. 314). First, this article presents a philosophical analysis of the bioethical theory of Beauchamp and Childress. Next, the theory of Beauchamp and Childress is discussed and compared it with the theory of Rendtorff and Kemp. Chapter 16 – Medical ethics consist fundamentally in using rational knowledge to ensure the respect for human dignity. Medicine has always been in its very essence an ethical process as evinced by the ancient Hippocratic oath. Nowadays, ethical issues must be placed within the context of the changes in our way of doing things due to the extraordinary evolution of science and technology. In the field related to the beginning of life, progress in prenatal diagnosis has completely changed our medical approach to pregnancy. This has undeniably become one of the recurring themes in bioethical debates in France, alongside questions about medically assisted procreation, surrogacy and stem cell research. Indeed, France has generally been considered a pioneer in this field since its first bioethical laws were adopted in 1994. Having reviewed these laws three times in fifteen years, the French legislature has always deemed it necessary to supervise biomedical practices so as to avoid reaching a point of no return. However, with medical ethics defending the very principle of humanity on the one hand and a bioethical arsenal of legislation on the other, may there not be a risk of losing coherence? Based on the daily practice of an obstetrician-gynecologist, the authors of this chapter raise questions about the possible conflicts of values, and possible irrational aspects they might reveal.

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Chapter 1

IS JUSTICE A VIRTUE?: EXAMINING THE ROLE OF JUSTICE CONSIDERATIONS IN MICRO-LEVEL HEALTH CARE RATIONING Christina Dineen*

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ABSTRACT In health care systems where access to resources is limited, priorities must be set. The Canadian health care system relies on physicians as clinical or micro-level gatekeepers to health care access. Several studies have indicated that physicians do not tend to consider distributive justice concerns when making clinical-level resource allocation decisions. This is concerning, given that the normative literature on microlevel rationing has featured justice considerations as a necessary condition for fair decision-making. I will first discuss the basics of bedside rationing and some studies which identify a possible justice ―value deficit.‖ I will then analyze the relevant normative frameworks in the rationing literature to identify if and where decision-making may be falling short. Finally, I will use Beauchamp and Childress‘ fifth and sixth editions of Principles of Biomedical Ethics (2001; 2009) to examine whether justice in microlevel rationing is best conceptualized as a principle or a virtue.

AN INTRODUCTION TO BEDSIDE RATIONING Resource allocation, also known as priority setting or rationing, may determine who receives treatment, what treatment they receive, and/or the amount of time they spend in the care of professionals. The Canadian health care system, like many others, relies upon physicians to act as gatekeepers to health care access (Willems, 2001). This means that physicians may make decisions in a context of scarcity which lead to ―the witholding... of a medically beneficial service‖ (Ubel and Goold, 1997, p. 75), also known as bedside rationing. *

E-mail: [email protected].

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Christina Dineen

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THE “VALUE DEFICIT” In 1996, Ayres conducted in-depth interviews with general practitioners in the United Kingdom to examine their attitudes towards rationing of care. He found that while the participants were concerned with efficiency, ―[equity] ... was not automatically perceived by them as important‖ (Ayres, 1996, p. 1024). He describes this as a ―serious ‗value deficit‘ on the part of respondents‖ (Ayres, 1996, p. 1024). Ayres later suggests that this equity or equality value deficit will inevitably lead to biased and unjust decision-making, impacted by physicians‘ engagement with patients on an individual level. Halvorsen, Forde, and Nortvedt (2008) performed participant observation and in-depth interviews with Norwegian intensive care staff, and similarly found that ―the social and moral obligation for a fair distribution of health care resources in society did not seem to be of importance or relevance‖ (p. 724). Hurst, Hull, DuVal, and Danis (2005) conducted a survey of American general internists to explore rationales behind resource allocation decisionmaking, and again identified a lack of explicit focus on justice and equality concerns. However, Hurst et al. (2005) suggest a different interpretation. They posit that physicians‘ advocacy for patients is paramount, regardless of whether it inhibits fair distribution of resources. By this reasoning, justice may be implicitly considered, but the physicians‘ role as advocate trumps those considerations. Berney et al.‘s (2005) interviews and focus groups with general practitioners from the United Kingdom identified another possible interpretation of the seeming value deficit. While respondents recognized justice and equality as principles, they ―experienced a range of problems in putting these concepts into practice‖ (Berney et al., 2005, p. 624). It would seem that there is an implicit lack of focus on justice and equity considerations in the rationing decision-making of physicians. However, is this cause for concern? According to Terry (2004), ―local decision-making can result in national inequities‖ (p. 177). If physicians have difficulty enacting the justice principle at the clinical level, decisionmaking may become haphazard. I will now turn to some normative frameworks for rationing decisions at the micro-level as suggestions for how physicians should ideally be enacting justice at the clinical level, and how unfair and haphazard decision-making might be avoided.

ETHICAL MICRO-LEVEL RATIONING FRAMEWORKS Pearson (2000) proposes using his proportional advocacy framework to mediate between the opposing contentions that physicians can and should do everything that they can to further the interests of their patients, and that given limited resources, physicians can and should say ―no‖ to treatments of marginal benefit. Proportional advocacy is particularly suited to primary care physicians in the American managed care system, and it suggests the use of five criteria to determine fairness of rationing decisions, including ―impartial application‖ (p. 150). Although this framework has limited applicability beyond the managed care system due to conditions such as the determination of service values by practice groups, it is of note that the criterion of impartial application suggests that equality and justice should be factors at the micro-level.

Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

Is Justice a Virtue?

3

In 2007, Hurst and Danis offered A Framework for Rationing by Clinical Judgement to provide guidelines for micro-level resource allocation decisions similar to that of accountability for reasonableness (see Daniels 2002) at the macro and meso-levels. Like accountability for reasonableness, their framework aims to establish procedural justice, or fairness based on fair proceedings rather than substantive rules for resource distribution. They propose six necessary criteria for fair micro-level resource allocation, including ―application of a consistent process‖ and ―attendance to general concerns of justice‖ (p. 247). Hurst and Danis contend that these theories are important to give physicians a conceptual grounding in what fairness means and how it can be achieved. To reflect on the studies of Ayres (1996), Halvorsen et al. (2008), Hurst et al. (2005), and Berney et al. (2005), it appears that not all decision-making incorporates the conditions suggested by Pearson (2000) or Hurst and Danis (2007) for fair decision-making. Of particular note is the lack of concern for general justice considerations and awareness of distributive justice theories in practicing physicians in the identified studies, which indicates unfair decision-making when evaluated by the Hurst and Danis (2007) framework. However, requiring physicians to consider the general justice implications of each rationing decision may be too demanding, particularly in acute care disciplines that are regularly subject to rationing. Thus it is possible that conceptualizations of justice as a central principle in fair decision-making may not reflect the way physicians engage in micro-level resource allocation (Ubel, 2007). With this in mind, I will now examine two conceptualizations of justice: justice as a principle, as presented by Beauchamp and Childress (2001; 2009), and justice as a virtue.

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PRINCIPLES Principlist ethical theories use moral principles to express those fundamental and general moral norms that serve as a starting point from which to judge right and wrong in the particular. Beauchamp and Childress‘ ‗four-principles‘ approach in Principles of Biomedical Ethics (2001; 2009) has become the dominant configuration from which to both frame and solve problems in biomedical ethics as it provides a common and accessible moral language, and allows for the flexibility of specification to particular contexts. I will focus on their fifth and sixth editions as they are the most recent iterations. The four principles approach is structured around the common morality, which presents the four basic principles of autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, and justice as fundamental to biomedical ethics. These non-hierarchical principles require balancing to assign each principle its relative weight when deciding moral dilemmas, or situations in which principles conflict and indicate two or more incompatible actions (Beauchamp and Childress, 2001; Beauchamp and Childress, 2009). The common morality is intended to be both descriptive – representing the core beliefs of all morally committed persons – and normative – providing standards by which to judge right and wrong. The common morality is then supplemented with the particular moralities which may be found in various cultures, religions, and professions. These particular moralities offer ―concrete, nonuniversal, and content-rich norms‖ (Beauchamp and Childress, 2009, p. 5,) which are specified from the abstract principles.

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Beauchamp and Childress primarily conceptualize justice as a principle, or a commonly held, content-thin moral norm. They identify Aristotle‘s formal principle of justice – treat equals equally, and unequals unequally – as the underlay to material principles of justice, which dictate distribution according to properties such as need or merit. They also suggest a substantive approach to micro-level rationing which first uses medical utility (utilitarianism), and then fairness and equality (egalitarianism) to determine allocation of scarce finite resources such as organs. Under this model, physicians are morally responsible for considering not only efficiency and medical considerations, but fairness in the distribution of resources. It is possible that in those studies identifying a ‗value deficit,‘ physicians are implicitly considering fairness and equity concerns. In this case, they would acknowledge the relevance and value of considering the principle of justice in this context, but simply continue to prioritize the concerns of patient advocacy. One could then argue that physicians are balancing between relevant principles. However, in some cases ―the social and moral obligation for a fair distribution of health care resources in society did not seem to be of importance or relevance‖ (Halvorsen et al., 2008, p. 724). This indicates an important distinction from Beauchamp and Childress‘ conceptualization of justice as a core principle. In their model, any decision-making which does not consider all appropriate ethical principles before balancing between those principles - is unethical and incomplete. Even when the common morality is augmented by a particular morality, as in the professional role of physicians, ―all persons committed to morality [will] not doubt the relevance and importance of these [four principles]‖ (Beauchamp and Childress, 2009, p. 3). Is it possible that physicians are not morally committed? That is unlikely. Indeed, their moral commitment to their patient often leads to role conflicts (Ayres, 1996) and distress (Beauchamp and Childress, 2001) when called upon to ration scarce health care resources. It is possible that upon due consideration and examination, physicians would adjust their thinking to treat justice considerations as morally relevant to rationing decisions. It is also possible that in this context, justice has come to be seen as a virtue rather than as a principle.

VIRTUES Virtue ethics offers a challenge to principlist or deontological frameworks wherein moral virtues, or excellences of character, are held as ideals and guides of action. Although many versions of virtue ethics exist, a person exemplifying all moral virtues, or a ―paradigm person‖ (Begley, 2005, p. 624), is the core concept. The focal concern of virtue ethics is to cultivate a certain morally desirable ‗type‘ of person, and behave as that paradigm person would behave. Thus, if a virtuous person would act in a certain way, then that action is ‗right.‘ Beauchamp and Childress introduce virtues in their theory of common morality as equals of and complements to the four principles. This distinguishes their adoption of virtues from more radical virtue ethics, wherein the paradigm person supersedes the use of principles and rules in determining the ‗rightness‘ of an action (Statman, 1997). Beauchamp and Childress define a moral virtue as a ―morally valuable trait of character‖ (2001, p. 27; 2009). In their fifth edition (2001), they identify five focal virtues: compassion, discernment, trust-

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worthiness, integrity, and conscientiousness. In their most recent edition (2009), they adjust the list to include ten virtues: nonmalevolence, honesty, integrity, conscientiousness, trustworthiness, fidelity, gratitude, truthfulness, lovingness, and kindness. These virtues are to act as the motivation behind actions, as motivation determines the agent‘s moral goodness moreso than the action‘s outcome. Beauchamp and Childress (2001; 2009) suggest that the virtue which best corresponds to the principle of justice is justice as fairness. Justice as a virtue does not correspond to any one theory of distributive justice, but to decision-making that is honest, reasoned, and unbiased (Larkin et al., 2008). If justice is viewed in this light, it may be possible to make a virtuous rationing decision without explicit consideration of equality and equity concerns. Physicians who are motivated to be fair persons may attempt to treat all patients consistently, make decisions based on reasons such as medical need and utility, and be honest with all patients about those decisions without considering at a more general level how each allocation decision impacts the fair distribution of goods across a community or society. Moving from this conception of justice as a virtue, it is possible that general justice considerations when rationing care would sit in the category of lower level supererogation, or ideals beyond the obligatory (Beauchamp and Childress, 2001; 2009). Using this approach, those rare physicians who do consider the equitable distribution of resources would be seen as striving for excellence, and adopting a moral ideal which does not hold for everyone. However, to consider justice and fairness as a virtue, and concern for equity and equality as supererogatory, would be problematic on a larger scale. If physicians are exempted from the larger considerations of justice when making microlevel rationing decisions, then national inequities could result. Patients who are white, welleducated, and affluent are more likely to request and receive approval for marginally beneficial care (Pearson, 2000). Although such decisions may be based upon virtuous motives, it is unjust to allow patients greater access to care based upon irrelevant criteria such as persuasiveness. Resources which one patient uses will, as a result, be unavailable to other patients who may need them more but who are less persuasive. Decision-making which includes irrelevant criteria has the potential to create systemic health care access equity concerns if physicians do not factor such considerations into their day-to-day decisions. Physicians hold a unique role as advocates for patients, gatekeepers to health care access, and stewards of society‘s scarce resources. In this role, advocacy for patients must be considered foremost, but not in isolation.

CONCLUSION The identification of a ‗value deficit‘ in the studies of Ayres (1996), Halvorsen et al. (2008), Hurst et al. (2005), and Berney et al. (2005) ultimately does not justify a reconceptualization of Beauchamp and Childress‘ principle of justice (2001; 2009) as a virtue or moral ideal. The value deficit is morally problematic when justice is seen as a core principle of biomedical ethics, as this indicates potentially unethical decision-making. However, physicians‘ moral commitment to fair decision-making should ideally broaden to more frequently consider equality and equity in rationing decisions, rather than narrow to treat such considerations as supererogatory. Hurst et al. (2008) suggest that ethics consultants

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should advise physicians on applying the principle of justice when rationing, as this may be one way to encourage the development of equality and equity considerations. Further empirical research is necessary to determine the extent to which the value deficit is both implicit and explicit, and to determine whether physicians‘ rationale for neglecting equity and equality concerns is indeed perceived irrelevance.

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REFERENCES Ayres, P. J. (1996). Rationing health care: Views from general practice. Social Science and Medicine, 42(7), 1021-1025. Beauchamp, T. L. and Childress, J. F. (2001). Principles of biomedical ethics (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Beauchamp, T. L. and Childress, J. F. (2009). Principles of biomedical ethics (6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Begley, A. M. (2005). Practising virtue: A challenge to the view that a virtue-centred approach to ethics lacks practical content. Nursing Ethics, 12(6), 622-637. Berney, L., Kelly, M., Doyal, L., Feder, G., Griffiths, C., and Jones, I. R. (2005). Ethical principles and the rationing of health care: A qualitative study in general practice. British Journal of General Practice, 55(517), 620-625. Daniels, N. (2002). Justice, health, and health care. In R. Rhodes, M. P. Battin, and A. Silvers (Eds.), Medicine and Social Justice. New York: Oxford University Press. Halvorsen, K., Forde, R., and Nortvedt, P. (2008). Professional challenges of bedside rationing in intensive care. Nursing Ethics, 15(6), 715-728. Hiatt, H. H. (1975). Protecting the medical commons: Who is responsible? New England Journal of Medicine, 293, 235-241. Hurst, S. A. and Danis, M. (2007). A framework for rationing by clinical judgement. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 17(3), 247-266. Hurst, S. A., Hull, S. C., DuVal, G., and Danis, M. (2005). How physicians face ethical difficulties: A qualitative study. Journal of Medical Ethics, 31, 7-14. Hurst, S. A., Reiter-Theil, S., Slowther, A. M., Pegoraro, R., Forde, R. and Danis, M. (2008). Should ethics consultants help clinicians face scarcity in their practice? Journal of Medical Ethics, 34(4), 241-246. Hurst, S. A., Slowther, A. M., Forde, R., Pegoraro, R., Reiter-Theil, S., Perrier, A. et al. (2006). Prevalence and determinants of physician bedside rationing. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21, 1138-1143. Larkin, G. L. L., Iserson, K., Kassutto, Z., Freas, G., Delaney, K., and Krimm, J. et al. (2009). Virtue in emergency medicine. Academic Emergency Medicine, 16, 51-55. Lauridsen, S. M. R., Norup, M., and Rossel, P. (2008). Bedside rationing by general practitioners: A postal survey in the Danish public healthcare system. BMC Health Services Research, 8(192). Retrieved 10 Feb 2008, from http://www.biomedcentral.com/ 1472-6963/8/192. Levinski, N. G. (1984). The doctor‘s master. New England Journal of Medicine, (311), 15731575.

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Morreim, E. H. (1989). Fiscal scarcity and the inevitability of bedside budget balancing. Archives of Internal Medicine, 149, 1012-1015. Pearson, S. D. (2000). Caring and cost: The challenge for physician advocacy. Annals of Internal Medicine, 133, 148-153. Statman, D. (1997). Introduction to Virtue Ethics. In D. Statman (Ed.), Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press. Strech, D., Persad, G., Marckmann, G., and Danis, M. (2009). Are physicians willing to ration health care? Conflicting findings in a systematic review of survey research. Health Policy, 90, 113-124. Sulmasy, D. P. (1992). Physicians, cost control, and ethics. Annals of Internal Medicine, 116, 920-926. Terry, L. M. (2004). An integrated approach to resource allocation. Health Care Analysis, 12(2), 171-180. Ubel, P. A. (2007). Confessions of a bedside rationer: Commentary on Hurst and Danis. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 17(3), 267-269. Ubel, P.A. and Arnold, R.M. (1995). The unbearable rightness of bedside rationing: Physician duties in a climate of cost containment. Archives of Internal Medicine, 155, 1837-1842. Ubel, P. A. and Goold, S. (1997). Recognizing bedside rationing: Clear cases and tough calls. Annals of Internal Medicine, 126(1), 74-80. Willems, D. L. (2001). Balancing rationalities: Gatekeeping in health care. Journal of Medical Ethics, 27, 25-29.

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In: Ethics Research Compendium Editors: Peter M. Roberts and Emily O. Perez

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Chapter 2

A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO STUDENTS: HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM Rakesh Sharma* 1

Department of English, Tallahassee Community College, Tallahassee, FL, US 2 Center of Nanomagnetics and Biotechnology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, US

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ABSTRACT Plagiarism is growing at a rampant rate due to available internet and the growing tendency of wrong practices of hiding the undocumented or documented sources. In academic institutions, plagiarism poses a threat to both students and instructors that ultimately leads to common plagiarism undetected, lost grants or public resources with over all poor quality. A step-by-step approach is proposed to avoid plagiarism for students by correct paraphrasing and quoting the words, sentences and paragraphs piece by piece to give the appropriate credit to the author with existing work of its original author. This approach will avoid the parallel or reproduction of material inappropriately used in any way (plagiarism prevention and detection). Several examples are cited from documented websites of leading universities and institutions to make new freshman students aware of plagiarism and methods to avoid it.

Keywords: Plagiarism prevention, plagiarism, academic dishonesty, communication, paraphrasing, references, citation

1. BACKGROUND A systematic approach of paraphrasing and quoting the words, sentences and paragraphs piece by piece to give credit with existing work of its original author will avoid the parallel or reproduction of material used (plagiarism) in any way by prevention and detection.

*

Email: [email protected].

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Academic plagiarism is reported frequently and widely reported in academic circles among students and academic writers. Julie Ryan, an instructor reported plagiarism in year 1997-2002 in her report ―I caught an average of 18 percent of the students in my graduatelevel information security classes plagiarizing large portions of papers (some copied in full) and turning them in as class assignments‖ (Julie Ryan, 2007). The author further emphasized her view on plagiarism in context of innovation, intellectual property development, competency assessment, and global competitiveness (Julie Ryan, 2007). In my view, avoiding plagiarism also needs close institutional and teacher‘s cooperation at every level of student learning with a well defined roadmap of interactive assessment of student learning level as institutional commitment to quality education. The major problems of plagiarism are:

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1. Students with diversified nationalities and different education background have less awareness; 2. Flexibility in priority areas with fluid policies on student academic performance within institution with greater academic responsibilities; and 3. The interpretation and definition of borrowing material from sources and its purpose. In present time, easy internet access to electronic documents is a primary reason why students intend to plagiarize out of their laziness and/or lack of knowledge about it. Most of the times, students tend to save time while they put their words in writing with the help of existing piece of document without much care of quoting or paraphrasing the words, sentences and idea from original document. Reasons of it are obvious because of the lack of paraphrasing and quoting knowledge without proper citation styles. Without these rules if not followed, the borrowed words, sentences and ideas appear as ―orphan without their origin‖ and mostly it misleads the readers and its authenticity. However, definition of borrowed material from different sources also differs and it depends on the purpose of document. Salde 2004 reported that ―taking material from many sources is research. This volume has not only research but direct input from a great many sources‖ (R. Salde 2004). Students will get major benefit if they get advanced awareness of plagiarism definition, its elements with examples of wrong paraphrasing, quoting and citation. Other major benefit of systematic approach to students is proposed here by step by step method to eliminate the errors of paraphrasing, twisted words, tempered ideas, duplication of sentence, mimicked camouflage of structure and bad citation.

1.1. Introduction Plagiarism is defined as the tendency to copy, replace, reproduce, simulate and transform the words or set of sentences to make the same meaning or idea copy. It has mainly two segments: 1. Exact words or set of words or sentences without paraphrasing in quotes or without any original traceable source; 2. Using set of text segment(s) as of own without mention of primary first author or existing authors.

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However, it is also part of plagiarism using anonymous citations for existing same document details but no mention of source.

2. EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLAGIARISM Plagiarism mainly caused by four ways: complete, near-complete, cut and patch work or improper citation. The plagiarism can be direct, indirect, mosaic, self plagiarism depending on no citation, references and reproduction of original source.

Example 1 Using someone else's ideas or phrasing and representing those ideas or phrasing as our own, either on purpose or through carelessness, is a serious offense known as plagiarism. http://webster.comm. net.edu/mla/ plagiarism. shtml. Example 2 To avoid plagiarism, all students must document sources properly using Footnotes, Endnotes, or Parenthetical References, and must write a Bibliography, References, or Works Cited page and place it at the end of the research paper to list the sources used. Of the three ways to document sources - Footnotes, Endnotes, and Parenthetical References, the simplest is using Parenthetical References, sometimes referred to as Parenthetical Documentation or Parenthetical Citations. http://www.aresear chguide.com/ 6plagiar.html.

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Example 3 There are two basic and universal rules regarding the use of information in professional and, especially, academic writing: 1. If you use the language of your source, you must quote it exactly, enclose it in quotation marks, and cite the source. 2. If you use ideas or information that are not common knowledge, you must cite the source. http://web.mit.edu/writing/Citation/plagiarism. html.

Example 4 To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit whenever you use    

another person‘s idea, opinion, or theory; any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings—any pieces of information—that are not common knowledge; quotations of another person‘s actual spoken or written words; or paraphrase of another person‘s spoken or written words. http://www. indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml.

Example 5 This is the most obvious case: a student submits, as his or her own work, an essay that has been written by someone else. Usually the original source is a published journal article or Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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book chapter. The use of unpublished work, including the work of another student, is just as serious. In such cases, plagiarism cannot be "avoided" by paraphrasing the original or acknowledging its use in footnotes. The work is the property of another author and should not be used. http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/bpg/Advising/ Plagiarism.htm.

Example 6 There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional contexts. This resource offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/reso urce /589/01/. Example 7 Borrowing ideas or exact language without citing the source has been a problem for students and teachers since the first writing assignment. Because the Internet has many sites that offer to sell or give away papers on almost any topic, some students are tempted to go the lazy route for their homework, and many teachers are frustrated by their students‘ unethical use of technology rather than working to upgrade their writing skills. The following websites are helpful for students and for teachers. http://www.drgrammar. org/plagiarism. shtml.

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Example 8 Plagiarized work is easy to recognize because it does not clearly indicate borrowing. It is full of facts, observations, and ideas the writer could not have developed on his or her own and is written in a different style. http: //www.depauw.edu/admin/arc/W-center/plag.asp. Example 9 Plagiarism occurs when a student, with intent to deceive or with reckless disregard for proper scholarly procedures, presents any information, ideas or phrasing of another as if they were his/her own and/or does not give appropriate credit to the original source. Proper scholarly procedures require that all quoted material be identified by quotation marks or indentation on the page, and the source of information and ideas, if from another, must be identified and be attributed to that source. Students are responsible for learning proper scholarly procedures. http://library.duke.edu/research/plagiarism/. Example 10 While use of the computer increased between 1955 and 1980, Isler found a method of physical analogies by which he could develop a scientific theory appropriate to structural art. His theory is as easy to state as it is difficult to practice: he found that the laws of nature could be put directly into the service of society by means of designs based upon the perhaps startling idea of play. http://web.grinnell.edu/writinglab/CitationGuides/ achondiscuss.html. Example 11 The academic community highly values the acknowledgment of other people's contributions to knowledge. The disciplinary consequences of documented plagiarism at Indiana University can be severe. As a student you could receive a failing grade, be expelled from the university, or in extreme cases your degree could be revoked if plagiarism is discovered after you have graduated. http://www.indiana.edu/~istd/.

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Example 12 I do not agree with writers who hold that techniques can be argued intelligently without certain terms; however, I object to the propagation of trade jargon. I prefer the middle course between the extremes of textbook tone: omniscient solemnity and condescending playfulness. http://oregonstate.edu/ admin/stucon/plag.htm.

3. STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH OF AVOIDING PLAGIARISM: A GUIDE TO AVOID PLAGIARISM Plagiarism can be avoided by quoting, editing, foot noting, citation and paraphrasing in a following systematic way.

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3.1. Systematic Approach: How to Avoid Plagiarism 1. Imagine yourself in center surrounded with several existing ideas documented by other authors. It will make you think new and original idea. 2. Apply your creativity and scale of common sense to get closer to lead original opinions of others. 3. Jot down your matched agreements and disagreements in measurable extent with other existing examples and follow steps. 4. First, check the parallel of words used by you and others if they sound with same meaning or composition. Take care if your own words can emphasize and highlight the purpose better over existing paucity of information. Highlight this part with quotations if needed including from other writer(s) of its original opinion with mention of its original source. 5. Second, check the composition of sentence used by you and others if your sentence is more effective and strong sound blower with practical meaning. Take care the grammer and composition of sentences is within limit with effective adjectives, punctuation without redundancy and lead to the main focus. Emphasize your focus as significant entity with paraphrasing and use of quotations. 6. Third, double check the usage of your own English words and its level of communication to the audience if your own words are accepted voice to audience. 7. Fourth, check the sequence and proposed use of strategy to accomplish the goal of proposal and meet your purpose more effectively with streamline flow without reproduction, repetition, fabrication, tempering and duplication of existing strategy belonging to others. Do not forget to mention credit to original authors who exist before you. 8. Fifth, double check the correct use of language formats of reporting, instruction, communication and citation in MLA and APA citation styles of other existing documents using parenthetical references or foot notes or end note references wherever needed and finalize the document with help of experienced expert.

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3.2. Algorithmic Approach of How to Avoid Plagiarism: A Student Guide

Figure 1. An algorithm representing guide to student How to avoid plagiarism. Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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3.3. Present Ways to Avoid Plagiarism through Correct Handling and Documentation of Sources: Some Examples This section displays the correct ways to avoid plagiarism and documentation of sources with some examples.

Example 1 The Capital Community College cited webster.commnet.edu statement on plagiarism as ―Using someone else's ideas or phrasing and representing those ideas or phrasing as our own, either on purpose or through carelessness, is a serious offense known as plagiarism‖( ―A statement on plagiarism‖ par.1). Example 2 Students can avoid by use of proper ―Footnotes, Endnotes, or Parenthetical References‖ and the use of a ―Bibliography, References, or Works Cited page‖ at the end of the research paper showing ―sources used‖ as cited in web-based research guide(―A Research Guide for students‖ par. 2)4 . In general, common and easy ways are: use of Footnotes at the same page, Endnotes with P.S., and Parenthetical References. (―A Research Guide for students‖ par. 2).

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Example 3 Students will get benefit to avoid plagiarism if they use their own source of language not common. It is good practice to quote the segment and highlight it in quotation marks. Also it needs the existing citation and the owner original author of this source. ―If you use ideas or information that are not common knowledge, you must cite the source‖, as suggested by MIT online writing and communication center (―Steven Strang 2001 par 3). Example 4 Plagiarism can be avoided if you give credit whenever you use ―another person‘s idea, opinion, or theory; any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings—any pieces of information—that are not common knowledge; quotations of another person‘s actual spoken or written words; or paraphrase of another person‘s spoken or written words‖ as suggested by Code of Student Rights, Responsibilities, and Conduct: Indiana university ( ―Code of Student Rights, Responsibilities, and Conduct‖. Par 2). Example 5 Student suffer time issues, dead line pressures and lack of ethics while turning in their assignments. Sometimes they take hired help to complete their assignments using chapters or documents from the existing books. There are possibilities if experienced hired person uses his or her own source of knowledge may be unpublished document, may create possibility of plagiarism or near that. Bottom line ―The work is the property of another author and should not be used‖ as documented elsewhere (C.H. Gordon,P. Simmons, G.Wynn. par 2). Example 6 The Purdue University OWL learning center summarized the resources with alert ―There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional

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contexts‖. Further, advice is suggested to avoid plagiarism with words ―This resource offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work‖(S. Karl. par 1).

Example 7 The teachers at University of Northern Iowa highlighted the problem of plagiarism as ―borrowing ideas or exact language without citing the source‖. It has been a problem for students and teachers both since the first writing assignment (cited by Department of English, University of Northern Iowa dr Grammar web document). They emphasized the demerits of internet ―Internet has many sites that offer to sell or give away papers on almost any topic, some students are tempted to go the lazy route for their homework, and many teachers are frustrated by their students‘ unethical use of technology rather than working to upgrade their writing skills‖ as main reason behind plagiarism(―dr Grammar web document‖, par 1)

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Example 8 The borrowing sentences and jotting down ideas in own way is an art. The different style and putting facts in different ways is the key of original document. Academic resource centers play important role by advising standard methods and detecting plagiarism such as ―Plagiarized work is easy to recognize because it does not clearly indicate borrowing. It is full of facts, observations, and ideas the writer could not have developed on his or her own and is written in a different style‖(―Academic resource center, Depauw university”, 2008 par 2). Example 9 Plagiarism is considered a habit of bypassing certain rules and overlooking the existing facts or ideas while student in haste tries to present his information including common knowledge. But it amounts if student is not really putting his efforts. At Duke university, scholars described it as non-systematic method ― with intent to deceive or with reckless disregard for proper scholarly procedures, presents any information, ideas or phrasing of another as if they were his/her own and/or does not give appropriate credit to the original source‖. Correct procedures require ―that all quoted material be identified by quotation marks or indentation on the page, and the source of information and ideas, if from another, must be identified and be attributed to that source. Students are responsible for learning proper scholarly procedures‖ (―Duke University library resource”, par 1). Example 10 Historically, computer use in one‘s life has become an essential commodity in every wake of life. In Grinell university document, computer use in physical analogy was cited by Isler to develop a scientific theory appropriate to structural art. ―His theory is as easy to state as it is difficult to practice: he found that the laws of nature could be put directly into the service of society by means of designs based upon the perhaps startling idea of play‖(Hunter Judy, March 2001. Par 2). Example 11 The plagiarism leads to loss of marks, penalty and sometimes expulsion from college. The main reason is to make realize the students the importance of exiting or other‘s work. At Indiana University, scholars cited the plagiarism to highlight values with consequences as

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―The academic community highly values the acknowledgment of other people's contributions to knowledge. The disciplinary consequences of documented plagiarism at Indiana University can be severe. As a student you could receive a failing grade, be expelled from the university, or in extreme cases your degree could be revoked if plagiarism is discovered after you have graduated. (Frick T. 2005, par 2).

Example 12 In An American Rhetoric, Watt says, "Although I disagree with those who believe that techniques can be intelligently discussed without technical terms, I have tried to avoid the deadliest sin of the textbook style: the proliferation of trade jargon" (Watt, William. An American Rhetoric. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964, 5). For advanced learning, the student resources are available to make them aware of meaning and practices to avoid plagiarism.

4. RESOURCES TO STUDENTS

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The established good student resources are the following lead institutions on ‗How to avoid plagiarism‖ at following websites:             

http://www.aresearchguide.com/6plagiar.html http://web.mit.edu/writing/Citation/plagiarism.html http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/bpg/Advising/Plagiarism.htm http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ http://www.drgrammar.org/plagiarism.shtml http://www.depauw.edu/admin/arc/W-center/plag.asp http://library.duke.edu/research/plagiarism/ http://web.grinnell.edu/writinglab/CitationGuides/citeguide.html http://www.indiana.edu/~istd/ http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~fpitt/2001W/CSC148/plagiarism.html http://sj.ucdavis.edu/files/plagiarism.pdf http://oregonstate.edu/admin/stucon/plag.htm.

5. PROPOSAL FOR A RESOURCE CENTER ON STUDENT GUIDE TO AVOID PLAGIARISM The proposed approach is a step by step learning lesson as well as a resource guide to serve students who have no or poor information on how to avoid plagiarism. The enclosed step by step practice will demonstrate to students as guide line of working plan to prepare assignment independently. It needs resources in three phases to accomplish: 1. Trial phase; 2. Evaluation and validation phase; and

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Rakesh Sharma 3. Implementation and statistical score data achieving on success rate of plagiarism prevention in student population after adopting the proposed method.

6. PURPOSE AND BENEFITS Academic institutions and universities have greater role follow a strategy to implement the policy to prevent and detect plagiarism with more effective way to alert and keep away students from the possibilities of plagiarism with frequent interactions and monitoring the students‘ learning own skills. It will not only make students aware of possibilities of plagiarism with enhanced capability but policy will directly affect the institutional academic integrity to prevent plagiarism. Prevention of plagiarism will improve the student learning practice, study skills with possibility of improved current examination policies and procedures.

CONCLUSION

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The plagiarism is growing with advancement in technology and it affects all corners from academics to commercial business leading to deteriorate the quality, commitment and originality of work by individual or group. It is mandatory to detect plagiarism and prevent it in academics, students and business. Several examples of actual plagiarism and its correct way of plagiarism-free presentation are cited to make aware the possibilities of plagiarism. A step by step approach suggests students a simple way to avoid plagiarism in their work as guide. The approach can be used as tool of plagiarism detection and evaluation to improve academic quality at an institution.

REFERENCES A Research Guide for students. (2008) Chapter 6. Plagiarism: How to Avoid It: Dewey Decimal Classification, OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc. par 2. Retrieved from http://www.areSearch guide.com/6plagiar.html. A statement on plagiarism. (2008) Capital Community College. par 1. Retrieved from http://webster.commnet.edu/mla/plagiarism.shtml/. Avoiding plagiarism (2001). Academic Resource Center, DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana. par 2. Retrieved from http://www.depa uw.edu/admin/arc/W-center/plag.asp. Citing Sources and Avoiding plagiarism (2007, August). Library resource at Duke University. par 1. Retrieved from http://library.duke. edu/research/plagiarism/. Code of Student Rights, Responsibilities, and Conduct (2008). Indiana University: Writing Tutrial service. par 3. Retrieved from http: //www.indiana.edu/~wts/ pam-phlets/ plagiarism.shtml. Dr Grammer’s Plagiarism(2001). University of Northern Iowa, 2001. par 1. Retrieved from http://www.drgrammar.org/plagiarism.shtml.

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Frick, T. (2005, September) How to recognize plagiarism. School of Education. Indian University at Bloomington. Par 2. Retrieved from http://www.indiana.edu/~istd/. Gordon, C. H., Simmons, P. and Wynn, G. (2007). Biology Program: PLAGIARISM: What it is, and How to Avoid It. University of British Columbia, CA. 2007. par 2. Retrieved from http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/ bpg/Advising/Plagiarism.htm. Judy, H. (2001, March) Citation guide. Grinell University document, par 2. Retrieved from http://web.grinnell.edu/writinglab/CitationGuides/ achondiscuss. Html. Julie, J. C. H. Ryan (2007) Plagiarism, Education, and Information Security. IEEE Security and Privacy, vol. 5, no. 5:62-65. Karl, S. (2008, September). Avoiding Plagiarism. The On-line web based learning Purdue University, Illinois. Ed. Brizee. September 2008. par 1. Retrieved from http://owl.english. purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/. Slade. R. (2004) Review: Official (ISC) Guide to the CISSP Exam. Insecure.org.:4. Steven Strang. (2001). Avoiding Plagiarism. MIT Online Writing and Communication Center. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, par 3. Retrieved from http://web.mit. edu/writing/Citation/plagiarism.html. Student Conduct and Community Standards (2008). Oregon State University, Corvallis OR: par 4. Retrieved from http://oregonstate.edu/ admin/stucon/plag.htm.

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In: Ethics Research Compendium Editors: Peter M. Roberts and Emily O. Perez

ISBN: 978-1-62257-747-7 © 2013 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

IS THE ADOPTION OF FARM TECHNOLOGY GENDER NEUTRAL? THE CASE OF FISH FARMING TECHNOLOGY IN MOROGORO REGION, TANZANIA Kitojo Wetengere* Centre for Foreign Relations, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

ABSTRACT

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This chapter is a product of a study undertaken to investigate the influence of gender related factors as regards to adoption of fish farming technology in selected villages of Morogoro Region, Tanzania. Data for this chapter had been collected in various studies conducted earlier and results published by the author about the study area from November 2005 to May 2008. These data were supplemented by primary data which had been collected by the author but not used before, and secondary information from other sources. Descriptive statistics was used to report findings and data were validated by the level of significance and mean percentages. The overall results indicate that the adoption of fish farming technology was not gender neutral. More specifically, the results revealed that the probability of women to adopt fish farming technology was higher than that of men. This was likely because fish farming met women objectives of food security, immobility as they attend to household chores, and lack of alternative opportunities among themselves. Yet, women had lesser access to resources necessary for adoption of fish farming technology and were less reached by extension services than men. This was mainly attributed to the kinship system which favoured men than women, lack of legal information on ownership of productive resources and social-cultural and economic barriers to adoption among women such as high levels of illiteracy, low formal education, immobility, poverty in terms of low income and very heavy workload. In addition, although women participated in all activities of fish farming, men controlled income accruing from the activity. Three recommendations emerge from this study: First, there has to be alignment of extension methodology and activities to the task, needs, objectives, appropriate time and place and socio-cultural and economic barriers of women to *

Corresponding author: P. O. Box 3375, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania E-mail: wetengerek kj1 @ yahoo.com.

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Kitojo Wetengere technology adoption. Extension staff should be trained to take such aspects into account and plan for training sessions at times and locations suitable for women. Secondly, sociocultural and economic barriers that hinder women‘s access to productive resources should be identified and dealt with during project design. Finally, efforts should be made by women and other organizations to ensure that they are heard and they should exert pressure, through advocacy and lobbying, in order to bring equal distribution of income accruing from using fish farming technology.

Keywords: Technology adoption, fish farming, gender neutrality, poverty alleviation

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INTRODUCTION Increasing farm productivity in rural Tanzania is almost the only solution to meet the rapidly growing food demand and raise cash income (Wetengere, 2008, 2009, 2010a). Similar observation was made by IDE (2002), which indicated that increasing agricultural productivity and income of the majority of farmers in developing countries is untapped opportunity for finding practical solutions to rural poverty. Farm production can be increased through putting more land into use or applying new technology (Wetengere, 2010a). However, given the scarcity of land in most rural areas, the application of new technology remains the best option for increasing farm output and productivity. Scarborough (1996) had also noted that sustainable increases in agricultural productivity could be obtained even with the available land, only through technological and managerial innovations. This finding is similar to that by Padmaja et al. (2006), which show that in order to raise the agricultural output and productivity on a sustainable basis in the developing countries, large scale adoption of new technologies is essential. Fish farming is one of the technologies that was introduced to raise agricultural output (Wetengere et al., 1998). Fish, when available, is generally cheaper than other animal meat and contains protein levels of 17-20%, as well as minerals and vitamins (Hague, 1992). Aquaculture integrated into the existing farming system has been shown to improve both food and income security with little or no external inputs (Brummett, 2000). Similar results were reported by Wetengere et al. (1998) which revealed that fish farming supplied cheap and readily available fish for home consumption as well as for sale. ALCOM1 progress reports showed that about 20% of farmers who intensified and integrated fish farming technology into the existing farming system produced up to 4-6/t/h/y of farmed fish. According to Wetengere et al. (1998), this production was more profitable than many other types of crop production even when the crops were rotated three times a year. Furthermore, the production of crops like vegetables and waterlogged crops like bananas, yams and sugarcane increased and were grown year-round as a result of fertilization through the use of pond water and/or moisture (ibid.). In Malawi for instance, after fish farming had been integrated into an existing agricultural system, there was increased production, and profitability increased six times (Brummett and Noble, 1995). Despite high potentials that fish farming possesses, the adoption of the technology is not without challenges (Wetengere, 2008, 2009). The adoption rate measured as the percentage of 1

ALCOM was a FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) aquatic programme which operated in Tanzania between 1993 and 2000.

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farmers with suitable resources has been low (Balarin, 1985; Msuya, 1992; Wetengere et al., 1998, 2009). Similarly, the abandonment rate of the technology has been high (Wetengere, 2008, 2010f). More than 25% of fish farmers in the study area abandoned the activity. It was observed that several ponds were in bad condition (overgrown grass, high water transparency, low water levels and collapsed dike) and were likely to be abandoned (ibid.). This finding is similar to that by Wijkstrom (1999), who observed that about 20% of fish farmers abandoned their ponds in Zambia. In addition, fish farming technology adopted has been characterized by a low level of technology adoption such as small size ponds likened to holes, poor quality seed, low input allocation in terms of cash income, labour time, feeds and fertilizers, and infrequent harvest (Wetengere, 2008, 2010e). All these have made the contribution of fish farming to the community‘s well-being low. Although as we have seen, there are a number of reasons why the adoption of fish farming technology has been low, one of the causes and most overlooked is the lack of consideration of gender issues when designing development strategies (Kabeer, 1996; Padmaja et al., 2006). Similar observation was made by Lubwama (1999), who noted that the adoption of conservation tillage practices was being hampered by several issues including gender ones. According to Padmaja et al. (2006), many development projects failed because they had not taken into account the complex social relationship, based on gender bias, power and status, within communities and households. Although it is often assumed that the application of technology is neutral and that its benefits accrue equitably to all individuals in a community (Hafkin and Huyer, 2002), in most cases, however, there are some individuals or groups that have fewer prospects of benefiting from services offered, e.g. indigenous people, people who are illiterate or who have disabilities, those with less access to opportunities for making a living or making their voices heard, in sum, the poor and the disadvantaged. Women typically constitute a majority of these persons (ibid.). In the study area, women played a significant role in fish farming. They assisted in pond construction, fed and fertilized ponds, and harvested and marketed fish. In addition, they undertook other home activities and were responsible for family food security and crop production. However, they often had lower levels of social status and economic security in the family (see also Padmaja et al., 2006). Most studies on technology adoption tend to use ‗gender‘ interchangeably with ‗sex‘, although sex is a biological characteristic while gender involves socially constructed roles ascribed to both males and females (Dholakia et al., 2003). These roles, which are learned, change over time and vary widely within and between cultures. The nouns ‗male‘ and ‗female‘ are typically employed in a biological sense while the adjectives ‗masculine‘ and ‗feminine‘ are typically employed in a gendered, social sense (ibid.). Gender refers not only to women or men per se, but to the socially defined roles of each sex, as well as to the relation between them (Lubwama, 1999). This is in agreement with GoK (1999) which observed gender to be a socio-cultural construct of the society that determines the identity, roles or functions, entitlements and deprivation of women and men in the society. Gender issues, therefore, form part of the development approach that puts people at the center and ensures their participation in the entire development process (ibid.). International agencies like the UN and the World Bank have realized that farm technologies have to address the needs of, not only the male farmer in perspective, but also incorporate the requirements and adaptability of women in the farm sector. In the same vein, IFPRI (2005) are of the opinion that targeting women in agricultural technology dissemination can have greater impact on

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Kitojo Wetengere

poverty alleviation than targeting men. It should be noted, however, that emphasis on gender rather than on ‗women‘s issues‘ reflects a broader concern with women‘s roles and responsibilities in relation to those of men (Spliethoff, 1994). Spliethoff cautions that the idea is not to create projects for women only, as women‘s projects are often regarded as being of minor significance and are not properly incorporated in the overall development programme. Although the subject of gender and technology adoption has been examined by a number of researchers (Spliethoff, 1994; Kabeer, 1996; Lubwama, 1999; Hafkin and Huyer, 2002; IFPRI, 2005; Upadhyay et al., 2005; Padmaja et al., 2006), there are few thorough studies that have been carried out to assess the influence of gender on the adoption of fish farming technology. There is a need to identify gender related factors that influence adoption of fish farming technology, as well as to accentuate the opportunities created by giving women access to adoption of such technology. The objective of this article therefore is to clearly show how gender related factors influence the adoption of fish farming technology in the study area.

Conceptual Consideration on Gender and Technology Adoption

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When a technology is introduced in a given area, it is often assumed that the technology will be accepted and that its benefits will accrue equitably to all individuals in the community. This observation was made by Hafkin and Huyer (2002), but they admit that in reality, however, there are some individuals or groups that have fewer prospects of benefiting from the services offered, e.g. people who are illiterate, poor or who have disabilities, those with less access to opportunities for making a living or making their voices heard. Women typically constitute a majority of these persons. There are many factors that influence different people‘s adoption behaviour (Kimenye, 2001). Some of such factors include the following: a) The availability and access to household resources such as land, labour, cash income and other inputs like feeds, fertilizers, water and seeds. Women farmers unlike men do not often own and/or lack access to resources necessary for adoption. If women do not own and lack access to resources necessary for adoption, it is unlikely that they will adopt and/or intensify the introduced technology and vice versa. b) The degree to which the technology is appropriate or fits into the farmer‘s farming environment. Women farmers unlike men are overburdened with various domestic chores, thus they are unlikely to adopt or intensify a new technology particularly if is demanding and vice versa. c) Access to extension education and effectiveness with which the technology is presented by extension agents (CIMMYT, 1993; Kimenye, 2001). Women farmers unlike men are often ignorant of new technology. As a result they do not understand the advantages and disadvantages of new technologies. Furthermore, new technologies are often presented as men‘s technology. In such cases, most women may fail to adopt and/or intensify the technology. d) The farmers‘ objective for undertaking the activity. The objectives of adopting a technology for women may differ from those for men. While men may adopt a technology for profit maximization, women may do so to spread risk or diversify

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food and income generation. If women feel that their objectives will not be met by a new technology or their objectives are actually not being met by a new technology, they may not adopt or may abandon and/or adopt it at a low level. Actions such as diversification, allocating fewer resources in the activity, operating ponds in groups and producing fish for family consumption and stocking at low density are means of some farmers in managing risk in fish farming (Wetengere, 2008).

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Figure 1 shows that the enabling factors for farmers to adopt fish farming technology across gender are based upon farmers‘ needs or objectives and access to resources necessary for technology adoption. Farmers‘ objectives and access to resources differ across gender. This article is premised on the assumption that once men‘s and women‘s objectives are known and taken care of and both have equal access to resources necessary for adoption, the adopted technology will have equitable and sustainable development across gender and on poverty alleviation (see also Padmaja et al., 2006).

Figure 1. Gender and technology adoption – poverty alleviation linkages [Modified from Padmaja et al. (2006)].

MATERIALS AND METHODS The information in this article was collected from various studies conducted in 24 selected villages in Morogoro Region from November 2005 to May 2008. The choice of this area was purposive and based on the following reasons: First, a big number of fish farmers (men and women) have been practicing fish farming for many years. It is therefore assumed that the influence of gender on technology adoption will come out clearly. Secondly, low income and animal protein intake in Morogoro Region increases the need to involve gender

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Kitojo Wetengere

issues in adoption of fish farming technology. Furthermore, there is relatively limited published information regarding the influence of gender issues on adoption of fish farming technology in the study area, and Tanzania as whole. Given the nature and complexity of this problem, a field survey design that focused on individual farmers as the unit of analysis was employed. This method is capable of describing the existing perception, attitude, behaviour or values of individuals within a household (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999). This method was assumed to lead to better understanding of the influence of gender on the adoption of fish farming technology in the study area. The data reported here were collected from various studies conducted and results published by the author on gender issues in relation to adoption of fish farming technology in Morogoro Region. This information has been supplemented by secondary information from other sources. In addition, information which had been collected through questionnaires, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and researchers‘ personal observations but had not been documented, have been used in this article. Four research questions guided this study:   

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

Are both men‘s and women‘s needs or objectives and socio-cultural and economic constraints to adoption of fish farming technology known to extension agents? Are both men and women having equal access to resources necessary to adopt and practice fish farming technology? Are both men and women being equally reached by extension services of fish farming technology? Are both men and women sharing equally the fruits of fish farming technology?

Data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Stata 8. For each research question, mean percentage and level of significance were used for validation. In PRA meetings, questions were raised, issues discussed, and conclusions arrived at democratically. Disagreements among members were also reported.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Gender and Characteristics of the Sampled Respondents Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of 217 respondents sampled from the study area. The characteristics considered were those postulated to show a relationship between gender and technology adoption.

Sex Since this study targeted fish farmers and most fish farmers were male (of the 580 fish farmers in the study area, 447 (77%) were men and 133 (23%) were women), it was not surprising to find that male respondents formed the majority (168 men and 49 women were selected for interview which comprised of 37% of each population group).

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Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sampled Population Respondents characteristics

Gender/sex Main occupation Full time farmer Farmer and business Farmer and employee Others Education level No formal education Less than primary education Primary education (7 years) Post secondary education Age ≤ 30 years 31 – 50 years 51 ≥ years Income Below Tshs. 200,000 Between Tshs. 200,001-500,000 Income of Tshs. 500,001 and above If obtained fish Yes farming No education

Sample size by sex Male Female n= 168 (%) n= 49 (%) 77 23 43 35 48 63 6 2 3 0 9 16 17 16 63 64 11 4 35 39 37 47 28 14 44 55 38 31 18 14

Total sample n= 217 (%)

86 14

73 27

24 76

100 42 51 5 2 11 17 64 8 36 39 25 47 36 17

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Source: Wetengere, 2010c.

Occupation As expected, most of the households engage in farming as a major livelihood earning activity. However, 58% of respondents indicated that farming was not the only main household activity in the study area. About 51% of the respondents derived their livelihood from farming and business, 42% from full time farming, 5% derived their livelihood through farming and employment, while the minority (2%) were engaged in either farming and business, or were students and were also employed. Gender-wise, while more women were doing farming and business, more men were full time farmers. In addition, more men were both farmers and employees. The percentage of full-time farmers was relatively lower than the national average of 63% (TNBS, 2002). This was probably due to lack of permanent cash crops along the Uluguru Mountains, and as a result, farmers engaged in other income generating activities to supplement income. The main type of business carried out in the study area was brewing of local beer. Other businesses include: small shops, selling of timber, charcoal, bricks and food stuffs (Wetengere, 2010a). Education Education has been shown to be a key factor in the development process, thus individuals or societies which are not educated are likely to be backward (UNICEF, 2004). Education empowers individuals in decision making and liberates people from all shackles of nature, including poverty and other social, economic, political and environmental aspects (Kirway and Lulu, 2008). Most of the respondents (64%) in this study area had attained standard seven education, about 17% never reached standard seven, 11% did not have any formal education

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Kitojo Wetengere

and only 8% had post primary education. Gender-wise, while 16% of women (compared to 9% of men) did not have any formal education, about 11% of men (compared to 4% of women) had post secondary education. A study by Mikalista (2010) in Kenya showed that more men had secondary, college and university education than women. More or less the same percentage across sex had attained standard seven and less than standard seven education.

Age Accordingly, the results show that 39% of the respondents were between ages 31-50, 36% were 30 years and below and 25% were above 51 years. More women were younger and appeared between ages 31-50. Since this study targeted fish farmers, the findings revealed that most of the respondents were above 30 years.

Cash Income The results show that about 47% of respondents earned cash income of Tshs. 200,000/= and below, 36% earned income of Tshs. 200,001/= -500,000/= and 17% earned income of Tshs. 500,001/= and above. Most women were poorer than men. On average Tshs. 327,994/= (i.e. US$ 235) was earned in the study area in the 2005/06 farming year (Wetengere, 2008).

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Fish Farming Education Most fish adopters (73%) had obtained fish farming knowledge before starting the activity. As expected, 86% of those who had obtained fish farming knowledge were male compared to 24% female. Conversely, 76% of women compared to only 14% of male had started fish farming without having any knowledge on the activity.

Gender and Technology Adoption Various studies have identified gender as one of the factors that influence farmers‘ adoption behaviour (Kimenye, 2001; Lubwama, 1999; Wetengere, 2008, 2008a, 2009, 2010b). Wetengere (2009) reports that gender was significant but negatively related to the probability of adopting fish farming; that means males were less likely to adopt fish farming. Conversely, the probability of women adopting fish farming technology was higher than male farmers. This was in agreement with results obtained by Kaliba et al. (1997) and Burton et al. (1999), who had shown that the probability of female farmers adopting farm technologies is higher than that of male farmers. Wetengere (2009) reports further that females were more likely to adopt fish farming technology due the following reasons. Firstly, fish farming was mainly undertaken to produce fish for home consumption, an objective which suited females more than males. This was likely because females were responsible for fetching relishes which were in short supply (particularly animal protein) in the study area. Secondly, about 62% of men moved away from home for longer periods for other businesses compared to only 27% of women. Thus, men were less likely to adopt fish farming, which requires continuous attention. Thirdly, the volume of cash income earned from fish farming was too small (only 2.4% of the total

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earnings) to attract men. Men had more opportunities to access alternative sources of income and were less likely to adopt a low income generating activity. The results reported above are in line with findings by Trottier (1987) and Wetengere (2000) who noted that there were many factors that favoured the participation of women in fish farming: first, because of tending children and crops, women are less likely than men to be away from home for long periods, therefore they can give continuous attention to pond husbandry, if the ponds are close to home. Men move temporarily for 1-2 weeks to attend distant farms or for business or to spend some time with their other wives (Wetengere, 2000). In families where women were involved in fish farming, management of such families continued normally even when some family members were away. Secondly, women have access to on-farm by-products like manure, grain bran, plant leaves, brew and kitchen leftovers as they (or their children) are the ones who take care of animals, dehull grains, produce brew and do gardening. Thirdly, because they are accustomed to the daily routine, women are likely to provide the constant attention required for good husbandry and can use a variety of by-products for composting and feeding (Trottier, 1987). Fourthly, because of their responsibility towards the family, women give priority to family needs. Benefits enjoyed specifically by men do not necessarily accrue to other household members, and often there has been a resulting negative economic and nutritional impact on the position of the wife and the family. Lastly, because a typical rural fish pond does not provide full employment, women can accommodate fish farming tasks in their daily chores.

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Gender and Objectives for Undertaking Fish Farming Technology Relative Importance of Objectives for Embarking on Fish Farming Technology Wetengere (2010b) informs that although most farmers embarked on fish farming in order to obtain fish for home consumption as well as for sale, most farmers ranked high the undertaking of fish farming for home consumption than for sale. This study found out that the adoption of fish farming for home consumption was ranked first by the majority (73%) of respondents, ranked second by 26%, and the rest by 1%. On the other hand, only 24% of the respondents ranked income generation first, about 75% ranked it second, and the rest (5%) ranked it third and fourth (see Wetengere, 2010b and Table 2). The importance small-scale farmers in the study area attach to household food security shows that food production is a number one priority. This is consistent with Engle‘s (1985) findings that indicate that one of the pressing issues facing small-scale farmers is how to ensure adequate supply of food to the family, either through producing food or purchasing it. Also Temu (1999), showed that farmers‘ allocation of resources is characterized as a 2-stage process in which first priority is given to meeting food security requirements and second to maximize income using the remaining resources. The need to ensure household food security is influenced by the uncertainty of the food market (due to escalating food prices and unavailability) and unpredictable environment conditions (ibid.). The priorities given to the objectives for undertaking fish farming differed across gender. The results show that while 86% of women ranked the adoption of fish farming for home consumption first, 69% of male ranked it first. Conversely, while 31% of male ranked the adoption of fish farming for generating cash income first, very few females (10%) ranked it first (see Wetengere, 2010b and Table 2). Similar findings were observed by Spliethoff

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Kitojo Wetengere

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(1994) which indicated that easy access to fish for family consumption was one of the main reasons for women to participate in aquaculture. This should not come as a surprise as fish farming was mainly undertaken to produce fish for home consumption - an objective which suits females than males (Wetengere, 2008). Women were responsible for fetching relish for the household which was inadequate particularly in the Uluguru Mountains where animal protein was in short supply (ibid.). Some women informed that during shortage of relish, they spent time and cash to obtain animal relish. It follows therefore that any technology that will ensure availability of animal relish will highly be appreciated particularly by women. These results concur with findings by Palmaja et al. (2006), who found out that men in Zimbabwe have been found to prefer improved varieties, while women seek out the open pollinated varieties. This implies that gender differentiated needs and objectives should be taken on board when formulating development programmes. Spliethoff (1994) was of the same opinion when formulating fisheries and aquaculture programmes.

Realization of Farmers‟ Objectives for Undertaking Fish Farming Realization of farmers‘ objective for undertaking fish farming technology is thought to be one of the strong motivations for non-adopters to adopt the technology and adopters to continue with the technology (Wetengere, 2008, 2010b). When farmers were asked to report whether the objectives for undertaking fish farming were being realized or not, they admitted that fish farming supplied fish relish and cash income more reliably than other sources of animal relish and cash income. The assessment of the contribution of fish farming in terms of food and income security was based on the criteria of reliability (frequency) and timing of shortages in relation to other sources of animal meat and cash income. According to Wetengere (2010d) fish farming was ranked very low in terms of the above criteria. This study found that only 16% (49) of the respondents had realized their objectives. The attainment of objectives for undertaking a technology differed across gender. These results show that of the fish farmers (16%) who had realized their objective for undertaking fish farming, 18% were male and only 9% were female. Participants in PRA meeting said that most women did not attain their objectives due to low investment in the activity in terms of cash income, labour time and other inputs.

Gender and Access to Extension Education on Technology Adoption Various studies have emphasized the influence of access to extension education on technology adoption (see for instance Polson and Spencer, 1991; Kaliba et al., 1997; BaiduForson, 1999; Burton et al., 1999; Kimenye, 2001; Wetengere 2008, 2008a, 2009; Mikalista, 2010). In most cases however, access to extension education reflects an asymmetric distribution in disfavour of female farmers. This was also an observation by Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen (1994), who found out that access to extension education differ for men and women.

Gender and Access to Formal Education on Technology Adoption Wetengere (2008, 2009) has shown the influence of formal education on technology adoption (see also UNICEF, 2004; Kirway and Lulu, 2008). Wetengere (2010c) indicates that

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overall female farmers in the study area had attained less formal educated than male farmers (see also Table 1). With the exception of attainment of standard seven education where more or less the same percentage of females (64%) and males (63%) attained it, females were disadvantaged at all other levels of education. Participants in PRA meetings proved that more females were illiterate and had attained less formal education than men, due to the following reasons: First, most parents did not see the importance of educating a woman as she would eventually get married and move to her husband‘s family. In other words, after marriage a woman would no longer be of any benefit her family. Secondly, dropout rate by females was higher than that of males due to pregnancy and engagement in other home chores such as taking care of the young. Thirdly, due to too many responsibilities, performance by females at school particularly at primary school level was poor. Consequently, they had less opportunity to excel to higher levels of education. In aquaculture practice, some formal education was required to understand the disseminated information because most of the information in the study area was spread through pamphlets, books, newsletters and in training meetings which were accompanied by written tests. In such a situation, farmers without formal education were left out. Similarly, some aspects of fish farming such as measurement of pond size, calculation of stocking density, sex identification etc. required some formal education. In addition, farmers with more education could understand better and quicker, and were more inquisitive and more likely to try out new technology like fish farming (Wetengere, 2008). Since more women were illiterate and had less formal education than men, it is not surprising that most women were left out in the whole process of technology adoption.

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Table 2. Relative Importance of Objectives for Undertaking Fish Farming Objectives

Ranking

Fish for home consumption

1 2 3 and 4 1 2 3 and 4

Generate cash income

Male (in %) (n=168) 69 30 1 31 64 5

Female (in %) (n=49) 86 14 0 10 86 4

Total (in %) (n=217) 73 26 1 24 71 5

Source: Wetengere (2007). * An objective ranked 1 is considered more important than objectives ranked 2 or above.

Gender and Access to Awareness Education on Technology Adoption In the process of technology adoption, irrespective of the type of technology, there is considerable mobilization to prepare clients (farmers) for the technology adoption process (Lubwama, 1999). This means farmers must be informed of the basic requirements of the technology, how to use it and the advantages and disadvantages especially in comparison to other technologies. Various means were employed to mobilize and inform farmers of the new technology in the study area. The means employed include posters, village authorities, village announcer using a drum, letters, agriculture extension officers (AEOs), slide shows, pamphlets, group discussion, project team field visits, newsletters, farmer-to-farmer extension, training meetings and field visits of farmer-to-farmer (Wetengere et al., 1989). These efforts imply the innovation-diffusion model, which is based on work by Rodgers

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Kitojo Wetengere

(1962) that puts great emphasis on dissemination and communication mechanisms and which contends that rational individuals will adopt an innovation once it has been properly communicated to them. Despite such efforts, Wetengere (2008) claims that while only few men (14%) started fish farming without acquiring any awareness education about it, most women (76%) started the activity without acquiring any knowledge about it (see Table 1). Participants in PRA meetings conducted in the study area said that that was due to the following reasons. First, extension services did not do much to reach women. Posters and announcements for training meetings on fish farming were not placed where women gather or do most of their activities like where they collect water, wash clothes, mill grains and market crops. As a result, most women were not informed of the meetings and trainings. Rodgers (1962) was of the opinion that access to information about a technology determines its adoption. Secondly, most fish farming extension agents were men who were interested in expansion of the activity rather than reaching women. As a result they worked with a group of male farmers who were easy to contact. Similar results were obtained by Seki and Sen (1994) that disclosed the fact that there were few female (3%) extension agents in Africa. Some women respondents were of the opinion that unlike men if the extension agents had been their fellow women, they would have made deliberate efforts to reach them. Thirdly, during introduction meetings activities like pond construction and major pond repair were presented as laborious and time consuming which could only be done by men, thus excluding women (see also Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994). This is seen from most extension materials like photographs, slides and drawings that usually show men working on fish ponds. Fourthly, most women were already overburdened by many household chores and therefore, lacked time to do extra activities like fish farming. Furthermore, planning of training meetings, farmer-to-farmer visits and field tours did not consider women‘s working peak periods. Most women admitted that they were reluctant to attend any fish farming meeting during the peak farming season. The opportunity cost of doing so was too high. Finally, some fish farming meetings and trainings conducted within and far from the homestead were not convenient to most women. Often meetings and trainings within the village were conducted during the morning hours when most women would be busy with household and farm activities. In sum, the attitude of extension agents and their lack of consideration about women‘s constraints and needs in fish farming, have contributed a lot to women being marginalized in the acquisition of technology (Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994).

Gender and Access to Extension Education on Technology Adoption As already alluded to, extension services are known to be strongly gender biased (Spliethoff, 1994). From the study it was found out that although most fish farmers (98%) had received fish farming information from their fellow farmers, most sources of fish farming information favoured men than women (see Table 1). Gender-wise, however, almost equal percentages of both female (100%) and male (95%) farmers received fish farming information through their fellow farmers. Conversely, relatively lower percentages of female (24%) compared to male farmers (32%) received information from fish farming projects, extension pamphlets (30% male to 24% female), government extension agents (18% male to 14% female) and 10% of the male received fish farming information from other sources compared to 8% of female. A similar trend was observed by Wetengere (2008a) in both Morogoro and Dar es Salaam regions. Participants in PRA meetings indicated that poor

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access to extension services for most women was likely due to inappropriate time and location for extension services, illiteracy or low education, physical immobility, heavy workload among women and lack of confidence to attend or speak before men during meetings (see also Spliethoff, 1994). Padmaja et al. (2006) stress the same fact that more formal networks reflecting employment or occupation status favour men, while women have more informal networks that are centred on family and kin. Wetengere (2008a) found out that more males than females adopted fish farming because of imitation from relatives, friends and neighbours, and because they were advised by the projects. Participants in PRA meetings said that that was perhaps because of heavy workload and physical immobility among women and also because most projects did not take deliberate efforts to contact female farmers. Additionally, while there were few males who adopted fish farming to gain status, none of the females did so for the same purpose. This implies that extension services will have to align their extension methodology and activities to the tasks, needs and constraints of women (Spliethoff, 1994). Extension staff should therefore be sensitized to take such aspects into account and plan sessions at a time and location convenient for women.

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Gender and Access to Resources Necessary to Technology Adoption Various studies have emphasized the importance of access to resources such as land, capital, labour and other inputs on technology adoption (see for instance Akinola, 1987; Polson and Spencer, 1991; Kaliba et al., 1997; Burton et al., 1999; Kimenye, 2001; Wetengere 2008, 2009; Mikalista, 2010). Evidence from Ghana suggests that gender-linked differences in the adoption of modern maize varieties and chemical fertilizer are not attributable to inherent characteristics of the technologies themselves but instead result from gender-linked differences in access to key inputs (Doss and Morris, 2001). On the whole, they claim, these results suggest that technology adoption decisions depend primarily on access to resources, rather than on gender. If for instance, adoption of modern varieties and/or fertilizer depends on the access to land, labour, or other resources, and if in particular context men tend to have better access to these resources than women, then in such a context the technologies will not benefit men and women equally. This is the same argument by Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen (1994), who observed that access to resources, differ between men and women. Table 3. Sources of Fish Farming Information by Sex Sources of information Fellow farmers Fish farming projects extension Fish farming extension materials Government extension officers Others

Male (in %) (n=168) 98 32 30 18 10

Female (in %) (n=49) 100 24 24 14 8

Total (in %) (n=217) 98 30 29 17 9

Source: Wetengere, 2007.

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Kitojo Wetengere

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Gender and Access to Land on Technology Adoption Suitable land for fish farming is also suitable for other farming activities; which means that fish farming competes for resources with other productive farm and non-farm activities (Wetengere, 2008, 2010a). Once land is available, a decision has to be made on whether to allocate it to fish farming or to other activities. Participants in PRA meetings indicated that although in some villages in the study area land ownership was matrilineal, in most cases land allocation and decision making are still male-dominated. A similar case was noted by Mikalista (2010) who noted that most men (78%) compared to women (9%) in Kenya owned land. In addition, the size and quality of land holdings were less for women than for men and since few women held titles of any sort, their tenure was generally insecure (Spliethoff, 1994). In such a situation, the land ownership system favours men, while the case for women becomes worse because they do not own any other property. According to Spliethoff (1994), customary law often favours men against women in the distribution of land, inheritance and divorce settlements. Women participants in PRA meetings indicated that there was lack of information on legal issues regarding access to productive resources necessary for technology adoption. It is not surprising therefore to see that most women have failed to adopt fish farming technology due to lack of access to enough land. Gender and Access to Cash Income and Bank Credit on Technology Adoption Wetengere (2008) found out that the adoption, continuation and intensification of fish farming are financially demanding, thus, a certain amount of cash income is required. Lubwama (1999) also confirms this and says that the adaptability of suitable implements for conservation tillage, on-farm research technology, among others, is all affected by the availability of finances. In fish farming, cash income was required to construct ponds and buy inputs (initial fingerlings, feeds, nets, manure, fencing materials, etc.) In such a situation very poor farmers may not be able to adopt, continue or intensify fish farming. Some studies (see for instance Wetengere, 2008; 2010a) show that most women failed to construct the minimum recommended pond size (100m2) due to lack of funds to hire labour. According to Mikalista (2010) women had low income due to limited time to engage in income generating activities and limited skills. Likewise, some women failed to feed (1-3 times/day) and fertilize (produce greenish water colour) their pond as recommended particularly during the farming season when inputs are in short supply due to lack of cash income to purchase such inputs. Participants in one of the PRA meetings were of the opinion that if the contribution of fish farming to household food and income security is lower in comparison to other activities, it is unlikely that a farmer would allocate cash income to fish farming. This claim is also suppoted by Wetengere (2010e). In addition to the cash income generated from various activities, farmers had the opportunity to borrow money from various financial institutions. Participants in one PRA meeting revealed, however, that most farmers did not access bank credit due to the following reasons: First, most banks handling credit funds were located in urban centres, between 20100 kms away from the study area. Lubwama‘s (1999) finding in a study carried out in Uganda also identified distance of financial institutions from the farmers as a hindrance to access credit. Secondly, even if some farmers could access the banks, the interest rates have been too high for these poor farmers. For example, the interest rate for most banks in Tanzania ranged between 19-22%; these rates are prohibitive to most poor farmers. Thirdly, formal banking institutions demanded collateral in the form of land, house or title of some

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immovable assets. According to Lubwama (1999), most smallholder farmers in many countries often cannot fulfil any of these requirements. As alluded to before, the situation is often more difficult to women, who have no rights to ownership of immovable assets like housing and land which are preferred by credit banks. In addition, Spliethoff (1994) mentioned that women often lack access to formal bank credit because most of them are illiterate; they also lack physical and occupational mobility to profitable activities. The problem of credit was also raised in a PRA meeting where it was made clear that lack of credit affected both the availability of production inputs and labour requirements. According to Palmaja et al. (2006), a study by ICRISAT in Zimbabwe has shown that men have been found to prefer improved varieties, while women seek out the open pollinated varieties. The underlying reasons for different preference is that women have less access to the credit and cash required for certified seed and fertilizer as well as social networks to help acquire open pollinated seeds. A study by Makilitsa (2010) in Kenya established that men had access to credit from formal banks, moneylenders and cooperatives while women‘s sources of credit were kin/friends and rotating credit saving. Interestingly, as Makilitsa testifies, the women who had access to credit realized higher maize yields. It is against this background that there is need to devise an effective rural credit delivery system to assist farmers, and women in particular, to improve aquaculture.

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Gender and Access to Other Inputs on Technology Adoption Water In the study area water for fish farming was diverged from rivers running across the villages. Although both men and women had access to water, women had a greater problem accessing it than men. The distance between pond location and where water was diverged, frequent breakdown of water divergence sources particularly during the rainy season and water shortage during the dry season were major problems to women. Again, women‘s heavier workload meant that they had less time to attend to their ponds than men (Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994). This was also testified by participants in a PRA meeting who said that it was easier for men to follow up water at the source when there were problems and they could fill their ponds during the night when there was less demand for water. As a result some women‘s ponds were half-filled leading to easy animal predation and theft. Feeds and Fertilizers Women had access to on-farm by-products like manure, grain bran, plant leaves, brew and kitchen leftovers as they (or their children) were the ones who took care of animals, dehulled grains, brewed local beer and did gardening (Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994; Wetengere, 2000). That means when these inputs were readily available, i.e. during the post harvest period (July - November), women easily accessed the inputs and actually applied them in fish farming. During the farming season (December - June), however, these inputs were in short supply as most farmers did not dehull grain due to shortage of food and there were little kitchen leftovers. During this period, women‘ heavy workload and limited income to purchase these inputs restricted their access to such inputs. This was a period when feeding

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Kitojo Wetengere

and fertilization particularly of women ponds was minimal. As a result fish production was adversely affected.

Conclusion on Gender and Access to Resources Necessary for Adoption of Fish Farming Technology The foregone discussion has demonstrated that although women play a critical role in fish farming production, their access to resources is often constrained by gender related factors. According to Padmaja et al. (2006), policy changes may be needed to increase women‘s access to the key resources; alternatively, it may be desirable to modify research efforts by deliberately targeting technologies that are particularly suited for the resources available to women. They argue that the fundamental issue is that it is important to examine both the nature of technology itself and the physical and institutional context in which the technology is implemented in order to predict whether it will be adopted successfully by women as well as men.

Gender and Management Practices of Fish Farming

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In small-scale fish farming, men and women perform all activities related to fish farming together (Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994; Wetengere et al., 1998). Although pond construction has been introduced as a male activity, women do construct ponds as well. While men do the heavier work, women often do less physically demanding work of pond construction like wetting and moving the soil. While women and children are often responsible for pond management, pond harvesting and marketing the fish are undertaken by the whole family (Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994).

Pond Size In the study area the minimum recommended pond size was 100m2 (Wetengere et al., 1998; Wetengere, 2008, 2010e). This size was considered manageable to construct using the family labour. It was also considered to be manageable using available inputs. Furthermore, technology developers thought that that size would supply enough fish for home consumption as well as for sale. The study revealed however that only 39% of the ponds met that condition. Similar observation was made by Wetengere et al. (1998) who noted that 43% of the ponds were smaller than the minimum recommended size. Gender-wise, about 73% of female-owned ponds were smaller than the minimum recommended size compared to 57% of men who owned ponds. Participants in PRA meetings admitted that most women ponds did not meet the minimum pond size due to the following reasons. First, most women were already overburdened with other domestic chores. According to Wetengere et al. (1998), one person needed 25 days to construct a 100 m2 pond. This was too much time for already overburdened women. A study in Kenya revealed that on average, women spent 8 hours per day on household chores and another 8 hours on farm operations (Mikalista, 2010). Since women were fully occupied with household chores and farm work, they hardly had time to attend their own health and nutrition needs, let alone time for social activities (ibid.). Unlike

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women, as Makalista testifies, men spent less time on household chores and spent only about 6 hours on the farm per day. So, men had more time to rest and socialize with their friends. Secondly, they also lacked cash to hire labour and purchase inputs as the size of the pond was normally determined by these factors. An earlier study by Wetengere et al. (1998) had also found out that ponds constructed by hired labour were bigger than ponds constructed by own labour. Thirdly, most women lacked access to information so, they did not know the minimum recommended pond size, coupled with the fact that most women owned smaller pieces of land than men.

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Pond Colour In this study the best fertilized pond was one with water that was green in colour (Wetengere, 2008, 2010e). The green water signified the abundance of phytoplankton which results into increased zooplanktons and benthos, all of which were natural food for fish. This study also revealed that out of fish farming adopters, about 36% did not apply manure in their ponds. Looking at the quality of fertilization, it was found that 42% of ponds had transparent water, 32% green, 21% brown and 6% dry. In addition, slightly more women (39%) did not apply manure than men (36%) and men‘s ponds (34%) were greener than women‘s ponds (24%). Women‘s ponds were poorly fertilized due to the same reasons given above, that is failure to construct the minimum recommended pond size. According to Wetengere et al. (1998) pond fertilization consumed 15-70 minutes each time fertilization was done, depending on the distance between the pond and homestead and availability of fertilizers. Furthermore, most ponds located within less than 100m from the homestead were greener than those located away from the homestead. Feeding Fish In the study area the best fed pond was defined as the one which was fed at least once per day (Wetengere, 2008, 2010e). Supplementary feeding was required to boost the growth of fish and to increase food supplies as the number and size of fish in the pond increased. It was found out during the study that there were no significant differences between men and women owned ponds as far as feeding the fish was concerned. Participants in PRA meeting claimed that this was because women and children were the ones who accessed locally available feeds and actually fed the fish. However, it was noted that ponds located near homesteads were fed more frequently than the ones which were away. Harvest and Marketing of Fish As far as this study is concerned, the best harvest strategy was the one which included harvesting of a small amount of fish on a regular interval and then followed by total drainage of the pond after 6–12 months. Such harvesting strategy avoided overcrowding and stunting of fish in the pond. Participants in PRA meetings intimated that women in some households were allowed to catch a small amount of fish for home consumption whenever a need arouse, and in other households women had to ask permission. A big harvest of fish particularly meant for sale was men‘s responsibility. While marketing of fish at the pond bank and within the village was done by all men, women and children, marketing of fish in distant markets was mainly done by men. Distant markets earned a considerable amount of income and men had to ensure that it was under their control.

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Kitojo Wetengere

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Gender and Distribution of Benefits Accruing from Fish Farming Women participants in PRA meetings indicated that the major concern facing fish farming just like other crops, is the distribution of income accruing from the activity. Most women complained that although they participated in most activities of fish farming, men controlled the lion‘s share of the income accruing from fish farming even though men‘s participation in the activity may have been minimal. The same thing was happening in Kenya (Mikalista, 2010) where most men controlled farm and off-farm income. Men have been accused of using the money to pay for alcohol and/or on concubines, popularly known as ―nyumba ndogo” (Wetengere, 2010c). Such practices have been reported to have impoverished many households. According to Trottier (1987), such income that is controlled by men does not benefit other household members, and often there has been a resulting negative economic and nutritional impact on the position of the wife and the family. For example, UNDP (1998) reported that men in Shinyanga Region spent a very big share of their income on entertainment such as traditional dancing sessions, involving drinking alcohol and flirting with other women. This was one of the biggest complaints among the women. Women participants in PRA meetings stressed the fact that if women are to invest their resources in fish farming, they have to benefit from the activity. Van der Mheen-Sluijer and van der Mheen (1988) observed that when farmed fish was consumed domestically it formed an important motive for women in the Central African Republic and in Zambia to assist their husbands in the operation. In situations where women do most of the work, but do not benefit from the activity or where cash income from fish sales ends in men‘s pockets, it is unlikely that women will be willing to invest whatever is at their disposal in that activity. If such situation is let to continue, it may make family members unhappy and eventually they might withdraw their labour to the detriment of the activity (Hague, 1992; Spliethoff, 1994; Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994). There are cases where women and children have engaged in fishing from the pond without informing the husband, and in other instances women have hidden fish (Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen, 1994). This was only part of women‘s initiative to get their part from fish farming. This is one of the good examples whereby women contribute more to the development process than men, yet they get from it the least (ALCOM, 1990, 1991). The trend should be reversed.

CONCLUSION The objective of the study from which this chapter has been written was to investigate gender related factors which influence adoption of fish farming technology. The results have shown that the adoption of fish farming technology is not gender neutral. More specifically, the results revealed that the probability of women to adopt fish farming technology was higher than that of men. This was likely because fish farming ensured food security, suited the almost ‗sedentary‘ life led by women as they attend to their daily domestic chores, and because there are very few alternative opportunities among women. Yet, most women lacked access to resources necessary for adoption of fish farming technology. This was mainly due to the kinship system which favoured men, high illiteracy and low formal education among women, and lack of legal information on ownership of resources. In addition, women were

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less reached by extension services than men due to social-cultural and economic barriers such as high level of illiteracy, low formal education, immobility, poverty in terms of low income and heavy workload. Finally, although women participated in all activities of fish farming, men controlled income accruing from fish farming.

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RECOMMENDATIONS These results have spurred some interesting and important recommendations. The first is that the Department of Aquaculture will have to align their extension methodology and activities to the task, needs, objectives and socio-cultural barriers of women to technology adoption, such as immobility, high level of illiteracy, low formal education, poverty in terms of low income and heavy workload. Extension staff should be trained to take such aspects into account and plan session at a time and location appropriate for women. In order to increase access for women to extension services, local female extension workers may need to be recruited and male extension workers should be sensitized on gender issues, they should also be motivated to address women‘s needs. The second recommendation is that during project design barriers which hinder women‘s access to productive resources should be identified and dealt with accordingly. Women should also be supported by being provided with information on legal issues regarding access to resources necessary for technology adoption, decision making process, credit and saving schemes and services. Women may also be advised to pool their resources to start fish farming in groups but must also be able to manage the activity individually. Finally, women should make their voices heard and should exert pressure through advocacy and lobbying to bring about equitable distribution of income. Women may be inclined to reduce their investment in terms of labour time and input allocation in the activity as a way to pressurize equal distribution of income.

REFERENCES Aquatic Resource Management for Local Community Development Programme (ALCOM), (1990). Gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture including proceedings of the workshop on enhanced women‘s participation in fisheries development. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, 4-7 December 1990. GCP/INT/436/SWE/REP/7. ALCOM (1991). Selected seminar conclusions. ALCOM News. No. 4. p 15. Akinola, A. A. (1987). An application of probit analysis to adoption of tractor hiring services schemes in Nigeria. Oxford Agrarian Studies 16: 70-82. Baidu-Forson, J. (1999). Factors influencing adoption of land-enhancing technology in Sahel: Lessons from a case study in Niger. Agricultural Economics 20 (3): 231-239. Balarin, J. D. (1985). National review for aquaculture development in Africa: 11. Tanzania, FAO Fish. Circ., (770.11): 105 pp. Brummett, R. E. and Noble, R. (1995). Aquaculture for African small holding. Technical Report 46. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines. 60 pp.

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Brummett, R. E. (2000). Factors influencing fish prices in Southern Malawi. Aquaculture 186: 243-251. Burton, M., Rigby, D. and Young, T. (1999). Analysis of the determination of adoption of organic horticulture techniques in the UK. Journal of Agricultural Economics 50(1): 4763. Dholakia, R. R., Dholakia, N. and Kshetri, N. (2003). Gender and internet usage. http://ritim.cba.uri.edu/wp2003/pdf_format/Wiley-Encycl-Internet-Usage-Gender-Final. pdf. Doss, C. R. and Morris, M. L. (2001). How does gender affect the adoption of agricultural innovations? The case of improved maize technology in Ghana. Agricultural Economics 25(1):27–39. Engle, C. R. (1995). Criteria for the preparation and the evaluation of subsistence Aquaculture projects – RLAC/85/44-PES-08. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean. FAO, Santiago. 73 pp. Government of Kenya (GoK) (1999). Population and housing census. Analytical report on labour force. Volume IX. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Nairobi. Hafkin, N. and Huyer, S. (2002). Women in Global Science and Technology. Lessons on Gender in ICT Applications: Case Studies of infoDev Projects. Working Paper No. 18, 2002. 50 pp. Hague, M. (1992). The economics and feasibility of Aquaculture in Northern Tanzania. B. A. Dissertation, University of Stirling, Scotland. 40 pp. IDE (International Development Enterprises) (2002). Scaling-up plan of appropriate microirrigation technology with complementary small farm intensification and microenterprise development. New Delhi. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2005). Women still the key to food and nutrition security. Washington DC, USA: International Food Policy Research Institute. Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer and Sen. S. (1994). Meeting information needs on gender issues in Aquaculture. ALCOM Field Document No. 33. Harare, Zimbabwe. Kabeer N. (1995). Targeting women or transforming institutions? Development in Practice 5(2). Kaliba, A. R. M., Featherstone, and Norman, D.W. (1997). A stall feeding management for improved cattle in semi and cultural Tanzania: Factors influencing adoption. Agricultural Economics 17 (2-3): 133-146. Kirway, J. N. and Lulu, E. G. (2008). Access to and control of resources among the Maasai women of Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Development Studies. Vol. 8, No. 2, 2008: 4762. Lumbwana, F. B. (1999). Socio-economic and gender issues affecting the adoption of conservation tillage practices. In Kaumbutho P. G. and Simalenga T. E (Eds). Conservation tillage with animal traction. A resource book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA). Harare. Zimbabwe. 173p. Mikalista, S. M. (2010). Gender-specific constraints affecting technology use and household food security in Western Province Kenya. African Journal of food agriculture nutrition and development. Vol. 10, No. 4 April 2010. Msuya, F. (1992). Fish Pond Management and Fish Yield in Mbeya Region, Tanzania. M.Sc. Dissertation, University of Kuopio, 54 pp.

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Mugenda, O. and Mugenda, A. (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. African Center for Technology Studies (ACTS) Press, Nairobi. 233 pp. Padmaja, R., Bantilan, M. C. S., Parthasarathy D. and Gandhi B. V. J. 2006. Gender and social capital mediated technology adoption. Impact Series No. 12. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 48 pp. Polson, R. A. and Spenser, S. C. (1991). The technology adoption process in subsistence agriculture: The case of cassava in Southwestern Nigeria. Agricultural Systems 36 (1) 6578. Rodgers, E. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. Free Press Glencoe: New York. Seki, E. and Sen. S. (1994). Meeting information needs on gender issues in inland and small water body fisheries. ALCOM Field Document No. 32. Harare, Zimbabwe. Scarborough, V. (Ed) (1996). Farmer led approached to extension. Agriculture research and extension network, Development Institute, London, No 59. Spliethoff, P. C. (1994). Fisheries and aquaculture. Operational guidelines for the incorporation of gender in project/programme preparation and design. European Commission Publishing, Brussels. 43 pp. Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics (TNBS) (2002). Household Budget Survey (HBS) 2000/01, Dar es Salaam. 24 pp. Temu, A. (1999). Empirical evidence of changes in the coffee markets after liberalization: A Case of Northern Tanzania. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urban - Champaign. 210 pp. Trottier, B. (1987). Women in aquaculture production in West Africa. In Nash. C. E., Engle, C. R. and Crosetti, D. (Eds.). Women in Aquaculture. FAO ADCP/REP/87/28, pp. 17-28. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (1998). Shinyanga Human Development Report, Shinyanga Region. United Nations Children‘s Funds (UNICEF) (2004). Girls, HIV/AIDS and Education, New York, pp. 56-60. Upadhyay, B., Samad, M., Giordano, M. 2005. Livelihoods and gender roles in dripirrigation technology: A case of Nepal. Working Paper 87. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. 18 pp. van der Mheen-Sluijer and van der Mheen (1988). Field Testing of Aquaculture in Eastern Province, Zambia. FI: GCP/INT/436/SWE.6. FAO, Harare. 63 pp. Wetengere, K., Osewe K., and van Herwaarden, H. (1998). Development of semi-intensive fish farming in Morogoro Region, Tanzania. ALCOM Working Paper No. 22. FAO, Harare. 54 pp. Wetengere, K. (2000). Evaluation of fish farming in Kilosa district, Morogoro region, Tanzania. Unpublished Report. Irish Aid, Kilosa, Morogoro. pp 35. Wetengere, K. (2008). Economic factors critical to adoption of fish farming technology. A Case of Selected Villages in Morogoro and Dar es Salaam Regions. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Open University of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam. 242 pp. Wetengere, K. (2008a). An effective aquaculture extension system from farmer‘s perspective: The case of selected villages in Morogoro and Dar es Salaam Regions, Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2008:23-35.

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Wetengere, K. (2009). Socio-economic factors critical for adoption of fish farming technology: The case of selected villages in Eastern Tanzania. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture. Vol. 1 (3), pp. 028-039. Wetengere, K. (2010a). Determinants of adoption of a recommended package of fish farming technology: The case of selected villages in Eastern Tanzania. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 2(1): 55-62, 2010. Wetengere, K. (2010b). Realizing farmer‘s objectives – vital to adoption process of fish farming technology. The case of selected villages in Eastern Tanzania. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 2(2): 115-124, 2010. Wetengere, K. (2010c). Constraints to marketing of farmed fish in rural area. The case of selected villages in Morogoro region, Tanzania (under review). Wetengere, K. (2010d). The influence of technology characteristics on the adoption of fish farming technology. The case of selected villages in Morogoro region, Tanzania. Asian J. Agr. Sci., 2(2): 69-77, 2010. Wetengere, K. (2010e). Socio-economic factors critical for intensification of fish farming technology. A case of selected villages in Morogoro and Dar es Salaam regions, Tanzania. Aquacult Int. DOI 10.1007/s10499-010-9339-2. Wetengere, K. (2010f). Socio-economic factors critical for continuation of fish farming technology. A case of selected villages in Morogoro and Dar es Salaam regions, Tanzania. Wijkstrom, U. (1991). How fish culture can stimulate economic growth: Conclusions from fish farmers survey in Zambia. ALCOM, GCP/INT/ 436/SWE/ REP/9. FAO, Harare. 47 pp.

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Chapter 4

WELL-BEING AND DISADVANTAGE: WHAT DO PEOPLE THINK? Gillian Brock* and Philip McKibbin University of Auckland, New Zealand

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INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND In this paper we discuss the results of a research project on the nature of disadvantage, equality and well-being.1 The first phase focused on how cross-culturally robust Jonathan Wolff and Avner de-Shalit‘s work on disadvantage is (Wolf and de-Shalit, 2007). We began with the question: What is it to be disadvantaged in a particular domain of life and more generally? Following Wolff and de-Shalit (2007), we notice core commonalities to various disadvantages people face and, using the capability theory originally introduced by Amartya Sen (1973, 1984, 1992) and developed by Martha Nussbaum (1993, 2000, 2006), we might describe this commonality as a lack of genuine opportunities for secure functioning (Wolff and de-Shalit, 2007). Vulnerability to risk and insecurity pervades this account of disadvantage, as does the idea that disadvantage has plural dimensions. Two questions are a focus of analysis for Wolff and de-Shalit: Can we compare different kinds of disadvantages, or are they incommensurable? and, What guidance can be offered to governments about identifying the least advantaged and trying to improve their circumstances? We notice that disadvantages can cluster, such that some people experience insecurity in functioning across several domains, making them worse off than those who experience insecurity in functioning in only one domain. At least one of our aims should be to decluster such disadvantages, especially in the case of ―corrosive disadvantages‖: those disadvantages the presence of which often sets the course for a higher likelihood of further disadvantages. We should also aim to identify ―fertile functionings‖, those functionings the presence of which can provide worthwhile protection against the likelihood of disadvantage.

* 1

Email: [email protected]. We very much appreciate the helpful comments and assistance on this project received from James Coe, Avner deShalit, Jonathan Wolff, and Rachael Thurston.

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Wolff and de-Shalit engaged in an extensive study of disadvantage and how it can successfully be declustered (2007). So far their work has

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1) identified some key domains of significance in identifying dimensions of disadvantage, building on the capabilities account; 2) proposed four additional dimensions of disadvantage which also deserve attention; 3) identified some corrosive disadvantages; 4) identified some fertile functionings; 5) made some public policy suggestions as to how to begin to address disadvantage, especially in a non-stigmatizing way. The primary aim of Phase I of this research was to assess the cross-cultural robustness of Wolff and de-Shalit‘s results. Are experiences of well-being and disadvantage in New Zealand more or less similar to those of people in the United Kingdom and Israel? We repeated the same interviews with similar subjects. Those we selected were what might be thought of as ―experts on disadvantage‖: those involved in providing services and support to the disadvantaged, such as in providing services to the disabled, homeless, refugees, addicts in rehabilitation, at risk teenagers, victims of domestic violence, and so forth.2 Most of the interviewees were social workers or counselors.3 Though there were important convergences, we did find some interesting differences between the two studies, for instance in the ways people prioritised various elements of well-being and disadvantage, and also in aspects of well-being that they thought had been omitted. The full interview schedule and summary of results is discussed in Sections 2 and 3. In Phase II we explored an alternative set of categories that are available to capture elements of well-being (Brock, 2009). The idea was to examine whether there was more support for these categories capturing important aspects of well-being than the dimensions explored in Phase I. While the capabilities approach has much to offer, we noticed that the language of capabilities does not always resonate well with the way many people comfortably talk about the nature of well-being or disadvantage. Furthermore, there are other aspects of well-being not easily captured through capabilities discourse. We also asked about how to prioritise elements of the taxonomy (Question 2) and the role of equality in promoting wellbeing (Question 3). In addition, we followed up on several interesting findings from Phase I concerning a possibly surprising result about the value of life (Question 4), suggestions that were made about fertile functionings (Question 5), ideas that people suggested about promoting fertile functionings and overcoming disadvantage more effectively (Questions 5b and 6), and the possible importance of omissions frequently noted to the capabilities approach (Question 7). The full interview schedule and summary of results is the subject of Sections 4 and 5 respectively. Section 6 concludes with some further reflections on some of the results. 2

3

This is similar to the selection made by Wolff and de-Shalit, though they also interviewed some disadvantaged people who were the target of the types of services outlined above. Reviewing their analysis, it is not clear what additional information was gained from this more inclusive set. At any rate, given that these interviewees would be considered ―vulnerable populations‖ according to the University of Auckland, Human Participants Ethics Committee and therefore require additional and more stringent ethics approval we did not interview anyone from this category. In Phase I we interviewed 31 participants. In Phase II we interviewed 30 participants. As is required at the University of Auckland for research involving human participants, ethics approval for the project was requested and granted.

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PHASE I The Interview Schedule After some preliminaries, such as presenting the interviewees with consent forms and giving them the opportunity to ask further questions about the nature of the research,4 we began with a series of questions.

Question 1 We asked interviewees to produce a statement about the dimensions of well-being (or aspects of functioning), which contribute to individual advantage and disadvantage. The first task was to name what they thought the basic categories for essential functioning are. They were then asked to give their reasons for why they mentioned this or that category. If the interviewee experienced difficulty, s/he was prompted with questions of the following kinds:    

What do you think is vital for a person‘s being able to flourish or enjoy a good life? What key factors make a life go well or badly? What aspects of an individual‘s life contribute to having advantage in life? What aspects of an individual‘s life contribute to experiencing disadvantage in life?

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In this part of the interview we gave interviewees an opportunity to compose their own statement about well-being with no particular categories or keywords being offered.

Question 2 The interviewees were then shown a card with a list of fourteen categories defining aspects of well-being (or capabilities), which included Martha Nussbaum‘s list of 10 plus the 4 additional categories added by Jonathan Wolff and Avner de-Shalit. (The complete list appears below.) They were then asked to comment on the list. Here Is the Card: Below is a list of 14 categories in one‘s life which might seem vital for any person‘s flourishing. They can be described as things which one would like to do or be. Please go through them and comment on them. In particular we would like to know: (a) what you think about the importance of failing to achieve any of them and (b) whether there are important omissions that should be added to this list. 1. Life. Being able to live to the end of a human life of normal length. 2. Bodily health. Being able to have good health, including reproductive health; to be adequately nourished, to have adequate shelter. 3. Bodily integrity: Being able to move freely from place to place; being able to be secure against assault, including sexual assault, child sexual abuse, and domestic violence; having opportunities for sexual satisfaction and for choice in matters of reproduction. 4

This is required by the ethical approval process.

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4. Sense, imagination, and thought: Being able to imagine, think, and reason – and to do these things in a way informed and cultivated by an adequate education. Freedom of expression, speech, and religion. 5. Emotions: Being able to have attachments to things and people outside ourselves; to love those who love and care for us. 6. Practical Reason: Being able to engage in critical reflection about the planning of one‘s life. 7. Affiliation: Being able to live with and toward others, to recognize and show concern for other human beings, to engage in various forms of social interaction. Having the social bases of self-respect and non-humiliation. Not being discriminated against on the basis of gender, religion, race, ethnicity, and the like. 8. Other species: Being able to live with concern for and in relation to animals, plants, and the world of nature. 9. Play: Being able to laugh, to play, and to enjoy recreational activities. 10. Control over one‘s environment: Being able to participate effectively in political choices that govern one‘s life. Being able to have real opportunity to hold property. Having the right to seek employment on an equal basis with others. 11. Doing good to others: Being able to care for others as part of expressing your humanity. Being able to show gratitude. 12. Living in a law-abiding fashion: The possibility of being able to live within the law; not to be forced to break the law, cheat, or to deceive other people or institutions. 13. Understanding the law: Having a general comprehension of the law, its demands, and the opportunities it offers to individuals. Not standing perplexed facing the legal system. 14. Verbal independence: Having the ability to understand and speak the local language. As noted above, there were two parts to this question: the interviewees were asked to comment on the list and also to reflect on whether there were any important omissions.

Question 3 Participants were then asked about constraints (such as budget, time and energy constraints), and whether they had views about how to prioritise the 14 elements in the face of such constraints. Question 4 (4a) Participants were then asked to name the 3 most important categories from the list identified in Question 2. (4b) Participants were also asked whether there are areas in which the government should spend more than it currently does, whether there are areas in which the government should spend less, and their reasons for their views. Question 5 Interviewees were then asked: (5a) What do you think are the 3 most important indicators or measures of disadvantage in the particular sphere of disadvantage with which you are most familiar? (Following the strategy as outlined in Disadvantage, suggestions were offered if the interviewee had difficulty answering the question.) Interviewees were also asked: (5b) What

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are some of the most effective strategies, in your experience, for addressing disadvantages you commonly encounter?

Question 6 Interviewees were then asked: If you were aiming at promoting equality of opportunity, how might this be better achieved in the sphere (or spheres) of disadvantage with which you are most familiar? Question 7 A final open-ended question was raised: Do you have any other reflections about disadvantage and how to remedy it that you would like to offer?

Summary of Phase I:Results and Comparison with the Original Study

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As one might expect, there were numerous points of convergence between the original study and the one conducted in New Zealand, although there were some notable differences. In this section, we focus on some of the main points of difference rather than the numerous places where we found similar results, though some of these are also included.

Question 1: The Open-ended Question Like Wolff and de-Shalit, we noticed that the views offered by some interviewees were understandably idiosyncratic, and obviously drawn from recent personal experience. Wolff and de-Shalit note that ‗there was a broad consensus on a range of predictable items: health; shelter (often elaborated into the idea of a home); having paid employment; being educated… and a sense of belonging…‘ (Disadvantage, pp. 49-50). We noticed a similar consensus, with all of these items often mentioned as being very important. As well as these, having a positive self-image, spirituality, and access to culture were mentioned frequently. Question 2: The Categories Results for the fourteen categories follow. 1. Life. Being able to live to the end of a human life of normal length Important: 13

Unimportant: 5

Neutral/No Comment: 13

2. Bodily health. Being able to have good health, including reproductive health; to be adequately nourished, to have adequate shelter Important: 31

Unimportant: 0

Neutral/No Comment: 0

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3. Bodily integrity: Being able to move freely from place to place; being able to be secure against assault, including sexual assault, child sexual abuse, and domestic violence; having opportunities for sexual satisfaction and for choice in matters of reproduction Important: 29

Unimportant: 0

Neutral / No Comment: 2

4. Sense, imagination, and thought: Being able to imagine, think, and reason – and to do these things in a way informed and cultivated by an adequate education. Freedom of expression, speech, and religion Important: 28

Unimportant: 0

Neutral / No Comment: 3

5. Emotions: Being able to have attachments to things and people outside ourselves; to love those who love and care for us Important: 28

Unimportant: 0

Neutral / No Comment: 3

6. Practical Reason: Being able to engage in critical reflection about the planning of one’s life Important: 26

Unimportant: 0

Neutral / No Comment: 5

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7. Affiliation: Being able to live with and toward others, to recognize and show concern for other human beings, to engage in various forms of social interaction. Having the social bases of self-respect and non-humiliation. Not being discriminated against on the basis of gender, religion, race, ethnicity, and the like Important: 28

Unimportant: 0

Neutral / No Comment: 3

8. Other species: Being able to live with concern for and in relation to animals, plants, and the world of nature Important: 21

Unimportant: 3

Neutral / No Comment: 7

9. Play: Being able to laugh, to play, and to enjoy recreational activities Important: 29

Unimportant: 1

Neutral / No Comment: 1

10. Control over one’s environment: Being able to participate effectively in political choices that govern one’s life. Being able to have real opportunity to hold property. Having the right to seek employment on an equal basis with others Important: 30

Unimportant: 0

Neutral / No Comment: 1

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11. Doing good to others: Being able to care for others as part of expressing your humanity. Being able to show gratitude Important: 30

Unimportant: 1

Neutral / No Comment: 0

12. Living in a law-abiding fashion: The possibility of being able to live within the law; not to be forced to break the law, cheat, or to deceive other people or institutions Important: 20

Unimportant: 2

Neutral / No Comment: 9

13. Understanding the law: Having a general comprehension of the law, its demands, and the opportunities it offers to individuals. Not standing perplexed facing the legal system Important: 26

Unimportant: 1

Neutral / No Comment: 4

14. Verbal independence: Having the ability to understand and speak the local language

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Important: 30

Unimportant: 0

Neutral / No Comment: 1

There were several claims made about New Zealanders‘ experiences of well-being and disadvantage that were interesting; they were, however, made in small numbers. Two people remarked specifically that New Zealanders place high importance on the environment, and so thought category 8 was quite important. Two of the interviewees thought that New Zealanders value nature more highly than their countries of origin (Britain and Japan), and made explicit reference to a cultural difference here. Some also remarked on the importance of balance and taking time out to play and enjoy life more generally. It appears that there was more support for category 9 than in the original study. (Note that 29 of the 31 interviewees thought play was important (category 9).). Several Maori interviewees indicated that the Maori perspective was very different and that the Maori and Pakeha (New Zealander of European descent) perspectives could not easily be combined or even translated into a commensurable schema. When questioned further, they often referred to the importance of spirituality, non-material values and goods, and the importance of creativity and art. But we felt that these items (barring, perhaps, everything everyone meant by spirituality) were already represented in the categories. Another comment that was offered was that in Maori culture, ―one‘s well-being is bound up with the well-being of the group‖. This may well be similar for other cultures as well.

Question 2: The Omissions Spirituality Six people mentioned that spirituality was missing from the list of categories. Though some thought it had been captured by the other categories, others felt it had not been fully captured. While it was acknowledged that spirituality can take many forms, it was also suggested that it can help people to cope with difficulties, and offer faith and hope in

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something inspiring. (We note that a particular model of mental health training, ‗te whare tapa whā‘, is part of mental health worker training in New Zealand, which includes spirituality as a core component of health. Only three of the six interviewees who mentioned the importance of spirituality were workers in mental health – although it is possible that they, too, have been exposed to the ‗te whare tapa whā‘ model.)

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Having the Ability to Meet Resistance A couple of interviewees mentioned this explicitly and others referred to resilience in other ways, as a core component of well-being and avoiding disadvantage. Some specifically suggested that it could be added to the list of categories. The idea is that some adversity is important, as it provides us with the opportunity to develop certain abilities. One‘s state of mind in the face of adversity was a key factor in how disadvantage was experienced. We felt that experiencing adversity is already part of the developmental process for achieving emotional maturity so does not need a separate category. The other omissions offered were noted by only one person in each case. One of the more noteworthy omissions was the idea of ―competence‖, or having your skills and abilities recognized as important – and, more generally, being recognized as being good at something is important. Perhaps this connects with the need to feel valuable and valued. Rather than being a potential addition to the list, this could be a form of fertile functioning (discussed more below). Another notable reported omission was the idea of having access to a mentor, somebody who could offer guidance, inspiration, challenges, and a sense of other opportunities available. This seemed to be important when people were surrounded by negative role models. Question 3: Constraints and Prioritisation The most obvious common factor here was the importance of health; in fact, it was mentioned almost unanimously as an area that needed to be prioritised. Health was singled out as important both for its intrinsic and instrumental value (namely, when poor health could serve as a barrier to achieving other capabilities). Examples of this included the notion that poor health might lead to isolation, depression, or an inability to take advantage of other services, such as education. At least three people mentioned (or implied) that decent shelter should be prioritised before health, as good health is impossible if one is living in inadequate (e. g. cold or damp) conditions. More generally, good health was often placed, together with access to food, shelter, warmth and security, in a category of basic needs. A number of people, especially professional social workers, brought up Maslow's hierarchy of needs, where these 'basics' provide a foundation for higher levels of need, such as affiliation and self-reflection. These basic categories leave people better equipped to meet the 'higher' ones, possibly to the extent where the latter will fall into place or take care of themselves if basic needs are met. Beyond basic needs, there were no clear trends in the answers regarding constraints and prioritisation, though there were some other interesting suggestions from interviewees. Some mentioned, either directly or obliquely, the importance of self-respect. Like basic needs, it was suggested that self-respect (or self-esteem) was necessary for, or could at least help to bring about, some of the 'higher level' categories of functioning, empowering people to make changes themselves.

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Question 4: Most Important Categories The top categories picked out by the New Zealand participants, in order of importance, were: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Bodily health Affiliation Emotions Sense, imagination, and thought Bodily integrity Control over one‘s environment

The original study found that the following six were selected as most important, although it does not seem to rank them:

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1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Life Bodily health Bodily integrity Affiliation Control over one‘s environment Sense, imagination, and thought

One notable difference seems to be the lack of interest in picking out ―life‖ as an important category. This comes through very clearly in the individual responses and comments, with this category receiving the lowest levels of support in terms of its importance. Another is that ―emotions‖ scores rather highly in our study – indeed, takes third place – whereas it does not seem to feature at all in the top 6 categories in the original study.5 What implications might there be for Wolff and de-Shalit from this result? Perhaps some of their claims might need to be further qualified, such as this one: ― …the great majority of people will acknowledge the importance of these six categories, and no other functioning receives such widespread acknowledgement‖ (2007, p.119). More importantly, perhaps, ―life‖ 5

Raw data totals for the three most important categories: Life – 1 Bodily health – 24 Bodily integrity – 10 Sense, imagination, and thought – 11 Emotions – 12 Practical Reason – 2 #7, Affiliation – 15 Other species – 2 Play – 1 Control over one‘s environment – 10 Doing good to others – 2 Living in a law-abiding fashion – 1 Understanding the law – 0 Verbal independence – 3 Note: Two picked four most important categories, instead of only three. One only picked two categories, not three. The top 3, in order, are: Bodily health (Category 2) Affiliation (Category 7) Emotions (Category 5)

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should not be used as one of the key categories in identifying the worst off or aiming to decluster disadvantage, at least not without extensive further investigation. Another way to capture importance of the categories is by recording the frequency of agreement that a category is important. That would yield the following rank ordering. Frequency of agreement that the category is important 31 30 29 28 26 21 20 13

Categories 2 10, 11, 14 3, 9 4, 5, 7 13, 6 8 12 1

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We found it striking that the category ―life‖ was so far behind the rest and judged important by less than half the interviewees. They stressed repeatedly that the quality of life was of far greater importance than the length of life. This seems to be a clear difference with the original study.

Question 5(a): Indicators of Disadvantage There seems to be a high level of agreement in picking out some objective and some subjective categories when identifying the most disadvantaged. Here we found strong similarity between our results and the findings in Disadvantage. Wolff and de-Shalit state, in Chapter 6: Measuring Functionings, that the York Model for measuring disadvantage ‗suggests that using two objective and one subjective measures and looking for overlap between at least two measures is a very promising way of assessing disadvantage‘ (Disadvantage, p. 112). Our results support this conclusion. Question 5(b): Most Successful Strategies A common theme highlighted in the transcripts was that in addressing disadvantage, service providers should themselves model the kind of desirable relations that should be promoted in society, by ensuring that they treat clients with respect and in an empowering way. This in turn can be conducive to fostering self-esteem, confidence, and empowerment. In summary, the most useful strategies for overcoming disadvantage were reported as: providing cheaper power, warmer and insulated homes; improving communication among and within service organizations; providing interpreters; supporting self-esteem and positive self-perception (especially for women); educating against discrimination; fostering family and social connectedness; teaching social skills and values; and enforcing a tax or ban on certain foods and harmful substances. This question, 5(b), did not correspond to an exact question asked in the original study, so there is no direct comparison to be made. Our sixth and seventh questions were not included in the original study, so no comparison needs to be made directly either. However, we comment next on issues relating to the declustering of disadvantage, which was a key theme in the book.

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Desclustering Disadvantage: Fertile Functionings and Corrosive Disadvantages Wolff and de-Shalit note that, in declustering disadvantage, governments should aim to discover if there are corrosive disadvantages and fertile functionings. This would be especially worthwhile, as expenditures in these areas might be particularly fruitful in promoting well-being. They also note that identifying corrosive disadvantages and fertile functionings is, possibly, context-specific - and that results should be sought within particular societies before policy-formulation begins. The results of our interviews suggested that the following frequently mentioned points might be worthwhile candidates for further study as fertile functionings:      

a positive self-image, self-esteem, or self-respect a positive attitude, especially about the future, and having hope feeling valued resilience: having the capacity to bounce back from setbacks having someone who can provide advice, help, a role modeling or mentoring function some of the additional points that came up are also discussed by Wolff and de-Shalit - such as affiliation and education. (Given the extended treatment of these already in Disadvantage, these were not treated further in Phase II.)

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The following candidates might be worthwhile suggestions for further study as possible corrosive disadvantages:       

a lack of positive attachments (―being surrounded by non-flourishers‖) violence or abuse in past or current experiences a sense of hopelessness not feeling valued not feeling that one can ―take control‖ a lack of verbal independence (can lead to exclusion, losses in confidence and selfesteem, and an inability to meet other categories, such as 4,7, 9 and 10) not having basic needs met (such as, not feeling safe in your environment or lacking a secure home)

PHASE II We move now to discuss Phase II of our research project. In Section 4 the interview schedule is outlined. Section 5 summarises some key results.

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Interview Schedule for Phase II Question 1: What Is It to Have a Decent Life? A recent model of what it is to have a decent life proposes 4 major categories that deserve attention. An outline of the model follows. For each major category, we would like to know (a) what you think about the importance of the items listed, especially your view of the importance of failing to achieve any of these items. We would also like to know (b) whether you think there are important omissions that should be added to this account of what it is to live a decent life.

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I. Enabling People to Meet Basic Needs There are 5 important categories of basic needs that are especially worthy of attention: 1) Health (both (i) physical and (ii) psychological)6 a. To be enabled to enjoy physical health7  For instance:  To be adequately nourished.8  To have adequate protection from the elements, such as adequate shelter would provide.  To enjoy reproductive health. (ii) To be enabled to enjoy psychological health9  For instance:  To enjoy a healthy emotional life. This involves special care in early childhood and the nurturance of key capacities such as for empathy, also being able to express and manage emotions (such as anger).  To have self-esteem, self-respect, and confidence.  To be resilient to important external stressors (being able to learn to deal with setbacks and resistance). 2) Security10  Being able to feel safe and secure (for good reason), in at least some places, particularly one‘s home and neighbourhood.  (See also further categories below, especially II.) 3) Understanding11

6

The alternative taxonomy discussed here takes into account all the fourteen categories of capabilities previously tested. It also incorporates feedback from Phase I and integrates that with the account of a decent life recently outlined in Global Justice. In the footnotes we indicate which capabilities are covered by each of the main categories (for the benefit of the researchers – this was deleted for the interview schedule). So for category 1, this takes into account: 1 (or anyhow physical life rather than length of it), 2, 5, 9, amongst others. 7 Physical health and psychological health are more intimately connected than this distinction suggests. Giving some clear examples of each seems important, hence the separation into (i) physical and (ii) psychological. But this should not give the impression that the two categories are entirely unconnected as, clearly, they are not. 8 For all items listed under I, these should be understood as ―enabled to be…‖. So, for instance, enabled to be adequately nourished. 9 This correlates with aspects of capabilities 5, 7, 9, and others. 10 Correlates primarily with capability 3. 11 Correlates with capabilities: 4, 13.

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

Being able to think, reflect, reason, and imagine, in ways informed by adequate education.  Being able to engage in reflection and planning about one‘s life. 4) Autonomy12  Being able to participate in choices that govern one‘s life; having some control over one‘s life. Being able to make plans for one‘s life. Being able to implement some actions in response to reflection and deliberation.  A more specific example of this might in some contexts include:  Verbal independence: having the ability to understand and speak the local language. 5) Decent Social Relations13  Being able to have attachments to people; to love and care for those who love and care for us.  Being able to live in a way that shows respect and concern for other human beings.  Being able to contribute to others‘ well-being.  Feeling supported in at least some environments; having support systems. Having people around who you can trust and rely on; not feeling alone, isolated, and unsupported.

II. Having Protection for Basic Liberties Some of the important freedoms that need protection include:14

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a.

Freedom from assault: being able to be reasonably secure against physical assault (including domestic violence and sexual abuse) b. Freedom of conscience, religion, and dissent c. Freedom of expression and speech d. Freedom of movement: having some ability to move freely from place to place, within one‘s community e. Freedom to participate in political life

III. Enjoying Fair Terms of Cooperation in Collective Endeavours15 For instance, the agreements, policies, or institutions in societies should endeavour to avoid exploitation and, more generally, seek to take the interests of all affected, especially the most vulnerable parties, into account, so that these are fair to everyone affected (as much as this is possible). Some examples might be:   

Laws which prescribe a minimum wage. Laws against abusive forms of child labour. Having fair opportunities to seek employment.

12

Captures the essence of several capabilities including: 6, 10, 14. Captures much of what is covered by capabilities 7, 11. 14 Interviewees were briefed about the nature and limits on the freedoms listed. 15 This correlates with capability12, some of what is covered under capabilities 7 and 10, inter alia. 13

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IV. Social and Political Arrangements That Support I. - III. Described above16 Practices, policies, laws, institutions (and so on) should not undermine the possibility of meeting our needs, protecting basic freedoms, or fair terms of cooperation. Examples:   

Not being socially stigmatized. Not being discriminated against on the basis of gender, religion, race, ethnicity or other areas of vulnerability. Being able to enjoy balance in one‘s life: that there is space for work, leisure, and other important domains of life.

Question 2: Decent Life – Priorities Which of the four categories listed above do you think matters most to a decent life? Are they all equally important or are some categories more important to a decent life than others? (You might want to reflect on your own life in thinking about which categories matter most or you might want to reflect on the experiences of your clients in answering this question.) Question 3: Equality Do you think the notion of equality matters to what a decent life consists in? If so, how does equality matter?

Questions Following up from Phase I

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Question 4: The Value of Life a.

4a. Is being able to live to the end of a human life of normal length important to wellbeing, in your view? b. 4b. In the first phase of this research project we found that less than half the people interviewed believed that being able to live to the end of a human life of normal length was important. We have some explanations for this result, but are interested to hear your views about this finding. Why do you think people may have thought it unimportant?

Question 5: “Fertile Functionings” Our previous research indicated that certain capacities were particularly helpful in overcoming disadvantage. These included: i. ii. iii. iv.

16

having a positive self-image, self-esteem, or self-respect having a positive attitude, especially about the future, and having hope feeling valued having resilience – having some developed capacity to bounce back from setbacks

This correlates with some of what is covered by capabilities 7, 10, 12, 13 and so forth.

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v. having someone who can provide advice, help, a role modeling or mentoring function, especially when surrounded by people who are not playing such a role a. 5a. Do you think (i)-(v) are important in overcoming disadvantage? (Ask interviewees to comment on each individual candidate fertile functioning. Present each one separately and ask for comment.) b. 5b. For each of the items identified as important in overcoming disadvantage, what do you think could be done to promote it? For instance, what could be done to promote self-esteem among your clients? What specific actions might you take if you wanted to promote self-esteem with a particular client or for your clients more generally? (Again, go through each item and ask for comment.)

Question 6: Open-ended If you were ―in charge‖ what changes do you think could be made to help your clients overcome disadvantage more effectively? Question 7: (At the End so as not to Steer other Responses) Link to Phase I Omissions Question In previous research of this kind some people felt that spirituality had been neglected as an important category that contributes to well-being. Do you think it is an important component of leading a decent life? If you do think it is important, do you think it can be captured by some of the other elements on the list (such as, perhaps it is part of psychological health, decent social relations, etc. Suggest items depending on what they come up with.)

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CENTRAL CONCLUSIONS FROM PHASE II The answers to Question 1 (a) show excellent confirmation that the central categories of what makes for a decent life do resonate with people‘s experiences. Indeed, this rather understates the findings: there is unanimous support that all items mentioned are important for a decent life. It is notable that there is a much higher level of support for the importance of all items indicated than in Phase I. In Phase I there was some variance as to whether respondents thought items important or not (the lowest item scored a 42% agreement rating as to the importance of the value of life, and while health did get a 100% agreement rating, for thirteen of the fourteen categories, some respondents disagreed that the item was important for well-being.) About a third of respondents said there were no omissions. Most of the omissions picked out in discussion of Question 1 (b) are not actually notable omissions, but rather further examples of categories already mentioned. (Just because a particular preferred example is not explicitly offered in the interview schedule does not mean it is not included in the general category.) Almost all candidates offered were of this type. Perhaps the most commonly noted candidate omission involves how culture fits into the model. Culture permeates many of the elements identified, so there is no need for a separate category. Consider some of the components of psychological health, for instance. To have a healthy emotional life, which includes developing the capacities for empathy or managing anger, one must learn, within a

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particular cultural setting, the sorts of situations that warrant empathy or anger-management. But this requires rich familiarity with particular cultures – we never learn such capacities independently of cultural settings. Consider also that in order to have decent social relations with others one must learn to live in a way that shows respect and concern for other human beings. Again, we need to learn what would show respect and concern and this learning takes place in cultural settings, rather than in abstraction from cultures. Consider also the basic need, understanding. Enabling us to meet our need for understanding will involve culture in several ways. Recall that the need for understanding involves being able to think, reflect, reason, and imagine, in ways informed by adequate education, and also being able to engage in reflection and planning about one‘s life. All of this involves understanding of several kinds, including understanding the meaning and value of various options in their cultural and social contexts. Question 2, concerning how to prioritise the categories, confirms what was hypothesized, which was that either people would say they cannot be prioritized, as they are all important, or if pressed, they would pick out category I as especially salient. About half went for the former strategy with almost all the rest selecting category I as most important. Question 3, concerning whether and how equality matters, also yields unsurprising results. At least 80% of our sample said that equality does matter to a decent life. Many people think equality matters, when it does, because of relational factors – how people stand in relation to each other. It is also notable that people often mistake a concern for equality with concern for sufficiency. Familiar quandaries about whether to promote equality of opportunity or outcome were expressed. Question 4, concerning the value of life, offers interesting results. It is notable that almost exactly the same percentage of people indicated agreement about the importance of living to the end of a long life, as in the first stage of the research project (42%). People overwhelmingly said that length of life can be seen as unimportant next to quality of life. Length of life is unimportant because quality of life is more important. The explanations for why people think length of life might not matter as much as quality of life were also informative. For instance, it was suggested by some respondents that length of life might be seen as unimportant by those who are younger. Our research did reveal such a trend, but confirmation of this would require further investigation. Question 5 shows unanimous support that all the candidate fertile functionings are believed to offer particular help in overcoming disadvantage. When pressed about what strategies people could use to promote each fertile functioning, recurrent themes (such as providing counselors who could emphasize strengths) are all well established, with very few novel strategies coming to light. Nonetheless, those which were mentioned still provide useful confirmation that these strategies resonate well with people‘s experiences. We found similar results in response to the more open-ended question (Question 6), concerning what changes interviewees might make if they were ―in charge‖. Question 7 yields something that is perhaps a little surprising, namely that over 90% of our sample thought spirituality is important to leading a decent life, with only one person explicitly saying that they thought this unimportant. Perhaps the people who are more likely to go into work with disadvantaged people do so because of a more spiritual nature or set of dispositions likely to produce a proclivity for both helping professions and spirituality. (A similar result would not be expected, for instance, with a sample drawn entirely of investment bankers.) At any rate, half the sample thought that the model had made space for spirituality,

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and just under half thought not, though they mentioned that spirituality is connected to categories that are on the list, such as psychological health or decent social relations. It was also noted that although the categories might not capture spirituality, they may help to facilitate the development of it.

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SOME CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS Phase II results show a higher level of support for the taxonomy explored there (a hybrid taxonomy, but heavily focused on needs, in capturing important aspects of well-being) than the dimensions explored in Phase I (based as it was on the capabilities approach). While the capabilities approach has much to offer, we notice that the language of capabilities does not always resonate well with the way many people comfortably talk about the nature of wellbeing or disadvantage. Furthermore, there are other aspects of well-being not easily captured through capabilities discourse. In the academic literature, arguments have been marshaled for the interchangeability of capabilities and needs (Brock, 2009), so this result need not challenge academic theorizing too much. However, when constructing instruments designed to explore ordinary people‘s thinking on well-being and disadvantage, using needs discourse might have a distinct advantage. Furthermore, it was striking that the set of elements capturing well-being explored in Phase II enjoyed unanimous support, whereas there was considerable variation in Phase I concerning whether particular capabilities are really central to well-being. While capabilities certainly have an invaluable role to play currently in several domains (especially the crucial work being done by the United Nations Development Program in using capabilities to measure and address deprivation globally), this should not deter theorists from exploring alternative taxonomies that may better capture elements of well-being and may, in due course, offer us more sophisticated measures yet on how to measure, track, and address disadvantage.

REFERENCES Brock, G. Global Justice: A Cosmopolitan Account (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). Nussbaum, M. Women and Human Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Nussbaum, M. Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006). Nussbaum, M. and Sen, A. (eds.) The Quality of Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993). Rawls, J. A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1971). Sen, A. On Economic Equality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973). Sen, A. Resources, Values and Development (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1984). Sen, A. Inequality Reexamined (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992). Wolff. J. and de-Shalit, A. Disadvantage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

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In: Ethics Research Compendium Editors: Peter M. Roberts and Emily O. Perez

ISBN: 978-1-62257-747-7 © 2013 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

ETHICAL DISPOSITION OF ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT STUDENTS: A COMPARISON OF THE U. S. AND TURKEY Filiz Angay Kutluk1,* and Ayten Ersoy2 1

Akdeniz University, Ayse Sak School of Applied Sciences, Antalya, Turkey 2 Akdeniz University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Business Management, Antalya, Turkey

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ABSTRACT Ethics education is important in the socialization of the accounting students into the profession and makes them aware of ethical dilemmas. There are several studies that evaluate the ethical development of accounting students or integrating ethics into the curriculum. This study examined the differences in the behavioral intent of accounting and business management students according to gender and ethical disposition. Behavioral intent is measured in both academic and business context by using the situations from the work of Coate and Frey (2000) and the results are compared with those reported for the U.S. Findings reveal, in line with the U.S. data, both male and female mean scores reflect a more ethical disposition in business than in an academic context.

Keywords: Business ethics; context differences; ethics; ethical disposition; academic values

INTRODUCTION Ethics has become increasingly important ―in almost every field in Turkey and the world in recent years‖ (Ciftci, 2003, p. 80). Efforts to form the rules related to its special *

Corresponding Author: Akdeniz Universitesi, Ayse Sak School of Applied Sciences, 07800, Yesilbayir, 07192, Korkuteli, Antalya, Turkey. Tel: +90 (242) 643 50 00-244. Fax:+90 (242) 643 50 05. E-mail: [email protected].

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―professional ethics‖ have spread to every trade branch. Pehlivan (1998, as cited in Gul and Ergun, 2004) considers professional ethics as ―whole set of principles which guide members of professions, restricts their conduct in specific ways, excludes the insufficient and unprincipled members from the profession, orders competition inside the profession, and aims to protect the highest ideals of service‖. Professional ethical standards are generally formed by specific groups related to the profession and enforced by this group. In this sense professional ethics represents ―a materialized form of ethical philosophy‖ applied in professional fields (Akdogan, 2005, p. 80). The strength of ethical principles depends on the ―effectiveness of the enforcing group‖ (Gul and Ergun, 2004, p. 55). Business enterprises must generate a profit to exist, but they must consider benefits of the partners, employees, business environment and society as they attempt to profit. Social responsibility of the enterprises includes legal, ethical and voluntary responsibilities. ―Ethics in accounting is to submit reliable information to society by considering the current value judgements besides the legal procedures‖ (Sozbilir, 2000, p. 125). Information obtained from accounting is a result of teamwork. It is inevitable that ethical rules should be known and applied by the top executive of the team to the sub personnel.

PRIOR RESEARCH

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Ethical Dilemma Metzger (2004) mentioned that ―The accounting professional, as a thinking person, is required to make value judgments concerning his/her own work and its consequences (p. 28). A high level of ethics is needed for public confidence in the quality of services provided‖. Waddock (2005) said that ―If we want accountants who are capable of acting with integrity and understanding the broader system in which they work, we must teach them to be mindful. Ethics, accuracy and transparency are integral to accounting, not something to consider only when dilemmas arise‖ (p. 147). Thorne (2000) stated that ―Ethical dilemmas are decisions for which there is no single, ethically correct answer‖ (p. 140). Accountants may be faced with ethical dilemmas any time (Sozbilir, 2000, p.125). These dilemmas are sometimes very clear and sometimes very difficult to be understood. Cohen et al. (2001) noted that ―Professional accountants cannot be expected to make consistently sound ethical choices if they are unable to identify ethical criteria and evaluate them in a given situation‖ (p. 321). Bean and D‘Aquila (2003) mentioned that ―experienced professionals are exposed to ethical behavior issues through their training or during their relation with fellow practitioners or professional associations‖, but students may not be exposed to ethical dilemmas or the exposure may be perfunctory (188). Watson (2003) stated that ―People won‘t try to change unless they see a need to change. Through discussing ethical dilemmas some students will see that they are lacking in ways that they‘d prefer not to be lacking and decide by force of will to do something about it‖ (p. 94). The study of Giacalone et al. (2003) showed that ethics can be ―interesting and applicable to real-world dilemmas‖. Students can refine ―their ethical decision-making process with realworld examples‖ (p. 605). Sims (2002) stated that ―students must have an experiential

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awareness of the types of ethical dilemmas they will face and they need to be able to evaluate and identify possible courses of action when confronted by ethical dilemmas‖ (p. 409). He suggested creating a classroom climate that encourages student‘s sharing of experiences which is important for developing trust. Brinkmann (2002) suggested placing ethical dilemma scenarios on the ―school‘s intranet for direct individual entering and storing responses to scenarios‖ for ethical self-evaluation (p. 97).

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Ethics in Curriculum and the Importance of Ethics Education There are different opinions about whether ethics education should be a separate course or ethics should be integrated with other courses into the curriculum (Dellaportas, 2006; Dellaportas et al., 2006; Ritter, 2006). Thomas (2004) presented resources for accounting professors related with designing a stand-alone course in accounting ethics or integration of ethics in traditional courses across curriculum. Some other authors whose studies are about integrating ethics into accounting curriculum are Langenderfer and Rockness (1989), Kerr and Smith (1995), Armstrong (1993), Loeb (1988), Cohen and Pant (1989), Huss and Patterson (1993), Ghaffari et al. (2008). Watkins and Iyer (2006) stated that ―Ethics education makes accounting students aware that they will face choices that may harm someone involved and it enables them to identify an ethical dilemma‖ (p. 68). Bay and Greenberg (2001) mentioned the importance of ethic instruction in the socialization of accounting students into the profession. If education will be more emphasized, students may be ―more conscious of the importance of ethical issues‖ (O‘Leary and Radich, 2001, p. 245). Chonko et al. (2002) inferred that providing students ―with opportunities to develop higher skills for thinking independently about the problems that they will encounter‖ is the goal of education (p. 279). With these kinds of skills, students who have learned how to learn will be problem solvers. McNair and Milam (1993) stated that accounting faculty think that the written case is the most effective method to introduce students to ethical considerations. Bay and Greenberg (2001) concluded that ―case studies and application of decision models may improve students‘ cognitive capabilities‖ (p. 377). According to the results of the survey made by Blanthorne et al. (2007), which was about accounting faculties‘ opinions about ethics education, the inclusion of ethics into the curriculum is favored and the best method to teach ethics is case method.

Research on Accounting Ethics Armstrong et al. (2003) and Van Peursem et al. (2006) reviewed the literature on ethics education in accounting; Bernardi et al. (2008) examined the level of ethics research published in 25 business ethics journals and the Top-40 journals for the accounting, finance, and marketing disciplines for the period between 1986 and 2005; Sirgy et al.‘s (2005) descriptive study was about developing example ethical standards that can be used to develop a code of ethics for accounting educators by using hyper norms identified by the survey of

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accounting educators; Bailey et al. (2001) conducted a survey of accounting researchers on their ethical practices. Thorne ( 2000) examined two measures of accountants‘ moral reasoning; prescriptive and deliberative reasoning. Prescriptive reasoning is related with the formulation of an accountant‘s ideal professional judgment, like ―‗what should be done‘ to resolve a particular ethical dilemma‖ (p. 141). Deliberative reasoning is about ―the formulation of an accountant‘s intention to exercise professional judgment‖ (p. 153). In their study of investigating the ethical sensitivity of accounting students, Chan and Leung (2006) inferred that ―to enhance the ethical conduct of professional accountants, it is important that the accountancy profession and researchers should also direct their attention and efforts to the ethical sensitivity of professional accountants‖ (p. 450).

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Gender The prior studies for a gender effect are mixed. In the study of Stanga and Turpen (1991) about behavioral intent to ethical dilemmas in business situation, the results don‘t support the existence of gender differences. There is no gender difference in McCabe et al.‘s (1991) study of ethical decision making behavior. Rogers and Smith (2001) found no significant difference by gender in their study about ethical decisions of an accounting context. In the study of Ameen et al. (1996) about behavioral intent and ethical judgment in academic environment, it can be concluded that female students would be more ethically disposed than male students in academic activities. The results of Cohen et al.‘s (1998) study about ethical judgments and behavioral intentions of accounting, other business and liberal arts undergraduates, ―women score higher on some moral constructs, particularly on deontological and justice perspectives‖ (p. 265). The results of the study of Lane (1995) to examine attitudes and likely behaviors of students to different ethical dilemmas and the study of Whipple and Swords (1992, p. 674) to assess students‘ ethics judgments support gender differences in the way that women adopted more ethical position. In Latif‘s (2001) study, gender has little effect in the judgment of the ethics of the behaviors. The purpose of this research is to examine the gender-based differences in behavioral intent of the ethical disposition of accounting students at Vocational Schools (Northwest, Southwest, West and Center) of a Southern University in Turkey. Behavioral intent perspective in both academic and business contexts is examined. Gender-based and department based differences in ethical disposition of accounting and business management students are also investigated. It is also aimed to make a comparison between vocational schools. Both academic and business situations are used from the article ―Some Evidence on the Ethical Disposition of Accounting Students: Context and Gender Implications‖ (hereinafter will be called as ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘) which was made in an American University before. ―Most of the situations were drawn or adapted from actual instances‖ (Coate and Frey, 2000, p. 386). The results of ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘ and our results are compared in discussion part. In our paper there is an additional analysis for the ethical disposition of both accounting and business management students and comparison of the vocational schools.

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS There are analyses for business management and accounting students and also only for accounting students in our paper. The 1st question of business management and accounting students is from ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘. The 2nd question is for our additional analysis. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd questions of accounting students are the same questions of ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘ (pp. 384-385) and the results of the two papers are compared. The 4th question of accounting students is for the comparison of Vocational Schools; it is also our own analysis.

Research Questions for Business Management and Accounting Students 1. Are there gender-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting and business management students? Are the differences consistent across academic and business contexts? 2. Are there department-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting and business management students?

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Research Questions for Accounting Students 1. Are there gender-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting students? Are the differences consistent across academic and business contexts? 2. Are there context-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting students? Are these differences consistent across gender? 3. Are there gender and/or context-based differences in the organization of ethical choices and decision processes of individuals? 4. Are there differences in the ethical disposition of accounting students according to schools?

METHOD Sample The sample consists of Business Management and Accounting Students of Vocational Schools of the Southern University. The students are asked to respond to a questionnaire containing ethical situations (the questionnaire is from ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘). Students have received the ethics questionnaire at the end of the fall semester. There have been 185 usable results (%35 of the enrolled students) after selecting the results which were not marked. 142 students have been at Accounting Department and 43 students have been at business management. Analyses are applied to the whole of accounting and business management students accounting students first, and then to the accounting students.

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In ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘s article, a questionnaire was applied to 137 junior and senior accounting students enrolled in four sections of managerial accounting at a Mid-Western university in America.

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Table 1. Questionnaire items

No A1

Short Description Returning exam pts

A2a A2b A3

Purchase an exam Tell of purchase offer Write false memo

A4a

Specific exam info

A4b

General exam info

A5a

Go along with group

A5b

Sign group sheet

A6a

Tell on copied HW

A6b

Confess copied HW

A7

TA relationship

A8a

Use exam copy

A8b

Tell exam copy

No B1 B3

Short Description Return AR overpay Sign-off on plan

B5a

Correct the auditor

B5b

Sign the rep letter

Academic Long Description Return points on an exam that was added incorrectly in your favor. Accept an offer to purchase an exam copy for $50. Tell the professor of the offer to purchase an exam copy. Write a false memo so that a part time student employee could change sections in a class. Provide specific information about an exam you have just completed to a fried taking the exam at a later time. Provide general information about an exam you have just completed to a fried taking the exam at a later time. Go along with group members and use outside help on a project; the outside help is explicitly prohibited by the professor. Sign a sheet stating that no outside help was received when you know that outside help was received. Contradict a friend who has copied your HW but claimed not to, and tell the professor that your HW had been copied. Confess to copying a friend‘s HW when confronted by a professor. Insist that a friend who is a TA tell the professor about a romantic relationship with a student in the TA‘s section. Study a list of questions you were given, which you believe to be actual questions on an exam you will take later today. Tell the professor about the list of exam questions prior to the exam Business Long Description Instruct a clerk to return an A/R overpayment to a customer. Sign-off on an operating plan which you know is overly conservative. You‘re responsible for assisting the operating staff in the preparation on the plan and approving the plan. As a client accountant, correct an auditor who is incorrectly summarizing the adequacy of inventory reserves. A correction would increase inventory reserves. Sign a rep letter prepared by an auditor when you know the rep letter is incorrect.

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Ethical Disposition of Accounting and Business Management Students

No

Short Description

B6A

Tell on audit partner

B6Ba Tell on product yield B6Bb Confess product yld. B7 Audit Sr. relationship B9

Personal expenses

B10

Chg. tax allocations

B11

Expense requests

67

Business Long Description In preparing tax workpapers for a client you find items ―missed‖ on the past year‘s audit. The audit partner suggests that the items will be cleaned up this year. You insist the managing partner be told. As a plant accountant, tell that the production group had mis-stated yields for the past three years – errors you should have caught. As head of a production group, confess to the misstated yields. As a junior staff auditor, tell that a senior staff auditor probably has a romantic relationship with a client. As an internal auditor, bring company-paid personal expense items to the attention of upper management. The expenses are for top performers in the company and the A|P manager has already been dressed down for bringing this matter up. Make changes to past tax allocation to minimize tax liabilities. Changes are against company policy. Bring information on false maintenance expense requests to top management. It is possible that management will not allow needed maintenance.

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Questionnaire As it is mentioned, academic and business situations are used from ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘: Two sets of ethical situations assess ethical disposition of the students in the questionnaire (Coate and Frey, 2000, p. 386). One of them is the academic ethics section which contains eight ethical situations; five of them have two parts, so thirteen responses are provided. The business ethics section contains nine ethical situations; two of them have two parts, so there are eleven responses. Some of the questionnaire items are adapted from text or casebook exercises‖. (Table 1) presents an overview of the situations. Six parallel situations of the questionnaire as in six pairs of academic and business scenarios present the same ethical dilemma. For example, items A7 and B7 both are related to reporting another individual‘s personal relationship which will impair the individual‘s objectivity. The contextual difference is that the business situation is related with disclosing a personal relationship between an auditor and a client, while in the academic situation the relationship is between a teaching assistant and a student. (p. 386). The student is asked whether would take some action in each situation and possible responses are ranged from ―one‖ to ―nine‖. ―One‖ means, ―No, I would not do that‖, and ―nine‖ means, ―Yes, I would do that‖. The responses such as ―No, I would probably not do that‖ and ―Yes, I would probably do that‖ and ―I do not know‖ are between the ―one‖ and ―nine‖. The ‗most ethical‘ response may be ―one‖ or ―nine‖ according to the situation. The data is adjusted so that ―one‖ is the most ethical number prior to analysis. (p. 388). In our paper, reliability of the academic section is %74.98 (cronbach‘s alpha) and reliability of the business section is %73.30.

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Filiz Angay Kutluk and Ayten Ersoy

RESULTS Analysis of Business Management and Accounting Students This is our additional analysis to compare Business Management and Accounting students according to gender-based and department-based differences.

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Table 2. Ethical mean responses of business management and accounting students/gender-based Academic Situations No Description N(f/m) Female Mail Difference A1 Returning exam pts 85/99 4,20 5,06 0,86* A2a Purchase an exam 85/96 3,87 4,20 0,33 A2b Tell of purchase offer 73/85 6,34 5,96 0,38 A3 Write false memo 82/95 5,39 4,68 0,71* A4a Specific exam info 81/93 6,43 6,23 0,20 A4b General exam info 82/95 6,93 6,66 0,27 A5a Go along with group 83/96 5,64 5,65 0,01 A5b Sign group sheet 81/94 4,89 4,76 0,13 A6a Tell on copied HW 84/95 4,02 4,93 0,91* A6b Confess copied HW 77/97 4,18 5,01 0,83* A7 TA relationship 81/92 5,49 5,68 0,19 A8a Use exam copy 84/97 4,14 5,16 1,02* A8b Tell exam copy 79/88 5,61 6,32 0,71 Business Situations No Description N(f/m) Female Mail Difference B1 Return AR overpay 85/99 3,33 3,52 0,19 B3 Sign-off on plan 84/97 4,74 4,65 0,09 B5a Correct the auditor 85/97 4,39 5,07 0,68** B5b Sign the rep letter 80/94 4,46 5,02 0,56** B6A Tell on audit partner 85/97 4,34 4,18 0,16 B6Ba Tell on product yield 84/96 4,15 3,85 0,30 B6Bb Confess product yld. 80/94 4,08 4,53 0,45 B7 Audit Sr. relationship 84/97 4,96 4,74 0,22 B9 Personal expenses 85/98 3,61 3,84 0,23 B10 Chg. tax allocations 85/97 4,88 4,95 0,07 *

t-sta -2,077 -0,796 0,888 2,180 0,558 0,754 -0,021 0,354 -2,481 -2,056 -0,551 -2,449 -1,652

P 0,039 0,427 0,376 0,031 0,578 0,452 0,983 0,724 0,014 0,041 0,582 0,015 0,101

Ethical F>M F>M M>F M>F M>F M>F F>M M>F F>M F>M F>M F>M F>M

t-sta -0,498 0,281 -1,960 -1,712 0,465 0,874 -1,202 0,637 -0,692 -0,194

P 0,619 0,779 0,052 0,089 0,643 0,383 0,231 0,525 0,490 0,846

Ethical F>M M>F F>M F>M M>F M>F F>M M>F F>M F>M

Significant at the 5 % level. Significant at the 10 % level.

**

Gender-based Differences For the first research question that investigates if there are gender-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting and business management students, gender means are compared on item by item basis for all academic and business questionnaire items. Because

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the data is adjusted so that ―1‖ is the most ethical number, smaller means are more ethical then the others in comparison. For example, if the mean score of females is 4.20 and the mean score of males is 5.06 and the difference is significant, that means females are more ethical than males for that situation. (Table 2) presents the results of the t- tests used for the comparison of means and variances. (Table 2) also shows whether the mean scores of males or females are more ethical; significant items are quoted with * for PA B>A B>A B>A B>A B>A B>A B>A B>A B>A B>A B>A

t-sta 1,855 1,118 0,675 -1,460 0,319 -0,056 2,121 1,388 1,796 0,906 1,065

P 0,068 0,268 0,502 0,149 0,750 0,956 0,038 0,167 0,074 0,369 0,291

Ethical A>B A>B A>B B>A A>B B>A A>B A>B A>B A>B A>B

Significant at the 5 % level. Significant at the 10 % level.

**

The mean scores of females relative to males reflect greater ethical disposition on 8 items and the mean scores of males relative to females reflect greater ethical disposition on 5 items of the 13 academic context items. However, only 4 items where females are more ethical (PM F>M F>M F>M

t-sta -0,014 0,433 -2,039 -1,008 0,825 1,044 -0,946 0,452 -0,213 0,037 1,192

P 0,989 0,666 0,043 0,315 0,411 0,298 0,346 0,652 0,832 0,971 0,235

Ethical F>M M>F F>M F>M M>F M>F F>M M>F F>M M>F M>F

Significant at the 5 % level; Significant at the 10 % level.

**

Context and Gender-based Differences of 6 Parallel Situations For the 2nd research question that investigates if there are context-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting students, mean differences of the six parallel situations are compared by using the entire sample first and then by using gender-grouped subsamples. Mean differences are calculated as academic situation means -business situation means. (Variance ratios aren‘t calculated). (Table 8) shows the paired difference t-tests of both the total sample and sub-samples split by gender. The context difference for A3-B3 is not hold for the mail sub-sample and the context differences for A6b-B6Bb and A7-B7 are not hold for the female sub-sample. The context difference for A5A-B5A is consistent (for full sample, mail sub-sample and female sub-sample PNW 0,003 C>SW

1,43*

0,006 C>NW

1,03*

0,029 C>NW

1,45* 1,72* 1,93*

0,041 W>NW 0,001 C>NW 0,012 C>SW

1,76* 1,93* 1,31*

0,018 SW>NW 0,003 W>NW 0,004 C>NW

2,11* 2,78* 2,48*

0,005 W>NW 0,000 C>NW 0,001 C>SW

2,23* 1,85*

0,000 C>NW 0,045 C>SW

Significant at the 5% level.

In 11 business context items, the mean scores of Northwest reflect greater ethical disposition relative to Center in 3 items, relative to West in 7 items and relative to Southwest in 4 items. West and Southwest show greater ethical disposition relative to Northwest in 1 item; Center shows greater ethical disposition relative to Northwest in 1 item, relative to West in 1 item and relative to Southwest in 2 items. These results are significant.at %5 level. There isn‘t any significant result in the items B5b, B7 and B10 in Business Situations, so the mean scores and differences are not included in (Table 10-b).

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Filiz Angay Kutluk and Ayten Ersoy Table 10-b. Ethical mean responses of the schools for business situations

Description School Return AR Northwest overpay Southwest West Center B3 Sign-off on Northwest plan Southwest West Center B5a Correct the Northwest auditor Southwest West Center B6A Tell on audit Northwest partner Southwest West Center B6Ba Tell on Northwest product Southwest yield West Center B6Bb Confess Northwest product yld. Southwest West Center

N 33 13 18 77 33 11 17 77 33 13 17 76 33 13 17 77 33 13 18 75 33 12 17 72

Business Situations Mean Comparison 1,94 Southwest Northwest 4,31 West Northwest 4,17 Center Northwest 3,38 3,91 West Northwest 4,45 5,47 4,70 6,03 Northwest Southwest 4,38 Northwest West 4,29 Northwest Center 4,24 3,45 West Northwest 4,69 5,12 4,27 2,76 Southwest Northwest 5,08 West Northwest 4,22 Center Northwest 4,31 3,61 Southwest Northwest 5,33 Southwest Center 5,41 West Northwest 3,78 West Center

B9

Personal expenses

Northwest Southwest West Center

33 13 18 77

2,33 5,00 4,00 3,77

Southwest Southwest West Center

Northwest Center Northwest Northwest

B11

Expense requests

Northwest Southwest West Center * Significant at the 5% level.

33 13 16 76

3,45 4,00 5,00 4,16

West

Northwest

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No B1

Difference Ethical 2,37* 2,23* 0,002 NW 1,44* 0,001 >SW 0,004 NW>W NW >C * 1,56 0,012 NW>W

1,65* 1,74* 0,028 SW>NW 1,79* 0,011 W>NW 0,000 C>NW 1,66*

0,015 NW>W

2,32* 1,46* 0,001 NW 1,55* 0,023 >SW 0,001 NW>W NW >C * * 1,73 1,56 0,029 NW 1,81* 1,63* 0,034 >SW 0,010 C>SW 0,010 NW>W C>W 2,67* 1,23* 0,000 NW 1,67* 1,43* 0,028 >SW 0,003 C>SW 0,000 NW>W NW >C * 1,55 0,030 NW>W

CONCLUSION Business Management and Accounting Students Related to the 1st research question that investigates if there are gender-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting and business management students, female students are in more ethical disposition than male students in the univariate analysis. In multivariate

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analysis the number of female students are more than the number of male students in the most ethical cluster and the number of male students is generally more than the number of female students in low academic-moderate business ethics cluster. So, it can be said that female students reflect more ethical disposition than male students in academic context, but the results are not enough to make a comment about business context. Results related with the 2nd research question that investigates if there are departmentbased differences in the ethical disposition of accounting and business management students are mixed. Business Management department reflects more ethical disposition in academic context and Accounting department reflects more ethical disposition in business context in univariate analysis, but statistically significant items are less. In multivariate analysis, Business Management department looks more ethical. But it can‘t be said that a department is more ethical than the other when the results are evaluated as a whole.

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Accounting Students Results of the 1st research question that investigates if there are gender-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting students, female students reflect more ethical disposition especially in academic context in univariate analysis. In multivariate analysis, the percentage of female students is more than the percentage of male students in the most ethical and moderate ethical clusters and the percentage of male students is more than female students in low academic ethics cluster. In this situation, it can be said that female students reflect more ethical disposition than male students in academic context, but the results are not enough to make a comment for business context. We can think that school life is very important for the female students and the aim of male students is to be careful in their working life. So these results are not enough to conclude that female students are more ethical, but it can be interpreted that they are more ethically predisposed. For the 2nd research question that investigates if there are context-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting students, it can be said that accounting students‘ behavioral intent is influenced by context. In business context, students seem to be more ethical than in academic context. The results of the full sample and gender sub-group analysis are consistent in ―Continue falsehood‖. Female students are reluctant to disclose personal relationship and confess error whereas male students are reluctant in false approval. As a result, it can be seen that both male and female students, show higher and especially male students show more consistent ethical norms in a business context. Related to the 3rd research question that investigates if there are gender and/or contextbased differences in the organization of ethical choices and decision processes of individuals in our paper, to be focusing on Integrity in both female and male sub-sample are similar to the full sample in factor analysis. Because there are also cross-context groupings for both subgroups, this may indicate a more universal approach to ethics. Reflecting more contextual grouping (one business-one academic context) in female subgroup may lead to a little genderbased difference, but it is not enough to interpret that these groupings indicate a structural approach to ethics by females. So we can say there aren‘t much gender- or context-based differences in the decision process. In the comparison of the mean differences of the schools related to the 4th research question that investigates if there are differences in the ethical disposition of accounting

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Filiz Angay Kutluk and Ayten Ersoy

students according to schools, Center reflects more ethical disposition in academic context and Northwest reflects more ethical disposition in business context and the results are statistically significant. So it can be interpreted that Center is the most ethically predisposed school in academic context and Northwest is the most ethically predisposed school in business context.

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The Comparison of Our Paper and „Coate and Frey (2000)‟ For gender-based differences in the ethical disposition of accounting students, the results of our paper and the results of ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘ are not similar in the way that, in ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘ ―with regard to ethical intent the genders are more alike than different‖ (p. 396). In our paper, the results are not enough to conclude that female students are more ethical, but it can be interpreted that they are more ethically predisposed. For context-based differences, both in ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘ and in our paper, both male and female students reflect more ethical disposition in business context than in academic context, but ―due to the nature of the questionnaire‖, it can‘t be concluded that accounting students are more ethically predisposed in business contexts (p. 396). In ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘, ―both male and female students impose higher and more consistent ethical norms in a business context‖ (p. 395), but in our paper especially male students impose higher and more consistent ethical norms. In the decision process, there are differences and similarities in the results of the papers. In ‗Coate and Frey (2000)‘, factor analysis ―showed a notable gender-based contrast in the factor loads. Groupings indicate socialization or a more universal approach to ethics by females and a more structural approach to ethics by males‖ (p. 395). In our paper there aren‘t much gender- or context-based differences in decision process and both females and males indicate more universal approach to ethics. Focusing on Personal Academic Integrity can be seen in both papers.

Limitations and Suggestions Our study has limitations. First, our sample is taken from a single university and limited to accounting and business management students. For that reason, our results may not be generalized to other students. Second, the questionnaire is applied almost at the end of the semester. It is possible that some students didn‘t come to school in the last weeks of the semester. Third, the questionnaire consists of scenario questions. Time is needed to think and answer them. Some questions may not be understood because of the limited time. For further studies, we suggest investigating similar topics which couldn‘t be interpreted, and also repeating these kinds of studies to find out the similarities and differences.

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In: Ethics Research Compendium Editors: Peter M. Roberts and Emily O. Perez

ISBN: 978-1-62257-747-7 © 2013 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

EFFECTS OF JOURNALS COLLEGATING AND SELFCITATIONS ON ANNUAL BIBLIOMETRIC SCORINGS: AN ANALYSIS ON ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING JOURNALS Jong Yong Abdiel Foo Electronic and Computer Engineering Division, School of Engineering, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Singapore

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ABSTRACT Bibliometric scorings like the journal impact factor (JIF) are increasingly viewed as a valuable tool to assess the scientific merits of one‘s research. Previous studies have indicated that self-citations and collegiality as a journal group can be used as a tactics to improve the journal‘s bibliometric scorings. Twelve journals were selected from the subject category of electrical and electronic engineering in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) of the Thomson Scientific. These journals were sub-divided into 3 groups of four; the first 2 groups were collegiate to international professional organizations while the third group was single journals. Bibliometric data of these journals were then extracted from the JCR listing and Web of Science database from the year 2003 to 2007. The trend of JIF values, citations counts, journal self-citations, total articles, and citable articles were obtained and assessed. Using the year 2003 as a reference, the association between the JIF values and the other bibliometric data was assessed using single linear regression analysis. The results suggested that relative changes in JIF values were related to these bibliometric data in various manner; total articles (R²≥0.874), citations counts (R²≥0.570), self-citations (R²≤0.399) and citable articles (R²≤0.228). The effects of collegiality and self-citations on the journal‘s bibliometric scorings were also discussed.

Keywords: Impact factor; citations, bibliographical database; indexing; publication ethics



Correspondence: Jong Foo, Tel: (+65) 6460 8624, Fax: (+65) 6467 1730, Email: [email protected].

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INTRODUCTION One of the mechanisms which new discovery or knowledge can be disseminated to the scientific community is by publishing the research findings in a renowned academic journal. To be able to identify and evaluate a piece of research work for its high scholarly merit has proved to be an important yet difficult task. Therefore, in order to assess the scientific quality and value of a journal article, quantitative measurements like journal impact factor (JIF) and citation count of the journal article have become increasingly regarded as important measures (Chew et al 2007, Lee et al 2002). There seems to be a growing trend to suggest that academic assessment committees are using these quantitative measurements or bibliometric scorings to assess individual for institutional promotion, tenure for faculty staff, and research grant matters (Bloch and Walter 2001, Saha et al 2003, Fassoulaki et al 2002). Due to such expectations, the original intent of the JIF may have been misunderstood and this has led to much publication gaming (Kurmis 2003, Vakil 2005). Citation attributed to an article published in a journal is viewed as an affirmation of the findings derived from the work it described. It has been suggested that there can be at least three important assumptions to be made by the readers when the citation counts are regarded by its surface value. The assumptions are: (a) citation of an article implies the use of that article as a basis for further work by the citing author, (b) citation reflects the merit of the article like quality, significance, or impact, and (c) an article is related in content to the one in which it is cited. Therefore, citation counts can be seen as a quantitative measure of the utilization and contribution of a particular article (Vakil 2005, Nieminen et al 2006, Cheek et al 2006). It is also worth highlighting that author or journal self-citation (Jacso 2001, Sala and Brooks 2008) and editorial influences (Chew et al 2007, Ketcham 2007) can affect the JIF value of a given journal. Currently, there are numerous criticisms in the literature that propose excluding journal or author self-citation in the JIF calculation (Sala and Brooks 2008, Gami et al 2004). However, both types of self-citations are not removed from the citation count or JIF computation as yet (Fassoulaki et al 2000). It has been argued that self-citation can misrepresent the importance of a journal or an article by skewing the JIF value and inflating the importance of an article (Sala and Brooks 2008, Gami et al 2004, Fassoulaki et al 2000, DeMaria 2003). Previous studies have indicated that there is a good correlation between the average number of authors per article and the JIF value of the residing journal (Gami et al 2004). Unfortunately, the actual impact of self-cited work on the process of academic research cannot be easily determined. There are other reports suggesting that editorial decisions such as adopting the strategy of being part of a larger group of journals can have intangible results on the overall perception of the journal (Chew et al 2007, Callaham et al 2002). The whole strategy is to foster collegiality within the said group and ensure that only the best submissions are published in the most appropriate journals within the group, in hope to promote readerships of the articles and indirectly the citation counts. It is worth noting that the aim of this chapter is neither to reiterate the use of the JIF nor outline the potential shortcomings of its derivation processes. These controversy issues are already part of many ongoing debates in the academic world (Vakil 2005, Nieminen et al 2006, Cheek et al 2006) and it is really beyond the scope of this chapter. Hence, the objectives of this chapter were to: (1) review a 5-year (between the year 2003 and 2007) bibliometric scorings of the selected

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journals, (2) assess any possible difference in the bibliometric scorings of single journals from collegial journals, and (3) discuss the likely factors that contribute to the journals‘ bibliographical trends.

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METHODS AND MATERIALS The analysis included 12 chosen journals from a pool of 227 entries in the ‗Engineering, Electrical and Electronic‘ subject category found in the 2007 JCR listing. The collegial journals were selected if the journal title had either name of the two organizations, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) or the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). Furthermore, only the top 4 journals in the subject category amongst their affiliated organization were used in the analysis. The first 4 single journals were selected to form the third group of journals in this study. As part of the selection criteria, the selected journals must be indexed by the Web of Science (WoS) database and the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) listing since the year 2003. For the IEEE group, the selected journals were: Proceedings of the IEEE (P IEEE), IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (IEEE T PATTERN ANAL), IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging (IEEE T MED IMAGING), and IEEE Signal Processing Magazine (IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG). For the IET group, they were: IET Control Theory and Applications (IET CONTROL THEORY A), IET Optoelectronics (IET OPTOELECTRON), IET Electric Power Applications (IET ELECTR POWER APP), and IET Science Measurement and Technology (IET SCI MEAS TECHNOL). For the single journals, they were: Progress in Quantum Electronics (PROG QUANT ELECTRON), Journal of Lightwave Technology (J LIGHTWAVE TECHNOL), AUTOMATICA, and Pattern Recognition (PATTERN RECOGN). The focus was on these few journals as the general paradigm was to compare any possible differences in bibliometric scorings for the 3 groups of journals over the studied period. However, it is worth noting that the JIF value changes yearly and needs to be calculated annually. Using the year 2007 as an example, the JIF value can be typically calculated as follows:

JIF 2007 =

Citations in 2007 to articles published in 2005 and 2006 Number of articles published in 2005 and 2006

The numerator count can comprise of citations to any articles published by that journal in the previous two years while the denominator only comprises citable articles in the calculation (Thomson Scientific, New York, NY). Citable articles can be defined as either original research articles or reviews articles while excluding articles like editorial materials, letters, news items, book reviews, bibliographical items, corrections or erratum, commentary, and meeting abstracts. It is worth highlighting that there are publication gamings involving the manipulations of the numerator and denominator of the JIF calculation (Foo 2011). The data of the yearly JIF values, citations, self-citations, citable and total articles counts were collected starting from the year 2003 to 2007 for all the selected journals. Furthermore, the nature of the published articles (that is, research, editorials, corrections, etc) in these journals was extracted from the WoS database for the same duration.

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Absolute and relative annual changes were then calculated using the year 2003 as the reference. With the obtained relative changes on a yearly basis, the correlations between the observed changes in the JIF values and the other bibliometric data which includes the total number of articles, the citations counts, the ratio of self-citations and citable articles, were assessed using a single linear regression analysis. In all the statistical calculations described herein, they were performed using the EXCEL 2007 package (Microsoft Corporation, Seattle, WA).

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

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The bibliometric scorings for the 12 selected journals were successfully extracted from the WoS database and the JCR listing. These scorings were from the studied years of 2003 to 2007, with the exception of the IET collegial journals. For the IET group of journals, the only unavailable data was the number of citable articles in the year 2007. These journals were still included in the study as valuable comparisons could be made between the IEEE and IET journals. Furthermore, the JIF and citation counts trend of the IET journals could still be derived for that year. The data for the year 2007 was not available due to the organizational name change of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) to the IET. From Table 1, it could be seen that the JIF trend of the IEEE and IET journals were a mix of growth and slump, ranging from -31.5% to 39.5% and -31.5% to 53.6% respectively. Conversely, all the single journals saw a healthy growth trend of at least 10.7% over the 5year period. A similar trend in the citation counts was observed across the 3 groups of journals as given in Table 2. Table 1. A comparison table entailing the JIF value for each journal in the 3 groups as reported in the associated JCR listing over the observed period. It can be seen that the JIF value of all the journals fluctuate diversely over time. Interestingly, the JIF for all the single journals rise significantly (>10%) but the collegial journals have mixed trends JIF value by year

Abbreviated Journal Name P IEEE IEEE T PATTERN ANAL IEEE T MED IMAGING IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG PROG QUANT ELECTRON J LIGHTWAVE TECHNOL AUTOMATICA PATTERN RECOGN IET CONTROL THEORY A IET OPTOELECTRON IET ELECTR POWER APP IET SCI MEAS TECHNOL

2003 2.738 3.823 3.755 4.241 2.000 1.983 1.683 1.611 0.745 1.034 0.520 0.321

2004 3.336 4.352 3.922 3.707 3.615 2.113 1.419 2.176 0.612 0.900 0.324 0.295

2005 3.887 3.810 3.939 2.714 5.176 2.077 1.693 2.153 0.631 0.553 0.587 0.406

2006 3.686 4.306 3.757 2.655 4.500 2.824 2.273 1.822 0.927 0.632 0.290 0.461

2007 3.820 3.579 3.275 2.907 2.636 2.196 2.083 2.019 1.045 0.708 0.554 0.493

Fluctuations using 2003 as the reference year Growth Max Min 39.5% 42.0% 0.0% -6.4% 13.8% -6.4% -12.8% 4.9% -12.8% -31.5% 0.0% -37.4% 31.8% 158.8% 0.0% 10.7% 42.4% 0.0% 23.8% 35.1% -15.7% 25.3% 35.1% 0.0% 40.3% 40.3% -17.9% -31.5% 0.0% -46.5% 6.5% 12.9% -44.2% 53.6% 53.6% -8.1%

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Table 2. The data shows that only the single group of journals has relatively more citations counts among the 3 groups over time. On the other hand, journals in the collegial groups either have lesser citations or no change in citations counts. As all the IET journals have their journal title change in the year 2007, data from the WoS database for that year are unavailable Citation count by year

Abbreviated Journal Name P IEEE IEEE T PATTERN ANAL IEEE T MED IMAGING IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG PROG QUANT ELECTRON J LIGHTWAVE TECHNOL AUTOMATICA PATTERN RECOGN IET CONTROL THEORY A IET OPTOELECTRON IET ELECTR POWER APP IET SCI MEAS TECHNOL

2003 575 1036 1010 229 26 952 732 709 108 91 66 34

2004 774 1297 1106 215 47 1386 623 1036 98 126 48 33

2005 925 1166 1095 190 88 1475 740 956 118 109 108 54

2006 951 1434 1067 231 63 2214 1009 796 179 91 79 53

2007 1081 1292 930 282 29 2244 979 933 n/a n/a n/a n/a

Fluctuations using 2003 as the reference year Growth Max Min 88.0% 88.0% 0.0% 24.7% 38.4% 0.0% -7.9% 9.5% -7.9% 23.1% 23.1% -17.0% 11.5% 238.5% 0.0% 135.7% 135.7% 0.0% 33.7% 37.8% -14.9% 31.6% 46.1% 0.0% 65.7% 65.7% -9.3% 0.0% 38.5% 0.0% 19.7% 63.6% -27.3% 55.9% 58.8% -2.9%

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Essentially, the single journals were the only group that had more of their published articles being cited. The IEEE T MED IMAGING and the IET OPTOELECTRON had less citations (-7.9%) and no citation change (0.0%) over the investigated period respectively. For the total number of published articles, all the 3 groups had their fair mix of journals increasing or reducing articles being published during the year 2003 to 2007. Table 3. This table illustrates that the collegial journals have more changes in the total articles that were published. It is worthwhile to note that the fluctuations in the single journal group are the least amongst the 3 journal groups Number of articles published by year 2003 2004 2005 2006

2007

P IEEE

154

148

176

147

173

12.3%

14.3%

IEEE T PATTERN ANAL

169

159

196

171

190

12.4%

16.0%

-5.9%

IEEE T MED IMAGING

204

134

157

146

140

-31.4%

0.0%

-34.3%

IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG

55

88

92

112

117

112.7%

112.7%

0.0%

Abbreviated Journal Name

Fluctuations using 2003 as the reference year Growth Max Min -4.5%

PROG QUANT ELECTRON

8

7

7

3

9

12.5%

12.5%

-62.5%

J LIGHTWAVE TECHNOL

416

369

385

611

443

6.5%

46.9%

-11.3%

AUTOMATICA

235

208

225

253

223

-5.1%

7.7%

-11.5%

PATTERN RECOGN

212

291

240

297

281

32.5%

40.1%

0.0%

IET CONTROL THEORY A

87

82

129

89

187

114.9%

114.9%

-5.7%

IET OPTOELECTRON

108

48

99

56

41

-62.0%

0.0%

-62.0%

IET ELECTR POWER APP

105

78

194

90

103

-1.9%

84.8%

-25.7%

IET SCI MEAS TECHNOL

58

65

60

29

45

-22.4%

12.1%

-50.0%

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Similarly, the IEEE and IET collegial journals had more drastic changes in the total number of articles published. In particular, the IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG and the IET CONTROL THEORY A published 114.9% and 112.7% more articles when compared to the reference year 2003. Both the groups also had journals that reduced the number of articles they published such as the IEEE T MED IMAGING by -31.4% and the IET OPTOELECTRON by -62.0%. Interestingly, the fluctuations in the number of articles published were the least in the single journal group as shown in Table 3. In Table 4, it detailed the number of citable articles as a percentage of the total articles published. The group of single and IET journals had minimum changes in the citable articles they published, within ±3.7%. For the IEEE collegial journals, more significant changes were seen with the P IEEE having -8.2% less citable articles while the IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG publishing 18.4% more citable articles. Table 4. The number of citable articles is presented as a percentage of the total articles published as given in this table. Unlike the previous few tables, the IEEE collegial journals vary more in the number of citable articles published

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Abbreviated Journal Name P IEEE IEEE T PATTERN ANAL IEEE T MED IMAGING IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG PROG QUANT ELECTRON J LIGHTWAVE TECHNOL AUTOMATICA PATTERN RECOGN IET CONTROL THEORY A IET OPTOELECTRON IET ELECTR POWER APP IET SCI MEAS TECHNOL

Percentage of citable articles by year 2003 81.8% 96.4% 93.6% 49.1% 100% 97.4% 99.2% 99.1% 97.7% 94.4% 100.0% 94.8%

2004 75.7% 98.1% 98.5% 47.7% 100% 97.8% 97.6% 99.0% 97.6% 97.9% 100.0% 95.4%

2005 83.0% 99.0% 96.8% 48.9% 86% 98.2% 98.7% 97.9% 96.9% 97.0% 100.0% 98.3%

2006 2007 78.9% 75.1% 98.8% 98.9% 96.6% 95.0% 46.4% 58.1% 100% 100% 98.2% 98.0% 97.6% 95.5% 98.7% 98.9% 94.4% 96.8% 96.4% 97.6% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 97.8%

Fluctuations using 2003 as the reference year Growth Max Min -8.2% 1.4% -8.2% 2.6% 2.6% 0.0% 1.5% 5.2% 0.0% 18.4% 18.4% -5.4% 0.0% 0.0% -14.3% 0.6% 0.9% 0.0% -3.7% 0.0% -3.7% -0.1% 0.0% -1.2% -0.9% 0.0% -3.4% 3.3% 3.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 3.1% 5.5% 0.0%

The results on the self-citations analysis revealed the following observations where the IEEE journal group had the least self-cited counts of 5.2% collectively, then followed by the single journal group with 9.7%, and the IET journal group had the highest self-citation rate of 16.9%. It is worth noting that the P IEEE and the PROG QUANT ELECTRON kept an extremely low self-citation counts of not more than 1.5% and 2.1% throughout the investigated 5 years respectively, as given in Table 5. For the PROG QUANT ELECTRON journal, the self-citation counts for the year 2003 and some other years were 0% which made the calculations for its fluctuations to be infinite (∞). From Figure 1 and 2, it can be seen that relative changes in JIF values showed increases with relative changes in total articles and citations counts as indicated by positive regression slope lines found in the two figures respectively. The analysis also indicated that relative changes in the JIF values were more associated to these two bibliometric data (total articles, R²≥0.874 and citations counts, R²≥0.570) than those of self-citations (R²≤0.399) and citable articles (R²≤0.228).

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Table 5. The self-citations analysis show that some journals rely heavily on self-citing while others do not. Likewise, data from the WoS database for the year 2007 are unavailable due to all the IET journals adopting a different journal title. In this table, the symbol (∞) denotes mathematically infinite.

Abbreviated Journal Name

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P IEEE IEEE T PATTERN ANAL IEEE T MED IMAGING IEEE SIGNAL PROC MAG PROG QUANT ELECTRON J LIGHTWAVE TECHNOL AUTOMATICA PATTERN RECOGN IET CONTROL THEORY A IET OPTOELECTRON IET ELECTR POWER APP IET SCI MEAS TECHNOL

2003 1.0% 5.8% 11.5% 1.3% 0.0% 18.2% 9.3% 13.5% 17.6% 9.9% 25.8% 2.9%

Percentage of journal self-citation by year 2004 2005 2006 1.0% 1.5% 0.6% 6.4% 6.5% 7.0% 8.0% 10.2% 10.5% 5.6% 2.6% 6.5% 2.1% 0.0% 1.6% 15.9% 13.6% 21.5% 10.8% 14.9% 10.5% 6.2% 9.1% 8.7% 23.5% 11.9% 12.8% 13.5% 6.4% 7.7% 29.2% 49.1% 32.9% 18.2% 3.7% 5.7%

Fluctuations using 2003 as the reference year 2007 Growth Max Min 1.4% 33.0% 45.0% -39.5% 5.1% -11.8% 20.4% -11.8% 9.8% -14.8% 0.0% -29.9% 1.4% 8.3% 395.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ∞ ∞ 15.6% -14.2% 18.6% -25.4% 9.2% -1.0% 60.0% -1.0% 12.6% -6.6% 0.0% -54.4% n/a -27.0% 33.4% -32.6% n/a -22.2% 36.4% -35.1% n/a 27.8% 90.5% 0.0% n/a 92.5% 518.2% 0.0%

Figure 1. The graph shows the results of single linear regression analysis between the relative changes in the JIF value and the number of citations for the 3 groups of journals. It can be seen that there were relatively strong correlations for all 3 groups (R²≥0.570).

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Figure 2. The plot shows that strong correlations between relative changes in the JIF values and the number of published articles can be observed for the 12 selected journals in this study (R²≥0.874).

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Conversely, Figure 3 and 4 showed that relative changes in the latter two bibliometric data did not vary in the similar manner with the relative changes in JIF values as when compared to the former two bibliometric data.

Figure 3. The diagram illustrates the relative changes seen in the JIF values were not correlated to the relative changes observed in the ratio of citable articles (R²≤0.399). Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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Figure 4. The figure reveals that there was weak association between the relative changes in the JIF values and the relative changes in the ratio of self-citations for all 3 groups of journals (R²≤0.228).

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DISCUSSION From the aforementioned results and analysis, there were two key factors which were examined; the bibliometric scorings of single journals and collegial journals, as well as the effects of self-citations to the associated JIF value. The two organizations, the IEEE and the IET, were chosen due to their scale of existence globally. The IEEE had more than 375,000 members in over 160 countries. Furthermore, the IEEE published a total of 144 transactions, journals and magazines while sponsoring more than 850 conferences annually. Likewise, the IET had more than 150,000 members in at least 127 countries. The IET also published a rich mixture of 500 books, journals and magazines while organizing more than 120 conferences and events on an annual basis. On the other hand, the third group of journals selected in this study had no apparent collegiality with any organization. From this investigation, the results obtained could indicate that to improve the JIF value of a journal, increasing the total number of articles published by the journal and the citations the journal receives would yield better outcomes. The so-called intangible benefit to be a collegial journal (Chew et al 2007, Callaham et al 2002) was not observed in the investigated journals from the results and analysis performed herein. In addition, previous studies had suggested that there are known publication gaming tactics like reducing the number of citable articles and increasing self-citations which had been utilized to enhance the JIF value (Saha et al 2003, Kurmis 2003, DeMaria 2003). This had drawn increasing attention and debates over the matter in the academic world had became more prominent and traceable (Bloch and Walter 2001, Nieminen et al 2006, Barbui et al 2006). Similarly, this trend was not observed for all the 12 selected journals in the described investigation. Particularly, the changes in their JIF values did not correspond to the changes observed in self-citations and citable articles. This might be due to the journals utilizing more ethical acceptable approaches described in

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the literature. In that, the journal editors might have adapted a more active promotion of the journal, a more accelerated publication process, and by improving the services and options to potentials authors. These approaches might have helped in a more holistic perception of the journal whether directly or indirectly (Chew et al 2007, Lawrence 2001). It had been argued that self-citations could falsely inflate the citation counts and JIF value. The general belief was that self-citations have little correlation with the quality of an article. However, there were incidents where self-citations were needed and justifiable. In particular, author self-citation allowed the same author(s) to adapt their previous accepted hypotheses in their new work, referred to their established study designs and methodology, and justified further investigations on the basis of their prior results. For the continual traceability of a piece of work, submitting to the same journal that published their prior work then made more senses. However, continuous author self-citation could be a hindrance to the process of scientific discovery (Callaham et al 2002). A previous study had warned that repeated self-citations not only accentuated the author‘s own credibility but also might obstruct academic progress. If other investigators working in similar area could not challenge what might be perceived as published work, falsified findings could then never be surfaced (Hyland 2003). There were also reports that authors were given specific instructions to cite articles from particular journals in efforts to inflate the JIF value (Smith 1997, Brumback 2008). However, such a move could be easily tracked by the WoS database. With all the journal self-citations and citable items being reported in the annual WoS database, mischievous editors would be more cautious in practicing unethical methods to inflate their journal‘s bibliometric scorings. A good example would be a renowned journal, the LANCET, in the subject category of ‗Medicine, General and Internal‘ of the JCR listing. The journal had attracted much negative attention to the journal‘s inflated publishing track-record over the past few years (Chew et al 2007, Brumback 2008, Garfield 2006). In the analysis detailed in this chapter, no strong correlations could be seen for all the journals between the changes in JIF values and changes in the ratio of self-citations. It is acknowledged that there are limitations to the analysis and investigation described herein. Firstly, the authenticity of the analysis herein was anchored on the validity of information extracted from the WoS database and the JCR listing. Secondly, there was no thorough analysis performed to authenticate the contributions of each article to the associated JIF value of each investigated journal. However, it is worth noting the data used in this chapter was retrospective and therefore, it could be assumed that authors and journal editors alike had agreed on the contributions of the article to the literature. Thirdly, from the viewpoint of a scientific endeavor, the present analysis was not precisely reproducible because the data was not static. This could imply that the JIF value for each journal might vary with each passing period due to changes in the other bibliometric scorings. Lastly, it is recognized that not all of the 227 journals listed in the ‗Engineering, Electrical and Electronic‘ subject category were included in the investigation and analysis. However, it is hoped that the work described in this chapter can provide a framework from which possible comparisons may be adopted for future investigations of similar nature.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All the bibliometric data used in this study were obtained from the Web of Science database and the Journal Citation Report of the Thomson Scientific.

DECLARATION The author would like to declare that there is no conflict of interest in relation to this work described in this chapter.

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REFERENCES Barbui C, Cipriani A, Malvini L, Tansella M. Validity of the impact factor of journals as a measure of randomized controlled trial quality. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2006; 67: 37-40. Bloch S, Walter G. The Impact Factor: time for change. Aust. NZ J. Psychiatry 2001; 35: 563568. Brumback RA. Worshiping false idols: the impact factor dilemma. Journal of Child Neurology 2008; 23: 365-367. Callaham M, Wears RL, Weber E. Journal prestige, publication bias, and other characteristics associated with citation of published studies in peer-reviewed journals. JAMA 2002; 287: 2847-2850. Cheek J, Garnham B, Quan J. What‘s in a number? Issues in providing evidence of impact and quality of research(ers). Qualitative Health Res. 2006; 16:423-35. Chew M, Villanueva EV, Van Der Weyden MB. Life and times of the impact factor: retrospective analysis of trends for seven medical journals (1994-2005) and their Editors' views. J. R. Soc. Med. 2007; 100: 142-150. DeMaria AN. A report card for journals. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003; 42: 952-953. Fassoulaki A, Paraskeva A, Papilas K, Karabinis G. Self-citations in six anaesthesia journals and their significance in determining the impact factor. Br. J. Anaesth. 2000; 84:266269. Fassoulaki A, Papilas K, Paraskeva A, Patris K. Impact factor bias and proposed adjustments for its determination. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 2002; 46: 902-905. Foo JY. Impact of excessive journal self-citations: a case study on the Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica journal. Sci. Eng. Ethics 2011; 17: 65-73. Gami AS, Montori VM, Wilczynski NL, Haynes RB. Author self-citation in the diabetes literature. CMAJ 2004; 170: 1925-1927. Garfield E. The history and meaning of the journal impact factor. JAMA 2006; 295: 90-93. Hyland K. Self-citation and self-reference: credibility and promotion in academic publication. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 2003; 54: 251-259. Jacso P. A deficiency in the algorithm for calculating the impact factor of scholarly journals: the Journal Impact Factor. Cortex 2001; 37: 590-594. Ketcham CM. Predicting impact factor one year in advance. Lab. Invest. 2007; 87: 520-526.

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Kurmis AP. Understanding the limitations of the journal impact factor. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 2003; 85: 2449-2454. Lawrence S. Free online availability substantially increases a paper‘s impact. Nature 2001; 411: 521. Lee KP, Schotland M, Bacchetti P, Bero LA. Association of journal quality indicators with methodological quality of clinical research articles. JAMA 2002, 287: 2805-2808. Nieminen P, Carpenter J, Rucker G, Schumacher M. The relationship between quality of research and citation frequency. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 2006; 6: 42. Saha S, Saint S, Christakis DA. Impact factor: a valid measure of journal quality? J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 2003; 91: 42-46. Sala SD, Brooks J. Multi-authors' self-citation: A further impact factor bias? Cortex 2008; 44: 1139-1145. Smith R. Journal accused of manipulating impact factor. BMJ 1997; 314: 461. Vakil N. The journal impact factor: judging a book by its cover. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2005; 100: 2436-2437.

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Chapter 7

DO MERGER RESTRICTIONS PROMOTE ECONOMIC JUSTICE? William Gissy Bang College of Business Kazkahstan Institute of Management, Economics and Strategic Research, Almaty, Kazkahstan

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ABSTRACT One important aspect in the area of normative economics is the establishment of standards that serve to promote economic justice. The issue of economic justice brings in the role of property rights and the protection of property rights are seen as essential for the establishment of economic justice, at least within the neo-classical tradition. Recently several writers have questions the legitimacy of antitrust legislation, especially those provisions that restrict mergers. These authors see such restrictions as a needless infringement on property rights and therefore contrary to economic justice. This paper argues that limitations on property rights could be justified in the face of market failures and therefore enhances economic justice.

INTRODUCTION As Jeffrey Tucker (1998a) notes, economic issues, and their focus on efficiency, are often coupled with concerns involving property rights, individual liberty and economic justice. He argues that the contemporary economic approach to antitrust legislation results in policy prescriptions that actually violate essential standards of economic justice, specifically the needless violation of property rights. He subscribes to the belief that government should only intervene in the market to prevent forms of conduct such as fraud, theft or breach of contract. Antitrust legislation forces the owners of a business to adopt a management configuration that differs from what they would have chosen in a free market setting. This, in his view, is a police action that represents a violation of the business owner‘s property rights. Individuals 

Ph. D. E-mail: [email protected].

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who own one company are at times prohibited from selling their claims to owners of a competing firm. In a subsequent paper (1998b) he refers to antitrust law as institutionalized envy and theft. Tucker does make level some legitimate complaints, unfortunately these are points are not in dispute in the economics arena. Being the single seller of a product does not in and of itself generate market power that would permit a seller to ―exploit‖ the consumer. Then again economists don‘t generally claim that a monopolist exploits the consumer, rather they have the ability to charge a higher price than they would receive in a competitive market. Tucker admits to this conclusion and sees no problem with the result. If a firm restricts production, and uses the artificial shortage as an excuse to charge a higher price then the owners of that firm are merely exercising their property rights. Tucker‘s claim is no consumer has a right to a particular price to any good so only the owners of the firm have rights involved. One point overlooked by Tucker in his first paper was the array of topics that fall under the general heading of ―antitrust‖. As Kenneth Elzinga (1998) noted, Tucker never discussed that part of antitrust law dealing with the formation of cartels or the merging of several firms into one dominant producer. Tucker (1998b) did comment briefly on those topics in his reply to Elzinga but merely claimed that a free market would prohibit bad behavior from succeeding in the long run. He claims that the free market will naturally place limits on the size of the firm, a position espoused by Peter Klein (1998) as well as earlier writers like Murray Rothbard (1962), Richard Langlois (1988) and Oliver Williamson (1985). Unfortunately this discussion focuses on the limits of vertical integration and does not formulate any conclusion about economic limits to horizontal integration. Yet the earliest focus of antitrust law was on the accumulation of excessive market share in the final product. Does market power by dominating the production of a particular product infringe upon consumer rights? If the answer to this question is yes, then restrictions on mergers or the formulation of cartels, while limiting the property rights of business owners, may serve to protect rights that are considered to be of greater value. In this case the legal restriction would not be an ethical violation. In the complex organism we call society we are often faced with the conflict of rights. In such cases any decision will favor the rights of one group over the rights of the other. The basis of judgment would rest on protecting the correct set of rights. Another issue is the theoretical underpinnings of the neo-libertarian approach to the economics of markets. As Morvaridi (2008) notes, this approach lacks an appreciation of the context of the poor, often suggesting that the poor are responsable for their own plight. Morvaridi then continues to discuss economic globalisation and its impact on global social justice. The increasing interdependence caused by economic globalisation challenges the assumptions of a right to economic development which has strong implications with respect to economic justice. Jacobs and Cleveland (1999) and Jacobs et. al. (1999) view the development of a business, like the development of a society, as a process fueled by the aspiration of its stakeholders. In the case of business, the aspiration of the owners and leaders is a critical determinant of how far and how fast the business grows. In the case of the society, the role of leadership is played by entrepreneurial pioneers that initiate new activities and the psychological intensity of their pursuit is a critical determinant of success. But in either case, the greater the aspiration of all the people involved, the more powerful the impetus for accomplishment. Authority is a fundamental principle of organization that is essential to the survival and development of both societies and companies. Government, social and cultural

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authority as expressed through social norms, systems, institutions, laws, customs, and values determine the effectiveness with which surplus energy is converted by society into productive power. Corporate authority is expressed more and more through the discipline of impersonal rules, systems, coordination of activities, policies, corporate culture and values that determine the effectiveness with which surplus energy is converted by a business into productive power, rather than by top down personal exercise of authority by a management hierarchy. But regardless of whether the form is personal or impersonal, this discipline is fundamental to the successful functioning of an organization. For both businesses and societies, values represent that highest form of organization for directing human energies in constructive and productive activities. The quality and height of the values set the limits on the magnitude of developmental achievements. The purpose of this paper is to reassess the arguments against antitrust laws in light of a broader vision of economic rights and economic justice. The second section of the paper will address the concept of economic rights within a general framework of what does or does not qualify as a right. The relationship between economic rights and their corresponding responsibilities will then be related to a concept of economic justice. The third section will address specific charges against each particular aspect of antitrust legislation and reconsider the arguments in light of consumer rights and the property rights of competing firms and to what extent antitrust restrictions on mergers, while placing limits on the property rights of one group, serve to promote economic justice. The final section will be the summation and conclusion.

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RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND ECONOMIC JUSTICE Carmine Gorga (1999) determined that there are four rights that are distinctly economic, thus unique from other rights. These rights represent the moral foundation for the formulation of policies related to the production and distribution of goods and services as well as the acquisition and control of wealth. Each of these rights is a right of all people and collectively they represent, in Gorga‘s view, a set of public rights rather than a set of private rights. The four rights envisioned by Gorga are: 1) 2) 3) 4)

The right of access to resources The right of access to credit The right to own the fruits of one‘s labor The right to protect one‘s wealth

At this point Gorga‘s reasoning becomes fuzzy. The article was an attempt to distinguish between public rights and private rights where Gorga considered economic rights to be public and property rights to be private. However the third and fourth rights in Gorga‘s list are essentially property rights which are viewed as private. Despite this short coming in the assessment Gorga does draw attention to the distinction between rights in posse and rights in esse. The former represent potential, an opportunity to pursue with no guarantee of success. Such rights are available to everyone and are therefore public in nature. Rights in esse are those rights granted to a specific individual. The property right to my home is mine and

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accrues to no one else. Other individuals may have their own right in esse to their home. I have a right to free speech even if I choose to remain silent but I do not have a right to property I do not own. My property right to my home prohibits your taking or use without my permission whereas my right to free speech does not prohibit you from engaging in any action. Private rights are restrictive towards others while public rights are liberating. Perhaps it would be better to characterize the four rights established by Gorga as two public rights, representing the potential to create wealth, and two private, involving the protection of any wealth that was created. In essence property rights, rather than being distinct from economic rights, are a sub-category of economic rights. The first two rights could be classified as participatory rights. Of course where there are rights there is responsibility, where the two bind the individual and society. Responsibilities represent the moral foundation for rights. A system of law that is fully appreciative of the mutual dependence between rights and responsibilities and makes correct assessments of the interconnection will be ethical. So what corresponding responsibilities does Gorga attach to each of his economic rights? With respect to the first right, the access to resources, he establishes the responsibility of paying taxes. This would be a more reasonable responsibility if Gorga was referring to a right of access to public goods which are paid for out of tax revenues. Natural resources, if they are not the private property of an individual, are a common good rather than a public good. A more reasonable responsibility would be to use but not waste and replenish those resources that can be replenished. Additionally, for resources held in common, payment of an appropriate user fee would be an additional requirement. With respect to the right to access to credit, with the understanding that the credit is for the acquisition of productive resources, the obvious responsibility would be the obligation to repay the debt at with a fair compensation to lender. This compensation would be the interest charge which includes an inflation premium to cover the depreciation of the principal during the period the loan was outstanding. Since wealth represents an ability to acquire goods in the future one has an obligation to repay the purchasing power one initially borrowed. In addition to the premium to cover the depreciation of the principal there is the cost of the foregone opportunity to use the funds on the part of the lender. Financial intermediaries pay interest to depositors and must be able to cover those expenses as well as a fair return for their services as an intermediary. Contrary to the Aristotelian view that interest or usury is unjust the contrary is true; it is unjust to not pay interest on money borrowed. The right to own the fruits of one‘s labor carries the responsibility of diligent effort in those tasks where there is compensation. The fruits must be derived from honest labor. Employment is an implicit contract. If you agree to perform certain tasks for a stated remuneration then you have the responsibility to perform those tasks to the best of your ability. Only then can you fully claim a right to your compensation. Finally, the right to protect one‘s wealth carries the obligation to respect the wealth of others. As it will be shown later, those who complain that antitrust laws are unjust in that they limit the property rights of business owners fail to take the corresponding responsibility into consideration. To incorporate these rights into a theory of economic justice we must first establish that these rights conform to certain legal principles. Are these rights universal and fair? By argument the answer to the first part of that question is yes, these rights are viewed to be universal in that all people have these rights. Even private rights are universal as long as each

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person in a similar position has the same right. My right to my home is no different from another person‘s right to their home even though neither of us has a right to the other‘s home. With respect to the latter part of the question, to assert that all have the same right to pursue productive resources, attempt to create wealth and retain rights over the wealth we create would only seem unfair in a structure that assumes the individual exists for the state. If, however, we hold that the state exists to serve the individual then to claim rights of participation and possession, rights to be protected by the state, given that these rights carry corresponding responsibilities are patently fair. Of course any discussion involving the word ―fair‖ is subjective but the key is the corresponding responsibility. What would be unfair is a system of rights that is void of offsetting responsibilities. Can these rights be enforced in a court of law and do they promote social order? Rights of possession are easily enforced. The trickier part is the enforcement of participatory rights. To assert a right to access of credit cannot be construed to mean a guarantee of a loan. If a loan request is denied has the right been violated? Again we must couple rights with responsibilities. If it can be demonstrated that the person who was denied the loan could not live up to the responsibility of repayment then no violation of rights has occurred. The person was free to participate and the denial was due to their inability to demonstrate a capacity for adhering to the necessary responsibility. If the loan was denied for some other reason then courts could take the necessary action against the offending lender. In short, even rights of participation can be enforced if we accept that a denial unrelated to the inability to perform the corresponding responsibility constitutes a breech. That economic rights help to promote social order is time and again evidenced by the history of rebellion. When people feel oppressed, politically or economically, they rise in protest. A system of laws designed to protect rights and assure an equality of participation clearly serves to promote social order and social development. Do these rights serve to enhance economic freedom? As Gorga notes, without the exercise of the four rights under consideration, people are not fully free to participate in the economic process. If people are denied the opportunity to participate in the production process they will be forever disadvantaged in the process of wealth distribution and therefore at a disadvantage in the process of exchange. Without these rights there can be no economic freedom, if we view economic freedom as the pursuit of improving one‘s economic situation. Those born as ―haves‖ remain ―haves‖ and those born as ―have nots‖ remain ―have nots‖. It is this lack of economic freedom that crates the potential for social unrest. Economic rights promote the social order because they represent the framework for a system of economic freedom. Again it should be emphasized that rights of participation do not constitute a guarantee of outcome. In order to incorporate economic rights into a system of economic justice we need to consider the various components of the latter. As Gorga notes, since the time of Aristotle economic justice was divided into distributive and commutative components where the latter represents the rules of justice applied to the exchange of goods. Gorga‘s key contribution was to recognize the need for a third component, namely participatory justice. If people do not have a right to participate in the production process how can they fully participate in the functions of distribution and exchange? Goods may only be exchanged after they have been distributed which first requires that they be produced. How can an individual have justice in exchange if they were denied justice in distribution? Likewise how can an individual have justice in distribution if they were denied justice in production?

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The first two rights established by Gorga represent the rights to participate in the creation of wealth. If society adheres to these rights then the economic system exhibits participatory justice. Access to the resources needed to create wealth will not be denied so long as the individual has the means to adhere to the corresponding responsibilities. For a lender to deny credit to an aspiring entrepreneur because the lender does not honestly see how the proposed borrower can repay is not a violation of rights and therefore does not constitute an injustice. However, if the lender refuses to supply credit even though there is clear evidence that the borrower can most likely repay then there has been a violation of economic rights and participatory justice has been violated. The third right established by Gorga clearly relates to the concept of distributive justice. Those who participate in the production process by offering their labor services are entitled to a level of compensation that is equal to the value of their contribution. Clearly the firm has a rightful claim to some of the proceeds in that the firm provides the worker with the capital necessary to complete the task. Additionally the firm provides the support services necessary to market the product and make it available for exchange. If employers provide wages and benefits that are less than the value of the workers contribution then the worker has experienced a violation of their right and distributive justice does not hold. Finally, the fourth right in Gorga‘s list is essential for commutative justice or justice in exchange. The right to my property implies that any exchange of property must be fair. An unfair exchange devalues my property thereby creating a deprivation. In a world of asymmetric information it is far too easy for misstatements of true value to be passed along. If an elderly woman going through the possessions of her recently deceased husband came across a 1912 mint condition Napoleon Lajoie tobacco card and offered it in a yard sale for $10, not realizing the true market value, and I purchase it with full knowledge of its resale potential then I have taken advantage of her ignorance. If she was fully informed but still decided to sell it for $10 then that was her informed choice and therefore her rights would not be violated. Now one might counter by claiming that the rights of possession imply a responsibility to know the true value of one‘s property but in a complex market environment that isn‘t always possible. A key aspect concerning the role of asymmetric information in a market transaction is that the transaction may not be efficient. If I know there is oil under your property and you don‘t, and in fact have no legitimate reason to suspect that there is, I have an informational advantage and I would be in a better position to ascertain the true value of the property. This informational asymmetry reduces an otherwise voluntary transaction to an unjust violation of rights and results in a lack of commutative justice. Contrary to the neolibertarian view, market exchange isn‘t just simply because it is voluntary. In summary, each of the four economic rights stated by Gorga (1999) relates to one of the components of economic justice and indeed economic justice requires that each of these rights be protected. Economic transactions have parties on both sides and economic rights of each side must be weighed to construct a system that approaches true economic justice.

ANTITRUST LAW AND ECONOMIC JUSTICE The focus is now directed toward the relationship between antitrust law and the various components of economic justice. Antitrust legislation covers a wide variety of issues from the

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control of mergers and cartels to various forms of conduct such as exclusive dealerships, predatory pricing, tying contracts and retail price maintenance. To what extent do these rules enhance and protect economic rights, thereby increasing the level of economic justice, and to what extent do they diminish economic justice by needlessly infringing upon the economic rights of individuals? Certainly those who would be categorized by Andrew Yuengert (1996) as ―market defenders‖ understand that in any complex organization a restriction on one person‘s rights is sometimes necessary in order to protect the rights of another person. As Michael Novak (1993) notes an orderly society is based upon a system of checks and balances. The excesses of the market are therefore checked by the state. Naturally ―market defenders‖ would deny that excesses are possible but as Yuengert (1996) notes market activity tends to obscure moral obligations. Karl Polyani (1944) considers the principle problem of market systems to be the tendency to reduce humans to the status of mere accessories in the economic process. As Elizabeth Anderson (1990) notes market activity tends to be impersonal and egoistic where there is no distinction between needs and wants. Those who are not satisfied with the market outcome have no true means of voicing their complaints. Their only recourse is to simply discontinue their participation in the process. Yet Michael Novak (1982) contends that the market process cannot thrive separate from the virtues and values of the moral culture, while Yuengert (1996) argues that markets are not suited for the formation of virtue. The market system, despite its general efficiency cannot guarantee a full protection of rights, hence cannot on its own ensure economic justice. Nevertheless market defenders argue that since actions prohibited by antitrust laws do not threaten the rights of anyone there is no valid reason to limit the property rights of business owners. Jeffrey Tucker (1998b) claims that there are four essential facts related to antitrust enforcement. First, he notes that a majority of antitrust suits are brought by disgruntled competitors. That may well be true, although the earliest antitrust suits were brought by the federal government, but that hardly diminishes the validity of the action. If someone crashes into my car I will be disgruntled and I may well file a lawsuit; however the fact that I am disgruntled because of the damage to my property does not mean I do not have a legitimate complaint. Of course the main point Tucker (1998a) makes about companies filing suits against competitors is that they are motivated by envy. While it may well be true that not all suits filed by disgruntled competitors have a valid claim it would be foolish to simply assume that envy is always the cause and no disgruntled competitor has a legitimate case. The reason we have courts is to sort through the claims, a form of Novak‘s (1993) checks and balances argument, to determine which ones have merit. However the filing of a claim must have a basis in law so without antitrust law legitimate suits could not be filed. Another weakness with Tuckers argument is his contention that the potential for suits filed solely out of envy is a sufficient reason to negate antitrust law. If that is the case then most if not all law related to civil actions should be eradicated since all civil actions have potential for frivolous filings. A second point raised by Tucker is that most firms targeted by antitrust actions have legitimate economic reasons for their behavior. This is an odd test to employ for questions of what should or should not be legal since most individuals who commit property crime have valid economic reasons for their behavior and those reasons are usually related to improving their economic well-being. Tucker‘s next claim is that behaviors deemed inappropriate actually serve to make consumers better off through lower prices and higher quality. With respect to this comment I would recommend a paper by Genesove and Mullin (2006) which provides sufficient

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empirical evidence to refute any claim that the monopolization of the sugar refining industry generated any benefits to consumers. Tucker does have a point that it is possible that a merger will allow the new structure to take advantage of economies of scale thus lowering average costs but it is not always the case. It equally plausible that a merger will create a structure that generates prices that are higher than those generated by a competitive market. Much depends on the level of minimum efficient scale. If two companies are both operating at minimum efficient scale then a merger would fail to generate any cost savings. The last criticism of antitrust laws is that they squelch innovation, force inefficiencies and make property rights insecure. The security of property rights might be threatened if the law is ambiguous; but as Elzinga (1998) notes, many provisions of antitrust laws is quite clear. That a poorly worded law may be bad is a specific condemnation of that particular piece of legislation but it fails to serve as a general criticism of the law as a concept. With respect to innovation, it is generally the product of competitive pressures which might be reduced by unregulated mergers and the legalization of certain prohibitive business practices. As far as inefficiencies, Elzinga acknowledges that restrictions on mergers may result in some efficient mergers from occurring but in this instance we are stuck in a dilemma. Do we restrict mergers knowing that, on occasion, we will deny a merger that would prove to be beneficial or do we allow mergers to occur unchecked and then deal with any adverse effects after they have occurred? Given Novak‘s (1993) principle that the state serves as a check on the excesses of the market one could argue that preemption is the preferred path. However, size alone does not represent a threat to the rights of consumers, only certain business practices. The fact that a large company might engage in unethical behavior does not make corporate size a problem in general. The problem is the tendency for people to forget that size is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the exercise of market power. The firm must produce a good for which there is no close substitute and there must be barriers to entry.

THE RESTRICTION OF MERGERS Although size in and of itself does not mean a firm will engage in unjust practices it creates a potential for improper behavior. Market defenders generally argue that improper behavior that creates above normal profits attracts entry into the market so that in the long-run a monopoly formed through mergers would not be able to sustain a high price over the longrun. On the other hand Genesove and Mullin (2006) provide evidence that size coupled with a reputation for predation can serve as a barrier to entry so the real restriction on the exercise of market power is the substitutability of the product. For a firm supplying a product that is easily substituted by another it would be difficult to maintain a higher price since the loss of customers to other products would offset any potential gain from charging the higher price. However that is an issue for a regulator to examine. The question isn‘t ―is it always ethical to prohibit a merger?‖, rather the query is properly sated as ―is it always unethical to have a law that places limits on mergers?‖ which is the contention of libertarian writers. The rights involved are in conflict when the potential to dominate production and the creation of wealth is involved. The market may be good at allocating resources and determining which goods get produced and in what quantity (provided the market is competitive) but it was mentioned earlier, the market is no producer of virtue. Even when property rights are clearly defined the

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market is in no position which property rights deserve the protection. This form of subjective valuation results from a political process. Your right to sell your business to a competitor must be weighed against the rights of those impacted by the merger. To say B may not sell to A does not prohibit B from selling to C. B still has the right to sell but A does not have the right to buy if the purchase would place A in a position to violate the property rights of others. Antitrust law, as a rule, does not outlaw mergers but merely requires approval. Owners of a business are not prohibited from selling their company but their choice of buyers may be limited. Additionally no antitrust law requires owners of a firm to sell at a price they find unattractive. Antitrust law does not claim all mergers are bad but that some may represent a potential harm that must be taken into consideration. While there are obvious agency problems associated with the enforcement these issues do not make the law unethical in general. With adequate analysis of data the minimum efficient scale of production could be determined and the proposed merger could be examined to see if there is a potential for cost savings. If two firms seeking to merge are both operating at or beyond that point where average cost is at a minimum then there would be no cost savings from the merger aside from possibly lower advertising expenditures and administrative overhead. The rejection of that particular merger request would not be harmful to consumers since the merger would fail to provide any significant cost savings which could then translate into lower prices. If there are no cost savings associated with a merger policy, enforcers could still agree to allow the merger or they could choose to deny. Here are we are in a subjective dilemma that relates to a previously posed question. Is it better to prevent mergers because there is a potential for harmful behavior or do we allow mergers and deal with inappropriate behavior when it occurs? Is either approach unjust? Tucker contends that the former approach is a violation of the property rights of business owners, a violation that occurs in an attempt to prevent possible harmful behavior. However his claim on property rights violations is unclear. Consider the earlier example, two firms, A and B, seek to merge with firm A buying out firm B. If the merger request is denied the owners of firm B are still free to sell, just not to the owners of firm A. Perhaps the deal offered by firm A was the best offer for their company but then the question would turn to why is firm A willing to pay more for the firm. If the merger would grant firm A more market power then the value from the higher offer is offset by the expected future price increase they would be willing to impose thus justifying the higher offer. The selling firm has rights which imply a corresponding set of responsibilities. The right to sell your property requires a respect for the property rights of others. If a firm has a certain value at prevailing prices and receives an offer that exceeds the true value there must be a reason. Those who claim that the seller is not responsible for the conduct of the buyer after the fact shroud themselves in a convenient veil of ignorance. Since sellers are not likely to question the rational for an above market value offer and would deem it to be in their selfish interest to accept the state, as guardian of all rights, has an obligation to intervene and question why the one company desires to purchase the other. If there are no compelling cost saving reasons for the merger then the regulators have a duty to other companies and consumers to inquire as to the reason for the offer. If the proposed purchasing company fails to convince regulators that the offer is not based upon the expected gains from restricting the

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market then regulators have an responsibility to protect the property rights of others and deny the merger request. Will regulators sometimes make errors in judgment? Certainly, in a world where law is enforced by humans errors will occur but that hardly serves as a basis for undoing the law. Should we abolish laws against murder and rape simply because some individuals were wrongly convicted? An unjust application of the law does not make the law itself unjust. Firm A has a right to request to buy firm B but has no right to a guarantee of success. Likewise firm B has a right to sell but no right to a particular buyer. If B wishes to sell to a buyer where the transaction then represents a legitimate threat the rights of others the state has an ethical duty to intervene and determine which right carries the greatest weight. Unlike Tucker most of us live in a world where there is a constant conflict of rights. To characterize a situation as one sided, only the parties involved have rights, is intellectually dishonest. Libertarians may not appreciate the concept of third party effects but they nevertheless exist. Of course Tucker and other followers of the libertarian credo would argue that no consumer has a right to a specific price and they would be correct. Unfortunately they would also be irrelevant. The issue isn‘t about a specific price but whether the price is a competitive or non-competitive price. The right to access resources for the creation of wealth carries the responsibility to properly use those resources. To restrict production in order to charge a higher price and hence more profit, a power that can be obtained by controlling a market, constitutes a misallocation of resources and therefore represents a violation of economic justice. Under proper resource allocation, the kind generated by true economic competition, prices would be lower except in cases where there are substantial economies of scale in production. Absent these economies of scale mergers increase market power and increase the likelihood that a firm will charge a non-competitive price. Any price above what a competitive market would generate results from a deliberate misallocation of resources and underproduction of the good. Therefore if, as members of society we have a reasonable expectation of proper resource use we have a reasonable expectation of competitive prices. To require me to pay a price resulting from an inefficient allocation and use of resources is to devalue my wealth thus violating one of my economic rights. We as consumers may not have a right to a particular price for any good but we do have a right to a competitive price. When firms use market power to restrict production and charge non-competitive prices an injustice in exchange occurs and firms are ignoring their economic responsibilities concerning resource use. A law designed to limit unjust behavior maybe applied in an unjust manner but the law itself remains valid.

CONCLUSION Rights are involved in any economic transaction and there are rights on both sides of any exchange. One role of society is to referee conflicts that arise and make assessments that require both objective and subjective analysis. The economic rights discussed in this paper exist as explicit rights. However since rights carry responsibilities there are also implicit rights that can be reasonably derived. The right to access productive resources carries a responsibility of utilizing them in an efficient manner. Since competition results in an

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allocatively efficient use of resources, thus the socially optimal level of production, the resulting price consumers are willing to pay in a competitive environment becomes an implicit right. Now there is no guarantee that all consumers would be happy with a competitive price but as long as competitive prices imply efficient resource allocation then creators of wealth have a duty to charge competitive prices. Better stated, the implicit right derived from the responsibility to efficiently employ resources is the right of all economic stakeholders to a competitive outcome. Given that mergers could result in the formation of market power resulting in prices exceeding the competitive level, the state, as the protector of rights, has an ethical duty to ensure that mergers do not threaten the welfare and property rights of consumers or competing enterprises. Surely regulators have an ethical responsibility to properly examine the potential consequences of a proposed merger in a fair and objective manner and not dismiss simply because the result will be a larger firm with a larger market share. Libertarian critics of antitrust law claim that consumers do not have a right to any particular price and they are correct. Likewise no firm has an inherent right to a particular market share. For society to say that market share may be obtained by producing a more desired product but not necessarily by acquiring competing firms is societies right to protect its own interests. To allow mergers to occur without restriction and deal with unjust behavior after the fact is one possible approach to unjust business practice but an alternative to that policy does not then become inherently unethical. Certainly a law that simply outlawed mergers without consideration would be an excessive infringement on the property rights of the sellers but that is not nor has it been the approach embodied in the merger provisions of U.S. antitrust law. Improper application of the law may be unethical but that does not make the law itself unethical. If a prosecutor successfully frames an innocent suspect for murder the prosecutor has acted in an unjust manner but the law against murder remains a sound policy. Laws are rarely if ever created as a lark, rather they are a response to observed conditions. Eichner (1969), Genesove and Mullin (1998, 2001), McCurdy (1979) Zerbe (1969) and Weiman and Levin (1994) all discuss cases where firms used market power to their advantage in the period just prior to the passage of the first antitrust law through the earliest days of antitrust enforcement. Rather than the product of envy on the part of disgruntled competitors, antitrust laws were constructed as a response to observed behaviors by some firms. The notion that market power might create an ability to restrict production and raise the price is not restricted to the domain of chalkboard theory. It is the product of observation and the laws derived were not based on conjecture but real experience. Laws designed to regulate behavior that violate the basic tenets of economic justice may not always be well written and may not always be properly enforced but the intent is to protect the rights of one group which will always require some restriction of the rights of the other party. Misapplication of the law does make the law itself unjust. Economic theory claims that market power leads to market failure. True economic justice, therefore, depends on an institutional framework that will protect the economic rights of consumers from any injustice that might arise from mergers that result in an excessive degree of market concentration which leads firms to diminish the value of consumer property claims to their income.

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REFERENCES Anderson, E. (1990), The Ethical Limitations of the Market, Economics and Philosophy, 6, pp. 179-205. Eichner, A. S. (1969), The Emergence of Oligopoly: Sugar Refining as a Case Study, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Elzinga, K. G. (1998), Are Antitrust Laws Immoral?: A response to Jeffrey Tucker, Journal of Markets and Morality, 1, pp. 83-89. Genevose, G. and Mullin W. P. (1998), Testing Static Oligopoly Models: Conduct and Cost in the Sugar Industry, RAND Journal of Economics, 29, pp.355-377. Genesove, D. and Mullin W. P. (2001), Rules, Communication and Collusion: Narrative Evidence from the Sugar Institute Case, American Economic Review, 91, pp.379-398. Genesove, D. and Mullin W. P. (2006), Predation and its Rate of Return: The Sugar Industry, 1887-1914, RAND Journal of Economics, 37, pp.47-69. Gorga, C. (1999), Toward the Definition of Economic Rights, Journal of Markets and Morality, 2, pp.102-113. Jacobs, B., Cleveland H., MacFarlance R., Natarajan A. and van Harten R. (1999), Human Choice: The Genetic Code for Social Development. Minneapolis: World Academy of Arts and Science. Klein, P. J. (1996), Economic Calculation and the Limits of Organization‖, Review of Austrian Economics, 9, pp. 3-28. Langlois, R. N. (1988), Economic Change and the Boundaries of the Firm, Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 144, pp.635-657. Langlois, R. N. (1994), The Boundaries of the Firm, in P. Boettke ed. The Elgar Companion to Austrian Economics, Aldershott, UK: Edward Elgar, pp.173-178. McCurdy, C. W. (1979), The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporate law, 1869-1903 Business History Review, 53, pp.304-342. Morvaridi, B. (2008), Social Justice and Development, Basingstoke: Palgrave-MacMillan. Novak, M. (1982), The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism, New York: Touchstone. Novak, M. (1993), The Catholic Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, New York: Free Press. Polanyi, K. (1944), The Great Transformation, Boston: Beacon Press. Rothbard, M. N. (1970), Man, Economy and State: A Treatise on Economic Principles, Los Angeles: Nash. Tucker, J. (1998a), Are Antitrust Laws Immoral?, Journal of Markets and Morality, 1, pp.7572. Tucker, J. (1998b), Are Antitrust Laws Immoral?: A Reply to Kenneth G. Elzinga, Journal of Markets and Morality, 1, pp.90-94. Weiman, D. F. and. Levin R. C (1994), Preying for Monopoly?: The Case of Southern Bell Telephone Company, 1894-1912, Journal of Political Economy, 102, pp.103-126. Williamson, O. E. (1985), The Economic Institutions of Capitalism, New York: Free Press. Yuengert, A. M. (1996), Free Markets and Character, Catholic Review of Social Sciences, 1, pp. 99-110. Zerbe, R. O. (1969), The American Sugar Refining Company 1887-1914: The Story of a Monopoly, Journal of Law and Economics, 12, pp. 339-375.

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Chapter 8

TAINTED PUBLICATIONS AND THEIR AUTHORS' PUBLICATION TREND PROFILES: A STUDY ON SINGAPORE FROM THE YEAR 2004 TO 2010 Jong Yong Abdiel Foo Electronic and Computer Engineering Division, School of Engineering, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Singapore

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ABSTRACT In the academic world, there are increasingly pressures to publish and this has affected the conduct of research. Sadly, the lingering effect of such behavior is translated into research misconduct where the scientific community is misled and the confidence of the general public in research being shaken. High-profile cases such as that involving the stem cell researcher, Hwang Woo-Suk, have lasting detrimental effects on himself as well as his home country. For developed nations like Singapore, a large percentage of its annual gross domestic product is invested in research. Between the year 2004 and 2010, a total of 2,427 journal publications were affiliated to an institution in Singapore were extracted from the PubMed database. The retraction data indicated that only 9 or 0.4% of these publications were tainted. The obtained publication trend of the authors associated with these tainted publications was then examined up to-date. It is worth highlighting that the numbers herein may be just a tip of the iceberg of the actual number of tainted publications. In this chapter, the possible implications of research misconduct such as the lasting effects of unpunished offences, the need to promote whistle-blowing and the necessity for a unique author‘s identity are discussed.

Keywords: Publication ethics, research integrity, whistle-blow, research misconduct



Correspondence: Jong Foo, Tel: (+65) 6460 8624, Fax: (+65) 6467 1730, Email: abdielfoo@ hotmail.com.

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INTRODUCTION There are studies that are suggesting that the motivation to publish in academic journals has moved from sharing scientific findings and results with fellow researchers to becoming a mere key performance indicator. It is believed that the main reason for such a paradigm shift is the notion to ‗publish or perish‘ faced by researchers and institutions involved in research [1-4]. Due to the mounting pressures, some caved in and started to misbehave in order to attain funding, recognition and/or tenured faculty position [3-4]. Prominent cases of misconduct such as the one that involved the disgraced South Korean stem cell researcher, Hwang Woo-Suk, have drawn much attention, even from the public. This has resulted in more efforts to promote ethical practices in scientific research [5-6]. The lingering detrimental effects of research misconduct can range from misleading the academic community and decelerate the progress of research to eroding the public trust in scientific research [7]. Previous study suggested that when Hwang Woo-Suk published his now infamous research, his own country, South Korea, was lacking a formal policy to report any scientific misconduct. Moreover, the country also had no policy put in place to protect whistle-blowers against suspected research misconduct [5]. With the increased awareness and growing concerns from both the academic community and the general public, this has prompted a much conceited effort to curb misconducts from occurring. In order to address the multi-faceted complications and implications research misconduct can manifest, international organizations including the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) are beginning to form. The mandate of these organizations is to provide a platform where issues pertaining to the integrity of a research work can be discussed [8]. Furthermore, many countries have established offices delegated to policing ethical practices in scientific research at both the national and institutional level. Like many developed nations, Singapore which is one of the Four Asian Tigers like South Korea [9], also allocates a sizable percentage of the nation‘s gross domestic product (GDP) into research [10-11]. With the formation of public sector based research governances such as the National Research Foundation, Singapore poises to consolidate and escalate the research and development activities within the island-nation. Moreover, strong support from the Singapore‘s government to enforce ethical research practices has been garn at the second World Conference on Research Integrity in the year 2010. It is also essential to note that a high-profile episode involving scientific misconduct can implicate and tarnish the entire nation‘s reputation akin to the impact of the Hwang Woo-Suk‘s episode to the reputation of his home country [5-6]. In view of this, it would be interesting to understand the scientific misconduct incidents in Singapore to-date especially those pertaining to tainted academic publications. This understanding can provide a framework from which other similar investigations can be based on. In this chapter, the following points are investigated which include: (1) assessing the trend of tainted publications in Singapore to-date, (2) evaluating the publication trend of authors associated with the tainted publications, (3) discussing the possible implications of research misconduct such as the lingering effects of unpunished offences and the importance of promoting whistle-blowing, and (4) examining the potential need for a unique author‘s identity. It is worth noting that the materials from this chapter have been adapted from a prior publication.

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METHODS AND MATERIALS

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The first analysis included two pools of data; published publications affiliated to an institution based in Singapore and the associated tainted publications from the former pool. All data used herein were obtained from the PubMed database (United States National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD) starting from the year with the first scientific misconduct offence to the year 2010. For the former pool, the search for published publications affiliated to an institution based in Singapore was limited to ―Clinical Trial, Meta-Analysis, Practice Guideline, Randomized Controlled Trial, and Review‖ types of articles. Only these types of articles were included in this study as some form of research and/or analysis was required in order for the article to be published. For the latter pool, the search was further limited to ―Duplicate Publication, Retracted Publication, Retraction of Publication, and Scientific Integrity Review‖ types of articles. In order to minimize data artifacts (inclusion of unrelated authors or exclusion of identified authors), all these publications were searched manually by hand and verified that the first author of each publication was affiliated to an institution based in Singapore. In the second analysis, it included the publication profile of authors associated to a tainted publication based on a general search of the author‘s name and the term ―Singapore‖. Similarly, all the data were extracted from the PubMed database. The search was then manually performed and verified that the said author was associated to the published publication. To better analyze the obtained data and derive useful insights, the following additional data for the said author were included; 3 years prior to the tainted publication, and the publication profile thereafter to-date were retracted. The spreadsheet program, Microsoft EXCEL 2007 (Microsoft Corporation, Seattle, WA), was used to create a template for data collection, sorting and calculation.

RESULTS Based on the aforementioned criterions, a total of 2431 published publications that were affiliated to an institution based in Singapore were successfully extracted from the PubMed database between the year 2004 and 2010 [last accessed on 3 January 2011]. From the 2431 extracted publications, there were only 9 tainted publications or 0.37% of the total related publications [12-21]. In Table 1, it shows the number of published publications affiliated to an institution based in Singapore and the corresponding number of tainted publications. The collated data were tabulated according to an inter-year basis. For the analysis herein, the occurrence of the first publication misconduct was in the year 2004. Since that year, the percentage of tainted publications to that of the total published publications had been below the 1% mark even till the year 2010. Based on these data, it could be indicative that there had not been an over alarming trend in the number of publication misconduct in Singapore. It is worth highlighting that though many academic publishers and journals had their publications made searchable online; it is possible that there may be tainted publications missing from the extracted data. An important point to note is that the number of tainted publications for the year 2010 was still unavailable at the point when the data were extracted.

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Table 1: The figures in this table illustrate the total numbers of published publications that are affiliated to an institution in Singapore and the numbers of tainted publications according to the year Year Number of tainted publications Number of published publications Percentage

2004 1

2005 2

2006 0

2007 3

2008 1

2009 2

2010 0

Total 9

278

351

388

337

345

418

314

2431

0.36%

0.57%

0.00%

0.89%

0.29%

0.48%

0.00%

0.37%

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Table 2: The figures show the publication trend of authors associated with the analyzed tainted publications. Only 24 authors are included as they are affiliated to an institution based in Singapore Year Li CM* Dong YH* Zhang XF Soo HM Zhang LH Srikanth S* Lu J* Wang XJ Yang X Ching CB Heng BC* Lu L* Yu L Kwang J Godge MR* Kumar PP Chen Y* Narayanswamy B Chew M Huang Q* Wu YT Tan HL Ong CN Shen HM

2001 0

2002 0 1 0 2 3 0

2003 0 0 0 0 9 0

2004 0 4 1 0 6 0 1 2 0 6 9 2 0 7

2005 4 3 0 0 5 0 0 1 0 1 25 4 2 6 0 1

2006 3 1 0 2 5 0 0 0 1 2 18 1 0 7 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 6 5

2007 17 2 0 0 5 0 2 1 0 6 16 0 0 4 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 9 8

2008 2009 2010 15 16 22 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 4 2 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 5 5 3 5 0 0 0 1 0 0 7 10 7 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 6 11 8 5 3 5

Legend: (1) The italic number denotes the figures before and on the year the tainted publication is retracted. (2) The grey shaded area denotes the lagging period between the tainted publication being published and it eventually being retracted. (3) The asterisk (*) symbol denotes the first author of each tainted publication.

The publication trend of authors associated with the analyzed tainted publications was also successfully extracted from the PubMed database and tabulated in Table 2.

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For the 9 tainted publications, there were altogether 29 authors associated with it. However, only 24 authors were included in the analysis as they were affiliated to an institution based in Singapore. From Table 2, it could be observed that the number of publications published by these disgraced authors would be lower the year when the retraction of their tainted article was made known. This could suggest that either the offenders refrained themselves from more mischievous acts when they were exposed or they might have been warned and closely monitored by their parent institution. However, it is worth noting that these are purely speculative. Another important point to highlight is that some of these authors had relocated to other countries and their affiliation with an institution based in Singapore was thereby ceased. However, there are still useful insights that can be derived from the extracted data. More essentially, the results obtained can also imply that authors of tainted publications had fabricated their results in their eagerness to improve their publication profile. From Table 2, it can be observed that there was a lagging period (shaded in grey) for 6 of the 9 tainted publications before it was eventually exposed and then, retracted by the journal editorial. Unfortunately, the intangible impact and implications to the scientific community of that lagging period could not be easily quantified or qualified. There are also possibilities that researchers, who are still unaware of the retraction of these tainted publications, may continue working on the fabricated results published.

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DISCUSSION For a nation to place a sizable percentage of its annual GDP into research, is a serious commitment for the government and a great sacrifice from its general population. The expectations that the returns from these investments will benefit the public are then understandable and reasonable. Essentially, research funded by the public sector will be under stricter scrutiny, especially with much more public awareness of scientific misconduct since these funding are usually derived from the people. For a developed economic like Singapore where the nation‘s aspiration is to further develop the economy by investing in science and technology as an export commodity [10], integrity in scientific research then becomes extremely important. As such, research misconducts not only decelerate the scientific progress for the academic world but may also erode and devastate the trust of the general public in research. An infamous case like that of Hwang Woo-Suk can have lasting detrimental effects on the nation as well as on a global scale [6]. From the presented data, the proportion of tainted publications to the overall published publications may be low (38 27 271 years Total 665 054

Number of % at risk women at risk women / women tested 43 655 6,8 11 986 44,0

Number of Trisomy 21

% Trisomy 21 /at risk women

352 164

0,8 1,4

55 641

514

0,9

8,4

Figure 10. Number of women tested with maternal serum markers and considered at risk at the threshold of 1/250 in 2007 in Agence de la biomédecine. Rapport annuel et bilan des activités, diagnostic prénatal 2007. p 280.

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2. Screening with “Numbers”: The Case of Trisomy 21 In 1992, only patients over the age of 38 at the time of conception were reimbursed by the French Health Insurance for an amniocentesis for fetal karyotype, owing to an increased risk of Trisomy 21 due to their age. Since then PND has gone through various stages in France. This chromosomal abnormality can also affect, even though less frequently, the fetuses of much younger women. Leaning on the generous idea of promoting some equality among all pregnant women, whatever their ages, the authorities allowed generalized testing, reimbursed by the French Health Insurance. Screening for Trisomy 21 of all pregnant women with maternal serum markers (MSM) was set in place nationwide by the decree of May 27, 1997. Coincidently, the new regulation took effect the year after the award for best lead actor at the Cannes Film Festival was presented jointly to Pascal Duquenne, an actor with Down Syndrome, and Daniel Auteuil, for their parts in the film ―The Eighth Day‖. At that time, the dosage of M. S. M. was performed between week 14 and week 17 and 6 days of amenorrhea. There are 2 even 3 associated markers: free choriogonadotropin β subunit with hCG, alpha-fetoprotein and estriol. The calculation of the risk for chromosomal abnormalities results in a fraction. The risk cut-off, calculated with software, is set at 1/250. When the risk is superior or equal to 1/250, the patient is considered to belong to an

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increased-risk-for-Trisomy-21 group. On the contrary, the patient who does not belong to the risk group is informed that, even though the risk is low, it still exists. The number of cases of Trisomy 21 being diagnosed by amniocentesis among women said to be at risk is reported in Figure 10. Initially set up for one year then prolonged for five years renewable, the method was designed to allow the detection of at least 60% of children with Down Syndrome. Currently, 79% of such children have been detected. Moreover, the procedure followed until recently is sequential. It includes an ultrasound performed between week 11 and week 13 and 6 days of amenorrhea, then a biochemical dosage of M.S.M. at the second trimester, between week 14 and week 17 and 6 days of amenorrhea. In 2007, for 816,500 registered deliveries, 665,054 women, that is 3/4 of all the women, were thus screened. When the risk is rated high, an amniocentesis, possible at about the 16th or 17th week of amenorrhea, is recommended to the patient. The procedure, which consists in puncturing a sample of amniotic liquid during an ultrasound, is far from innocuous. The final result of the fetal karyotype is obtained about two weeks later. Besides, in nearly 3% of the cases, a second sampling is necessary because of difficulties of interpretation [7]. The iatrogenicity is so important that the amniocentesis results in the loss of two unharmed fetuses for the screening of one affected one. All in all, the iatrogenous risk of miscarriage, by no means insignificant, fluctuates between one and two percent. In France, 700 healthy fetuses, on average, are estimated to be lost annually because of this method. Because of the rates of false positives, the number of amniocenteses is excessive: 95,452 in 2007. France holds the world record in percentage of pregnancies, which is 3.3 to 11.7%, even 16% in some medical services in the Paris area [7-8]. For several years, we have being using the Dr Brideron calculation Method of integrated risk, combining M.S.M., nuchal translucency, the cranio-caudal length of the embryo and the age of the patient. However, the calculation of an integrated risk has never been validated [9]. Aiming for increased efficiency, the French Minister of Health has recently modified the legal framework of PND and introduced a combined screening in the 1st term. The ministerial decree of June 23, 2009 suggests a change in the screening method for Trisomy 21 by combining the dosage of two serum markers (PAPP–A and free choriogonadotropin β subunit with hCG), the measurement of nuchal translucency (both subject to a quality control) and the maternal age [10]. For a detection rate of 85%, the rate of the false positives would be inferior to 5%. The new text defining the details of implementation of the new early screening for Trisomy 21 follows some American recommendations as well as the results of a study in several centers in the Paris area. [8-11]. To conclude this first part, it is useful to note that a dosage of serum markers as well as an ultrasound are simply predictive or probability screenings. It is far from easy to announce a possible fetal abnormality when something wrong on the image or in the numbers doesn‘t a fortiori mean there is any abnormality. Is it ethical to worry a pregnant woman, parents-to-be with no positive proof? More than a century ago, Claude Bernard prophesied such an ambiguity of a medicine turned predictive: ―Truth is the aim, plausibility is the risk‖ [12]. This is particularly evident in the screening for Trisomy 21. The current methods of identifying risks, based on probability, present couples with agonizing and unpredictable issues. As a consequence, couples resort massively to such invasive procedures as amniocenteses to confirm or validate the degree of uncertainty, with the collateral damages we are familiar with. The statistical modeling of intrauterine life is not just a theory in the Greek etymological meaning of the word which means contemplation. It has now

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become essential as an interface - as essential as the computer screen on which the doctor scrupulously enters the clinical data of his patient. We are looking away, focusing on numbers.... Are our medical views changing? How do we summarize the case history of a pregnant woman at the center meetings? Having first recalled the patient‘s history, the date of fertilization, the doctor then gives the numbers corresponding to nuchal translucency and statistical risk. Numbers which become the fetus‘ sole identity... without any legal identity! Is statistical science on the point of replacing medical morals and of educating our consciences, since our actions - medical or iatrogenous terminations of pregnancy - based on calculations would consequently be legal? [13] What conscience of humanity does this statistical science bring us? What rules does life teach us which allow us to attempt to control it in this way? Is our recent medical approach to pregnancy irreversible then? The existence of the fetus based on numbers, a threshold value for maternal serum markers similar to a disqualifying mark (when the risk is superior or equal to 1/250) have insidiously transported us to a new culture of the existence which has become trivialized. Both the embryo and the fetus have indeed become objects of calculation and have stopped being subjects of care. Can it not be said that what medicine has gained in scientific knowledge, in statistical demonstration, in ―chilly rigor‖, it has lost in the opportunity to ―meet‖ the Other? When scientific obstetrics becomes more interested in the illness than in the ill patient, it may well lead us to forget the Other, the human person. Does this mathematical specialization not threaten to make the health care professional less aware of the patient, be he or she a patientto-be, and of the very meaning of care? Because they tend to turn the fetus into an object, might the evolving techniques of PND go against the very nature of care? One cannot end this chapter without quoting François Rabelais: ―Science without conscience leads to the ruin of the soul!...‖

PND – THE EUGENICS ISSUE 1. A Renewed Ethical Question According to Hippocratic ethics, a doctor must be determined in his fight against disease. In such a merciless fight, he sometimes has to resort to drastic solutions. Modern medicine has intensively tried to suppress infectious diseases and eradicate the pathogenic agents which carry them. The reward for such efforts is for example the disappearance of the smallpox virus everywhere on the planet, surviving only in some highly specialized laboratories throughout the world. But is this radical logic, deemed necessary for infections, not wrongfully being imported into the field of human diseases affecting fetuses? An eradication of chromosomal abnormalities and of other genetic mutations before birth seems to have become the ultimate aim of modern biomedicine - except that in this case the carriers must be eliminated, raising the haunting issue of an eugenics peril. Even though it reminds us of dark times in our history, the issue of eugenics is making a spectacular comeback in France in current ethics and policy debates. In accordance with the first bioethical law of July 29, 1994, article 16-4 of the Civil Code states that ―all eugenic practice leading to the organization of the selection of persons is forbidden‖. Although the ban is clear, the current strategy of prenatal screening has for some

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months given rise to some renewed ethical concern about a modern recurrence of eugenics. Professor Didier Sicard, then chairman of the National Consultative Ethics Committee (NCEC), the most prestigious institutional group supervising the French moral debate, alarmed by the excesses of our public health policy about PND, has thus shaken our certainties : ―Let us dare to state it: France is progressively building up a health policy that flirts with eugenics. (…) I am deeply worried by systematic screening. How can one defend the right to non-existence? (…) We are not far from the impasses we began to enter into at the end of the nineteenth century where science might come to decide who should live and who should not. And yet, history has amply shown where it can lead us when one starts to undertake the exclusion of groups of humans from the city, based on cultural, biological and ethical criteria. The central truth is that most of the prenatal screening activity aims at suppressing, not treating. That is why such screening leads to a terrifying prospect: that of eradication‖ [14]. Demonstrating that even the Head of the State is now overcome with doubt, on February 11, 2008, the French Prime Minister asked the State Council, the highest administrative court of law, for ―a detailed examination of the activities of prenatal screening‖. In a letter of mission he handed the Council to prepare the review of the law on bioethics, the Head of the government goes so far as to question the Council on whether ―the precautions taken around these practices guarantee an effective application of the principle banning any eugenic practice‖.

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2. Diagnosis or Prenatal Screening? It is important to make a clear difference between the notions of diagnosis and screening. To make a diagnosis is a medical and individual act. Screening is a political and collective act, often initiated by public authorities. Its original aim is not to make a diagnosis but to give information about a statistically-calculated risk. As a consequence, in screening, what matters is not the demand but the offer as it imposes in fine the obligation for results. If diagnosis is indeed a noble part of the medical art, screening is far from being always necessary. To justify its practice, ethics requires that it result in a therapeutic response and corresponding attitudes. There is absolutely no denying the invaluable contribution of scientific progress in the area of prenatal diagnoses. Our improved knowledge and interpretation of maternal serum markers are of undeniable assistance in confirming an increased risk of preterm birth or of preeclampsia. In the case of intrauterine growth retardation, genetic diseases in the family and so many others, PND must be done as early as possible. Thanks to efficient tests, the obstetrician is able to inform couples, prepare them psychologically, guide them and if need be, take care of the baby in the best possible conditions in the event that the handicap might be cured by surgery. However, do all diagnoses, whether confirmed or suspected, lead to any other solution that the MTP requested by parents?

3. Individual Screening or Public Health Policy? In a report released on May 6, 2009, the State Council didn't dodge the unsettling question of the Prime Minister and for the first time admitted that eugenics might not only be

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―the fruit of a policy deliberately followed by a state‖ but also ―the collective result of a number of individual convergent decisions made by the parents-to-be in a society where the quest for the perfect child would prevail‖ [15]. Indeed according to the Council, some statistics show the existence of ―an individual practice of elimination that is almost systematic‖. They go on to quote numbers to confirm such an appalling record: ―In France, 92 % of cases of Trisomy are detected against 70% on average for all of Europe, and 96% of the cases thus detected lead to a termination of pregnancy‖. How can we explain the almost absolute link between PND and the MTP that ensues if the fetus is believed to be affected by ―a particularly serious affection‖? Professor Jacques Milliez talks of a diffuse culture in our society which refuses the very notion of handicap. ―It is generally accepted that, except in cases where parents disagree because of their beliefs or feelings, a fetus affected with Trisomy 21, can, legitimately in the sense of collective and individual ethics, undergo a MTP. There is some general assent, collective approval, consensus of opinion, established order in favor of such a decision, so much so that the couples who will have to undergo a termination of pregnancy for Trisomy 21 will not be asking themselves the difficult question of how relevant their individual choice is. Society and in some way, general opinion, even without any constraint, have answered the question for them. Practically everybody would have done the same. The indication seems even so established that the parents consider that somehow it is a right…We will not ask here any nagging question about the relevance of their choice‖ [16]. If eugenics is today described as democratic and liberal because it would only be the result of a vast number of individual and private choices, is it not as well a political and collective choice with individual consequences? According to Dr Odile Montazeau and Dr Josée Benoit : ―If the spring loading mechanism of eugenics is indeed individual, it is put in place by public authorities‖ [17]. They conclude with these unkind words : ―A MTP for Trisomy 21 has really become a eugenic practice and with a very large social consensus, in spite of the lack of – or maybe thanks to the lack of – any democratic debate (…) A MTP has become a tool to select unborn children, (…) one of the eugenic practices produced by a policy that doesn't admit it is so and that pretends to respond to the demands of the couples.‖ Indeed, many observers note that behind such practices lies some kind of voluntarism on the part of public authorities, aiming at profitability and technical efficiency.

4. PND as a Profitable Practice? Our Public Health policy about PND and Trisomy 21 is implicitly based on a comparison of the costs of screening against the costs of life-long care for children with Down Syndrome. A study released in 1993 estimated that the financial cost for society to take care of a person with Down Syndrome all his/her life amounted at the time to 2,650,000 francs [18]. Compared with what children who would not have been detected would have cost - some speak of an escape rate - some people think that a screening policy unburdens public funds (the screening process costs the French health insurance 100 million euros a year) [19]. This is what the very serious High Committee of Public Health says: ―The analysis of cost and profit, when it simply compares the collective cost of amniocenteses and karyotypes against the cost of taking care of handicapped children who wouldn‘t have been screened, (and assuming that a positive diagnosis is systematically followed by a MTP) shows that PND are

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perfectly justified for the community‖ [20]. Moreover, in a highly publicized legal case in France, the Perruche case, where the doctor was held responsible for the handicap of the child, a case of congenital German measles that had not been diagnosed, the French Social Insurance had also registered a complaint, asking for compensation for loss due to the cost of taking care of the child. According to Jean Marie Le Méné, President of the Jérôme Lejeune Foundation, state-approved for research on genetically-transmitted mental deficiencies, that is all very logical. In an essential book on the issue, he says that society has invested everything in screening, has already paid for handicapped children to disappear and is not then going to pay for them to live [21]. Besides, economic necessity is such that, despite the invasive risks of amniocentesis, the death of healthy fetuses is tolerated. Finally, though tests are not coercively imposed on pregnant women who still have to give their written consent, they are constraining for doctors who are obliged to recommend them. Is it not because of this fact that the whole system has become so extremely legalized, turning the practice of an obstetrician into some logic of guaranteed results? If a practitioner fails to detect a handicap in an unborn child, he/she is today liable to a penalty... up to ten years after the child comes of age! The individual versus society: duality or synergy of their interests? According to Claude Bernard: ―A doctor always deals with an individual. He is not, in any way, the doctor of mankind, of the human race; he is the doctor of an individual and even of an individual in particular circumstances… [22]‖. Conversely, one can foresee the dreadful consequences of a true «gynocide» when some Indian or Chinese doctors accept to practice sex-selection abortion. We must admit that obstetricians of the beginning of the twenty-first century are not exclusively in the service of individuals. Society has invested them with a very particular mission – to terminate some pregnancies in order to protect the community's interests. That used to be the task of the executioner when the death penalty existed... Are we not confusing roles? Both faber, thanks to his tools and methods, and economicus, as determined by his productivity, has Homo Sapiens turned into homo statisticus since 1997, as he has broken through the filter of prenatal statistical calculations?

5. PND: A Method Achieving Greater Results and Practiced Earlier and Earlier As we pointed out earlier, the High Authority on Health recommended generalizing a new screening system, carrying out all analyses at once during the first trimester while combining the dosage of serum markers with the measurement of nuchal translucency. From the advantages put forward - a lower amniocentesis rate and, as a consequence, fewer secondary miscarriages and a lower psychological impact in case of a MPT - , the French government implemented these recommendations in the decree of June 23, 2009. While the new procedure is supposed to refine the theoretical increased risk of Trisomy 21, its positive predictive value has not yet reached a hundred per cent. Once again, screening is merely a calculation of risks. If the risk is low, screening won't absolutely dismiss the possibility that the unborn child be affected. If the risk is believed high, the diagnosis will have to be confirmed by an invasive act in all cases. But an amniocentesis being too uncertain in the first trimester, the obstetrician will have to propose to women a choriocentesis, or

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biopsy of the trophoblast (future placenta), possible by the twelfth week of amenorrhea, that causes a rate of fetus loss at least equal to the one caused by a puncture of amniotic fluid. Good practice recommends that only experienced practitioners should undertake the sampling of chorionic villi because there is a risk of miscarriage which is by no means insignificant. Even if it is theoretically limited, there is still some iatrogenic risk. Can we really accept to lose even one fetus on the mere presumption of a statistical risk? What about the psychological impact on women? Will the new procedure amount to less anxiety for the mothers? According to the new decree, pregnant women must have their say in the choice of a diagnostic method. Either they will choose a biopsy of the trophoblast, earlier and at least as iatrogenic as an amniocentesis – however may not a supposed precocity of samplings turn out to be illusory as sampling centers are bound to get saturated ? - or they will choose the latter test, later and so are likely to become more anxious as they will wait longer for a diagnosis. In addition, won't the act, becoming ordinary, be all the more readily accepted by the patients as they will not yet have registered their pregnancy or become affectively involved? [24]. Can we underestimate the psychological consequences of such an act, when Post Abortion Stress Syndrome is getting more and more attention? Moreover, all the tests being taken one after another might lead to some technocratic type of management of screening, all happening in the same place. Some speak of a eugenic timespace concept to describe this change of practice. In France, a pilot project of this kind, the ―Prima Facie‖ Center, opened in Paris in April 2009. Following a screening method still called ―one day test‖, it proposes to any pregnant woman a general checkup, clinical, biological and ultrasound testing, between the 11th and the 14th week of amenorrhea, with results given within 3 hours [23-24]. One could view this as a concrete implementation of a surprising proposal made by a famous Nobel Prize of Medicine winner, Sir Francis Crick, who suggested that any intrauterine being should not be considered human before tests have been done for its genetic endowment. If the tests fail, it loses the right to live [25]. Isn‘t ―Prima Facie‖ the Latin for either first sight or first piece of evidence? Furthermore, the new time limits allowed by the Ministry of Health fall within the legal period for a termination of pregnancy in France, allowed till the 14th week of amenorrhea by the law of July 4, 2001. Women could then get around the issue of an approval for a MPT by a Multidisciplinary Center, by individually asserting their ―right‖ to a termination of pregnancy if there is any suspicion of fetal malformation, even though there be no certainty of that kind of thing. Foreseeing some underlying danger in instituting the procedure, the State Council has proposed to compel women with at risk pregnancies to wait for the enlightened opinion of the commission of a Multidisciplinary Center for PND. For all that, nobody will be able to compel them to submit to such a measure prior to the usual date for a registration of pregnancy. Lastly, the State Council recommended giving more information to pregnant women on PND in order to limit the drift towards eugenics. Wishful thinking, one might say! How can we assert that a woman who in a matter of hours will be informed that there is a risk her child might be affected, will then be able to really consent to such or such a test? And is her consent always free and enlightened? Do we express ourselves in an intelligible language? By the decree of May 6, 1995, along with a PND, a doctor must as well give full information to the pregnant woman. The health professional must attest he/she informed her when screening was proposed (certificate signed by the consultant), and written consent of the woman for screening must be attached to the prescription. Yet a study by the Inserm 912 Unit, led by

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Valérie Seror, one of the best specialists on the subject, has shown that most women were not aware of the implications of screening. In particular ―40% of them had not considered that at some time they could have to be confronted with the decision to terminate their pregnancy. More than half of them had never thought that screening could be followed by an amniocentesis and about one third didn‘t understand the results of blood dosage‖ [8-26]. According to Valérie Seror: ―One may argue that women are not aware of the potential implications of screening‖. Some observers have rightly noticed that this disturbing study has been little commented upon by the concerned authorities, as it questions the principle of enlightened consent which is theoretically the cornerstone of the statutory procedure that controls the screening of Trisomy 21. The new French regulations themselves could very quickly become obsolete due to the analysis of fetal DNA in maternal blood at a very early stage of pregnancy. A test called ISET -isolation by size of epithelial tumor cells- initially perfected in oncology, has been experimentally validated in the field of obstetrics and PND. The original aspect of the method lies in the fact that a few epithelial tumor cells can be isolated individually by filtration, then be micro dissected and their DNA extracted. The person in charge of the study, Professor Patricia Paterlini-Bréchot, head of the Inserm 807 Unit at the Necker Hospital for Sick Children, drew the following conclusion on January 27, 2009, after studying the test for the detection of mucoviscidosis : ―Not only was the right diagnosis made (affected / nonaffected) in every case, but the method has also distinguished the fetuses carrying the disease (a mutated allele and a normal allele) from those that are completely normal, which shows how extraordinarily accurate and specific it can be‖ [27]. The method could be applied to any genetically-transmitted disease or chromosomal abnormality. Above all, specialists are anticipating the same degree of success for the detection of Trisomy 21. A universal and noninvasive method that would systematically be proposed to any pregnant woman may thus become available. Pregnant women could soon be able to decide early pregnancy termination regardless of the opinion of a college of experts.

CONCLUSION On the one hand, obstetricians have no intention of posing as censors or of expressing a value judgment on the couple deciding to terminate a pregnancy after being told of a fetal malformation or chromosomal abnormality. How could they really be sure of their own reaction if personally confronted with the same situation? What would their attitude be if they were suffering as much and feeling as distraught as the couple they are ethically bound to support? On the other hand, obstetricians may rightly question the evolution and moral meaning of the current change of PND. Is it now in the service of a vitalist medicine or of a utilitarian medicine founded on a science of probability? They have the unquestionable feeling of having become sorters of future beings and of taking part in a real hunt for handicaps, as is the case with the screening of Trisomy 21. Must they now consider themselves to be "health officers"? They have been allotted this part by society itself. Would they dare to refuse screening? Certainly not! They know all too well that the birth of a child with Down Syndrome, by the mere fact that screening was not proposed to the couple, can lead to civil

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action. Obstetricians find themselves caught in a stranglehold don't they? Their responsibility and not the politician's or the legislator's is indeed involved. It all works as if some conditions had to be met to give proof that the process of human life can persist. The burden of proof belongs to the unborn child and obstetricians stand at the crucial spot of the system favored by the authorities. The specialty is being given a new epistemological definition overruled by a biocracy or "biopower" according to Foucault's word. Obstetricians are essential actors in intrauterine life as well as in the evolution of society. How can they then assume their responsibilities despite the contradictions pointed out by this chapter? Have they become the tool of a medicine that is dehumanized... ab ovo? "In twenty years, the value of human life has infinitely deteriorated... In a world where rights are being accumulated, the fetus and the new-born child are only granted the right to live to the extent that we concede it to them" [28]. Is not Professor Y. Malinas' analysis still both fully relevant and topical in 2010?

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors sincerely wish to thank Mrs C. Gamois-Boucabeille and Mrs MM Simoni for the translation, Dr C. Eglin for the ultrasound iconography and Pr D. Querleu for revising this chapter.

REFERENCES Leblanc P., Arduin P. O. L‘éthique médicale à l‘épreuve de la loi de Bioéthique. Point de vue d‘un obstétricien. J Gynecol Obstet Biol reprod 2009; 38, 363-366. [2] Code de la santé publique, article L. 2131-1. [3] Agence de la biomédecine. Rapport annuel et bilan des activités, 2007, Centres pluridisciplinaires de diagnostic prénatal, p. 281. [4] Souka A. P.; von Kaisenberg C. S.; Hyett J. A.; Sonek J. D.; Nicolaides K. H. Increased nuchal translucy with normal karyotype. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; Apr 192(4), 100521. [5] Arduin P. O. La Bioéthique et l’embryon. Paris, Edition de l‘Emmanuel, 2007. [6] Sureau C. Il est déjà un homme. Rev Prat Gynecol Obstet 2008; 128:7. [7] Agence de la biomédecine. Rapport annuel et bilan des activités, 2007, Centres pluridisciplinaires de diagnostic prénatal, p.277. [8] Seror V., Ville Y. Prenatal screening for Down syndrome: women‘s involvement in decision-making and their attitudes to screening. Prenat Diagn 2009; 29:120-8. [9] http://pro.gyneweb.fr/jmb/gyneweb-echo/aneuplo/RT21.html. [10] Arrêté du 23 juin 2009, JORF n0152 du 3 juillet 2009, p. 11079. [11] Reddy U. M., Mennuti M. Incorporating First-Trimester Down Syndrome Studies Into Prenatal Screening. Executive Summary of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Workshop. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 167-73. [12] Riese W. La pensée morale en médecine. Presses Universitaires de France. Paris; 1954, p. 5.

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[13] Leblanc P. Le diagnostic prénatal, un progrès médical? Lett Gynecol 2008; 331:6-9. [14] Sicard D. La France au risque de l‘eugénisme. Le Monde 5 février 2007. [15] Conseil d’Etat. La révision des lois de bioéthique. La documentation française 2009, p. 40. [16] Milliez J. L’euthanasie du fœtus, médecine ou eugénisme? Odile Jacob. Paris; 1999. [17] Montazeau O., Benoît J. A propos de la clause de conscience. Les dossiers de l’obstétrique 2008/11; 35, 376:3-8. [18] Seror V., Moatti J. P., Müller F., le Gales C., Boué A. Analyse coût-bénéfice du dépistage prénatal de la trisomie 21 par marqueurs sériques maternels. Rev Epidemiol Santé Pub 1993; 41: 3-15. [19] Rapport public de la Cour des comptes, La vie avec un handicap, 2003. [20] Haut Comité de la Santé Publique. Pour un nouveau plan périnatalité Editions ENSP (Paris) 1994. [21] Le Méné J. M. La trisomie est une tragédie grecque. Salvador, Paris, 2009. [22] Riese W. La pensée morale en médecine. Presses Universitaires de France. Paris; 1954 p.57. [23] Ville Y. La gestion des risques obstétricaux au premier trimestre: bien plus qu‘un dépistage. Med Fœtale Echogr Gynecol 2008; 76: 59-63. [24] Ville Y. Primae Facie: la précocité du dépistage prénatal impose son professionnalisme. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod 2009; 38: 5-8. [25] Guillebaud J-C. Le Principe d’Humanité. Paris, éd du seuil, 2001 (coll. Points, P1027, p.332). [26] Seror V. Le diagnostic de la trisomie 21 est-il bien compris par les femmes? Rapport Inserm 912, Marseille, 2009. [27] Collectif interassociatif autour de la naissance. Diagnostic prénatal: validation du test ISET de la mucoviscidose. Communiqué de presse, 27 janvier 2009. [28] Editorial published in La Presse Médicale 1986; 8 3-4.

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INDEX

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A Abraham, 215 abstraction, 58 abuse, 53, 159 academic performance, 10 academic progress, 94 access, vii, viii, 1, 5, 10, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 47, 50, 99, 100, 101, 106, 120, 132, 133, 134, 137, 154, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 190, 191, 192, 203, 208, 213, 227, 229, 244 accessibility, 163 accountability, 3, 134, 159, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167 accounting, vii, viii, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 acculturation, 178, 179, 183 adaptability, 23, 34 adaptation, 124 adjustment, 183 adolescents, 214, 222, 223, 224, 225 ADP, 116 adults, xi, 129, 213, 214, 222, 223, 224, 225 advancement, 18 adverse effects, 104 adverse event, 229 advocacy, viii, xi, 2, 4, 5, 7, 22, 39, 185, 191, 192, 194, 198 aetiology, 186 affective reactions, 181 affirming, 191 Africa, vi, xi, 32, 39, 40, 133, 138, 213, 214, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 226, 229, 231, 232, 233 age, xi, 129, 130, 131, 132, 149, 177, 213, 218, 220, 222, 224, 228, 252, 257, 258, 262

agencies, 23, 229 aggregation, 122 agriculture, 31, 40, 41 AIDS, xi, 130, 134, 148, 213, 214, 215, 218, 220, 222, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 232, 233 algorithm, 14, 95 alienation, 167 allele, 264 alpha-fetoprotein, 257 amenorrhea, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 263 amniocentesis, 252, 255, 256, 257, 258, 262, 263, 264 amniotic fluid, 263 amputation, 215 anencephaly, 252 anger, 54, 57, 194, 219 antagonism, 144 anthropocentrism, 203 antibiotic, 216 antibiotic ointment, 216 antibody, 128, 216 antigen, 216, 217 antigenicity, 116 antitrust, ix, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107 anxiety, 141, 187, 263 APA, 13 aquaculture, 30, 31, 35, 39, 41 Argentina, 139 Aristotle, 4, 101 articulation, 192 Asia, 133, 142, 149 Asian countries, 138 aspiration, 98, 113 assault, 45, 48, 55 assessment, 10, 30, 86, 99, 142, 188, 200, 228 assets, 35 asymmetric information, 102

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Index

asymmetry, 102 attribution, 146 audit, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78 authenticity, 10, 94 authorities, 31, 132, 257, 260, 261, 264, 265 autonomy, xii, 3, 186, 187, 188, 190, 194, 195, 196, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 235, 236, 237, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247 average costs, 104 awareness, 3, 10, 32, 63, 110, 130, 141, 146, 200, 203, 210, 227

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B bad behavior, 98 balanitis, 226 ban, 52, 259 banking, 34 banks, 34, 143, 161 barriers, viii, xi, 21, 39, 104, 162, 165, 199 barriers to entry, 104, 162, 165 base, 156, 158, 165, 184, 214, 216, 227, 242, 245 base rates, 184 basic needs, 50, 53, 54 beer, 27, 35 behavioral intentions, 64 behaviors, 64, 103, 114, 134 benefits, 23, 24, 62, 102, 104, 115, 130, 137, 149, 150, 157, 163, 168, 186, 195, 209, 214, 217, 218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 227, 228 benign, 127, 128, 170 bias, 23, 95, 96, 117, 217, 245 bioethics, vii, x, 119, 121, 124, 125, 129, 185, 186, 187, 196, 197, 198, 200, 205, 209, 243, 246, 247, 250, 260 biological sciences, 186 biomedical knowledge, 125 biopower, 120, 123, 124, 125, 265 biopsy, 263 biosciences, 116, 124, 125 biotic, 208 birth rate, 124, 126 births, 136, 140, 141, 150, 195 blame, 205 bleeding, 216, 220, 221, 224, 226 blood, 123, 135, 143, 215, 217, 251, 252, 264 blood pressure, 135 blood supply, 217 body image, 187 bonuses, 166 Botswana, 219, 229 bounds, 156 Brazil, 133, 136, 138, 142, 143, 151

breakdown, 35, 191 breast cancer, 130, 131 breech delivery, 137 breeding, 159 Britain, 49 business environment, 62 business ethics, 63, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 79, 82, 83 business management, 61, 64, 65, 68, 70, 71, 72, 78, 79, 80 businesses, 27, 28, 99 buyer, 105, 106 buyers, 105 by-products, 29, 35

C caesarean section, 149, 150, 151, 195 calvarium, 252 Cameroon, 219 campaigns, 129, 130, 132, 229 cancer, 120, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 148, 215, 218, 224, 226 cancer screening, 148 candidates, 53, 57, 181 capital flight, 167 capitalism, 160 carbon, 117 carcinoma, 128 career development, 115 Caribbean, 40 case studies, 63 case study, 39, 95 cash, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 37, 38 cash crops, 27 category a, 87 cattle, 40 CBS, 40 CDC, 146, 230 Central African Republic, 38 cerebral hemisphere, 252 certificate, 142, 263 certification, 229 cervical cancer, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 145, 146, 147, 148, 226 cervix, 120, 127, 129, 148 cesarean section, 149, 150, 151 Chad, 141 challenges, 6, 22, 50, 98, 154, 169, 200, 202, 221 chancroid, 218, 224, 226 checks and balances, 103 chemical, 33 chemotherapy, 187, 188, 195 Chicago, 232

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Index childhood, 54, 224 children, xi, 29, 35, 36, 37, 38, 133, 134, 141, 213, 218, 219, 222, 224, 227, 241, 258, 261 China, 143, 180, 181 chorionic villi, 263 chromosomal abnormalities, 255, 257, 259 circulation, 187 circumcision, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229 cities, 133, 151, 163 citizens, 133, 158, 236 civil action, 103, 265 clarity, 190 classes, 10, 170 classification, 145 classroom, 63, 82 cleavage, 116 cleft palate, 252 clients, 31, 52, 56, 57 climate, 7, 63, 202 clinical examination, 130, 131, 139 clinical trials, 128, 218, 220, 223, 226, 228, 229 cluster analysis, 70, 72 clusters, xii, 70, 71, 72, 79, 235, 240 coercion, 156, 242, 243 coffee, 41 cognition, 183 cognitive process, 182 cognitive processing, 182 coherence, xii, 164, 170, 238, 239, 243, 249, 250 collaboration, 192 collateral, 34, 258 collateral damage, 258 collective resource, 160 collective unconscious, 257 collectivism, 177 colonization, 165 commerce, 123, 126, 164 commercial, 18, 164, 176 commodity, 16, 113, 176, 180 common sense, 13, 237 communication, 9, 13, 15, 32, 52, 130, 142, 190, 191, 192, 194, 228, 241, 243, 251 communication skills, 194 communication strategies, 228 community, ix, 5, 12, 17, 23, 24, 55, 86, 109, 110, 113, 115, 123, 126, 130, 134, 135, 154, 155, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 175, 177, 194, 195, 208, 209, 220, 227, 262 compassion, 4, 186 compensation, 100, 102, 218, 222, 226, 227, 239, 262 competition, 62, 106

269 competitiveness, 10, 166 competitors, 103, 107, 246 complement, 216, 224 complexity, 26 compliance, 135 complications, 110, 135, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 149, 218, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 252 composition, 13 composting, 29 comprehension, 46, 49, 196 computation, 86 computer, 12, 16, 259 computer use, 16 conception, 5, 142, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 170, 241, 250, 256, 257 conceptualization, 4, 190 conditioning, 142 confidentiality, 190 configuration, 3, 97 conflict, xi, 3, 95, 98, 104, 106, 115, 139, 185, 190, 191, 210, 237, 239 conflict of interest, 95, 115 confrontation, 119 congenital malformations, 134 conscientiousness, 5 consensus, 47, 125, 141, 177, 191, 250, 261 consent, 45, 139, 187, 188, 194, 195, 196, 197, 222, 223, 225, 244, 262, 263 conservation, 23, 34, 40, 202 construction, 23, 32, 36, 160, 164, 167, 179 consulting, 191 consumers, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 192 consumption, 22, 25, 28, 29, 31, 36, 37, 162, 163, 167 contamination, 176 contingency, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74 contradiction, 177, 189, 195, 209 control group, 217 controlled trials, 214, 217 controversial, 176, 204, 205 convention, 212 convergence, 47 cooperation, 10, 56, 138, 176, 229 coordination, 99 corpus callosum, 252 correlation, 86, 94, 139, 141 correlations, 88, 91, 92, 94 corruption, 155, 159, 160, 163, 167 cost, 7, 32, 100, 104, 105, 130, 132, 133, 140, 141, 142, 143, 147, 182, 217, 218, 219, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 261 cost effectiveness, 147, 222, 228

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Index

cost saving, 104, 105 cost-benefit analysis, 219, 226 counseling, 130, 227 covering, 243 creativity, 13, 49, 243, 244 criticism, 104, 201 crop, 22, 23 crop production, 22, 23 crops, 22, 29, 32, 38 cross-cultural comparison, 83 crystallization, 116 cultural differences, 182, 195 cultural heritage, 202 cultural norms, 176 cultural practices, 219 cultural tradition, 207, 208, 219 cultural values, 195 culture, 42, 47, 49, 57, 99, 103, 115, 121, 123, 144, 161, 163, 168, 176, 178, 179, 182, 194, 195, 259, 261 cure, 214, 227 curriculum, viii, 61, 63, 81, 82 customers, 104 cytology, 147

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D danger, 263 data collection, 111 database, ix, 85, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 95, 109, 111, 112, 115, 116 death penalty, 262 deaths, xi, 134, 136, 142, 188, 213, 217, 220, 222, 226 decision-making process, 62, 82, 189, 194 defects, 255 deficiency, 95, 252 deficit, vii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 194 degradation, 132 democracy, 153, 157, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 204, 209 demographic change, 135 demographic characteristics, 26 demography, 126 dendritic cell, 216 denial, 101, 139, 188, 220 Denmark, 235, 247 deposition, 214 depreciation, 100 depression, 50 deprivation, 23, 59, 102, 160 depth, 2, 124 destiny, 243, 256

destruction, 245, 256 detectable, 127 detection, vii, 9, 18, 131, 258, 264 developed countries, 133, 136, 141, 143 developed nations, ix, 109, 110, 143, 205 developing countries, 22, 131, 132, 133, 136, 141, 142, 146, 205, 208 developmental process, 50 DHS, 148 diabetes, 95 diaphragmatic hernia, 255 dichotomy, 123 diffusion, 31, 126, 127 dignity, xii, 135, 189, 208, 227, 236, 241, 242, 243, 244, 247 direct action, 135 directionality, 157 disclosure, 187, 196 discrimination, 52 diseases, 134, 143, 146, 259 disgust, 179 dispersion, 165 disposition, vii, viii, 61, 64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 73, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81 distress, xi, 4, 185, 188 distribution, viii, 2, 3, 4, 5, 22, 30, 34, 38, 39, 99, 101, 141, 143, 155, 156, 157, 159, 164, 165, 166, 236, 243 distribution of income, viii, 22, 38, 39, 157, 166 distributive justice, vii, 1, 3, 5, 102, 154, 155, 156, 158, 163 divergence, 35 diversification, 25 diversity, 81, 134, 190, 210 division of labor, 168 DNA, 122, 127, 131, 146, 147, 264 doctors, 137, 138, 139, 182, 190, 191, 192, 251, 262 DOI, 42 domestic chores, 24, 36, 38 domestic violence, 44, 45, 48, 55 dominance, 192, 196, 245 Dominican Republic, 141, 143 donors, 182 dosage, 257, 258, 262, 264 Down syndrome, 265 drainage, 37 drug therapy, 229 drugs, 143, 222 dualism, 203 duality, 262

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E earnings, 29, 158 echoing, 208 ecology, 203 economic activity, 170 economic development, 98 economic evaluation, 131 economic globalisation, 98 economic growth, 42, 157, 158, 164 economic indicator, 204 economic institutions, x, 153, 154, 155, 156, 160, 164, 166, 167 economic power, 166 economic problem, 141 economic relations, 161 economic resources, 132 economic well-being, 103 economics, 40, 98, 120, 126, 128, 144 economies of scale, 104, 106 editors, 94 education, viii, 10, 24, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 39, 46, 48, 50, 53, 55, 58, 61, 63, 81, 82, 83, 124, 157, 160, 161, 193, 214, 218, 220, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229 educational institutions, 130 educational system, 163 educators, 63, 81, 82 efficient resource allocation, 107 egalitarianism, 4 Egypt, 162, 215 ejaculation, 224 emergency, xi, 6, 135, 138, 151, 185 emotion, 181 emotional reactions, 181 empathy, 54, 57, 186, 243 empirical studies, 240 employees, 27, 62 employers, 102, 166 employment, 27, 33, 46, 47, 48, 55 empowerment, 52 energy, 46, 99, 200 energy constraint, 46 enforcement, 101, 103, 105, 107 engineering, ix, 85, 115 England, 197 environment, xi, 24, 29, 46, 48, 49, 51, 53, 64, 102, 107, 113, 114, 115, 134, 155, 167, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214, 217, 221 environmental aspects, 27 environmental conditions, 207 environmental impact, 167

271 environmental issues, 200 environmental movement, 200 environmental protection, 206 environmental resources, 203, 210 environmental sustainability, 204 enzyme, 117 epidemic, 142 epidemiology, 134, 143, 147, 148 epithelium, 215, 216 equal opportunity, 156 equality, viii, x, 2, 4, 5, 43, 44, 47, 56, 58, 101, 134, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 162, 163, 165, 166, 169, 209, 257 equilibrium, xi, 208, 213, 238, 239, 246 equipment, 141, 182, 221 equity, 2, 4, 5, 134, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210 ESI, 145 estriol, 257 ethical issues, xi, xii, 63, 115, 147, 185, 193, 194, 221, 235, 236, 249, 250 ethical standards, 62, 63 ethics, vii, viii, x, xi, xii, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 15, 44, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 70, 71, 72, 74, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 109, 119, 125, 130, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 192, 194, 196, 197, 199, 200, 204, 205, 207, 209, 211, 224, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 246, 247, 249, 250, 259, 260, 261 ethnic groups, 219, 220, 228 ethnicity, 46, 48, 56 eugenics, 250, 259, 260, 261, 263 Europe, 133, 134, 136, 261 European Commission, 41, 128, 200, 211 European Union, 204 everyday life, xii, 168, 235 evidence, 41, 81, 95, 102, 104, 117, 129, 133, 135, 137, 139, 149, 181, 190, 193, 214, 215, 217, 227, 263 evil, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 236, 245 evolution, xii, 120, 127, 137, 246, 249, 264, 265 examinations, 131 exclusion, 53, 111, 144, 245, 260 execution, 167 exercise, 64, 99, 101, 104, 123, 124, 155, 166, 187, 201 expenditures, 53, 105 expertise, 139, 193, 223, 225 exploitation, 55, 164, 165, 204, 207, 210, 243 exposure, 62, 130, 139, 222 expulsion, 16 extraction, 165 extreme poverty, 143

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F fabrication, 13 factor analysis, 74, 79, 80, 179 fairness, 2, 3, 4, 5, 154, 166, 209, 247 faith, 49, 189 false negative, 131 false positive, 258 families, xi, 29, 129, 185, 186, 187, 190 family members, 29, 38, 142, 190, 194 family relationships, 194 farmers, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 42, 133 farms, 29, 133 fascia, 215 FDA, 146 fear, 120, 130, 138, 158, 188, 189, 200, 220, 227 fears, 114, 189, 200, 244 federal government, 103 feelings, 114, 178, 261 female genital mutilation, 228 female partner, 214, 218, 224, 226 fencing, 34 fertility, 215 fertilization, 22, 36, 37, 259 fertilizers, 23, 24, 37 fetal abnormalities, 252 fetus, 250, 251, 253, 255, 256, 259, 261, 263, 265 fidelity, 5, 240 fights, 128 filtration, 264 financial, 34, 127, 138, 140, 227, 244, 261 financial incentives, 138 financial instability, 138 financial institutions, 34 financial resources, 127, 140 financial support, 227 fish, vii, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 fisheries, 30, 39, 41 fishing, 38 flexibility, 3 fluctuations, 89, 90 fluid, 10, 255 focus groups, 2 food, viii, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 50, 176 food production, 29 food security, viii, 21, 23, 29, 38, 40 force, 62, 104, 115, 161, 166, 239 formal education, viii, 21, 27, 30, 38, 39 formation, 98, 103, 107, 110, 168 formula, 201, 223

foundations, 209, 227 France, xii, 148, 202, 211, 212, 249, 250, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266 fraud, 97 free choice, 165 freedom, 101, 122, 124, 128, 139, 154, 158, 159, 160, 164, 167, 169, 170, 196, 209, 210, 244 frenulum, 217 friction, 216 fruits, 26, 99, 100, 156 full employment, 29 functional analysis, 116 funding, 110, 113, 219, 220 funds, 34, 100, 177, 261

G gangrene, 226 GDP, 110, 113 gender differences, 64 gender role, 41 gene expression, 117 gene silencing, 116 general anaesthesia, 135 general practitioner, 2, 6 genes, 116 genetic disease, 260 genetic endowment, 263 genetic information, 121 genetic mutations, 259 genetic screening, 126 genital herpes, 218 genotype, 146, 148 German measles, 262 global scale, 113 globalization, 120, 126, 132, 133, 144, 154 glucose, 117 God, 215 gonorrhea, 130 goods and services, 99, 156, 169 Gori, 149 governance, 120, 130 grants, vii, 9, 132 graph, 91, 180 grass, 23 Great Britain, 125 Greece, 172 greenhouse, 205 gross domestic product, ix, 109, 110 grounding, 3 grouping, 79 growth, 37, 88, 133, 141, 157, 164, 200, 205, 251 guardian, 105

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Index guidance, viii, 43, 50, 146, 191 guidelines, 3, 41, 136, 137, 140, 167, 215, 228, 229, 241, 244 gynecologist, xii, 249, 250

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H hair, 216 handbags, 167 harmony, 191 harvesting, 36, 37 hazards, 130, 138 health, vii, x, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 36, 45, 47, 50, 51, 54, 57, 119, 120, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 149, 150, 151, 160, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 206, 214, 215, 218, 220, 222, 224, 227, 228, 229, 232, 233, 236, 237, 240, 243, 244, 259, 260, 261, 263, 264 health care, vii, x, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 124, 133, 134, 136, 137, 142, 160, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 214, 218, 222, 224, 236, 237, 240, 243, 244, 259 health care professionals, 218, 222, 224, 240 health care system, vii, xi, 1, 185, 187, 189, 190, 193, 236 health condition, 134, 137, 142 health insurance, 261 health researchers, 220 health services, 133, 137, 141, 142, 227 heart rate, 256 hegemony, 186, 196 height, 99 hematoma, 224 hemorrhage, 226, 252 hemostasis, 215 herpes, 218, 224, 226 herpes simplex, 218, 224 hierarchy of needs, 50 Hippocratic tradition, 236 hiring, 39 history, 95, 101, 116, 120, 144, 197, 200, 220, 239, 259, 260 HIV, xi, 41, 127, 130, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233 HIV/AIDS, xi, 41, 213, 214, 218, 219, 220, 221, 227, 228, 230, 231 home activities, 23 homes, 52, 143, 187 homework, 12, 16 homogeneity, 138

273 honesty, 5, 122 hopelessness, 53 horizontal integration, 98 hospice, 187, 188, 193 hospitalization, 141, 143 host, 131, 142, 225 hostility, 205 House, 212 housing, 35, 40 human, x, xii, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 55, 56, 58, 99, 119, 121, 124, 125, 126, 132, 134, 144, 146, 147, 148, 154, 155, 160, 163, 165, 183, 196, 200, 201, 204, 206, 207, 209, 218, 224, 226, 227, 229, 236, 237, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 249, 250, 256, 259, 262, 263, 265 human behavior, 124 human capital, 165, 204 human condition, 243 human development, 204 Human Development Report, 41 human dignity, xii, 206, 242, 249 human experience, 241 human health, 206 human nature, x, 119, 121, 144, 245 human right, x, 119, 132, 144, 224, 227 Hunter, 16 husband, 31, 38, 102 husbandry, 29 hybrid, 59 hygiene, 124 hypothesis, 114, 180, 228

I iatrogenic, 263 iconography, 265 ideal, 5, 64, 170, 186, 241 ideals, 4, 5, 62 identification, 5, 31, 179 identity, ix, 23, 109, 110, 115, 207, 259 ideology, 176, 181 idiosyncratic, 47 illiteracy, viii, 21, 33, 38, 39 image, 114, 256, 258 images, 251 imagination, 46, 48, 51 imitation, 33 immigration, 133 immune response, 129 immune system, 127 immunity, 129, 228 immunization, 132, 133 immunogenicity, 128

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274 imprisonment, 221 in utero, 251, 252 incidence, 127, 128, 129, 135, 137, 148, 217, 224, 226 income, viii, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 107, 141, 143, 149, 157, 159, 165, 166, 168 indentation, 12, 16 independence, 46, 49, 51, 53, 55 indexing, 85 India, 41, 117, 133 individual action, 205 individual rights, 120, 155, 245 individualism, 207, 245 individualization, 123 individuals, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32, 46, 49, 65, 74, 79, 100, 103, 106, 120, 121, 123, 124, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 144, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 177, 201, 202, 206, 208, 209, 222, 224, 227, 229, 262 indoctrination, 82 industrialized countries, 213 industry, 104 inequality, 148, 153, 157, 165, 166, 168 inevitability, 7 infant mortality, 136 infants, 134, 136, 142, 220 infection, xi, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 145, 146, 147, 148, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 221, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229 inflation, 100 influenza, 116 influenza virus, 116 informed consent, xi, 135, 185, 187, 188, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 218, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 242, 243 inheritance, 34, 203 initiation, 220, 221 injections, 216 inoculation, 216 insane, 241 insecurity, viii, 43 institutions, vii, 9, 17, 18, 34, 40, 46, 49, 55, 56, 99, 110, 128, 135, 140, 142, 143, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 204, 206 integration, 63, 167, 189, 193 integrity, xii, 5, 18, 45, 48, 51, 62, 109, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 208, 236, 241, 242, 243, 244, 247 intellectual property, 10 intercourse, 214, 216, 217, 221, 224

Index interdependence, 98 interest rates, 34 interface, 124, 186, 191, 198, 259 interference, 125, 129, 156, 158, 160, 169 intermediaries, 100 internists, 2 intervention, 122, 124, 125, 149, 195, 218, 224 intrauterine growth retardation, 260 intrinsic value, 243 investment, 30, 39, 58, 132, 196 investment bank, 58 investments, 113, 134, 203 iodine, 216 Iowa, 16, 18 Ireland, 136 irrigation, 40, 41 ISC, 19 isolation, 5, 50, 264 Israel, 44 issues, x, xi, 15, 23, 26, 29, 39, 40, 41, 52, 62, 82, 83, 86, 97, 102, 105, 110, 115, 119, 120, 125, 126, 129, 139, 141, 155, 158, 167, 177, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 217, 219, 221, 222, 226, 236, 251, 258 Italy, 119, 129, 130, 131, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 199

J Japan, 49 just society, 155, 160, 161, 162, 238 justification, 225, 238, 239, 246

K karyotype, 252, 257, 258, 265 Kenya, 28, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 151, 214, 215, 217, 219, 226, 230, 233 keratin, 216 kinship, 21, 38 Korea, 110

L labor force, 163 laboratory studies, 214 labour force, 40 lack of confidence, 33, 114 Langerhans cells, 214 language barrier, 195

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Index laparotomy, 135 Latin America, 40, 132, 133, 142, 150 laws, xii, 12, 16, 56, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 106, 107, 125, 126, 163, 206, 249, 250, 251 LDCs, 132 lead, 1, 2, 13, 17, 26, 50, 53, 79, 127, 129, 130, 136, 165, 166, 192, 194, 221, 228, 239, 245, 250, 251, 252, 257, 259, 260, 261, 263, 264 leadership, 98, 186 learning, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 58, 82 legal issues, 34, 39, 189, 197 legislation, ix, xii, 97, 99, 102, 104, 241, 242, 243, 249, 250 leisure, 56, 161, 163 leisure time, 161 lens, 116, 194 lesions, 127, 128, 129, 131, 139, 146, 147, 217 liberalism, vii, 153, 154, 155, 156, 160, 161, 163, 169 liberalization, 41 liberation, 144 Libertarian, 107 liberty, 97, 155, 160, 161, 169 life sciences, 115 lifetime, 127, 134, 143 light, 5, 58, 99, 122, 124, 129, 132, 196, 217, 240 liver, 182 liver transplant, 182 living conditions, 206 lobbying, viii, 22, 39 local anesthesia, 219 local anesthetic, 216 longevity, 124 love, 46, 48, 55 lower prices, 103, 105 Luo, 219 lying, 154 lymph, 216 lymph node, 216 lymphocytes, 216

M macrophages, 216 magazines, 93 magnitude, 76, 99, 131, 225 majority, 22, 23, 24, 26, 29, 51, 103, 162, 176, 177, 181, 195, 213, 219 malaise, 144 man, 121, 122, 123, 132, 134, 144, 162, 189, 201, 203, 204, 215, 218, 222

275 management, x, 29, 36, 40, 58, 64, 65, 67, 82, 97, 99, 114, 119, 120, 125, 126, 127, 142, 143, 166, 194, 203, 263 manufacturing, 132 manufacturing companies, 133 manure, 29, 34, 35, 37 marginalisation, 186 market concentration, 107 market failure, ix, 97, 107 market share, 98, 107 marketing, 36, 37, 42, 63, 81, 82, 120, 126, 127, 128 marketplace, 163 marriage, 31 Marx, 166, 170, 171, 172, 173 mass, 228 materials, 32, 33, 34, 83, 87, 110 matrix, 155, 159, 161, 216 matter, iv, 56, 58, 67, 93, 122, 125, 134, 206, 239, 263 measurement, 31, 258, 262 meat, 22, 30 mechanical stress, 137 media, 130, 138, 139, 160 mediation, 124 medical, xii, 4, 5, 6, 95, 116, 120, 124, 129, 130, 135, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 149, 150, 187, 191, 192, 193, 195, 197, 205, 214, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 227, 229, 236, 242, 243, 246, 249, 250, 251, 252, 256, 258, 259, 260 medical care, 120 medical reason, 252 medicine, xi, 6, 120, 121, 124, 125, 139, 148, 161, 176, 185, 189, 193, 195, 197, 198, 240, 256, 258, 259, 264, 265 membership, 215, 228 meningitis, 226 mental health, xi, 50, 185, 188, 189, 197 mentor, 50 mentoring, 53, 57 mergers, ix, 97, 98, 99, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107 messages, 228 metaphor, 176, 238 methodology, viii, 21, 33, 39, 94, 115, 125, 239 Mexico, 141, 143 microorganism, 217 Microsoft, 88, 111 mid-career, 114 migration, 126, 133 military, 176 minimum efficient scale, 104, 105 minimum wage, 55

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Index

Minneapolis, 108 miscarriage, 258, 263 miscarriages, 262 misconceptions, 189 mission, 132, 197, 250, 260, 262 misuse, 167 models, 50, 63, 184 moderators, x, 175 modernity, 128, 164 modifications, vii, ix, x, 175 modules, 228 modus operandi, 185, 189, 192 moisture, 22, 217 momentum, 114, 127, 196 Mongols, 215 monopoly, 104, 128, 167 moral beliefs, xii, 235, 239 moral development, 82 moral imperative, 193 moral judgment, 223, 237, 239 moral reasoning, 64, 83, 190 morale, 265, 266 morality, xii, 3, 4, 159, 235, 238, 239, 240, 243, 246 morbidity, 126, 135, 136, 137, 149 morphemes, 121 mortality, 126, 130, 135, 136, 137, 141, 142, 143, 149, 150, 151, 243 mortality rate, 130, 135, 136, 141, 142, 143 mosaic, 11 motivation, 5, 81, 110, 144, 191 Mozambique, 219 MRI, 251, 256 mRNA, 147 mucosa, 214, 216 multivariate analysis, 79 murder, 106, 107 museums, 165 music, 229 Muslims, 219 mutilation, 229

N Namibia, 219 National Institutes of Health, 137 natural evolution, 127 natural food, 37 natural resources, 158, 159, 202 natural selection, 134 necrosis, 116, 226 negative consequences, 158 negative effects, 130, 136, 167, 227

neglect, 122, 205, 245 neonates, 215, 222, 223, 225 neoplasm, 127 Nepal, 41 Netherlands, 246 neutral, viii, 21, 23, 38, 178, 180, 182, 186 New England, 6, 231 New South Wales, 197 New Zealand, 43, 44, 47, 49, 50, 51 next generation, 202 NGOs, 132 nicotine, 117 Nigeria, 39, 41 Nobel Prize, 134, 263 normal profits, 104 normative economics, ix, 97 North America, 133, 198 null, 114 nurses, 191, 192, 193, 194, 225, 229 nursing, 141, 142, 190, 191, 192, 197, 240 nurturance, 54 nutrition, 36, 40, 134

O obedience, 166 obesity, 136 objectification, 243 objectivity, 67 observed behavior, 107 obstacles, 189 occupational mobility, 35 offenders, 113 officials, 218 oil, 102 omission, 50, 57 operations, 36, 166, 196 opportunities, viii, xi, 21, 23, 24, 29, 38, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 55, 63, 134, 156, 199 oppression, 220 optimism, 188 organ, 182 organism, 98, 224 organize, 162, 163 organs, 4, 176 originality, 18 overlap, 52, 124 ownership, viii, 21, 34, 35, 38, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169 ownership structure, 166 oxidative stress, 116

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P pain, 132, 135, 138, 141, 215, 218, 219, 224, 226, 229, 256 pain management, 225 palate, 254 palliative, 132, 186, 187, 189, 193, 197 Panama, 132 paradigm shift, 110, 186 parallel, vii, 9, 13, 67, 73, 74, 216 parents, 31, 129, 150, 223, 224, 250, 258, 260, 261 participant observation, 2 participants, 2, 34, 35, 38, 44, 51, 171, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 188, 190, 191, 192, 217 pathogens, 214 pathology, 120, 250, 251 patient care, 191 patriotism, 209 peace, 208 penalties, 239 penis, 214, 215, 216, 218, 221, 224 per capita income, 132 percentile, 255 performance indicator, 110 performers, 67 perinatal, 136, 138, 149 peripheral blood, 187, 197 permit, 98, 122, 210 personal choice, 156 personal communication, 243 personal relations, 67, 79 personal relationship, 67, 79 personal values, 244 personality, 138, 183, 192, 243 personality characteristics, 192 personality disorder, 138 personhood, 162 PES, 40 phagocytosis, 216 pharmaceutical, 128, 132 pharmacological treatment, 127 phenomenology, 241 Philadelphia, 171, 213 Philippines, 39, 139 photographs, 32 physical health, 54 physicians, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 141, 215, 220, 246 phytoplankton, 37 placenta, 263 plants, 46, 48 platform, 110

277 plausibility, 258 playing, 57, 115, 196 pleasure, 218, 224 pluralist society, 122 polarization, 154 police, 97, 123, 145 policy, 18, 36, 53, 67, 97, 105, 107, 110, 115, 132, 160, 189, 214, 215, 221, 222, 225, 228, 259, 260, 261 polio, 224 political participation, 161, 165, 168 political power, 123, 126, 160 political problems, 205 politics, x, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 126, 128, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161 pollution, 200 polymerase, 116 ponds, 23, 25, 29, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37 pools, 111 population, 18, 26, 113, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 131, 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 143, 144, 162, 181, 224 population group, 26 Portugal, 143 potential benefits, 221 poverty, viii, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 39, 144, 148 poverty alleviation, 22, 24, 25 POWER, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 power relations, 123, 124, 166 practical wisdom, 238 praxis, 122, 187, 192 PRC, 181 precancer, 146, 147 predation, 35, 104 predatory pricing, 103 preeclampsia, 260 pregnancy, xii, 31, 134, 137, 142, 148, 149, 249, 250, 251, 252, 255, 256, 257, 259, 261, 263, 264 preparation, iv, 40, 41, 66, 193, 206 preservation, 122, 177, 201, 207, 229 President, 199, 218, 220, 262 President Thabo Mbeki, 220 prestige, 95, 215 presumption of innocence, 255 prevention, vii, 9, 18, 129, 130, 131, 132, 146, 147, 159, 217, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229 prima facie, 237, 240 primacy, 121 primary data, viii, 21 primary school, 31

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278 principles, x, xi, xii, 2, 3, 4, 6, 62, 100, 124, 144, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 164, 168, 186, 187, 189, 190, 197, 200, 204, 207, 208, 223, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247 private good, 161, 168 probability, viii, 21, 28, 38, 225, 251, 255, 258, 264 probe, 216, 236, 242 procedural justice, 3 producers, 163 professionalism, 81, 192, 197 professionals, x, 1, 62, 81, 82, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 214, 224, 229 profit, 24, 62, 106, 144, 261 profitability, 22, 163, 261 prognosis, 252 programming, 227 progress reports, 22 project, viii, 22, 31, 39, 41, 43, 44, 53, 56, 58, 66, 82, 144, 155, 188, 241, 256, 263 proliferation, 17 propagation, 13 property rights, ix, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105, 107 prophylactic, 146, 222 protection, ix, 43, 54, 55, 97, 100, 103, 105, 128, 129, 137, 139, 143, 147, 155, 157, 159, 170, 189, 203, 204, 205, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 229, 241, 245, 256 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 117 psychoanalysis, 124 psychological health, 54, 57, 59 psychological processes, 181, 188 public awareness, 113 public concern, 158, 167 public concerns, 158, 167 public goods, 100, 154, 159, 161, 170 public health, 6, 125, 218, 220, 221, 224, 225, 260 public interest, 154, 160, 163, 167 public life, 155, 159, 160 public officials, 165 public opinion, 127, 139 public policy, 44, 154, 227 public resources, vii, 9, 160 public schools, 165 public sector, 110, 113 publishing, 86, 90, 94, 115, 206, 238 purchasing power, 100

Index

Q qualitative research, 196, 240 quality control, 258 quality of life, 52, 58, 193 quality of service, 62 Queensland, 185, 189 query, 104 questionnaire, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, 80

R race, 46, 48, 56, 262 radio, 229 rape, 106 rationality, 186 reactions, x, 143, 175, 176, 181 reactivity, 128 reading, 158, 166 reality, 24, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 132, 140, 188, 209, 219, 223 reasoning, 2, 64, 81, 99, 176, 177, 183, 186, 188, 240, 241, 246 recall, 205, 208 receptors, 216 reciprocity, 168, 245 recognition, 110, 121, 200, 205, 243 recommendations, iv, viii, 21, 39, 140, 141, 146, 191, 192, 258, 262 reconstruction, 123 recovery, 188, 218 recreational, 46, 48 recurrence, 260 redistribution, x, 153, 157, 159 redundancy, 13 reform, 167 reformers, 169 refugee camps, 136 refugees, 44 regression, ix, 85, 88, 90, 91, 144 regression analysis, ix, 85, 88, 91 regulations, 122, 126, 134, 202, 203, 264 rehabilitation, 44, 190 rejection, 105, 169 relatives, 33, 141, 194 relevance, 2, 4, 139, 189, 250, 261 reliability, 30, 67, 131, 186, 238 religion, 46, 48, 55, 56, 123, 181, 183, 215 repair, 32 reparation, 240 replication, 81, 217

Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

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Index reproduction, vii, 9, 11, 13, 45, 48, 120, 126, 134, 135, 143, 159, 198 reputation, 104, 110 requirements, 23, 29, 31, 35, 138, 140, 147, 157, 196, 229, 237 RES, 212 resale, 102 research institutions, 132 researchers, 24, 26, 54, 64, 81, 110, 113, 114, 115, 137, 214, 236, 240 resection, 216 reserves, 66 resilience, 50, 53, 56 resistance, 54, 127, 192 resolution, 182, 193 resource allocation, vii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 106, 125, 182 resources, vii, viii, xi, 1, 2, 4, 5, 15, 17, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 40, 63, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 131, 134, 138, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 169, 177, 199, 200, 204, 205, 207, 210, 236, 244 response, x, 55, 58, 67, 107, 108, 117, 124, 128, 185, 186, 187, 188, 192, 197, 260 restrictions, ix, 97, 98, 99, 104, 189 retail, 103 retaliation, 114 rewards, 113, 156 ribose, 116 right to life, 120, 144 risk, 24, 43, 44, 121, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 148, 149, 187, 195, 198, 201, 205, 209, 214, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 243, 244, 249, 250, 255, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 263 risk factors, 129, 142, 148, 218 risk perception, 218 role conflict, 4 romantic relationship, 66, 67 roots, 121, 161, 170 rules, 3, 4, 10, 11, 16, 61, 62, 99, 101, 103, 120, 122, 125, 131, 157, 159, 239, 240, 242, 259 rural areas, 22, 133, 141, 225 rural poverty, 22 Rwanda, 151, 219

S safety, 194, 217, 218, 222, 226, 228 sample mean, 180, 181 samplings, 263 sanctions, 139

279 saving lives, 222 savings, 105, 226 scarce resources, 5 scarcity, 1, 6, 7, 22 schema, 49 school, 31, 63, 64, 65, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 136, 163, 221, 225 science, xii, 113, 115, 117, 120, 122, 124, 144, 148, 201, 249, 259, 260, 264 scientific knowledge, 259 scientific progress, 113, 260 scientific theory, 12, 16 scope, 86, 120, 124, 126, 127, 134, 154, 158, 210 secondary education, 27, 28 secondary information, viii, 21, 26 security, 10, 22, 23, 29, 30, 34, 40, 50, 104 seed, 23, 35 self-esteem, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57 self-identity, 183 self-image, 47, 53, 56 self-improvement, 240 self-organization, 167, 169 self-reflection, 50 seller, 98, 105 sellers, 105, 107 senses, 94, 243 sensing, 117 sensitivity, 64, 81, 134, 220, 222, 223, 225 sepsis, 226 serum, 251, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262 service organizations, 52 service provider, 52 settlements, 34 sex, 23, 27, 28, 31, 129, 216, 218, 262 sexual abuse, 45, 48, 55 sexual activities, 218 sexual activity, 129, 218 sexual behavior, 130, 134, 214 sexual contact, 129 sexual dysfunctions, 224 sexual intercourse, 221 sexuality, 120, 126, 143 sexually transmitted diseases, 130, 215, 224, 226 sexually transmitted infections, 217, 218 shape, 154, 155, 156, 159, 160, 161, 163 shelter, 45, 47, 50, 54 shock, 188 short supply, 28, 30, 34, 35 shortage, 30, 35, 98, 143, 182 showing, 15, 126, 193, 220 signals, 136 Singapore, v, ix, 85, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116 skin, 214, 216, 218, 226

Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

280 slaves, 239 smallpox, 259 social activities, 36 social capital, 41 social change, 170 social class, 132 social cognition, 184 social consensus, 261 social construct, 157 social context, 58, 159, 186, 206 social contract, 207 social development, 101 social events, 200 social institutions, 154, 155, 159, 160, 163, 165, 209 social integration, 167, 169 social interests, 155 social justice, x, 98, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 168, 169, 170, 227, 245 social life, 155, 157, 159, 160, 161, 163, 183 social movements, x, 153, 155, 164, 169 social network, 35 social norms, 99 social order, 101, 155, 159, 164 social organization, 166 social phenomena, 200 social psychology, 183 social relations, 23, 57, 58, 59, 154, 155, 158, 159, 160, 163, 164, 167, 168, 169, 177, 245 social relationships, 154, 177, 245 social resources, 134, 161 social skills, 52 social status, 23, 209 social structure, 154, 155, 157, 169 social welfare, 138 social workers, 44, 50 socialism, 161, 170 socialization, viii, 61, 63, 80 society, 2, 4, 5, 12, 16, 23, 52, 62, 98, 100, 102, 103, 106, 121, 134, 141, 144, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 181, 207, 209, 224, 225, 236, 243, 261, 262, 264, 265 sociology, 202 software, 257 solidarity, 123, 159, 168, 206, 209, 245 solution, 22, 124, 196, 260 South Africa, 214, 217, 218, 219, 220, 223, 231 South America, 133 South Korea, 110, 176, 177, 179 sovereignty, 120, 122, 124, 133, 202 Spain, 139

Index specialists, 136, 264 specialization, 259 species, 46, 48, 51, 123, 124, 126, 134, 144, 183, 207 specifications, 129 speech, 46, 48, 55, 100 speed of response, 195 spina bifida, 252 spirituality, 47, 49, 57, 58 Spring, 232, 233 Sri Lanka, 41 stability, 208 stakeholders, 98, 107 standard error, 180 standard of living, 162 state, 12, 16, 50, 52, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 123, 125, 130, 132, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 163, 164, 167, 169, 170, 180, 189, 201, 207, 209, 225, 239, 240, 241, 260, 261, 262 statistics, 11, 15, 21, 261 statutes, 227 stem cells, 187 stenosis, 226 sterile, 142, 221 stigma, 227 stigmatized, 56 stimulus, 210 stratification, 123 stress, 33, 238, 245 stressors, 54 structure, x, 10, 101, 104, 123, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 163, 164, 165, 168, 169, 170, 190, 192, 216, 252 style, 12, 16, 17 subgroups, 79 subjective experience, 122 subjectivity, 121 sub-Saharan Africa, xi, 142, 151, 213, 214, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230 subsidy, 168 subsistence, 40, 41 substitution, 124 success rate, 18 Sudan, 151 sugarcane, 22 support services, 102 suppression, 229 surfactant, 250 surgical intervention, 220 surgical technique, 225, 229 surplus, 99, 163

Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

Index surrogates, 81 surveillance, 128, 228 survey design, 26 survival, 98, 188, 207, 210, 214, 217 susceptibility, 214, 217, 224, 226 sustainability, 208 sustainable development, xi, 25, 199, 204 Switzerland, 151 sympathy, 186 syndrome, 252 synergistic effect, 217 syphilis, 130, 214, 218, 224, 226

Copyright © 2012. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

T T lymphocytes, 216 tactics, ix, 85, 93 Tanzania, v, vii, 21, 22, 26, 34, 39, 40, 41, 42, 214, 219, 221 target, 44, 214 taxation, 157 taxes, 100 taxonomy, 44, 54, 59 teachers, 12, 16 technical efficiency, 261 techniques, 13, 17, 40, 123, 135, 215, 216, 220, 221, 250, 259 technological developments, 122 technological progress, 200 technology, vii, xii, 12, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 113, 123, 144, 162, 187, 191, 200, 201, 244, 249 temperature, 217 tension, 163, 185, 190, 191, 241 tenure, 34, 86 terminal illness, 187 terminally ill, 189 territory, 202 testing, 147, 214, 218, 220, 239, 257, 263 tetanus, 224 textbook, 13, 17 theft, 35, 97 therapy, 117, 213, 215, 227, 250 threats, 144, 200 time frame, 137 tissue, 215, 216, 255 tobacco, 102 torture, 122 total product, 160 tourism, 252 toxicity, 187

281 trade, 13, 17, 62, 175, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 244 trade-off, x, 175, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 244 traditions, 240, 242, 244 training, viii, 22, 31, 32, 50, 62, 82, 140, 218, 220, 225, 226, 228, 229 trajectory, 188 transactions, 93, 102 transcripts, 52 transformation, 128 translation, 143, 265 transmission, 129, 202, 207, 210, 224, 226, 228, 229 transparency, 23, 62 transplant, 182 transplantation, 187, 197 treaties, 202, 204, 206 treatment, 1, 53, 117, 133, 134, 142, 187, 188, 195, 213, 219, 220, 222, 225, 228, 229, 236, 242 trial, 95, 128, 139, 218, 228 trustworthiness, 5 tumor, 127, 130, 264 tumor cells, 264 tumors, 127, 129, 131 Turkey, v, 61, 64, 82

U ultrasound, 251, 256, 258, 263, 265 umbilical cord, 142, 251 underproduction, 106 United, xi, 2, 22, 41, 44, 59, 111, 114, 135, 137, 139, 147, 148, 149, 150, 171, 173, 176, 212, 213, 218, 226, 230, 232 United Kingdom (UK), 2, 40, 44, 108, 136, 197 United Nations (UN), 22, 23, 41, 59,133, 202, 204, 212, 213 United Nations Development Programme, 41 United States (USA), 40, 111, 114, 135, 137, 139, 147, 148, 149, 150, 171, 173, 176, 218, 226, 230, 232 universality, 176 universities, vii, 9, 18, 165 university education, 28 urban, 34, 141 urban areas, 141 urinary retention, 226 urinary tract, 215, 218, 224, 226 urinary tract infection, 215, 218, 224, 226

Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook

282

Index

V vaccinations, 224 vaccine, x, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 133, 146, 147, 148, 214, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 229, 233 validation, 17, 26, 266 valuation, 105 variables, 123, 130, 134 variations, 147 varieties, 30, 33, 35 varimax rotation, 74 Vatican, 212 vegetables, 22 vein, 23 vertical integration, 98 victims, 44 violence, 53 virus infection, 127 viruses, 133 visions, 121, 124, 241 vitamins, 22 voicing, 103 volatility, 181 voluntarism, 261 vulnerability, xii, 56, 236, 241, 242, 243, 244, 247

weakness, 103 wealth, x, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 186, 196 wealth distribution, 101 web, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19 websites, vii, 9, 12, 17 welfare, 107, 156, 167 well-being, viii, 23, 43, 44, 45, 49, 50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 59, 201, 204, 205, 207, 209, 211 West Africa, 41, 219 Western countries, 135 Western Europe, 183 wetting, 36 William James, 171 workers, 39, 50, 102, 141, 166, 188, 189 workload, viii, 21, 33, 35, 39 workplace, 166 World Bank, 23, 132, 151 World Health Organization (WHO), 125, 128, 132, 133, 136, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 148, 149, 150, 151, 213, 214, 217, 220, 221, 222, 225, 229 World War I, 135 worldwide, x, 119, 146, 213 worry, 252, 258

Y

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W wages, 102, 166 Wales, 197 Washington, 40, 246 waste, 100, 195, 203 water, 22, 23, 24, 32, 34, 35, 37, 41, 116, 143, 151, 205, 221

yield, 52, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 93 young women, 146, 218

Z Zimbabwe, 30, 35, 39, 40, 41 zoology, 12, 17, 19

Ethics Research Compendium, edited by Peter M. Roberts, and Emily O. Perez, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook