Essentials of Educational Technology [4 ed.] 8120337239, 9788120337237

Table of contents :
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY—MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE
Origin and History
Meaning and Definitions
The Nature of Educational Technology
Evolution of the Concept of Educational Technology
The Existing Position and Latest Concept
Educational Technology and other Related Concepts
Objectives of Educational Technology
Objectives at the Macro Level
Objectives at the Micro Level
Forms of Educational Technology
Teaching Technology
Instructional Technology
Behavioural Technology
Instructional Design Technology
Approaches of Educational Technology
Educational Technology I or Hardware Approach
Educational Technology II or Software Approach
Educational Technology III or Systems Approach
Scope and Significance of Educational Technology
Use and Significance of Educational Technology (in the Indian context)
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES FOR THE USE OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES
Introduction
Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experiences
Multi-sensory Instruction
The Steps and Procedures for Adopting Multi-sensory Approach
Uses and Advantage of Multi-sensory Instruction
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 3 HARDWARE INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Introduction
Magic Lantern
Epidiascope
Use of Epidiascope in Teaching-Learning
Projectors
Slide cum Filmstrips Projector
Overhead Projector
Opaque Projector
Radio
Advantages
How to Utilize Radio Broadcasting in the Classroom
Limitations and Shortcomings
Tape Recorder
How to Operate a Tape Recorder
Educational Advantages
Television
How to Use Television in the Teaching-Learning
Educational Values of Television
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
Use and Significance of CCTV
Video Tape or Cassette Recorder (VCR)
Motion Pictures or Films
Educational Advantages
How to make Proper Use of Motion Pictures
Computers
Use of Computers
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 4 SOFTWARE INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Introduction
Blackboard or Chalkboard
Educational Use and Importance of the Blackboard
How to Use Blackboard Effectively in the Classroom
Bulletin Board or Information Board
Educational Use of Bulletin Board
Preparations of Bulletin Board
What should be Displayed on a Bulletin Board?
How to Make Effective use of the Bulletin Board?
Flannel Board
Preparation and Use of Flannel Board
Pictures
Where to Get Pictures
Effective Use of Pictures as an Instructional Aid
Graphs
Meaning
Types of Graphs
Charts
What are Charts?
Importance of Charts
Types of Charts
How to Make Proper Use of Charts
Preparation of Charts
Maps
Educational Uses and Purposes of the Maps
Kinds of Maps
How to Make Effective Use of Maps
Globes
Types of Globes and their Educational Value
Some Essential Points Regarding the Effective Use of Globes
Diagrams
Preparation of Diagram
Educational uses of Diagrams
Photographs
Preparation of the Photographs
Cartoons
Educational Uses of Cartoons
Sources of Obtaining Cartoons
Proper Selection and Use of the Cartoons
Posters
Values and Advantages of Posters as an Aid
Sources of Obtaining Posters
The Proper Selection and Effective Use of Posters
Newspapers
Educational Advantages
How to make Use of Newspapers as an Instruction Aid?
Flash Cards
Models
Meaning
Types of Models
Preparation of Models
How to Construct Models
Preparation of Models with Different Types of Material
Use and Importance of Model as Aid
Dioramas
Meaning
Educational Use
Slides
Educational Value
Sources of Obtaining Slides for Instructional Use
Preparation of Slides
Filmstrips
Sources of Filmstrips for the Instructional Purposes
Preparation of Filmstrips
Transparencies
Preparation of Handmade Transparencies
Preparation of Machine-made Transparencies
Programmed Learning Packages
Concept: Matter and Its States
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 5 CONCEPTS OF TEACHING-LEARNING
Concept of Teaching
Meaning and Definitions of the Term Teaching
Nature and Characteristics of Teaching
The Relation of Teaching with other Similar Concepts
Analytical Concept of Teaching
Concept of Learning
Meaning and Definitions of the Term Learning
Relationship between Teaching and Learning
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 6 TASK OF TEACHING
Meaning and Definition of Teaching Task
Variables Involved in a Teaching Task
Phases and Operation of Teaching Task
The Pre-active Phase
The Interactive Phase
The Post-active Phase
Levels of Teaching Task
Memory Level of Teaching
Understanding Level of Teaching
Reflective Level of Teaching
A Summarized Comparative Study of the Three Levels of Teaching
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 7 THEORIES OF TEACHING
Introduction
What is ‘Theory’?
What is Teaching?
Meaning and Nature of ‘Theory of Teaching’
Need and Significance of Theory of Teaching
Scope of Teaching Theory
Types of Teaching Theories
Formal Theories of Teaching
Descriptive Theories of Teaching
Normative Theories of Teaching
Conclusion about Different Theories of Teaching
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 8 PRINCIPLES AND MAXIMS OF SUCCESSFUL TEACHING
Introduction
General Principles of Teaching
Psychological Principles of Teaching
Maxims of Teaching
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 9 FORMULATION OF TEACHING OR INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Meaning of Instructional Objectives
Relationship of Instructional Objectives with the General Aims and Objectives of Teaching a Subject
Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives
Taxonomy of Objectives in the Cognitive Domain
Taxonomy of Objectives in the Affective Domain
Taxonomy of Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain
An Alternative Taxonomy of Psychomotor Objectives
Writing Objectives in Behavioural Terms
Robert Mager’s Approach
Miller’s Approach
R.C.E.M. Approach
Conclusion Regarding Writing of Instructional Objectives
An Illustration of Writing Instructional Objectives
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 10 TEACHING STRATEGIES AND DEVICES
Teaching Strategies
Special Features and Characteristics
Teaching Devices
Types of Teaching Devices
Distinguishing Teaching Devices from Teaching Methods
Distinguishing Teaching Strategies from Teaching Methods
Distinguishing Teaching Strategies from Teaching Tactics
Distinguishing Teaching Strategies from Teaching Devices
Types of Teaching Strategies
Lecture Strategy
Group Discussion Strategy
Demonstration Strategy
Discovery or Heuristic Strategy
Project Strategy
Problem Solving Strategy
Narration Strategy
Illustration Strategy
Questioning-Answering Teaching Strategy
Exposition Strategy
Description Strategy
Explanation Strategy
Dramatization Strategy
Independent Study Strategy
Supervised Study as a Teaching Strategy
Drillwork Strategy
Review Strategy
Assignment Strategy
Tutorial Strategy
Brainstorming Strategy
Role-playing Strategy
Sensitivity Training Strategy
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 11 COMMUNICATION AND TEACHING–LEARNING
Introduction
The Concept of Communication
The Communication Process
The Source of Communication (The Communicator)
Contents of Communication or Message
Media and Channel of Communication
Receiver of the Communication
Response Material or Feedback
Facilitators or Barriers of Communication
The Principles of Communication
Principle of Readiness and Motivation
Principle of Competency and Worth
Principle of Sharing and Interaction
Principle of Suitability of the Communication Contents
Principle of Appropriate Media and Channel
Principle of Appropriate Feedback
Principle of Facilitators and Barriers of Communication
Facilitators and Barriers of Communication
Internal Barriers
External Barriers
Communication Situations
One-to-One Communication
Small Group Communication
Large Group or Public Communication
Organizational or Institutional Communication
Mass Communication
Classroom Communication
Verbal Communication
Non-verbal Communication
Achieving Effectiveness in Classroom Communication
Source of Communication
Communication Material
Communication Media or Channel
Receiver of the Communication
Different Media of Communication
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 12 MANAGEMENT OF TEACHING-LEARNING
Meaning of Management of Teaching-Learning
The Stages or Steps
The Need and Significance
Planning Teaching-Learning
Basic Steps Involved
Organization of Teaching-Learning
Organizational Task
Selection of Appropriate Teaching Strategies and Tactics
Selection and Use of Proper Teaching Aids
Selection and Use of Appropriate Communication Strategy
Leading Teaching-Learning
Tasks Related to Leading
Controlling Teaching-Learning
Measurement and Assessment of the Teaching-Learning Outcomes
What is Evaluation?
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 13 MODIFICATION OF TEACHER BEHAVIOUR AND INTERACTION ANALYSIS
Teaching or Teacher Behaviour
Modification of Teaching or Teacher Behaviour
Techniques for the Modification
Interaction Analysis Technique
Transaction Analysis
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 14 ACTION RESEARCH
Introduction
The Concept of Action Research
Defining the Term Action Research
Distinguishing Action Research from Other Researches
Historical Development
Goals or Objectives
Characteristics
Action Research—Procedure
Significance of Action Research in Teacher Education
Summary
Study Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 15 MICRO-TEACHING
Meaning and Definitions
Micro-teaching Procedure: An Indian Model
Advantages of Micro-Teaching
Identification of Teaching Skills
Practising Teaching Skills through Micro-Teaching
Skill of Introducing the Lesson
Skill of Explaining
Skill of Illustrating with Examples
Skill of Stimulus Variation
Skill of Reinforcement
Skill of Questioning
Map-reading Skill
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 16 ROLE-PLAYING AND GAMING
Introduction
Role-Playing
Concept and Meaning
Phases or Steps Involved
Mechanism of Simulated Teaching (Role playing by student teachers)
Advantages of Role Playing
Demerits and Limitations
Gaming
Definition
Simulated and Non-simulated Gaming
Educational Advantages
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 17 TEACHER EVALUATION
Introduction
Meaning and Definition
Criteria Employed
Product Criteria
Process Criteria
Presage Criteria
The Methods and Techniques Used
Evaluation of Teachers by Their Students
How Can Students Evaluate Their Teachers
Merits and Demerits
Evaluation by the Peers or Colleagues
Evaluation by Supervisors
Evaluation by the Members of the Community
Evaluation on the Basis of the Teachers’ Contribution to Institutional Improvement
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 18 SYSTEMS APPROACH
Introduction
System
Meaning of the Term ‘System’
Types of Systems
Parameters of a System
Systems Approach
Steps Involved in Systems Approach
System Analysis
Systems Design and Development
Systems Operation and Evaluation
Education System
System Approach to Education
Steps Involved in Systems Approach to Education
Instructional System
Systems Approach to the Instructional System
Phase or Steps Involved
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 19 PROGRAMMED LEARNING OR INSTRUCTION
Introduction
What is Programmed Learning?
Characteristics
Fundamental Principles
Styles of Programming
Linear or Extrinsic Programming
Branching or Intrinsic Programming
Comparison of Linear and Branching Programming
Development of the Programmed Instructional Material
Preparatory Phase
Development Phase
Evaluative Phase
Advantages and Applications of Programmed Learning
Self-Learning Programmed Module
What is a Module
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 20 LEARNER CONTROLLED INSTRUCTION (LCI)
Introduction
LCI: Need and Origin
Meaning, Nature and Definition
The Procedure or Steps Involved
Advantages
Limitations
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 21 PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION
Origin and Growth
Meaning and Definition
Objectives
Fundamental Elements and Characteristics
The Mechanism
Advantages
Difficulties and Problems for the Adoption of PSI in India
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 22 COMPUTER-ASSISTED AND COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTIONS
Introduction
Computer-assisted Instruction
Meaning and Definition
Basic Assumptions
Technologies of CAI
Types or Modes
Limitations and Difficulties
Computer-managed Instruction
Meaning and Definition
How are Instructions Managed by the Computers?
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 23 TRAINING PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
Meaning of Training Psychology
Basic Assumptions
Basic Principles
Utility of Training Psychology in Education
For Developing an Instructional System
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 24 CYBERNETICS
Meaning and Definition of Cybernetics
Theory and Mechanism
Use in the Development of Instructional Designs
Application and Advantages in Education
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 25 MODELS OF TEACHING
Meaning and Definitions
Analysis of the Definitions
Characteristics of Teaching Models
Fundamental Elements
Types of Teaching Models
Information Processing Models
Social Interaction Models
Personal Development Models
Behaviour Modification Models
Description of Some Teaching Models
Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model
Advanced Organizer Model of Ausubel
Suchman’s Inquiry Training Model
Encounter with the Problem—1
Encounter with the Problem—2
Mastery Learning Model of Bloom
Bruner’s Concept Attainment Model
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Model
Social Enquiry Model
Laboratory Method Model
Synectics Model
Operant Conditioning Teaching Model
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 26 UNIT PLANNING AND LESSON PLANNING
Introduction
Yearly Planning
Unit Planning in a Subject
What is Unit Planning?
Units Formation in a Particular Subject
How to Proceed
Importance and Advantages
Demerits and Limitations
Lesson Planning
What is Daily Lesson Planning?
Difference from Unit Planning
Need and Importance
Principles
The Criteria of an Effective Lesson Planning
Approaches to Lesson Planning
Evaluation of the Herbartian Approach to Lesson Planning
Which Approach is to be Adopted for Lesson Planning?
Types of Lessons Planned
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 27 TEAM TEACHING
Introduction
Origin and Growth
Meaning and Definitions
Objectives
The Guiding Principles
Types of Team Teaching
Organization, Procedure and Steps
Planning Stage
Execution Stage
Evaluation Stage
Advantages
Drawbacks and Limitations
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 28 AUDIO-TUTORIAL SYSTEM, LANGUAGE LABORATORY AND TELECONFERENCING
Audio-Tutorial System
Definition
Necessary Ingredients of the Audio-Tutorial Approach
Study Sessions
Advantages and Merits
Demerits and Limitations
Language Laboratory
What is a Language Laboratory
Why We Need a Language Laboratory
Types of Language Laboratories and their Functioning
How is a Language Laboratory System Operated
Uses and Applications
Teleconferencing
What is Teleconferencing
Basic Types of Teleconferencing
Educational Advantages
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 29 COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Introduction
Definition of Cooperative Learning
Basic Assumptions and Features
How to Proceed with Cooperative Learning
Merits and Advantages
Academic Benefits
Psychological Benefits
Social Benefits
Obstacles in Introducing Cooperative Learning
Resistance from the Teacher
Resistance from the Students
Resistance from the Authorities
Resistance from the Parents
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 30 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
Introduction
Meaning of Information and Communication Technology
Origin and Growth
Traditional and Modern ICTs
Traditional ICTs
Modern ICTs
Uses and Advantages
Limitations
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 31 COMPUTER—OPERATION AND NETWORKING
Introduction
What are Computers
Classification of Computers
General Structure and Working
Language of a Computer
Components of a Personal Computer (PC)
Input Devices Unit
Output Devices Unit
Central Processing Unit
How Does a Personal Computer Machine Operate?
What is a Computer Network
Network Models
What is Internet
The Internet Access
The Internet Protocols
The Internet Tools and Services
Computer Virus
How Does a Computer Virus Harm and Spread?
Types of Viruses
Evolution of the Computer Viruses
How to Face the Evil
Curative Measures
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 32 RESOURCE CENTRES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
Resource Centres—Meaning
Objectives
Functions
Organization
A Few Leading Resource Centres
Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET)
Educational Technology Cells (ET cells)
District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs)
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 33 E-LEARNING AND VIRTUAL CLASSROOMS
Introduction
What is e-Learning
Nature and Characteristics of e-Learning
The Contemporary Concept of e-Learning
Modes and Styles
Promotion and Arrangement for e-Learning in Our Educational Institutions
Advantages of e-Learning
Limitations and Drawbacks
Virtual Classrooms
Modus Operandi
Advantages
Drawbacks and Limitations
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings
Chapter 34 DISTANCE EDUCATION
Introduction
What is Distance Education
The Purposes and Functions Served by Distance Education
Theories of Distance Education
Theories of Autonomy and Independence
Theories of Industrialization
Theories of Interaction and Communication
Distance Education in India—Historical and Modern Perspectives
Organization and Management of a Distance Education Programme
Pre-assumptions and Knowledge about the Learners
Development of the Course Material
Assignments’ Evaluation and Feedback
Organization of Personal Contact Programme (PCP)
Selection and Use of Appropriate Communication Media or Technology
Provision of Study Centres
Sharing of Resources
Summary
Review Questions
References and Suggested Readings

Citation preview

ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY S.K. Mangal and Uma Mangal © 2009 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-3723-7 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Baba Barkha Nath Printers, Bahadurgarh, Haryana-124507.

To All the school teachers and would-be teachers to equip them with the necessary knowledge to use educational technology for building the destiny of the nation in their classrooms

CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY—MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE Origin and History Meaning and Definitions The Nature of Educational Technology Evolution of the Concept of Educational Technology The Existing Position and Latest Concept Educational Technology and other Related Concepts Objectives of Educational Technology Objectives at the Macro Level Objectives at the Micro Level Forms of Educational Technology Teaching Technology Instructional Technology Behavioural Technology Instructional Design Technology Approaches of Educational Technology Educational Technology I or Hardware Approach Educational Technology II or Software Approach Educational Technology III or Systems Approach Scope and Significance of Educational Technology Use and Significance of Educational Technology (in the Indian context) Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES FOR THE USE OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experiences Multi-sensory Instruction The Steps and Procedures for Adopting Multi-sensory Approach Uses and Advantage of Multi-sensory Instruction Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 3 HARDWARE INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS Introduction Magic Lantern Epidiascope Use of Epidiascope in Teaching-Learning Projectors Slide cum Filmstrips Projector Overhead Projector Opaque Projector Radio Advantages How to Utilize Radio Broadcasting in the Classroom Limitations and Shortcomings Tape Recorder How to Operate a Tape Recorder Educational Advantages Television How to Use Television in the Teaching-Learning Educational Values of Television Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Use and Significance of CCTV Video Tape or Cassette Recorder (VCR) Motion Pictures or Films Educational Advantages

How to make Proper Use of Motion Pictures Computers Use of Computers Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 4 SOFTWARE INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS Introduction Blackboard or Chalkboard Educational Use and Importance of the Blackboard How to Use Blackboard Effectively in the Classroom Bulletin Board or Information Board Educational Use of Bulletin Board Preparations of Bulletin Board What should be Displayed on a Bulletin Board? How to Make Effective use of the Bulletin Board? Flannel Board Preparation and Use of Flannel Board Pictures Where to Get Pictures Effective Use of Pictures as an Instructional Aid Graphs Meaning Types of Graphs Charts What are Charts? Importance of Charts Types of Charts How to Make Proper Use of Charts Preparation of Charts Maps Educational Uses and Purposes of the Maps

Kinds of Maps How to Make Effective Use of Maps Globes Types of Globes and their Educational Value Some Essential Points Regarding the Effective Use of Globes Diagrams Preparation of Diagram Educational uses of Diagrams Photographs Preparation of the Photographs Cartoons Educational Uses of Cartoons Sources of Obtaining Cartoons Proper Selection and Use of the Cartoons Posters Values and Advantages of Posters as an Aid Sources of Obtaining Posters The Proper Selection and Effective Use of Posters Newspapers Educational Advantages How to make Use of Newspapers as an Instruction Aid? Flash Cards Models Meaning Types of Models Preparation of Models How to Construct Models Preparation of Models with Different Types of Material Use and Importance of Model as Aid Dioramas Meaning Educational Use Slides

Educational Value Sources of Obtaining Slides for Instructional Use Preparation of Slides Filmstrips Sources of Filmstrips for the Instructional Purposes Preparation of Filmstrips Transparencies Preparation of Handmade Transparencies Preparation of Machine-made Transparencies Programmed Learning Packages Concept: Matter and Its States Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 5 CONCEPTS OF TEACHING-LEARNING Concept of Teaching Meaning and Definitions of the Term Teaching Nature and Characteristics of Teaching The Relation of Teaching with other Similar Concepts Analytical Concept of Teaching Concept of Learning Meaning and Definitions of the Term Learning Relationship between Teaching and Learning Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 6 TASK OF TEACHING Meaning and Definition of Teaching Task Variables Involved in a Teaching Task Phases and Operation of Teaching Task The Pre-active Phase

The Interactive Phase The Post-active Phase Levels of Teaching Task Memory Level of Teaching Understanding Level of Teaching Reflective Level of Teaching A Summarized Comparative Study of the Three Levels of Teaching Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 7 THEORIES OF TEACHING Introduction What is ‘Theory’? What is Teaching? Meaning and Nature of ‘Theory of Teaching’ Need and Significance of Theory of Teaching Scope of Teaching Theory Types of Teaching Theories Formal Theories of Teaching Descriptive Theories of Teaching Normative Theories of Teaching Conclusion about Different Theories of Teaching Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 8 PRINCIPLES AND MAXIMS OF SUCCESSFUL TEACHING Introduction General Principles of Teaching Psychological Principles of Teaching Maxims of Teaching

Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 9 FORMULATION OF TEACHING OR INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Meaning of Instructional Objectives Relationship of Instructional Objectives with the General Aims and Objectives of Teaching a Subject Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives Taxonomy of Objectives in the Cognitive Domain Taxonomy of Objectives in the Affective Domain Taxonomy of Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain An Alternative Taxonomy of Psychomotor Objectives Writing Objectives in Behavioural Terms Robert Mager’s Approach Miller’s Approach R.C.E.M. Approach Conclusion Regarding Writing of Instructional Objectives An Illustration of Writing Instructional Objectives Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 10 TEACHING STRATEGIES AND DEVICES Teaching Strategies Special Features and Characteristics Teaching Devices Types of Teaching Devices Distinguishing Teaching Devices from Teaching Methods Distinguishing Teaching Strategies from Teaching Methods Distinguishing Teaching Strategies from Teaching Tactics Distinguishing Teaching Strategies from Teaching Devices

Types of Teaching Strategies Lecture Strategy Group Discussion Strategy Demonstration Strategy Discovery or Heuristic Strategy Project Strategy Problem Solving Strategy Narration Strategy Illustration Strategy Questioning-Answering Teaching Strategy Exposition Strategy Description Strategy Explanation Strategy Dramatization Strategy Independent Study Strategy Supervised Study as a Teaching Strategy Drillwork Strategy Review Strategy Assignment Strategy Tutorial Strategy Brainstorming Strategy Role-playing Strategy Sensitivity Training Strategy Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 11 COMMUNICATION AND TEACHING–LEARNING Introduction The Concept of Communication The Communication Process The Source of Communication (The Communicator) Contents of Communication or Message

Media and Channel of Communication Receiver of the Communication Response Material or Feedback Facilitators or Barriers of Communication The Principles of Communication Principle of Readiness and Motivation Principle of Competency and Worth Principle of Sharing and Interaction Principle of Suitability of the Communication Contents Principle of Appropriate Media and Channel Principle of Appropriate Feedback Principle of Facilitators and Barriers of Communication Facilitators and Barriers of Communication Internal Barriers External Barriers Communication Situations One-to-One Communication Small Group Communication Large Group or Public Communication Organizational or Institutional Communication Mass Communication Classroom Communication Verbal Communication Non-verbal Communication Achieving Effectiveness in Classroom Communication Source of Communication Communication Material Communication Media or Channel Receiver of the Communication Different Media of Communication Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Chapter 12 MANAGEMENT OF TEACHING-LEARNING Meaning of Management of Teaching-Learning The Stages or Steps The Need and Significance Planning Teaching-Learning Basic Steps Involved Organization of Teaching-Learning Organizational Task Selection of Appropriate Teaching Strategies and Tactics Selection and Use of Proper Teaching Aids Selection and Use of Appropriate Communication Strategy Leading Teaching-Learning Tasks Related to Leading Controlling Teaching-Learning Measurement and Assessment of the Teaching-Learning Outcomes What is Evaluation? Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 13 MODIFICATION OF TEACHER BEHAVIOUR AND INTERACTION ANALYSIS Teaching or Teacher Behaviour Modification of Teaching or Teacher Behaviour Techniques for the Modification Interaction Analysis Technique Transaction Analysis Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 14 ACTION RESEARCH

Introduction The Concept of Action Research Defining the Term Action Research Distinguishing Action Research from Other Researches Historical Development Goals or Objectives Characteristics Action Research—Procedure Significance of Action Research in Teacher Education Summary Study Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 15 MICRO-TEACHING Meaning and Definitions Micro-teaching Procedure: An Indian Model Advantages of Micro-Teaching Identification of Teaching Skills Practising Teaching Skills through Micro-Teaching Skill of Introducing the Lesson Skill of Explaining Skill of Illustrating with Examples Skill of Stimulus Variation Skill of Reinforcement Skill of Questioning Map-reading Skill Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 16 ROLE-PLAYING AND GAMING Introduction Role-Playing

Concept and Meaning Phases or Steps Involved Mechanism of Simulated Teaching (Role playing by student teachers) Advantages of Role Playing Demerits and Limitations Gaming Definition Simulated and Non-simulated Gaming Educational Advantages Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 17 TEACHER EVALUATION Introduction Meaning and Definition Criteria Employed Product Criteria Process Criteria Presage Criteria The Methods and Techniques Used Evaluation of Teachers by Their Students How Can Students Evaluate Their Teachers Merits and Demerits Evaluation by the Peers or Colleagues Evaluation by Supervisors Evaluation by the Members of the Community Evaluation on the Basis of the Teachers’ Contribution to Institutional Improvement Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Chapter 18 SYSTEMS APPROACH Introduction System Meaning of the Term ‘System’ Types of Systems Parameters of a System Systems Approach Steps Involved in Systems Approach System Analysis Systems Design and Development Systems Operation and Evaluation Education System System Approach to Education Steps Involved in Systems Approach to Education Instructional System Systems Approach to the Instructional System Phase or Steps Involved Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 19 PROGRAMMED LEARNING OR INSTRUCTION Introduction What is Programmed Learning? Characteristics Fundamental Principles Styles of Programming Linear or Extrinsic Programming Branching or Intrinsic Programming Comparison of Linear and Branching Programming Development of the Programmed Instructional Material Preparatory Phase Development Phase

Evaluative Phase Advantages and Applications of Programmed Learning Self-Learning Programmed Module What is a Module Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 20 LEARNER CONTROLLED INSTRUCTION (LCI) Introduction LCI: Need and Origin Meaning, Nature and Definition The Procedure or Steps Involved Advantages Limitations Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 21 PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION Origin and Growth Meaning and Definition Objectives Fundamental Elements and Characteristics The Mechanism Advantages Difficulties and Problems for the Adoption of PSI in India Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 22 COMPUTER-ASSISTED AND COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTIONS Introduction

Computer-assisted Instruction Meaning and Definition Basic Assumptions Technologies of CAI Types or Modes Limitations and Difficulties Computer-managed Instruction Meaning and Definition How are Instructions Managed by the Computers? Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 23 TRAINING PSYCHOLOGY Introduction Meaning of Training Psychology Basic Assumptions Basic Principles Utility of Training Psychology in Education For Developing an Instructional System Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 24 CYBERNETICS Meaning and Definition of Cybernetics Theory and Mechanism Use in the Development of Instructional Designs Application and Advantages in Education Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 25 MODELS OF TEACHING

Meaning and Definitions Analysis of the Definitions Characteristics of Teaching Models Fundamental Elements Types of Teaching Models Information Processing Models Social Interaction Models Personal Development Models Behaviour Modification Models Description of Some Teaching Models Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model Advanced Organizer Model of Ausubel Suchman’s Inquiry Training Model Encounter with the Problem—1 Encounter with the Problem—2 Mastery Learning Model of Bloom Bruner’s Concept Attainment Model Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Model Social Enquiry Model Laboratory Method Model Synectics Model Operant Conditioning Teaching Model Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 26 UNIT PLANNING AND LESSON PLANNING Introduction Yearly Planning Unit Planning in a Subject What is Unit Planning? Units Formation in a Particular Subject How to Proceed

Importance and Advantages Demerits and Limitations Lesson Planning What is Daily Lesson Planning? Difference from Unit Planning Need and Importance Principles The Criteria of an Effective Lesson Planning Approaches to Lesson Planning Evaluation of the Herbartian Approach to Lesson Planning Which Approach is to be Adopted for Lesson Planning? Types of Lessons Planned Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 27 TEAM TEACHING Introduction Origin and Growth Meaning and Definitions Objectives The Guiding Principles Types of Team Teaching Organization, Procedure and Steps Planning Stage Execution Stage Evaluation Stage Advantages Drawbacks and Limitations Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Chapter 28 AUDIO-TUTORIAL SYSTEM, LANGUAGE LABORATORY AND TELECONFERENCING Audio-Tutorial System Definition Necessary Ingredients of the Audio-Tutorial Approach Study Sessions Advantages and Merits Demerits and Limitations Language Laboratory What is a Language Laboratory Why We Need a Language Laboratory Types of Language Laboratories and their Functioning How is a Language Laboratory System Operated Uses and Applications Teleconferencing What is Teleconferencing Basic Types of Teleconferencing Educational Advantages Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 29 COOPERATIVE LEARNING Introduction Definition of Cooperative Learning Basic Assumptions and Features How to Proceed with Cooperative Learning Merits and Advantages Academic Benefits Psychological Benefits Social Benefits Obstacles in Introducing Cooperative Learning Resistance from the Teacher

Resistance from the Students Resistance from the Authorities Resistance from the Parents Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 30 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) Introduction Meaning of Information and Communication Technology Origin and Growth Traditional and Modern ICTs Traditional ICTs Modern ICTs Uses and Advantages Limitations Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 31 COMPUTER—OPERATION AND NETWORKING Introduction What are Computers Classification of Computers General Structure and Working Language of a Computer Components of a Personal Computer (PC) Input Devices Unit Output Devices Unit Central Processing Unit How Does a Personal Computer Machine Operate? What is a Computer Network

Network Models What is Internet The Internet Access The Internet Protocols The Internet Tools and Services Computer Virus How Does a Computer Virus Harm and Spread? Types of Viruses Evolution of the Computer Viruses How to Face the Evil Curative Measures Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 32 RESOURCE CENTRES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY Introduction Resource Centres—Meaning Objectives Functions Organization A Few Leading Resource Centres Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) Educational Technology Cells (ET cells) District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 33 e-LEARNING AND VIRTUAL CLASSROOMS Introduction What is e-Learning

Nature and Characteristics of e-Learning The Contemporary Concept of e-Learning Modes and Styles Promotion and Arrangement for e-Learning in Our Educational Institutions Advantages of e-Learning Limitations and Drawbacks Virtual Classrooms Modus Operandi Advantages Drawbacks and Limitations Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings Chapter 34 DISTANCE EDUCATION Introduction What is Distance Education The Purposes and Functions Served by Distance Education Theories of Distance Education Theories of Autonomy and Independence Theories of Industrialization Theories of Interaction and Communication Distance Education in India—Historical and Modern Perspectives Organization and Management of a Distance Education Programme Pre-assumptions and Knowledge about the Learners Development of the Course Material Assignments’ Evaluation and Feedback Organization of Personal Contact Programme (PCP) Selection and Use of Appropriate Communication Media or Technology Provision of Study Centres Sharing of Resources

Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Preface The advancements in science and technology and their application have yielded rich dividends in almost all matters related to the organization and management of the processes and products of education. This applied aspect of technology in the field of education, well known as educational technology, has a tremendous capacity to provide the best possible output in the process of education for both the teachers and the learners. Hence it is essential that students and in-service teachers—be they elementary, primary, secondary or higher secondary level teachers—be introduced to educational technology. This book has been written to provide the readers with the knowledge and skill in the use of educational technology for managing the teaching-learning affairs both at the preparation and the in-service stages. The text is divided into 34 chapters. Chapter 1 gives the meaning, nature and scope of educational technology. Chapters 2–4 provide a detailed description of the hardware and software used for instructional purposes. Chapters 5–8 give the essentials needed for the acquisition and understanding of the areas related to teaching technology, namely, the concept, task, and the execution of teaching-learning. Chapter 9 focuses on the ways and means of formulation of teaching or instructional objectives. Chapters 10–12 describe, in detail, the teaching strategies and devices, communication process and the management of teaching-learning. A teacher’s behaviour is important while both interacting with her/his students and providing a model for the behaviour modification of the students for the success of her/his classroom

teaching. Chapters 13–25 focus on bringing modification in the behaviour of the teacher through the mechanism of interaction analysis, action research, micro-teaching, role playing and gaming, teacher evaluation, systems approach, training psychology, instructional technology, models of teaching, and cybernetics. Besides, these chapters deal with individualized and the groupbased systems of instruction, namely, programmed learning or instruction, learner-controlled instruction, personalized system of instruction, and computer-assisted and managed instruction. Chapters 26–27 discuss unit planning, lesson planning, and team teaching. Chapters 28–31 deal with the audio-tutorial system, language laboratory and teleconferencing, information and communication technology (ICT), cooperative learning, and operation, application and networking of computers. Information about the resource centres of educational technology is given in Chapter 32, keeping the above-mentioned objectives in mind. Finally, Chapters 33–34 are devoted to equip the teachers with the proper knowledge and understanding about the use and application of educational technology for planning and organization of the alternative modes of traditional classroom instructions, via virtual classrooms, e-learning and distance education. To provide the readers with insight into and understanding of the text, the style, language and presentation have been kept quite simple, engaging and lively. The Chapter Outline provides a glimpse of the contents while the chapter-end Summary reviews the main ideas covered in each chapter. The References and Suggested Readings will enable the readers to dwell deeper into the subject. Besides, to make the readers understand the subject better, the concepts are illustrated with diagrams and tables. The book is ideally suited for the students of B.Ed., M.Ed., B.A./M.A. (Education) courses of most Indian universities. Besides, this text can be profitably used by the in-service teachers, teacher

educators, educational technology-resource personnel, and school administrators. Our own experiences of more than three decades in the teaching of educational technology and the lively interactions with the students have enormously helped in writing this book. We express deep gratitude to a host of scholars, authors, educational technologists and researchers whose views and opinions have been freely incorporated in this book. We wish to thank the Publishers, PHI Learning, especially the editorial and production team, for their valuable efforts in bringing this book out in such a presentable and useful form. We fervently hope that the book will be widely read and appreciated by the readers. We welcome any valuable suggestions and constructive comments for improving the contents of the book. With all the warm wishes for the readers. S.K. Mangal Uma Mangal

1 Educational Technology— Meaning, Nature and Scope CHAPTER OUTLINE Origin and History Meaning and Definitions The Nature of Educational Technology Objectives of Educational Technology Forms of Educational Technology Approaches of Educational Technology Scope and Significance of Educational Technology use and Significance of Educational Technology (In the Indian Context) Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Origin and History Educational technology, in terms of terminology and structural composition, may carry out two basic components, namely education and technology. Although both of them have been in a continuous process of evolution, we are focusing here more on the evolutionary nature of the second component, i.e. technology, simply on the

ground that educational technology as a subject has its sole concern with the task of identifying the most suitable, appropriate and developed technology (both hardware and software) for serving the educational needs and purposes of the students and the society at a particular time and place. It is a matter of no secret that there has been a continuous shift in the nature of the use of technological means and measures for improving the processes and products of education depending upon the type of excellence attained by the members of the society and communities all over the globe in terms of the scientific, philosophical, psychological and technological progress and advances. This is why, we can witness a continual shift in the modes and means of technology being used for serving the cause of education in different periods of human history and civilization. This process can be summarized as follows: In the early period of human history, when writing was unknown, the method of verbal presentation on the part of the teachers and citation and memorization on the part of the students was a common practice in almost all the civilizations of the world. Socrates’ teacher-pupil oral dialogue system prevalent in the west and oral teaching tradition maintained by the ancient sages in the Gurukuls of our country may be cited as a testimony of the use of relevant technology in the field of teaching-learning at a particular age in the progress of human civilization. With the advent of writing as the means and materials of communication, like writing on the leaves and tree-trunks, engraving on the metals and rocks, and then the use of some type of paper and ink material provided the next breakthrough in the use of writing technology for teaching and learning. In the time to come, it provided a great impetus in the field of teaching and learning which witnessed the use of the subject matter available in the form of printing material and textbooks, a great scientific and technological advancement.

The use of writing and printing technology then took its next leap in helping the cause of teaching and learning by being utilized in the production and use of the instructional material like chalk or blackboards, pictures, charts, models, maps, diagrams and other graphic material. Later on, with the industrial development and technical advancement, sophisticated scientific instruments, mass media and educational materials were used. It brought the use of sophisticated hardware and software such as radio, television, tape recorder, films, transparency, etc. in the field of education. The concept of programmed instruction and theories of learning, later on, added another dimension to the meaning and concept of educational technology. This was again broadened when the new approaches in the form of system-approach, microteaching, interaction analysis and computer assisted instruction came into existence. In this way, with the introduction and subsequent use of new approaches, contents, theories, means and materials, managerial skills and objectives in the field of teaching and learning, there has been a gradual shift in the meaning, definition, concept, nature and scope of the term educational technology or teaching technology. It has resulted in defining educational technology in a variety of ways.

Meaning and Definitions G.O.M. Leith: “Educational technology is the systematic application of scientific knowledge about teaching-learning and conditions of learning to improve the efficiency of teaching and training (Leith, 1967)”. Shiv K. Mitra: “Educational technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and methods by which educational goals could be realized (Mitra, 1968:4).”

S.S. Kulkarni: “Educational technology may be defined as the application of the laws as well as recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of education (Kulkarni, 1969).” D. Unwin: “Educational technology is concerned with the application of modern skills and techniques to requirements of education and training. This includes the facilitation of learning by manipulation of media and methods, and the control of environment in so far as this reflects on learning (Unwin, 1969).” W. Kenneth Richmond: “Educational technology is concerned with providing appropriately designed learning situations which, holding in view the objectives of teaching or training, bring to bear the best means of instruction (Richmond, 1979).” I.K. Davies: “Education technology is concerned with the problems of education and training context and it is characterized by the disciplined and systematic approach to the organization of resources for learning (Davies, 1971).” J.R. Gases: “Education technology has to be seen as part of a persistent and complex endeavour of bringing pupils, teachers and technical means together in an effective way (Ford Foundation Team, 1971).” US President Commission of Enquiry: “Education technology may be defined as a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating a total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific objectives based on findings from research in human learning and communication (cited in, Tucker, 1979:159).” DES Working Party UK: “Education technology is the development, application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids in the field of human learning (cited in, Tucker, 1979:159).” Scottish Council for Educational Technology: “Educational technology is systematic approach to designing and evaluating

learning and teaching methods and methodologies and to the application and exploitation of media and the current knowledge of communication techniques in education, both formal and informal (cited in, Tucker 1979:160).” An overview of the definitions listed here reveals that there exists wide differences of opinion regarding a particular definition of the term educational technology. These definitions initially encompass the whole range of educational technology activities from the analytic methods of psychology of learning and teaching to the audio-visual communication and mass media technology. The views propagated by these definitions may help us to conclude about the meaning and nature of educational technology as follows: 1. Educational technology is concerned with the systematic application of science and technology in the field of education and thus may be defined as the application of technology to education in order to further the cause of the latter. 2. Just as science and technology help in carrying out the practical task in general, educational technology helps in providing efficiency to the task of teaching and learning. 3. Educational technology provides technical guidance and solution to the problems of education. 4. Teaching is communicating and education technology can play an effective role in the communication between teacher and student. 5. Education technology encompasses the total teaching and learning process involving the elements like the following: • Specification of goals and behavioural objectives. • Analysis of the characteristics of the learner. • Selection and organization of the content or subject matter to be learned. • Methods and strategies of the presentation of the content.

• Use of aid-material, software and hardware, mass media and communication techniques. • Effective arrangement of learning situations and learning environment. • Effective classroom control and management. • Continuous feedback and evaluation of the results. 6. Educational technology is not limited to the use of audio-visual aids and does not symbolize merely educational hardware such as the sophisticated gadgets and mechanical devices used in education. For the effective management of the total teaching-learning process it tends to utilize the results of all good, experiments and researches in the field of human learning and the art of communication and employs a combination of all possible human and non-human resources to achieve the desired educational objectives. In this way, the term educational technology carries a wide meaning. It can neither be confined to the use of audio-visual aids, software materials and hardware equipment, nor can it be limited to the use of psychological principles and instructional theories for bringing improvement in education. It should cover all that happens during the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the teachinglearning process. It should devise ways and means to explore and utilize all the resources to bring improvement in the teaching-learning process. In brief, educational technology should stand for a wise application of the available human and non-human resources for providing appropriate solution to the educational problems and to improve the processes and products of education.

The Nature of Educational Technology

To understand the nature of educational technology, let us try to view it from the following angles: 1. Evolution of the concept of educational technology. 2. Existing position and latest concept. 3. Distinction from other related concepts.

Evolution of the Concept of Educational Technology It may be discussed in detail as follows: The earliest concept of educational technology was linked with the use of audio-visual aids like charts, models, maps, specimen and concrete material. In this sense, the term educational technology was used as a synonym to audio-visual aids meant for direct teaching and learning. With the advent of physical science and consequently the electronic revolution there came an era of sophisticated hardware and software (gadgets and mechanical devices) like projectors, tape-recorders, radio and television. As a result, educational technology was taken in terms of these sophisticated instruments and equipments used for presenting instructional material. Then came the age of mass media. It led to a massive communication revolution for instructional purposes. Utilization of radio, television, tele-text and computer-assisted instructions for individualized learning, thus, brought more sophistication in the use of appliances and instruments for formal and informal education. With the advent of programmed learning and programmed instruction concept, a new dimension of educational technology came into the educational horizon. It tried to individualize the process of education and introduced a system

of self-learning in the form of designed self-instructional material and teaching machine. As a result, educational technology was regarded as being concerned with the preparation and use of individualized instruction or selfinstructional programmed material, leading to the use of teaching machine for auto-instruction or learning. The concept of programmed learning added another dimension to the meaning of educational technology when some new devices and approaches like wide applications of the theories of learning and teachings, micro-teaching, analysis of behaviour and systems approach, etc. came into existence.

The Existing Position and Latest Concept Although the term ‘educational technology’ has been in vogue for several decades, yet on account of its complex nature involving many disciplines and demanding too much specialization and understanding of the planning, processing and products of education, it has been narrowly conceived by different individuals depending on where one works and stands within the educational spectrum. It has resulted in the formation of varying concepts of educational technology. For example, for those who are working in audio-visual aids, educational technology is confined to the use of audio-visual aids, while mass media experts emphasize the importance of sophisticated hardware, software and communication technology. For the experts of programmed learning and individualized instruction, it means the programming of the self-instructional material and use of teaching machines or computer-aided learning material. There are others who tend to look at educational technology only from the management point of view and consider it as an application of system approach to teaching-learning. In this way, in actual sense, educational technology exists, to a very large extent, in a fragmented way not only in India but also

globally. As a result, in any course or scheme of educational technology related to B. Ed., M. A. or M. Phil. (Education) of the universities in India and abroad, we find significant diversification in terms of objectives, topics and the coverage of contents. However, serious attempts are now being made to arrive at some general consensus to end the confusion and debate regarding the concept and meaning of educational technology. This latest concept involves the concept of systems engineering or systems approach originated from computer science. According to this concept, educational technology is more than the sum of its parts. It is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluation of the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives based on research in human learning and communication leading to a combination of human and non-human resources reorganized into an efficient and economic system for the best possible results. In other words, it means a systems approach adopted in the field of education to organize educational systems, keeping in view the broad objectives and the available resources. This aspect of educational technology carries a wide meaning and multifaceted concepts. It emphasizes the application of systems approach to the study of the multidimensional problems of education. Some of these problem areas are as follows: The educational planning and organization. The psychology of learning. The curriculum development and course design. The production of teaching-learning material. Audio-visual method of presentation and dissemination of information, storage and retrieval. The allocation and management of human and non-human resources. The cost-effectiveness of media in education. Innovations.

Evaluation.

Educational Technology and other Related Concepts The concept and meaning of educational technology may be made a little more clear by distinguishing it from other related concepts.

Educational technology and instructional technology These two terms should not be considered as synonymous. Educational technology is a more comprehensive and broad-based concept. Instructional technology is a subsystem of the main system of educational technology. Education is a comprehensive process and imparting of instruction is one of the several means to achieve the goals of education. As a result, the technology of instruction may be regarded as a part and section of the whole phenomenon of technology of education. In strict sense, instructional technology is concerned with determining and providing appropriate stimuli to the learner to produce certain type of responses for making learning more effective. In other words, instructional technology determines the media, methods and material that may be used in a given teaching-learning situation for attaining the stipulated instructional objectives. On the other hand, educational technology is concerned with the scientific use of the available human and non-human resources for solving various problems of education (including instruction) for optimizing the results of the whole teaching-learning process.

Educational technology and teaching technology Like instructional technology, teaching technology is also one of the sub-types of the system of educational technology. It concerns with the systematization of the process of teaching and provides

necessary theory and practice for the teachers to bring improvement in the task of teaching. The concept of instructional technology is much wider than the concept of teaching technology as it also includes the means and material concerning individualized instructions and self-learning including teaching machines and computer-assisted learning, independent of the teachers and their acts. Teaching technology is merely a specialized branch of educational technology which is meant for the teachers and the teaching process. While education, as a whole, can never be limited merely to the teaching process or teacher’s task, educational technology can never be confined to teaching technology only. It is much more than mere teaching or instructional technology.

Technology of education and technology in education The term ‘technology in education’ refers to the use of technological advancement such as various equipment, material and machines for educational purposes. It involves the increasingly complex range of audio-visual equipment, hardware and sophisticated electronic devices like projectors, films, radio, television, tape recorder, teaching machines, tele-text and computer aided instructions for individualized and group learning. The term technology in education is thus a service concept like technology in the service of farming or agriculture or science in the service of mankind. In this sense, educational technology can provide its services to the teachers on the following grounds: 1. For explaining the purpose and functions of different forms of appliances, equipment and audio-visual material and mass media. 2. For providing training in acquiring the material and handling the equipment to overcome their reluctance to use new media

and material. 3. For showing the relevance of the use of the equipment and material in the context of individualized and group learning for achieving the goals of formal or non-formal education. The term ‘technology of education’ or ‘educational technology’ cannot limit itself to the role of service as confined in the case of technology in education. The term, technology of education, does not represent something added or helped from outside as sounded in the case of technology in education. It signifies a system or technological approach to the problems of education. Emphasizing on this point of view, T.K. Robinson (1976) writes: The strongest protagonists for educational technology are not, however, satisfied with a role limited to technology in education and the provision of audio-visual aids. They see themselves as crucially involved in the design and evaluation of systems of learning involving an understanding of the psychology of learning and of communication and information theory to be used to establish a rational for good teaching practice which uses a variety of media and modes and which enables the teacher to deploy his skills more effectively and apply them more widely. This is technology of education.

In view of the discussion carried out in the above pages, the following conclusions can be drawn about the concept of educational technology: 1. Educational technology cannot be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids, and technology in education emphasizes the concept of service, i.e. the use of different equipment, gadgets and mass media. 2. Educational technology must mean technology of education presenting itself as a system for bringing improvement in the total process of teaching-learning by carefully analyzing its problems and reorganizing all available resources in an economic way for obtaining the optimum results.

3. Educational technology cannot be viewed in terms of its parts or processes. Instructional technology, teaching technology, behaviour technology, programmed learning, microteaching, system analysis, management of teaching-learning, teacher or pupil behaviour, etc. are all its constituents and resources. Not a single one of these alone is enough to represent the concept of educational technology. All these branches, innovations, approaches and strategies should be integrated as a whole according to the needs and requirements of the system represented by educational technology at a particular time in a given situation for accomplishing its useful objectives.

Objectives of Educational Technology Educational technology, in the capacity of technology of education, provides valuable help in the total teaching-learning process for achieving the best possible results in an economic way through the available human and non-human resources. In this respect, the major objectives of education technology can be summarized as follows:

Objectives at the Macro Level In view of the broad educational goals, i.e. the macro level, the objectives of educational technology can be listed in the following way: 1. To identify educational needs and aspirations of the community. 2. To determine the aims of education, broad strategies and structure of education. 3. To develop a suitable curriculum with interaction of science, art and human values. 4. To identify man-material resources and strategies for achieving the stipulated aims of education.

5. To develop certain models leading to improvement of the process of teaching and learning. 6. To develop the appropriate aids and equipment to meet the educational purposes. 7. To identify major constraints in the environment and the ways and means to tackle those. 8. To help in extending educational opportunities to the masses especially the neglected section of the community. 9. To manage the whole educational system covering planning, implementation and the evaluation phases.

Objectives at the Micro Level In view of the specific classroom teaching, i.e. the micro level, the objectives of educational technology are as follows: 1. To identify and analyze the characteristics and educational needs of the pupils. 2. To determine the specific classroom objectives and state them in behavioural terms. 3. To analyze the contents of instruction and organize it in a proper sequence. 4. To identify the available teaching-learning material and resources. 5. To identify the nature of the interaction of the sub-systems like students, teachers, teaching-learning material, content of instruction and methodologies. 6. To plan the teaching strategies and utilize the man-material resources for achieving specific classroom objectives. 7. To evaluate the effectiveness of the classroom teaching in terms of the pupil’s performance or change in behaviour. 8. To provide appropriate feedback to the students as well as teachers to bring modification in the teaching-learning process.

Forms of Educational Technology Educational technology, as has already been discussed, has a wide range of scope and applicability in the field of education. In a broader sense, it stands for the application of the principles and techniques of science and technology as well as psychology and pedagogy in the activities of teaching and learning. As a result, it has been capable of providing necessary ways and means, theoretical as well as practical, for improving the processes and products of teaching-learning related to both formal and informal education. With such a broad concept, educational technology has formed its roots and wings in certain distinct aspects and forms in various courses and programmes related to the study and application of educational technology. These forms of educational technology, in general, can be listed as follows: 1. Teaching technology 2. Instructional technology 3. Behavioural technology 4. Instructional design technology Let us discuss these forms of educational technology in detail.

Teaching Technology As already emphasized in this chapter, teaching technology, as a sub-system of educational technology, is concerned with the task of systematization of the process of teaching. However, teaching cannot merely be treated as a sum total of certain teaching skills. Although it is true that being a skilled job it involves certain specific skills, yet a mere acquisition of these skills does not make an individual a teacher. A teacher has to play the role of a technician by learning the art and science of teaching. In this sense, teaching must be regarded as a technology that a teacher should try to know and practise well if

he wishes to be successful in his teaching job. Like a proper technician, he must be able to do his job effectively. A technical knowledge and skill of task requires that it should be completed with reasonable economy and greater efficiency. If a teacher can teach well with the least efforts resulting into maximum productivity, then he can be thought of utilizing teaching as a technology. The essence of the application of technology lies in getting more and better output with the least input in terms of time and labour. If a teacher knows the art and technique or if he is in a position to make use of the teaching technology in realizing the teaching objectives, he can get more success in his task with the least of efforts. If a teacher is in a position to make use of technology in teaching, he must be well equipped with the technological skills like the following, besides having a good knowledge or mastery over the subject matter: 1. Communication skill, 2. Skill of interaction with his students, 3. Skill of making the students to learn and think independently, and 4. Skill of evaluating and reinforcing pupil’s learning behaviour, etc.

Fundamental principles and characteristics of teaching technology Teaching technology, as suggested by E.G. Vedanayagam (1988), can be distinguished because of certain characteristics and fundamental principles as follows: 1. Teaching is a scientific process and its major components are content, communication, and feedback. 2. There is a close relationship between teaching and learning.

3. It is possible to modify, improve and develop the teachinglearning activities. 4. The terminal behaviour of the learner, in terms of learning structures, can be established by appropriate teaching environment. 5. Teaching skills can be developed and strengthened by means of feedback devices with or without sophisticated techniques. 6. Pre-determined learning objectives can be achieved by designing suitable teaching activities. 7. Use of achievement motivation technique enhances the output of the teacher and the learner.

Contents of teaching technology Teaching technology possess certain basic things in the shape of the philosophy and acts of teaching. A teacher has to imbibe the art and techniques of this technology. How should a teacher in practice proceed for the use of teaching technology in the process of teaching-learning? This aspect has been closely analyzed by scholars like Glazer, Bruner, Gagne and Davies. Davies (1971), in his work Management of Learning, has presented the contents of teaching technology in the shape of four steps, namely planning of teaching, organization of teaching, leading of teaching and controlling of teaching. These four steps systematically prescribe the contents of teaching technology to be learnt and practised by a teacher for becoming a teaching technician. 1. Planning of teaching: Through its first step, teaching technology helps a teacher to plan the details of his teaching journey to be travelled along with his students. For this purpose, it tells that a teacher must first try to formulate teaching-learning objectives to be realized through the ongoing teaching-learning process and then very carefully plan for the realization of these set objectives by taking care of (i) the entry

behaviour of the learners, (ii) selection of appropriate learning experiences, (iii) selection of proper teaching methods, strategies and aid material, and (iv) creating a conducive and helpful environment for proper teaching-learning. 2. Organization of teaching: In its second step, teaching technology supplies the necessary knowledge and skills to the concerned teacher for arranging, relating and organizing all the available teaching-learning resources, men and material, for the proper realization of the set teaching-learning objectives in the most effective, efficient and economic way possible. Specifically here, it may talk about the ways and means of seeking cooperation of the administration personnel, parents and community; developing teacher’s own competencies for better communication including use of proper teaching methods, aids and strategies; and organization and utilization of the available physical facilities and resources for the better teaching-learning. 3. Leading of teaching: The contents of teaching technology in this step provide necessary knowledge and skills for a teacher to motivate, encourage, and guide and thus, lead his students on the path of learning for the realization of the set teachinglearning objectives. 4. Controlling of teaching: Through its last step of managing teaching, the contents of teaching technology may help a teacher to acquire necessary knowledge and skill for the proper measurement and assessment of the teaching-learning outcomes, i.e. the output of his teaching in view of the set teaching-learning objectives.

Instructional Technology As the name suggests, this kind of educational technology is meant for helping the instructor and the learner in the desired instructional

task for the realization of the stipulated instructional objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation. In simple words, it is a type of technology meant for bringing improvement in the instructional process. Here, the term instruction stands for a certain type of command meant for getting some specific information, knowledge and understanding about a thing, system or process. The type of technology which may help the learner and the instructor (or the selfinstructional packages) in this task may be termed as instructional technology. Instructional technology, in this way, first try to plan what type of instruction and instructional material are needed in a particular teaching-learning situation and then suggests ways and means for the utilization of this instructional material for the proper realization of the instructional objectives. Instructional technology, in this sense, must be regarded as a subsystem of educational technology that is purely concerned with the process of imparting instructions to the learner for realizing the stipulated instructional objectives which is mostly cognitive (development of knowledge and understanding) in nature. The conative as well as affective domains of the learner’s behaviour are thus almost neglected in the services provided by instructional technology. With the provision of self-instructional material through programmed instructional packages, teaching machines and computer-assisted learning, this type of technology makes the learner quite independent in his learning task. He is no more in need of a tutor or teacher for carrying out the instructional work and realizing the teaching learning objectives. The learning task, with the help of essential services provided by the instructional technology, thus becomes quite simple, systematic and interesting according to the learner’s needs, abilities and pace of learning. Understood, in this way, instructional technology may be defined as a subsystem of educational technology which helps the instructor or the learner himself as a part of his self learning or auto instruction by determining the media, methods and material for the realization of

the stipulated instructional objectives in a given teaching-learning situation. Let us visualize how does instructional technology helps the instructor and learner in the task of instruction and learning in a particular teaching-learning situation.

Setting of instructional objectives Instructional objectives make the very core and heart of any instructional process. Whatever piece of instruction is planned, it needs the planning and setting of instructional objectives in the very beginning. What type of behavioural changes are to be expected after going through that piece of instruction to the learner is thus to be decided and set before proceeding further in the task of imparting instruction. Instructional technology may help the instructor and learner to take decision about the instructional and learning objectives in close cooperation of the following: the age and grade level of the learner. the physical, emotional, social and mental potential of the learner. the previous experiences of the learner related to the subject and topic. the men-material resources available for imparting instruction. For setting instructional objectives for a particular piece of instruction to a particular group of learners in the available teachinglearning situation, help may be taken from the knowledge and skills imparted by instructional technology available through its content material such as: Taxonomy of instructional objectives in the cognitive domain and affective domain (provided by Bloom and his associates)

and for the psychomotor domain (provided by Simpson as well as Harrow). Writing the instructional objectives in behavioural terms by taking the help of Robert Mager’s approach, Robet Miller’s approach or RCEM approach.

Taking decision about the instructional material In view of the stipulated instructional objectives, what type of learning experiences should be provided to the learner needs to be decided at this stage. For this purpose, we have to select the teaching-learning experiences and then organize and integrate them properly for utilizing in the course of instruction. This instructional material is then divided into properly related and sequenced units by following the principles of simple to complex, specific to general, theory to practice, etc. All such decisions about the selection and organization of the instructional material, for carrying out the task of instruction in view of the realization and stipulated instructional objectives, are always facilitated by the knowledge and skills provided by instructional technology. In the case of auto-instruction, like programmed instruction, computer-assisted instruction, and teaching machines, the instructional material is well available in the form of well-arranged, sequenced form suiting the abilities, needs and requirement of the learners for learning at their own pace. The availability of such autoinstructional material has been possible only through the knowledge and skills provided by instructional technology.

Taking decision about the media and methods Instructional technology may help the teacher and also the learners to select and make use of appropriate media and methods for carrying out the teaching-learning process. For this purpose, it brings into light the following facts:

There are varieties of media and methods available for imparting instruction. No single media or method is suitable for all types of instruction or a particular type of instruction in all teaching-learning situations. One has to take proper decision about the selection of a particular media and method or a combination of media and methods depending upon the nature of the piece of instruction and resources and environment available in a particular teaching-learning situation. One should have a proper knowledge and skill for the use and application of a particular media and method for carrying out the work of instruction or auto-instruction. Instructional technology may help the teachers and students a lot in this direction by opening the gates of knowledge and skill that it can impart through its theoretical contents and practical application. For this purpose, it contains the topics like the following in its prescribed syllabus or courses: Instructional strategies like lecture strategy, demonstration strategy, tutorial strategy, narration strategy, description strategy, explaining strategy, illustration strategy, role playing strategy, gaming strategy, group discussion strategy, questionanswer strategy, discovery or heuristic strategy, problem solving strategy, excursion strategy, assignment strategy, brainstorming strategy, etc. Special instructional procedures for carrying out autoinstruction or self-learning like programmed instruction, instruction carried out with the help of teaching machines, computer-assisted instruction, personalized system of instruction (PSI), learner controlled instruction (LCI), etc. Cooperative or group instructional strategies like working on a project, living and learning in a community, team teaching, etc. Knowledge and application of various types of audio-visual aids and instructional material such as radio, television, tape recorder, projectors, charts, maps, diagrams and models.

Taking decision about the proper instructional environment Instructional technology makes one aware or conscious of the need, selection and organization of a suitable instructional environment. It clearly emphasizes that a particular type of environment is essential for carrying out particular type of instruction, and it then helps the teacher as well as learner for the organization of that type of instructional environment.

Helping in the task of evaluation Evaluation is the real key and controlling agency of any type of instructional activity carried out by the teacher or learner in the shape of auto-instruction. How far a teacher or learner has been successful in realizing the stipulated instructional objectives can be made known only through a well-planned strategy of evaluation. Any course or syllabi of instructional technology contains the topics or contents which help the teachers to get acquainted with the strategies and material. Such topics or contents are: teacher-made tests, standardized tests, construction of the achievement tests, evaluating the cognitive, effective and psychomotor changes in pupil’s behaviour through suitable tests and techniques, self-evaluation tests, strategies and techniques. In this way, instructional technology helps the teacher as well as the learners engaged in the task of carrying out a particular piece of instruction from the very beginning till the end for the realization of the stipulated instructional objectives.

Behavioural Technology Meaning “Any manifestation of life is activity”, says Woodworth (1945), and behaviour is a collective name of such activities. Therefore, the term

human behaviour includes all types of conative, cognitive and affective activites. However, when we talk about the study of behaviour in psychology, we mean the study of behaviour of all living organisms and not merely of human behaviour. Therefore, behavioural technology, as one of the types/kinds of educational technology (owing its origin to the theory and practice of applied psychology) in its broad form, may be utilized to study and bring modification in the behaviour of all living organisms. The famous psychologist B.F. Skinner popularized the term behavioural technology while making use of his theory of operant conditioning for bringing the desired modifications in the behaviour of living organisms. He demonstrated, through his experiments, how any type of learning or training can be induced in animals and human beings with the help of behavioural technology and how the task of shaping the behaviour in a desired form and direction can be carried out with the help of means and material supplied by the behavioural technology. Behavioural technology, in a broader technical sense, may also include behaviour modification strategies which are not based on learning principles (e.g. chemotherapy, the use of physical restraints, and brain surgery). However, in school situations, the task of behavioural technology has almost become synonymous with the task of behaviour analysis and behaviour modification carried out through the principles of operant conditioning (shaping of the desired behaviour) and observational learning (imitation of a model behaviour). A behavioural technologist tries to assess and modify the behaviour in terms of both consequences (i.e. events that follow behaviour) and antecedents (i.e. events that precede behaviour). These antecedent events may be environmental events or cognitive events (i.e. thoughts, attitudes or perceptions) that are considered to influence behaviour.

Use and application of behavioural technology

The uses and applications of behavioural technology may be summarized as follows: 1. Analysis of behaviour: Behaviour technology may very well help in analyzing the observed behaviour of the individuals in a proper way. An analyst with its help may state the behaviour in specific, observable behavioural terms, e.g. he is daydreaming or wasting his time in gossiping or reacting in a specific way in a specific situation, etc. Behaviourists have developed proper tools for the analysis of such behaviour. In the task of behaviour modification of the teachers, Flanders has developed his interaction analysis system for analyzing the classroom behaviour of the teachers in specific terms. With such an analysis of the observed behaviour, the existing behaviour patterns or behavioural problems of the concerned individuals may be very well ascertained. 2. Setting the target behaviour for behaviour modification: Once the existing behaviour is known and analyzed into specific behavioural terms, the help of behaviour technology may be taken for setting as well as stating the target behaviour (desired modified behaviour) in specific behavioural terms. For example, if a student behaves aggressively on the playground (showing undesired behaviours like pushing, grabbing, kicking and threatening to hurt other children), the desired modified target behaviour, according to a behavioural technologist, may be defined as “participating non-aggressively”. As a result of such naming, identifying and fixing of a desired modified target behaviour in specific term, the actual task of behaviour modification, then may become quite scientific, purposeful and goal-oriented. 3. Providing suitable ways and means for behaviour modification: In its third procedural step, behaviour technology supplies the necessary ways and means, tools, and techniques for the

desired behavioural modification (attainment of the modified target behaviour) of the concerned individuals. Here it can help: (a) the learners to acquire the desired learning experiences in terms of knowledge, understanding, skills, application, attitudes and values, by bringing changes in their entry behaviour. (b) the teachers by suggesting ways and means for bringing changes in the learning and acquisition behaviour of their students. (c) the parents, teachers, educational administrators, guidance personnel and social workers, by suggesting suitable technology for the prevention and treatment of behavioural problems and disorders. (d) the parents and teachers to work with their children and students for the optimum growth and development of the desirable personality traits and behavioural acts. (e) the teachers in learning proper teacher behaviour and acquiring needed teaching skills through special behavioural technology techniques like interaction analysis, microteaching, simulated teaching, team teaching, action research, etc. (f) the teachers to manage properly the classroom behaviour and interaction of their students aimed at creating proper conducive environment for effective teaching-learning. In this way, in a nutshell, behavioural technology may help the interested individuals to know the nature of the existing behaviour, the nature of the target (desirable modified) behaviour and the way and means to meeting the gaps between the existing and target behaviours. For inducing the desired behaviour or for bringing the needed modification in the existing behaviour, behaviour technology, as said

earlier, makes use of its own technology including appropriate learning principles based on operant conditioning and social learning. We will be discussing such special behaviour modification techniques later in this text in the name of Flander’s interaction analysis, microteaching, role-playing, gaming and action research. However, here we are mentioning the two most important behavioural technology practices, namely shaping and modelling for bringing the desired modification in the behaviour of students. In shaping technique (based on Skinner’s operant conditioning), a slightly modified or improved behaviour is properly reinforced for attaining the desired degree of modification in one’s behaviour. For example, if a student works out only two mathematical problems during a 20 minutes period and a teacher is set to improve students’ problem-solving behaviour by increasing his frequency to solve 10 problems (having appropriate difficulty level) in that very duration, he has to make attempt in this direction by establishing a series of steps between the current level of performance and the target behaviour and also by providing appropriate reinforcement at each step. As soon as the student progresses in some way, i.e. solving 3 or 4 problems in 20 minutes period or merely tries in this direction, he may be appropriately reinforced (rewarded for his improvement). The process of pushing him towards the target behaviour, thus, may go systematically by adopting an appropriate reinforcement schedule. In adopting modelling as a technique of behaviour modification, the appropriate target behaviour is put before the child by a model for his observation. This model may be the teacher himself or may be the parents, the peers or somebody else in a video film or the television screen. The child tries to imitate and imbibe the observed behaviour of the model through the principle of social or observational learning. Not only some specific behaviours but also quite complex sequences of behaviour like operation of any mechanical or electronic appliance or techniques of a game can be learned through such observation.

The modelling strategy, thus, may work as a powerful selfinstructional strategy for the acquisition of a target behaviour.

Instructional Design Technology Instruction as a process stands for helping the individual as a learner for achieving the stipulated teaching-learning objectives. A good instruction is always goal-oriented with a specific purpose or purposes implying that the manner in which a learner is imparted instruction (assisted in his learning process) should always be a wellconceived, planned and effectively controlled phenomenon. Educational technology, with one of its various domain/forms, namely instructional design technology, brings out effective instructional designs for improving the process and products of instruction. These instructional designs, as Dr. Robert C. Branch, Syracuse University, USA emphasizes (1996:44), are meant for “responding to the complexities associated with the instructional episode by analyzing, defining, testing and recommending strategies for implementing instruction.” The term instruction design, in its simple meaning, thus stands for a layout or plan describing the manner in which an instructional process (involving teaching and learning and its interaction) should be carried out for attainment of the stipulated instructional objectives. An instructional design technology, in this way, should be essentially concerned with the planning, execution, and evaluation of the instructional process for the effective control on the process and products of instruction. Emphasizing on such aspect, we can define instructional design technology as a form or type of technology concerning the “application of modern skills and techniques to requirements of education and training (instruction). This includes the facilitation of learning by manipulation of media and methods, and the control of environment in so far as this reflects on learning” (Unwin, 1969).

Instructional design technology, for exercising such control and manipulation, may be seen to adopt a few distinctive approaches like systems approach, cybernetic approach and training psychology for generating effective instructional design with a clear-cut motive of helping the learner and teacher in the attainment of the stipulated instructional objectives. We would be discussing in detail the theory and practice of these approaches at the later stage in the relevant chapters of this text.

Approaches of Educational Technology Discussion carried out in analyzing the concept of educational technology helped us to conclude that educational technology is a multifaceted concept. This has led to view it in terms of some specific types of approaches. Accordingly, Lumbsdaine (1964) has listed three distinct approaches of educational technology. 1. Educational technology I or hardware approach. 2. Educational technology II or software approach. 3. Educational technology III or systems approach. Let us discuss these types or approaches.

Educational Technology I or Hardware Approach This type of educational technology has its origin in physical sciences and engineering and is based on the concept of service, i.e., using technology in education (Silverman 1968). While teaching in a big hall, a teacher uses microphone for making his voice audible, he may be said to approach such type of educational technology for making his teaching effective. In this sense, audio-visual aids such as charts, models, slides, filmstrips, audio cassettes and sophisticated equipment and gadgets such as radio, television, films, projectors,

tape recorder, record player, video, teaching machines and computers may mean to use the technological advancement in the world of communication for educational purposes. Such type of mechanical and technical revolution has almost mechanized the teaching-learning process. The mass media movement, a result of this approach, is now contributing a lot to reach the educational benefit to masses with great ease and in a cost-effective way. In this way, hardware approach to education has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational means and reducing the cost of education. However, this type of technology or approach tries to enter education from outside, operating more in isolation than in combination. Almost all the material and equipment of hardware approach originally belong to areas other than education and are being borrowed and utilized for educational purposes.

Educational Technology II or Software Approach While the first type of educational technology (hardware approach) has originated from the physical science and applied engineering, the second type of educational technology (software approach) owes its origin to the behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning the psychology of learning. Psychology of learning provided solid technology for bringing the desirable behavioural changes in the students and thus serves the cause of education by laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and behaviour modification devices. It is in this sense that the second type of educational technology is sometimes referred to as instructional technology, teaching technology or behaviour technology. Having originated from the theories of learning, this type of technology tries to adopt a process-oriented technique for the production of suitable teaching-learning material, teaching-learning strategies, and evaluation techniques for the optimum results in the process of teaching and learning. Thus, in this type and approach,

educational technology basically stands for the technique of developing and utilizing software and, that is why, it is referred to as the software approach. In this sense, the materials, such as the programmed material and teaching-learning strategies based on psychology of learning are usually known as software and the equipment and gadgets are called hardware. In hardware approach, we are more concerned with the production and utilization of audiovisual aid material, sophisticated instruments, gadgets, and mass media for helping the teacher and learners to achieve better results. On the other hand, in software we try to exploit the psychology of learning for the production and utilization of software techniques and material in terms of learning material, teaching-learning strategies, tools of evaluation, and other devices to soften and smoothen the task of teaching and learning.

Distinction between hardware and software technologies Distinction between the hardware and software technologies may be made clear through the classification carried out in Table 1.1. TABLE 1.1 Hardware and software technologies

Role of hardware and software technologies in modern educational practices Technologies, by their nature and characteristics, stand for smoothening the execution process of a task leading to achieve the best possible results or outcomes from the execution of that task. The same is true for hardware and software technologies employed in the field of education. Here, they stand for bringing improvement in the process and products of teaching-learning from all the possible angles. However, we will try to limit ourselves in discussing their roles in some of the important modern educational practices. 1. Individualization of instruction: Individualization of instruction is a major trend in the modern educational practices and is the demand of the hour. The psychology of individual differences has brought the necessity of organizing instructional process according to the needs, interests, pace and abilities of the individual learners. Use of hardware and software technology may help in this task on account of their very nature and possibility of application. In brief, we can

highlight the role of hardware and software technologies on this account by stating some of the materials and equipment as follows: • Programmed instructions, programmed textbooks, and programmed learning modules. • Teaching machines, computer assisted instruction and computer managed learning. • Video and audio recorded learning and instructional material. • Email, Internet, teleconferencing and other online educational facilities. • Special aid material, equipment and appliances used for special educational and adjustment measures for the disabled (physical, mental and learning disabled). • Special provisions and facilities for the creative and gifted to nurture and develop their individual capacities according to their pace and interests. 2. Use of multimedia and multi-sensory approach to teaching-learning: Hardware and software technologies help the teacher as well as learners for making a proper and judicious use of the multimedia and multi-sensory aid material, equipment and principles of teaching-learning, derived from psychology and technology of teaching. It has made the use of the following possible: • All the sensory organs sense of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste for the acquisition of the desired teaching-learning experiences. • Multimedia, material and appliances involving hardware and software technologies for sharing desirable teaching-learning technologies. • All the relevant and needed teaching-learning methods, devices, and strategies, well-accompanied and aided by hardware and software technologies.

3. Management of the affairs of educational practices in an efficient and productive way: Use of software and hardware technology may help the teacher in the task of managing his affairs related to the educational and professional responsibilities in the spheres as follows: • Planning of teaching-learning. • Organization of teaching-learning. • Leading teaching-learning. • Controlling teaching-learning. 4. Providing proper input and process for the best possible outcomes (products): In the true spirit of the system engineering, use of hardware and software technologies can help the educational and instruction systems to make all possible efforts for providing adequate input and the needed process organizations to arrive at the best possible outcomes, i.e. realization of stipulated teaching, learning objectives in a most efficient and cost-effective way. 5. Fulfilling the expectation of distance and correspondence education: The demands of today’s education and modern educational practices are putting increasing emphasis on the extension of distance education and correspondence educational facilities to the increasing number of learners. In fact, distance, correspondence and online education is the need of hour and this need can only be better realized through the services of hardware and software technologies. 6. Making the task of teaching-learning interesting, purposeful and productive: Use of hardware and software technologies help both teachers and learners in the realization of their teaching-learning objectives by making the task of teaching-learning quite interesting, purposeful and productive through the provisions as follows: • Suggesting suitable teaching-learning methods, devices and strategies based on the psychology of teaching-learning.

• Suggesting suitable maxims and principles of teachinglearning based on the theory and practice of the technology of teaching-learning. • Putting various types of audio-visual aid material and equipment at the disposal of teachers and learners. • Providing a variety of instructional and self-learning material suiting the varying needs of teaching-learning situations and individuality of the teachers and learners. As a result of the help derived from the above-mentioned provisions, one can enjoy the serious task of teaching or learning leading him or her for the proper realization of his or her goals. A teacher by using transparencies through overhead projectors, interacting with students in their language laboratory, and making them discover the facts by observing a video film and audio recording, or taking online tutorial help through e-mail or onlineconferences may always help his students relish the desired fruits of their efforts.

Educational Technology III or Systems Approach This type of educational technology is related to the concept of systems engineering which owes its origin to computer science. It represents the latest concept in technology of education. In this type and approach, educational technology stands for a systematic way to design, carry out and evaluate the total process of education in terms of specific objectives. Thus, it means a systems approach to organize educational system effectively and economically, keeping in view the educational objectives and available man-material resources. The systems approach takes education as a system having a set of inputs which are subjected to a process, designed to produce certain outputs which are intended to meet the stipulated objectives of the system. The application of this type of educational technology takes the system of education as a whole and views it in the context

of the specified objectives and functioning of its interrelated parts and the whole system under the existing constraints. If the system meets the requirements of the system objectives, it is maintained. If it does not fulfill the specified objectives, it is modified. As a result, various alternative strategies and tactics are explored, designed and implemented and the most appropriate and feasible one is retained. Thus, in systems approach, one has to make a continuous comparison of the different roles played by man, machine and the media in a system of education and develop an appropriate instructional design and strategy in relation to the stipulated objectives. This type of educational technology or systems approach is a new concept in the field of educational technology. In India, at present, it is at the introductory stage but due to its usefulness and scientific as well as mathematical nature, it is likely to be developed as an effective means for the organization, management and development of education. This, in turn, can develop education as a sound system for serving the cause of individual and the society.

Scope and Significance of Educational Technology In describing the scope of educational technology, one has to seek answers for the following two questions: 1. What are the limits of its field of operation? 2. What is to be included in its study? Both these questions are very much related to the meaning, concept and nature of the subject educational technology. Discussions about these aspects in the preceding pages has revealed that educational technology possesses a wider meaning and broader concept, which emphasizes the utilization of all the available resources in terms of knowledge of the teaching-learning principles,

theories, human or non-human material resources, teaching-learning strategies and mass media, for the attainment of the stipulated objectives at both the macro and micro levels. Keeping an eye over such broad concepts of educational technology, one is able to map out the areas of its operation in terms of topics or aspects covered through its study or application. In brief, they may be summarized as below. 1. Analysis of the process of teaching and learning: Educational technology tries to discuss the concept of teaching, analysis of the teaching process, variables of the teaching, phases of teaching, levels of teaching, theories of teaching, principles and maxims of teaching, the concept of learning, the relevance of the theories of learning, the relationship between teaching and learning, the integration of the theories and principles of teaching as well as learning for attaining optimum educational purposes. 2. Spelling out the educational goals or objectives: Educational technology tries to discuss the topics such as identification of educational needs and aspirations of the community, survey of the resources available for the satisfaction of these needs and aspirations, spelling out the broad educational objectives, analysis of the broad objectives in terms of the specific classroom objectives of teaching and learning, specifications of these objectives in behavioural terms, etc. 3. Development of the curriculum: This aspect of educational technology is concerned with the designing of a suitable curriculum for the achievement of the stipulated objectives. It may describe the ways and means for the selection of suitable learning experiences or contents, organization of these contents in a suitable framework in order to bring out more effective instruction and thus analyze the suitability of the

curriculum in relation to the objectives, means and materials, and devices of evaluation. 4. Development of teaching-learning material: This area of educational technology is concerned with the production and development of the suitable teaching-learning material in view of the stipulated objectives, designed curriculum and available resources. Here educational technology tries to discuss the essential techniques of developing software and instructional material like programmed learning material, computer assisted learning material, mass media instruction material, personalized system of instruction, planning for the teaching and learning and preparation of lesson plans, etc. 5. Teacher preparation or teacher-training: Teacher is a key figure in any process of teaching and learning. Educational technology, therefore, takes care of the proper preparation of teachers for exercising their complex responsibilities. For this purpose, educational technology includes topics like models of student teaching, micro-teaching, stimulated teaching, teamteaching, teacher effectiveness, modification of teacherbehaviour, classroom interaction, T-group training and interaction analysis etc. 6. Development and selection of the teaching-learning strategies and tactics: This aspect deals with the central problem of teaching-learning act. Here educational technology tries to describe the ways and means of discovering, selecting and developing suitable strategies and tactics of teaching in terms of the optimum learning and available teaching-learning resources, the availability of the different types of teaching methods, devices and models of teaching along with their appropriate selection and use for the optimum results. 7. Development, selection and use of the appropriate audiovisual aids: Teaching-learning is greatly influenced and benefited by the use of appropriate audio-visual aids.

Educational technology covers this aspect by discussing various types of audiovisual aids used for the educational purpose, their proper selection suiting to a particular teachinglearning situation, their development and production in view of the available resources and problems faced in a teachinglearning act, audio-visual methods of presentation and dissemination of information, their proper storage and retrieval, and consideration about their cost-effectiveness and effective utilization. 8. Effective utilization of the hardware and mass media: Various sophisticated instruments, equipment, gadgets and communication devices brought through mechanization and electronics revolution are playing an effective role in the attainment of educational objectives by helping the teachers and learners in their respective roles. Educational technology tries to describe these resources in terms of their specific functions and applicability in a particular teaching-learning situation; their selection, proper handling and maintenance; their preparation and development; the cost-effectiveness of these equipment and mass media in education; appropriate teaching-learning material for these appliances; and the ways and means of their optimum use in formal education on the individual and collective basis. 9. To work for the effective utilization of the subsystem of education: Educational technology considers education as a system operating, in a systematic and scientific way, for the achievement of educational objectives. For the coverage of a systematic approach, it tries to include the topics dealing with the theory and principles of a systems approach, explaining education as a system. It also includes study of its different subsystems, their operations and processes in terms of input and output, the needed development in the working of the subsystems in view of the economy, output and functionality of

the system, and the organization and management of the system in an effective way by specifying the respective roles of the man, machine and media in relation to the purposes of teaching and learning. 10. To provide essential feedback and control through evaluation: Educational technology is essentially concerned with the task of exercising appropriate control over the process of teaching and learning by planning and devising suitable tools and devices for the continuous evaluation of the process and products of the teaching-learning activities. Such evaluation provides an appropriate feedback to the learners as well as the teachers for bringing necessary improvement at the preparatory and implementation stages of their specific acts. For this purpose, educational technology discusses the ways and means of suitable evaluation techniques and their planning, development, selection and appropriate use in relation to the objectives of teaching-learning system. Thus, educational technology is concerned with all the variables, phases, levels, and aspects of the teaching-learning process. In brief, it works for the overall planning and organization of the system or subsystems of education. It helps all those who are connected directly or indirectly to the processes and products of education. It teaches the teachers the art of teaching, the learners the science of learning, the educational planners the structure of planning, and the administrators or managers the skill of managing or administering the task of teaching and learning. It works for the individualization of instructions as well as for improving the group-dynamics of the classroom. It reaches to the individuals, groups and the masses, privileged or unprivileged through its media and means. The use of mass media for educational purposes through radio, television, teletext, computer controlled devices and correspondence courses have

given new dimensions to the application and scope of educational technology. In the above discussion, an attempt has been made to identify the scope of the subject educational technology by mapping out its field of operation, but in true sense, it is unwise to put hedge and boundaries around such a developing and fast growing subject. Its scope is essentially unlimited as it is concerned with the task of helping and organizing a discipline like education and the acts like teaching and learning that know no limits and boundaries. Educational technology is responsible for helping in each and every problem connected with education and there is never an end to the problems of education. Also there is no limit to the improvement in the art and science of teaching and learning. Therefore, the scope of educational technology should not be confined to the limited boundaries under any circumstances. Instead, it should be left free for necessary expansion and development so that it can carry out its mission, tasks and objectives.

Use and Significance of Educational Technology (in the Indian Context) In India, before the 1960s, the term educational technology was almost unknown to the education system. If at all this was used, it was used as a synonym to audio-visual teaching aids. In the early sixties, use of the term educational technology took its roots through programmed learning. The programmed learning-movement contributed a lot to the improvement of instruction in a number of ways. Gradually, the meaning and concept of educational technology has grown wider. At present, educational scenario in India witnesses the latest emerging trends in the field of educational technology. The role of an educational technologist in India, today, is not merely that of an audio-visual aid master, hardware expert, media expert or

programmed text writer, but of one who is concerned with the information of an overall design to carry out an evaluation of the total process of education in terms of specific objectives. In other words, technology of today is accepting systems approach to the problems of education. The emphasis now is on the application of system analysis to organize and manage the task of teaching and learning, and frame out the alternative strategies and system for the improvement of education. Educational technology, as we find it today, has a meaningful present and promising future in our country. It has been contributing a lot to the improvement of products and processes of education at all levels and stages of planning, implementation, and evaluation. It is serving the cause of formal as well as informal education and helping the developmental tasks of the country. Some of the significant developments in this direction may be summarized as follows: 1. There has been a wider and more effective utilization of radio for broadcasting educational programmes throughout the country. The programmes related to local needs and adult education have been very fruitful. These well-planned programmes are now broadcast throughout the country for both in-school and out-of-school groups. Many states have taken steps to integrate the radio broadcasts with teaching in schools. 2. Another significant development in the use of educational technology is concerned with the development of television programmes. Today, telecast lessons and educational programmes have established themselves as an important educational medium in India. Formal as well as non-formal education of the country is now closely linked with the television instructions of the country. With the advent of satellite services, especially with the launching of the EDUSAT project, there has been a beginning of a series of innovative

and constructive television programmes for national development and for educating the Indian masses living in remote, rural, or underdeveloped areas. 3. The third important area where educational technology has been useful is the problem of training and re-training a large number of school teachers in an effective way. This has been made possible through the use of mass media for in-service teacher education. The in-service teacher training courses by using a multimedia package, developed by the Centre of Educational Technology of NCERT, represent a major breakthrough in this direction. In the teacher education programme, the educational technology has helped to reorganize the courses and make them effective by introducing new practices and innovations in all aspects of the teacher preparation. It has added new dimensions by introducing micro-teaching, simulated teaching, team teaching, teaching models and similar other concepts. 4. Another application of educational technology in our country is known as distance education. It involves the use of combination of media for the instructional purposes and provides the facilities for out-of-school education in a very flexible way at any place and at any time in the life of a person. 5. Another major area where educational technology is being used in our country relates to language instruction. Besides producing material for language instructions through mass media, it has contributed towards the development and functioning of the language laboratories to teach Indian as well as foreign languages like German, French, Russian, English, etc. 6. Another field of operation of educational technology in our country is concerned with the correspondence education. Today, the well-planned and systematically developed correspondence courses are being provided by a number of

universities in our country. There is also provision to offer these courses at intermediate and higher secondary levels. In these courses, students may be approached through four media, i.e. instructional materials, student response sheets, personal contact programmes and radio or telecast instructions. The establishment of open school has been another major step in this direction. The teaching is provided here through specially prepared lessons, study centres, local counsellors and tutors and summer as well as vacation courses. 7. Another use for which educational technology is being put in our country is concerned with the preparation, development and utilization of audio-visual material, and handling as well as maintenance of the hardware appliances and sophisticated gadgets. Department of teaching aids, NCERT, has been doing significant service in this direction through training programmes of personnel, production of materials, conducting survey research and evaluation of the use of aid material, and providing guidance and service to the educational institutions regarding the use of aids and appliances. 8. In the latest trend, educational technology is proving its worth by utilizing the services of computers and advanced form of ICT technology in the field of education. Use of these advanced technologies has a tremendous scope in improving the products and processes of education. In the developed forms of computer and ICT technology, it can help the teachers, learners, researchers, administrators and educational planners to get access to a valuable treasure of knowledge, skill and application for improving their own tasks. Distance learning or education, virtual classrooms, e-learning and m-learning, are the latest concepts and trends that are emerging in the educational horizon of our country.

Thus, educational technology has been proving its worth in our country by guiding, planning, implementing and evaluating various programmes of formal as well as non-formal education. It is being used as a big helping hand for attaining the macro and micro objectives of education in our country.

SUMMARY 1. The history of the growth and evolution of educational technology is very much linked with the history of the technological progress and its subsequent application in the field of education. The inventions and developments in the field of printing technology, communication and information technology, hardware and software technologies along with the experiments, studies, and innovations carried out in the fields of psychology and instructional technology have done a commendable job in helping educational technology to attain its present status. 2. By the term educational technology, we mean a technology that stands for a wise application and utilization of the available human and material resources for providing appropriate solution to the educational problems and to improve the processes and products of education by getting maximum as well as effective output with the minimum input. 3. Educational technology is quite comprehensive and wide in terms of its nature as well as form. It cannot be treated merely as synonymous of the terms audio-visual technology, utilization of programmed instruction technique or computer-assisted or managed instruction. Similarly, the terms and concepts like instructional technology, teaching technology, behaviour technology cannot be equated with the term educational technology. These are the constituents and subsystems of the system of educational technology. Educational technology, in

its application and utilization, always tries to make a wise use of all the components and subsystems at its disposal in a given situation for the effective realization of the stipulated educational objectives. 4. Educational technology works for the attainment of its objectives both at the macro and micro levels. On one hand, in the attainments of its objectives at the macro level it helps, in general, in the planning, organization, and execution of all the programmes and activities related to the system of education. On the other hand, at the micro level, it helps the teachers and students in a particular teaching learning situation for the realization of the classroom instructional objectives. 5. With an eye on its utilization in the field of education, educational technology mainly tries to adopt three different approaches, namely hardware approach, software approach and systems approach. Educational technology adopting a hardware approach has its origin in physical sciences and engineering and is based on the concept of service, i.e. using technology in education. It calls for the utilization of the materials and equipment like tape recorder, radio, cinema, projectors, and computers for serving the cause of instruction and education. It has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational means and reducing the cost of education. Software approached educational technology, on the other hand, is characterized to have its origin in the behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning. Having originated from the theories of learning, this type of approach can help us in a big way in the development and utilization of programmed learning material, teaching leaning strategies and various types of software programs and material for being utilized in the hardware equipment, teaching machines and computer-assisted instructions.

6. The use and application of hardware and software technologies is quite capable to fulfill many needs and requirements of the present age in the field of instruction and education like individualization of instruction, utilization of multisensory and multimedia aid material, the efficient and effective management of the educational activities, the fulfillments of the needs and requirements of the correspondence and distance education and to help in making the teaching-learning process interesting, purposeful and effective. 7. The third approach concerning systems approach is related to the concept of system engineering that owes its origin to computer science. It represents the latest concept in technology aimed to plan and organize the available human and physical resources in a particular teaching-learning situation in an effective and economic way so as to result in the best realization of the teaching-learning objectives in terms of the maximum and effective output of the system. 8. Educational technology may also be divided into some specific types or subsystems in relation to its forms, and areas of its applications like teaching technology, instructional technology, behaviour technology and instructional design technology. Teaching technology, may be understood as a form or subsystem of educational technology that may prove beneficial to a teacher for the realization of his teaching objectives, in a best possible way, by having a minimum input in terms of the time and labour. Instructional technology stands for that form or subsystem of educational technology which helps an instructor or the learners engaged in self-study for doing their respective tasks as effectively as possible with the minimum input of time and labour. Behaviour technology represents that form or subsystem of educational technology which helps in the modification and shaping of the behaviour of the students in the desired direction, form and shape. Instructional design

technology represents that form or subsystem of educational technology that helps in the development of appropriate instructional designs for exercising control over the processes and products of instruction. For the development of the instructional designs, this type of technology tries to make use of some specific methods or approaches like system approach, cybernetics approach and training psychology. 9. The scope of educational technology is quite wide and extensive, and as such it may render its contribution to the organization and execution of many tasks and activities related to teaching-learning and other fields of education. As a result, we may find the inclusion of a wide variety of topics and learning experiences related to (i) analysis of the process of teaching and learning, (ii) formulation of educational goals or objectives, (iii) development of the curriculum, (iv) development of the teaching learning material, (v) teacher training, (vi) development and selection of teaching learning strategies, (vii) development, selection and use of the appropriate audio-visual aids, (viii) effective utilization of the hardware and mass media, (ix) effective utilization of the subsystem of education, and (x) providing essential feedback and control through evaluation. 10. In our country, the use and application of educational technology is taking its roots firmly in various dimensions and forms. Utility measures like proper availability of the regular broadcasting and telecasting of the educational programmes for the school and university students and public through satellite services, utilization of educational technology in the organization of in-service and pre-service training facilities to the teachers, establishment and utilization of language laboratories for the learning of languages, paying considerable attention over the development and utilization of the appropriate instructional materials and audio-visual aids for effective teaching and learning of the various school subjects,

introduction of the compulsory computer education from the elementary level of schooling onwards, proper network of the system of distance education through traditional as well as non-traditional means like online education, multimedia, Internet and developed communication and information technology, establishment of virtual classrooms, and systems of open learning and virtual universities on the regional and national level may be cited as the living example of the progress achieved by the country on this account.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the term ‘Educational Technology’? Differentiate it from instructional technology and teaching technology. 2. Explain the meaning and concept of educational technology in detail. 3. Define the term ‘Educational Technology’ and discuss its important features and characteristics. 4. Describe the latest concept of educational technology in the light of the evolution in the concept of educational technology. 5. “There is not one educational technology but several educational technologies.” Discuss this statement. 6. Explain ‘Hardware’ and ‘Software’ approach to education and their contribution towards effective teaching and learning. 7. Discuss in brief the objectives of educational technology at both macro and micro levels of education process. 8. Differentiate between the terms ‘Technology of Education’ and ‘Technology in Education’. 9. What are the various forms of educational technology? Explain them in detail.

10. What is teaching technology? Throw light on its principles and characteristics as well as contents? 11. What is instructional technology? How does it help the instructor and learner in the task of instruction and learning? 12. What is behavioural technology? Discuss its various uses and application? 13. What do you mean by instructional design technology? Discuss some of its distinctive approaches for generating effective instructional designs for realizing the set instructional objectives. 14. Name some of the distinctive forms or approaches of instructional design technology and discuss any one of them in detail. 15. Describe in detail the scope of educational technology. 16. How can the knowledge of educational technology be helpful for a teacher to become an effective teacher? Discuss in brief. 17. “Educational technology has a wide applicability and bright future in our country.” Justify the statement in the light of the possible specific roles played by educational technology. 18. Distinguish clearly between the terms hardware and software technologies and, throw light on their role in modern educational practices.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Branch, Robert C., Instructional Design as a Response on the complexities of Instruction, in N. Venkataiah (Ed.), Educational Technology, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi: 1996. Briggs, Lesile, J. and W. Wager, Hand Book of procedures for the design of Instruction, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:

Educational Technology Publication, 1981. Davies, I.K., The Management of Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. Dick, W. and L. Carry, The Systematic Design of Instruction, 3rd ed., New York: Harper Collins, 1990. Kulkarni, S.S., Teaching Learning Process: A system Analysis, in C.K. Basu (Ed.), Program Instruction in Industries, Defence, Health and Education, Indian Association for Programmed Instruction, 1969. Leith, G.O. et al., A Hand Book of Programmed Learning, University of Birmingham, 1966. Lumbsdaine, A.A., Educational Technology, Programmed Learning and Instructional Science, in E.R. Hilgard (Ed.), Theories of Learning and Instruction, The sixty third year book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I Chicago: University Press, 1964. Mitra, Shiv K, Proceeding of Symposium on Educational Technology, IPAL, NECERT, March 1968, p. 4. Richmond, W.K. (Ed.), The Concept of Educational Technology, a Dialogue with Yourself, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970. Robinson, T.K., Educational Technology and Curriculum Development, Scottish Education Department Inspection Bulletin, 49, Nov. 1976, quoted by Tucker, R.N., The Organization and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978. Report of the interview to Ford Foundation Team of J.R. Gases of the Educational Technology Division OECD, December, 1971. Report of the US President’s commission of Enquiry as cited by Richard N. Tucker: The Organisation and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1979. Report of DES working Party on central arrangement for promoting ‘Educational Technology, in UK, as quoted by Tucker, R.N. The

Organisation and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978. Sharma, S.R., Educational Technology, New Delhi: Mohit Publications, 2003. Tucker, R.N. The Organisation and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978. Unwin, D. (Ed.), Media and Methods: Instructional Technology in Higher Education, London: McGraw-Hill, 1969. Vedanayagam, E.G., quoted by S.K. Mangal, Foundations of Educational Technology, Ludhiana: Tandon Publication, 2001. Woodworth, R.S, Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945. Working definition adopted by the Scottish Council for Educational Technology, as quoted by R.N. Tucker, The Organization and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978.

2 Psychological Bases for the Use of Hardware and Software Technologies The foundation of all learning, consist in representing clearly to the senses, sensible object, so that can be appreciated easily.

— COMENIUS CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience Multi-sensory Instruction Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Psychology is generally defined as the science of behaviour. Through one of its applied aspects known as educational psychology, it helps the teacher as well as learners in shaping the behaviour of the latter in accordance with the aims and objectives of education. Educational psychology, being a science of education, thus helps both the

teachers and learners to bring essential modifications in their teacher behaviour or learner behaviour for the effective realization of the teaching-learning objectives. It suggests and paves the way for the application of hardware and software technologies for softening the process of teaching-learning much to the benefit of both teachers and learners. For example, it may provide certain principles, maxims and theories of teaching and learning or may put forward the generalizations like “experience is the great teacher” or “senses are the gateway to knowledge”. Such path-showing statements and generalizations supported with the sound psychological principles and theories of teaching-learning may, in fact, be credited to provide a strong psychological base for the use and application of hardware and software technologies in the field of education. Let us try to pinpoint and discuss two of such psychological bases for the use of modern technologies in the coming pages.

Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experiences The famous educationist, Edgar Dale, through his work (1946:37) introduced the cone of experiences, a “visual aid to explain the interrelationships of the various types of audio-visual materials as well as their individual position in the learning process.” In its characteristics he described his cone as an attractive “visual metaphor of learning experiences in which the various kinds of audiovisual materials appears in the order of increased abstraction as one proceeds from direct experience (Dale 1946:38).” In the final (1969:108) edition of his work Audio-visual Methods in Teaching, Dale introduced the cone of experiences as a “pictorial device” (see Figure 2.1) for showing the progression of learning experiences from direct first hand participation to pictorial representation and on to purely abstract, symbolic expression. On subsequent pages, he gave the specific attributes of his cone in the following manner:

It indicates the broad base that direct experiences provide for learning and communication; it classifies instructional material according to the degree of experiential concreteness that each provides; its various levels may suggest the most appropriate method for teaching an abstract concept given the child’s needs and abilities at the time; and it suggests the interrelated and interdependent nature of learning experiences and instructional materials.

Thus, it can be properly concluded that the famous educationist Edgar Dale has given us a solid psychological base for the use of methods, materials and equipment related to hardware and software technologies in the name of various types of audio-visual materials and equipment. As shown in Figure 2.1, Edgar Dale has arranged the learning experiences from the point of view of the young learners in the order of increasing abstractness or decreasing concreteness (taking the start point from the base of the cone). Let us try to have some idea about the classification titles mentioned in this cone of experience.

Real direct experience These experiences have least abstractness and maximum concreteness. A learner himself experiences these by coming into direct contact with the actual happenings in a real life situation. The consequences of his own doing (What he does and in return to what he gets) and impressions of his sensory input (through listening, seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting) can provide him such type of direct first-hand experiences. When one does not slow the speed of his vehicle while driving on a public road even after reading or seeing the clear signal of a blockade, he is bound to suffer and the consequences of his action (encountered in a real life situation directly by himself through his own doing) will automatically result into most impressive and purposeful learning. Thus, according to Edger Dale, experiences gained by us in real life through our direct involvement on the first-hand basis may always prove to be the best

mode, means or channels for the desired outcomes in a teachinglearning process.

Figure 2.1 Edgar Dale’s cone of experiences.

Consequently, we should always aim to provide real life practical experiences to the students in the shape of showing real objects and allowing them to come in direct contact with the realities of the life on their own.

Contrived experiences These experiences are not very rich, concrete, and direct as real life direct experience. However, these are nicely planned and arranged which provide a closet alternative to the real direct experiences in the situation where it is neither possible nor feasible as well as practicable to have real life direct experiences. Thinking in this way, contrived experiences may be provided with the help of some laboratory experiments or working model. Since this limitation or replica of the reality is well-planned with an eye over the realization of the set instructional objectives, it may many times prove more fruitful than the experiences gained through real object of first-hand encounter.

Dramatic participation This classification includes the experiences gained by the students through their active participation and role playing in dramatic activities (activities in which the real events of the past or present are represented through visual display and role playing). Experiences gained through such activities may prove quite effective in the teaching-learning of many subjects like history, political science, language and literature. These activities may have a variety of forms like full length play, one act play, puppet shows, pageants, pantomimes, tableaux, dialogues, on the spot spontaneous acting and mock conventions, etc.

Demonstration

Here, the experiences are gained by the students through the observation of what is being demonstrated by the teacher on the demonstration table in the form of actual objects or models. As example he can demonstrate the construction and working of a water pump, cycle and football pump, or may explain the structure and functioning of eyes, ears, lungs or heart through the demonstration of some simple and working models. For getting better results, a teacher should try to involve the students in the demonstration process through question and answers or taking their help in the arrangement and performance of demonstration.

Field trips These arranged situations in the form of educational tours, trips, excursions and outings may provide valuable opportunities to the students for giving real life direct experiences for the learning of many concepts and gaining useful information, knowledge and skills (coupled with a lot of entertainment) related to various issues of school curriculum.

Exhibition Many times it is not possible to go to the places for experiencing the reality and gaining first-hand experience. As an alternative the teacher may help the students by gaining useful experiences through the observation and organization of educationally significant exhibitions. One may have a museum or an exhibit established in some corner of the institution or may occasionally plan for the exhibition of the things, events and processes related to the general education and curricular issues of the school subjects. You must be surely examining the nature of the increasing order of the type of experiences in the Dale’s cone of experiences. In field trips, we provide outlet for students to come in contact with the realities of life and gaining first-hand experiences. However, it can

happen quite occasionally and may not be much fruitful in terms of the formal concrete educational gains. So a substitute (though less concrete or direct in terms of providing direct practical experiences) is provided by gaining some experiences through arranged exhibits.

Motion pictures Arranging exhibitions for concrete gain in terms of supplementing formal teaching-learning of the school subjects may not prove much fruitful and practicable. Therefore, Edgar Dale suggested the use of motion pictures, an audio as well as visual device. Although it is an artificial representation of the realities of things, persons, events or processes of the real life (past, present and future), yet the experiences gained through the use of motion pictures are very effective in terms of the realization of the teaching-learning objectives. The use of television and video recording and its playing may also be included in this type of audio-visual experiences, aimed as an alternative to direct first-hand experiences.

Still pictures In the category of still pictures, we may have all types of projective material such as pictures, charts, graphs, maps, illustrations, diagrams, cartoons, posters, slides or film strips which can be shown to the students with the help of any projective equipment. Essentially, these fall in the category of visual aids calling the use of the sense of sight on the part of students for gaining some visual experiences of the concrete reality. Hence, it is a sort of abstract artificial representation of the reality in comparison to motion pictures, television, and video appliances where we can have less abstract and more effective representation of the reality through the use of auditory as well as sight senses.

Radio recordings

Radio, as an educational aid, may provide valuable auditory experience to the learners through certain specially arranged talks and discussions and information broadcast by the radio station as part of their scheduled institutional or general mass educational programmes. These programmes can be taped on audio tapes for their timely reference and use afterwards in classroom situations. Various types of sound and auditory experiences may also be taped through tape recorder and can be played back as and when needed so for the useful educational gains. In this way, tape recorder, microphone, radio recording and gramophone may be used as an effective audio device for the artificial audio representation of the realities. Such audio representation of reality, according to cone of experience, falls in the higher category of abstract and indirect representation in comparison to audio-visual or even visual presentation of the reality.

Visual symbols In the journey towards abstraction, presentation in the form of visual symbols provide more real and concrete experiences than the verbalism or verbal symbols presentation. Visual symbols presentation in the classroom situation may include the use of visual graphic material like charts, maps, diagrams, sketches, cartoons, posters, photographs, blackboard drawings, and sketching. Visual symbols (free of the use of any language) mostly comprise a universal language for communication. Their appeal is more forceful than verbalism and hence, they can provide a more potent source for the effective communication in the teaching-learning process. Their effectiveness can be sufficiently increased if a running commentary or necessary explanation regarding their messages is provided side by side by the teacher in his own voice or through any mechanical means like tape recorder.

Verbal symbols

In the Dale’s cone of experiences the verbal symbol presentation are marked as the most abstract learning experiences. The use of any language in its written or spoken form or both comes in this category of most abstraction. However, in comparison, spoken words are more abstract than the written words (comprised of some fixed visual symbols for carrying out the process of communication). In spite of their abstract nature, verbal symbols in the form of communication language are said to be a very effective tool, in terms of the economy of time, labour and money, for carrying out the communication process whether in the classroom or in the outside world. Their strength lies in the process of proper encoding and decoding on the part of the sender and receiver of the message. With the help of words, a teacher is able to provide more information and knowledge to more students within the limited resources in the short time. However, use of the lecture or chalk and talk method may invite negative consequences of verbalism. It may enforce the habit of spoon feeding, memorizing of facts without understanding. Hence, pure abstraction through the use of mere verbal symbols should always be discarded, especially while dealing with youngsters in any teaching-learning process.

Multi-sensory Instruction Senses are said to be the gateway of knowledge. In accordance with this well-known maxims of teaching and learning, it is always better to employ as many senses as possible in the process of instruction for the best possible outcomes. Moreover, the experiments and researches in the field of teaching-learning has established that teaching-learning process is best organized and facilitated through the use of multi-senses or multimedia instead of a single or routine type of media or techniques. For example, in case a teacher, while lecturing, makes use of the audio-visual aids, charts and maps, writes on the blackboard, demonstrates on the demonstration table and

asks his students to respond in a theoretical as well as practical way, he is surely to communicate well instead of a teacher who is simply resorting to lecturing or demonstrating. The use of educational technology in the field of teaching and learning, thus, has given birth to a new approach namely the multisensory or multimedia approach consisting of the use of multiple senses involving appropriate and carefully selected devices, techniques and media in such a combination that leads to the most effective realization of the teaching-learning objectives in the best possible way. Consequently, the term multi-sensory or multimedia approach to teaching-learning may be related to the use of appropriate and carefully selected varieties of learning experiences which, when presented to the learner through selected teaching strategies, will reinforce and strengthen one another in such a way that the learner will achieve predetermined objectives in an effective way. (Packiam 1986). In other words, in multi-sensory or multimedia approach, the teaching-learning process is carried out through a number of media by using them in such a planned and organized combination with reference to the available teaching-learning situation that leads to their utmost utilization for achieving the desired ends in a quite effective way. The characteristics of such an approach can be summarized as follows: 1. Multimedia or multi-sensory approach calls for the use of a number of media, devices and techniques for teachinglearning. 2. Multimedia or sensory approach is the contribution and net result of the researches and experiments going on the subject of educational technology for improving the process and products of the act of teaching-learning.

3. The variety of media involving multiple senses are carefully selected which becomes quite effective in providing desirable learning experiences to the learner for achieving the predetermined teaching-learning objectives. 4. The multiple-senses and multimedia are not used haphazardly, merely to increase the size and number of media for being named as multimedia or multi-sensory approach. Instead, these are selected and planned in a most appropriate economical combination to yield the best possible results. 5. While selecting different media for adopting multi-sensory or multimedia approach, it is taken care of that the presence of one must increase the effect of others in the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives with reference to a particular teaching-learning situation. 6. Multimedia or multi-sensory approach asks for the judicious and planned use of the hardware and software available in the field of educational technology. 7. In multimedia or multi-sensory approach, several media and techniques can be effectively used as appropriate vehicles for the needed communication of ideas in the process of teachinglearning.

The steps and Procedures for Adopting Multisensory Approach Multi-sensory or multimedia approach facilitates the task of attaining the desired teaching-learning objectives on the path of the teachinglearning in an effective way. As emphasized earlier, it asks for the judicious use of several media in relation to the existing teaching-learning situation in such a combination that results in the attainment of the predetermined teaching-learning objectives in the best possible way. In multi-sensory or multimedia approach, it is very difficult to prescribe a uniform pattern or instructional procedure to be followed by the teacher and

learners. Every teaching-learning situation is a unique opportunity which demands a set of a teacher and students with regard to the adoption of multimedia approach. However, there may lie common points of agreements if we try to analyze the very nature and goals of multi-sensory approach mentioned as follows: The teaching-learning objectives are to be effectively realized. Teacher must be helped to plan and organize his teaching activities as effectively as possible. The learning experiences should be organized in such a way that students learn mostly through self effort and active participation and involvement in the learning activities. Teaching-learning activities need to be organized in such a way that helps the teacher in making the total unit of learning quite clear to his students. It should also help the students in acquiring all the learning experiences in a wide way through independent efforts and cooperative planning. The media selected for the teaching activities should be such that these may be coordinated and combined in relation to a particular teaching-learning situation resulting in the effective realization of the set objectives. Keeping in view the above cited nature and demands for the use of multi-sensory or multimedia approach, we can follow, in general, a particular pattern in the form of the following stages and steps for the organization of the instructional activities with reference to different teaching-learning situations:

First stage At this stage, the teaching-learning activities should be initiated by the teacher. A well prepared lesson on a learning unit may be delivered by the teacher by keeping in view the set teaching-learning objectives. Here he may use different media. The learning contents

may be covered in a global way through lecture, question-answer or lecture-cum-demonstration method. He may make use of the blackboard, charts, pictures, graphs, models, slides, audio and video tapes, exhibit actual objects and demonstrate experiments for the clarity of the contents of the learning unit depending on the demands of the teaching-learning situation.

Second stage It is the stage for the demonstration of specific and specialized unit. This information may be provided to the learner through certain wellprepared programmed learning material, tapes and video recorded material, learning guides and workbooks.

Third stage At this stage, the learner is provided with the essential help and individual guidance for the clarity of the steps and activities undertaken by him for proceeding on the path of his independent learning. The activities for the purpose may be listed as follows: 1. Interaction and discussion with teacher or the fellow students. 2. The extra help and individual guidance rendered by the teacher or the subject expert. 3. Observation of experiments and work activities performed by the teacher, expert or fellow students. 4. Close observation of the recorded material.

Fourth stage This stage is meant for carrying out the learning activities on the part of the learner in details, as well as depth on intensive basis. Here the students may be asked to do study in library with necessary reference material or to have detailed study with the help of

programmed textbooks, teaching machines and computer assisted instructions.

Fifth stage This stage is well meant for the integration of the theory with practice and learning practical use of the curricular experiences. For this purpose, students may be asked to engage themselves in useful laboratory work, manual work, field work, workshop experiences, productive and creative activities, depending upon the nature of the learning unit, subject and availability of the resources.

Sixth stage At this final stage, the teaching-learning activities are arranged on a much superior level (called reflective level, cooperative group learning or living, etc.). The activities of the learning at this stage may therefore be of the nature such as: 1. Group discussion and exchange of ideas through seminars, symposium, panel discussion and conferences. 2. Critical thinking and analysis on the basis of independent writing, evaluation and creative work. 3. Critical evaluation of one’s own achievement or putting views on the accomplishment of others in a constructive way. In this way, different media can be utilized in combination at the subsequent stages and steps of the teaching-learning activities carried out for the instruction of a particular learning unit. This multimedia or multi-sensory approach is equally applicable to the other informal and non-formal teaching-learning situations including correspondence or distance education. A distance learner or student of corresponding course, thus, initially may get well prepared lessons on the related units of the curricular subjects. This learning material may be available in the shape of programmed

learning or auto-instructional material. It may be supplemented with audio and video tape material. The students, then, may be asked to interact with the resource persons available at different resource centres for clarifying their doubts and difficulties related to the learning material. The help of mass media like radio, television, newspapers, and journals may also be taken for the benefit of the distance learners. Various media like closed circuit television, teaching machines and computer-assisted instruction may also prove quite beneficial at different stages of individual learning. The individual learners may then be asked to evaluate their own learning outcomes through well-graded assignments. They may take the help of the media and laboratories, information centres, libraries and other places or related practical and theoretical experiences. Personal contact programmes may be arranged for providing them formal teaching-learning experiences at different resource centres created for them at their convenience. Multi-sensory or multimedia approach has its strong appeal and applicability to almost all the teaching-learning situations for the teaching and learning of the different curricular or non-curricular subject material. It is beneficial for all types of learners, i.e. average, sub-average or above-average. On one hand, it can very much be used in diagnostic and remedial teaching for the educationally backward and slow learners, while on the other hand, it may be equally planned for the organization of teaching-learning activities for the gifted and creative genius. The media and techniques used for adopting multimedia approach for creative children may be outlined as follows: Guidebooks and workbooks for the use of teachers and students, for instance, Guide to Creative Action and Creative Action Workbooks. Idea books that include exercises for developing intellectual skills involved in creative thinking like: Can you imagine?

Invitation to thinking and doing, puzzles and plays etc. Carefully prepared instructional material consisting of recorded, planned sequences of creative thinking activities such as great moments of discovery, great moments in invention, etc. Use of a large variety of audio-visual material available for creative teaching and learning in the form of recorded audio and video tapes, coloured slides with accompanying tapescript, films, computer assisted instruction material, etc. Use of packaged teaching-learning programmes consisting of material such as instructor’s manual, volumes written on different aspects of creative teaching, posters, pictures and photographs sets, tapes of audio and video cassettes helpful in teaching and learning, teaching-learning strategies material and evaluation material, etc. Use of audio-instructional programmes specially meant for creative education such as sets of creative problems in the form of detective mysteries presented in a suitable selfinstructional format or programmed text and computer assisted learning material prepared on different phases of creative process. Use of different techniques like attribute listening, brainstorming, morphological analysis, and psycho-dramatic approaches like role playing, inquiry training, word association, etc.

Uses and Advantage of Multi-sensory Instruction Adoption of multimedia or multi-sensory approach to the teachinglearning may be useful and advantageous on the following grounds: 1. Making educational process interesting, purposeful and effective: Multi-sensory instructional approach is helpful in

making the process of education very interesting and effective on account of the following reasons: • Use of single media like lecturing, and book reading may result in monotony and dullness in a teaching session. The use of multimedia involving multi-senses in terms of methods, techniques and materials brings life in the process of teaching-learning. • Use of multimedia or multi-sensory approach provide opportunity for the utilization of a number of senses—sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste—for gaining the direct and lively experiences. • Use of multimedia or multi-sensory approach calls for diversified activities on the part of teacher and taught. It makes the process of learning quite lively and interesting. Pupils can gain useful learning experiences by following the principles of learning through observation and learning by doing. • Use of multimedia or multi-sensory approach equips the teacher for better teaching and learner for better learning. The subject matter becomes quite clear, self-explanatory and well digestive to the learners with the help of the application of several media in proper combination. It makes the task of the teaching easy, interesting, methodical and scientific as the teacher becomes capable of attaining the teaching objectives with greater efficiency and effectiveness. • Multi-sensory or multimedia approach is specially helpful in providing opportunity to the learners in the learning and teaching of various skills. • The changes in the effective domain of the behaviour of the learners like interest, habits, and attitudes can be effectively brought with the help of the multimedia or multi-sensory approach.

• Whenever the teaching-learning process is followed by the multimedia or multi-sensory approach, the changes in the behaviour of the learners in all the three domains—conative, cognitive, and affective—can be effectively brought out. As a result, the teaching-learning objectives are best realized through the use of multimedia approach. 2. Meeting the needs of the learners: The multimedia or multisensory approach of teaching-learning works satisfactorily in meeting the intellectual and psychological needs of the individual learners. It is quite helpful in satisfying the instinct of curiosity and urges of constructiveness, creativity and inventiveness. The students get enough food for thought and action on account of their wide exposure to the field of knowledge and experience through different media. It also helps in training their emotions and providing useful channels for the proper release of their emotional energy. Multimedia approach on account of its diversity is able to meet the needs of every individual learner. One can pick up the media he likes the most or the one which suits him the most for proceeding properly on the path of learning. It is why, many of the learners declared backward, slow learners, problems or delinquent may be properly brought on the right path after getting exposure to an effective medium suiting their very nature and specific needs. 3. Making the learning highly individualized and self-dependent: Multimedia or multi-sensory approach to teaching-learning aims towards making the learning as individualized and selfdependent as possible. Starting from the use of simple software like charts and pictures to the application of sophisticated hardware like computers and teaching machines aided instruction, the multimedia approach helps the individual learner to proceed on his learning path with his own pace according to his own needs, interests and abilities. Slowly and

slowly, it makes him rely on his abilities and pursue his studies independently with or without the presence of his teacher. 4. Relieving teachers from the routine duties: Multimedia or multisensory approach is capable of reducing the load and tension of the teachers with regard to their different roles. It may relieve them from many of their duties. Radio and television lessons, slides with audio-tapes, educational films, video cassettes, programmed packages, teaching machine and computerized instructions, all work in the same direction to take the place of a teacher. This gives the teacher extra time to do other significant things for the benefit of students in the capacity of a supervisor, guide, counsellor or adviser. 5. Proper appealing and spreading education to masses: Multimedia or multi-sensory approach possesses enough potentiality to cater to the needs of the masses through the judicious efforts of mass media such as radio, television, video films, newspapers, printing material, nationally circulated magazines and commercial motion pictures. It has tremendous power and capacity to appeal to the masses as a strong communicator with its easy approachability and knowhow to the users. 6. Capable of providing advantages of both group and individual learning: Multi-sensory or multimedia, besides aiming for the individualization of instruction, proves equally competent for group and corporate learning. It has a diversified list of media in its treasury. While some of them, like programmed texts and packaged material, Computer-assisted instruction, learner controlled instruction, auto-instruction received through teaching machines, tape recorded material, laboratory work and other individual assignment experiences, help the learner to learn individually and independently. The other media measures like lecturing, demonstrating, TV and radio lessons, video and film demonstration, seminar, symposium, panel

discussion, workshops facilitate group learning. In this way, multimedia approach to teaching-learning can be characterized for its inherent advantages to both individual and group learning.

SUMMARY 1. The use and application of hardware and software technologies for the organization and execution of the tasks and activities related to education possess a sound psychological base as these can be helpful in the utilization of the principles and theories of learning, behavioural science and instructional psychology. Edgar Dale’s cone of experience and multi-sensory instructional approach may be cited as the living testimony of such a claim. 2. The cone of experience put forward by Edgar Dale tells us what type of learning experiences and mode of teaching and learning will prove advantageous to what type of learners in a given teaching-learning situation. In the light of such analysis, a subject teacher should accordingly plan the use and application of the hardware and software technologies in his instructional activities. Through his cone of experiences, Dale gives teaching-learning a solid psychological base by providing or acquiring real direct experiences. However, in its absence, we can otherwise proceed for an alternative in the form of the contrived and the organized virtual experiences. The use of hardware and software technologies, material and equipment like radio, television, tape recorder, films, models, charts, diagrams, maps, slides and transparencies may prove quite beneficial not only in terms of providing a substitute for the direct real experiences, but also as a better means and media for the effective teaching and learning. In addition to this, the use of software technology in the form of dramatic

participation, demonstration, excursion or field trips, exhibition, visual symbols, verbal examples and illustrations may also help the task of teaching and learning. The assumptions and ideas propagated by Edgar Dale through his cone of experiences, thus, may help in providing a solid psychological base to the use of modern technologies in the field of teachinglearning. 3. Multi-sensory or multimedia approach to instruction calls for the judicious use of a number of sensory impressions or media in relation to the existing teaching-learning situation in such a combination that results in the attainment of the predetermined objectives in the best possible way. Multi-sensory instructional approach, in this way, while trying to provide a solid psychological base for the use of modern technologies in the field of teaching and learning, suggests to make use of an integrated and coordinated use of these technologies involving multi-sensory experiences for the better teaching and learning of a particular unit of the prescribed course.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you know about Edgar Dale’s cone of experiences? While drawing a sketch of the cone, discuss the type of experiences helpful in the process of teaching-learning. 2. Discuss in detail the mechanism and role of various types of experiences as emphasized by Edgar Dale in his cone of experiences. 3. What is multi-sensory instruction? How can it help in the effective realization of educational objectives? 4. What is multi-sensory or multimedia approach to instruction? Discuss its nature and characteristics.

5. What is multi-sensory or multimedia approach? Discuss the steps and procedure for adopting such an approach for the instructional purposes. 6. What is multi-sensory or multimedia approach to instruction? Discuss its uses and advantages in the field of education.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Dale, E., The Cone of Experiences, Chapter 4 in Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, Revised ed., New York: The Dryden Press, 1946. Dale, E., The Cone of Experiences, Chapter 4 in Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, Revised ed., New York: The Dryden Press, 1954. Dale, E., The Cone of Experiences, Chapter 4 in Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, 3rd ed., 107–135, Hinsdale, IL: The Dryden Press, 1969. Packiam, S., Curriculum Innovations and Educational Technology, Delhi: Doaba House, 1986.

3 Hardware Instructional Aids CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Magic Lantern Epidiascope Projectors Radio Tape Recorder Television (TV) Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Videotape or Cassette Recorder (VCR) Motion pictures Computers Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction In the category of mass media, designated as hardware, we usually include those machines-like appliances and equipment which are considered to be technical in terms of their composition and working. These are designed and operated on sound scientific principles and technical knowledge. Since the material used in their body is

relatively a hard material and their operation and working is technical and complex, these equipment and appliances are designated with the adjective hard, and this is why, we call them as ‘hardware’ in contrast to other teaching aid materials named as ‘software’. Such teaching-learning aid material, designated as hardware, may include the following appliances or equipments. 1. Magic lantern 2. Epidiascope 3. Slide cum filmstrip projector 4. Overhead projector 5. Radio 6. Tape recorder 7. Television (TV) 8. Closed circuit television (CCTV) 9. Motion pictures 10. Computers 11. Teaching machines Let us discuss a few of them in detail.

Magic Lantern It is the earliest invention in the history of audio-visual aids used for projecting pictures from a transparency (slide) on a wall or screen. Its operation and mechanism is quite simple. When the figure or illustration is very small and it is required that the whole class should see it clearly, a transparent slide of this small figure is prepared. This slide is then placed into the slide carrier, a part of the magic lantern. The magic lantern device projects it on the screen by enlarging its dimensions and making the vision more sharp and clear.

Construction

It consists of a strong source of light (lamp), reflector (concave mirror), condensing lens, slide carrier and objective lens. All these elements are contained in a lightweight metal case.

Working As illustrated in the above Figure 3.1, the light rays emitted by the source of light(s) and reflected by the concave mirror (c) lying behind the lamp, are directed forward to fall on the condensing lens (L). This lens shatters and bends these rays into a strong beam of light that passes through the slide AB and comes to a point at the centre of the objective lens (O). The objective lens, as a divergent lens, spreads the light rays and directs them on the screen surface. The image produced on the screen is enlarged, sharp and clear but inverted. Therefore, care is taken to place the slide inverted in the slide carrier for obtaining an upright image on the screen.

Figure 3.1 Magic lantern.

Epidiascope This device has an additional advantage over the magic lantern by projecting opaque object besides transparent slides on the screen.

With its help, any picture can be enlarged on the screen without tearing it off from the book. No slide is needed for this purpose. In this way, the device serves two purposes. When it is used to project an opaque object it works as episcope and when it is used to project slides (by operating a lever), then it serves as diascope. That is why, it is named as epidiascope. It employs the principle of horizontal line projection with a lamp, plane mirror and projection lens. A strong light from the lamp falls on the opaque object. A plane mirror placed at an angle of 45° over the object, reflects the light so that it passes through the projection lens forming a magnified image on the screen.

Use of Epidiascope in Teaching-Learning Epidiascope can play an important role in the teaching and learning of various school subjects in the following manner: 1. Various slides related to the subject material can be easily shown by projecting on the screen in their enlarged forms with the help of this device. Thus, if the figure or illustration is very small and it is required that the whole class should see it clearly, a transparent slide of this small figure can be prepared by the subject teacher with the involvement of his students (for projecting on the screen in its enlarged size through the help of an epidiascope). Since slides can also be available from the markets or borrowed from the relevant sources, a teacher may not feel handicapped and thus may resort to their proper use by obtaining them from the concerned sources. 2. The major advantage of epidiascope lies in its ability to directly project the non-transparent or opaque objects available in their real form (without converting them into their slides) on the screen in an enlarged size. Consequently, various types of useful material related to teaching contents may be successfully presented for the proper view of the entire class. Such material may include:

• Graphic and pictorial materials like pictures, charts, maps, diagrams, timelines, cartoons, posters, graphs, etc. • All types of printed material. • Handwritten material, drawing and sketches. • Stamps, coins, stone minerals, remains of historical or cultural interests, fossils, bones, etc. • Specimen of living and non-living objects. • Models, dioramas, pieces of arts, figures, etc. 3. The use of epidiascope may have another extra advantage on account of its capacity to help in the preparation of graphic aids like pictures, charts, maps, diagrams, graphs, timelines, etc. For such purpose, the illustrated material like pictures or maps given in the books, magazine, and other sources may be directly put on the platform of the epidiascope to be projected on the sheet of a paper stitched or clamped on the screen and then the necessary drawings or sketches may be drawn with the help of coloured pencils.

Projectors Projectors, as an effective projective equipment, occupy a prominent place in the instructions of various subjects of the school curriculum. In our classrooms, we generally make use of the following three types of projectors: 1. Slides cum filmstrip projector 2. Overhead projector 3. Opaque projector Let us try to discuss these three types of projectors with respect to their construction, working and use.

Slide cum Filmstrips Projector

As the name suggests, this type of projectors are helpful in projecting slides as well as filmstrips on the screen and thus making it possible to view, in an enlarged form, the graphics like pictures, charts, diagrams, photographs, maps, cartoons, posters, graphs and timelines related to the subject. Generally, for the projection of this type of projectors, we make use of the 2″ x 2″ slides and 35 mm filmstrips. The construction and mechanism of this type of projectors have been diagrammatically presented in Figure 3.2. The basic design of a slide-cum-filmstrip projector is same as that of lantern slide projector. The variation lies in: the mechanism for channelising and moving the filmstrip through the projector, nearness of projection lens to the aperture in comparison to that of the lantern slide projector, and provision of a cooling fan for protecting the filmstrip or slides from over heating. For the use of this type of projectors, the teacher in charge should try to gain competency in the task of handling the switches meant for the operation of various functions of the equipment along with the certain needed precautions. After that he can insert the desired filmstrips or slides one by one at the proper time of their instructional use and keep them on the screen as long as it is necessary. Such projection of the filmstrips or slides on the screen, then, should be accompanied by the relevant verbal commentary for the needed exposition, explanation and illustration of the subject matter. A teacher himself can make the commentary or he can take the help of a student for this purpose. For better results, one can take the help of a tape recorder by taking precaution in synthesizing the recorded commentary with the things projected on the screen.

Figure 3.2 A slide cum filmstrip projector.

Overhead projector The overhead projector, although having similar optical elements, represents a lot of improvement over magic lantern, slide, and film projectors. The uniqueness may be summarized as follows: 1. It contains an area of vertical projection besides the straight horizontal path of light available with the usual projectors. The path of the light rays is again changed to a horizontal one by a mirror placed at 45° angle and continues over the shoulder of the teacher to the screen as may be evident from the diagram shown in Figure 3.3. 2. It contains a large aperture of the size 25 × 25 cm or 20 × 20 cm for placing the slides and other visual materials. 3. It provides for the focusing of the image on the screen by vertical movements of the projection head (containing the

objective lens and mirror). 4. There is a provision of a constant flow of air past the lamp by a cooling fan in the base of the projector.

Figure 3.3 Overhead projector.

Advantages of overhead projector This equipment as compared to epidiascope and slide-cum-film projector proves to be more valuable in the task of teaching and learning of all the subjects of the school curriculum, as may be revealed through the following discussion: 1. Since the image in this projector is projected over the shoulder of the teacher, he faces the class in usual way at all the times. With the class in full view, it is possible for him to observe the reactions of the students, adjust his responses and actions

accordingly, and exercise the desirable control over the teaching-learning situations. 2. The optical system of this type of projector permits placing the projector close to the screen and blackboard. Therefore, the teacher can place it even on his table lying in front of the blackboard. He can teach in a usual manner by facing his class and, at the same time, he is capable of operating the machine. There is no need of separate projector operator or the accompanying instructor for the teacher to assist him. 3. Since a high power electric bulb (750 watt or 1000 watt) is used in the projection lamp and not much light is wasted in the projection operation, there is no need of darkening the room for the appropriate visibility of the image on the screen. Consequently, the problems regarding the arrangement for proper variation and cooling of the rooms do not arise. 4. The aperture of this projector is comparatively large. Consequently, it may allow the use of large slides of the size 25 × 25 cm or 20 × 20 cm. The large size of the slides may further facilitate the preparation of art work for slides. 5. Since the slides in this projector are placed on top of the glass aperture, there is no difficulty in changing the slides. Moreover, the teacher may also see the slides exactly as the students do and thus is able to integrate his comments and teaching with what is being projected on the screen. 6. The main advantage of this projector lies in the fact that the projection screen can be very well utilized by the teacher as a blackboard. He can write or draw at will on the slide or cellophane sheet stretched over the platform with a marking pencil while the object is being projected, without turning away from the class. These marks can be removed afterwards from the slide or the sheet by wiping them with a clean cloth. 7. Usually, the teacher has to go nearer to the blackboard for explaining the things written or sketched on it. However, while

making use of this equipment, he does not have to move from machine to the wall to explain things to the students. He can use a pointer or pencil to point out important details of a slide. 8. The projection platform carrying slides can also be used to display a variety of teaching aids. A sheet of transparent plastic or cellophane may be placed on this platform for this purpose. Very useful and relevant drawing and sketches can be drawn on this sheet and the same may be properly projected on the screen. Consequently, the practical knowledge regarding the process of election work of the assembly or parliament in session, the organizational structure of an institution or a factory, and demonstration work concerning map drawing can be properly shown on the screen. Not only the graphics, but also the liquid material can be made visible on the screen by placing a transparent disc containing the liquid material on the projection platform. 9. The operational task of this projector also does not involve any difficulty. It simply requires turning of the power switch, placing the slide on the projection platform and focusing the image on the screen.

Opaque Projector The slide-cum-film projector and overhead projector discussed so far can only be used to project the transparent material. The opaque material, like picture, diagram and specimen can not be projected by these projectors. The third type of projectors, namely opaque projector do away with this difficulty. It can be utilized to project and display all types of objects, whether transparent or opaque, on the screen and hence, it proves to be more useful and effective in comparison to other types of projectors.

Design and working of an opaque projector

In opaque projector the principle of reflected light is used for the projection rather than the direct light transmission, as shown in the diagram in Figure 3.4. The projection area in the opaque projector lies at the base of the projector. The objects that are to be projected on the screen are positioned on the projection platform. The projection bulb and the reflector are located in front of the projection platform at an angle of 30°. The entire platform is surrounded by a series of mirrors that reflect light from the projection bulb on to the materials being projected. This reflected light arrangement projects the material from the direct intense light of the high-powered projection bulb. As the light after being reflected from the projective material moves upward, it is obstructed by large mirror placed at an angle of 45°. This mirror reflects the image of the projective material on the screen through a large objective lens.

Figure 3.4 Path of light in an opaque projector.

Educational advantages of opaque projector An opaque projector can be very valuable in the task of teaching and learning of the various subjects of the school curriculum in the following manner: 1. Any material, whether transparent or non-transparent, related to instruction can be properly projected on the screen for viewing by the entire class with the help of this projector. 2. In this projector it is not essential to prepare slides of the graphic material for its visual display on the screen. Material like photographs, pictures, graphs, diagrams, and handwritten or printed material can be projected on the screen in its original form without converting it first to slides.

3. The most striking use of the opaque projector lies in the fact that it needs almost no arrangement or preparation with regard to mounting for the display of graphic material on the screen. The pictures, illustrations, maps and diagrams given in the books, magazines and other sources can be properly projected on the screen without getting them removed from their original sources. If what is written, sketched or drawn on a piece of paper or a page of a textbook or other reference source should needs to be observed by the entire class, one has to simply place this piece of paper or page of the book (without getting it removed) on the projection platform of the equipment for getting a properly enlarged image of the screen. 4. All types of three-dimensional aid material such as actual objects, specimen, models and mock-ups can be projected on the screen by placing them on the platform of this equipment. Their enlarged images on the screen are clearly visible to the entire class for the study of minute details and other characteristics. Not only that, but the living material can also be exhibited through such projection. Therefore, the use of an opaque projector may prove quite helpful in teaching and learning of the topics where one has to study the life and effects of the living specimen, i.e. the phenomena of pollution, spread of viral and infectious diseases, impurities in the water, etc. 5. The projection carried out through this projector can prove quite helpful in the study of various topics related to the subject areas of history, geography and other social as well as environmental and natural sciences. The display and use of the objects like postage stamps, rare coins, printed or handwritten valuable documents, records and manuscripts, and specimen of many related things for the relevant instructional activities becomes quite possible with the help of the opaque projector.

6. A unique advantage of the opaque projector lies in the fact that it can be utilized with care for enlarging and transferring graphics and other illustrative material to a chalkboard or to the large sheet of chart paper placed on the screen for tracing. Consequently, a small picture, diagram or map given in the textbook or magazine can be properly projected on a chalkboard in the desired size and quickly traced for the current instructional use. The task may prove quite beneficial for the teachers and students which can help them in the preparation of valuable graphic aids and illustration, simply by tracing the projected figures and outlines on the sheets of the paper stretched on the chalkboard or screen. Thus, the use of the opaque projector may prove quite helpful for the teachers and students on account of the simplicity and unique characteristics of the projection task carried out through this projector. An unlimited supply of transparent and non-transparent materials easily available for projection, and the scope of its easy projection in a quite enlarged form on the screen make this equipment a valuable aid in the teaching and learning of almost all the subjects of the school curriculum. The main drawback related to the need of having complete darkness may be handled through suitable remedial measures. However, the recent development in the area of opaque projection have introduced such equipment which can operate in a semi darkened and lighted room and, therefore, by using these new equipment this drawback can also be removed.

Radio Radio, as an effective audio aid device, is capable of providing valuable assistance to the teacher in the classroom by presenting worthwhile information and learning experience to a large number of

students. Commenting over its potentiality as an instructional aid, R.G. Raymonds (Quoted by C.L. Bhalla, 1953: 91) writes: Radio is the most significant medium for education. As a supplement to classroom teaching its possibilities are almost unlimited. Its teaching possibilities are not confined to the five or six hours of the school day. It is available from early morning till long after midnight. By utilizing the rich educational and cultural offerings of the radio, children and adults in communities, however remote, have access to the best of the world’s stores of knowledge and art. Some day its use as an educational instrument will be as common place as textbooks and blackboards.

These broadcasts are of two types: 1. General broadcast providing general information about the events and happenings, assimilating knowledge about the worlds, culture and life. 2. Educational broadcast specifically prepared and broadcast for serving the cause of education and classroom in the form of radio lesson, lectures, etc.

Advantages The educational advantages summarized as follows:

of

radio

broadcasting

may

be

1. Radio broadcasting makes it possible to listen to the lectures, talks, discussions and seminar proceedings of educational interest in which renowned authors, educationalist, leading scholars and other important personalities may participate. Such contact is bound to provide immense educational and psychological value to the students. 2. Radio broadcasting, through its planned and sequenced classroom lessons on various topics related to school subjects, may provide much assistance to the classroom teacher in realizing the instructional objectives.

3. Radio broadcasting has a potentially of becoming a potent source of education as these are capable of integrating education with the real life experience on one hand and healthy entertainment and source of pleasure on the other. The students can be easily motivated to listen to the radio talks and thus derive the desired educational benefits. 4. As a mass media, radio broadcasting proves a highly economical source of educational instructions. Its advantage may reach uniformly to millions of its listeners by breaking distance and time barriers. The cost per capita of listeners in educational broadcasting service is almost negligible. 5. Radio broadcasting is capable of solving various problems in the field of education arising out of the shortage of manmaterial resources. There is a shortage of good textbooks, well-planned instructional programmes, suitable instructional devices and aids and competent teachers. The learner population is increasing day by day. The courses of instructions are widening. It is not possible to provide the benefits of education to such a large number of learners with the desired efficiency without the aid of an effective medium like radio broadcasting.

How to Utilize Radio Broadcasting in the Classroom The educational broadcasting services offered by the AIR and other radio channels may render valuable assistance in the classroom instructional programmes. For the desired outcomes, it needs a careful effort on the part of teachers. Let us summarize what needs to be done by the teachers on this aspect. 1. The teacher must acquaint himself with the schedules and programmes of these broadcasts through the relevant available literature.

2. He must carefully think and plan the integration of the scheduled broadcasting programme with his classroom teaching. 3. The teacher must try to prepare his students as adequately and possible educationally as well as psychologically to properly get the knowledge and experiences, imparted through a radio broadcast. 4. He should seek proper control of the environmental situations, physical conditions and learning environment for the proper utilization of radio broadcasting. He should be sure that all the students hear a clear signal. The set should be properly located. The room conditions should be favourable with a minimum of distraction and outside disturbances. 5. The radio broadcasting should have an adequate follow-up programme. There should be a lively discussion over the learning objectives achieved through the broadcasting. The learning gaps and difficulties in understanding the radio presentation should come into limelight. The actions and reactions occurred in the minds of the students should be properly responded and helped for enriching their experience and furthering their education.

Limitations and Shortcomings Radio broadcasting suffers from some limitations and shortcoming as follows: 1. The educational value of radio broadcasting depends merely on the use of the sense of hearing. A continued listening on the part of the students may make them uninterested and nonattentive. 2. It reduces the task of teaching and learning as a one way communication. The students have little opportunity to

participate in the instructional activity other than in a passive way. 3. It is difficult to schedule programmes which will be acceptable to the majority of the students. Therefore, teachers and students find it hard to integrate these programmes with their own instructional activities in the school. 4. The students and teacher both face difficulties in having adequate preparation for the utilization of off-the-air broadcasts on account of the paucity of adequate pre-information, and manual or guides. However, these limitations and shortcomings can be overcome with a little more efforts on the part of the teachers and the concerned authorities. If we utilize the full potential of the radio, it may found to be very beneficial as an instructional tool for the teaching of any subject.

Tape Recorder It is an effective recording device that calls for the use of auditory senses to convey educational message to the learners. It mainly consists of three parts—microphone or over sound inputs, the amplifier, and the reproducer. It involves two main processes, viz. recording and reproducing of the sound. In recording, the educational message is first fed into the tape recorder through microphone and other inputs. The voice produces mechanical vibrations that are changed into electrical vibrations. The amplifier intensifies these vibrations that in turn activate a magnet. It results in the establishment of varied sound pattern on the iron oxide coated tape. The playing of the instrument results into the reproduction of the recording sound. Here the sound patterns contained on the

tape are subjected to electrical vibrations that are amplified by the amplifier and changed into an original like voice by the speaker.

How to Operate a Tape Recorder The operation of a tape recorder is quite simple. The desired instructions for a particular model are clearly available with the tape recorder. However, the following precautions may be helpful in the operation of a tape recorder. 1. The operator should familiarize himself with operation instructions and location of various switches like STOP, PLAY, RECORD, FORWARD, etc. 2. The tape recorder should always be set in a suitable position on a flat, sturdy surface. 3. For better recording, the volume control should be turned down and the person should be asked to speak in a clear and strong voice. 4. Previously recorded material on the tape, if needed, may be erased by setting the recorder on RECORD. 5. For better result in playing, initially the volume should be kept down. It should be brought up to a desired level with the help of PLAY control and later on the TONE control is to be adjusted for producing the most pleasing sound. 6. At close it should be seen that the whole tape is returned to the original supply reel with the help of REWIND control. If a cassette is used, it should not be left in the tape recorder. The tape recorder along with microphone and power cord should be packed properly and placed at the right place.

Educational Advantages The tape recorder may serve the following useful educational purposes:

1. It is quite helpful in the learning of some special subjects like music, dramatics and language. 2. It helps in overcoming poor speech habits and correcting speech defects. 3. It helps in the development of conversation skill, expression power and the techniques of effective dramatization. 4. On account of its recording service, it may work as an effective aid for the evaluation of teaching-learning programme. 5. It may help in the organization, conduct and evaluation of the various co-curricular activities of the instruction. 6. It may help in preparing recorded educational programmes to be used for the instructional purposes. 7. It may supplement the educational outputs of the radio and television broadcasts and the invited guest lecturers. 8. It may render valuable help in preparing commentary for the display of filmstrips and slides. 9. It may be used in recording the working of the various seminars, workshops and conferences organized into institutions. 10. It may help in behaviour modification task and encoding the classroom events. 11. It may help a teacher for the assessment of his own behaviour and teaching task.

Television Television is a powerful medium of communication that calls for the use of auditory as well as visual sense of the learners in receiving education. From a large distance, this appliance make us able to transmit instantly every spoken or written word, the picture, the sights and sounds and the action of events as they take place. Like most of the advanced developing countries of the world, India has also started to use television in education for improving the

quality of education at all levels, to expand educational facilities, particularly in rural and backward areas for normal and non-formal systems, and to make education interesting to the learner and thereby reduce wastage, i.e. dropouts in the educational system. The successful placing of the satellites into orbit has added new dimensions in the use of television for instructional purposes. One may now observe a number of programmes on the TV set that carry significant educational experience. Besides this, regular educational service for schools and college students in the shape of model lessons and other instructional programmes can now be seen on the TV screen. So far there has been a provision of open circuit television (off-air reception) in our country. The closed circuit use of television for educational purposes has not been introduced. The close circuit television broadcasting is a sort of micro level local arrangement limited to a single school, or several schools lying in a particular region. It is connected by a cable or microwave system. The telecast cannot be received by other sets outside the selected network, and signal is not required to meet the commercial broadcasting regulations.

How to Use Television in the Teaching-Learning The operation of a television set is very simple as it has now been a routine household affair. For the utilization of its services in the school instructional programme, a teacher should be very cautious at each stage. The stages are described as follows:

The preparation stage 1. The teacher should make himself acquainted with the broadcasting programmes or schedules beforehand by securing all related printing materials of the broadcasting stations.

2. The teacher should make himself prepared for getting the maximum benefit from TV broadcasts for the instructional purposes. 3. He should get his students prepared educationally as well as psychologically for receiving education for the TV broadcast. He should guide the students’ thinking by telling them exactly how they can be benefited and what important points they should observe and remember. 4. The adequacy of the physical environment and learning situations must be properly ensured before showing a TV programme. For this purpose, the following points are to be remembered: Ensure the appropriate working of the TV set. Determine the number of students to be accommodated on the basis of the type of telecast, size of the screen, and size and shape of the classroom. Try to have adequate arrangements for lighting, ventilation and seating. Do not allow anyone to sit within the distance of 10 times the width of the TV screen (distance taken from the screen).

The presentation stage 1. The teacher must operate the TV set as adequately as possible for obtaining maximum clarity of the vision and the sound. 2. Proper discipline and learning environment to be maintained throughout the telecast programme. 3. The students should be made to take notes or sketches (preferably in brief outlines to avoid missing other important parts of the telecast.) 4. The students should be asked to complete the deficiency of their notes or sketches immediately after the telecast.

The follow-up stage 1. There should be a lively discussion over the subject of the telecast under the leadership of the teacher. 2. Each student should be given an opportunity to clear up his doubts and fill up the missing links. 3. The students should be guided and given opportunity for seeking practical application of things seen by them in the telecast programme. 4. There should be an adequate arrangement for the assessment of the students’ understanding of the televised subject through some test—oral or written. 5. The students’ weakness or errors diagnosed by the test should be corrected immediately through group handling or individualized instruction.

Educational Values of Television The educational value of the planned television programmes may be summarized as follows: 1. Television may be helpful for a teacher in his personal growth. He may learn the skill and art of his profession by observing the TV programmes. 2. Television can bring models of excellence to the students. They can view and hear the work and talk of an eminent educationist, renowned teacher, creative scientist and an excellent demonstrator, musician or artist. Their presence on the TV screen may provide them due warmth and nearness for drawing maximum educational and psychological advantages. 3. Televised instructions have the potentiality of improving the process and products of learning as they involve through planning, systematic presentation and integration of a wide range of audio-visual material and appliances.

4. TV programmes prove helpful in upgrading the curriculum and enriching the educational programme more easily and economically. 5. Television can display the world of reality in the classroom through its screen, very often quite unaccessible, impossible or expensive to the students. 6. Television helps the teacher as well as students in the realization of teaching-learning objectives. It is an economical device that helps in saving the time of both the teacher and students. 7. Television as an educational device may offer some solution for the problems of shortage in education. Shortage of good teachers, classrooms, audio-visual aids and other resources may be overcome through the planned televised programmes. 8. Television instructions may bring greater equality of opportunities for all pupils. The pupils studying in remote rural or underprivileged areas may be equally benefited by the TV programmes. 9. Television, in the form of educational media, may help in making school as a centre for community welfare and education.

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) In addition to the use of open circuit television as discussed above, we may also make use of closed circuit television for deriving a number of educational benefits in our schools. In open circuit television as we have seen, educational programmes may be telecast from a telecasting centre situated in any corner of a country. This telecast is open for viewing throughout the country or globe. All that is needed on our part in the school for its proper reception is to have a television set (receiver) in one or more rooms of the school and connect them to an antenna fixed on the top of the school building.

The limitation of such reception lies in the fact that the control of the production and telecast of the educational programmes lies with the authorities of the telecasting centre, e.g. Doordarshan. There is a fixed schedule of educational programmes being telecast by the Doordarshan Kendras, and hence students and teachers have no option other than to follow their schedules which may or may not fit in the schedule of their teaching-learning needs. It is in such circumstances that the use of closed circuit television (CCTV) may come to their rescue, as it provides a free hand to them in the matter of production, relay and reception of the educational programme that suit their specific teaching-learning needs at a local level in a specific region. As a consequence, by using this system, a self produced and transmitted live or recorded educational programme (e.g. delivering a lesson on a particular topic by a subject teacher or an expert) may be received through the cable connection by a number of students in different sections of school or schools of a limited region by sitting in front of their respective television sets. One must be familiar with such local transmission of the telecast programmes through the cable operators of one’s town or city. The cable operators, besides transmitting the national or global television programmes (i.e. making one benefited through the open circuit televised programmes), also play an effective role in providing and relaying the live and recorded programmes through their cable network (i.e. making one benefited by the closed circuit television programme). Now the question arises how a closed circuit television system gets into operation at the local level on the part of an institution or institutions. Let us see how it may happen. The production of the television programmes by an institution (like lesson delivery or demonstration by a teacher) can be properly arranged in one room of the institution. There is a need of equipment like video camera, a microphone, an audio-video mixer and a coupler along with an arrangement of proper floodlight for having adequate lighting on the stage or place of the teacher’s performance. In the

mechanism procedure (see Figure 3.5) what is performed at the stage is picked up by one or more video cameras and the microphones.

Figure 3.5 A simple mechanism of the closed circuit television system.

The electric impulses so generated are then suitably impressed upon a carrier electric wave generated through the audio-video mixer and coupler for being transmitted through cables to television sets (receivers) placed in other rooms of the same or other nearby institutions for the viewing of the students as a live programme. Instead of it, a generated programme may also be recorded on the video cassette recorder (VCR) for viewing at a later stage as and when required for the instructional purpose by the concerned local institution/institutions.

Use and Significance of CCTV

Closed circuit television (CCTV) has a wide applicability and significance nowadays in the field of instruction and education. It has definitely an edge over the open circuit television programmes, as a particular school or group of schools may have an open choice of developing and enabling their students to have an access to those programmes that are needed by them for their instructional purpose or behaviour modification leading to their all-round growth and development. Locally developed CCTV programmes may, in fact, help the subject teachers and experts of a particular school or schools to join their hands on a single platform for availing the best possible instructional output in a close team spirit and cooperative venture. Even if the programmes are not developed by the institution/institutions themselves but availed from other sources or purchased from the market, then also through the networking of CCTV desired instructional or educational advantages may be satisfactorily drawn by the concerned institution or institutions served through the cables of CCTV. What specific advantages may be drawn through the services of CCTV can be briefly summarized as follows: 1. The use of CCTV can help in extending the range of the classroom activities from a single room to many adjacent rooms of a school or schools situated in the neighbourhood, and covered through the cables. As a result, the students of other sections of a class of the school or those of other schools may be benefited through a lecture delivered or demonstration performed by a single teacher or expert in any room or laboratory. Not only they are able to view the teaching or demonstration on the TV monitor but can also put a question to the teacher or demonstrator through a two way audio system provided under CCTV instructional programme. 2. The use of CCTV also helps a number of viewers at a time to view the exhibits, demonstration and other essential practical activities which are normally difficult to get in the usual

classroom situation as effectively as needed for the desired instructional outcomes. 3. The use of CCTV provides a proper platform for having the desired exchange of man-material resources, learning and instructional activities, and courses and events not only among the students and staff of the same institution but also between the various institutions linked with the circuit of CCTV. 4. The use of CCTV may prove quite beneficial in making the students learn and master the art and techniques of many skills with precision and accuracy. The video recording and playback facilities possible in CCTV programmes may further enhance the opportunities for re-teaching, relearning and doing practice and drill work by looking at and listening to a model performance for any number of times as needed by the individual or group of learners. 5. The use of CCTV may help an institution or group of institutions to devise a system of televised instruction in accordance with the learning and instructional needs of their students on one hand and the schedules and the available man-material resources with them on the other. 6. Besides helping the teacher and students in their tasks in the school set-up, the use of CCTV may also prove quite beneficial in providing education and teaching facilities to the would be teachers and in-service teachers in the following manner: It can provide valuable help in presenting model lessons on the teaching subjects, practical demonstrations for the work experience facilities, and other training schedules to the pupil, teacher educators and other subject experts, and this can be done simultaneously to the many groups/sections of a training college or a number of colleges. It can prove a boon for the micro teaching as well as macro teaching sessions of the training colleges. The pupil teachers

can get proper feedback from other teacher educators and peers and also from co-pupil teachers by going through their micro and macro lessons in the micro teaching and macro teaching set-up on the TV screen, and then make improvements accordingly. It can help teachers training colleges to improve their programmes and practices by getting opportunities to pool their own men and material resources for the benefit of all the trainees on their roll at one time through the services of CCTV. With the facilities of video recording, the benefits of all such improved practices can also be preserved for the future utilization as well as improvement. The use of CCTV can help the teacher educators and administrators including the principal to have a close watch on the activities and programmes going inside the cable network of CCTV. Such system, thus, can help in monitoring the progress of the pupil teachers in the task of their desired behaviour modification as well as in learning the art and skills of the teaching profession.

Video Tape or Cassette Recorder (VCR) The serious limitation with the use of television for instructional purposes lies in the fact that what is being seen or heard during the telecast programme cannot be repeated, stopped and made available to the viewers at their will. There may be some points that need clarification instantly on the spot. Something may not be heard or viewed distinctly and clearly by the students. There may be wide gaps and deficiencies in their learning through the televised lessons. Such deficiencies and shortcomings can be overcome to a large

extent if there may be some provision of its proper recording and reproduction as and when desired. The procedure for the operation of the videotape or cassette recorder (VCR) is essentially the same as that employed with the audiotape or cassette recorder. Using a standard camera and sound system, a complete programme shown on the TV screen or some actual life event can be taped and played back instantly as and when desired on the TV screen with the help of the playing back mechanism attached in the VCR instrument. A separate appliance named as video cassette player (VCP) can also be used for viewing the recorded programme. The videotape thus recorded can be used repeatedly and preserved indefinitely. They can also be easily erased for giving way to record some new programme and also can be edited at one’s convenience and demand for keeping it up-to-date. In the technical quality as well as effective presentation, these recorded tapes and cassettes are in no way inferior to the actual telecasting, but proves superior to them in terms of their timely and repeatedly use.

Motion Pictures or Films Motion pictures, shortly termed as film represent an effective instructional device which influences the auditory as well as visual sense of the learners. In their usual display, they resemble the televised programmes. However, the main difference between these two media lies in following aspects: 1. It is very simple for a teacher to show the televised programme to his students. He has to only look for the schedule of the TV programmes of a TV station and switch on the classroom TV set at the proper time. On the other hand, for using films for the educational purposes, he has to look for (i) the availability of a

suitable film, (ii) the availability of a suitable projector, and (iii) the knowhow of operating the motion picture appliance. 2. The televised programmes are not available before their actual telecasting while the films to be shown are easily available from the film libraries and commercial establishments. Therefore, it is easy for a teacher to test the performance of the film in view of the educational advantages drawn from it. 3. The telecasting of programmes concerning television education does not rest with the television operator or the classroom teacher using the televised programmes. What is to be telecast in a particular schedule is to be viewed universally by all the viewers. It is not possible to stop the display, answer the learners’ questions or tell some important thing about the televised programme. But in the case of motion pictures, the teacher remains in full control of the operation of the film. He may get it stopped, move it backwards or forwards for the presentation of the material in the film. Therefore, motion pictures enjoy greater educational value and provide more help to a teacher for the realization of his teaching objectives. 4. The use of motion pictures allows continuity in the presentation of ideas or concepts related to a subject as there are films available for this purpose and the teacher may make use of them as and when required. In television education, he remains at the mercy of the television station and schedules of the telecast programmes. He cannot enjoy freedom of using or reusing these telecast unless he prepares a video film of the same.

Educational Advantages The finding of various researchers, as put by Hoban and Ormer (Quoted in Fred John Pula, 1968:109–110) have revealed the following educational advantages of motion pictures:

1. Good films can be used as the sole means of imparting certain factual information and developing performance skills. 2. Pupils can change or develop attitude and opinions as a result of viewing films. 3. Pupils will learn more from films if they are properly prepared and motivated. Testing is a valid method of motivation. 4. Learning will increase with repeated showing of a film. Short single concept films have definite advantages. 5. Pupils can develop the will of problem solving by viewing wellproduced film. 6. Ability to learn from films will increase with practice. 7. Films with built-in viewer participation, and repetition of key points increase learning. If these factors are lacking in a film, then these should be supplied by the teacher during or immediately after the showing of the film. 8. It should not be assumed that learning has occurred from only showing of film. Method of presentation may be inadequate or the film may not be suitable for the age level of the students. Therefore, adequate attempts should be made.

How to make Proper Use of Motion Pictures The educational films related to various topics of the school subjects are usually available in 16 mm or 35 mm sizes and can be shown respectively through a 16 mm or 35 mm film projector. A teacher should take care of the things given ahead for the effective use of motion pictures as an instructional aid.

The preparation stage 1. The teacher should have the knowledge of the source from where educational films related to his subject may be borrowed or purchased.

2. The teacher should make himself trained in the operation of the motion picture appliance. 3. He should know beforehand the contents of the film and should see it himself (preferably along with his colleagues) before demonstrating it to his students and accordingly plan or integrate his instruction. 4. He should get his students prepared educationally as well as psychologically for deriving the maximum educational benefits from the film. 5. He should secure proper control over the physical environment and learning situations. The arrangements like lighting, ventilation, and seating must be checked before starting the display. The room should also be properly darkened before the projection of the film. 6. The operation of projector and performance of the screen should also be checked beforehand.

The presentation stage 1. The teacher should present the film step by step calling for the students’ attention to all the important points of the film. 2. The teacher should try to seek involvement of the students by making them properly motivated, attentive and active while presenting useful information from the film. He may ask questions, invite questions, encourage discussion, and clarify various points by stopping the movement of the film. 3. He must ask the students to note down important points, reactions and doubts which need more information, tentative conclusions, applications for on-the-spot enquiry or later discussion. 4. The film or its parts may be demonstrated again for more clarification and the students may be guided individually or

collectively for getting more information, application and filling up of the gaps.

Follow-up stage 1. There should be proper evaluation of the effect of the film in terms of the pupils’ learning and realization of instructional objectives. 2. There should be a free and fair discussion about the contents or subject of the film. Students should be given opportunity to learn from the mutual discussion under the guidance of the teacher. The process of showing the film may also be evaluated for the desired improvement. 3. The possibilities of the application of the information rendered by the film should be properly explored and students should be given opportunity for carrying out the task of application.

Computers Computers as an aid to the instructional process are the latest arrival in the field of education. In terms of technological advancement and educational utility, they have surpassed all the audio-visual aid material and equipment. Their demand is increasing day by day in serving various purposes and fields of education. The day is not far away when every educational institution and each classroom will be equipped with some computer sets and every child will have the facilities of personal computer, laptop or a notebook. In a particular classroom situation a usual computer system setting may resemble something as shown in Figure 3.6. The components of a usual computer system are as follows: 1. Input unit: Keyboard, mouse, cards, floppy disc, digital cassette, modem, scanner, etc. may be used for necessary

input function in a computer setting, as shown in Figure 3.6. 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU): It is the most important and the main body of the computer system. The input information is stored and processed for its desired outcomes through the working of this unit. 3. Output unit: What is processed through CPU is outwardly made available through various display parts of this unit such as monitor (black and white or coloured screen), printers, digital cameras, sound system, etc. The processed information may be seen on the screen, printed through printers, beamed through sound system, or stored through floppies and disk drives.

Figure 3.6 A usual computer system setting in a teaching-learning situation.

In the classification of audio-visual aids, computers belong to the category of audio-visual equipment and hardware. The software (the material fed into the computer machines) used in the computers is in the form of a written programme that is to be prepared by the computer programme writer, a human being. Computer works in the manner what is gets in the form of programme. That is why, the computer in itself is not an independent thinking machine but a machine of a thinking man, the programmer. The job of a computer programmer is quite technical. However, for the classroom use of

computers, the teachers are not required to know and prepare computer programmes as these may be easily procured from the market or borrowed from some concerned educational agency. All what they have to do is to select a suitable programme or get it prepared by the computer programmer, load it in the computer machine and operate the machine. The teachers must learn its operation like the way they learn the operation of other audio-visual equipment like projectors, television, video sets, etc.

Use of Computers Computers as an instructional aid can serve the following purposes in the teaching and learning of the school subjects: 1. Storehouse of knowledge and information: All types of relevant knowledge and information regarding the teaching and learning of the topics and content material of school subjects can be easily available through the services of computer technology. One can go for the search of the relevant database and information provided on the web pages of the sites available on Internet for this purpose. Different types of content material, information and knowledge related to the topics and units of the various school subjects, thus, can be easily stored in the hard disk (internal storing device) of one’s personal computer. Additional storages of such knowledge and information are also possible in one’s computer through the external storage devices like floppies, CD Rom or CD-RW (a rewritable compact disk), pen drive, etc. Thus, one’s computer may work for him as a vast storehouse of knowledge and information. A complete library, information and resource centre may thus fall in the grips of the users of the computers services. Actually with the help of the services of computers the students and teachers may have a proper access for the services of a very sincere, resourceful and energetic enquiry

officer, who can answer many queries instantly without getting puzzled or fatigued. Students can get every type of guidance and answer of their questions without feeling any hesitation and fear. Their curiosity can be easily satisfied and they can get valuable information regarding the topics and activities related to various subjects. 2. Proving a good source of self-instruction to the students: Through valuable sources of websites available on the Internet stored information and knowledge in the internal and external memory of the computer and the programmed instructional material available through the appropriate software meant for the teaching-learning of various subjects, computer can serve the purpose of a good teaching machine (a guide, teacher and tutor, in a perfect combination). One can find himself in a position to learn and acquire the concepts, principles, skills and application of various subjects through self efforts at his own pace, needs and requirements, with the help of the services provided by the computers. The most significant contribution of these services lies in their capacity of providing valuable and effective tutorial services to a number of students at one time on an individual or collective basis. Here, the computer can work as a good class teacher, subject expert, good demonstrator and supervisor for helping the students to acquire essential learning experiences. As a perfect tutor, the computer can very well maintain a perfect interaction and dialogue with the individual students. In its tutorial capacity, it provides instructions, asks and answers questions, solves the student’s difficulties, assigns and checks the assignments and homework, and thus becomes a valuable helping hand at each and every step of the teaching-learning act of the subjects of the school curriculum. 3. Providing education through simulation and gaming: No teaching aid material and equipment can match the computer

in providing proper education and training in the playing spirit by making provisions of some artificial situations and mockups. There are a variety of software programmes available that can help in many ways to provide a variety of learning experiences related to any subject for the acquisition of the desired knowledge, understanding and skills on the part of the students. With the help of using such softwares, a student may roam in the streets of different regions and locations of the world; swim over across the oceans; take a heroic trip of the dense forests, space and universe, mines and mountains; live with the men of the past and present civilizations; witness the realities of the wars and natural catastrophes like epidemics, pollution, floods and fires, infectious diseases; watch the proceedings of the parliament and assemblies and the functioning of the various community and national projects. 4. Helping the teachers in their teaching and professional growth: Computers may provide valuable assistance to the teachers for the learning and acquiring necessary knowledge, understanding and skills for making them better teachers of their subject. There is a variety of information, reading material, methodology and teaching devices available on the websites, CDs and softwares for providing desirable experiences and training to the teachers for bringing necessary improvement in their ways of teaching and training the students. They can also be helped with such sources available on computers on the path of their professional growth by getting knowledge about the latest development, researches and application related to the teaching and learning. 5. Best substitute of the traditional teaching aids: Computers are capable of being the one and the only one means and material of teaching aid for the teaching and learning of various subjects. These are quite resourceful to replace all types of graphical three-dimensional and projective audio-visual aids

because of their multidimensional, multimedia sources. A teacher can make use of video and audio CDs, power point presentation of slides and texts, projection of the written material, and graphics stored in the computer files in its enlarged or appropriate form on a big screen of the classroom for the instructional purposes of his subject. The pages of the texts and reference material, graphics and other printed material can be scanned and their images can be stored in the computer files for its use in the classroom instruction as and when required. The use of digital camera may help the teacher and also students to take photographs of animate or inanimate objects, events and processes which can be projected on the screen through the help of suitable projecting device known as LCD. In this way, computers can provide the services of all types of audio, visual, audio-visual and projective aid material and equipment single handedly for the effective and smooth teaching and learning of almost all the issues, topics and themes of various subjects of the school curriculum. 6. Helping teachers in various other tasks related to teachinglearning: The sources provided through computers may also help a teacher in the execution of many other tasks and issues related to his instruction such as: Exercising proper control over the learning activities of individual students by arranging for the diagnostic testing and remedial education. Helping the students in their self-study, group study, supervized study, library and project work, organization of cocurricular activities, utilization of community resource, etc. Meeting the challenges in terms of special education and specific provisions for the children with special needs— disabled, gifted and creative.

Carrying out action research and fundamental research programmes and activities related to the subject. Meeting the evaluation and grading requirements of the students. Keeping records of the educational progress, projects and activities related to the teaching-learning of the subjects of the school curriculum.

SUMMARY 1. Hardware, as an instructional aid, represents those machinelike appliances and equipments that are considered to be technical and scientific in terms of their composition and working. Since the material used in their composition is relatively a hard material and their operation and working is technical and complex, these equipment and appliances are called with the adjective hard and hence we call them hardware. Magic lantern, epidiascope, projectors, radio, tape recorder, television, motion pictures and computers are some of the examples of hardware. 2. Magic lantern is the ancientmost hardware used, as an instructional aid, for the projection of pictures from a transparency (slide) on a wall or screen. For making its use a transparent slide of a small figure is first prepared and then placed into a part of the magic lantern called the slide carrier. The magic lantern device projects its larger and sharper image on the screen for the clear viewing. Epidiascope is an advanced magic lantern, as it can project opaque objects also, in addition to the transparent slides. 3. Projectors classified as slide-cum filmstrip projectors, overhead projectors, and opaque projectors are again a few steps ahead to both of their predecessors—magic lantern and epidiascope. A slide cum filmstrip projector can be utilized for the projection

of slides as well as filmstrip. The overhead projectors, usually need in our school classrooms, can project transparency carrying printed and handwritten material and/or graphics. An opaque projector can be successfully used for the projection of opaque objects such as a printed page of a book. 4. Radio is a type of hardware device that can assist the process of teaching and learning by calling up on the auditory senses of the learners through its organized services of educational broadcasting. Television, through its regular and organized services of educational telecasting in this respect, goes a step further as it can prove beneficial to the learners by calling up on their senses of hearing and sight simultaneously at a time. The major disadvantage in getting benefit from the educational services of the radio and television lies in the fact that their schedule and the nature of information and knowledge furnished by them are not in the hands of its users. It can be tackled if we may record these programmes by utilizing the services of a tape recorder or video cassette recorder. Besides such use both these devices, tape recorders and video cassette recorders can be quite effectively used for rendering help in some other teaching-learning tasks or activities like language learning, skill acquisition and the task of behaviour modification. 5. The system of a closed circuit television can bring wonders in arranging properly organized and sequential educational programmes and learning experiences to a particular group of learners on the local level in a limited region. In contrast to the conventional open system of telecasting, a closed circuit television system provides a free hand to its users in the matter of production, relay and reception of the educational programmes very much in tune with their specific teachinglearning needs at a local level in a specific region.

6. The display of motion pictures may become an effective instructional aid in the hardware category by calling up on both the auditory and visual senses of the learners. It goes a step ahead to television in terms of proving more educationally advantageous, as it may provide teachers and students more liberty in terms of the choices of instructional programmes at its disposal and also in terms of the timings and place of viewing the film. They can also view and review the entire film or its portions for getting due benefits in terms of copying an action, practising a skill or modelling a behaviour. 7. The use of computers is the latest and the most useful link in the use of hardware technology in the field of teachinglearning. Their use and application has almost revolutionized the field of instruction and education. The services rendered through them in the form of the utilization of multimedia, word processing, power presentations, database management, retrieval and storage of information, access to Internet and worldwide web services, e-learning, tele and videoconferencing, etc. have been proving their worth in the planning, organization, execution and controlling of all the tasks and activities related to education and instruction, both at the individualized and group or mass level.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by hardware technology? Name a few important hardware accessories used in the field of education and discuss the working and educational uses of any one of them in detail. 2. Discuss the construction, working and use of magic lantern and epidiascope as an instructional aid. 3. What are slide and film projectors? How can you use them for the projection of still and movable visuals? Discuss their

educational advantages. 4. Discuss the construction and working of an overhead projector. How is it more useful than magic lantern or other types of slide and film projectors? 5. Discuss the utility of radio as an educational hardware technology. How can a teacher utilize it more effectively for the realization of his purposes? 6. Discuss the educational possibilities and advantages of a tape recorder as a hardware technology. What precaution should be taken for its proper use? 7. “Television has revolutionized the field of instruction.” Elaborate this statement in the light of teaching-learning act and discuss the proper way of utilizing it effectively for the instructional purposes. 8. “Motion pictures (movies) are more advantageous than television.” Discuss this statement and bring out the educational advantages drawn through the demonstration of film. 9. What precaution would you like to adopt for the operation of a motion picture (movie) device in view of the realization of the stipulated educational objectives? 10. What is a closed circuit television (CCTV)? How does it operate? How can it be used for the educational purposes? 11. What are computers? Discuss their role and utility in the field of education.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Ahluwalia, S.L., Audio Visual Hand Book, Delhi: NCERT, 1967.

Brown, James, M. Richard B. Lewis and Feed F. Harcleroad, A.V. Instructional Material and Methods, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. Chakrabarti, S.K., Audio Visual Education in India, New Delhi: Oxford IBH, 1962. Chaudhry, K.P., Audio Visual Aids in Teaching of Indian History, Delhi: Atma Ram & Sons, 1962. Dale Edgar, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching (Rev. ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961. Firth, Brain, Mass Media in Class Room, London: Macmillan, 1968. Hass, K.B. and H.Q. Packer, Preparation and Use of Audio-Visual Aids, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1964. Hoban, Charles F. and Edward B. Ormer, Instructional Film Research, Quoted in, Fred John Pula, Application and Operation of Audio-Visual Equipment in Education, London: John Wiley & Sons, 1968. Kieffer, Q.E. and L.W. Cochran, Manual of Audio-Visual Aids, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 1964. Kinder, James S., Audio Visual Materials and Techniques, (2nd ed.), New York: American Book Co. 1959. Raynolds, R.G. quoted in C. L. Bhalla, Audio-Visual Aids in Education, p. 91, Delhi: Atma Ram & Sons, 1953. Wittich, Walter A. and Charles, F. Schuller, Audio-Visual Materials: Their Nature and Use, (2nd ed.) New York: Harper & Brothers, 1962. Wyman, Raymond, Audio-Visual Devices and Techniques, Amherest: University of Massachusetts, 1957. Pula, Fred John, Application and Operation of Audio-Visual Equipment in Education, London: John Wiley & Sons, 1968.

4 Software Instructional Aids CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction Blackboard or Chalkboard Bulletin Board or Information Board Flannel Board Pictures Graphs Charts Maps Globes Diagrams Photographs Cartoons Posters Newspapers Flash Cards Models Dioramas Slides Filmstrips Transparencies Programmed Learning Packages Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction The equipment, appliances and machines described in the preceding chapter under the heading ‘hardware’ suffer from a serious common limitation; they cannot function as a teaching-learning aid independently unless they are provided with some useful aid material

known as software. In fact, these hardware cannot function and operate in the absence or non-availability of software. Magic lantern, slide and film projectors, overhead projectors are useless unless they have something in the shape of slides, films, graphics and other teaching-learning material as projection material. Tape recorders and video appliances are useless unless they are fed with cassettes carrying useful instructional material. Similar is the case with computers and teaching machines that must be provided with appropriate programmed self-instructional material. All such teachinglearning material like slides, films, cassettes, graphic material such as charts, pictures, diagrams, maps, cartoons, posters, and programmed self-instructional material used in computers and teaching machines are designated as software in the field of education. The objective ‘soft’ is given to these teaching-learning aids on some valid grounds. Firstly, the material used in the preparation of the software is quite soft in comparison to that used in the hardware. Secondly, their preparations are based on the knowledge and principles of psychology and art rather than the scientific and technical knowledge involved in hardware. Thirdly, these are quite simple and nontechnical to use as media aids in the teaching-learning process. There is no compulsion or binding on them to make use of the hardware. Most of these, for example, graphic material and selfinstructional material, can be effectively used as teaching-learning media aid without the service of hardware. In this way, software can function independently in contrast to hardware, which compulsorily need the services of software for their use as teaching learning media or aids. Let us now discuss a few teaching-learning aids designated as software.

Blackboard or Chalkboard

Blackboard represents the oldest and most commonly used teaching aid. Although not a visual aid itself it can be used for the display of visual material in the classroom teaching. Blackboard, in fact, is synonymous to a classroom. A class can function without chair, desks or even rooms to sit in but not without the aid of a blackboard. That is why, in the new educational policy tremendous emphasis has been given to the necessity and use of the blackboard as an instructional aid by the name “operation blackboard’.

Educational Use and Importance of the Blackboard Blackboard is rightly said to be the right hand of the teacher as no teacher can think of teaching effectively without its use. Its use and importance in the process of teaching and learning can be summarized as follows: 1. Blackboard can be used as a source of motivation for arousing interest of the students while learning a lesson. A teacher can write some questions or put up some sketches and diagrams for arousing the curiosity of the students at the introductory stage of his lesson. 2. At the presentation stage of the lesson, the use of blackboard is quite effective in all the subjects of the school curriculum. The verbal explanations accompanied with simple sketches, line drawing, figures and diagrams of the processes, things or ideas, maps or the places, graphs and tabulation of different data; listing of the names, titles and events; putting questions or problems for testing the previous knowledge related to the learning of the concepts and principles of mathematics and sciences provide a valuable platform for the teaching and learning of the various subjects of the school curriculum. 3. Not only at the introductory and presentation stages, but also at the practice, recapitulation and evaluative stages of the

lesson, the use of blackboard is indispensable and irreplaceable. A teacher can use the blackboard for summarizing his lesson, highlighting the main points, providing assignment for revision, drill, practice and homework for his students, and also test their comprehension and understanding of the contents taught and experiences gained in a particular subject with the help of questions written and diagrams drawn on the blackboard. 4. Blackboard has unique advantage of allowing the teacher and students to write sketch and draw anything at their will according to the needs and requirement of the teaching and learning. One can write, draw and erase at his own convenience on the blackboard. This is why, blackboard is considered as the cheapest and the most convenient means of displaying the writing and visual graphics to a great number of viewers. 5. It can permit quick change and rearrangement of the writing and drawing displayed on it. Consequently, it may prove to be valuable aid in documenting and listing the product of developmental thinking as a result of classroom interaction. 6. The other special advantage of the blackboard lies in the fact that most of the things written or drawn on the blackboard are done by the teacher during the course of his instruction to the students. It provides valuable opportunity to the students not only to comprehend and understand the subject matter, but it also helps them in learning how to draw sketches, diagrams, graphs and maps. 7. Blackboard writing provides the opportunity for the teacher and students to reduce spelling mistakes to the minimum and also to write, read and understand many things, ideas, symbols, concepts and processes as correctly as possible.

With its unique features and advantages, the blackboard can be considered as the most important and essential aid to teaching and learning in all the subjects of school curriculum. It is the only aid that can be immediately available for both the teacher and students to conveniently use in visualizing the subject matter of varied interest and the diversified subject areas of the school curriculum.

How to Use Blackboard Effectively in the Classroom For making proper use of the blackboard or chalkboard as an indispensable instructional aid, a subject teacher should try to take care of the following things: 1. He should have proper idea of the different types of chalkboards such as roller type chalkboards, fixed wooden or cement wall type chalkboards, glass surface chalkboards, movable wooden chalkboards, and easels chalkboards along with the type of teaching-learning situations in which they are most useful. 2. He should always choose that section or portion of the chalkboard which can be properly seen by all the students of the class. As far as possible, the glaring effects of light on the board should be minimized by adopting measures like change in seating arrangement, additional artificial light, curtains, etc. 3. He should see that the chalkboard is thoroughly cleaned before putting it to use. The surface of the boards should also be got coloured or painted from time to time. 4. He should learn the correct way of cleaning the board with the help of an eraser or duster. It is always better to rub the board with a uniform downward stroke of eraser or duster instead of rubbing haphazardly in an irregular motion. 5. He must make use of a full-length good quality chalk, that is neither crumbly nor extremely hard for the writing and

sketching on the chalkboard. 6. It is also desirable to spend some time in learning to handle chalk in the manner as we make to learn the art of handling pencil and pen. For this purpose, one should write with the chalk by pressing it against the surface of the board, the last ‘pinpoint remains’ of the chalks should be discarded, and the art of writing legibly in straight lines, and drawing correct lines and figures should be learned. 7. What is to be sketched or written on the chalkboard should be appropriate and suitable from the angle of visibility to the students. 8. There must not be anything written or sketched incorrectly on the chalkboard as it may lead the students picking up incorrect spellings, wrong composition, incorrect figures, facts and concepts. 9. While writing, sketching or presenting the pre-prepared diagrams and figures on the chalkboard, the teacher should not forget to provide side-by-side adequate explanation of these illustrations. 10. One should write sketch or present only those things on the blackboard which are needed for the relevant teachinglearning tasks during the course of a lesson. Nothing should be left on the blackboard unnecessarily. After making its use, it is the duty of the teacher to remove the illustration from the chalkboard as to give place for the new writing or sketching. 11. Students should also be provided enough opportunities to write and sketch on the chalkboard. It will help in making the teaching-learning task more lively. Students will have more opportunities for the active participation in the teachinglearning process and acquire necessary drawing and sketching skills. 12. The use of the suitable coloured chalks should be made for focusing attention over the key points and places of the

blackboard illustrations. 13. The teacher should take the right pose and observe appropriate angle, preferably 45°, while writing and sketching on the chalkboard. He should avoid facing the class with his back and have necessary vigil over the students while using the chalkboard. 14. The teacher should practice the non-traditional use of the blackboard for deriving maximum benefit. For this purpose, he should learn the use of the techniques such as pattern technique, grid technique, hidden drawing technique, projection technique, template technique, etc. 15. For trying another use, semi-permanent chalk marks can be drawn on the board by using a chalk soaked in a sugar solution. These can be erased with the help of a damp cloth.

Bulletin Board or Information Board Bulletin board, as the name suggests, should denote the type of display board used for displaying bulletin related activities, i.e. news items announcements of forthcoming events, rules and regulations, and other general information. However, the use of the bulletin board in an institute does not limit to such display. It goes beyond that to display (i) different types of visual graphic material like photographs, pictures, graphs, cartoons, posters, cutting of newspaper and magazines, and illustration; (ii) three-dimensional objects like real objects specimens and models; and (iii) all types of creative work and accomplishments of the students’ individual and group projects, etc. Consequently, we can define bulletin board as a type of display board that can be used for displaying to the viewers the appropriate visual material to provide valuable information and learning experiences as well as a platform for displaying the individual and group accomplishment of the students.

Educational Use of Bulletin Board Bulletin board can serve the following educational functions: 1. It can act as a source of motivation and means of arousing curiosity and interest in the learners. 2. It is valuable as it provides suitable place and attractive platform for the display of all types of creative work of the students. 3. The specific announcements concerning the school’s curricular and co-curricular activities may be carried out through it. 4. Various types of aid material such as pictures, graphs, specimens, models, and other illustrations useful for carrying out learning activities in the school curriculum and linked with the topics of general knowledge and current interest can be properly displayed through bulletin board. 5. It is helpful in presenting the current classroom work in a visualized form. The study carried out in the classroom gets supplemented through the displays of bulletin board. 6. Bulletin boards provide visual information and guidance for carrying out individual or group projects. 7. Bulletin boards display activities, bringing a close interaction between the teachers and students. They can provide opportunities for the students to work within a team spirit, and also in providing a platform for healthy competition and expression of hidden talents. 8. Bulletin board’s display can be a source of strong attraction to the viewers. They can help in building proper learning environment. 9. Different types of display on the bulletin board may help the parents to get insight into the progress of their wards and working of the institution. It can help in bringing the school close to the community resulting into the improvement of the instructional processes and functioning of the institution.

Preparations of Bulletin Board It is not very difficult or expensive to arrange a few bulletin boards in the school. We can have these bulletin boards in each class and section of the schools. For the common and general use, these boards can be put on the walls of the verandahs in front of the laboratories, library and office of the institution. In any case, the decision about putting a bulletin board for the educational use should be taken quite cautiously. The location is to be well planned, wisely selected and suitably well lit. For easy visibility, the board should be placed at the eye level of the students—approximately at the height of 2 to 3 feet above the ground. For the preparation of these boards, we can use frames made of wood or plywood. The size of these frames may be kept smaller or larger according to the size of the room and the available space. These frames can be covered with some suitable soft surface such as cork material, softwood, or plywood sheet. The surface should be soft enough to allow easily thumbtacks and pins for tacking different types of illustrations and displays. For safety purpose, the soft material surface may be covered with a thick cloth of some suitable colour. It also works towards providing an adequate background for the display material. For the proper maintenance and safety, the board is fitted with glass or wire net frame so that it can be locked properly after putting the display objects on the screen of the board.

What should be Displayed on a Bulletin Board? There are a variety of items, topics and themes that can be displayed on a bulletin board. These are as follows: Current events of general interests including headlines of the main newspapers and big stories of the week. Pictures, charts, photographs, maps, diagrams, cartoons, posters and graphs of general and specific academic interests.

The celebration account of special days, festivals, social and cultural days, and national days. Announcement about the holidays, special instructions about the projects, assignments, tests and examinations related to any subject of the school curriculum, tours, and visits. The collection of students in the form of stamps, coins or other material. Photographs and pictures of the visits and excursions undertaken by the students including interaction with the community resources. All types of work done by the students demanding display and exhibition. Display about the topics currently in discussion in the class. Material for capturing interest and attention of the students about the topics to be taught in near future. Contributions of the individuals/groups towards the development of the local community, the state or the nation. Book jackets for information and motivation of the students. In a summarized form, we can represent the display of a bulletin board in the following manner:

How to Make Effective use of the Bulletin Board? For making effective use of the school bulletin, one should take care of the following things: 1. The task related to the organization of bulletin board’s display should be assigned to the class teachers or some experienced and enthusiastic teachers.

2. The relevant as well as the selected material providing information, or valuable learning experiences which are educative to the viewers should only be displayed through the bulletin boards. 3. In all situations, one should avoid crowding of display materials on a bulletin board. 4. The material displayed should be bold and large enough to be seen from a reasonable distance by the viewers. 5. What is to be presented on the bulletin board should have some specific educational significance. 6. The material displayed on the bulletin board should create a good impression on the minds of the viewers in terms of its systematic arrangement, orderly treatment, neatness and aesthetic as well as artistic sensibility. 7. The material displayed should essentially be understood and grasped by the viewers as conveniently as possible. 8. Most of the materials displayed on the bulletin boards should entirely be a result of the creation and collection of the students. However, the teacher must provide proper guidance in such creative efforts of the students and help them in the task of the selection of proper display items and their proper arrangement on the bulletin board. 9. What is to be displayed on the bulletin board should be adequately spaced and identified with the help of suitable caption and titles. 10. The students should be warned not to display any material without seeking permission from the teacher and also not causing any harm to the displayed material. 11. The tack or adhesive material like tacks, pins, and bands should be used in such a way that provides minimum interference to the visibility of the display material. 12. The display material, especially the news items, current information, and announcements should be updated from time

to time. 13. The bulletin boards should prove to be a source of a great attraction and motivation to the viewers. Therefore, for the arousal of essential curiosity, interest and attention of the students and other viewers, one should try to follow the necessary psychological principles and artistic appeal.

Flannel Board Flannel board stands for that display board whose flat surface is carried with a particular type of cloth named flannel. Flannel board is the most effective means of easy and immediate visual display of the handwritten, printed, sketched or hand-drawn graphic material which can be viewed by a number of viewers at a time. It can be used as an effective aid for the teaching and learning of the subject matter related to all the areas and subjects of the school curriculum. Especially, in dealing with the topics requiring systematic development of an idea or concept, explanation of the working of a system, generalization of a rule or principle with the help of examples or instances and identification or recognition of the things and events, the use of flannel boards proves quite helpful. Consequently, flannel boards play a significant role in the teaching of lessons related to storytelling, narrating or expressing historical sequence, the incidents and events of the past and present, occurrence of a phenomenon in the physical and social surroundings, and description of a system or organization requiring systematic and sequential development of the themes and ideas related to the study of a subject of the school curriculum.

Preparation and Use of Flannel Board Preparation and use of the flannel boards is neither difficult nor expensive. For their preparation, one can start by taking a flat board of thin plywood, masonite board or heavy card board of a suitable

size say 4 m × 3 m. A piece of flannel cloth of suitable colour is stretched tightly and then glued to this flat board. The flannel-covered flat board, thus becomes ready for display of various types of visual material like pictures, graphs, diagrams, photographs, cutouts and other illustrations. For displaying these illustrations on the flannel board, small pieces of flannel or sandpaper are pasted on the reverse side of the displayed illustrations. It makes them stick to the surface of the flannel board with little pressure. It happens on account of the law of friction as the relatively long fibres of the flannel material covering the board cause the attached objects stick to the surface. In this way, very useful pictures, cards, photographs, and other similar visual material can be made to stick on the flannel board as and when desired to be displayed for the instructional purpose. They can be left over or removed from the board according to the demand of the teaching-learning situations. The flannel board is a quite effective aid in the teaching and learning of various subjects. Particularly, it is helpful in illustrating as well as explaining different types of processes and procedures, development of a theme or building of a story. Consequently, maps and stories can be recreated in a dramatic way on the flannel board. Similarly, the structure, functioning and developmental organization of a thing, phenomenon or event can be properly presented through the illustrations displayed on the flannel board. The displays on flannel board enjoy the unique advantage to be displayed and removed at the will of the user. It is not very expensive and difficult to arrange these displays. Most of the items placed on the board can be developed by the students themselves under the guidance of the teachers. It gives the students useful opportunity to display their creative expressions and mental abilities besides providing the useful educative experiences related to the various aspects of a subject. For deriving all such advantages, however, a teacher should take care of the following things.

1. A good quality of flannel should be used for deriving better results. 2. A good quality of sandpaper or pieces of flannel should be used for pasting and sticking to the backside of the illustrative material. It is always better to use a small amount of adhesive to prevent the backside of the material become saturated and slick. 3. Selection of the items to be displayed on the board should be made with great precaution. Items and material helpful in the teaching and learning of relevant subject matter of the different subjects of the school curriculum should be displayed on the board. 4. The pictures, cards and other illustrations containing coarse sandpaper or flannel on their backs should be attached to the board with a little pressure. 5. Crowding of the items should be avoided on the board. An item should be displayed as and when needed for serving some instructional purpose. It should be at once removed after serving its purpose. 6. The flannel should be rubbed properly with the help of a brush from time to time as to maintain its roughness and fibrous nature. 7. Flannel board should not be considered as a substitute for chalkboard and bulletin board. It should be used only when it offers more in terms of educative gains than the other display boards and visual media. 8. Although we can select any colour for the flannel, yet it is always better to avoid light colours as they get dirty too early and also are unable to provide good contrast to the displayed items. 9. As far as possible, all the displayed items and material should be prepared by the students under the guidance of the subject teachers. It helps in providing valuable creative experiences to

the students besides making them active participants in the teaching-learning process. 10. The flannel display items needs to be preserved safely for future use. For this purpose, these items should be properly classified, numbered, and kept in safe almirahs after putting into appropriate enclosures. Proper insecticides and disinfectants should also be used for protecting these items from harmful insects.

Pictures Among the graphics visual aids, the most common and convenient aids are pictures. These can be used properly in the teaching of almost all the areas and aspects of the subjects of the school curriculum. For example, in the teaching of history, we can bring the history before the students by the pictorial representation of the facts, objects, and events. When students are provided with the pictures of the historical personalities like Chandragupta Maurya, Chanakya, Akbar, Shahjahan, Rana Pratap, Shivaji, Tantya Tope, Laxmi Bai, etc. they can gain enough knowledge about their dresses, personality traits and historical deeds. Similarly, the pictures related to the available coins, seals, dresses, weapons, and buildings in a particular historical period may provide enough evidence about the social, cultural and political status of a race and a country.

Figure 4.1 Seals of Harappa civilization.

Figure 4.2 Pictures of historical monuments-Red Fort.

Figure 4.3 Pictures of national heroes-Shivaji.

Where to Get Pictures A teacher may try to get suitable and relevant pictures to teach his subject from the sources mentioned as follows: 1. He can get them purchased from the market. 2. He can manage to get pictures by enrolling his institution as a member of the libraries of the teachers training institutions, and the audio-visual departments of SCERTs and NCERT.

3. He can collect them from the publishing material circulated by the various state and central government departments, ministries, tourist agencies, and foreign embassies. 4. The magazines, newspapers, brochures, books, and comics may become a good source for the collection of suitable pictures in different subject areas. 5. The pictures, according to the need, may be prepared in the class with the active cooperation of the students. Their preparation does not always require very high artistic talents. The teacher as well as the students can take initiative of preparing them with a little training, labour and patience. These prepared pictures can then be safely preserved for the classroom use. 6. If needed the help of professional artists or services of the art teachers, employed in the school, can be taken for the preparation of good pictures. 7. Teacher may also get good pictures in the form of photographs taken with the help of a good camera.

Effective Use of Pictures as an Instructional Aid Pictures can prove their worth as an effective aid only when selected with care and used as well as preserved skillfully. In brief, the teachers are required to pay attention to the following points for this purpose: 1. The purpose of using pictures as an aid should be quite clear to the teacher. He should also be careful to see that, as far as possible, a picture, should be utilized to serve only a single specific purpose at a time rather than being aimed to illustrate or convey many things or ideas. 2. There should be a proper and judicious selection of these pictorial aids. Kielfer and Cochran (1966:29), while

commenting on the need of such proper selection has laid down the following criteria: (a) General value. Who are the students? What are the purposes or objectives served by it? Will it add to the students’ knowledge? (b) Suitability. Will it contribute to the learning situation? (c) Artistic. Does it meet artistic standards? (d) Technically correct. Does it actually show what it is supposed to present? (e) Well composed. Does it have a centre of interest or is it confusing in appearance? (f) Clear in detail. Are the details clear and meaningful or are there too many details? (g) Realistic. Is it truthful or has it been poorly ‘staged’? (h) Size related. Are there familiar objects in the picture so that students can determine relative sizes? (i) Effective in colour contrast. If colour is used, are the colours true and meaningful? If black and white is used, are contrasts sharp and clear? In this way, the pictures selected should be effective and forceful to be a useful visual aid for serving the instructional purposes as properly as possible according to the needs of the pupils, subject matter and classroom situations. 3. For representing a number of events, objects or ideas pertaining to a single theme, a number of pictures should be presented one after the other. 4. The pictures used should be presented to be visible in their totality to all the pupils of the class. 5. A picture should be hung or displayed only when and upto that period for which they are required to be viewed by the students. 6. The proper storage, maintenance and safe use of the pictures should be well cared by the teacher. He must learn the art of

proper mounting—temporary or permanent—depending upon the quality of the picture and its future use. If the pictures are not valuable and if they are not going to be used, then one may prefer temporary mounting. For this purpose, he may attach pictures to some background with the help of straight pins, round-head pins, paste and tape. For permanent mounting, the picture may be properly covered, adhered and kept between the proper mounting material like cardboard, canvas, muslin, or plastic with the help of some suitable adhesive or fastening material. More fragile pictures may be covered with glass or transparent materials. 7. As far as possible, the help of the students must be fully taken in the preparation, collection, storage, display, and safety of the pictures.

Graphs Meaning Graphs are defined as those visual graphics aids which help in the visual representation of numerical data with the objective of providing a gist of information along with revealing any important relationships (such as trends and variations from normal), contained in the data as quickly and effectively as possible.

Types of Graphs There are several kinds of graphs. The most commonly used are the (i) line graph, (ii) bar graphs, (iii) circle or pie graphs, and (iv) pictorial graphs. Let us discuss each of them one by one.

Line graphs

Line graphs are the most accurate and commonly used graphs. The facts, information and concepts related to the subject matter are represented with the help of some straight lines in a line graph. The length and breadth of the straight lines—horizontal and vertical—work towards showing trends, growth or frequency, and also provides a quick comparison between two or more series of data. The line graph can be roughly divided into two categories, viz. one using only one horizontal or vertical axis (also known as timeline) and the other using both the axes. Let us now discuss both types of graphs. Timeline: Timeline (used frequently for the teaching of history, CIVICS, political science, anthropology, etc.) represents a line graph using one axis for its construction. Such a representation of the events in a form of line graph in a particular subject equips us with an unique way of listing, ordering and comparing events over some period and, thus, it may function as a summary statement of a series of events. In this sense, a drawing of timeline may be considered as an attempt to represent the time sense with the help of space sense reduced to visual symbols. A mere glimpse of such a timeline may at once tell the sequence of events and also about the relative difference in their occurrence. For example, between the two Mauryan emperors Chandragupta and Ashoka who is credited to have ruled first over India, how many years did he rule, how many years did he live? Length of the time to be presented in these graphs is symbolically represented by the proportional length of the line— horizontal or vertical. For the construction of such timelines, a straight line—horizontal or vertical of suitable length is drawn. For example, let us draw a line of 20 cm in length. It can be divided into 10 or 20 parts of equal length. Each subdivision, thus, will have a length of 1 cm or 0.5 cm. These subdivisions or parts may then be used to represent a fixed unit of time, say 5, 10, 50 or 100 years. Thus, on the lines of 10 cm measurement, we can establish 10 or 20 points simultaneously lying at some fixed distance conveying a fixed interval

of time. Now on these various points, we can lay down the important historical events occurring at the specified time and date (see Figures 4.4 and 4.5 for the illustration of timeline).

Figure 4.4 A timeline showing the life period of an emperor.

Line graphs having two axes: In the timeline, we make use of only one axis—horizontal or vertical—for drawing the graphs. However, line graphs can also be prepared by making use of both the horizontal and vertical axes. In such a graph the horizontal line can represent the period in different years, months or hours while the quantity, percentage or other factors related to a phenomenon can be represented through the vertical line. The line graph shown in the Figure 4.6 represents quantitative data related to the temperature of a local region during the different hours of a particular day of the month of December.

Figure 4.5 A timeline showing important events of Indian freedom movement.

Figure 4.6 Temperature during different hours of a day.

Bar graphs In such type of graphs, we make use of some bars for providing comparative study of the given data, instead of straight line as in the case of line graphs. While the width of the bars is kept equal, their length expressing the amount or percentage of data is allowed to vary

for providing comparison. Occasionally, a considerable number of bars are used and for the distinction and making them readable, these bars are provided with distinctive colours and shades. The bars can run either vertically or horizontally, as shown in the Figures 4.7 and 4.8. The vertical bar graph shown in Figure 4.7 provides a comparative visualization of the data related to wheat production during a span of 6 years, while the horizontal bar graph shown in Figure 4.8 provides a visual comparative study of the cattle capital of the different states of India.

Figure 4.7 A vertical bar graph showing wheat production.

Figure 4.8 A horizontal bar graph.

Circle graphs In the situation when a teacher intends to explain the relationship of individual quantities to a whole, then he may easily and effectively take the help of circle or pie graphs. These graphs can be conveniently made by drawing a circle, dividing the circle into sectors or segments to represent component parts of a whole, and then indicating the meaning of each segment by lettering. While the circular figure of these graphs, as a whole, represents the total or the whole amount provided in the given numerical data, the parts or segments of the circle signify the percentages or fractional parts of the whole or the total (see Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9 A circle graph showing pet choices of peoples.

Colours and shades are also used for facilitating comparative study in addition to the variation in the sizes of the different graphs shown in the Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10 A circle graph using shades for showing hobbies of the students.

Pictorial graphs

In such type of graphs, the visual representation and comparative study of the numerical data are done with the help of some suitable symbols and pictures. For what numerical figures or amount, a given symbol or picture (e.g. animal, bird, house, people, or automobile) stands is fully explained in these graphs for providing easy and quick visual interpretation and comparison of the relative quantitative data, as may be evident from pictorial graph shown in the Figure 4.11 which provides a comparative study of the student strength in different classes of a school.

Figure 4.11 A pictorial graph showing the strength of students in different classes.

Charts What are Charts?

Graphs, on account of their large dependence upon symbols, are considered as more abstract graphical material than the pictures. However, graphs have their own significance as a good summarizing device to represent and compare numerical data. The merits and advantages of both graphs and pictures are carried over to another graphic material known as chart. Consequently, charts may be defined as combination of graphic and pictorial media designed for the orderly and logical visualizing of relationship between key facts or ideas (Wittich and Schuller 1953: 92–93).

Importance of Charts Charts are useful at every stage of the classroom teaching, for instance, in testing the previous knowledge and introducing the lesson, in systematic presentation of the subject matter, in the tasks of recapitulation and drill work, and in the assignment of homework to the students. Hence, they are commonly used by all teachers for carrying out the instructional work. The importance of charts is in their very nature of representing and communicating the desired information, facts and numerical data related to a subject visually in a beautifully synthesized graphical and pictorial form. In the task of systematic presentation of facts, ideas and relationships, they prove more effective than other graphics like pictures, graphs, diagrams and photographs. For instance, systems and organizations of the private and government sectors, the rulers of the Mughal dynasty, great events in the history of Indian independence, election of the President of India, the organization and functioning of the judiciary, the factors influencing the climate of a region, and similar other topics related to the school curriculum can be effectively visualized and represented through relevant charts. The functions served by the charts may be summarized as follows: To show relationships such as comparisons, relative amounts, developments, processes, classification, and organization by

means of facts, figures or statistics To present information in a summarized form To help in the visual presentation of the abstract ideas To help in the quick clarification of meanings which often save considerable time in the presentation of the subject matter To raise issues and help in the process of systematic thinking and intelligent understanding To inculcate interest, capture students’ attention and provide motivation for carrying out instructional work.

Types of Charts The most common types of charts used in the classroom are as follows:

Tree charts The figures drawn in these charts resemble a tree. While the several roots of this tree leading to a single trunk represent the origin of an organization or structure, the multidimensional growth and development of this organization or structure is visually represented through various branches, stems and levels. A good example of such kind of charts is the genealogy chart in which two individuals are the roots from which a family tree grows. All types of tree charts, in general, are used in showing development, growth and changes resulting from a combination of major factors, for example, growth of a business establishment with the branches of the tree showing new plants or industrial ventures through numerous tributaries converging into one stream (see Figure 4.12).

Time chart Time charts are used to indicate the time sequence of a series of events or to arrange all the happenings important to the development of a process, organization or nation in a chronological order.

Flow chart Flow charts are also referred to as organizational charts. They can be employed to represent the organization of almost anything, from the individual department and student council to a big company, city or a nation. The organizational elements and the functional relationships in such charts are usually shown through various symbols and forms like rectangles, circles, lines, arrows, and colours (see Figure 4.13).

Figure 4.12 A tree chart showing trade and commerce of an establishment.

Figure 4.13 A flow chart.

Issue chart Issue charts are specially meant for highlighting a particular issue or problem, e.g. for explaining or highlighting the issues related to the flow of food energy on earth may be illustrated through an issue chart, as shown in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14 An issue chart showing the flow of food energy on earth,

Table chart In table charts the data is presented in a tabular form. The railway timetable and school timetable are two good examples of such tabular representation. The chief value of such representation is in its ability to show time relationship and providing a quick comparison and contrast among the various ideas and events as may be evident from Table 4.1 TABLE 4.1 The crime incidents in the running trains of Bombay

It may be easily visualized that such charts are heavily dependent upon language, words and numerals than upon visual symbols and pictures.

Pictorial chart In pictorial charts the subject matter is illustrated through pictures, diagrams, graphs, sketches and language. This is the most commonly used type of chart in classroom teaching.

How to Make Proper Use of Charts For the effective use of charts as an aid, a teacher should keep in his mind the following points: 1. As an aid, charts should help in the proper realization of the definite instructional objectives.

2. Although various types of charts on various subjects are available from the audiovisual libraries and the market, yet it is always better to get them prepared in the school with the help of students. 3. Proper care should be taken in the selection of charts depending upon the suitability of the subject matter, available teaching-learning situations, and the mental level as well as interest of the students. 4. As an ideal graphic aid, the displayed charts must observe the qualities as follows: • Unity. The charts should serve a single definite purpose or delineate one basic idea. • Simplicity. The presentation should be as simple, clear and understandable to the learners as possible. Abstractness should be reduced to the minimum and there should not be any emphasis on the irrelevant and unessential things. • Organization. This characteristics stands for an overall organization of the aid as to look attractive and appealing for helping the cause of the visual senses of the learning. • Visibility. The information or message communicated through the charts should be clearly viewed by all the students of the class. 5. The teacher should give careful consideration to the facts, ideas, concepts, objects and processes that may be clearly illustrated through the displayed charts. He must wait for the proper moments to display these charts and make their full use in the illustration of his subject matter. 6. The charts should be hung and displayed only when and up to what time they are needed for the representation and communication of the objects and ideas related to the subject matter. It is not proper to make use of many charts to illustrate a single point. Overcrowding the walls of the classroom unnecessarily by displaying the charts even after their use should be avoided.

Preparation of Charts It is advisable that one should begin with the practice of preparing charts before venturing into the drawing of diagrams and pictures, simply because charts are relatively simple in drawing than the diagrams and pictures. One can take the help of simple sketching and line drawing for the necessary visual display in the charts. With some practice one can acquire necessary confidence in the drawing and preparation of different types of charts like time charts, table charts, flow charts, and tree charts. For better results, the following points may be kept in mind during their preparation: 1. In view of the teaching-learning requirement, what is to be displayed and conveyed through the chart in preparation should be properly considered. 2. How can the required ideas and information be represented through the lines, sketches, figures and symbols of the charts should be properly analyzed. For this purpose, it is better to draw some rough sketches, designs, and patterns and then select the most appropriate one for the actual drawing. 3. The selected rough pattern, design or plan should then be carefully transferred into the chart under preparation with the help of neat and clear drawing of the lines, figures and sketching. 4. Due care should be taken in colouring and lettering the charts as to give it an appealing outlook and making it selfexplanatory for the clarification of the teaching points.

Maps Maps are regarded as an indispensable aid in the teaching and learning of many topics and areas of the school curriculum particularly geography, history and economics. They are known for the symbolic representation of space relationships specifically

associated with the surface of the earth. It is no secret that the surface of the earth can be better represented through a globe. However, the globe is too small to show distribution of items, so that they can be studied in detail. On the other hand, the wide range of contents shown on maps enables one to see, at a glance, many surface conditions and relationships that cannot be portrayed clearly and efficiently on the globes. Therefore, maps are always preferred by teachers as they provide sufficient details of the whole surface of the earth which can be observed by the whole class together. Thus, a map may be technically defined as the modified or flattened representation of the earth’s spherical surface or any particular section of it communicating relative size, shape, distance and direction by means of lines, symbols, work and colours.

Educational Uses and Purposes of the Maps Maps, because of their varying nature, prove to be quite helpful in the teaching of various aspects of the school subjects. For example, in teaching of history they provide valuable assistance in establishing and understanding the required sequence between time and space. Historical events cannot be properly explained without the reference of their place of occurrence, e.g. to which country did Alexander belong, where is it situated, how far is it from our country, from where did he first invade our country, what were the boundaries of Ashoka’s Empire? Similarly, geographical facts can also be properly understood through maps, e.g. what are the regions or countries of the world where tea is grown, where are they situated, what is the position with respect to the worldwide distribution of mineral wealth, animal wealth, growing of crops, population growth and industrial growth? In this connection Jarolimek and Parker (1993) have suggested that the following eight basic types of information can be furnished by various types of maps used in the teaching-learning of various subjects of the school curriculum:

1. Land and water forms: Continents, oceans, bays, peninsulas, islands, straits. 2. Relief features: Plains, mountains, rivers, deserts, plateaus, swamps, valleys. 3. Direction and distance: Cardinal directions, distance in miles or kilometres and relative distance, scale. 4. Social data: Population density, size of communities, location of major cities, relationship of social data to other factors. 5. Economic information: Industrial and agricultural production, soil fertility, trade factors, location of industries. 6. Political information: Political divisions, boundaries, capitals, territorial possessions, types of government, political parties. 7. Scientific information: Location of discoveries, ocean currents, location of mineral and oil deposits, geological formation, air movements. 8. Human factors: Cities, canals, railroads, highways, coaxial and fibre optic cables, telephone lines, bridges, dams, nuclear power plants. Maps, in this way, are helpful to understand the things, ideas and processes related to the mapping of the earth’s surface. Various purposes served by them can be summarized as follows: Maps help in understanding relationship between space and historical events. They provide a good means to represent, on a plane with a reduced scale, a part or the whole of the earth’s surface. Geographic features of the earth’s surface can be illustrated and explained through maps. Maps are helpful in conveying information regarding distances, directions, shapes, sizes, areas and places. Maps can show the distribution of people, land, water, animal, vegetable life, climate, and economic resources in terms of a region or the whole world.

Maps provide proper visual experiences to create interest as well as render help in the study of people, places and the various natural and man-made resources. Maps, through their flat representation of the spherical surface of the earth, provide the only convenient and efficient medium through which a large number of students can see any considerable portion of the earth’s surface at the same time. Maps help in making the abstract ideas related to the space as real and concrete as possible. They help the learners to understand the physical and social environments, their mutual interactions and relationships.

Kinds of Maps Any material or aid that can help in the visual representation of the earth’s surface can be included in the category of maps. Globe, a three-dimensional representation of the earth, can thus be included in the category of maps. Similarly, relief maps, a realistic model of the earth’s total surface or part of it (quite helpful in showing the elevations and depression in the surface) can also be included in the category of maps. However, as far as the flat representation of the earth’s surface for educational purposes is concerned, the types like political maps, physical-political maps and physical maps are more pronounced.

Political maps Such types of maps provide information about the man-made boundaries and phenomena related to the objects, place, areas, directions, and distances on the surface of the earth. For example, boundaries of nations, provinces, districts, the location of cities, dams, highways, sea and air routes, national and state museums, monuments, tourist places, etc.

Physical maps Physical maps help in showing natural objects and phenomena such as rivers, mountains, valleys, plains, deserts, rainfall, temperature, direction of the winds, minerals, forests, etc. These are very important for the teaching of physical concepts and topographical characteristics of a piece of land or region. Among these, physical maps and three-dimensional relief maps are considered to be the best physical maps as they provide real model for explaining the physical features and topographical characteristics (with proper elevation and depression of surface) of a region (see Figure 4.15).

Figure 4.15 A map showing natural vegetation in India.

Political-physical maps These maps incorporate the essential features of political and physical maps to show valuable information about a particular region in terms of its physical area, shape, location, political subdivisions

and location of other man-made boundaries, places and objects, trade routes, communication channels, location of river, mountains, and other physical things or features of its topography. Besides these types, we have an important category, i.e. special purpose maps. These maps are designed to represent or serve some special purpose, for example, weather maps, population maps, natural resources maps, vegetation maps, railroad maps, airlines maps, navigation maps, etc. These maps serve specific purposes and are used for the illustration of the specific subject matter.

How to Make Effective Use of Maps Different types of maps serving different purposes can be borrowed from the libraries of the teachers training colleges and audio-visual departments of NCERT and SCERTs. They can also be purchased from market. However, it is always proper to get them prepared in the school itself with the active cooperation of the students, as it amounts to provide greater educational benefit to the students. In order to get maximum advantages out of these maps as an affective visual aid, a teacher should also take care of the following: 1. Proper care should be taken to make use of a proper type (political, physical, political-physical or special purpose) of map according to the instructional needs of the class. 2. The selection of the map should also be made in view of the abilities, interests, grade and mental level of the students. 3. The map selected should be able to illustrate and furnish the desired information as adequately and correctly as possible. 4. The map should be so displayed so that it is clearly visible to the students of the class. The details in it should be bold and clear for enabling the pupils to read them without strain irrespective of their sitting distance from the map. 5. A map should essentially help in bringing the abstract concept of size, distance and direction into the region of reality. It

should help in understanding relevant space relationships with respect to the subject matter taught and information communicated. 6. A map should bear all the essential details with regard to the purposes served by it. However, in no case it should be overcrowded. Unnecessary details should always be avoided. 7. Many times it is advisable to use the outline maps as they provide valuable opportunities to use them according to the classroom necessities and also stimulate and encourage the students for active participation. 8. Proper scaling is one of the essential requirements of a good map. Therefore, while making selection and using a map, we must see that it provides adequate scaling for the desired communication of relative sizes, distances and areas. 9. The symbols and colours used in the maps should be adequate in terms of their universal acceptance. 10. The maps should be prepared, mounted, used and kept safely to account for their safety and further use. 11. A pointer should be used for calling attention to the things shown in the maps. 12. The students must be helped to acquire map reading skills. They should be helped to know the meaning of the symbols and colours of a map. They must also learn to take proper idea about the different space relationships presented through a map. 13. Students should also be clearly told that a map is a flattened representation of the earth’s surface, and hence, they should not be drifted away from the spherical realities of the earth. 14. For drawing better results, maps as an aid should be supplemented with the necessary charts, globe and other projected aid material.

Globes Maps, being the flattened representation of the earth’s surface, may provide a distorted view of the things represented by them. The use of globe may help in overcoming such deficiencies as it provides a somewhat real representation of the earth’s spherical like surface. A globe may be defined as a model or three-dimensional representation of the surface of the earth on a very small scale. An appropriate globe, in this way, is a good mapping device and visual aid for the proper representation of earth. By virtue of its shape and information communicated it is capable of meeting out some specific purposes as follows: With the help of globe, it is easy for the teacher to make students understand that the shape of the earth is not flattened but spherical. A globe mounted on a proper stand can provide the idea that earth is not still but it moves around the sun while rotating on its own axis. This helps students understand the phenomenon of day and night and change of seasons. A globe helps in understanding the fact that water occupies more space on earth than land. Globes help the students understand the various abstract concepts and facts related to a variety of the subjects, particularly geography, for example, lines of latitude and longitude, relation between time and longitude, date line, planetary winds, and local, standard and international time. Globes provide a sound means to illustrate topics such as man’s explorations and discoveries on the earth and various means of transportation. Topics related to the teaching of history, geography, civics, economics, political science, international relations, etc. which require to show space

relationships on the earth’s surface can also be well illustrated through globes.

Types of Globes and their Educational Value There are many types of globes that are available to us for serving the useful educational purposes. They also vary in size according to the needs and purposes served by them. The usual types that can be used in our schools are discussed as follows:

Physical globes Such type of globes give more emphasis on showing the physical and topographical features of the earth. It locates rivers, mountains, valleys, plains, lines of latitude and longitudes, spherical division of the earth’s surface, distribution of land and water on the earth, the elevation and depression of the earth’s surface, etc. These globes are, therefore, particularly useful in the teaching of the facts and concepts related with physical geography.

Political globes These globes provide better information regarding the man-made phenomena such as boundaries of the nations and states, location of capitals, main cities, industries, projects, highways, monuments, famous buildings, visiting places and tourist spots. They are more helpful in teaching the facts and concepts related to political science and history, civics and international relationship.

Physical-political globes Such globes serve the essential common purposes of both physical and political globes. The relationship between physical and topographical characteristics of the region with the political and historical events can be beautifully explained and established through

such globes. The topics related to economic and political geography and civics can also be properly dealt with through such globes.

Special purpose globes Such types of globes are meant to serve certain specific purposes. For example, we may have a globe showing means of communication or transportation, distribution of mineral wealth, rainfalls, etc. Celestial globe and climatologic globes are also examples of such globes.

The slated outline globes In such type of globes (see Figure 4.16) we are provided with continental or surface area outlines. These are quite inexpensive in proportion to their size and the utility value they have. As an aid they prove extremely valuable at all levels as the teachers and the students can write on it with chalk according to their convenience to mark features such as locations of different countries, rivers, air, sea and land routes, important cities, elevation and depressions of the earth’s surface, direction of the wind, distribution of mineral wealth, crops, etc. The mark can be easily cleaned with an eraser or damp cloth which is an additional advantage, as by this special attention can be given to one thing at a time. It also facilitates their repeated use and to allow maximum opportunity for the pupils’ active participation in the acquisition of vicarious experiences.

Figure 4.16 An outline globe.

Some Essential Points Regarding the Effective Use of Globes 1. Every teacher must try to acquire a good basic understanding of the various types of globes, their unique features and their specific use for carrying out the relevant instructional activities. 2. The globe is known as the only correct map of the world. However, its representation of the earth’s surface bears little resemblance to the actual appearance of the earth’s surface as a small child happens to see it. Therefore, great care should be taken to make the child accept it as a model of the earth. 3. No one is born with the ability to read and understand the language spoken by globes. Therefore, proper attempts should be made to teach the children the meaning of the lines, symbols, colours and various other things directly or indirectly related with the understanding and acquisition of desired information through globes. 4. Factors like simplicity (presentation of the facts, information and concepts as simply and understandably as possible), accuracy (making representation of the facts and information as accurately and vividly as possible), colouring (making the shown features distinct and aesthetically appealing), and visibility (necessary broad outlines and features to be seen by the class) should also be taken care while making selection and use of a globe. 5. It should also be known to the teachers that the instructional purposes are best served by the globes, if they are used in combination with some other effective and relevant aids like pictures, text and reference books, maps, atlases, slides, films, field trips, bulletin board displays, etc. Therefore, a teacher should try to make use of all such media and activities that help his students gain better insight into the things taught to them.

Diagrams A diagram may be defined as a graphic visual aid in the form of some simplified but explanatory drawing to show interrelationships as well as explain ideas, events or process by means of lines, geometrical forms and symbols. Their main value lies in their power to describe and explain rather than merely representing a thing or phenomenon. Moreover, in comparison to other visual graphic aids like pictures, charts, and graphs. they provide the highest condensed visual summaries of the presented facts and ideas.

Preparation of Diagram After getting practice in the drawing of simple sketches and figures on charts, the teacher should learn and practice how to draw and prepare some difficult graphics like pictures and diagrams. In the beginning, it becomes quite difficult to draw them in the way these are presented in the textbooks or other printed media. Therefore, a beginner should resort to the following technique of copying a diagram:

Tracing In this technique a tracing paper is placed over the printed figure or picture. Since everything is visible through the tracing paper, it becomes easy to trace or copy the visible figure or picture on the paper with the help of a properly sharpened pencil. After getting the copied sketch, attempts should be made to decorate it with suitable colours and deeper shades. Sometimes, instead of using tracing paper, special appliances like tracing desk and tracing table are also used for tracing or copying the original pictures or diagrams. In both these appliances the top consists of plane glass and there lies a source of strong light beneath. This high powered lamp illuminates the picture or copying

material placed over the glass top. As a result, when a piece of paper is placed on the illuminated picture or figure the task becomes quite easy and one can easily sketch the desired figure and picture. Later on, he can add colours and provide shading for making it more attractive and visible.

Stencil and block-printing There are many figures, pictures, diagrams and maps that need to be frequently used by the teachers and students in the teaching and learning of various topics related to the school subjects like physical and life sciences, mathematics, geography, and social studies. Such figures can be easily drawn with the help of some plastic or metallic stencils or blocks. The students can themselves prepare these blocks. In some cases, these blocks can be inscribed on flat pieces of potato or carrot. With the help of these proper stencils and blocks relevant figures, pictures, diagrams and maps can be instantly drawn on the display chalkboards, bulletin boards, flannel boards and chart papers.

Use of appropriate projective instrument Projective equipment like episcope, epidiascope and opaque projector may become quite helpful in tracing or copying the pictures or figures available in books, magazines or others printed media. The tracing work can be done in the following way : 1. An appropriate sheet of paper or chart paper is placed (tacked properly through pins) on the projective screen (wooden board, classroom blackboard or cloth-piece) for tracing or copying the original figure or picture. 2. The page of the book or the original graphic material in the form of picture, diagram or map is placed on the projection platform of the projective instrument in such a way that its

image gets properly enlarged on the piece of the paper already placed over the projective screen. 3. Since the projection is very clear and enlarged, it becomes easy to sketch the projected figure or picture on the given sheet of the paper with the help of a sketch pen or pencil. 4. After getting the figure sketched, appropriate shading and colouring can be done to make the traced figure appear as real as possible. After having some practice of drawing lines, sketches and figures through the tasks mentioned above, one can acquire more appropriate drawing skills and techniques required for the drawing and preparation of visual picture and diagrams. With a little practice and enduring efforts, one can learn how to draw diagrams and pictures for the teaching of his subject. However, there has been a significant revolution and change in terms of the preparation and use of graphic material. Now a teacher has no compulsion to struggle for the sketching, drawing, colouring or painting of the needed graphic material in the traditional manner as a designer, artist or painter. Much of his work can be done easily with the help of projective equipment like episcope, epidiascope or overhead projector as explained already in this chapter. He can directly (at his will) make use of the graphic material present in the textbooks or otherwise available in hand-drawn, sketched or printed forms for their proper display on the screen with the help of projective equipment. The recently developed technological means like videographic equipment, personal computers, image composers and scanners have brought most sophistication in the preparation and use of graphics. They can help the teacher and the learner to create necessary graphics with utmost efficiency, accuracy and effectiveness for meeting the requirements of any teaching-learning situation. The graphics so created can be easily demonstrated and

displayed through the monitors, television screen or projection screens. We can create transparencies or prepare slides and video presentation with the help of the relevant components attached to our personal computers in a short time with minimum efforts and expenditure for giving maximum educational advantage to any teaching-learning situation.

Educational Uses of Diagrams Almost all the areas and aspects related to the subject matter of various subjects of the school curriculum can be illustrated and explained with the help of suitable diagrams. But the success of such visual representation and explanation depends upon the appropriateness of the symbolism used in the diagrams and the ability of the students to comprehend and interpret this symbolism for gaining the required insight into the related subject matter. For example, if we take the diagrams explaining the internal structure and functioning of ear, eye or any other body system or the diagrams showing arrangement and working systems of radio, television or computer, the students will not be able to understand and grasp the ideas and mechanism explained by them if they do not have the necessary ability and background to understand them. Therefore, students require careful foundation work to understand and interpret the diagrams correctly as these are abstract in nature. Consequently, it is not wise to use the diagrams at the beginning stage of the presentation of a lesson or subject matter. It is only after acquiring some basic knowledge of the facts, principles and processes that a diagram should be presented to the class. In order to derive maximum benefits, the following things should be kept in mind by the teacher: 1. The diagrams should not be used at the introductory or beginning stage of the presentation of a lesson. They are more helpful at the drill, summary and review stages. It is necessary

to help the students to acquire necessary background in terms of the essential previous knowledge of the subject matter that is illustrated through the diagram. 2. Diagrams are quite complex and abstract representations. They rely highly on the typical symbolism that is very difficult to understand by the students. Therefore, care should be taken that a particular diagram is used only when the students are capable of comprehending and interpreting such abstraction. 3. What is presented and explained through the diagrams should be technically correct. 4. A diagram should have a single purpose in terms of illustrating and explaining a particular thing, idea or phenomenon. It should never be crowded with many ideas and functions. 5. The symbolism used should be on familiar lines and commonly accepted grounds. 6. The diagrams should also be able to cater to the aesthetic and artistic tastes. Therefore, the teacher must try to use the appropriate drawing material like ruler, compass, protector, stencils, etc. for drawing a neat, artistic and technically correct diagram. 7. The students should also be actively involved in the drawing and preparation of the diagrams relevant to their subjects. 8. The teacher should not forget that the best results in terms of clear understanding of the diagrams by the students can be achieved if the presentation of the diagrams is accompanied with some other appropriate audio-visual material like pictures, slides, films, etc. Therefore, appropriate attempts for reducing the abstraction from the diagram should be made by the teacher through the coordinated use of some proper audiovisual material. Figure 4.17 provides a sample of a diagram.

Figure 4.17 A diagram showing preparation of a gas.

Photographs Photographs occupy a prominent place among the visual aids. These can be used to provide valuable learning experiences in various subjects at all stages of the school curriculum. A variety of photographs related to the teaching and learning of various topics in the various school subjects can be easily purchased from the market. However, it is always better to get them prepared with the help of students. The work involving photography can be carried out at the time of excursion or observation of a process, event or an object at some other time with the help of a camera and associated photographic material. It will not only yield in the production of paper prints in the form of photographs but also in the preparation of photographic slides and filmstrips. Let us discuss the simple process involved in photography.

Preparation of the Photographs

The main equipment for photography is the photographic camera. The cameras differ in shape, size and operation. The basic principle and process involved in the working of cameras can be summarized as follows: The photographic camera is focused over the object or it parts, the photograph of which we intend to get. The rays of the light emitted by the object are allowed to enter through the aperture of the camera. These rays form an image of the object by passing through the lens fitted in the camera over a sensitive photographic plate or film lying at the back side of the camera. The photographic plate or film is usually coated with certain salts of silver nitrate or silver chloride. As a result, what we get over the sensitive photographic plate is the image of the object formed by the lens in the form of invisible silver grains. To make this image visible we have to carry out a special process which has the following steps: (i) developing, (ii) fixation, (iii) washing, (iv) drying, and (v) printing.

Developing The usual 35 mm cameras give 36 exposures for 36 photographs on the provided film. After shooting, the film is taken out of the camera without exposing to any light. The work is preferably carried out in a closed dark room. This film is now dipped in a specially prepared chemical solution, called developer, placed in a tray. A fine quality of the developer may be prepared with the help of the following formula.

Chemical action of the developer brings about reduction to silver in those parts that have been exposed to light. It helps in developing (making invisible image visible) the image. As a result, invisible or

latent image is changed to a silver image which is negative, i.e. white clothes appear black and black appear white.

Fixation A few silver salts may still remain unreduced to silver even after treating with the developer. Therefore, the film is now passed through one more specially prepared chemical solution called fixer or hypo. The following formula may be used for the preparation of fixer or hypo.

Washing The film, after being treated with fixer solution, is subjected to washing by running clean water from the tap in order to remove all traces of hypo. This process may effectively be carried out in light.

Drying The film is then hung with the help of clips in some dust free, airy and shaded place. It is done for removing the traces of water and hardening the film.

Printing The printing work is again carried out in a dark room. For this purpose we need a special printing frame or box. There lies a source of strong light, i.e. a high powered electric lamp beneath the frame in such a way that it produces positive image on the specially used

photographic paper above the negative. One has to take special precaution about the time to which the negative should be exposed to light. It is learned through experience. However, for an average negative placed at a distance of 15 cm from a 60 watt lamp, an exposure of half second is quite sufficient. The printed positive is then subjected to the processes of developing, fixing, washing and drying for the production of a final positive print. These photographs can now be subjected to classroom display according to the needs of the teaching-learning situations by mounting them on proper surfaces. For explaining a whole process or providing full details of the object, various photographs related to the same process or object are taken in an integrated sequence. These photographs are then subjected to various photographic processes for getting final prints and then shown in the form of closely related photographic pictures in the class for deriving useful purposes. In case we need larger photographs, we can get the usual 35 mm camera’s photographs enlarged with the help of enlarger. The help of instruments like epidiascope, episcope and opaque projector can also be taken for displaying the usual photographs on a screen in the enlarged form. The photographic art is now quite developed. We can now have coloured photographs in place of the traditional black and white photographs. The things and events can now be photographed in their natural colours for providing real vivid experiences. There are now such improved cameras, including digital film, that can produce printed photographs within a few seconds. All the essential photographic processes such as exposing, developing, fixing, washing, drying and printing are carried out quite automatically and instantly in the camera itself. In this way, photography has emerged as a great boon to us which can provide valuable visual experience and help in the teaching and learning of various school subjects.

Cartoons The cartoon is a visual graphic aid in the form of pictorial representation of an object, person, organization, idea or situation which uses symbolism, humour, satire, and some bold exaggeration to convey a message or point of view as quickly as possible. Sometimes, a glance at a cartoon is enough to produce a lasting effect that it aims to produce. Cartoons are primarily designed to influence public opinion. Cartoonists, for this purpose, pick up popular themes and through their own peculiar style of presentation drift the public opinion along with their own by playing upon the emotions and sentiments of the people. Cartoons are mostly humorous and aesthetically pleasing. They are one of the most interesting items of any newspaper. They can have reference to people, news, events or situations. Many times they acquaint their viewers with the hard realities and naked truths and then work as a source of behaviour modification and opinion builder (see Figure 4.18).

Figure 4.18 A cartoon drawing attention over the number of projects of various central ministries running behind the schedule.

Educational Uses of Cartoons The educational value of the cartoons is in the fact that their appeal is universal irrespective of age, sex and structural differences, and a variety of themes and topics can be properly taught through them. Mainly, the following roles can be played by them as an instructional aid: 1. It is a good attention capture device and a source of motivation to the learner in the process of teaching and learning.

2. It reveals the reality and truth about the people, organization, events and situation in a very forceful and interesting way. 3. It helps in the desirable modification of behaviour and development of character. 4. A good cartoon provides proper illustrations for teaching and clarifying many concepts and ideas related to various subjects in a very interesting and humorous way. 5. Cartoon making, besides being a valuable educational aid, provide opportunity for the expression and development of creative talents among the children.

Sources of Obtaining Cartoons The use of cartoons as an instructional aid is not expensive, as a number of useful cartoons capable of furnishing information and knowledge about various subjects and topics can be conveniently collected from newspapers, magazines, and journals. A teacher himself may also create them as per classroom needs. However, in any of the tasks related to their collection or preparation, the students must be actively involved fully for getting the maximum educational benefit.

Proper Selection and Use of the Cartoons For drawing the maximum educational advantages out of the use of cartoons as an instructional aid, a social studies teacher must pay attention to the following points regarding their proper selection and use: 1. The collection and preparation of the cartoons should be done in view of the needs of the subject matter to be taught and teaching objectives to be realized. 2. Only those cartoons should be used as an instructional aid whose meaning and interpretation can be properly derived by the students.

3. Before using cartoons as an instructional aid, the students should be provided with the necessary background and training to properly understand and interpret the sense conveyed by the cartoons. 4. While selecting cartoons for teaching purposes, a teacher should see that (a) it suits the age, grade and experience level of the learners. (b) it should be quite simple containing only what is essential for conveying their sense properly. (c) the symbolic language used in the cartoons should be as clear and understandable as possible. (d) it has an adequate size bearing necessary details and can be viewed easily by the students of the class. 5. It should also be quite clear that cartoons are neither meant for mere amusement and pleasure, nor are they to be exclusively used for the instructional purposes. The learners hence, should not be deprived of all the psychological, aesthetic, artistic and entertainment advantages. It is better to serve both types of purposes in the true spirit of playway in education. 6. Students should be actively involved in the collection and preparation of cartoons. They can be given due opportunities and encouragement and be allowed to display their collected or self-prepared cartoons on the wall magazines, bulletin board, school magazines and class blackboard. 7. It should also be kept in mind that the work of a subject teacher or a piece of instruction does not end merely with the display of a cartoon. The follow-up is necessary so that the learners may be helped adequately in the task of proper analysis, interpretation as well as bringing desirable modification in their behaviour.

Posters

The present age is a poster age. We can see posters pasted on the walls, advertising boards and public places and displayed in the newspapers and magazines for commercial, social and political propaganda. Through such propaganda, directly or indirectly, we can draw valuable educational advantages. In all their forms and shapes, posters represent a forceful and appealing graphic visual aids. They usually concentrate on a single idea or theme. We can define a poster as a graphic representation of some strong emotional appeal or propaganda carried out through a combination of graphic material like pictures, cartoons, lettering and other visual art on a placard, primarily intended to catch and hold the attention of the viewers and then forcefully conveying and implanting in their mind a specific fact, idea or message. Figure 4.19 gives an idea about a normal poster.

Figure 4.19 A poster.

Values and Advantages of Posters as an Aid Posters have the following significance and advantages as a visual aid in the process of teaching and learning. Posters are a very effective means of catching and holding the attention of the learners, maintaining their interest in the

teaching-learning process and leaving a permanent impression on their minds. Posters can be specially used at the time of introducing a lesson by the teacher in his class for attracting and motivating the students for learning a specific topic. At the presentation, practice and recapitulation stages they can be used for focusing the attention of the learners on some specific idea, fact, event or process. Since a good poster usually concentrates on a single idea and shows a unity of purpose, it is quite helpful in effectively impressing the inherent facts, idea or message upon the minds of the children. On account of their strong emotional appeal, attractive and attention catching capacity, and forcefulness in conveying the message, posters can prove to be an effective media to build a favourable environment to reinforce desirable attitude, pick up good habits and urge proper course of action. Consequently, they may render a valuable help in the proper development of the personality of the children. For example, with the help of posters like ‘wash your hands well before meals’, ‘clean your teeth properly’, the students can be helped to pick up good healthy habits. They can also be valuable in providing the students with proper opportunities for their creative expression. The students can make posters after going through the contents of a subject or they can think in terms of the application of what they have learned in a subject or visualize and imagine any further possibilities in terms of preparing a poster. A poster, on account of its quality of reminding and making one aware of something, always becomes a constant source of inspiration. As a result, the poster can be very effectively used in encouraging healthy practices, good habits, and providing

special projects or drives for moulding and shaping the behaviour.

Sources of Obtaining Posters The sources from where posters are available for the instructional purposes can be divided into two major heads, namely the external source and internal source. The poster material falling in the external source category purely belongs to the world of advertisement and propaganda carried out outside the four walls of the schools. According to the educational needs, it can be collected by taking active help of the students. As an internal source, the school itself can prepare good and useful posters, and not only is helpful in the teaching-learning of various facts and ideas but also can be a good source of selfeducation, behaviour modification and carrying out various projects and co-curricular activities in the school.

The Proper Selection and Effective Use of Posters The success that we can get from the posters as an instructional aid depends upon the following things related to their proper selection and effective utilization. 1. The specific educational purpose to be served should always be kept in mind while making selection and use of a poster by the teacher. 2. The selection of a poster must be made in the light of the following basic features: • Simplicity: A good poster is known for its simplicity in representing and conveying its solitary idea or message. It must avoid abstraction for being understood easily by the viewer at a mere glimpse of it. • Brevity: Too many words should never be used on a poster. The posters having minimum of words presented effectively

through a bold and distinctive type size or position are more effective. • Appropriateness: The theme or idea presented through poster should be appropriate in terms of the subject matter, objectives to be realized, and needs as well as interest of the viewers. • Attractiveness: Posters selected should be attractive and pleasing in order to hold the captured attention. • Design and Colour: Poster selected or prepared should be appropriate in terms of its size, design and colour. The size of the poster should be maintained according to the purpose served by it. However, it should not be less than 20 × 30 cm. Since the primary purpose of any poster is to catch and hold the attention and emphasize the inherent idea or message, it must be clear, bold and simple in design containing prominent lettering and appealing colours. 3. The teacher should provide all the essential help to the students for picking up the message given by a particular poster. He must help them in telling this idea or message to them and also carrying it out in their thoughts and deeds. 4. For deriving the maximum educational advantage, a teacher should provide all due incentives and help the students to prepare and make use of the posters in carrying out their curricular and extra curricular projects and activities. The poster preparation and its use should also become a healthy channel for the proper expression of the children’s creative, constructive, inventive, and imaginative faculties.

Newspapers Newspapers carry a big mass appeal for educating and influencing the opinion of the masses. Being a source of latest information and treasure of knowledge on the local and global issues related to each

and every aspect of the social life, a newspaper can potentially become an effective aid in the process of teaching-learning. In its simple meaning, newspapers are known as the papers or written documents containing the news of varying general and specific interests concerning people and places. Their scope and area of circulation may be too limited as happens in the case of local newspapers related to the lives and interests of the people belonging to a community, village, town, city or region or it may be too wide covering the national and international boundaries and touching the lives and interests of the people from all over the world. The newspapers one often comes across at home and libraries, thus, may be categorized as local daily, local weekly, regional daily and national daily, etc. The use of newspapers for deriving educational and instructional benefits needs their reading as well as comprehension of the inherent information and ideas. It is, thus, a visual device requiring the preskills of reading and comprehension on the part of its users. However, pre-readers may also be exposed to and learn from the use of newspapers as an instructional aid.

Educational Advantages Educational advantages drawn through the use of newspapers as an instructional aid may be summarized as follows: 1. Newspapers can be a valuable source for generating necessary interest in reading. They may also help in developing specific reading interests related to specific subjects and issues among the children from the very beginning. 2. As an instructional aid, newspapers may help in the proper development of essential language and communication skills like reading, writing, listening, speaking, comprehending,

summarizing, reporting, editing, commenting, critically evaluating, criticizing, etc. 3. Newspapers are, in fact, a storehouse of current information and treasure of knowledge related to personal as well as social and local and global issues. Hence, they may prove a source of vast information and knowledge for the students of varying age and grades in all the areas of the school curriculum. 4. Newspapers as an inexpensive instructional aid may also help in reinforcing and developing higher order cognition abilities and skills like thinking skills, reasoning and problems solving ability, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating and application skills, etc. 5. Creative abilities and expressions may also be well nurtured and developed through the help of newspapers as an instructional aid. 6. Newspapers may be the source of endless learning experience adaptable to any subject of the school curriculum. Therefore, they may become a big helping hand for gaining useful learning experiences in any area and subject of the school curriculum like language, mathematics, natural and applied sciences, social sciences, arts and work experiences, health and hygiene, etc. 7. Besides the curricular subjects, the help of newspapers may also be taken in deriving necessary benefits for the inculcation of desirable interests, attitudes and skills among the students for taking part in many co-curricular activities such as literary and cultural activities, games and sports activities, scouting, social welfare and community activities, etc. 8. The use of newspaper as an instructional aid may help the students to become lively, conscious, alert and aware about their physical, cultural, social and political environment. They may be in constant touch about the people, places, events and changes going around them at the local, regional, national and

global frontiers. Thus, cultivating interest in current events and latest knowledge is in fact a very significant contribution of the newspapers as an instructional aid.

How to Make Use of Newspapers as an Instruction Aid? For making proper use of newspapers as an instructional aid, the following things may be helpful: 1. Proper attempts should be made to inculcate necessary interests among the children right from the earlier classes for making the reading of newspaper a daily habit. 2. There should be a proper arrangement of the subscription of local, regional and national newspapers in the school library. Due care should also be taken for making sitting or standing arrangement for the reading of newspapers by the students. There may be a provision of library period in the class timetable so that all the students may get proper facility and time for the newspaper reading. 3. Teachers may narrate some current news, incidents, events, headlines or the writings and documents of some general and specific interests either for providing awareness of the current events or enriching the knowledge of the students regarding a specific topic or subject. 4. Events, writings and documents in a newspaper may be used by the teacher for providing learning experiences directly related to their curricular areas. These documents may include pictures, diagrams, maps, graphs, statistical tables and other pictorial representations, weather charts and maps, comics, cartoons, advertisements, the prices of commodities, news regarding shares and stocks, economic and budget information, news and information published under the health, life, sports, art and culture and recreational columns, etc.

5. Students should be given proper orientation and training for learning effective ways of newspaper reading. They may proceed from whole to parts for this purpose, meaning initially to skim through the entire newspaper and then attend carefully the specific contents either section by section or coming directly to the matter of some specific particular interest for making necessary note. As the need may be, students may give enough time for gaining useful learning experiences, information and knowledge from the reading of newspapers. 6. Newspapers as an aid to instruction should not be treated as some outside jumped-on instruction, but rather a part and parcel of the total curriculum. A teacher teaching different school subjects and organizing various co-curricular activities should try to seek proper correlation and integration from the learning experiences gained from the newspaper reading. For example, a teacher of geography or science may make the newspaper weather chart, location maps, graphs and charts the focal point of the instructional events of his class. Similarly, a teacher of economics may make use of the budget proposal of the states and the country as a subject of enriching the curricular experiences of his students. 7. For using newspaper as an instructional aid the teacher should try to think over all possible situations, aspects and ways of seeking correlation of the results of newspaper reading with the areas of the school curricular and co-curricular experiences. Such issues for their considerations may be of the following nature: • the role of newspapers reading in enhancing the interests and motivation of the students for the learning of a topic or subject • the role of newspapers reading in the realization of the set objectives of the subject • the role of newspaper in developing various language and communication skills of the students

• the role of newspaper in developing higher cognitive abilities and creativity of the students. 8. While making use of newspapers as an instructional aid the teacher should try to read the newspapers available in the school thoroughly and pick up the necessary insight for making the best use of their contents for deriving useful educational advantages. Such possibilities may be endless. Let us cite a few examples of such possibilities: • to ask the students for compiling current events, relevant information and knowledge in a scrap book, bulletin board or notebook and then ask to write a commentary on them • to ask the students to identify and tell about the people and places photographed or highlighted in the newspapers • to ask about putting commentary on the law and order situation or political scene of the state or the country • to ask the students for comparing and contrasting editorials from different newspapers on the same subject and then put up their own comments and views • to ask the students to cite instances and examples from the newspapers about the savers of democracy, community helpers, and honest persons giving life for the cause of the nation • to ask the students to work as a reporter of the social event, incident, etc. • to ask the students to frame a story about a cartoon appeared in the newspaper.

Flash Cards Flash cards are used to provide valuable information to the viewers through the graphical representation made on them. Usually, flannel graphs are used for display in the class. However, flash cards can also be effectively displayed at their own without making use of a flannel graph. These are in the shape of small compact cards and

contain some picture, photograph, sketch, diagram and reading material neatly and boldly drawn and written. The display of these cards at their own or on the flannel board is done for a very small period of time, just like a flash. This is why, these cards are called flash cards. These cards can also be utilized as projective material to be shown on the screen through projectors. For making use of the flash cards on the flannel graph, a piece of thin linen or flannel cloth may be pasted at the back of each flash card in proper place. It will thus be ready for sticking to the thick clothsurface of the flannel graph without any further adhesive. For the presentation of the subject material and facts in a closely related sequence, the relevant flash cards may be pasted on the flannel board very rapidly. The whole theme, complete process or unit of learning can thus be presented before the eyes of the students with the help of proper flash cards just like the scenes depicted in a silent motion film. Flash cards as a visual aid can be very effectively used in the teaching of almost all themes and topics related to various subjects of the school curriculum. One can use flash cards for the learning and teaching of various facts, ideas and processes at the introduction, presentation and practice or drill stage. These cards can also be utilized for reviewing and recapitulating the lesson and assigning homework to the students. Thus, a subject teacher may utilize the relevant flash cards for the teaching and learning of his subject at almost all the stages and periods of the delivery of his lesson. He may also utilize them as a constant source of motivation, inspiration and education by making them displayed on the bulletin and information board of the classrooms and schools. For deriving maximum educational benefits, the use of these cards may be coordinated, collaborated and supplemented with the use of other appropriate audio-visual aid materials. For example, while displaying the flash cards on the flannel board or projecting them on the screen through some projective equipment, the teacher

can take the help of an audiotape or tape recorder. Similarly, he can make use of the relevant pictures, charts, photographs, models, diagrams or slides before flashing these cards before his students for the further illustration and presentation of the facts, ideas and principles.

Models Meaning The term model stands for the replica, imitation or copy of a thing, act or process. As a three-dimensional aid, models thus can be defined as a replica, imitation or copy of the real things or objects with a suitable change in size, complexity, timing, safety and cost factors for carrying out the desired instructional purpose.

Types of Models Models, as an educationally suitable and recognizable replica or imitation of the real thing, may be of the same size (like model of a battery or globe), larger (like model of insects or bacteria), or smaller (like model of the earth, solar system or automobile) than the thing it represents. They can be solid, hollow or may just show the outlines for demonstrating the external features of the real things. The last one showing the exterior form and shape of the original are known as scale models. Some, referred to as cross-section models, can be constructed in sections and disassembled to show internal construction or structure (e.g. cross-sectional models of eye, ear, heart, flower or motor engine). Others, called working models, can be manipulated and operated to demonstrate operations or processes of the things represented by them (e.g. model of a water pump, a working machine or an active volcano).

Preparation of Models

Models, on account of being three-dimensional, are capable of representing the real objects in a better way than the two-dimensional graphic aids employed for the same purpose. These can be effectively utilized for the clarification of the concepts and ideas related to the description of an object, event or process belonging to any subject of the school curriculum. We can procure them by purchasing from the concerned business organizations. However, it is always better to get them prepared in the institution itself with the active cooperation of the students. Therefore, a teacher should first try to make himself acquainted with the essentials of their preparation. Let us now concentrate over this aspect.

How to Construct Models While initiating the task of preparing some instructional models one should try to keep in mind the following points: 1. How far the use of a model as a visual aid will be suitable for the presentation and classification of the subject matter? What type of model should be constructed? What should be the specific educational use and purpose of the constructed model?—All such questions need to be answered before venturing into the task of model preparation. 2. The decision regarding the material to be used for the preparation of model should be carefully taken. One can use a variety of material like clay, plaster of Paris, papier mâché ordinary paper, cardboard, ordinary wood, plywood and metals for the construction of the models. Therefore, one should properly opt for a particular material with a clear perception of the resources and circumstances available in the school. 3. Since models are regarded as the true representative of the reality about the objects and processes, one should have the reality before him for copying it down through a model. In the absence of the real object or phenomenon, one may have its

picture or photographs before him. Sometimes one can take the help of his memory in the shape of mental image of the real object or process for preparing a rough sketch of the required model with some indication about the size. This rough sketch should be properly taken into account for making the model of appropriate size and dimensions. 4. While preparing a model it should also be kept in mind that the constructed model should be effectively utilized for the desired teaching and learning with great ease and convenience. It should also not be spoiled or damaged easily and can be preserved safely for future use.

Preparation of Models with Different Types of Material Construction of clay models Clay can be properly utilized for the construction of almost all kinds of models. For this purpose, we ordinarily use clay without sand, usually found in the beds of rivers, ponds or lakes. The dry clay of this type is beaten for converting it into clay powder with the help of an appropriate hammer. It is then placed in a pot and the required amount of water is added to it. In two or three hours, when it gets softened, it is squeezed in the some manner as we treat wet flour for making chapati. Now it acquires proper softness for making the desired model. Such prepared clay is then kept moist in a zinc-lined box or in an earthenware pan with a lid and the desired amount is taken out at the proper time for making the model. The roughly sketched figure is kept in mind while using the prepared clay for making the model. For making large-sized models, the outline should first be made of hay, wire, bamboo-sticks or some other light thing and clay coating is put over them afterwards. For getting good results, the use of properly baked clay moulds also proves quite satisfactory in model making.

After getting them figured or structured with clay (through freehand structuring or moulds) models need some essential work in terms of inscriptions, designing, lettering, and decoration. This work should be done before getting the models baked with the help of some neighbourhood potter. The backed models can then be subjected to proper colouring for giving them real objects like appearance.

Papier Mâché models Papier Mâché is obtained from any fibre paper, i.e. newspaper or brown paper, by cutting it into small pieces, soaking them in water for several hours (it can be heated also for quick results), pouring off superfluous water and powdering the paper to the required consistency. A little glue and starch may also be added to the pulp for making the mâché more adhesive and unbreakable. The prepared mâché then can be utilized for making the desired models. For this purpose it is pressed into a plaster or clay mould. For better results, this mould (meant for preparing a particular model) should be oiled with any suitable oil or grease such as olive oil or vaseline before it is filled with the papier-mâché. After getting the mould filled with papier mâché, it is left for drying thoroughly. After drying, the papier mâché structure can be easily removed from the mould for adding necessary colours and designs. Instead of taking the help of some moulds, one can first build the necessary structure with the help of wire and bamboo-sticks, and then papier mâché coating may be applied over it. Besides clay and papier-mâché, plaster of Paris can also be utilized for model making. Here also, one can utilize the services of moulds or go ahead by coating the prepared plaster of Paris material on wire or bamboo structures. One can also do freehand structuring or build the model with the help of moulds or previously built structures.

Construction of thick paper and cardboard models Thick paper, chart paper and cardboard material can be effectively used for the construction of useful models related to the teaching and learning of various topics of the school subject. Construction of thermocole models: Very useful static as well as working models can be easily prepared with the help of thermocole sheets (see Figure 4.20). Thermocole is a very lightweight, soft, white and thick substance available usually in half sq. metre sheets. These sheets can be easily cut with the help of a blade, cutter handsaw or special thermocutters (electrically heated nichrome wire). We can use synthetic pastes for joining the pieces of thermocole, and then the models of desired shapes, size and forms can be easily prepared. These constructed models can then be subjected to a final touch or finishing with the help of sand paper. Colouring or painting may be done by using bright water colours for adding to it the necessary aesthetic value.

Figure 4.20 A thermocole model showing human heart and direction of blood flow.

In this way clay, wood, paper, plaster of Paris, cardboard and thermocole may be effectively used for making models in the teaching of any school subject. Wooden-boxes, paste tubes, containers, cigar and matchboxes, plastic rubber tubes, window glass, cotton threads, used bulbs, and wires can also be used for making appropriate models and improvised apparatuses. The work done by Nek Chand in Rock Garden museum, Chandigarh is a beautiful example of such improvised model-making task. The teachers should take due inspiration for such ventures. Proper guidance and help in this direction can also be secured from the department of teaching aids belonging to the teachers’ training

colleges, SCERTs and NCERT. It is thus the duty of every sincere teacher for venturing into the task of model preparation by seeking active assistance from his students.

Use and Importance of Model as Aid Models are not the actual representation of the real things. They are merely the replicas or imitations. However, their effectiveness as an instructional aid also lies basically in being a good imitation. The original shape or size of the things is altered in making these models to (i) represent the reality as much as possible, and (ii) to make them quite appropriate for being used as an effective instructional aid. That is why, the models of the things or phenomena many times prove to be more advantageous and convenient than the real objects or events perceived in the normal setting. As far as their utility is concerned, there is no area of teaching in which the teachers and students are not benefited by the use of models. Apart from their motivational aspects, working as an attention catching device and promoter of desired interest in the teaching-learning process, they provide valuable means for the clear understanding and complete comprehension of the facts, principles and processes related to the things and events represented by them. Specifically in the following situations, one can find their use as most advantageous: 1. There are situations in which the knowledge of the facts and processes related to the real things can neither be properly given to the students through two-dimensional graphic aids like picture and charts, nor one can utilize actual objects or specimens for this purpose. In such situations it is the use of the models that proves effective for the desired teaching and learning. As an example such situation may arise while a teacher explains the things responsible for causing pollution or effects of pollution, or the cause and effects related to the

mechanism of solar or lunar eclipse, or eruption of volcano, etc. 2. There may also arise certain situations in which one may feel difficulty in using the real objects for gaining the desired learning experiences on account of their undue largeness or smallness. In such situations, the use of the models provides valuable help by reducing the large objects or enlarging the small objects to a size convenient for proper observation. For example, the earth’s three-dimensional shape and size can be reduced to a convenient representative small size with the help of its model in the shape of a globe. Similarly, the models of paramoecium and other small insects may prove quite helpful in studying and analyzing the facts related to them by making them visible to the whole class. 3. Many situations may arise during the course of instructions where it becomes quite difficult to produce the material, incidents and happenings in their real shapes and situations on account or their belonging to the past, e.g. the remains of the ancient civilizations; the dresses and living styles of the people and the rulers belonging to the ancient civilizations; the happenings in the historical battles like the battle of Haldighati and battles of Panipat, the appearances of the heroes, reformers and the leaders of the ancient India. In such a situation, models of the places, material, events and happenings may help the teacher and learners a lot. 4. There may arise situations where the things and events which are either fictional, imaginary or unable to be observed/experienced in their real form, may have to be demonstrated or exhibited, for example, space station, the life on moon, the working projects related to the Bhakhra dam, Hirakund, and Bhilai projects, the national monuments like Qutub Minar, Konark’s Sun temple, Meenakshi temple, Taj

Mahal, Red Fort, etc. Models can serve quite useful purpose in such cases. 5. In a situation where the teacher has to explain the functioning and occurrence of a process like the formation of clouds, dews and fog, raining, hailing, the occurrence of solar or lunar eclipse, neap and tides, and volcanoes, a working model can help. 6. Models are not the blind copy or imitation of the real objects and their operations and hence they may provide enough scope for the removal of non-essential components or functioning details in order to present a simplified view of the construction and working of an object. Consequently, with the help of the simplified models one can make his students understand the complex mechanisms of the things like an electric motor, steam turbine and generator. 7. Another chief advantage of the use of models is in the fact that unlike the real objects, they can be de-assembled and reassembled. Each component of these models can be taken apart for being examined and studied individually. These parts or components can, then, be assembled back in their proper positions by the students themselves. Such opportunities of taking the constituent parts apart and putting together again may provide valuable experiences to the student for the complete comprehension of the structure and working of the things which are represented by their models. Consequently, the models of the things like eye, ear, heart, respiratory system, digestive system, water pump, cycle pump, solar system, dam, petrol or diesel engine, etc. can become quite effective and useful in learning all about the structure and functioning of the original things and mechanisms represented by them. Not only that the day-to-day phenomenon and work of nature like formation of day and night, change of seasons, formation of dew, rainbow, etc. can be understood through

models, but the historical facts and events are also better illustrated and explained through useful models. Thus, models, as three-dimensional aid, can play a leading role in making the teaching and learning of the various units and topics related to the school curriculum interesting, permanent, effective and likeable. In addition to that models may become valuable means for the creative expression of the students as they might encourage them to come forward in the task of preparing useful models relevant to the learning experiences in the different areas or aspects of school curriculum. It may encourage them to be engaged in the individual and group projects, imbibe essential social virtues for their proper progress and development. One serious consideration for making use of the models as the three-dimensional imitations of the real things is in the fact that it provides appropriate safeguard against certain misconceptions regarding taking the imitation as the reality. Therefore, in any learning situation with a model, the difference between the size and shape as well as the indirect experiences provided by the models and their differences with the real things must be clearly explained to the students. In any case, the students must be guarded against getting distorted ideas of actual size, and complexity of the mechanism involved.

Dioramas Meaning Dioramas are three-dimensional visual aids which are used to exhibit and display the reality in miniature (see Figure 4.21). The desire for realism, i.e. observe and learn from the actual things and real situations, is generally present in large number among the learners and dioramas prove to be valuable means for meeting such a desire. As stated by Michaelis (1976) “A diorama is a scene in perspective,

using three-dimensional models to depict the activity, e.g. activities at the airport, life in Sahara desert, etc.” Hence, one can easily display some real life actual scene with the help of an appropriate diorama by making use of small objects, modelled figures and backgrounds in perspective, against an appropriate setting (S.L. Ahluwaila 1967: 22). A diorama, thus, may be defined as a three-dimensional visual representation of a scene in a miniature form represented with the help of miniature objects and with backgrounds in actual perspective.

Figure 4.21 A diorama showing the scene of a South Indian village.

The objects in diorama such as figures, building, trees, man and animals are shown in a miniature form. However, for giving the displayed diorama the needed vividness and realism, all the necessary measures should be attempted. For example, a building or tree is made to look smaller at the far end in order to demonstrate that it lies at a greater distance. In this way, considerable attention is being paid for creating appropriate illusion of depth and distance in a relatively small space of the displayed diorama. Sometimes the lightening effects are being used for serving the desired purpose in a dioramic display.

Educational Use As the dioramas can display the reality in miniature form, they can be very useful visual aids in teaching and learning of many concepts related to the school curriculum. For example, take the case of teaching of a lesson ‘scene at the village fair’, ‘social and religious festival’ or ‘railway station’. Such themes can be affectively taught by the display of appropriate diorama depicting all what is usually visible at such occasions. Similarly, the teachers can make use of different dioramas depicting historical, social and geographical aspects like scenes of the battlefields, life in ancient cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, life in a modern Indian village, life of the Eskimos, distribution of natural wealth in a countryside, etc. Concepts related to physical surroundings and economic aspects which needs threedimensional exhibit of places, such as man-made or nature made developments, material or manpower resources, stages of a process, functioning of a system, historical evolution, inventions, and description of an imaginary situation can be very well explained to the students with the help of useful and appropriate dioramas. For the purpose of deriving maximum educational benefits, these dioramas should be constructed with the cooperation of a group of pupils using the easily available and inexpensive material like cardboard, wooden pieces, paper, poster, colours, brushes, stitching and stapling tools, scissors, taps and other adhesive material.

Slides Slides as instructional aids are included in the category of projective visual aid material. Pictorial and graphical representation of the things and events are carried out on the screen through their projection with the help of projection equipment like epidiascope, magic lantern and projector. We can define a slide as a piece of transparent surface (like cellulose acetate film, translucent paper, glass, etc.) of a specific

dimension (e.g. 2″ × 2″ or 3¼″ × 4″) with drawings or pictures which can be mounted individually for use in a projective equipment (like magic lantern or projector) or for viewing by transmitted light.

Educational Value Slides, as the projective visual aids, are very helpful in a teachinglearning situation where motion is not an essential element. We can have a still and larger image of the objects on the screen that can be viewed by a greater number of students in the class. The equipment for projecting these slides are also easily operated and are inexpensive to maintain. Slides are not costly in terms of their preparation, purchase and maintenance. Their special advantage is in the fact that they can be used at the exact time they are needed in the unit of study. Moreover, they can be used in any number or order depending on the need of a teaching-learning situation. With such advantages, slides can be considered as helpful in illustrating and providing useful visual experiences in the study of almost all the subjects of the school curriculum. Slides can turn a teaching-learning situation of the classroom into a world of reality as may be evident through the illustrated slides given in the Figure 4.22. With the help of the projection of these slides, students can very well understand the reaction phenomenon of light on the plants.

Figure 4.22 Slides showing the bending of the plants’ leaves in the direction of the light.

The education values of the slides in a teaching-learning process may be summarized as follows: 1. Slides are a good attention catching device as it leads students to concentrate on the projected image. 2. They can be helpful in arousing and maintaining interest in the teaching-learning process. 3. They are helpful in the introduction of a lesson, presentation of the subject matter and in the systematic development of the lesson with proper sequence and explanation. 4. They are also very helpful in the task of repetition, reviewing, and practice for the purpose of gaining knowledge and skills. 5. Slides may also prove helpful in evaluating the knowledge and understanding of the students in a course of instruction. 6. Slides can remain on the screen for a long period for discussion and can be brought back for review or for further discussion. Hence, they can be effectively used by the teachers and students to facilitate the task of teaching and learning.

7. Slides provide variety and novelty to the classroom teachinglearning situations and thus are very helpful in breaking the monotony and dullness of the usual classroom environment. A lesson developed with the help of slides becomes more interesting, illustrative and effective in comparison to one without them. 8. The use of slides during an instruction proves helpful in maintaining creative and constructive discipline in the class. It makes the class environment more lively, healthy and favourable for effective teaching and learning. 9. The success of a teaching-learning process depends upon healthy interaction between the teacher and students and the active participation as well as involvement of the learner in the teaching-learning process. Use of slides provides better opportunity and platform for achieving such interaction and participation. 10. With relatively larger images of the objects and events on the screen, slides can be viewed by a relatively large number of pupils in the class. In short, slides are an effective educational aid on account of the following advantages over other media or aids (Hass and Packer 1964): 1. They attract attention. 2. They arouse interest. 3. They assist in lesson development. 4. The test students’ understanding. 5. They help in reviewing instruction. 6. They present text lesson or subject. 7. They facilitate student-teacher participation.

Sources of Obtaining Slides for Instructional Use

Slides used for instructional purpose are generally of two types: (i) hand-drawn slides, and (ii) photographic slides. While the first one can be drawn on the surfaces like etched glass, etched plastic or on to gelatin-coated glass with the help of some suitable pencil or ink, the second one can be prepared on a photographic plate or film with the help of a photographic camera. The best source of obtaining slides for the instructional purposes is to get them prepared in the school with the help of students. However, a variety of useful slides helpful in the instruction can be available in the audio-visual sections of teachers’ institutions, SCERTs, NCERT, Ministry of Education, National Museums and National Libraries. Subject teachers should try to borrow relevant slides from these sources for their instructional use. Many commercial firms have also produced a variety of educational slides. An institution can also order for their purchase on the recommendation of subject teachers.

Preparation of Slides According to the methods of preparation, slides may be categorized as simple slides, photographic slides and computer generated slides. Let us discuss their preparation under separate heads.

Preparation of simple slides Various functions related with the preparation of simple slides can be summarized as follows: 1. First of all a suitable choice is made with regard to the base of the slide. The base can be selected from many available bases like plane glass, etched glass or etched plastic, cellophane, silhouette, clear transparent cellulose acetate film, transluscent paper or gelatine-coated glass, etc. 2. A tracing paper is taken for the necessary sketching, drawing or writing work on the base of the slide. For this purpose, we

first mark on the tracing paper the boundary of the area of projection. The central area measuring 2″ × 2″ or 3¼″ × 4″ is thus marked for sketching and drawing, leaving a border of 1/2″ dimension. The desired figure, diagram, or sketch along with proper lettering is then drawn in the central area (leaving the border) with the help of appropriate drawing material. 3. The figure and drawing work carried out on the tracing paper is then placed over the transparent sheet of the selected base of the slide and attempts are made for tracing the original drawing work (carried out on the tracing paper) on this transparent sheet with the help of coloured slide pencils or coloured inks. 4. When the necessary tracing, artistic or writing work is over, the transparent sheet is placed over a similar sized piece of chart paper or cardboard and then fixed to it with the help of a tape.

Preparation of photographic slides Photographic slides are prepared with the help of a camera and other photographic material. These may be produced in both black and white and colour. Photographic slides are easy to make. The process begins with taking photographs of objects, persons, events and processes with the help of an appropriate photographic camera. After exposure, the film inside the camera is taken out in a dark room and subjected to various processes such as developing, fixing, washing and drying to get the negative of a photographed image. The negative is further exposed to a slide plate (2″ × 2″ or 3¼″ × 4″). That plate is further subjected to the processes of developing, fixing, washing and drying for getting the positively developed final plate. It is then properly masked (mounted over a thick chart paper or cardboard), covered with a cover glass and bound with slide binding tape for getting a photographic slide to be used for projection.

Preparation of computer-made slides

Very useful slides can be prepared with the help of computers for meeting the requirement of any teaching-learning situation. For drawing, sketching and graphic work many softwares are now easily available. With a little practice, one can produce the desired sketches, diagram, graphs, maps, pictures and any sort of graphical presentation along with the text material on the hard disc of the computer. From here it can be easily printed out for using with overhead projector. The printed version (coloured or black and white) can then be subjected to photographic process with the help of a camera and then we can have photographic slides. It is also possible to print a slide internally by employing a special camera set up with our personal computer (PC) system. Computer production of graphics carries a number of valuable advantages. One can have any type of graphical presentation, have the facilities of its frequent composition and decomposition, change the colour and contrast at his will and add text of any type, size, colour or background of his choice. These graphics and slides are easy to prepare with minimum efforts, time and expense with utmost accuracy and effectiveness. Therefore, the work of preparing slides or display material is now rested on completely computers and, hence, students and teachers must try to acquire necessary knowledge and skills for the use of computers graphics as well as slides preparation with the help of relevant software.

Filmstrips Filmstrips are strips of films containing well integrated and sequenced transparent still pictures or images (see Figure 4.23). The pictures may be silent or associated with sound, and in colour or black and white. The filmstrips containing silent pictures are called silent filmstrips and are essentially included in the category of projective visual aid material. The filmstrips containing sound are termed as sound filmstrips. Here in place of captions and titles to explain the

pictures, the explanations are provided on a record or transcription that is synchronized with the pictures. Therefore, the sound filmstrips may be included in the category of projective audio-visual aids.

Figure 4.23 A filmstrip depicting fertilization of ovum by sperm cell and formation of zygote.

A filmstrip, whether silent or sound, usually contains a number of pictures ranging from 20 to 50 and even more on a strip of two to five feet in length and 1.6 inches in width. The pictures are in a sequence and, therefore, systematic presentation of the subject matter is possible with the help of their projection on the screen. Consequently, filmstrips prove more advantageous to the individual slides in a situation where a fixed sequence of the pictures is desired for the continuous development and systematic presentation of the subject matter, e.g. pictures of the rulers of mughal dynasty, viceroy governing British India, freedom fighters, different types of mineral resources found in a particular region, the coins of different rulers and regimes of ancient and modern India, different germinating stages of a particular seed or growth of the plant, life cycle of a butterfly, mosquito or tadpole, etc.

Sources of Filmstrips for the Instructional Purposes

The preparation of the filmstrips for the instructional purposes is not very difficult. They can be easily produced with a simple use of camera and photographic materials. Nature study, excursions, visits to the places and interaction with the community resources may provide enough opportunities for taking photographs of many things and events related to the instruction of a variety of topics. However, there is not much need and it is also not wise or economical to produce the filmstrips as these are easily available in plentiful supply in the market for relatively cheaper rate. Moreover, it is also possible to borrow them free of cost or on a negligible rent from the libraries and other audio-visual aid sources. However, in case we decide to prepare them in the school itself, it can be done as follows:

Preparation of Filmstrips A filmstrip is usually defined as a collection of related and wellsequenced transparent still pictures or images lying on a strip of suitable 16 mm or 35 mm length film. It differs from photographic slides mainly on two things. Firstly, in filmstrips the pictures and images of the objects and events are not held on the transparent slides. These lie over the strips of the film. Secondly, while in a slide we have only a single picture or image, in the filmstrip a number of pictures or images ranging from 10 to 100 for representing and clarifying a particular concept or process can be found. Each picture or image on the filmstrip is called a ‘frame’ and there may be 10 to 100 such frames on a filmstrip depending upon its length. These may be single or double frames. The frames having 3/4″ × 1″ (18 × 24 mm) size are called single frames while those having 1½″ × 1″ (36 × 24 mm) size are referred to as double frames. A frame, whether single or double, contains useful material in the form of picture, illustration, graph, diagram, numerals, symbols, or writing which can be made visible in the enlarged form on some projective screen with the help of a suitable projector.

Now the question arises how to proceed with the task of preparing a filmstrip for the instructional purposes. In brief, the following points can be taken into account for deriving proper results in this direction: 1. The particular topic, theme or the process that is going to be illustrated through the filmstrip should be divided into wellsequenced small units. 2. For dealing with these sequenced smaller units, what type of visual material (pictures, charts, maps, cartoons, posters, diagrams, handwritten or typed or printed text, specimens or models) will prove suitable should be decided properly. This consideration should be made in view of the maximum educational advantages drawn, and the convenience as well as the availability of the resources. A proper list of all such illustrative material should be made by the teacher. 3. The teacher should now get himself engaged in the preparation and collection of the items belonging to the decided list of illustrative visual material. He can take the help of his students for the desired collection and preparation of these items. The help of professional artists, experts and experienced teachers can also be taken in the preparation and collection of the essential visual material that is to be photographed on the frames of the filmstrips. 4. If the illustrative material is in the form of graphics (pictures, diagrams, etc.) or text (handwritten, typed or printed material), it should be drawn or held on the cards of convenient standard size, i.e. for 1½″ × 1″ (36 × 24 mm) double frames it could be 12″ × 8″ (30 × 20 cm). For the three-dimensional objects, i.e. specimen or models and living scenes, we may decide in terms of enlarging or reducing the original photographs. 5. All the cards containing the visual illustrative material are then sequenced in view of the systematic development of the subject material from 1 to the end of the series, with 1 on top.

6. The material continued in these properly sequenced cards are photographed with the help of a suitable camera, one after another in order. These are further subjected to developing, fixing, washing and drying for producing a master negative. This master negative copy of the filmstrip can then be further utilized for printing positive copy ready for projecting on the screen with the help of a suitable projector. 7. Besides the above mentioned silent filmstrips, it is also possible to prepare sound filmstrips, the filmstrips which are accompanied by auto records. These can help the students to utilize their auditory as well as visual senses for gaining effective learning experience. 8. One more important consideration regarding the preparation of a filmstrip relates with its length. A more lengthy strip containing a large number of frames may become uninteresting and cause fatigue. The material contained in it, on account of its largeness, may also become beyond comprehension of an average student. It is therefore essential that the subject matter related to a topic should be divided into properly sequenced smaller units. These units must be properly correlated and integrated and a particular unit should exhibit unity and totality of a theme, idea, concept or a process. For example, in preparing a filmstrip on the topic ‘flower and its parts’, one can divide it into the following different units or parts: • Introductory zone. In this unit of the filmstrip what is to be displayed may be briefly summarized to the viewers. For this purpose, it may contain a brief introduction, objective or purpose of studying the topic and summary of the study material related to the topic. • Display of the various parts of a flower and a complete flowering plant. • The structure and functioning of the different parts of a flower (we can have different subunits for this purpose).

• The coexistence and co-functioning of the various parts of a flower. • The work related to the recapitulation and revision of the presented material. • The material and suggestions regarding further study and application.

Transparencies A widely used instructional visual and projective material in the teaching of various subjects is known as transparency. Let us know what it is. You may often require a transparent visual while making use of an overhead projector. It is these transparent visuals that are called transparencies (see Figure 4.24). Light is passed through the transparency (placed on the horizontal stage) and then is reflected on the screen behind and over the head of the teacher or speaker to provide an enlarged image of the graphics or written material present in the transparency. For its effective use, a teacher must learn the art of the preparation of the needed transparencies. These transparencies are generally categorized as handmade and machine-made transparencies. Let us discuss about their preparation.

Figure 4.24 A transparency depicting water cycle.

Preparation of Handmade Transparencies The following points may be kept in mind for their preparation: 1. Try to use triacetate sheets of minimum thickness for providing transparent visual surface. These sheets are available in large rolls of 75 cm width that could be cut into sheets of 20 × 25 cm or 25 × 25 cm dimension. These can then be properly mounted on suitable cardboard mounts for placing on the overhead projector’s platform. 2. For drawing visual presentation on the triacetate sheets, indirect method (tracing) should be preferred. First, try to draw the required visual by limiting its size to 18 cm × 22.5 cm by leaving a margin of 2.3 cm on a white paper. Then it should be properly traced on the triacetate sheet of 20 × 25 cm or 25 × 25 cm size leaving a good margin as boarder. 3. For tracing the visual from the white paper to the transparent triacetate sheet, the triacetate sheet is placed over the paper and kept in position by paper clips, pins or self adhesive tape.

4. Try to use appropriate markers for tracing on the transparent sheet. If you need the transparency for temporary use, then temporary markers like water colour or soluble ink markers may be used. The matter sketched or written with the help of these markers can be easily erased or wiped with the help of a damp cloth. If you need reusable transparencies, then use oil, spirit or wax-based permanent markers like colo chisel marker. One can also use hecto carbon paper for tracing the drawing and typewritten impressions on the triacetate sheet. 5. For safety and permanent use of the transparency, try to protect its surface either by clear varnish spray or keeping another triacetate sheet over it. 6. Always use bright, harmonizing or contrasting colours for writing or tracing on the triacetate film. In every situation, the size of the letters or figures drawn on the transparencies should be such that the projected images on the screen may be properly seen by the students present in the class. 7. For drawing, writing or sketching on triacetate sheets, you may first coat it with a good quality gelatin. On this coated surface, you can write or draw with a good quality Indian ink.

Preparation of Machine-made Transparencies For the preparation of such transparencies, you can proceed as under: 1. Try to write, draw or sketch the required visual presentation on a tracing paper or an art paper. It is the original copy of your presentation. 2. Next, try to prepare a master photocopy by reducing or enlarging the original to a maximum size of 20 cm × 25 cm, suitable for overhead projection.

Now use either a photocopier or thermocopier for obtaining copies from the master copy of the presentation over the triacetate sheets. The copies from the photocopier are usually black and white. However, we can also have coloured transparencies along with black and white through the use of a thermocopier operating on the principle of exposing transparency to infrared rays. Hence, while using a thermocopier, i.e. Zerox, the transparent acetate sheet is placed together with the master copy of the presentation in the machine. Thermal exposure helps in transforming the visuals of the master copy on the transparent sheet just in 3 to 4 seconds.

Programmed Learning Packages Programmed learning or programmed instruction packages represents valuable educational software that can be safely used and fed into hardwares like programmed textbook and teaching machines. Advanced further, when translated into computer language, they may form the backbone of the computer-assisted instruction. As the name suggests, programmed learning packages carry the learning or instructional material in the form of packages. The students who are keen to learn may opt and utilize programmed learning packages for their self-learning much in the same way a hungry man may procure and utilize food packages for the satisfaction of his hunger. Programmed learning packages, thus, may be used as an important software aid material for self-learning or auto-instructional purposes. Each package contains the fully structured and programmed material related to any branch or subject of the prescribed curriculum or can be a matter of general interest. The package is a complete unit in itself that takes into account a wellsequenced concept or concepts for self-learning. The preparation of these packages is a complete unit in itself that takes into account a properly sequenced concept of self-learning. The preparation of these

packages is the task of the programme writer who may adopt any style—linear, branching or mathetics—for writing of his programme. How does the programmer execute his task of programmed preparation and writing is a matter of great significance and is surely quite technical however, for the sake of convenience of the readers, let us present a specimen of the programmed learning package in linear style.

Concept: Matter and Its states 1. All objects surrounding us, directly or indirectly seen or sensed by the sense organs, are included in the term matter. Therefore, matter may be defined as ... seen or sensed by our ... (anything or object; sense organs) 2. Matter has three forms or states: solid, liquid and gases. In other words, whatever is seen or sensed by our ... organs is available in three distinct forms named as... (sense; solid, liquid and gases) 3. Table, chair, blackboard, chalk, pen and your book all are the examples of ... (solids) 4. Solids, as mentioned above, possess definiteness about their shapes, volumes and can be manipulated through hands. Their nature is usually hard/soft. (hard) 5. Water, oil, milk and petrol are examples of ... (liquids) 6. Liquids have no ... shape but have ... volume. These cannot be manipulated by ... (definite; definite; hands) 7. The matter in the shape of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide is known as...

(gases) 8. The gases neither have ... shape nor ... volume. (definite; definite)

SUMMARY 1. Software instructional aids can be distinguished from the hardware on the very basis that it is very simple and nontechnical and can be easily used as media aids in the teaching-learning process. There is no compulsion or binding on them to make use of the hardware for their operation and use. As examples of these aids, we may name the instructional aids like display boards (e.g. blackboard, bulletin board, and flannel board), graphic materials (e.g. charts, pictures, diagrams, photographs, graphs, maps, cartoons, and posters), projective aids (e.g. slides, filmstrips, and transparencies) and independent learning material in the form of programmed instructional packages. 2. Display boards, as the name suggests, are meant for the display of the information, facts, and processes including graphics in the printed or handwritten/drawn form for the purpose of providing useful learning experiences to the students. Blackboards are the most handy and useful devices used by the teachers in all the subjects at all stages of the development of their lessons—introductory, presentation, fixation and evaluation. Bulletin boards are meant for conveying and displaying the relevant information, messages, and instructional material related to the study of the various subjects of the school curriculum. Flannel boards are used as a ready device for displaying the useful material in the handwritten or printed form including graphics at the time of delivery of the lesson by the teacher. These are also used for

displaying the creative expression and project work of the students. 3. Graphic aids are quite effective visual aids for carrying out the task of teaching-learning in almost all the subjects of the school curriculum. These are usually available in the form of charts (e.g. tree charts, time charts, flow charts, issue charts, table charts, and picture charts), pictures and photographs (e.g. concerning places, people and events of the historical, geographical, physical, social or cultural interests), graphs (e.g. line graphs, bar graphs, timelines, circle graphs, and pictorial graphs), flash cards (compact cards used for displaying information in a written or graphic form on the flannel board or otherwise for a very small period of time just like in a flash), diagrams (for illustrating and explaining the facts, principles and processes related to a topic), maps (for understanding the things, ideas, and processes related to the mapping of the earth’s surface), newspapers (papers or written documents containing the news of general and specific interests concerning people and places), cartoons (mostly humorous, aesthetically pleasing, carrying a deep penetrating message for educating the viewers on account of their peculiar style of representation), posters (graphic representation of some strong appeal for the purpose of conveying the specific message, teaching a particular thing or giving a general idea, e.g. grow more trees, plan your family, etc.) 4. Three-dimensional software instructional aids may also provide a good substitute of the real objects and vicarious experiences for helping the students in their learning process and teachers in their proper delivery of the daily lessons and other instructional work. It may include the use of a model (the replica and imitation of reality for the purpose of providing worthwhile educative experiences in the situations where real direct experiences are not available or suitable for the desired

purpose), globe (providing more appropriate representation of the earth than the flattened view provided by maps for a more clear comprehension of the facts, events and processes associated with the earth), and dioramas (three-dimensional visual representation of a scene in its miniature form, e.g. scene at the railway station, or a riversite). 5. The projective software instructional aid material is very helpful in providing useful visual experiences through their projection on the wall or screen with the help of hardware devices like magic lantern, epidiascope and projectors. These may include slides—ordinary as well as photographic—containing written and graphic material in the miniature form, filmstrips (strips of films containing well-integrated and sequenced transparent still pictures or images of the objects and events many times coupled with sound for providing visual as well as audio medium for conveying useful information and knowledge to the learners), transparencies (transparent visual containing, written, printed and graphic material for being displayed on the screen through the help of a projector usually the overhead projector). 6. Software instructional aid material may also be available for carrying out individualized instruction or serving the purpose of a mass media in the organization of formal and informal education programmes. As example of such aid material we can cite programmed learning or instructional packages (the packages containing the fully structured and programmed material related to any branch of knowledge should be utilized independently as a self instructional material or should be fed into hardware like teaching machines or computers).

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the meaning of software as an instructional media or aid. Describe any two important aids of this category in detail. 2. Discuss the importance and use of any three of the following aids (categorized as software) in the classroom teaching: (i) charts, (ii) diagram, (iii) maps, (iv) cartoons, (v) posters, (v) graphs, (vi) photographs, (vii) slides, (viii) transparencies, (viii) newspapers. 3. Discuss how would you proceed for the preparation or development of the following types of aid material: (a) slides, (b) filmstrips, (c) transparencies, (d) pictures and diagrams, (e) photographs, (f) models. 4. What are slides? Mention the sources of obtaining them and discuss their educational value. 5. What points would you like to keep in your mind for the effective utilization of any three of the following types of software: (i) charts, (ii) maps, (iii) diagram, (iv) cartoons, (v) posters. 6. What are filmstrips? How can they prove fruitful in the teaching learning process? Discuss. 7. What are transparencies? How can these be properly prepared and utilized for the desired instructional purposes? Discuss. 8. Discuss in detail the use of programmed learning packages as software media or aid in education.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Ahluwalia, S.L., Audio Visual Hand Book, Delhi: NCERT, 1967. Bhola, H.S., Effective Use of Display Material in School, Delhi: NCERT, 1963.

Brown, James, Richard B.M., Lewis and Feed F. Harcleroad, A.V. Instructional Material and Methods, New York: Mc Graw-Hill 1959. Chakrabarti, S.K. Audio-Visual Education in India, New Delhi: Oxford IBH, 1962. Chaudhry, K.P. Audio Visual Aids in Teaching of Indian History, Delhi: Atma Ram & Sons, 1962. Dale Edgar, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching (Revd. ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961. Green, T.L., The Visual Approach to Teaching, (2nd ed.) London: Oxford Press, 1963. Hass, K.B. and H.Q. Packer, Preparation and Use of Audio-Visual Aids, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1964. Jerolimek, J. and W.C. Parker, Social Studies in Elementary Education, (9th ed.), New York: Macmillan, 1993. Kieffer, Q.E. and L.W. Cochran, Manual of Audio-Visual Aids, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1964. Kinder, James S, Audio-Visual Materials and Techniques (2nd ed.), New York: American Book Co. 1959. Michaelis, John U., Social Studies for Children in a Democracy— Recent Trends and Development, 6th ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976. Modley, Rudolf and Lowenstein, Dyno, Pictographs and Graphs, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952. Schmid, Calvin, F., Hand Book of Graphic Presentation, New York: Ronald Press, 1954. Waugh, Coulton, The Comics, London: Macmillan, 1947. Wittich, Walter A. and Charles, F. Schuller, Audio-Visual Materials: Their Nature and Use, New York: Harper & Row, 1953. Wyman, Raymond, Audio-Visual Devices and Techniques, Amherest: University of Massachusetts, 1957.

5 Concepts of Teaching-Learning CHAPTER OUTLINE Concept of Teaching Concept of Learning Relationship between Teaching and Learning Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Concept of Teaching The general notion, popular opinion and the image that we form about an object, people or idea is termed as our concept about them. It is the result of our direct and indirect experiences which we gain about objects, people or ideas. The same is true also for the concept of teaching. By the term ‘concept of teaching’ we mean all those which we know or ought to know about teaching in terms of its meaning, nature, and characteristics and all those which can distinguish it from the other similar concepts and activities. Hence, if we intend to know thoroughly about the concept of teaching, we have to look it from the various angles as follows: Understanding its meaning and defining it Knowing about the nature and characteristics of teaching

Comparing teaching with other similar concepts Knowing about the relationship between teaching and learning Discussing about the analytical concept of teaching.

Meaning and Definitions of the Term Teaching Teaching, in simple terms, is referred to as either an occupation or profession of a group known as teachers or an activity or activities of a group undertaken to help an individual to learn or acquire some knowledge, skills, attitudes or interests. However, the meaning and concept of teaching is not so simple. It is a very complex social, cultural and ethical process designed in a social or cultural context. By all means and in any shape, it is always designed within a social context and, therefore, is related to the social structures, cultural environment, values and ideals of the people, society and the government. All these factors always stand for the flexibility and dynamism and, therefore, the meaning and definitions of teaching have always been in a state of change depending on the need of time, place and society. It has resulted into various definitions of the term teaching. Some of these definitions are presented as follows: H.C. Morrison (1934): Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality and a less mature one which is designed to further the education of the latter. John Brubacher (1939): Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which there are gaps and obstructions which an individual will seek to overcome and from which he will learn in the course of doing so. B.O. Smith (1960): Teaching is a system of actions intended to produce learning. N.L. Gage (1962): Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behaviour potential of another person.

B.O. Smith (1963): Teaching is a system of actions involving an agent, an end in view, and a situation including two sets of factors— those over which the agent has no control (class size, size of classroom, physical characteristics of pupils, etc.) and those that he can modify (way of asking questions about instruction and ways of structuring information or ideas gleaned.) Edmund Amidon (1967): Teaching is defined as an interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk which takes place between teachers and pupils and occurs during certain definable activities. Clarke (1970): Teaching refers to activities that are designed and performed to produce change in student (pupil) behaviour. Thomas F. Green (1971): Teaching is the task of a teacher which is performed for the development of a child. Let us try to analyze these definitions. The definition given by Morrison (1934) takes teaching to a disciplined social process in which a teacher by virtue of his ideal position, status, knowledge and experiences influences the behaviour of the less experienced pupil and helps him to develop according to the needs and ideals of the society or government. In this type of teaching the student has to learn and develop according to the ideals set before him by the teacher. The teaching is reduced to what the teacher teaches. The students are there to copy the model presented by the teacher. There is no interaction but the flow of instructions from the teachers. As a result, the pupils are bound to become passive listeners and blind imitators. The definition given by Brubacher (1939) takes teaching to that position where the pupils are required to play the central role and the teacher’s task is limited to arrange and create

situations for the learning. Here, the students themselves have to decide what they want to do and how they plan do it. This type of teaching may lead the pupil to independent learning and problem solving. The third definition given by Smith (1960) terms teaching as an organized system of specific activities that are aimed to help the learner to learn something. Teaching may be carried out in the absence of a teacher. A book, nature, teaching machine, or a tape recorder may play the role of a teacher. The important thing is the role of a system of actions or activities. If it results in some type of learning, then this system may be termed as teaching. The weakest point of the above definition is in the fact that it does not mention all the elements of the teaching process, namely the teacher, students and the subject matter. To do away with the above weakness, Smith tried to elaborate his earlier definition, in 1963 by considering teaching as a tripolar process involving (i) an agent (the source, human or material that tries to produce learning) (ii) a goal or target that is to be achieved through the process of teaching (iii) the intervening variable consisting of learning or teaching situation or environment. It may involve physical or human material, conditions and instructional methods. The definition given by Gage (1962) takes teaching as a process establishing interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the students as a result of which the behaviour of the latter is modified. Here, the relationship plays the key role. In this age of sophistication, this type of approach is unable to explain the role of hardwares, programmed instructions and teaching machines where the bond of interpersonal relationship is somewhat missing.

The next definition given by Amidon (1967) considers teaching as a process of interaction between the teacher and the students. It considers teaching as a cooperative enterprise, a two-way traffic and a commonly shared phenomenon. It results in the improvement and development of both the participants, i.e. teacher and the students. It considers teaching as a set of properly planned and clearly defined activities that are undertaken for the achievement of certain objectives. This definition, too, is limited in the sense that it confines teaching within the interaction of the teacher and the students and that too primarily in the form of classroom talk or a few special activities. Clarke (1970), in his definition, has tried to broaden the base/scope of teaching by taking it as a set of all those organized activities that may result in bringing some change in the behaviour of the pupil or the learner. A year later, Green (1971) in his definition tried to delimit the boundary and scope of teaching task. He has defined teaching as a profession or occupation by stating that teaching is what a teacher does for the development of a child. Actually this is a very narrower and misnomer concept of the term teaching. Neither teaching can be restricted to a profession or occupation of a person (teacher) or a community (teaching community), nor it can be always relied for bringing desirable improvement or development in the behaviour or functions of the students. It may end in both the ways—desirable or undesirable. Hence, it cannot be assumed to play a developmental role in all situations. The above attempt for the analytic description of the definitions may reveal that some of these definitions represent a very limited view of the functions and scope of the teaching act while others elaborate it to the extent of unbridled freedom and undefined tasks of

purposeless outcomes. A good definition of teaching, must accomplish the following objectives: 1. It should tell whether teaching is a process or product 2. It should clearly indicate its constitutional elements or factors 3. It should reveal its objective 4. It should say something about its organizational or structural aspect. If we try to evaluate the definitions quoted so far on the criteria cited above, none of the definitions will appear comprehensive and be a functional definition of the term teaching. There is no harm in accepting the truth that it is quite an uphill task to narrate an ideal universal definition of the term teaching. However, for the purpose of this text, a somewhat comprehensive and functional definition can be adapted as follows: Teaching is a triadic relation and tripolar process involving the source of teaching (human or material), student and a set of activities designed and manipulated primarily to bring changes in the behaviour of the student.

Nature and Characteristics of Teaching The widespread notions about the nature and characteristics of teaching can be summarized as follows: 1. A complex social process: Teaching is a complex social phenomenon. It is greatly influenced by the social factors. The social and human factors are dynamic and not static and, therefore, teaching is not a fundamental concept. 2. Both art as well as science: Teaching is both art as well as science, as Silverman (1978) expresses in the following words: To be sure teaching—like the practice of medicine-is very much an art which is to say, calls for exercise of talent and creativity. But like medicine, it is also a science, for it involves a repertoire of techniques, procedures and skills that can be

systematically studied and described and improved. A good teacher, like a great doctor, is one who adds creativity and inspiration to the basic repertoires. 3. A professional activity: Teaching is a professional activity involving the teacher and the student, and result in the development of the student. 4. Output emanating from the teacher: Teaching is what a teacher does with his student for causing the latter to learn something and it is thus purely an outcome of the teacher’s efforts. 5. An organized system of varied action: Teaching is a system of actions that are varied in form and are related to content and pupil behaviour in the context of prevailing physical and social conditions. 6. Amenable to scientific observation and analysis: What is going in a teaching can be observed, analyzed and assessed through teacher behaviour, pupil-teacher interaction and the changes brought in the behaviour of the pupils. Such analysis and assessment may provide essential feedback for bringing desirable improvement in this process. 7. Highly dominated by the communication skill: The flow of communication within the teaching elements like teacher or sources of teaching, student and the teaching activities make teaching a reality and a success. 8. An interactive process: Teaching is an interactive process carried out for the attainment for some specific purpose and objectives. 9. Have various forms and styles: Teaching may have various forms like formal and informal, formational or informational, directional or instructional, training, conditioning or indoctrination, telling, showing or doing, descriptive or remedial, etc. 10. A specialized task comprising of different teaching skills: Teaching is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of

component skills for the realization of a specified set of instructional objectives (Jangira and Ajit Singh 1982).

The Relation of Teaching with other Similar Concepts The terms, like conditioning, training, instruction and indoctrination are used to denote various kinds of teaching. Sometimes they are mistaken as synonymous with teaching. Let us try to evaluate their relationships. Each of these terms denotes some type of teaching. These are various modes of teaching, each of which contributes towards teaching. Teaching is a larger concept and each of these terms is a part or aspect of this large concept. Teaching, as a whole, is aimed to bring changes in the behaviour of pupils. These changes may occur through (i) teaching them how to do or perform a task or act to a situation or stimuli, and (ii) teaching them those things that may contribute towards enriching their knowledge and formation of a system of beliefs. While the former type of teaching (better described through the terms conditioning or training) may result into the shaping of behaviour and conduct, the latter (described through instruction or indoctrination) works as a potent agent for the acquisition of knowledge and formation of beliefs. Figure 5.1 clearly reveals that teaching activities, primarily divided as high or low orders, are distributable along a continuum from conditioning to indoctrination. Conditioning is the lowest level or mode of teaching. A dog may be conditioned (taught) to lift his paw when it hears a bell. Similarly, many of the animals and human beings may be taught to respond to signals, alarms, signs and warnings through conditioning. Most of our desirable or undesirable behaviours and habits are the creation of the process of conditioning. Training is concerned with a little higher level of teaching than conditioning. It helps in shaping conduct and teaching various skills.

A worker may be trained to perform certain tasks requiring very specific skills. He may do a number of jobs on some machine skillfully without knowing its basic structure and operation, the utility of his output and similar other questions. Similarly, some animals may be trained to perform highly specific tasks for the circus shows. Here the worker and a circus animal, as far as their teaching is concerned, stand on the same footing. Both are taught through a particular mode of teaching known as training. We can’t say that they are being educated. In the case of animals, while starting from conditioning, we seldom cross the stage of training, but for human beings we can move much further. In the case of the worker, we can give him desired knowledge of the machine, its operation and mechanism. He may be acquainted with his work, his contribution towards the economy of the country and similar other things which may shape his behaviour. Which behaviour is the product of training or which is the outcome of teaching may be properly distinguished on the basis of the amount of the degree of intelligence used or demonstrated through such behaviour. While less intelligent or simple behaviour may be produced through training, the complicated behaviour requiring more intelligence need a higher mode of teaching.

Figure 5.1 Relationship of the term teaching with other similar concepts.

Therefore, the distinction between the terms training and teaching may be satisfactorily made through the evaluation of the degree of intelligent behaviour produced by them. If a training results into a demonstrable intelligent and complex behaviour, it may be equated with teaching, but if it produces only the simple behaviour requiring no or comparatively less intelligence it is termed as training. Instruction and indoctrination both work on a higher footing than conditioning and training as far as the involvement of intellectual powers and mode of teaching are concerned. But that does not mean that they can be equated with teaching. Instruction, in brief, is mainly concerned with the development of knowledge and understanding in an individual about a thing, system or process. Imparting of knowledge and understanding merely represents one of the many objectives that we want to achieve through the process of teaching. Teaching is much more than merely

the act of acquiring some knowledge and understanding. The conative and affective domains of one’s behaviour are badly neglected in instruction. While teaching is aimed towards shaping a total man, the instruction cares only for the development of intellect and affects the cognitive domain of one’s behaviour. Let us also see the distinction between teaching and instruction from another angle that lies in their processes. The face-to-face interaction of the teacher and the students found in teaching is not very essential in the process of instruction. The teacher can be replaced by the programmed material, computer, teaching machine, radio, television, video and tape recorder. A teacher may also use these aids and devices in his teaching and hence instruction may be considered a part of teaching. In short, instruction is always a part or one of the several modes of teaching. Instruction itself can never be called teaching. The term teaching, however, may include instruction. Indoctrination (transmission of doctrine, firm faith or system of beliefs) on the further end of the continuum of the modes of teaching represents a fairly high level of teaching that adds to the establishment or shaping of beliefs and ideals. It requires higher order of intelligence and results in bringing quite stable changes in the cognitive and affective domains of one’s behaviour. Like other modes of teaching, indoctrination represents one of the several modes of teaching. When we say indoctrination it also means teaching but the reverse is not true. We may teach without adopting indoctrination as the mode of teaching. The different modes of teaching—conditioning, training, instruction, indoctrination described above—though distinguishable, cannot be called quite unrelated. Sometimes they may overlap in their processes and outcomes.

Analytical Concept of Teaching

Analysis concerns with the process of breaking or separating the elements or constituent of a substance. Therefore, a description of the analytical concept of teaching would demand the separation and naming of different elements or components of the task or process of teaching in relation to its various aspects as follows: (i) Activities undertaken in the teaching task, and (ii) Educational objectives to be achieved through these activities. Accordingly attempts have been made to analyze teaching in several ways with a view to understanding it, designing teaching materials and methods for realizing the specific objectives, perform the task of teaching, effectively evaluate and then modify it (on the basis of feedback for acquiring teaching competency and proficiency). Let us mention some of these attempts 1. Komisars (1966) has tried to analyze teaching into various specific activities like introducing, demonstrating, contrasting, explaining, proving, justifying, explicating, defining, rating, appraising, amplifying, vindicating, interpreting, questioning, elaborating, identifying, designating, conjecturing, confirming, etc. 2. Gage (1968) tried to analyze teaching in terms of technical skills. According to him: “Teaching skills are specific instructional techniques and procedures that a teacher may use in the classroom. They represent an analysis of the teaching process into relatively discrete components that can be used in different combination in the continuous flow of the teacher’s performance.” 3. Clarke (1970), while endorsing the viewpoint of Komisar and Gage and suggesting a definition of teaching, has tried to analyze teaching in terms of some specific activities that are designed and performed to produce change in student’s behaviour. These activities may have a cognitive, affective or

conative nature and belong to different levels as expressed in Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956). 4. Brown (1975) has tried to analyze teaching by considering it as a many-sided activity which includes a host of activities like questioning, giving information, and listening. 5. B.K. Passi (1976) has concluded that teaching constitutes a number of verbal and non-verbal teaching acts like questioning, accepting pupil responses, rewarding, smiling, nodding to pupil response, movements, gestures, etc. These acts, in particular combination, facilitate the achievement of objectives in terms of pupil or pupil growth. 6. N.K. Jangira and Azit Singh (1982) have presented the analysis of teaching as follows: “Teaching can be analyzed in terms of teacher behaviour at least at three levels, viz., component teaching skills, component teaching behaviours comprising the component skill and atomistic teaching behaviours.” Diagramatically this analysis can be presented as shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Analysis of teaching.

Based on the above analysis it can be easily concluded that the complex task of teaching may be safely analyzed into limited but welldefined components called ‘teaching skills’ or ‘technical skills’ of teaching. The Asian Institute for Teacher Educators (1972) have considered these skills, specifically those activities of teaching that are effective in bringing about the desired changes in pupils. Thus, teaching may be viewed as a group of skills known as teaching skills. A teaching skill is defined as a group of teaching acts or behaviours intended to bring desirable changes in the pupil’s behaviour.

This approach of analyzing teaching into some specific component teaching skills and related teaching acts or behaviours has been under severe criticism. As a result, it has now been realized that teaching cannot be regarded just as a sum total of certain teaching skills. Although it cannot be denied that acquisition of teaching skills is very much essential for a teacher for becoming a good teacher, yet this is not all what is needed. He needs much more, and therefore teaching consists of something more than the teaching skills. Teaching involves interaction. The personality, attitude, interest and way of exercising desirable influence are some of the factors that definitely count towards effective teaching. A teacher cannot be taken simply as a skilled worker who knows his job by acquiring certain specific skills but one who has the proper guts to act on a superior level knowing how to take appropriate decisions and exercise necessary influence for bringing desirable change in the behaviour of his pupils.

Concept of Learning Learning occupies a significant role in one’s life and is essentially a focal point of the teaching-learning process. What is learning? What is its nature and characteristics? To understand such issues related with the concept of learning, let us discuss them in brief.

Meaning and Definitions of the Term Learning Learning situations are most natural and common in life and everyone of us is learning one thing or the other although he may not necessarily be aware of it. An individual starts learning immediately after his birth. While approaching a burning matchstick, the child is burnt and he withdraws. Next time, when he faces a burning matchstick, he takes no time to withdraw himself away. He learns to avoid not only the burning matchstick but also all burning things.

When this happens, we say that the child has learned that if he touches a flame, he will be burnt. Thus, the behaviour of an individual is changed through direct or indirect experiences. This change in behaviour brought about by experience is commonly known as learning. However, this is a very simple explanation of the term learning. But a complete understanding of the term needs more clarification and exact definition. Some well-known definitions of the term learning are as follows: Gardner Murphy (1968: 205): “The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental requirements.” Henry P. Smith (1962: 260): “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience.” Woodworth (1945: 288): “Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in any respect—good or bad) and makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from what that would otherwise have been.” Kingsley and Garry (1957: 12): “Learning is the process by which behaviour (in the broader sense) is organized or changed through practice or training.” Pressey, Robinson and Horrocks (1967: 232): “Learning is an episode in which a motivated individual attempts to adapt his behaviour so as to succeed in a situation which he perceives as requiring action to attain a goal.” Crow and Crow (1973: 225): “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things and it operates on an individual’s attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situation. It represents progressive changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain a goal.”

Hilgard (1958: 3): “Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of the changes in activity cannot be explained on the basis of native response, tendencies, maturation or temporary states of the organism (e.g. fatigue or drugs, etc.).” The definition stated above may now help us to devise the following conclusion about the meaning and characteristic of learning: 1. Learning is a process and not the product. 2. It involves all those experiences and trainings of an individual (right from his birth) which help him produce change in his behaviour. 3. Learning leads to changes in the behaviour but it does not necessarily mean that these changes always bring improvement or development in the positive direction. One has equal chances to be drifted to the debit side of human personality. 4. Learning prepares an individual for the necessary adjustment and adaptation. 5. All learning is purposeful and goal-oriented. In case there is no purpose, there would hardly be any learning. 6. The scope of learning is too wide to explain in words. It is a very comprehensive process which covers nearly all the domains—conative, cognitive and affective—of human behaviour. 7. Learning is universal and continuous. Every creature that lives learns. In human beings, it is not limited to any age, sex, race or culture. It is a continuous never ending process that goes from womb to tomb. 8. Learning does not include the changes in behaviour on account of maturation, fatigue, illness or drugs. Let us throw more light on this last characteristic. It reveals that changes in one’s behaviour are not always brought and controlled by

learning only. There are other factors like fatigue, drugs, illness and maturation which produce behavioural changes. Can we attribute such changes in our behaviour to learning? The answer is no. The reasons may be explained as follows: The changes produced in behaviour by maturation are definitely linked with the unfolding and ripening of inherited traits (i.e. the process of natural growth). They are quite independent of activity, practice or experiences. In the words of Biggie and Hunt (1968), “Maturation is a developmental process within which a person, from time to time, manifests different traits, the ‘blueprints’ of which have been carried in his cells from the time of his conception.” The resultant behaviour, thus, on account of the process of maturation, does not fall in the category of acquired or learned behaviour. The behavioural changes brought about by factors like fatigue, drugs, illness and emotional factors are purely transitory in nature. These changes, like physical changes in the material objects, are quite unstable. As and when the factor causing the change is removed or restored, the behaviour may be turned back to its original position. Thus, in comparison with all other factors that lead to changes in the human behaviour, the changes brought by learning (experience and training) are relatively more enduring and stable. It must be noted carefully that we have deliberately used the word “relatively enduring and stable changes” in place of “absolutely permanent changes” in the behaviour of the learner. It is true that learning brings changes in the behaviour but these changes are not absolutely permanent, like the changes brought about by chemical reactions in the material objects. The habits we pick up, the interest we develop, the skills we acquire, the knowledge we gain as a result of learning at different occasions can be unlearned, modified or replaced by some other set of similar or differently acquired

behaviour. Therefore, it is safe to use the word relatively permanent in place of absolutely permanent for the resultant changes in one’s behaviour on account of learning. A proper definition of learning may be given as follows: Learning is a process that brings relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of a learner through experience or practice.

Relationship between Teaching and Learning For having insight into the concept of teaching, it is important to know the concept of the closely related term learning and also to think about its relationship with teaching. Learning may be properly defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour (excluding the influence of growth, maturity or lesion). Teaching task or process is also related to realize the same objective as may be clear from the definition of teaching given by Clarke (1970) i.e. “activities that are designed and performed to produce change in student behaviour”. It leads us to conclude that teaching consists of all those activities or system of actions that are intended to produce learning. The question arises whether it is essential for all types of teaching to be ended in some kind of learning. Similarly, it is essential for the learning to be initiated or handled by some type of teaching. Honestly speaking, such type of cause and effect relationship does not exist between teaching and learning. It is not essential for a teaching to be ended with some kind of learning. Similarly, learning may also take place without involving the formalities of a teaching process. It is true that whenever a teacher teaches something to his class, his teaching intends to produce learning or brings relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of the students of his class. But there is no guarantee that what he intends will be fully realized. It is

just the same as the doctor gives a treatment to cure the patient but every patient is not cured by the treatment. Therefore, it may be possible that the learning outcomes for the whole class or some particular students may be absolutely nil. It is also possible that while he tries to provide equal opportunities and learning situations through his teaching, the variance in the learning achievement of his students may be quite significant. Similarly, if one decides to learn something, it is not essential for him to wait for a teacher or teaching formalities. He may learn through experience. Self-study or self-learning may also help him in achieving his target. While teaching is an interactive process involving interaction between teacher and students, learning may be purely an one-sided activity needing no interaction. Therefore, in the words of B.O. Smith (1961), it may be safely concluded that “Learning does not necessarily issue from teaching, that teaching is one thing and learning is quite another”. It is wrong to suggest and accept that learning is directly proportional to teaching or vice versa. Both the concepts may exist and function independently. However, this is one side of the story. It is true that teaching and learning may go independently, but for the good things to come, there is a need of a good relationship between the two. They are to join hands, come near and have a synthesis, known as teaching-learning process.

SUMMARY 1. Teaching refers to a tripolar process involving sources of teaching (human as well as physical), the student and the activities carried out for bringing desirable changes in the behaviour of the student. 2. Teaching is known for its specialties and characteristics such as (i) it is a complex social process, (ii) its nature is both artistic and scientific, (iii) it is taken as the profession of the teaching

community, (iv) its success depends much on the sincerity and hard work of the teachers, (v) its execution requires the use of various teaching skills, (vi) it is possible to have its scientific observation and analysis, (vii) communication plays a big role in the process of teaching, (viii) it can be executed in a variety of forms, and (ix) it is the outcome of the interaction among its various constituents. 3. The concept of teaching differs significantly from the concepts of some similar terms like conditioning, training, instruction and indoctrination that may be known to represent the various stages or levels of teaching. While the behaviour lying relatively at a low level requiring less intelligence and wisdom may be properly acquired through conditioning and training, the help of instruction and indoctrination is a must in the case of acquiring higher level behaviour needing relatively a higher level of intelligence and wisdom. In comparison to these four terms the concept of teaching is more wide and comprehensive. All these four are thus included as parts or subsystems of the system of teaching. 4. The complex task of teaching can be properly analyzed into a few but clearly defined components called teaching skills. These analyzed teaching skills may be regarded as those specific teaching tasks or activities that help a teacher in fulfilling his task of bringing desirable modification in the behaviour of the students. 5. Learning may be regarded as a process of bringing some relatively enduring changes in the behaviour of the learners through experience and training. The changes in behaviour brought about by the process of learning are neither too temporary and unstable as introduced through the factors like illness, fatigue, emotional states, drugs and intoxication, etc. nor too rigid and permanent as brought about by maturation.

6. Teaching and learning are both regarded to carry on an intimate relationship on account of their serving the same goal, i.e. bringing the desired modification in the behaviour of the learners. However, they cannot be taken as synonymous to each other. It is not essential for a teaching to come up with some learning and, in the similar way, it is not essential for a learning to be associated with some kind of teaching. Both can travel without each other’s company. However, when we see that both are meant for serving the same purpose, i.e. bringing desired modification in the behaviour of the learner, then it seems quite wise to make both as the equal partners in the process of teaching-learning instead of allowing them to struggle alone for realizing their objectives in their own independent ways.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is teaching? Give a suitable definition of the term teaching. 2. Throw light on the nature and concept of teaching and discuss its relationship with similar terms such as instruction, training, conditioning and indoctrination. 3. Define teaching and discuss about its main features and characteristics. 4. Explain the analytical concept of teaching in detail. 5. What is learning? Discuss its main characteristics and features. 6. How the process or task of teaching and learning are related to each other? Discuss.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Amidon, E.J. and J, Hough, Interaction Analysis: Theory, Research and Application, Readings, Massachusetts, California: Addison Wesley, 1967. Asian Institute for Teacher Educators, Identification of technical skills of teaching and development of training materials together with suggestions for the development of a model for analyzing a classroom, Bangkok: Unesco Region Office for Education in Asia, 1972. Biggie, Maurice and Maurice, P. Hunt, Psychological Foundations of Education, New York/ London: Harper & Row, 1968. Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain, New York: David McKay, 1956. Brown, B.B., Experimental Mind in Education, New York: Harper & Row, 1975. Brubacher, J., Modern Philosophies of Education, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1939. Crow, L.D. and A. Crow, Educational Psychology, 3rd Indian reprint, New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House, 1973. Clarke, S.C.T., “General Teaching Theory”, The Journal of Teacher Education, 21(3), Fall, 1970. Gage, N.S., “Theories of Teaching”, in Theories of Learning and Instruction, E.R. Hilgard, 63rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago: University Press, 1968. Gage, N.L. (Ed.), Hand Book of Research on Teaching, Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1963. Green, T.F., The Activities of Teaching, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. Harold F. O’Neil and Jr., Ray S. Perez (Eds), Technology Applications in Education: A Learning View, Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Publishers, 2003. Hilgard, E.R., Theories of Learning, 2nd ed., New York: Appelton Century Crofts, 1956. Hilgard, R.R. and G.H., Bower, Theories of Learning, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India,1977.

Jangira, N.K. and Azit, Singh Core Teaching Skills: The MicroTeaching Approach, New Delhi: NCERT, 1983. Kingsley, H.L. and R., Garry, The Nature and Conditions of Learning, (2nd ed.), New York: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1957. Komisar, N.P., “Conceptual Analysis of Teaching”, High School Journal, 50, 14–21, 1966. Lloyd, Les. (Ed.), Technology and teaching, Publication Information Medford, NJ : Information Today, 1997. Morison, H.C., Basic Principles of Education, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934. Murphy, Gardner., An Introduction to Psychology, 2nd Indian Reprint, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH. 1968. Passi, B.K. (Ed.), Becoming Better Teacher: Micro-teaching Approach, Ahmedabad: Sahitya Mudranalya, 1976. Pressy, Sidney L., Francis P. Robinson and John E. Horrocks, Psychology in Education, Indian edition, Delhi: University Book Stall, 1967. Silverman, R.E., Psychology (3rd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1978. Smith, H.P., Psychology in Teaching, New York: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1962. Smith, B.O., “A concept of teaching”, Teachers College Record, 61(5), 1960. Smith, B.O., “A concept of Teaching”, in B.O. Smith, and R.H. Ennis, (Eds), Language and Concept in Education, Chicago: Rand McNally, 1961. Smith, B.O., “Toward a Theory of Teaching”, in A.A. Bellack, (Ed.), Theory and Research in Teaching, New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1963. Stones, Edgar and Morris Sidney, Teaching Practice: Problems and Perspectives, London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. 1972. Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1945.

6 Task of Teaching CHAPTER OUTLINE Meaning and Definition of Teaching Task Phases and Operations of Teaching Task Levels of Teaching Task A Summarized Comparative Study of the Three Levels of Teaching Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Meaning and Definition of Teaching Task In its simple meaning, the term ‘teaching task’ or ‘task of teaching’ stands for all those activities that are carried out by a teacher in his act of teaching in real teaching-learning situation. A teaching task, thus, essentially involves the act or process of teaching aimed at achieving certain teaching objectives. The act of teaching or the profession of teaching has been discussed and defined in detail in Chapter 5, hence not repeated here. Whatever meaning and definition we may attribute to the term act of teaching, it is almost clear that the act or process of teaching in a formal education set-up is always initiated and organized by a person

known as teacher or instructor. However, he cannot carry on with the act of teaching in vacuum. He needs students for his act of teaching along with a desirable teaching-learning environment. Thus, the task performed by a teacher in the name of his teaching act involves a thoroughly planned and organized sequential activities. Therefore, as Carter V. Good (1959) maintains, the term task of teaching simply refers to the act of teaching or imparting instruction in educational institutions. However, in its broader meaning it implies the total management of the teaching-learning situations by a teacher involving: 1. direct interaction between the teacher and the learner(s) using instructional material, methods and devices in a particular teaching-learning environment, 2. the pre-active initiation involving the process of planning, designing, preparing the materials for the teaching-learning conditions, and 3. post-active redirection (evaluation, redesign and dissemination). The broader meaning of the term teaching task, as emphasized above, may lead us to draw some important inferences as follows: 1. The task of teaching involves a set of variable comprising teacher, pupils and other contents, methods and environment related variables. 2. The task of teaching is carried out in some distinct stages or phases. 3. It may need to be arranged or planned at some specific levels as per need of the teaching-learning situation and characteristics of learners. Let us take these issues one by one.

Variables Involved in a Teaching Task In a teaching task in progress, we can observe the presence of the following types of variables: 1. Independent variable 2. Dependent variable 3. Intervening or mediating variables. Let us have a brief description about the nature and function of these variables. In the process of teaching, it is the student who is subjected to changes and development through the efforts of the teacher and the teaching process. Therefore, he acts as a dependent variable while the teacher has to play the role of independent variable. For the achievement of the goals of teaching, there comes a need of desirable interaction between independent and dependent variables. This role is played by the intervening variables. In this way, the teacher plays the role of independent variable. He is responsible for the functioning of the dependent variable, i.e. the students. He is free to act in the teaching process while students are quite dependent on him for seeking behavioural changes and development. Teacher has to plan, organize, lead and control the process of teaching so that desirable outcomes of his teaching may be properly obtained. He has to handle his teaching activities and all the intervening variables in such a way that the desired movability and functionability can be created among his students for achieving the teaching objectives. The intervening variables as it sounds do not exist for creating some interference or obstacle in the functioning of independent or dependent variable. Rather they help in the smooth functioning of these variables for the realization of the teaching objectives. The contents of teaching, methods and techniques of teaching, tactics and strategies of teaching, management of instructional material and

teaching environment, etc. are all known as intervening variables. These variables are responsible for bringing desirable interaction between the teacher and the students by producing proper teaching environment, teaching material, and facilities and creating appropriate learning conditions or situations.

Functions of teaching variables In teaching process, the active or functional part is played by the independent and dependent variables. Mainly following three types of functions are performed by these variables: 1. Diagnostic functions 2. Prescriptive functions 3. Evaluative functions Diagnostic functions: The goal is to bring desirable changes in the behaviour of students. The initial task needs a proper diagnosis for the prescription of appropriate treatment (the actual attempts) for bringing desirable behavioural changes in the students. Accordingly, a teacher has to perform the following diagnostic functions: 1. He has to diagnose the entering behaviour of the student. The initial potential of the student in terms of cognitive, conative and affective abilities should be properly diagnosed with the help of some diagnostic tests. 2. He has to diagnose and formulate specific educational objectives, the type and amount of behavioural changes he wants to introduce in the student in the light of the entering behaviour and environmental conditions. 3. He has to analyze the content, instructional material and environmental facilities available for carrying out his task. 4. He has to diagnose his own potential and capabilities and bring desirable improvement in his own behaviour for the

success of his own mission. Although the teacher, as independent variable, is more active in exercising diagnostic functions, yet the role of the student as a dependent variable cannot be underestimated. He has also to perform certain important diagnostic functions on the basis of his perception for his abilities and responses as follows: 1. He has to diagnose the strength and weakness of his entry behaviour. 2. He has to assess himself in terms of the tools of learning like language and comprehension, power of expression, ability to think and analyze, psychomotor skill and emotional behaviour. 3. He has to make efforts to know the behaviour of the teacher, the types of teaching strategies, the nature of the content and instructional material for the purpose of initiation and response on his part. Prescriptive functions: On the basis of diagnosis, the teacher takes decision about the needed prescription for achieving the stipulated objectives. Accomplishment of objectives needs an appropriate interaction between the teacher and the student which, in turn, needs proper management of the intervening variables by the teacher. Accordingly, he has to perform the following functions: 1. Selecting appropriate contents and organizing them into proper sequence. 2. Selecting proper teaching techniques, strategies and feedback devices in view of the individual differences among the students. 3. Seeking essential cooperation from the students for a purposeful interaction.

In the performance of prescriptive functions also, the teacher is likely to be more active than the students. The prescription is made for the student to bring desirable changes in his behaviour. He has to work for the purposeful interaction and give his sincere cooperation for the teacher in exercising the various prescriptive functions. Evaluative functions: Evaluative functions concern with the tasks of evaluating the progress and outcomes of the prescriptive functions that may be decided in the form of realization of the stipulated objectives. The failure in the realization of the objectives is essentially a failure in the prescriptive functions either due to improper diagnosis or some serious mistakes in prescribing or carrying out the treatment (actual teaching) task. Various evaluation devices in the form of tests, observations, interviews, rating scales, inventories and unstructured projective techniques help in exercising evaluative functions. In contrast to diagnostic or prescriptive functions, the student remains more active in the evaluative functions. He has to respond and evaluate his own progress in terms of the abilities acquired and behaviour changes occurred. He is taught and helped by the teacher in bringing improvement in his behaviour on the basis of his entry behaviour and potentialities. Now, it is his turn to see how far the treatment prescribed or done by the teacher is helpful for him. If the prescription suits him he can go ahead with it. If it does not, he must give his full cooperation to the teacher (just like a patient who has to consult his doctor and seek his advice) for further diagnosis and subsequent prescription in order to get maximum advantage for bringing improvement in his behaviour.

Phases and Operation of Teaching Task

As pointed out in the meaning and definition of the term ‘tasks of teaching’, teaching as a job of the person called teacher may involve a number of teaching acts or operations which need systematic planning and careful execution. In doing so, the teaching has proceed in some sequential and organized steps. These steps or stages are known as phases of teaching. In general, a teaching task may be systematically analyzed with the following three states or phases for carrying out its various operations (see Figure 6.1): 1. Pre-active phase 2. Interactive phase 3. Post-active phase

The Pre-active Phase It is the planning phase of the teaching act. A good planning makes the task of the teacher smooth, functionable and successful. There are two major steps involved in this phase, namely (i) Establishment of some kind of goals or objectives, and (ii) Discovering ways and means to achieve these objectives. Operations and activities concerning the planning phase may be summarized as follows:

Figure 6.1 stages or phases of a teaching task.

1. A logical first step in planning for any teaching is the attempt made by a teacher for the establishment of certain goals or objectives. Accordingly, he formulates, in detail, the specific instructional or teaching objectives and writes them in a proper way in behavioural terms.

2. How can the stipulated objectives be effectively achieved is a thing to be decided in the second step of the pre-active phase. Consequently, planning is done for taking decisions about the following aspects: • Choice of the content or material to be taught or learning experiences to be given • The organization or sequence of the content or material • Consideration about the principles and maxims of teaching • Decisions and planning about the proper use of teaching aids • Choice of methods, techniques and strategies of teaching • The duration, place and management of classroom teaching • Decisions about the evaluation tools. 3. In short, in the pre-active phase, a teacher has to chalk out the details of his journey that he wants to perform in the classroom along with his students.

The Interactive Phase This second phase of teaching is concerned with the implementation and carrying out what has been planned or decided at the planning stage. It is the stage for actual teaching, success or failure of which depends on the degree and quality of the classroom interaction between the teacher and pupils. The major activities undertaken in this phase may be grouped as (i) perception, (ii) diagnosis, and (iii) reaction processes.

Perception Interaction process demands an appropriate perception on the part of teacher as well as students. When a teacher enters the class, his first activity is concerned with a perception of a classroom climate. He tries to weigh himself, his abilities and pre-planning for teaching against the class group. Similarly, the students also try to have a perception of the abilities, behaviour and personality characteristics of

the teacher in order to seek desirable interaction in the teachinglearning process.

Diagnosis A proper diagnosis of the abilities and behaviour of both students and the teacher is very essential for the appropriate interaction. A teacher, therefore, tries to assess and diagnose the achievement level of his students with respect to their abilities, academic background, intelligence, interest and aptitude. The diagnosis work may be done in several ways. He may ask some questions or assess their performances and behaviour potential by providing opportunity for performing or behaving. The students also, through verbal or nonverbal interaction, get the opportunity to access and diagnose the abilities, interest, aptitude and behaviour performance of their own responses and reactions for contributing towards effective interaction in the teaching act.

Reaction processes Action-reaction processes play the central role in the task of classroom interaction. For this purpose, a teacher has to take right decisions with regard to the selection and use of the proper stimuli, schedule of reinforcement and feedback devices, and development of suitable strategies suiting the needs of the pupils, teaching environment and teaching objectives. The pupils or students have also to learn the proper ways of reacting and responding to the various stimuli and teaching techniques presented to them. In this way, the interactive phase of teaching is responsible for establishing appropriate verbal and non-verbal classroom interaction between the teacher and pupils by arranging suitable teachinglearning activities and an equally suitable and controlled classroom environment.

The Post-active Phase

The third phase of the teaching act is concerned with the evaluation activities. First of all, the stipulated objectives are considered and attempts are made to measure or assess the degree or qualities of the expected behavioural changes in the students as a result of the teaching activities performed in the interactive phase. This can be done in a number of ways including tests or quizzes or by observing students’ reactions to questions, comments, structured or unstructured situation and behaviour situation. The teacher should try to take right decisions about the selections of the appropriate evaluation devices for this purpose. The results of the carried evaluation may be used by the teacher as well as students for bringing desirable improvement in their roles and activities. It may take the following shapes: 1. The suitability of the stipulated objectives may be properly assessed. The extent or quality of their accomplishment makes them take decisions about further continuation, alteration, or improvement. 2. The suitability of the content and its organization may be suggested. Decisions regarding re-teaching the content or moving to new content may be introduced in the strategies and techniques of teaching. 3. The suitability of the instructional process, aid material and teaching strategies are evaluated. As a result, change and improvement may be introduced in the strategies and techniques of teachings. 4. The role of the classroom environment and learning situations may be evaluated. Accordingly, the desired changes may be affected in the management of these elements. In the nutshell, the post-active activities concerning evaluation help the teacher and the students in bringing desirable improvement in their performances by providing necessary corrective feedback.

All the above three phases of teaching, although described separately, are closely interrelated. They present continuous cycle of the teaching, influencing and directing each other as shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Interrelation among the phases or operations of teaching.

It may help us to conclude that the process of teaching does not confine itself with mere classroom interaction or presentation of the content, teaching material or learning experiences. A teaching task can never be confined to the face-to-face dialogue between the teacher and the students carried out in the interaction phase. It begins even before the teacher enters the classroom, with the work of planning the teaching task, and continues after the interaction stage in the form of evaluation, feedback and similar other post-active activities, many times even after the teacher leaves the class.

Levels of Teaching Task In the formal classroom setting the task of teaching carried out by the teacher along with his pupils, according to Bigge (1967), can be performed at various levels ranging from the least thoughtful to the most thoughtful behaviour or mode of action. Accordingly, psychologists and educationists have clearly identified three such

levels of teaching-learning act, namely memory level, understanding level and reflective level. Memory level falls at the bottom (or on a three point rating scale at the extreme left) depicting the involvement of the least thoughtful behaviour and the reflective level at the top needing the involvement of higher cognitive abilities and the most thoughtful behaviour. The understanding level falls in between, requiring the involvement of the thoughtful behaviour in a moderate reasonable amount (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4). Let us know in detail about the meaning, nature and functioning of these three levels of teaching.

Figure 6.3 Levels of teaching presented on a three-point rating scale.

Figure 6.4 Hierarchical order of the levels of teaching.

Memory Level of Teaching Teaching-learning act at the memory level represents the involvement of the least thoughtful behaviour. In such type of act memory plays a key role. The teacher presents factual information before the learner. The learner tries to mug up these facts with the least involvement of his thinking and reasoning power without any care of the understanding of their meaning and application. It is in this context that Morris L. Bigge has defined this level of teaching as that type of act “which supposedly embraces committing factual materials to memory and nothing else”. (1967: 316). This definition conveys that the classroom task at the memory level of teaching is confined merely to the memorization of the facts or associations related to the content material of a subject. Here the

information, facts and body of contents are presented before a learner in such a way that they yield better results in terms of the memorization of the presented material. The learner is supposed to retain this material as longer as possible and to reproduce (recall or recognize) it when needed. The whole effort in such teaching-learning then revolves round the acquisition of the factual information or knowledge through rote learning. The students then try to mug up the content material of different nature like multiplication tables; the chemical symbols of the elements; dates and sequence of the historical events; words and phrases of the foreign languages; the names and number of the bones and muscles in the human body and similar other things, retain them in their memory and reproduce them at the time when asked to do so.

Underlying psychological theories and ideas Memory-level teaching is influenced by the following psychological theories and ideas: 1. The theory of mental faculty or mental discipline: In the spirit of this theory, teaching task at memory level aims to discipline or train the faculties of mind, particularly the faculty of memorization through exercise, repetition and practice of the learned material. 2. The Herbartian theory of apperception: In the spirit of this theory, the task of teaching at the memory level consists of implanting in the minds of the learners a great mass of factual information merely through the process of mechanical memorization. 3. The Thorndike’s connectionism: In the spirit of Thorndike’s connectionism, memory level teaching emphasizes establishment of S.R. connections quite mechanically through memorization. It gives full weightage to the law of exercise propounded by Thorndike in the process of learning.

4. The theory of conditioning: Influenced with the theory of classical and operant conditioning memory level teaching task converts itself into a task of habit formation through repetition of the association between stimuli and response.

Objectives The teaching act performed at the memory level is confined to achieve the knowledge objective in the following ways: 1. Acquisition of presented facts through rote learning 2. Retention and reproduction (through recall or recognition) of the acquired factual information as and when needed.

Nature of the subject-matter and its presentation Memory level teaching is predominantly subject centered. Its sole objective is effective memorization of the presented material by the learner. For attaining this aim, it should carefully attend to the quality of presented material and its way of presentation. The material for this purpose should be selected very judiciously for helping the students to get desirable knowledge of the subject. Moreover, it should be presented in a very systematic manner and definite as well as fixed order to facilitate its proper retention and easy recall. Such presentation at the memory level is quite easy as it is not necessary to associate or link it with the previous knowledge or connect it with the application at the present or future.

The role of the teacher Teacher plays a very dominant and authoritarian role in the memory level of teaching. It is he who decides about the methodology for the presentation of the subject material before the learner. He organizes and systematizes the presented material, presents it merely through his own initiative, makes the students listen or read, plan exercises

for its repetition and drill-work and asks the students to memorize the presented factual information with the help of rote learning, retain it and reproduce when asked to do so. In this way, teaching-learning process becomes too much teacher centred at the memory level teaching.

The role of the learner The learner has a passive role in the memory level of teaching. His mind is considered as a big storehouse of information or knowledge regarding various subjects. The teacher pours the knowledge and he is there to receive it through mechanical memorization. He has no freedom or opportunity to gain learning experiences through his own initiative or self-efforts and there is little scope for his interaction with the teacher in the teaching-learning process. He has to make least use of his thought processes and depend merely on the use of his capacity for memorization.

Nature of motivation As the students play passive role in the teaching act performed at the memory level, the nature of their motivation is largely extrinsic. There is nothing which may compel them from within to take genuine interest and to feel spontaneous inclination towards learning something. They engage themselves in memorization of the presented material due to external factors, such as fear of punishment, getting favour of the teacher, passing a test or getting promotion in the next grade, etc.

The methods employed The methods employed at the memory level are exclusively teacher centered or subject centered rather than the learner or situation centered. Consequently, these are mostly non-psychological in nature. The methods like lecture method, textbook method, lecture-

cum-blackboard method, deductive method, and narration method belong to such category and are suitable for carrying out one-way traffic by the teacher at the memory level of teaching-learning.

The testing devices used The teaching learning at the memory level is primarily designed for attaining the knowledge objective through the process of mechanical memorization. It prepares the students to have mastery over the subject matter in terms of their adequacy for retaining and reproducing the material presented to them at the time of teaching. Therefore, testing devices in the form of essay, short answer and objective type questions are designed here to test the realization of the knowledge objective at the memory level. In other words, here we test the capacity of the students for the exact reproduction of the memorized material or factual information by measuring their ability to recall or recognize the learned material through suitably framed questions.

The merits of teaching at memory level The teaching-learning carried out at the memory level has many advantages. These are as follows: 1. Such type of teaching-learning may be found to suit the very nature of the small children to a great extent, as their memory at the younger age is the rote memory. They are capable of mugging up things without caring to know their meaning and use. In this parrot-like cramming and reproducing the factual material, there is less involvement of their thought processes. It may also suit the nature of their cognitive development as they are unable to comprehend, compare, analyze, synthesize and generalize for enabling them to understand and apply the knowledge as effectively as they can at a later stage of their intellectual development.

2. The task carried out at the memory level in the form of acquisition of so many memorized facts prove quite helpful in the teaching-learning activities performed at the understanding and reflective levels. Truly speaking, the memory level of teaching-learning provides solid base for erecting the higher structure of teaching-learning at the other two advanced levels. 3. The memory level of teaching-learning gives full freedom to the teacher for realizing his goal, i.e. to furnish maximum knowledge of his subject in the form of systematic and wellconnected pieces of information to his students in a planned way within a minimum duration of time.

Demerits and defects of teaching at memory level Teaching-learning at the memory level is denounced on account of its demerits and defects as follows: 1. It is carried out at the lowest level of the student’s thought processes and, therefore, provides no scope for the development of understanding and other essential cognitive abilities of the students. 2. The emphasis here is on the acquisition of factual knowledge imparted by the teacher through rote learning and mechanical memorization. It is very difficult for the students taught at the memory level to make any practical use of their learning. There may be enough evidences of such failure in our classroom behaviour and in actual life situations. Students acquiring the knowledge of the formula of the area of the four walls of a room may not be able to compute the expenses incurred on whitewashing or painting on the walls of the room, or an elementary class student after having memorized all the odds concerning multiplication table may not be able to compute even the total amount paid to a shopkeeper for purchasing 6 pencils at the cost of 24 paise per pencil.

3. Despite the best efforts in such teaching-learning, there is no guarantee of good retention and appropriate reproduction of the memorized material by the learner. The retention, as usually such, is quite shortlived and students many times are found to cut a sorry figure at the nick of time particularly at the testing or examination time. In this way, even the short purpose of the mechanical memorization does not materialize fruitfully in such type of teaching-learning. 4. Since the teaching-learning process is too much teacher dominated and there is no proper interaction between the teacher and learner, it leaves a little or no scope for the proper personality development of the learners. 5. The memory level of teaching-learning poses a problem of class control and securing attention of the students for classroom teaching. Motivating students on the basis of fear and other extrinsic objects is also another weakness. Consequently, the real charm of self and purposeful learning is almost lost in such type of teaching-learning. 6. Here the total burden of handling the teaching-learning process falls on the shoulders of the teacher. He has to arrange for the review, drill and effective exercise for the good retention and easy recall. The students remain passive and without their involvement the teaching-learning process becomes quite dull, uninteresting and unchallenging.

Conclusion With all what has been said about the defects and demerits of memory level teaching, it should not be inferred that memory level teaching is absurd and useless and therefore should be abandoned. However, things are not as such. For the children at the elementary level, as emphasized earlier, it may prove quite beneficial. Similarly, for those disciplines where acquisition of knowledge, factual information and memorization in the form of names, concepts,

principles, formulae, symbols, etc. are involved, the memory level teaching may prove quite useful. Moreover, what is achieved at the memory level has all possibilities for being utilized in the teachinglearning carried out at the understanding and reflective levels. One has to utilize the footboard of memory level teaching for jumping to the height of understanding and reflective levels as may be made clear in the foregoing pages of this chapter. However, we must be careful about minimizing its drawbacks by making it more meaningful to the learners. There is little use in memorizing meaningless material like nonsense syllables. If the learner is helped in drawing some meaning and purposes out of his memorization labour, the yield may be more fruitful for the learner’s present as well as future welfare.

Understanding Level of Teaching Understanding level of teaching represents relatively a high level in the teaching process as compared to memory level. It calls for the use of one’s thought processes and cognitive abilities in the form of reasoning and thinking powers, powers of imagination, analysis, synthesis, comparison, application, generalization and drawing inferences, etc. Let us discuss in detail about such type of teaching.

Meaning and definition In his book Learning theory for Teachers, Morris L. Bigge has defined understanding level teaching, the one “that seeks to acquaint students with the relationships between a generalization and particulars—between principles and solitary facts—and which shows the use to which the principles may be applied”. (1967: 323). An analysis of the above definition may reveal the following characteristics of the understanding level teaching: 1. It does not stop with the acquisition of facts or information by the students as done at the memory level but takes them

ahead for generalizing the rules or principles out of these acquired facts. 2. The students can identify the relationship between the individual facts and the principles generalized out of these facts. 3. It helps the students use the generalized rules or principles as a tool or instrument in the acquisition of new facts or applying them in their practical life. Let us illustrate it with an example. When a student memorizes a fact, 7 × 5 = 35, the teaching-learning process is said to be operated at the memory level. In this case, he memorizes the fact without understanding, i.e., he neither knows the generalization behind this particular fact nor its application. It is only when he is taught at the understanding level, he happens to know that: 7 × 5 is similar and equal to 5 × 7. When seven objects are grouped five times or five objects are grouped seven times, the product is always thirty five. This fact or relationship is true for all objects in all situations. The knowledge of this fact may be usefully applied in calculating the price of seven items if each item is priced for rupees five or vice versa.

The underlying psychological theories and ideas The teaching act at the understanding level is said to involve the following psychological grounds. 1. The Herbartian theory of apperception and its famous five steps of teaching: In the spirit of this theory, the teaching at the understanding level requires a systematic presentation of the subject relating it well with the previous knowledge of the students. Herbart tried to emphasize understanding level

teaching through his famous five steps of teaching. Through his first step preparation, the previous knowledge of the students was explored and the need of learning some new was felt. In the second step, the systematic presentation of the subject matter or ideas was emphasized by relating them with the old ones. In the third and fourth step of comparison and generalization, students are supposed to identify common elements in the presented material/factual information and make generalization in the form of generalized statement, rule or principle. In the step five application, they are supposed to make use of the generalized principle by applying it in a particular novel situation. In this way, Herbart, through his systematic steps tried to put teaching-learning at the understanding level by making the students (i) to understand individual facts, (ii) to move from the particular facts to generalized principle, and (iii) to use generalized principle to acquire new facts or seek their application in day-to-day life. 2. Theory of insight or gestalt field theory: In the spirit of the theory of insight, understanding level teaching requires (i) to perceive the situation, i.e. the presented factual information as a whole, (ii) to identify relationship of common elements or difference between the presented body of facts, the new ideas and the old ideas, (iii) to gain generalized insights which can be applied in problematic situation both in and outside of the school.

Objectives The teaching act performed at the understanding level is aimed to achieve the following objectives: 1. Knowledge objective: Acquisition information or body of facts.

of

required

factual

2. Understanding objective: Under this objective the learners are able: • to see relationship between acquired facts, • to comprehend the meaning of the acquired facts or factual information, • to identify the similarities and dissimilarities between the acquired facts, • to seek generalization out of the specific facts, • to apply the generalized fact, rule or principle for learning new facts in practical life situations.

Nature of the subject matter and its presentation The subject matter for the understanding level teaching is quite structured in terms of planning sequential and organized presentation and meaningful learning. It needs to be linked with the previous knowledge of the students on one hand and with its utilization for acquiring new facts and application to practical life.

The role of the teacher Like memory level teaching the teacher plays a quite dominant and authoritarian role at the understanding level of teaching. This type of teaching is also too much subject centred and hence, teacher has to pay his full attention in presenting the subject matter to his students to attain the desired understanding objective besides the knowledge objective. He has to take care of the fact that the students gain complete mastery over the subject matter in terms of its full understanding and generalized insight rather than its mere memorization, i.e. retention and reproduction of the memorized facts.

The role of the learner The learner does not have a passive role here as in the case of memory level teaching. He has to remain active in acquiring the desired understanding of the learned facts. However, the key of the

teaching-learning process lies well in the hands of the teacher. The students have to act and interact within the framework set up by the teacher for realizing the set objectives of his teaching.

Nature of motivation Although purpose is always involved in any understanding level of teaching, yet the nature of the motivation here is largely extrinsic as in the case of memory level teaching.

The methods employed The methods employed at the understanding level of teaching, on one hand, they may work as teacher and subject centred and on the other, may help in realizing simultaneously both the understanding and knowledge objectives. Therefore, lecture method added by demonstration or explanation, narration helped by question-answer method and inductive method followed by deductive approach, and analytic method integrated with synthetic approach suit the very nature and purpose of teaching-learning carried out at the understanding level.

The testing devices used The teaching task carried out at the understanding level requires a more comprehensive evaluation programme than the memory level of teaching which is largely confined to the testing of recall or recognizing ability. Besides knowledge objective, understanding coupled with the motor skill of making use of the learned principle and ability to apply them in solving problems in and outside the classroom is also to be tested here with the help of well-planned oral, written and practical examinations. However, emphasis is laid on the desired tests to know the ability to analyze, synthesize, compare, generalize and apply the generalized principles for deducing new facts and

solving novel problems. For this purpose, short answer type format of questions is preferred over the objective type question format.

Transfer of training or learning Since understanding level of teaching emphasizes on seeing relationship between the facts and acquired generalized insight in the form of generalized rules, principles, and theories, it gives greater scope for the proper transfer of the acquired training or learning from one situation to another.

The merits of teaching at understanding level The teaching at the understanding level has the following advantages: 1. Understanding level teaching helps the students in the acquisition of the facts or information more effectively than the memory level. Here, the retention is quite long as it is accompanied by clear understanding of the facts or information. 2. It helps students to learn generalized rules, principles or theories built up on the basis of individual facts or special examples. Such generalized insight acquired by them works as an instrument or a tool. It proves quite useful not only in the acquisition and interpretation of new facts, but also in problematic situations in and outside the school. 3. Understanding level teaching trains and equips them for acting more intelligently in proceeding on the path of learning. They get proper opportunity for the development of their cognitive abilities through various acts like analyzing, synthesizing, comparing, drawing inferences, making generalizations, applying rules and principles, etc. performed at this level of teaching.

4. Understanding level teaching through the generalized insight equips the students with a mental kit of rules and principles. Such kit proves quite useful in carrying out the teaching activities at the reflective level and also in turning the students as masters and experts in their respective fields. 5. It provides opportunities for organized and systematic teaching and learning, best suited for the existing schools situations of our country. The return in terms of educational investment and output in such teaching are maximum in comparison to other levels of teaching.

Demerits and defects The disadvantages with the understanding level of teaching are as follows: 1. The teaching at the understanding level is more or less teacher centred and subject centred rather than being child centred. Despite the best efforts, students do not necessarily learn the way teachers think they are teaching them. Moreover, students do not get the required freedom for independent thinking, discovery and problem solving. 2. The motivation is largely extrinsic in nature and the students’ ego is hardly involved in such type of teaching. 3. The results of such teaching are always judged in terms of the fixed specific responses to highly specific knowledge and skills acquired through mechanized repetition and drillwork or as taught by the teacher in the rigid and controlled teachinglearning situations. Such type of teaching-learning environment and evaluation pattern can’t help in the development of higher cognitive abilities, including creativity and independent problem solving abilities among students.

Conclusion

The understanding level teaching, performed at more advanced thoughtful modes of operation than the memory level, has many advantages. It provides meanings to what is being taught or learned in a learning situation. Students acquire generalized insight in the form of a mental kit of rules through such type of teaching which may be used in their further learning and in dealing with problems. However, as has already been pointed out, understanding level teaching suffers from mentionable defects and demerits as being turned into a one-sided affair and an arranged show, completely directed and dominated by the teacher. The development of understanding, as it tries to boast, do not help in the development of independent problem solving ability and creativity of the students. They remain more or less inert, unable to take any initiative and incapable of choosing their own paths in the course of learning. Hence, there is a requirement of arranging the teaching act at a little more advance thoughtful mode of operation which may help the students in acquiring experiences needed to enhance their intellectual potential to the maximum.

Reflective Level of Teaching Teaching at reflective level represents the highest level of the teaching act that can be carried out at the most thoughtful modes of operation providing the desirable quality of teaching-learning situation and experiences to the learner for utilizing and enhancing their cognitive abilities to the maximum. Let us learn about such type of teaching in detail.

Meaning and definition The word reflection stands for the act of reflection (turning back), contemplating or paying serious consideration. Consequently, teaching at reflective level must have its association with the process of reflecting or turning back the existing idea or knowledge for more

careful consideration or critical examination to derive fresh conclusions. It is in this sense that Morris L. Bigge has defined it as: “careful, critical examination of an idea or supposed article of knowledge in the light of the testable evidence which supports it and the further conclusions towards which it points.” (1967: 324). A careful examination of this definition may reveal the following facts about the nature of the reflective level teaching: 1. It provides opportunity to the learners for the close, careful and critical examination of the existing facts, ideas, insights and generalizations. 2. The learners try to test them in the light of the relevant evidences. 3. They are free to set independent hypotheses, test them and draw their own conclusions for learning new facts or having new insight. Looking at the above cited nature, it is a must that teachinglearning at the reflective level should be organized at some advanced level that can provide opportunities for the utilization of the learners’ cognitive abilities. Such opportunities may be best provided if the teaching-learning situations are turned into problematic ones and the students are made to discover the solutions of problems in the light of their own thinking and independent pursuit of knowledge. Therefore, in practical sense, teaching at the reflective level is nothing but a problem solving or discovery approach towards teaching-learning as one may conclude after going through the foregoing pages of this chapter.

Underlying psychological theory and ideas Reflective level teaching has its roots in the cognitive field theory of learning. This theory, also called goal insight theory, opposed the traditional mechanical memorization and meaningless understanding

of the facts. It gave emphasis on the purposeful, goal directed, insightful approach to learning and tried to make the learner learn the art and skill of problem solving behaviour by identifying his goal and problem and solve the problem in a scientific way. The reflective level of teaching in the spirit of this theory emphasizes the learning of generalized insight, ways of discovering the facts and acquiring the skill of problem solving.

Objectives The teaching at reflective level may be said to act for the attainment of the following objectives: 1. To make use of the learned facts and acquired understanding or insight for learning reflectively. 2. To help the learner build up an enlarged store of the tested insights of generalized character. 3. To enhance the learners’ ability to develop and solve problems at their own initiative.

Nature of the subject-matter and its presentation Here, the subject matter is not presented in the highly structured form as done at memory and understanding levels. It is almost open ended in the form of problem raising and problem solving. Thus, in such presentation, the genuine problem helpful to the students for the acquisition, understanding and application of the generalized facts and principles and then enhancing their ability of problem solving are raised, developed and tried for their solution. Problem raising, in the words of Morris L. Bigge, can be understood as “a process of discovering and identifying inadequacies and disharmonies of outlook or insights”. (1967: 339). The students may come across such inconsistencies or inadequacies and they feel tensed for coming out of them. These situations may also be created in the classroom through mutual discussion among the students and

teachers or by observing something. Let us study the following situations for the beginning of the study at the reflective level: 1. Students observe that in a tray filled with water, some objects are sinked while others are floating. Why is it so? 2. The water of their handpump does not make lather with the soap while that belonging to their neighbour makes a good lather. Why? 3. The bat can be described as a bird and an animal too. How is it so? In all such situations, as may be easily inferred, the instructions at the reflective level of teaching-learning classes should essentially begin with the feelings in the learner. “Let me find the solution of this problem.” or “Let us try to know the reason for such inadequacy, inconsistency or happening”. Moreover, such problem raising situations must make the learner to feel the necessities and genuine interest for the discovery of the solution of the felt problem. It should create a sort of psychological tension in him by concluding as follows: 1. I have to find its solution but how should I proceed, there is no path to reach my goal. 2. “The answers and solutions are many, but which one would be appropriate in solving my problem”. When the students are trapped in such a situations the stage is set for further organization of the teaching act at the reflective level. The students are then made to solve such felt problems independently by following systematic steps of the problem solving procedure.

Role of the teacher

At the reflective level of teaching, the teacher does not play a dominant and authoritarian role like in memory or understanding level teaching. Here, instead of telling the facts or generalizations, he has to make the students discover them. He is there to help them in such learning and discovering by raising problems, initiating mutual discussion and interactions; welcoming critical reactions and engaging them in the discovery of the truth of the matter and solution of the problem as independently as possible. In this sense, this type of teaching assigns more serious responsibilities on the part of the teachers. Telling of the information is a simple task but to make the children feel the necessity of getting such information and to discover this information by their own efforts is quite challenging which needs a lot from the teachers in terms of their own reflective thinking, ingenuity, scholarship, persistence, tacts, open mindedness democratic leadership and similar other personality characteristics.

The role of the learner The learner can’t remain a passive listener or silent observer in reflective level teaching. He has to make use of his cognitive abilities and take all initiatives in the process of problem raising and problem solving involved at this level of teaching. In addition to the learning and understanding of the facts and generalized insight, he has to work for the learning of the art and techniques of problem solving processes.

The nature of motivation The motivation involved at this level of teaching is quite intrinsic rather than being extrinsic as happens at the memory and understanding levels. The learners are faced with a situation where they feel a sort of psychological tension and intense curiosity to know something. Sometimes they are inclined to go deep into the nature of matter and feel the urgent necessity to solve a problem. Such type of

motivation helps in building a very healthy environment which is more alive and exciting, more critical and penetrating and more open to fresh and original thinking for carrying out reflective level teaching activities.

The methods employed The methods and techniques employed in the teaching act performed at reflective level are more learner centred than the teacher or subject centred. Here, instead of telling the facts and generalizations by the teacher, the emphasis is laid over raising, developing and solving problems. The methods and techniques are, therefore, chosen to help in the task of feeling the need of solving a problem and discovering the ways and means of solving it through a lively interaction between the teacher and the students. Consequently, methods like analytic method, discovery method, problem solving method, assignment method, and project method prove quite useful at the reflective level teaching.

The testing devices used The testing and evaluation techniques are always planned to the tune of the objectives and nature of the teaching process carried out for achieving these objectives. Reflective level teaching does not limit itself merely to the collection of facts and generalized insights but centres round mainly in equipping the learner to acquire power for the independent discovery of the facts and generalized insights and utilizing them for the solution of the felt problem. Therefore, the usual testing devices do not work well at this level of teaching. Here, it remains more appropriate to set questions, preferably essay type or open end type, which can test their problem solving ability, ingenuity or creativity in relation to their study. Their answers may be tested in view of their attempts for solving the given problem and the quality of the discovered solution of the problem.

Merits and advantages The reflective level of teaching has the following advantages: 1. It involves learner centred approach, in place of subject or teacher centred approach towards teaching-learning. The learner himself sets his goal and discovers the path of reaching the goal. 2. The process of teaching-learning act is carried out at a more advanced ‘thoughtful’ mode of operation than the memory or understanding level. It provides better opportunities for the utilization of one’s cognitive abilities to acquire information, generalized insight and problem solving skills and, in turn, helps in the proper development of one’s intellectual powers. 3. In life what is mostly needed is the proper identification of the felt problems and the way of facing and solving these problems. Undoubtedly, it is only the reflective level teaching that can prove helpful in equipping the students to face and solve their problems in and outside the walls of their schools. 4. Teaching at reflective level is helpful in making the classroom environment quite democratic, healthy, lively and exciting. There is a free and useful interaction between the teachers and the pupils. Pupils are allowed to be critical. They can put proving and penetrating questions, engage in independent and original thinking, discovery and problem solving. The teacher is there to help them in their independent pursuit of knowledge, and the task of problem raising and problem solving is performed in a very open, thoughtful and democratic environment. 5. The outcomes of the reflective level teaching automatically involve the fruits of memory and understanding levels of teaching. As a result, there is an enlarged store of accumulated facts and tested insight of a generalized character. The students are able to grasp the understanding of

various principles, relationships, concepts, generalizations, rules, laws and theories. But, in addition to that, the credit of the teaching at reflective level lies in equipping the students with the enhanced ability to develop and solve problems on their own. This is a rare quality which can be developed only if the teaching act is carried out at the reflective level. 6. The reflective level teaching, in fact, suits the very need of the present-day fast developing age. There is a vast storehouse of knowledge, and in one’s lifetime it is not possible to have even a part access to it. The reasonable thing, here, is to make the child not to acquire this vast knowledge but to equip him with the power of acquiring, analyzing and discovering the same. As a useful and progressive citizen of the fast developing world, we don’t need a generation with knowledge of the repeated memorized facts, but a generation of people who can react, criticize, think and work constructively for the discovery of new facts, generalized insights and application for making this world a place of more comfortable and progressive living. It can only be done through the problem centred, creatively fostered and discovery oriented teaching carried out at the reflective level. 7. The reflective level teaching makes possible the maximum transfer of learning or training which is otherwise missing at the memory and understanding levels. The art and techniques acquired for coming out of felt problem can be made transferable in any real life situations pertaining to the educational, vocational and personal character. 8. Teaching at the reflective level have enough flexibility to be employed for the teaching in all school subjects. Moreover, it also provides freedom from the rigorous and rigid organization of course material as it grows more from unique relationship between teacher and students than from any different nature of formal course material (Bigge 1967).

Demerits and limitations The reflective level teaching is said to be suffering from the following limitations and defects: 1. The teaching situations are organized in a flexible way. In the absence of any formal course material, the students are unable to acquire the systematic and organized knowledge of the subject material pertaining to the school subjects. 2. The freedom and flexibility enjoyed by the students in the unstructured teaching-learning situation may drift the students from the learning path. They can waste their time and energy in the discovery of the facts, raising irrelevant questions and pursuing meaningless investigation. On account of the lack of experiences, required maturity and undeveloped cognitive abilities, they may arrive at erroneous conclusions and wrong answers to their problems. 3. Despite the wider claims of its application in the learning of all school subjects at all levels, its field is quite limited to practical sense, it is usefully applicable to the learning of the subjects and areas where discovery and problem solving approach can be better employed. Similarly, it works well with the nature of the students of higher school classes having more developed cognitive abilities needed for the reflective thinking and problem solving. 4. It requires more efforts on the part of the teachers. They have to gain complete mastery over the facts and generalized insight often cutting across various subjects and life situations. They must be acquainted well with the processes of discovery and problem-centred teaching and have enough patience and competency for the proper organization of classroom environment and effective handling of the teaching-learning situation at the reflective level. In the absence of such

experienced and efficient teachers, teaching at the reflective level does not bear the desired fruits.

Conclusion Shortcomings and defects outlined above about the teaching act at the reflective level do not count towards any genuine difficulty in carrying out with the desired degree of success. There is a need of a little more care on the part of teacher for taking control of the teaching-learning situation and train the children in the problem solving process. The results are unmatchable. If taught on reflective level, the students get tremendous power for the acquisition of facts, principles and generalized insight including the problem solving ability through their own efforts. They learn how to identify and analyze a problem, think about the possibilities of its solution, discovering the proper solution, and testify and generalize it by applying to real problem. It is not a small achievement if we, as teachers, can create situation in which our students can learn on their own, working on the lines as historians, find historical facts, scientists gather scientific information and mathematicians find the solution of the unsolved problems. Such situations can only be provided through teaching at the reflecting level where we can involve the students in the process of knowledge-getting and giving them the instrument of discovering the knowledge by their own efforts.

A Summarized Comparative Study of the Three Levels of Teaching Table 6.1 provides a summarized view of the comparisons among the memory, understanding and reflective levels of teaching. TABLE 6.1 Comparative study of the different levels of teaching

SUMMARY 1. The term teaching task, in its simple meaning, stands for all activities that are undertaken by a teacher in his act of teaching carried out with his students in a particular real and worthwhile teaching-learning situation aimed for the realization of certain specified teaching objectives. 2. In a teaching task, while in progress, we may observe the presence of the three variables, namely independent variable, dependent variable and intervening variable. Since a student is subjected to changes and development through the efforts of a teacher, he is referred to as the dependent variable. The teacher acts as an independent variable and the variables standing between the teacher and the student for bringing desired interactions between them (like teaching contents, methods of teaching, teaching-learning environment, etc.) may be called the intervening variables. All these three variables are found to execute the three types of functions, namely diagnostic functions, prescriptive functions and evaluative functions at different stages of a teaching task for the realization of the aims and purposes of bringing desired modification in the behaviour of the dependent variable, i.e. students in a given teaching-learning situation. 3. For realizing its purpose well, a teaching task has to be proceeded in some sequential and organized steps. These steps or stages are known as the stages or phases of teaching. In general, a teaching task involves three such stages or phases, namely pre-active phase, interactive phase, and post-active phase. Pre-active phase is the planning phase of the teaching task. There are two major steps involved in this phase, namely (i) formulation of teaching goals or objectives, and (ii) discovering

ways and means for the achievement of these objectives. Interactive phase is the phase or stage for the implementation of what has been planned at the pre-active phase. Its success depends much on the quality of the interaction taken place between the teacher and the students. Post-active phase is concerned with the evaluation of what has been planned and executed at the first and second stages of the teaching task. The output of this phase provides feedback for bringing the desired modification and improvement in the activities carried out at the planning and execution phases. 4. A teaching task may be performed at various levels, ranging from least thoughtful to most thoughtful behaviour or mode of actions, namely memory level, understanding level and reflective level. In a teaching task organized at the memory level, memory plays a key role. Here, a teacher presents factual information before the learner and he mugs them up with the least involvement of his thinking and reasoning powers without any care for understanding and comprehension. Understanding level of teaching represents a relatively high level in the teaching process as compared to the memory level. It calls for the use of one’s thinking and reasoning powers, powers of imagination, and other cognitive abilities for the realization of the two major objectives of a teaching task, namely knowledge objectives and understanding objectives, lying in the cognitive domain. Reflective level of teaching represents the highest level of teaching act that can be carried out at the most thoughtful modes of operation, not only to have a clear understanding of the facts on the part of a learner but also to provide him the opportunities for the utilization and enhancement of his cognitive abilities to the maximum. This type of teaching may prove quite helpful in developing the desired insight and deep understanding of the facts and principles, building useful

generalizations and making their use and applications in solving problems and advanced learning.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the term teaching task? Discuss its meaning by providing a suitable definition. 2. What are the different variables involved in a teaching task? Describe their nature and functions. 3. What are the different phases and operations of a teaching task? Discuss in detail. 4. What are the different levels of a teaching task? Discuss these levels of teaching in detail. 5. What do you understand by the term levels of a teaching task? Name these levels and discuss their essential features. 6. What is memory level of teaching? How can the teaching task be organized at this level? Discuss in detail. 7. What is understanding level of teaching? How can the teaching task be organized at this level? Discuss in detail. 8. What do you understand by reflective level of teaching? Discuss in detail the essential features of the teaching tasks organized at this level. 9. Discuss the main features of memory, understanding and reflective levels of teaching. 10. Discuss the different levels of teaching. How is the teaching task organized at reflective level different from memory level? Illustrate with examples. 11. Differentiate among the memory, understanding and reflective levels of teaching as clearly as possible. 12. Provide a comparative description of the teaching organized at the memory, understanding and reflective levels.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Biggie, Morris, L., Learning Theory of Teachers, Indian Reprint, Delhi: University Book Stall, 1967. Good, Carter V., Dictionary of Education, NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1959. Harold F. O’Neil, (Jr.), Ray S. Perez (Eds.), Technology Applications in Education: A Learning View, Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Publishers, 2003. Lloyd, Les. (Ed.), Technology and Teaching, Publication Information Medford, NJ : Information Today, 1997.

7 Theories of Teaching CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction What is Theory? What is Teaching? Meaning and Nature of Theory of Teaching Need and Significance of Theory of Teaching Scope of Teaching Theory Types of Teaching Theory Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Any task, for its effective outcome, has to be dealt with properly in terms of its theoretical layout and practical implementation. Theory, in general, provides a framework, useful planning and schedule incorporating effective steps to be taken for performing a task or executing any activity as successfully as possible. Teaching as defined and understood earlier in Chapter 6 of this text, is a serious activity undertaken by a teacher to produce desirable changes in the behaviour of the students. For performing this task effectively, a teacher surely needs some pre-planning and theoretical understanding of a number of activities that are desirable to set his behaviour in tune with the task performed by him. Theories of teaching supply and equip him with such theoretical understanding and framework. However, for understanding the meaning and nature of the theories of

teaching properly, let us first understand and define the terms theory and teaching separately.

What is ‘Theory’? The term theory has been defined by eminent scholars in the following ways: Kerlinger (1964: 11) “A theory is a set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relationships among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.” Goode and Hatt (1952: 9) “Theory refers to the relationship between facts and ordering of them in some meaningful way.” Douglas W. Matheson and others (1970: 8) “A theory specifies the relationship between events for the purpose of explaining the occurrence of the events and predicting future events.” Understanding this way a theory related to a subject refers to a wellorganized theoretical framework for the understanding of a particular phenomena or process. It helps in understanding the mechanism and interrelationships among the variables involved in that phenomena or process. Theories have predictive value. The results of the particular phenomena or process can be known in advance with the help of the theories. Thus, in case one makes advances according to some theoretical framework supplied by a theory, we can predict his future success or failure to a great extent.

What is Teaching? In Chapter 5 of this text, we have already defined and explained the meaning of the term ‘teaching’ quite extensively. As a conclusion here, we can repeat that teaching is a quite serious task or activity undertaken by the teachers to produce desirable changes in the behaviour of their students. It is a process that is aimed for helping the students in their learning activities, and during this process teachers are supposed to maintain a particular type

of behaviour called teacher behaviour and engage in the activities called teaching activities.

Meaning and Nature of ‘Theory of Teaching’ After defining the term ‘theory’ and ‘teaching’, now it is appropriate to think about the meaning and nature of the term ‘theories of teaching’. Teaching involves a set of activities called teaching acts, teacher behaviours and a number of variables that form part of the teaching process. A theory of teaching must provide a theoretical framework for the proper planning, organization and control of the teaching tasks or teacher behaviours and manipulation of all the involved variables in order to realize the stipulated educational and instructional objectives as effectively as possible. It must help the teachers to make their students learn, i.e. to bring desirable changes in their behaviour and actualize their potentialities to the maximum. In a nutshell, a theory of teaching must provide the answer to all queries and questions related to teaching for efficient and effective learning. Contrary to theories of learning which pertains to the behaviours of the learners and the factors, conditions and situations in which they can learn effectively and also the outcomes of learning, theory of teaching must invariably deal with the behaviours of the teacher and their teaching aimed for better learning. Let us now reproduce the views expressed by some educationists regarding the term ‘theory of teaching’ to understand how they define and describe the term. B.O. Smith (1963), an American psychologist, described theories of teaching as “an attempt to describe teaching variables involved in the teacher behaviour in terms of their existence and possible interrelations for predicting the outcomes of teaching”. Smith, through his description, thus tries to point out that a theory of teaching needs to incorporate the following three elements: 1. It must mention the different teaching variables involved in the teacher behaviour. 2. It must describe the possible relations among these variables.

3. It must predict the impact of teaching. According to N.L. Gage (1964), a theory of teaching must invariably answer the following three questions related to the teaching process: 1. How do teachers behave? 2. Why do they behave as they do? 3. What are the effects? Considering in this way, theories of teaching are aimed to improve the teaching behaviours for achieving the desired teaching objectives. In other words, with the help of a teaching theory, a teacher can plan, perform and control his teaching activities and ways of behaviour for exercising desirable impact on the learning behaviour of his students. A theory of teaching, as Gage visualizes, has also its predictive value. The learning performance of the student shows high correlation with the teacher effectiveness, i.e. the effective teacher behaviours and this effectiveness is gained through the knowledge and study of teaching theories. Bruner (1966) termed theories of teaching as nothing but explanation of general methodology of teaching and, therefore, these ought to be derived from the general theories of learning. A method of teaching points out the way or the activities undertaken and behaviours performed by a teacher for accomplishing his teaching objectives well. In this way, according to Bruner, a theory of teaching is concerned with the most efficient ways and means for optimum learning. Speaking in this tone, it must specify and ensure the arrangement of the most effective learning experiences, learning environment and learning methods for the optimum learning outcomes. Mitra (1972) considered the theory of teaching as a sort of a derivation from the theories of psychology, i.e. theories of learning, motivation, intelligence and individual differences. A theory of teaching, in his opinion, prepares the teacher to perform his teaching responsibilities as effectively as possible. As a teacher one has to maintain a sort of contractual relationship between himself and his students. Through his teaching, he has to materialize this contract and for this purpose he is bound to engage in specific teaching acts like analysis of the teaching task, setting of teaching objectives, identifying the entering behaviour of the students and selecting

the most appropriate teaching methods and strategies for the attainment of the set objectives. Judging in this way, a theory of teaching can be described as the application of knowledge of theories of psychology for improving classroom teaching practice and the teaching skills of a teacher. With all what has been understood as the meaning and definition of the term theories of teaching, we can summarize its nature in the following ways: 1. Theory of teaching is directly linked with the psychology of instruction. However, it may draw its material from various theories of learning, and motivation, etc. In real sense, theories of teaching are evolved out of the logical insight into the learning process and logical analysis of the tasks. 2. Theory of teaching explains and describes the behaviour of the teacher typically in the classroom in order to help the students in better learning. 3. In contrast to learning theories which are psychological in nature, a teaching theory is predominantly social in nature. 4. A theory of teaching is much more than a theory of learning. While the scope of a learning theory is limited to describe and explain the nature of learning, teaching theory prescribes the factors, conditions and strategies for ensuring effective learning. 5. Theory of teaching presents a systematic view of teaching by specifying relations among variables of teaching process. 6. Theory of teaching equips a teacher with proper theoretical background and training for accomplishing his teaching task. 7. A theory of teaching answers three basic questions: How do teachers behave, why do they behave so, and with what effects? 8. A theory of teaching points out the proper way of effective knowledge, skill or attitude of the students. 9. Theory of teaching helps in the implementation of a contractual relationship between the teacher and the taught. 10. Theory of teaching can be safely used to manage teaching in terms of its planning, control and prediction.

11. A theory of teaching describes, justifies, explains and suggests the most appropriate way of manipulating the elements of variables involved in the teaching process. 12. A theory of teaching, working well in a particular teaching-learning situation, may be not found suitable in others. Moreover, as teaching is a complex phenomenon comprising too many diversified activities, no single teaching theory can be prescribed for all the teachinglearning situations.

Need and Significance of Theory of Teaching In the process of teaching, our aim is quite clear. We, as a teacher, want to help the students in their development and learning tasks. For the realization of this aim, we have to equip ourselves as adequately as possible. Our responsibilities in the shape of teaching activities are quite practical in nature, which needs a lot of theoretical support. For building a bridge, the men who are busy in its construction need theoretical guidance, pre-planning and a lot of preparation before actually operating on it. Similarly, a teacher has to understand his nature of job, teaching tasks and many other responsibilities that he has to carry out in an attempt to build his students’ future and develop their potentialities. The need of a theory of teaching may be felt on account of the following purposes served by it: 1. It helps in understanding the nature and process of teaching by describing (i) what is teaching, (ii) analysis of teaching, (iii) relationship between teaching and learning and (iv) conditions and factors affecting teaching-learning, etc. 2. It helps in the proper formulation of teaching objectives, defining these objectives in behavioural terms and explaining how these objectives, in general and particular, can be effectively achieved by suggesting appropriate teaching techniques and strategies. 3. It helps in understanding the role of different variables involved in the teaching process, their interrelationships and manipulation in order to achieve maximum learning.

4. It helps in developing proper teaching models, teaching and instructional designs, and teaching systems for a particular teachinglearning situation. 5. It helps in explaining and understanding the mechanism of teacher behaviour. It also suggests means and devices for its suitable modification and improvement in order to develop the required teaching effectiveness. 6. It helps in the effective management of the task of teaching in terms of its planning, organization and control. 7. Its value also lies in its predictive nature. We can predict, to a reasonable extent, the outcomes of the process of teaching-learning structured by a teaching theory. 8. It helps in planning the essentials ingredient and basic material for the organization of the courses and activities of the in-service and pre-service teaching training. 9. It helps in the scientific and systematic study of the problems faced by the teachers in their day-to-day teaching activities as well as concerning further improvement of the teaching and instructional technology. 10. It helps, in its own way, to transmit the fruits of extensive research carried in the area of teaching and teaching technology to the subject-teachers and educational administrators.

Scope of Teaching Theory By scope of a teaching theory, we usually mean to answer the type of questions as follows: 1. What is its field of operation in terms of its uses and significance? 2. What it stands or deals for? What type of subject material does it possess? What are its limits and boundaries? The answers to all such questions related to the scope of teaching theory can easily be located in what has been already described in the preceding pages under different heads such as meaning, nature, need and significance of the theory of teaching. However, let us summarize it afresh.

Teaching theory provides a proper theoretical framework for explaining and discussing all the aspects and problems related with the process of teaching and tasks of teaching. Consequently, its scope is bound to include the topics as follows: Nature of teaching and its relationship with learning. Analysis of teaching into its components, behavoural activities and teaching skills. Teaching variables, their roles in teaching process and interrelationship. Teacher behaviour and its impact on pupil’s learning, the task of its modification leading to required teaching effectiveness. Teaching objectives and their formulation in behavioural terms and specific teaching activities. Discussion about the teaching variables and teacher behaviour with reference to psychological and social situations. Management of teaching in terms of its planning, organization and control. Prediction about the effect of teaching in relation with the known teaching-learning situations. Teaching-learning environment and its effective management for student learning. Teaching strategies, devices, designs and systems of instructions and teaching. Common problems faced by the teachers in their teaching tasks and their possible remedies. In this way, teaching theory tries to equip the teachers with all the essential knowledge, facts, principles and theoretical understanding related to their teaching tasks, behaviours and teaching process. It provides general as well as specific directions for the teachers to be followed in their teaching path for helping them to become effective teachers. The scope of teaching theories, in this way, is more comprehensive than the learning theory. The learning theory is almost confined to the process of learning describing nature of learning, factors affecting learning and methods of learning, etc. A teaching theory, on the other hand, while discussing all the variables and aspects of teaching also points out the ways

and means of managing and controlling the variables, conditions and processes of learning. The aim of teaching is to induce proper conditions for effective learning and, therefore, a theory of teaching must always discuss and point out what is essential for the effective learning and development of the students. Consequently, the scope of teaching theory covers the whole range of teaching-learning process, the variable involved in this process and their interaction and impact on the student’s learning, teacher behaviour in relation to students’ behaviour and management of the teaching tasks or activities. After all, as we have already pointed out that teaching consists of very complex skills and teaching activities are too varied in their range and specializations and moreover, there is knowledge explosion and the social psychological teaching-learning situations are in the constant state of change, then how can it be possible for teaching theories to remain in a non-flexible stage. As a general rule, theories of teaching have to strive hard for analyzing and structuring the growing tasks of teaching and, consequently, the expansion in the scope of teaching theories cannot be banned. Day by day new problems are emerging in the field of teaching and instructional technology, students’ classroom behaviour and teachers’ teaching. To face these problems, new facts, ideas and principles have to be incorporated in the teaching theories. That is why, we can’t limit the hedge and boundaries of the teaching theories. Their scope can’t be confined into a specific boundary of the concepts and principles. It has to be kept free for meeting the requirements of the constant changes and trends emerging in the field of teaching tasks, teacher behaviour and teaching activities.

Types of Teaching Theories A theory of teaching, as described in the preceding pages, provides a theoretical framework to the teacher for carrying out their teaching activities as effectively as possible. The range of these teaching activities is varied and teaching-learning situations for the performance of these activities are also quite heterogeneous. There are number of subjects, diversified subject material and learning experiences that are to be provided by the teachers to the learners of varying capacities and age groups. Therefore, it is quite important that there cannot be a single theory applicable to all types of

learners, learning experiences and teaching-learning situations. Consequently, a number of teaching theories developed by educationists and psychologists are available for enabling the teachers to select and plan their own way of teaching according to the needs of the situation. These theories can be properly discussed by broadly classifying them into the following three groups: 1. Formal theories of teaching 2. Descriptive theories of teaching 3. Normative theories of teaching. Let us now discuss the theories lying under these groups (Figure 7.1) one by one.

Formal Theories of Teaching These theories are based on certain principles of thought, science of knowledge and philosophical assumptions and, that is why, these are also termed as philosophical theories of teaching. The following four theories are included in this category:

Maieutic theory of teaching It is the earliest philosophical theory organized from the ideas and methodology of teaching put forward by the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato. It also reflects the essentials of the educational philosophies of great Indian educationists such as Vivekanand and Gandhi. The essence of these philosophies lies in the assumption that all knowledge rests within the individual child and the task of teaching is to unfold the knowledge. As a teacher, one has to draw out the best in the child’s body, mind and spirit. He does not have to put or induce anything from outside. The knowledge is already there in the child’s mind. The teacher’s job is to help the child in the recollection of the stored knowledge. In other words, child has all the inherent potentialities like a seed to grow in a useful plant. All what has to be done by the process of teaching is to provide adequate opportunities for the proper germination and growth of these potentialities.

The special feature of this theory, in this way, can be summarized as follows:

Figure 7.1 Types of teaching theories.

1. The knowledge to be gained by the child through education already lies within him in the shape of forgotten knowledge. The task of teaching is to help the child in its proper recollection. 2. Every child is born with inherent capacities and abilities. The teacher’s job is to help the child in actualizing these potentialities and converting it from internal to external. 3. In the upbringing and education of the child, this theory puts more emphasis on hereditary than environmental influences.

Communication theory of teaching Quite contrary to Maieutic theory, this theory believes that the child has nothing with him like forgotten knowledge or inherent capacities which needs to be reproduced or unfolded through teaching. That is why, what is given to him in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes or interests is always affected from outside. It is not the child but the teachers who are preequipped with knowledge and skills at the time of teaching and it is their duty to communicate the same to the child by adopting proper methods for

his welfare and development. The teacher may use a variety of methods and devices like narration, explanation, demonstration, and experimentation for making his communication as effective as possible. In this way, quite appropriate to its name, this theory considers teaching as a way of effective communication. The extent to which a teacher is able to communicate well to his students for bringing the desired changes in their behaviour, he is said to be an excellent teacher. On philosophical lines, this theory is considered to be conceived through the Herbartian assumption of apperceptive mass, i.e. assimilation of new experiences to a mass, already existing in the mind (consisting of past experiences and old ideas). Consequently, communication theory advocates that while communicating with their students (i) teachers must make use of their past experiences, (ii) as methodology, they should make use of explanation, narration and demonstrations activities, (iii) they should try to make maximum use of their students’ sensory and perceptual abilities, (iv) in planning their lessons it is advisable to follow the five famous Herbartian steps, namely preparation, presentation assimilation, organization and recitation. The main features of communication theory may be summarized as follows: What is to be taught to the child lies outside him and not within the child? Teacher has to provide the knowledge and skills to the child by utilizing the communication strategies involving telling, showing and doing activities. Sensation and perception play a key role in the process of communication. For better communication, the new knowledge should always be linked with the past experiences and old knowledge possessed by the students. Hereditary and environmental factors, both should be provided due importance in the process of teaching.

Moulding theory of teaching

This theory considers teaching as a process of behaviour modification or a way of shaping and moulding the students’ behaviour and personality in a desired pattern. It is the outcome of the ideas propagated by the school of behaviourism and involves the principle of stimulus response theories including operant conditioning. As a result, in the teaching advocated by this theory, environmental influences hold the key and thereby the whole attention is paid towards setting the proper environment for the teaching and arranging the most appropriate learning experiences leading to satisfactory and rewarding results. Due care is also taken to provide immediate reinforcement for the shaping of sound conduct, attitudes, beliefs along with the assimilation of right knowledge and useful skills. The essential features of this theory may be summarized as follows: Environmental influences play a great role in the shaping and moulding of human behaviour and personality. Teaching is nothing but an attempt for the proper organization of environmental influences to help the child in shaping and moulding his behaviour in a desirable way. In the process of behaviour modification carried out through teaching, due care should be taken to maintain proper link between the stimulus and response by arranging relevant learning situations. The teacher’s main task lies in arranging proper learning situations and providing reasonable freedom to the child for learning and developing his potential in a desired way.

The mutual inquiry theory This theory believes that a child is very curious by nature and he is in the habit of acquiring knowledge by putting questions or making inquiry about many things and happenings. Therefore, teachers’ main duty lies in arranging the learning situation in such a way that help the child to discover the knowledge by himself through inquiry. However, in doing so, he has to inquire or investigate about: 1. the nature, interest and basic potential of the child; 2. the nature of the subject matter or learning experiences to be acquired through inquiry;

3. the method of enquiry suited to the nature of the subject and needs of the learners; and 4. the nature of the environmental settings that can be helpful in making use of such inquiry and problem solving approach. In other words, according to this theory, teaching becomes a cooperative enterprise in which both the learner and the teacher engage in the process of inquiry and achieve the desired instructional objectives by adopting inquiry and investigating approach. Here, the task of acquisition of knowledge by the learner becomes possible through a proper environment setting in which the child is helped to achieve the desired instructional objectives with limited guidance from the teacher. He is helped in discovering the knowledge by himself instead of its mere telling by the teacher or reproduction by the learner. The teaching-learning process is shared by the learner and teacher through mutual inquiry by raising questions, sharing the discovery of new knowledge and arriving at the new and novel ways of solving the problems. The main features of this theory thus may be summarized as follows: Knowledge is best acquired through inquiry and investigation. Better teaching involves the organization of teaching-learning situations in such a way that help the child to discover knowledge with limited guidance from the teacher. Teaching-learning is a cooperative enterprise in which both the teacher and the learner have to participate by adopting inquiry and problem solving approach. The teacher and the learner both should try to select the most appropriate method for the enquiry and investigation depending upon the nature of the subject matter, available environmental settings and stipulated instructional objectives. In a nutshell, this theory recommends the use of methods promoting mutual inquiry such as inquiry training method, heuristic or discovery method and problem solving method.

Descriptive Theories of Teaching

The theories of teaching that try to describe the variables involved in the process of teaching in terms of their interrelationships and predicted effectiveness are called descriptive theories of teaching. Their so-called description is based on empirical evidences and objective observations. On account of their predictive and prescriptive nature, these theories are also termed as prescriptive theories of teaching. They prescribe and point out the proper ways of organizing instructional process to achieve the desired instructional objectives, and consequently these are responsible for giving birth to a number of theories of instruction as follows: 1. Gagne’s hierarchical theory of instruction 2. Atkinson’s optimal learning theory of instruction 3. Bruner’s cognitive theory of instruction Let us now discuss these theories one by one.

Gagne’s hierarchical theory of instruction Robert Gagne (1970) provided a theory of instruction based upon his own ideas about the types and conditionings of learning. The main ideas of his theory of instruction are summarized as follows: 1. First of all Gagne provided following eight types of learning and arranged them in a hierarchical order proceeding from simple to complex:

The types of learning arranged in a hierarchical order clearly set the way in which a child learns by following the maxim ‘simple to complex’. Accordingly, Gagne through his theory of instruction asserted that the teacher must place his instructional strategies to suit the sequential order of hierarchy of learning for leading the child from simple to complex on the path of learning.

2. Gagne along with his associate Briggs (1974), identified five learning outcomes associated with his eight types of learning. These are motor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, attitudes and cognitive strategies. They arranged them in a hierarchical order. Based on this hierarchy, Gagne proposed that the instructional procedure must be planned to suit the hierarchy of learning outcomes. In other words, the child should be made to learn the motor skills and be provided with verbal information before he is taught intellectual skills and other cognitive strategies. 3. Gagne (1977, 1979), working on the similar lines, also proposed conditions that must be satisfied if learning is to take place. He named these conditions as events or phases of learning. These conditions or events are very much instrumental to the process of learning. A child has to pass through these events in a hierarchical order while he is engaged in a learning task. Since instruction is meant for helping the child to learn, the events of instruction or instructional strategy should essentially be linked with the events of learning. The events of learning as proposed by Gagne in his theory of instruction have been presented in a hierarchical order in the Figure 7.2. Gagne’s theory of instruction suggests to lead students through a series of instructional events that have been identified as being associated with learning events and conditions essential for learning. The diagram in Figure 7.2 illustrates that an act of learning, according to Gagne, consists of eight phases. Each of these eight phases includes external conditions or events that are to be structured by the learner or teacher. For example, at the motivational phase, the learner needs to be motivated. It may be done by the learner himself or the teacher has to take pains for creating events or conditions for motivating the learner in a desired way. Each external condition or event of learning is associated or paired with the internal events or conditions, the process going on within the learner’s mind. For example, the events of motivation are associated with expectancy, the desire to expect or achieve something as an outcome of learning. These internal events associated with the external events or phases of learning counterparts are given in the rectangular boxes. While

discussing the phases or events of learning in the process of learning Gagne pointed out the different instructional events in hierarchical order that do take place in a process of instruction. Accordingly, Gagne’s theory of instruction planned the instructional strategy adopted by the teacher through the following steps:

Figure 7.2 Events of learning.

1. Get the students motivated to learn. It can be done by creating student’s interest in the learning task. To inform the learner about the learning outcomes or objectives attained may prove to be a good motivating force. 2. Make the students attend to presented learning material.

3. To assimilate new learning material by stimulating recall of the previous related learning. 4. To provide sufficient learning guidance for learning and memorizing the presented material. 5. To help the learners for the retention of newly acquired learning experiences. 6. To help the students to transfer or generalize the facts, principles or concepts to new situations. 7. To help the students demonstrate their achievement or performance and to provide them with immediate feedback.

Atkinson’s optimal learning theory of instruction Richard C. Atkinson (1968), while working with the computer for the computer-assisted instruction for dealing effectively with the problem of individual differences in learning, came out with a theory of instruction leading the students to optimal learning. An instructional strategy, according to his theory, is composed of the following steps: 1. The teacher first must lay out instructional objectives specified in behavioural terms. 2. The teacher should then chalk out a model of the teaching-learning process by specifying the necessary instructional activities. 3. A proper strategy should be chalked out by measuring the attainment of each instructional objective by designing suitable measurement scale.

Bruner’s cognitive theory of instruction J.S. Bruner proposed a theory of instruction which is very different from earlier psychologists. This theory was based on his own ideas and assumptions summarized as follows: 1. Learning is not simply a stimulus-response (S.R.) conditioning or R.S. reinforcement but rather a cognitive process. As a cognitive process, it involves the following three simultaneous acts: (a) Acquisition of new knowledge or information.

(b) Transformation of knowledge that one already possesses. (c) Checking the pertinence and adequacy of knowledge one has. 2. Curiosity is the basic instinct possessed by every individual. Right from the period of infancy, knowledge is gained on account of the curiosity about the things, objects and events surroundings us and our attempts to involve ourselves in the knowledge getting process. 3. Conceptualization or categorization is the first major step in the process of learning. We as human beings have a tremendous capacity to discriminate objects or events in the environment, categorize or classify them in a particular or generalized way. However, the child should be helped in the formation of right concepts from the very beginning. J.S. Burner advocated the use of concept attainment model devised by him for his purpose. 4. The development of cognitive abilities in human beings is a continuous process. It takes place quite systematically by involving the three developmental stages as follows: (a) The enactive mode or stage (b) The econic mode or stage (c) The symbolic representation mode or stage. At the enactive stage, the curious child gets access to some aspects of reality by resorting to motor responses. Thus, the first stage in our learning consists of motor manipulation of the objects or events surrounding us. Learning through manipulation of concrete objects or doing things should thus be an initial step in any instructional strategy adopted by the teacher. At the econic stage the individual is able to think about the objects or events through his own mental images. Thus, he is now capable to represent the reality of the objects or events through a set of images or graphics, like representation of a room through rectangular diagram. By the third stage of symbolic representation, the individual starts using symbols in place of images. Here, language and symbolism play the key role in representing the reality of objects and events. It is the highest stage where concrete reality can be represented and manipulated through pure abstraction.

5. Knowledge is important. However, it in itself cannot claim as the sole power. It is the acquaintance and mastery over the process of knowledge getting that matters much for the proper development of the individual. For this purpose, a theory of instruction, according to Bruner, should take into account the following things: (a) Nature of individual children (b) Nature of the knowledge to be received by the children (c) Nature of the knowledge getting process. 6. Children should not be made to repeat, reproduce and present the ideas, concepts and principles, but should be encouraged to learn on their own and discover things by themselves. For this purpose, they should be given proper opportunities for their own active involvement in the knowledge getting process. Emphasizing this, Bruner (1966: 72) writes, “We teach a subject not to produce little living libraries on that subject, but rather to get a student to think … for himself, to consider matters as a historian does, to take part into process of knowledge getting. Knowledge is a process, not a product”. For giving such ideas a practical shape, Bruner advocated the use of discovery learning in his cognitive theory of instruction. By this approach he wanted the students to learn through their own active involvement in the process of learning, to develop their independent problem solving skills, to analyze and manipulate information rather than to simply absorb it and to engage in the task of discovering or rediscovering and understanding the things by themselves. 7. According to Bruner, teachers should keep in mind such a theory of instruction which helps them achieve both the goals of knowledge and knowledge getting process, simultaneously. For this purpose, he advised them to cover the following four major aspects in their process of instruction: (a) Predisposition to learn. Before starting the process of teaching, the teacher should make all attempts to make the child willing and able to learn what he is going to experience through the given instruction. (b) Structuring the knowledge. Learning experiences to be given or contents to be taught should be so effectively structured that these

enable the students to grasp and relate the knowledge as effectively as possible. It is difficult to teach everything about anything to the students; it is, therefore, necessary to make the students understand the basic generalized set of basic ideas or principle to be used in both present and future learning situations. Bruner used the term coding for such generalization. For improving their instruction, the teachers should try to seek the best coding system which may help them in teaching the subject material in a way that ensure maximum opportunities to generalize. A code built upon generalization will thus help their students for a full grasp and comprehension of the subject. (c) Sequencing of the presented material. A teacher should take care of proper and effective sequencing of the subject matter and learning experiences to be given to his students. Since learning follows the sequence of enactive, iconic and symbolic representation of reality, the subject matter should be tailored and sequenced according to the sequence and order of these modes of representation. Moreover, the presented material should match the needs of the growing mind at their respective age levels. In this way, the theory of instruction put forward by Bruner emphasizes first to convert knowledge into a specific structure within the grasp of the students of various ages and then to sequence this structured material into a proper form fitting well with their existing modes of representation. (d) Providing due reinforcement. According to Bruner’s theory of instruction, teachers should pay due consideration to the mechanism of proper reinforcement in the process of instruction. In doing so, more emphasis should be paid to the intrinsic reinforcement, i.e. the internal satisfaction and self reward. The soused measures of extrinsic reinforcement, especially in the form of rewards and punishments adversely affect the students’ attempt of self-learning and independent problem solving. When reward and extrinsic motivation tends to increase the chances of repetition of the same kind of behaviour, the punishment, on the other hand, leads to the disruption of the behaviour rather than providing an instrument for its correction.

With all these views, Bruner termed his theory of instruction, descriptive or prescriptive as well as normative; prescriptive or descriptive in the sense that it tries to prescribe or describe rules and normative in the sense that it sets the norms before the teachers in the form of necessary teachinglearning conditions for achieving the desired teaching objectives. Bruner was a cognitive psychologist. He concentrated on to devise ways and means in his theory of instruction for the development of cognitive abilities of children by emphasizing on independent problem solving and discovery learning. The major points or guidelines suggested in his theory of instruction and discovery approach may be summarized as follows: 1. Try to make the best use of the students’ natural interest and instinct of curiosity. 2. Encourage students to think and learn independently. Instead of giving them ready material, let them discover or rediscover it through their own efforts. 3. Set the learning situations or conditions in such a way that (i) arouses children’s curiosity and motivation, (ii) minimizes the risk of failure, and (iii) remains as relevant as possible for the attainment of teaching-learning objectives. 4. Never resort to spoon-feeding. Discourage the students for resorting to mechanical practice, repetition and reproduction of ideas. Their level of cognitive abilities and modes of representation of reality should be given due consideration while providing them any piece of instruction. 5. Help the students in the proper identification and categorization of objects and events in a particular and generalized way. Take help of a suitable model like concept attainment model (invented by Bruner himself) for the proper concept formation in children. 6. Try to help the students to learn the ways to acquire knowledge and thus get them acquainted with the knowledge getting process besides acquiring useful and relevant knowledge. 7. Arrange the learning material into a proper structure and sequence it properly for its adequate grasping and understanding on the part of students.

8. Properly reinforce the learning behaviour of the students by concentrating on the measures of suitable intrinsic motivation or selfreward.

Normative Theories of Teaching Like animal learning, human learning cannot take place under rigidly controlled conditions. We usually have normal conditions and set-up for our teaching-learning activities. Therefore, there is a great need of theories which can explain, guide and control the variables involved in the process of teaching under normal classroom conditions. Normative theories serve such purpose. These theories properly throw light on the relationship among the teaching variables on the basis of observations carried out in normal teaching conditions. They set out the norms for the teaching-learning conditions best suited for achieving the desired teaching-learning objectives. The findings of these theories are applicable for more generalized set of situations or conditions available in a normal classroom set-up. The following four theories may be classified as normative theories: 1. Gage’s cognitive theory of teaching 2. Ryan’s theory of teacher behaviour 3. Mitra’s psychological theory of teaching 4. Clarke’s general theory of teaching. Let us discuss these theories one by one.

Gage’s cognitive theory of teaching N.L. Gage’s theory of teaching is influenced by the ideas propagated by the school of cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology does not allow the teacher to resort to simple stimulus-responses (S-R) mechanism or habit formation but asks them to make use of the principles of cognitive learning such as meaningful organization of the perceptual field, information processing, independent problem solving, etc. for utilizing the cognitive abilities of the learners to the maximum. The views expressed in Gage’s theory of teaching may be summarized as follows:

1. Teaching task is mainly concerned with helping the students in proper comprehension or meaningful learning of the content material. 2. They can have proper comprehension if this content material is organized, arranged and presented in a proper way by following the principles of cognitive learning. The programmed learning material can be cited as an example of such well-structured and organized material. 3. Teaching task consists of many activities that needs to be planned and organized according to the available situations and circumstances given as follows: (a) The type of role to be played by the teacher such as philosopher, motivator, counselor, demonstrator, supervisor, etc. (b) The type of educational objectives to be achieved. (c) The type of learning in which the learner is to be engaged just in motor learning, concept learning, problem solving, etc. (d) The type of the stage or components of learning such as preparing students to learn, sustaining their attention and interest, helping in proper comprehension, reinforcing their learning or evaluating their learning outcomes.

Ryan’s theory of teacher behaviour D.G. Ryan put forward a theory of learning based on the concept of teacher behaviour. According to it, teaching is greatly influenced by the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the teacher demonstrated by him in the classroom in order to induce learning. Therefore, the improvement in teaching and classroom instruction is dependent on the quality of the teacher behaviour demonstrated by the teacher in the classroom activities. There are certain basic assumptions attached with the teacher behaviour as follows: 1. Teacher behaviour is a function of a situational factors present at the time of teaching and personal characteristics of the individual teacher. 2. Teacher behaviour is observable and thus can be measured in terms of desirable or undesirable behaviour for the purpose of a good teaching.

Based on these assumptions, the theory of teacher behaviour emphasizes as follows for bringing improvement in the teaching process: 1. The teaching-learning conditions must be designed to help the teachers in maintaining proper teacher behaviour. 2. The teachers must pay due attention for picking up the desirable behaviour and personal characteristics helpful in good teaching and appropriate classroom interaction. 3. Since teacher behaviour is observable and can be measured to a reliable extent, good technique of its observation and measurement like Flanders’ interaction analysis may be practised for providing preservice and in-service training to the teacher. Teachers may also adopt these techniques for their self-evaluation resulting in the improvement of their verbal and non-verbal behaviour.

Mitra’s psychological theory of teaching This theory put forward by Sahib K. Mitra, a former Director of NCERT, is an attempt to apply the psychological principles in the field of teaching. The main ideas propagated by this theory can be summarized as follows: 1. Teaching needs to be restricted to the formalized instructional situation. However, it may take place in and outside the classroom and school. 2. For teaching to take place, there must be at least two persons, one the teacher and the other the students. These two persons need to be bound by a contractual relationship. The teacher has a responsibility of influencing the behaviour of the taught or pupil in order to lead him from his entry behaviour to the set terminal behaviour. 3. Teacher should formulate his teaching task based upon his knowledge of the psychological principles related to the psychology of individual differences, learning, intelligence, personality, aptitude and achievement. The teaching task so formulated may include activities like (i) analyzing teaching task, (ii) identifying entry behaviour of the pupils, (iii) defining teaching objectives, and (iv) selecting teaching strategies.

Clarke’s general theory of teaching This theory has been propagated by S.C.T. Clarke (1970). It is termed as the general theory of teaching on account of its very general nature outlined as follows: 1. It considers teaching as a generalized phenomenon or process instead of specific ones. 2. It takes into account the teaching-learning situation in general, common to all types of learning. 3. The principles in this theory are generally applicable to all types of teaching carried out at different stages for attaining general teaching objectives. 4. It gives due significance to all the variables, in general, involved at different levels in the process of teaching. 5. It talks about the general strategies adopted by a common teacher to deal with all types of learners in varied teaching-learning situations. The views expressed by Clarke in his general theory of teaching can be summarized in three different heads, namely (i) concept of teaching, (ii) variables of teaching, and (iii) levels of teaching. Let us discuss these heads. Concept of teaching: Clark’s theory of teaching considers teaching as a general phenomenon rather than a specialized one. According to it, teaching refers to activities (general in nature) that are designed and performed to produce change in student’s behaviour. Variables of teaching: According to Clarke’s theory teaching process, in general, involves the following three types of variables: (a) Independent variable: The teacher (b) Dependent variable: The learner (c) Intervening variables: The teaching-learning situations, curriculum, teaching aids, strategies, evaluation devices, etc. Levels of teaching: This theory mentions following three levels in a process of teaching:

1. Level one: It sets the stage for starting the act of actual teaching. 2. Level two: The stage of actual and active teaching. 3. Level three: The stage of appraisal and evaluation of the product and process of teaching. Besides mentioning these levels, Clarke’s general theory of teaching provides the following rules and principles to be observed for carrying out a number of activities at the different levels. Principles to be observed at the level one: According to Clarke’s theory, a teacher has to keep in mind the following principles for creating necessary conditions to initiate the process of teaching: 1. Proper opportunity must be provided for the communication between teacher and students and among students. 2. Attempt should be made for developing such teacher-pupil relationship that may induce better learning. 3. While teaching a group of students, care should be taken to build up a social environment helpful in better learning. 4. Teacher must ensure that the students are sufficiently motivated to learn. 5. The teacher must also ensure that the students are quite active in the process of teaching-learning. Principles to be observed at the level two: Level two represents the stage of action and is related with actual teaching and learning. Clarke’s general theory of teaching provides the following broad guiding principles to be observed by the teacher: Teacher must make use of such appropriate teaching strategies that are common with (a) the needs and characteristics of the learners, (b) the learning theories, and (c) the specific curricular objectives. Principles to be observed at the level three: Teaching activities at level three are related with the reinforcement and evaluation of the activities carried out

at level two. Clarke’s teaching theory provides the following guiding principles to the teachers at this level: 1. Teacher must have a proper assessment and evaluation of students’ progress in terms of the realization of set objectives. 2. Based on this assessment and evaluation, he must accordingly plan for re-teaching, modifying and substituting the teaching strategies, bringing modification and alternations in the teaching objectives, etc. 3. For proper evaluation the teacher must take care of the definiteness of the instructional objectives. Each of these objectives should be stated in definite behavioural terms incorporating the minimum level of performance demonstrated by the pupil at the end of the teaching activity. 4. Student must be able to get proper feedback from the results of such assessment and evaluation.

Conclusion about Different Theories of Teaching The different types of theories put forward by various thinkers and educationists described here may persuade us to think that each of these theories try to explain the nature of teaching and point out the various measures helpful in better teaching and instruction in their own ways. They have their own strengths and weaknesses as a theory of teaching. None of these can be called absolute and comprehensive either in explaining the nature of teaching or describing the necessary teaching activities for the purpose of effective instruction. To speak the truth, there exists no theory of teaching as such. What is available in the form of teaching theory are only models or paradigms of teaching. At best, these are able to present the different styles of teaching activities carried out in an instructional procedure or may point out the effect of teaching-learning situations or teacher behaviour on the learning of the students. There is still dearth of a comprehensive, objectively-based scientific theory to explain all what we need in understanding the nature of teaching, role of the teaching variables and overall improvement in the process and products of teaching.

SUMMARY

1. A theory of teaching can be described as the application of knowledge and understanding of the theories of psychology for improving classroom practices and the teaching skills and behaviour of a teacher. It describes, justifies, explains and suggests the most appropriate way of managing teaching in terms of its planning, organization, leading, control and prediction. It is much more than a theory of learning. While a learning theory is limited to describing and explaining the nature and process of learning, a teaching theory while dealing with the task of teaching prescribes all what is needed for effective learning. 2. A theory of teaching is needed by the teacher for accomplishing his task of teaching properly and effectively in the same way as some theoretical knowledge and understanding is always needed on the part of a person who has been entrusted with the task of building a bridge or a highway. Theory gives a better insight and understanding for the men in action for accomplishing his work in a more appropriate way and it is equally true for the teachers who need the help of a teaching theory for managing their teaching task as effectively as possible. 3. The scope of a teaching theory covers the whole range of teachinglearning process, e.g. the variables involved in this process, their interaction and impact on the student’s learning, teacher behaviour in relation to students’ behaviour and management of the teaching tasks or activities. Since the range of teaching-learning process is an expanded phenomenon as new things are always emerging in the field of instruction and education, we have to give way for the new facts, ideas and principles in the body of a teaching theory. Hence, it is quite desirable for having the boundaries of a teaching theory open for meeting the requirements of the constant changes and trends emerging in the fields of teaching tasks and teacher behaviour. 4. A number of teaching theories developed by educationists and psychologists are available. A teacher can select any of these theories for planning and organizing their teaching in their own ways as required in a particular teaching-learning situation. These theories may be broadly classified into three groups, namely formal theories

of teaching, descriptive theories of teaching and normative theories of teaching. 5. Formal theories of teaching presents certain specific principles of thought, science of knowledge and philosophical assumptions before the teachers which they can observe formally in their task of teaching and teacher behaviour. As examples of these theories we may name the theories like Maieutic theory of teaching, communication theory of teaching, moulding theory of teaching and the mutual inquiry theory of teaching. Maieutic theory of teaching is the earliest philosophical theory advocating that all knowledge rests within the individual child and the task of teaching is to unfold this knowledge. Contrary to Maieutic theory, communication theory of teaching believes that the child has nothing with him like forgotten knowledge or inherent capacities that needs to be reproduced or unfolded through teaching. It is not the child but the teacher who is preoccupied with knowledge and it is the duty of the teacher to communicate the needed knowledge to the student at the time of teaching. Moulding theory of teaching considers teaching as a process of behaviour modification or a way of shaping and moulding the students’ behaviour and personality in a desired pattern. According to the mutual inquiry theory, teaching is to be regarded as a cooperative enterprise in which both the learner and teacher try to engage in the process of inquiry and investigation for the realization of the desired instructional objectives. 6. Descriptive theory of teaching are those theories of teaching that describe the variables involved in the process of teaching in terms of their interrelationships and predicted effectiveness. As examples of these theories, we may name the theories like Gagne’s hierarchical theory of instruction, Atkinson’s optimal learning theory of instruction and Bruner’s cognitive theory of instruction. Gagne’s hierarchical theory of instruction provides an organized hierarchical structure for the instructional process carried out by a teacher in the classroom by leading his students through a series of instructional events that may be properly associated with learning events and conditions essential for learning. Atkinson’s optimal learning theory of instruction helps a teacher in leading his students to optimal learning by chalking out an

appropriate model of teaching-learning process for the attainment of the specified teaching-learning objectives. Bruner’s cognitive theory of instruction advocated the use of discovery learning for helping the students to learn the way of acquiring knowledge and thus get acquainted with the knowledge getting process, besides acquiring simultaneously an useful and relevant fund of knowledge related to a particular piece of instruction. 7. Normative theories of teaching are those theories that can explain, guide and control the variables involved in the process of teaching under normal classroom conditions. As examples of these theories, we may cite the name of Gage’s cognitive theory of teaching, Ryan’s theory of teacher behaviour, Mitra’s psychological theory of teaching and Clarke’s general theory of teaching. Gage’s cognitive theory of teaching emphasizes the use of the principles of cognitive learning such as meaningful organization of the perceptual field, information processing, independent problem solving, etc. for utilizing the cognitive abilities of the learners to the maximum. Ryan’s theory of teacher behaviour emphasizes on bringing qualitative improvement in the teacher’s behaviour (both verbal and non-verbal) demonstrated by him in the classroom in order to produce better outcomes of the classroom teaching. Mitra’s psychological theory of teaching attempts to apply the psychological principles for influencing students’ behaviour in order to lead them properly from their entry behaviour to the desired terminal behaviour. Clarke’s general theory of teaching considers teaching as a general phenomenon rather than a specialized one. According to it, teaching refers to activities (certainly general in nature) that are designed and performed by a teacher to produce desired changes in student’s behaviour. 8. All the teaching theories, put forward by their respective propagators, try to explain in their own ways the nature of teaching and the measures helpful in carrying out the task of teaching. None of these theories may work well in a generalized way in all the teachinglearning situations. Therefore, a teacher, while proceeding on his path of teaching, should try to incorporate the essence of all these teaching theories in his teaching depending on the requirements of the teaching-learning situations he faces at that time.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by theories of teaching? Define and explain the meaning. 2. Define the term theory of teaching and discuss its meaning and nature in detail. 3. What do you understand by theories of teaching? Discuss their need and significance as a teaching technology. 4. Throw light on the meaning, nature and scope of theories of teaching. 5. What are theories of teaching? How can their knowledge help you to become a better teacher? 6. Discuss the use and importance of teaching theories in the process of teaching-learning. 7. Write short notes on the following: (a) Nature of theories of teaching. (b) Need and significance of theory of teaching. (c) Scope of theories of teaching. 8. Name the different theories of teaching and discuss any one of them in detail. 9. What are formal theories of teaching? Discuss in brief. 10. Discuss the formal theories of teaching by pointing out their main features and educational advantages. 11. What are descriptive theories of teaching? Discuss any two such theories in detail. 12. Discuss Gagne’s hierarchical theory of instruction in detail. 13. What are teaching or instructional theories? Throw light on the Bruner’s cognitive theory of instruction. 14. What are normative theories of teaching? Discuss any two of these theories in detail. 15. Explain and discuss Gage’s cognitive theory of teaching. 16. Throw light on Ryan’s theory of teacher behaviour.

17. Discuss in brief Mitra’s psychological theory of teaching. 18. Discuss in brief Clarke’s general theory of teaching. 19. Write short notes on the following: (a) Formal theories of teaching. (b) Descriptive theories of teaching. (c) Normative theories of teaching. (d) Cognitive theories of teaching. (e) Gagne’s hierarchical theory of teaching. (f) Clarke’s general theory of teaching.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Atkinson, R.C., “Computerized Instruction and the Learning Process”, American Psychologist, 12:225–239, 1968. Briggs, L.J. (Ed.), Instructional Design: Principles and Applications, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey : Educational Technology Publications, 1977. Bruner, J.S., Toward a Theory of Instruction, New York: Norton, 1966. Clarke, S.C.T., “General Teaching Theory” Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. XXI, No.3, Fall, 1970. Gage, N.S., “Theories of Teaching”, Theories of Learning and Instruction, E.R. Hilgard (Ed.), 63rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago: University Press, 1968. Gage, N.L.(Ed.), Hand Book of Research on Teaching, Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1963. Gagne, R., The Conditions of Learning, 2nd ed., New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1970. Gagne, R. and Briggs, L., Principles of Instructional Design, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1974. Gagne, R., The Conditions of Learning, 3rd ed., New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1977. Gagne, R., The Conditions of Learning, 4th ed., New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1979.

Goode, William J. and Paul K. Hatt, Methods in Social Research, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952. Harold, F. O’Neil, Jr., Ray S. Perez (Eds.), Technology Applications in Education: A Learning View, Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Publishers, 2003. Kerlinger, F.N., Foundations of Behavioral Research, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1964. Lloyd, Les. (Ed.), Technology and Teaching, Publication Information Medford, NJ : Information Today, 1997. Matheson, Douglas W., Richard L. Bruce and Kenneth L. Beauchamp, Introduction in Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1970. Mitra, S.K., “Psychology of Teaching: Rudiments of a Theory”, Educational Trends, July–Oct., pp. 23–45, 1972. Ryans, D.G., Characteristics of Teachers: A Research Study, Delhi: Sterling Publishers(P) Ltd., 1969. Smith, B.O., “Toward a Theory of Teaching”, in A.A. Bellack, (Ed.), Theory and Research in Teaching, New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1963.

8 Principles and Maxims of Successful Teaching CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction General Principles of Teaching Psychological Principles of Teaching Maxims of Teaching Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Teaching is a skilled job and a complex task. By all means, it is done for the benefit of the pupils, i.e. to bring desirable changes or improvement in their behaviour. Success of this operation depends upon a good planning and masterly execution of the same. The educationists, psychologists, research workers and the teachers working in the fields have tried to establish some general principles, psychological principles and maxims of teaching which may prove quite helpful in making the task of teaching quite effective and purposeful. In the coming pages, an attempt will be made to present these in details.

General principles of Teaching There are some general principles of teaching that have emerged from the general experiences, traditions and new researches in the field of education and pedagogy. Some of these broad principles may be summarized as follows:

Figure 8.1 General principles of teaching.

Principle of definiteness of goals or objectives A teacher without having clear knowledge of the goals or purposes of his teaching is similar to that sailor who does not know the destination of his boat moving in a vast ocean. The knowledge that he has to run

100 metres or 400 metres from a marked place to another marked place makes the task of a racer quite definite, purposeful and stimulating. Similarly, if a teacher knows his task in terms of the welldefined instructional or educational objectives or goals, he may win half the battle. Definiteness of the goals helps him at every step, phase or act of teaching. He may plan, execute and evaluate all the aspects of his teaching in the light of the stipulated objectives. With the help of definite clear-cut objectives, he always remains on track and never goes astray, and consequently the possibility of a good teaching is always enhanced by observing the principle of definiteness of goal or objectives.

Principle of planning The success of any task or activity depends upon the quality of preplanning. The desired goals in a teaching act may be achieved smoothly and effectively through proper planning. A teacher, therefore, should try to plan and prepare the details of his lesson in the form of lesson notes before its delivery. The planning must include the establishment of instructional objectives in behavioural terms and the relevant subject matter and its organization into proper units. The method, techniques or strategies of presentation, interaction and evaluation should also be clear-cut. In brief, the teacher should very carefully plan the details of the journey that he is going to make with his students in the classroom or some other teaching environment.

Principle of flexibility and elasticity The teaching act requires proper planning before hand but it does not mean that it should become rigid and stereotyped. Teaching is a complex task and a live phenomenon. At the execution stage, the possibilities of alteration in planned situations or environment cannot be ruled out and, therefore, the principle of flexibility and elasticity

needs to be observed for enabling the teacher to deal effectively with the aroused situation. He must be quite resourceful, imaginative, original and creative for adapting himself as well as his teaching to the requirements of the students and teaching-learning environment.

Principle of utilizing past experiences Past experiences may be regarded as a base or foundation on which the structure of a new knowledge can be safely built. Therefore, what a teacher teaches should be properly linked with the already acquired knowledge and experiences. This facilitates the teaching act and helps in achieving the stipulated objectives with great ease and economy. There is no state like complete vacuum in the process of teaching. At any stage there exists an entry behaviour which provides a base and starting point for bringing desirable changes or further improvement in the behaviour of the child. What is already known or experienced by the child should, therefore, be always made the starting point of acquainting him with what he does not know or ought to know.

Principle of child-centredness Teaching is aimed to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of a child. Therefore, it is essential to adopt child-centred approach in all aspects of teaching. The planning, implementation and evaluation of a teaching act should invariably centre around the child. The curriculum, methods and techniques, management of teachinglearning environment and evaluation, all should serve the cause of the students.

Principle of making provision for individual differences Nothing is alike in nature. We all vary in terms of the innate and acquired traits, abilities and capacities. Some are slow learners and

others are quite fast. In the continuum of growth and development, entry behaviour and acquisition of abilities in the conative and affective domains, all children occupy different positions. Therefore, a good teaching should make adequate provision for individual differences. The teaching which does not cater to the needs and abilities of individual child, cannot be expected to achieve specific goals of bringing desirable changes in the behaviour of all children. Therefore, by all means, teaching is to be designed, performed and evaluated in view of the principle of individual difference.

Principle of linking with actual life If education is for living and aimed to prepare the child to lead life happily and progressively in a social context, then every teaching should be essentially linked with the necessities and happenings of actual life. Teaching should never be confined to the classroom or school boundaries, but should invariably be linked with actual life.

Principle of correlating with other subjects Different subjects of the school curriculum serve same goals or objectives. The artificial division of knowledge in the form of different subjects stands for facilitating the task of teaching and, therefore, should not be taken as watertight compartments in themselves. There exist intimate links among various subjects. The study of a particular subject definitely helps the learning of many things in other subjects. Valuable energy and efforts of the teacher and pupils may be saved if the principles of correlation and transfer of learning is utilized properly. For example, a teacher of history should never hesitate to point out the possibilities of the transfer of the knowledge of history in other disciplines and should himself utilize the knowledge of geography, mathematics, basic sciences, economics and other subjects for bringing efficiency in his teaching.

Principle of effective strategies and instructional material The products are the outcome of the processes, and processes depend heavily on the types of strategies, tacts and means chosen and employed. Teaching process, for its success, also demands effective strategies, means and material. They all vary with the variances in the goals and purposes, human material and teachinglearning environment. What is suitable for the teaching of a particular subject, topic or sub-topic to a student in a particular situation may or may not suit in other situations. Therefore, great care should be taken to chose an appropriate strategy and a set of instructional material.

Principle of active participation and involvement A good teaching should always be a two-way traffic, making the task of teaching a cooperative effort of the teacher and the taught. Teaching is like a current flowing in a livewire with the teacher and the taught at its two ends. A teacher who is trying to flow the current of knowledge without the involvement of the student is unnecessarily wasting his energy and the resources of the community. A good teacher, for effective results, always tries to seek active participation of the students in the teaching-learning process. Besides his sincere involvement in the teaching act, he persuades, inspires and involves the students in realizing the objectives of his teaching.

Principle of conducive environment and proper control The role of a conducive and effective management or control of the teaching-learning situations can never be denied in any teaching. Environmental factors like proper seating arrangement, ventilation, light, classroom interaction and group dynamics, discipline and tone of the school always influence the teaching-learning process, and

therefore care should be taken for their desirable arrangement and control.

Psychological principles of Teaching Psychological principles of teaching are different than the general ones, which have resulted through the experiments and researches of the field in psychology of learning. Directly or indirectly they stimulate and influence the teaching process and make it more effective. Some of the important psychological principles are summarized as follows:

Principle of motivation and interest Motivation and interest are the two central factors in any process of teaching and learning. The theories of motivation, interest and laws of learning, like law of readiness, have established the validity of these two factors. Motives are the potent forces that energize or activate all behaviours of an individual. The objective of bringing desirable changes in the behaviour can only be achieved if one is motivated to try or accept that change in his behaviour. Similarly, interest provides key to the learning and desired changes. The saying that “You can take a horse to water but you can’t make him drink” fits equally well with a child who is made to learn something for bringing desirable changes in his behaviour.

Figure 8.2 Psychological principles of teaching.

Attention capturing and attention giving, the essential elements of a teaching or learning act, can only be accomplished through a wellplanned scheme involving arousal of motivation and interest of the pupils in the teaching-learning process. Therefore, a teacher should always take care of the factors of motivation and interest for seeking the child’s readiness and involvement in the teaching-learning act.

Principle of repetition and exercise It was Thorndike who tried to put experimental evidences in favour of the utility of repetition and exercise in the process of teachinglearning. It has now been clearly established that the desired changes in behaviour may occur frequently and effectively through the use of the principle of repetition and exercise. The saying that “practice makes a man perfect” applies well in the aquisition of

knowledge, skills, attitudes and interests. The teacher who believes in providing practice, revision, recapitulation and application of what has been taught by him may successfully achieve the objectives of his teaching.

Principles of change, rest and recreation Psychological experiments in learning have demonstrated the ill effects of monotony, fatigue, and lack of attention in any learning task. The remedy in the form of stimulus variation and other types of changes in the contents, methods and teaching-learning environment and provision of appropriate rest and recreation had also been proved quite effective. Therefore, a wise teacher should essentially plan and implement the provision of change, rest and recreation in his teaching act.

Principle of feedback and reinforcement Learning theories have well established the role of reinforcement and feedback devices in any task of teaching and learning. The immediate knowledge of the results and positive reinforce in the form of praise, grade, certificates, token economy and other incentives may play wonder in making the task of learning a joy, a thing to do again and again and an experience that is retained long. The behaviour modification, a major goal of the teaching-learning process, may be properly achieved through the observation of the principle of feedback and reinforcement.

Principle of sympathy and cooperation A good teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide. He is not to dictate or direct the students but walk along with them on the track of learning. He is to provide adequate encouragement and guidance by seeking their sympathy and cooperation. He is to become a part and parcel of the group and he is supposed to lead. He is the one who

can be relied on and approached by the students for overcoming their difficulties. The task of teaching can never accomplish its objectives, if a teacher does not try and secure active participation of the students. The classroom environment becomes live and fruitful when the teacher and students work on the same platform, sympathizing and helping each other in the major task of teaching and learning. Therefore, a good teacher should always take care of the principle of sympathy and cooperation.

Principle of providing training to senses Senses are said to be the gateway of knowledge. Researches in the field of learning have clearly established the importance of senses in acquiring any type of learning experiences. The results are more encouraging when an experience is acquired through the use of a combination of senses—sense of hearing, sight, taste and touch. For this purpose, one has to train and use one’s sense organs in an effective way. Defective sensation may lead to disastrous results. The power of observation, discrimination, identification, generalization and application may only be made appropriate through the effective functioning of senses. Therefore, a teacher should make proper arrangement for the training of the senses of his students for the realization of better results.

Principle of utilizing group dynamics Groups behaviour and group dynamics play an effective role in the attainment of the objectives of teaching. Under the influence of group behaviour, individuals think as the group thinks, feel as the group feels, do as the group does. The group leader, the interaction process between the group and the leader and among different members, the effect and counter effects of other groups—all work towards the creation of a particular educational environment and also exercise their force to bring changes in the behaviour of the students. A wise

teacher should try to utilize the essential aspects of the group psychology for the attainment of better results.

Principle of encouraging self-learning A good teacher should be able to inculcate the habit of self-study, independent work and self-learning among the students. There is no end of knowledge in this world and one cannot even get a fragment of this vast ocean through spoon feeding or direct instruction from a teacher. He has to learn this way of acquiring the knowledge and seek the path of self-learning in order to learn essentials of life for his adequate adjustment. Therefore, a teacher should always work for creating the environment of self-learning by providing suitable opportunities and training to his students for this purpose.

Principle for fostering creativity and selfexpression Good teaching does not result in unintelligent learning, cramming or exact reproduction of the facts. By all means it should be able to develop the creative aspects of one’s personality. It should work as an effective medium for self-expression so that students may be able to develop their hidden talents and abilities. It should call upon the originality, novelty, inventiveness of the students for the selfexpression and creation. Students should be made to learn exploration of the things, events and find cause-effect relationship in the happenings, and thus set their energies for creating and doing something new for the development of the society and humanity.

Principle of remedial teaching A teaching act aims to bring some stipulated behaviour changes in the students. The task is not so simple as it seems to be. There are many intervening variables and obstructions. It may be realized soon by the teacher that when he has not been able to achieve his

objectives, definitely, there has been something wrong with his objectives, contents, and methods or his interaction with the students. A particular student may not be able to learn on account of his specific limitations. The teacher has to find out where the fault lies and then think for the possible remedy. He may arrange for the remedial education to any particular student or a group of students for removing their specific difficulties and providing them adequate opportunities for proper growth and development.

Maxims of Teaching Experience is said to be a good teacher and a trusted guide. Educationists and teachers engaged in the task of actual classroom teaching have evolved certain simple notions and working ways based on their own experiences which may prove quite helpful in the task of teaching. These are known as maxims of teaching. They are quite trustworthy, time honoured and universal. Let us try to discuss some of the important ones.

From known to unknown The unknown is usually feared whether the known is trustworthy. Hence, known can always prove a reliable base for making acquaintance with the unknown. A known friend or an individual may work as a source for acquaintance with other people. Similarly, previous knowledge of a particular subject or topic may help us to collect new information and explore the unknown. After acquiring knowledge and skills in solving the problems on addition and subtraction, one can learn easily the essentials of multiplication and division. A wise teacher should always plan his teaching on the principle of proceeding from the known to the unknown. He should first try to acquaint himself with the entry behaviour, previous experience and all that is known by the pupil and then proceed on his

task of teaching new things or deriving some changed form of behaviour from his pupil.

From definite to indefinite A good teaching should always lead from definite to indefinite. One can always trust the tested or definite, and therefore definite things, concepts, events or knowledge may be easily approached for catching the indefinite ones. Definiteness of the known facts in a multiplication table may help a student to acquire the knowledge or skills concerning thousands of odd combinations related to multiplication, division, square or cube roots. Similarly, definite rules of the grammar may help a student learn the concerned language effectively.

From simple to complex It is always better to begin with the relatively simpler things than to fight with the unnecessary difficult and complex ones. Proceeding from simple to complex or easy to difficult always provides an appropriate learning order or sequence. Such properly graded sequence may work as the schedules of automatic reinforcement as the grasp and understanding of simple ones not only motivates an individual to aspire more and little difficult but also equips him with the understanding and mastery of the difficult and complex concepts and phenomena in the course of learning.

From concrete to abstract Abstract is confusing, difficult to understand and subjective. One may be easily bored, fatigued, perplexed and lose one’s patience while attending to an abstract phenomenon. It is difficult to be remembered and applied in practical situations. In contrast, concrete is relatively simple, understandable or objective. Acquisition of a new knowledge or skill may become a simpler task when it is supported with concrete

examples, objects and events. A good teaching should lead from concrete to abstract. The concrete material is to be shown, living examples are to be given and the children should be given maximum opportunities for acquiring direct experiences in order to make them able to learn the abstract concepts and experiences at the later stage.

From actual to representative Actual or real objects, a piece of knowledge, principle and theorem are always better than their replica or representative in any process of teaching and learning. An on-the-spot experience of the thrills and life of a mountain lake, lonely desert, whistling trees and chattering birds is unmatchable in terms of direct influence and educative value. Visit to an airport is going to have lasting impression and clarity in thoughts and concepts in comparison to mere talking about aeroplanes and aerodrome verbally or through illustrative aids. Therefore, a wise teacher should always lead his students from actual phenomenon to the artificial representation.

From particular to general Generalized facts, principles, concepts and phenomena are quite abstract in nature and, therefore, should not be presented in the beginning of a teaching. A teacher who begins by saying that matter has weight and then presents particular examples or provides demonstrations related with particular solids, liquids or gases is placing horse before the cart. One cannot generalize without facing or acquainting oneself with the particular instances leading to the generalization of the fact or behaviour. Therefore, a teacher should always begin with the learning or experiencing of the particular cases, facts or instances and then persuade his students to generalize or conclude.

From whole to parts

Whole is always not only greater than the parts but also more understandable, motivating and effective. Therefore, beginning should always be made with the whole, and then step-by-step its various parts or constituents should be presented before the students. For example, in teaching the topic “parts of the flower”, the beginning should be made with the actual presentation of the whole flowering plant and then gradually the knowledge of the elements and functioning of the different parts should be presented. Similarly, a model of the water pump and the actual working of this pump should be demonstrated as a whole and then the study and working of its different parts should be taken step-by-step.

From induction to deduction Induction is a way of proving a thing or statement by arguing if it is true for a particular case, and then it should be true for the next similar case, and so on. While employing it in teaching, a teacher is required to place particular instances, examples facts or experiences before the students. On the basis of similarities of properties and repetition of a phenomenon, the students are thus made to generalize a concept, principle or rule. On the other hand, deduction is the net result of induction. Here the beginning is made by placing the generalized fact, principle, formula or rule before the students and then they are asked to verify the truth of the generalization by applying it in particular instances or examples. It is needless to say that all good teaching begins with induction and ends in deduction. Knowledge is formative and induction is a way of discovering the knowledge. Deduction is the result of such discoveries. Therefore, a teacher should always proceed from induction to deduction in his teaching.

From analysis to synthesis

Analysis refers to a process of breaking or separating out a thing into the simpler parts, elements or constituents in order to understand its structure or composition. It is a sort of operation or investigation that is being carried out to know the hidden aspects of a problem, the causes of an event or behaviour or understanding the complex nature of a thing or phenomenon. For example, to understand the structure and working of a machine, the structure may be disassembled in terms of its various components or parts and then one can gather knowledge for these components. To know the composition of a salt (compound or mixture) it may be analyzed into its elements and then knowledge about the composition or properties of various elements may be acquired. On the other hand, synthesis works quite opposite to analysis. It refers to a process of combining the different elements or parts of a thing in totality. In comparison to synthesis, the process of analysis represents a systematic and natural way of investigation and discovery. It is a formative approach quite applicable to the beginning of a learning or teaching act. Therefore, good teaching should always begin with analysis and lead to synthesis.

From empirical to rational In a teaching-learning process, it is always safe to begin with what we see, feel and experience than with what we agree, generalize or explain. The former approach is empirical while the latter is rational. Development of the rational point of view is a goal, a result of a process of empirical findings. The concrete facts or empirical evidences are the rock bottom of a conclusion or rational knowledge. The rational thinking is not the product of empty ideas or lofty ideals having no naked truth or concrete happenings. A teacher has to place facts, evidences, direct or indirect experiences, examples and instances full of objectivity and validity to arrive at some conclusion or develop a rational point of view in understanding the nature and concepts of the objects, people, events and phenomena. Therefore,

in good teaching one should always lead the student from empirical to rational goals.

From psychological to logical Psychological point of view emphasizes the importance of psychological principles of learning and teaching in the process of education. Here, the child is the centre of education; his needs, interests, abilities and capacities are the deciding factors for the planning and organization of the teaching activities. The instructional goals are made to serve the cause of the child. The curriculum, teaching strategies, aid material and teaching-learning environment, all are set in view of the psychology of the child and teachinglearning. But it should not mean that a teacher has to go unplanned or move haphazardly in his teaching act. What is to be taught, although based on psychological footing, should have some logic. The proper organization and sequencing of teaching activities in terms of the organization of learning experiences, teaching strategies, evaluation activities and feedback devices are very much essential for the effectiveness of a teaching act. Therefore, a wise teacher cares for a beautiful integration of psychological principle to logical agreement in his teaching. He is to move on a psychological track, keeping in view the logic behind his sequences of activities.

SUMMARY 1. The scholars and educationists working in the field of education and pedagogy (science of teaching) have arrived through their investigations and experiences at some generalized principles for the successful execution of the task of teaching. These generalized principles are termed as the general principles of teaching in the language of educational technology. The mentionable ones of these general principles are principle of definiteness of the educational objectives,

principle of planning, principle of flexibility, principle of utilizing the previous or past experiences, principle of child centeredness, principle of individual differences, principle of correlating teaching with other subjects and the real life, principle of utilizing appropriate methods, devices and strategies for teaching, principle of seeking active participation of the students and principle of creating appropriate learning environment. 2. Besides the general principles of teaching, there exists a number of principles developed through the work done by some great psychologists that can be quite effective in making the task of teaching a success. The mentionable ones on this account may be named as the principle of interest and motivation, principle of repetition and exercise, principle of change and rest, principle of feedback and reinforcement, principle of sympathy and cooperation, principle of providing training to senses, principle of utilizing group dynamics, principle of encouraging self-learning, principle of fostering creativity and self-expression, and principle of remedial teaching. 3. Experience is said to be great teacher in itself. The teachers working in the field of education through their own experiences have evolved a number of generalized notions, ideas, work mode and practices that can be properly employed for getting desired success in the tasks of teaching. In the language of educational psychology, these are referred to as maxims of teaching. The notable among them are: proceeding from known to unknown, from definite to indefinite, from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, from actual to representation, from particular to general, from whole to parts, from analysis to synthesis, from empirical to rational, and from psychological to logical.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What are the general principles of teaching? Discuss in detail. 2. What do you understand by psychological principles of teaching? Discuss in brief the various psychological principles considered useful for effective teaching and learning. 3. Explain the term ‘Maxims of Teaching’. Discuss in brief the various maxims of teaching. 4. How would you utilize the following maxims for the effective teaching? (a) From simple to complex (b) From concrete to abstract (c) From particular to general (d) From known to unknown 5. Discuss the application of the following principles in the task of teaching and learning: (a) Principle of feedback and reinforcement (b) Principle of repetition and exercise (c) Principle of child centredness (d) Principle of correlating with other subjects (e) Principle of motivation and interest (f) Principle of remedial teaching

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Bhatia, K.K. and J.N. Arora, Methodology of Teaching, Ludhiana: Prakash Brothers, 1967. Bloom, B.S., All Our Children Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. Clayto, Thomas, E., Teaching and Learning—Psychological Perspective, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1969.

Frieberg, H.J. and Driscoli Amy, Universal Teaching Strategies, Boston: Allyan and Bacon, 1992 Knirk, R.G. and Chailds, W. John, General Method of Effective Teaching—Practical Approach, New York: Thomas Y. Browell, 1973. Morrison, H.C., Basic Principles of Education, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934. Verma, K.K., A First Course in Teacher Education: General Methods of Teaching, Allahabad: The Indian Press Ltd, 1957. White William, F., Psychological Principles Applied to Classroom Teaching, NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

9 Formulation of Teaching or Instructional Objectives Learning objectives (Instructional Objectives) are the description of the behaviour expected of a learner after instruction.

—R.H. DAVIS CHAPTER OUTLINE Meaning of Instructional objectives Relationship of Instructional Objectives with the General Aims and Objectives of Teaching a Subject Taxonomy of Educational and Instructional Objectives Writing Objectives in Behavioural terms Conclusion Regarding writing of Instructional Objectives Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Meaning of Instructional Objectives At the time imparting instruction, i.e. teaching-learning of a particular lesson, unit or subunit of a subject, the teacher has to place before him some definite and very specific objectives within a specified classroom period and resources in hand. Through these specific

classroom teaching-learning objectives, known as instructional objectives, a teacher tries to bring desired changes in the behaviour of his pupils. In this way, the term instructional objectives in relation to the teaching of a particular subject may be defined as a group of statements formulated by a teacher for describing what the pupils are expected to do or will be able to do once the process of classroom instruction is over. In fact, what a teacher obtains as instructional output in the teaching-learning process are nothing but some type of behavioural changes in the pupils that may be expected as a result of the instruction related with a particular lesson, unit or subunit of the subject. Instructional objectives are thus nothing but description of the pupil’s terminal behaviour expected out of the ongoing classroom instruction.

Relationship of Instructional Objectives with the General Aims and Objectives of Teaching a Subject Goals or general aims of teaching a school subject, are known as the long-ranged ultimate goals of teaching that subject. These may not be achieved for many years after the student completes his schooling, others may never be fully achieved. However, their presence is of utmost importance for a teacher in the realization of his teaching goals. We can simulate their position in the way a star is useful to an astronaut in his imagination even through he never reaches it. General objectives or educational objective of teaching a subject are the derivatives of the aim of teaching that subject. Actually for their proper realization, aims are broken into some definite, functionable and workable units called objectives. In comparison to aims, objectives therefore represent short-term, definite goals or

purposes attainable within the specified classroom resources by a subject teacher. Instructional objectives, as a term, differ a lot from both the abovementioned terms, general aims and objectives of teaching a subject. In comparison to general aims and objectives of teaching a subject, instructional objectives are quite narrow and specific. They are definite, tangible, precise and functional. They are predetermined and are always formulated in such a way that their attainment becomes quite practicable through the usual classroom teaching within the stipulated period of fixed duration. They are the desired learning or teaching outcomes and are always stated in terms of expected pupil’s behaviour or desired behavioural changes. They are, therefore, may be termed as teaching-learning objectives or behavioural objectives. The main purpose of these objectives is to provide statements of skills, concepts or the behaviour learners are expected to demonstrate after going through particular instruction. Objectives of teaching a particular subject fall midway between goals or aims of teaching that subject and its instructional objectives. They are more specific and definite than the general aims or goals but less specific and much wider than the classroom instructional objectives. Their attainment is quite possible within the educational structure and means. In fact, classroom instructional objectives, objectives of teaching a subject at a particular or entire stage of school education and general aims or goals of teaching that subject represent a hierarchical order as shown in Figure 9.1. Figure 9.1 may well illustrate that instructional objectives are the fundamental and basic targets that could be easily achieved within the limited period and means while general aims or goals of teaching a subject are quite broad-based, lofty and difficult to achieve. Their narrower or broader viewpoints or area of influence may be further illustrated as shown in Figure 9.2.

According to the view, as depicted in Figure 9.2, classroom instructional objectives may be submerged in the reservoir of general objectives of teaching a subject at a particular school stage that, in turn, are further submerged in the ocean of general aims and goals of teaching the subject.

Figure 9.1 Hierarchical order of the aims and objectives.

Figure 9.2 A diagrammatic view of the aims and objectives.

Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives Taxonomy means a system of classification and, in this sense, a taxonomy like Bloom’s taxonomy presents a system of classification of the objectives in the similar way as Dewey’s decimal system tend to classify a number of books in a library.

The taxonomy of educational and instructional objectives has been worked out on the assumption that the teaching-learning process may be conceived as an attempt to change the behaviour of the pupils with respect to some subject matter or learning experiences. Behaviour is divided into three domains—cognitive (knowing), affective (feeling) and psychomotor (doing). The taxonomy of educational and instructional objectives has also been considered to be belonging to these three domains. The taxonomy related to cognitive domain, has been presented by Bloom and his associates (Bloom et al. 1956); the second one related to affective domain by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (Krath Wohl et al. 1964) and the third related to psychomotor domain by Harrow (1972) and Simpson (1966). Let us have a brief description of these taxonomies.

Taxonomy of Objectives in the Cognitive Domain Taxonomy of objectives in the cognitive domain, given by Bloom and his associates tries to provide the most difficult but highly promising task of classifying educational (or instructional) objectives on a continuum from the simple to the relatively complex. It helps a teacher to keep him reminded that are indeed many and important high mental processes beyond the acquisition of knowledge on the part of his students. In their much talked classification, Bloom and his associates have classified the objectives related to cognitive domain into six categories arranged from the lowest to the highest level of functioning as described below in Table 9.1. TABLE 9.1

Let us try to elaborate the taxonomy of objectives of cognitive domain given by Bloom for its clarity and understanding.

Knowledge

It represents the lowest level of the objectives belonging to the cognitive domain and primarily aims for the acquisition of the knowledge concerning: (i) specific facts, terminology, methods and processes, and (ii) generalized principles, theories and structures. The knowledge objectives mainly call for the recall and recognition level of one’s memory and therefore their evaluation is primarily made through a simple recall or multiple choice type questions.

Comprehension Comprehension is based upon knowledge. If there is no knowledge, there will be no comprehension. On the ladder of the acquisition of cognitive abilities, its level is little higher than knowledge. Specifically, it means the basic understanding of the facts, ideas, methods, processes, principles or theories. As a result, what is communicated to a learner, he may: (i) translate or summarize the communicated knowledge in his own words, (ii) interpret, i.e. cite examples, discriminate, classify, verify or generalize, and (iii) extrapolate, i.e. estimate or understand the use of knowledge and extend it to other subjects and fields.

Application Knowledge is useful only when it is possible to be applied. The application of an idea, principle or theory may be made possible only when it is grasped and understood properly. Therefore, the category of application automatically involves both the earlier categories, i.e. knowledge and comprehension. Under this objective, the learner is

required to acquire the ability to make use of the abstract or generalized ideas, principles in the particular and concrete situations.

Analysis Analysis refers to an understanding at a higher level. It is a complex cognitive process that involves knowledge, comprehension as well as application of an idea, fact, principle or theory. Through the realization of these objectives, the learner is expected to acquire the necessary skill in drawing inferences, discriminating, making choices and selection, and separating apart the different components or elements of a concept, object or principle.

Synthesis The objectives belonging to this category aim to help the learner acquire necessary ability to combine the different elements or components of an idea, object, concept or principle to produce an integrated picture, i.e. a figure of wholeness. As a result, he may be expected to propagate or present a theory or principle by combining different approaches, ideas or viewpoints. He may arrive at something new or originate some novel thing or idea after synthesizing all what is known to him earlier. In this way, it calls for the creativity aspect of the cognitive abilities and, therefore, may be considered definitely a higher level of learning involving knowledge, comprehension, application as well as analysis.

Evaluation This category of objectives aims to develop in the learner the ability to make proper value judgement about what has been acquired by him in the form of knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and synthesis. It represents definitely the highest level of objectives belonging to the cognitive domain and involves all the five categories described earlier. As a result, the learner is expected to take proper

decision about the quantitative and qualitative value of a particular idea, object, principle or theory. He may arrive at an appropriate decision about the matter and methods by making use of all the cognitive abilities acquired through the earlier categories of cognitive objectives. In this way, it can be concluded that by classifying the objectives of teaching a particular subject in the six categories discussed here, Bloom and his associates wished to make use of the contents and learning experiences of a topic/unit/subunit of a subject in such a way that results in the desired behavioural changes in one’s cognitive domain.

Taxonomy of Objectives in the Affective Domain Taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain proposed by Krathwohl, Bloom and Maria (1964), is presented in the Table 9.2. TABLE 9.2 Taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain arranged from the lowest to the highest level of functioning

Let us try to elaborate further the classification shown in Table 9.2 for its clarity and understanding.

Receiving It represents the initial category for the objectives belonging to affective domain. For the inculcation of certain interests, attitudes, values or ideas, it is essential that the learner is made to receive or attend the desired ideas, events or objects. This category points out towards this necessity and takes into consideration three types of sequential activities as follows: 1. Firstly, the learner is sensitized or made aware of the existence of certain stimuli.

2. Then the desired intention or willingness for receiving or attending the stimuli is created in the learner. 3. Lastly, efforts are made for the control of the attention of the learner. He may be trained to pay selective attention and sustain it for a desired period.

Responding It represents the second level of objectives for the categories belonging to affective domain. Once a learner receives or attends to a particular idea, event or thing, he must be made to respond to it as actively as possible. The responses here do not confine itself in just paying attention or arousal of a simple intention or desire of getting a thing, as in the first category of receiving, but manifest themselves in the active behaviour like obeying, answering, reading, discussing, recording, writing and reacting to a stimulus.

Valuing When one attends as well as responds to a particular thing, idea or event, he is naturally drifted towards taking value judgement about that thing, idea or event. Therefore, this category of valuing depends upon both the former categories, i.e. receiving and responding. Here the learner is expected to imbibe a definite value pattern towards different ideas, events and objects. In practice, the objectives belonging to this category are usually concerned with the development of typical value patterns and attitudes.

Organizing This category of objectives is concerned with the construction of relatively enduring value structure in the learner by organizing and synthesizing the different value patterns imbibed by him from time to time. Ultimately, this category of objective leads the learner to form a set value structure or philosophy of life.

Characterizing by a value or value complex It is the highest level in the categories of the objectives belonging to the affective domain. Up to this stage, the learner is able to imbibe all the essential effective behaviour, i.e. various interests, attitudes, values, value complex or value patterns, a permanent set value structure and, therefore, all the earlier categories are automatically involved in the objectives of this category. At this stage, the learner is destined to imbibe typical characteristics of his individual character, i.e. lifestyle of his own. In fact, it is the end point or ultimate goal of the process of education. Now as far as the functional utility and applicability of the taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain in relation to the teaching of a particular school subject is concerned, it can be inferred that the subject material and learning experience of that particular subjects may have enough potential to bring the desired behavioural changes in the affective domains of the learners. However, at many occasions, it may also be observed that although it is possible to reach all the levels or cover all the categories mentioned in this classification through the teaching of a particular topic or subject belonging to the school curriculum, yet the task of reaching the two top levels of the affective domain (i.e. organization and characterization by a value) is not so simple. In practice, usually it yields to be a life-long task effectively mastered by a only few adults in their lives.

Taxonomy of Objectives in the psychomotor Domain It was Simpson (Simpson 1966) who first presented the classification of objectives in the psychomotor domain. Later it got modified by Harrow (1972). Those given by Harrow are being described in following pages under six different categories arranged from the lowest to the highest levels of functioning.

1. Reflex movements: Reflex movements may be considered as the involuntary motor responses to various stimuli in the environment. Examples of such reflex movements or actions are jerking of hands, closing of eyelid, stretching of the arms, etc. These movements represent the lowest level of the psychomotor behaviour. They are largely controlled by the autonomous nervous system. However, they are very much essential not only for the development of psychomotor abilities but also for the survival of the human beings. 2. Basic fundamental movements: Fundamental movements are just a step ahead of the simple reflex movements. They are not inborn and innate as the reflex movements but a child may be seen to demonstrate such movements from very early days of his life. His movements in the form of kneeling, creeping, stumbling, walking, jumping, moving hands and neck, etc. may be called basic fundamental movements. They represent the simple basic movements of the body almost requiring the serious attempts or skilled practice for their occurrence. In the later years of his life, these movements are made as a result of obeying certain kinds of orders. 3. Perceptual abilities: The development of motor abilities related to the phenomenon of perception belongs to this category of objectives. When some meaning is attached to sensation, it is termed as perception. As a result, the learner is able to derive useful meanings out of the exposure of their senses to various stimuli in the environment. His bodily movements are then governed and controlled by his perceptual abilities. Whatever is perceived by one’s senses becomes an ignition point for his motor behaviour. Such type of behaviour is learned behaviour. It is always acquired through experience and systematic training. 4. Physical abilities: For an effective motor behaviour, there is an urgent need of the development of desirable physical abilities.

If one has adequate physical stamina and abilities, he may go ahead in the task of improving his psychomotor behaviour. Therefore, this category of objectives aims to develop the various physical abilities of the learners like tolerance to stand against rough weather; to do hard labour, to carry heavy load, to bend an article, or to demonstrate one’s physical power in starting, stopping or running an object or machine. 5. Skilled movements: Skilled movements are those complex bodily movements which help in performing skilled tasks. These movements can be acquired through an organized and systematic learning process. Their acquisition requires an intelligent understanding and sufficient drill or practice work on the part of the learner. The art of dancing, diving, driving, playing musical organs, skating, typing, swimming, and tailoring represent such skilled movements. The development of the abilities concerning such skilled movements depends upon the development of the motor abilities described under all the earlier four categories. 6. Non-discursive communication: This category represents the highest level of psychomotor behaviour. The bodily movements are hereby integrated with inner feelings and effective behaviour of the learner. In this way, the non-discursive communication may be defined in terms of the overt behaviour activities related to the communication of affective behaviour feelings or emotions. This communication may range from a simple behaviour expressed through posing or facial expression to a complex behaviour performed through a highly sophisticated classical dance, sketching, painting or acting.

An Alternative Taxonomy of psychomotor Objectives An alternative taxonomy in the psychomotor domain has been proposed by the famous American educationist Dr. R. H. Dave (1969)

in the shape of a working hypothesis as shown in Table 9.3. TABLE 9.3 Taxonomy of psychomotor objectives

Let us have a necessary explanation for the above steps.

Imitation For the learning of a psychomotor activity, i.e. drawing or surveying skill in social studies, the task begins with the imitation of observed acts. The child observes the demonstrated behaviour related to drawing of a map outline, measurement of latitude and longitude on a globe. He feels an inner push or an impulse (by having an inner

rehearsal of the psychomotor activities) to imitate the action. It is followed by the overt repetition (imitation) of the demonstrated behaviour.

Manipulation This second category of psychomotor objectives emphasizes manipulation on the part of the learner for the acquisition of skills by following directions, performing selected action and fixation of performance through necessary practice.

Precision In the third category of psychomotor objectives, the learner is able to perform skilled acts or motor activities with a desired level of precision (accuracy, exactness and right proportion) and as such may be said to reach a higher level or refinement in reproducing a given act or skilled task.

Articulation It is the fourth category in the hierarchy of learning the psychomotor activities or skills. At this stage, the learner becomes capable of coordinating a series of acts by establishing appropriate sequence and accomplishing harmony or internal consistency among different acts.

Naturalization It is the highest stage reached in terms of the development or proficiency acquired in the learning of a skill or psychomotor act. On can now perform a single act or a series of articulated acts with a greater refinement, ease and convenience as automatic and naturally as possible.

Writing Objectives in Behavioural Terms The major weakness about the taxonomies of objectives given here lies in the fact that they do not state objectives in terms of terminal behaviour, i.e. what the learner should be able to do at the end of teaching. Specification of objectives in a task of teaching and learning may prove more effective and purposeful if they are translated into behavioural language. The structure of the educational or instructional objectives mainly consists of two parts, namely (i) the modification part, and (ii) the content part. The modification part represents the behavioural changes that are designed to occur in the behavior of the learner through the related instruction or learning experiences. The content part refers to the syllabus in particular and to the curriculum in general to be covered by the related instruction. Therefore, the writing of an objective in behavioural terms is always done in relation to the following three things: 1. The nature of the objective, i.e. knowledge, application, etc. 2. The area or domain of the behaviour, i.e. cognitive, affective, etc. 3. The specific content areas in which behavioural changes are planned to be brought, i.e. fundamental rights, means of irrigation, sources of energy, etc. There are several methods of writing objectives terms. In this text, we are going to discuss the following three approaches: 1. Robert Mager’s Approach 2. Robert Miler’s Approach 3. R.C.E.M. Approach.

Robert Mager’s Approach According to Robert Mager (1962), instructional objectives are best described in terms of the terminal behaviour expected from the learners. He recommends the following things for the writing of the objectives: 1. Identification of the terminal behaviour or performance and its naming 2. Description of the important conditions under which the behaviour is expected to occur 3. Specification of the criteria of acceptable performance (desired terminal behaviour) by describing how good a learner’s performance must be for being acceptable. Mager’s approach has adopted Bloom’s taxonomy as a starting base for the writing of objectives. He has sought the help of the associated action verbs for stating the different objectives. The verbs help in describing the outcomes of learning or the terminal behaviour of the learner in a well-defined way (observable and testable). A list of associated action verbs for cognitive and affective domain has been presented in Tables 9.4 and 9.5. TABLE 9.4 A list of associated action verbs for the cognitive domain

TABLE 9.5 A list of action verbs for affective domain

For the illustration of the use of Mager’s approach in stating instructional objectives in behavioural terms (performance based), we can cite the following examples:

Knowledge objective Students state or will state (behaviour) at last five (performance) fundamental rights out of the fundamental rights presented in the text (condition).

Skill objective Using a pencil, coloured pencil and an outline map of Haryana (conditions), each student marks or will mark (behaviour) all the districts of the state (performance).

Affective objective Students describe or will describe (behaviour) the two advantages/values (performance) derived from a pollution-free environment during the visit to an ideal village (condition). However, in practice, for writing the instructional objectives while planning a lesson, teacher trainees seldom make use of such cumbersome procedure. Generally, for writing an objective of a particular domain, suitable action verbs are picked up from the list in relation to the particular topic or content portion to be taught. The objective can be written in behavioural terms by combining associated action verbs with the content. Let us illustrate it by writing objectives of teaching a particular topic/unit (duties of citizens) of the subject social studies related to the affective domain.

Miller’s Approach Mager, in his approach badly neglected the conative domain or psychomotor aspect of behaviour. Robert Miller (1962), for meeting the requirement of writing psychomotor objectives put forward his scheme based on skill analysis by outlining the following procedure: 1. Description of the indicator, indicating the relevant activity. 2. Description of the indication or stimulus that calls for a response. 3. Controlling of the object that is to be activated. 4. Description of the activity to be performed. 5. The indication of the adequacy of responses or feedback. Like Mager, he also tries to enlist associated action verbs for the psychomotor objectives. For the purpose of using Miller’s approach a list of appropriate action verbs is being provided in the Table 9.6 based on the classification of psychomotor objectives pointed out by Harrow (1972).

R.C.E.M. Approach Both Mager’s and Miller’s approach have remained unsuccessful in the task of writing all instructional objectives belonging to all the three domains of behaviour. While Mager’s approach serves the purpose of cognitive and affective objectives, Miller’s scheme is meant for psychomotor objectives. Thus, none of these two approaches cover

all the domains of human behaviour. Moreover, both of these approaches lay emphasis on associated action verbs (which are more often overlapping within and among the objectives of the domains) designating behaviours for writing a particular objective and completely neglect the mental processes or abilities of the learner in the learning process. On account of these limitations, both these approaches have come into severe attack in our country and are now being replaced by a more reasonable approach known as R.C.E.M. approach developed by Regional College of Education, Mysore. TABLE 9.6 Associated action verbs for psychomotor objectives

This approach makes use of mental process or mental abilities in place of action verbs in the writing of instructional objectives. It makes use of its own taxonomy of objectives, known as R.C.E.M. taxonomy of objectives, a modified form of the Bloom’s taxonomy. Here there are four categories in place of six given by Bloom. For doing so, the last three categories, (analysis, synthesis and evaluation) of Bloom’s taxonomy have been replaced by a common category, i.e. creativity. The other difference lies in naming the Bloom’s comprehension category as understanding in the R.C.E.M. approach. These

objectives categories of R.C.E.M. approach, along with the associated mental processes or abilities, are given in Table 9.7. The four categories of objectives, as may be evident from the Table 9.7, have been divided into seventeen mental processes or abilities. These processes or abilities are used for writing the objectives in behavioural terms. For this purpose, R.C.E.M. approach lays down the necessary outline of the seventeen frames or statements as follows: TABLE 9.7 Objectives and mental processes in R.C.E.M. approach

Note: For comparison of objectives with the R.C.E.M. objectives, readers are advised to look into Table 9.1.

1. Knowledge objectives 1.1 The learner is able to recognize ………. 1.2 The learner is able to recall ………… 2. Understanding objectives 2.1 The learner is able to see relationship between ………. and ……….

2.2 The earner is able to cite example of ………. 2.3 The learner is able to discriminate between ………. and ………. 2.4 The learner is able to classify ………. 2.5 The learner is able to interpret ………. 2.6 The learner is able to verify ………. 2.7 The learner is able to generalize ………. 3. Application objectives 3.1 The learner is able to reason out ………. 3.2 The learner is able to formulate hypothesis for ………. 3.3 The leaner is able to establish hypothesis for ………. 3.4 The learner is able to infer about ………. 3.5 The leaner is able to predict about ………. 4. Creativity objectives 4.1 The learner is able to analyze ………. 4.2 The leaner is able to synthesize ………. 4.3 The learner is able to evaluate ………

How to write objectives in R.C.E.M. approach The procedure may be sequenced as follows: 1. First of all, have in mind the entry behaviour of the learner. 2. Try to think over the element of content, topic or the learning experience to be given to the learner. 3. Try to think over the teaching or learning objective or objectives. 4. In view of the entry behaviour, element of content and the particular objective, try to select appropriate mental process or mental abilities for writing the objective in question. 5. Try to make use of the seventeen frames or statements of the R.C.E.M. approach given here and fill in the blanks in view of the entry behaviour of the learner and learning experiences given to him.

Let us now try to illustrate the R.C.E.M. approach of writing objectives with two examples from the subject social studies. Example 1

Topic/Subunit: Duties of a citizen

1.2 Students are able to recall at least five duties of a citizen (Knowledge) 2.3 Students are able to discriminate between rights and duties (Understanding) 3.4 Students are able to infer about the duties of a citizen through their daily life activities (Application) 4.3 Students are able to evaluate the contribution of the society or education in acquainting them with the duties of a citizen (Creativity) Example 2

Topic/Subunit: Indus Valley Civilization

1.2 Students are able to recall the features or characteristics of the Indus Valley Civilization (Knowledge) 2.7 Students are able to generalize about the Aryan culture and civilization. (Understanding) 3.4 Students are able to infer about the social, religious and political life of the people belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization (Application) 4.3 Students are able to evaluate the progress and development of the people belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization (Creativity)

Conclusion Regarding writing of Instructional Objectives The discussion held so far may help the pupil teachers in the task of formulating the desired instructional objectives related to the topics or

subunits of their daily lessons. They have to bring desired behavioural changes in their students. These changes are to take place in all the three domains—cognitive, effective and conative—of their behaviour. The taxonomies related to these three domains along with the approaches adopted for writing these objectives in behavioural terms thus may provide desired help to the teachers in the task of planning and writing of instructional objectives. The question, however, arises in actual practice and in the existing conditions available for teachers training what type of behavioural changes can be actually expected in the behaviour of the students through the teaching of the lessons in a particular subject. These changes falling in different domains of their behaviour may generally be summarized as follows: 1. Students may acquire the knowledge and understanding of the facts, principles, processes and ideas related to the topics and units of different branches of a particular subject of the school curriculum. 2. They may learn about the various skills related to the processes and products of the subject like drawing skill, surveying skill, computational skill, problem solving skill, discussion and interpretation skills, etc. 3. They may be able to utilize the knowledge, understanding and skills related to the subject in their daily life as well as in the study of other subjects. 4. They may develop proper positive attitude for the learning as well as the way of acquiring knowledge and skills in the subject. 5. They may develop proper interest and appreciation for the facts and principles related to the study and application of that subject. In the light of the foregoing types of expected changes in the behaviour of the students, the following types or categories of

instructional objectives may be considered suitable for the planning of their daily lessons by the teachers in their respective teaching subjects: 1. Knowledge and understanding objectives 2. Skill objectives 3. Application objectives 4. Attitude objectives 5. Interest and appreciation objectives. By adopting these five categories of instructional objectives, how should the pupil teachers plan and write instructional objectives for a particular teaching-learning unit or lesson may be made clear through the following illustration:

An Illustration of Writing Instructional Objectives Topic:

Our Solar System

Knowledge and understanding objectives 1. The pupils recall the names of the planets of the solar system. 2. The pupils tell the name of the planets which lie at the nearest and furthest distance from the earth. 3. The pupils recognize the name of planets and satellites. 4. The pupils recognize the position of the planets, moon, sun and other members of the solar system in a map or diagram of the solar system. 5. The pupils identify planets and satellites. 6. The pupils explain the difference between a planet and a star. 7. The pupils detect error in telling the comprehensive size and distance of the member of the solar system. 8. The pupils illustrate the meaning of the terms Light year, Earth year, Moon year, etc.

Skill objectives 1. The pupils draw accurate and neat diagram showing the solar system and the occurrence of solar or lunar eclipses. 2. The pupils calculate the time taken by the light from the members of the solar system to reach earth and also their relative distances from the earth. Attitude objectives 1. The pupils do not accept the mythical stories for giving the reasons of lunar or solar eclipse. 2. The pupils accept his mistake in judging planets and other stars as small as they appear from earth. Interest and appreciation objectives 1. The pupils show keen interest in visiting planetarium. 2. The pupils build a model of solar system. 3. The pupils write an article on solar system and eclipses in the school bulletin. 4. The pupils read relevant literatures concerning solar system and universe in the library. 5. The pupils derive pleasure in knowing the solar system and its place in universe. 6. The pupils show thrill and excitement in knowing the scientific facts about the members of the solar system and their impact on our life. 7. The pupils admire the contribution of ancient astronomers and scholars of geography in finding out the secrets about the solar system and universe. Note: We can bring a little modification or improvement in the task of writing instructional objectives. Instead of using the word “pupils” in all

over the statements and classifying the objects in different categories, we can make use of the following statement as a common sentence in the very beginning of the writing of instructional objectives for a particular topic. Students demonstrate (or will demonstrate) the following types of behaviour after studying the topic “Our Solar System”. After saying so we can then write the various objectives as — recall the names of the planets of the solar system. — explain the difference between a planet and a satellite. — draw a neat diagram showing the solar system.

SUMMARY 1. The term instructional objectives stands for those well-meaning definite statements that are used for expressing the instructional outcomes of a particular lesson/subunit of a subject of the school curriculum in behavioural terms, i.e. outlining the definite changes in the behaviour of the students through the study of that topic. Instructional objectives are quite narrow, specific, definite, clear, and practically well attainable in comparison to the general aims and objectives of teaching a subject. These are always stated in terms of the expected or desired changes in the behaviour of the learners and are also considered quite measurable in terms of their evaluation as the instructional output. 2. For the classification and description of the educational/instructional objectives of the various subjects of the school curriculum related to all the three domains of behaviour, various taxonomies have been developed by the different scholars. In the taxonomy provided by Bloom and his associates, the objectives related to cognitive domain have

been classified into six categories, namely knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Similarly, in the taxonomy related to affective domain given by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia, the objectives have been classified into five categories, namely receiving, responding, valuing, organization and characterization by a value or value complex. For the classification of objectives in the conative domain of the behaviour, we can mention two important taxonomies. In one of these taxonomies given by Simpson and Harrow, the objectives have been classified into six categories, namely reflex movements, basic fundamental movements, physical abilities, perceptual abilities, skilled movements and non-discursive communications. In the other taxonomy given by R.H. Dave, the objectives have been classified into five categories, namely imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation and naturalization. 3. All these taxonomies suffer from a serious limitation that these are not capable of stating the instructional objectives in terms of the terminal behaviour of the learners. The approaches like Robert Mager’s approach, Robert Miller’s approach and R.C.E.M. approach can be adopted for overcoming this limitation. While Mager’s approach is used for stating objectives of cognitive and affective domains in the behavioural terms, Miller’s approach works for stating objectives of conative domain in behavioural terms. In both these approaches, separate lists of action verbs (based on the taxonomies given by Bloom and others) have been provided for stating a particular objective in the behavioural terms. The third approach developed by R.C.E.M. may be considered a good approach in stating the objectives belonging to any domain of the behaviour in the behavioural terms. It makes use of mental processes or mental abilities stated through the different seventeen statements in place of action verbs in the

writing of instructional objectives besides using of its own taxonomy of objectives for this purpose. 4. As far as the writing of instructional objectives related to any topics in a subject of the school curriculum in behavioural terms is concerned, in our usual classroom situations, we can proceed by classifying them into five categories, namely knowledge and understanding, skill, application, attitude, interest and appreciation objectives, and then making use of any one of the three approaches provided by Mager, Miller or R.C.E.M. for writing them in behavioral terms.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you mean by instructional objectives? In what ways, instructional objectives differ from the teaching aims and objectives? Illustrate. 2. What is meant by taxonomy of educational or instructional objectives? Describe some of the popular taxonomies. 3. Describe the taxonomies of educational or instructional objectives in the cognitive and effective domain as given by Bloom and his associates. 4. What is meant by writing objectives in behavioural terms? What is its need? What are important methods or approaches of writing objectives in such a way? 5. Describe in detail Mager’s approach of writing objectives by presenting suitable examples. 6. What is Miller approach with regard to the writing of educational objectives? Illustrate it with an example. 7. What are the limitations in Mager’s and Miller’s approach? How these limitations and drawbacks have been removed in R.C.E.M. approach? Explain.

8. Discuss in detail the R.C.E.M. approach of writing objectives in behavioural terms? Illustrate with suitable examples in relation to the teaching of a subject of the school curriculum. 9. Illustrate, by selecting a particular topic from the subject matter of the subject of a school curriculum, the way in which you can write its instructional objectives.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Bloom, Benjamin S. (Ed.), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain, New York: David McKay, 1956. Burns, Richard W., New Approaches to Behavioral Objectives, Dubuque, Iowa: W. McBrown, 1972. Dave, R.H., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and Achievement Testing: Development in Educational Testing, Vol. 1, London: University of London Press, 1969. Harrow, Anita J., A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for Developing Behavioral Objectives, New York: David McKay, 1972. Harrow, R.J., A Taxonomy of the Motor Domain, NewYork: David McKay, 1972. Krathwohl, David R, B.S. Bloom, and B.B. Maria, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain, NewYork: David McKay, 1964. Mager, R.P., Preparing Instructional Objectives, Palo Alto, California: Fearon, 1962. Miller, R.B., “Task Description and Analysis”, in R.M. Gagne (Ed.) Psychological Principles in Systems Development, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1962. Marzano, Robert J. and John S. Kendall, The New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 2nd ed., Thousand Oaks, CA : Corwin

Press, 2007. Simpson, E.J., The Classification of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain, New York: Prentice-Hall, 1966.

10 Teaching Strategies and Devices CHAPTER OUTLINE Teaching Strategies Teaching Devices Types of Teaching Devices Distinguishing Teaching Devices from Methods Distinguishing Teaching strategies from Methods Distinguishing Teaching strategies from Tactics Distinguishing Teaching strategies from Devices Types of Teaching strategies Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Teaching Teaching Teaching Teaching

Teaching Strategies The term teaching strategy, in its simple meaning, stands for the type of strategy used by the teacher in carrying out his teaching or instructional work. The word strategy, in its etymological derivation,

owes its origin from a Greek word strategia and may be defined as plan and specific ways devised and employed for the realization of a goal. Strategy, as a term is quite in vogue in military science and welfare. Here, it stands well for the effective plans, means and ways derived and employed for winning a war. A chess player may also be said to employ effective strategies for winning his game. In the same way, a teacher may also need the use of strategies for carrying out his task of teaching as effectively as possible. Now what is teaching? The term teaching as defined and understood in Chapter 5 stands for a purposeful activity performed by the teacher for guiding, directing, and showing the right path to the learners in their pursuit for the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives. Thinking in this way, we may now be in a position to view the term teaching strategy in the following words: Teaching strategies may stand for the plans, means and specific ways especially devised and employed by the teachers for guiding, directing and showing path to the learners for the realization of the set instructional or teaching-learning objectives.

A similar meaning for the term teaching strategies has also been attributed by the famous writers, E. Stones and S. Morris (1972) in their book, Teaching Practice: Problems and Perspectives. They write, “Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired learner behaviour in terms of goals of instruction and an outline of planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.”

Special Features and Characteristics Based on the discussion on the meaning of the term teaching strategies, we can draw the following conclusions about the special features, characteristics and nature of teaching strategies: 1. Teaching strategy stands for a generalized plan, ways and means for carrying out the task of teaching, i.e. more

specifically for teaching a particular lesson. 2. Teaching work/lesson is directed towards the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives. 3. Teaching strategy is devised and employed to help the learners in the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives. 4. Teaching strategy brings out a scheme, some programme or teaching-learning structure, which, if followed, may help in the better realization of the set teaching-learning objectives. 5. The strategy requires a number of well-planned tactics for its effective implementation. In other words, teaching tactics are the essential components of a teaching strategy. 6. The teaching-learning structure set through a teaching strategy may well be represented through the diagram shown below.

Figure 10.1 Teaching-learning structure and teaching strategy.

The diagram in Figure 10.1 representing teaching-learning structure may reveal the following facts:

A teaching strategy is devised and employed for enabling the learner to realize the set teaching-learning objectives. A teaching strategy is always devised and employed in the light of the needs, interests and abilities of the learner, the facilities and learning environment available to the learner for carrying out his efforts for learning and the prefixed learning objectives. Teaching strategy remains open for further modification and improvement in the light of the feedback received from the learner. Teaching-learning objectives, makes central point and goal of the teaching-leaching structure. These also are dynamic and not static, we can bring desirable modification in the objectives in the light of the feedback received from the learners, teaching-learning environment, and teaching strategies.

Teaching Devices Teaching is a highly skilled job. It requires the knowledge of many arts and skills from a teacher for the execution of his job. Devices are one of such requirements that a teacher must know and practise for getting success in his task. Whether he has to make his students ready to learn, present the subject matter in a proper way and fix it in their minds or evaluate the product of his teaching, he has to resort to certain tricks and take help of some instrument or tools for deriving the desired result in the task of teaching. These tricks, techniques and tools are known as devices in the language of technology of teaching. In fact the term teaching devices or devices of teaching stands for the types of teaching tools that a teacher usually employs for producing a good work of his teaching.

Types of Teaching Devices

Various authors have suggested different ways of classifying devices of teaching in the following manner: 1. In one way teaching devices may be classified as general devices, group work devices and fixing devices. • General devices include the devices helpful in the development of the lesson taught by the teacher. Here the teacher plays the main and active role where the pupils’ task is limited merely to the listening and observing of the teacher’s activity. The devices like explanation, exposition, description, narration, storytelling, illustration, demonstration and dramatization, etc. fall in the category. • Group work devices include the devices that call for more active participation on the part of the student than the teacher. Here, students work cooperatively for a common goal. The examples of such devices are discussion, seminar, conference, workshop, etc. • Fixing devices include the devices that are helpful in the fixing of the knowledge and skill in the minds of the students. A teacher makes their use after he finishes first round of teaching for presenting the subject material before the students in the form of recapitulation, review and providing practice to the learned things. Drill work, review, summarization and assignment or homework may be cited as some of the examples of such devices. 2. Another way of classifying the devices suggests that the devices can be grouped into the categories as formal devices and informal devices. • Formal devices are the devices employed in the teachinglearning situations which are quite formal and organized. These involve special techniques in their handling for giving better results in terms of effective teaching and purposeful learning. The devices like discussion, description, illustration, demonstration, recitation, exposition etc. fall in this category.

• Informal devices are the devices that are used in the teaching-learning situation which are somewhat informal in their organization and conduct. Through these devices, learning takes place in an incidental way as a by-product of direct experiences gained by the students. The devices like excursions, field trips, visits, museum, library, etc. fall in this category. 3. Devices of teaching may also be classified into two different types, namely teaching devices and fixing devices, i.e., the devices that are used by a teacher for his teaching and its subsequent fixation in the minds of his students. In such classification, while the devices like oral communication, illustration, explaining, narration, description, questioning answering, use of chalkboard, textbook and reference book fall in the category of teaching devices, the devices like drill work, review, recapitulation, repetitive practice, homework, and assignment are included in the category of fixing devices. Practically speaking, such types of classification schemes as pointed out here do not hold proper grounds. Take, for example, the case of devices like questioning, answering, etc. Now to which category—general, group or fixing, should we attach them? Questioning and answer are involved at each stage of the lesson— preparation, presentation and follow up. These are very much essential in the group work activities and by the individual teacher for carrying out his teaching activities at all stages of the development of his lesson—preparation, presentation and follow up. There is hardly any teacher who does not make use of the question, answering device for fixing up the knowledge in the minds of the students. Similarly, teaching may be formal or informal, incidental or organized; the question-answering device holds its ground on every occasion. In a similar way, it is needless to separate fixing devices from the teaching devices. The task of fixing the knowledge and skill in the minds of the students is also part and parcel of the teaching work of a

teacher. In the delivery of his lesson, it occupies an importance place in the shape of recapitulatory, practice, drill and review stages of the presentation of lesson. Therefore, it is needless to build a gulf between the teaching and fixing devices. Rather they should get integrated and fused in one another. Actually speaking, a teacher, as the situation demands, has to make use of some of the devices like explanation, narration, demonstrations, visits to places, discussions, seminars, drill work, and recapitulation. All the devices serve the same goal—effective instruction and purposeful learning. Therefore, it is needless to divide them into some categories. All these devices, in one form or the other, are basically the devices of teaching. Hence, it is always better to designate and group them into a single composite category of teaching devices. A teacher must have the knowledge and art of all devices that he may learn in making his art of teaching as effective as possible.

Distinguishing Teaching Devices from Teaching Methods The term ‘methods’ is often confused with the term ‘devices’. However, there stand much difference between them. Teaching methods like inductive, deductive, analytic, heuristic, etc. imply a systematic, organized and orderly way of performing the task of teaching on the part of a teacher. A teacher presents the subject matter through the methodology he adopts for its presentation. The two cannot be separated. Thus, the term ‘method’ can never be taken as something outside the teaching material. Contrary to this, teaching devices are not so much interwoven with the teaching contents or material. These represent somewhat an external mode or tool— something outside the material—which are made into use by a teacher from time to time in the course of his teaching.

Methods and devices can be differentiated from each other by another angle. Teaching method owes its independent existence for running the task of teaching. It is a more complete concept than the teaching devices. In the case of applying a particular method, a teacher may make use of one or the other teaching devices. In this way, while method owes its independent existence as a system and organized plan for carrying out the task of teaching, teaching devices are used in making one or the other teaching method more effective for carrying out its purpose. For example, inductive method may be used to teach various concepts of grammar, say for example adjective and its types. The method is complete in itself to teach this concept. However, for teaching it in a better way, teacher may take the help of some suitable teaching devices like explanation, narration, and illustration.

Distinguishing Teaching strategies from Teaching Methods We are familiar with the term teaching method as we make use of different methods like lecture method, demonstration method, inductive method, deductive method, heuristic method, problem solving method, and project method in our presentation of the subject matter to the students. Any method that we use is always selected and directed to serve our purpose of presenting the subject material as effectively as possible. Any method we use, thus, reflects a particular mode of presentation of some specific contents of a curricular subject. Strategy, on the contrary, is selected not only for the effective presentation of some specific subject material but also for the realization of the predetermined teaching-learning objectives. In this way, strategy, as a term, is more comprehensive in its scope as well as structure in comparison to a method. The distinction between them can be summarized as shown in Table 10.1.

TABLE 10.1 Difference between teaching method and teaching strategy.

The distinction made between these two terms sometimes get quite narrower as both serve as the means and tools for carrying out the task of teaching as effectively as possible. That is why, we have many common names included in both the categories such as lecture, demonstration, question-answer, problem solving, heuristic, project, etc. However, the line of demarcation is quite clear. All of

these may be referred to as strategies when utilized as a means for the realization of the well-defined objectives. However, when their field of application or role is limited only to the presentation of the subject matter and they serve only as a mode for such presentation, these are referred to as methods and not strategies.

Distinguishing Teaching strategies from Teaching Tactics We employ a number of tactics for the effective implementation of a teaching strategy in the same way as we employ appropriate teaching techniques and teaching aids for the effective implementation of a teaching method. Teaching tactics, as a term, have been very comprehensively defined by E. Stones and S. Morris (1972) in the following words: Teaching tactics is goal linked, influenced or influencing behaviour of the teacher, the way he behaves in the instructional situation in working towards the development of the strategy; units of teaching behaviour through which the teacher fulfils his various instructional roles with the students of his class from moment to moment; the components of teaching behaviour through which the teacher, the students and subject matter interact.

The analysis of the above definition may reveal the meaning and nature of tactics in the following ways: 1. Teaching tactics represent those behaviours or activities of a teacher which he works out and makes use for the development of a particular teaching strategy. 2. Teaching tactics maybe taken as fundamental or basic units of teacher behaviour helpful in creating suitable learning structure for the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives. 3. Teaching tactics help the teacher in playing various instructional roles from time to time in connection with the

implementation of a teaching strategy. 4. Teaching tactics may include all those activities and teaching behaviours—verbal or non-verbal—that may be helpful in making a healthy triangular interaction between the teacher, the taught and the subject matter. 5. Teaching tactics help in the creation of appropriate learning structure for enabling the learner to achieve the determined learning objectives. On the basis of the above analysis we can differentiate between the term teaching strategy and teaching tactics in the ways as described in Table 10.2. TABLE 10.2 Difference between teaching strategy and teaching tactics

Distinguishing Teaching strategies from Teaching Devices From the discussion held so far related to the meaning, nature and functions of the term teaching strategies and teaching devices, we can very well come to the conclusion that the term teaching strategy is a comprehensive term carrying a wide meaning and application. It stands for all what we plan and take into action for realizing the stipulated aims and objectives of a teaching task. We can choose and employ certain teaching methods for this purpose and for carrying out the teaching task with our well chosen method or methods. We can make use of a number of teaching devices, teaching techniques or tactics. However, as said earlier, the distinction among the terms teaching strategies, teaching methods, teaching devices and teaching tactics sometimes gets narrower as these terms all serve the means and tools for executing the task of teaching as effectively as possible. It is more true in the case of teaching strategies and teaching devices and, that is why, in many of the textbooks as well curriculum prescribed for the teacher education by the various universities we may find a similarity in nomenclature of the teaching strategies and teaching devices, i.e. narration, exposition, explanation questionanswer, lecture, demonstration, reviewing, drillwork may be grouped in the category of teaching strategies or teaching devices. For avoiding any ambiguity and confusion, we would therefore like to address and discuss them in the present chapter as a single category, i.e. teaching strategies.

Types of Teaching strategies Teachers may use different types of teaching strategies in different teaching-learning situations for the effective realization of their objectives. These strategies may be broadly classified as autocratic

teaching strategies (content centred and teacher dominated) and democratic teaching strategies (student centred and democratically organized), as shown in Table 10.3. TABLE 10.3 Difference between the two types of teaching strategies

Let us try to know in detail about some of the autocratic and democratic teaching strategies.

Lecture Strategy Lecture, as a method and strategy, is the oldest one that has been used by the teachers to teach almost all the subjects of the curriculum at all grade or levels. It belongs to the category of autocratic strategy as the teacher plays virtually the role of a monarch and autocrat, controlling each and every function of the classroom teaching. In its simple meaning this strategy may be defined as a mode or planned scheme devised and employed by the teacher for presenting a segment or unit of the desired content material of a subject to a group of learners through lecturing (verbal communication of ideas) aiming to attain specific teaching-learning

objectives related particularly to the cognitive and affective domains of the learner’s behaviour.

Advantages Lecture, as a teaching strategy, has the following advantages: 1. It provides a long rope to the teacher for controlling and monitoring the teaching-learning activities of the classroom by remaining the pivot of the teaching-learning process. He has ample opportunity and scope for keeping all the students of his class in front of his eyes and thus enabling himself to manage and control the classroom activities according to his wishes. 2. It can help to realize not only the lower cognitive objectives like information and development of understanding but also to attain higher cognitive objectives like development of power of analysis, synthesis, evaluation, reflective thinking, etc. 3. It provides the cheapest means for the formal education system. A lecturer with a very limited resource at his command can teach a number of students at a time involving the least financial commitment on the part of an institution. 4. It is a flexible teaching strategy as it can help the teacher to plan and mould his teaching according to the needs of the subject matter, interests and levels of the students, time limit and teaching-learning environment available in a very short notice. 5. It proves quite economical in terms of saving time and energy of the teacher. One can teach a large number of students at a time and cover a wide area of content material and many other aspects of the curriculum in the limited time of the class period and days of the session. 6. It may help in maintaining a proper channel of motivation, enthusiasm and interest in the classroom. While the teacher may get reinforcement from the students when he finds that

students are listening and caring for his communication, the students also get motivated and reinforced through the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the teacher in the form of praise, gestures and postures, movement, will power and sense of humour. 7. It helps in following logical sequence in teaching as facts and information get pre-organized. One can proceed from ideas to ideas, concepts to concepts in a chained sequence by organizing the subject matter at his command. 8. It may be an ideal source of inspiration and personal touch. A lecturer may leave lasting impression on the listeners not only through his inspired talk but his behaviour and personality also communicates well and help in bringing changes in the affective behaviour of the students.

Shortcomings and limitations Lecture, as a teaching strategy, is attacked and condemned on account of its following limitations and drawbacks: 1. It centres round the content or subject matter. Here, the presentation of the subject matter is the main task. The teachers usually provide the crammed stock of information to the students without caring for the attainment of specific teaching-learning objectives. 2. It pays little or almost no attention to the needs, interests and abilities of the students. Here, the subject matter is more important than the students. With a sole purpose of finishing the courses in time, teachers pour the content material through uninteresting and lengthy verbal communication. 3. It makes the teaching-learning process totally a one-sided affair. Here the teacher talks and students listen or are made to sit before the teacher with or without their attention and interest. In this way, this strategy leaves almost no scope for

the activities or participation on the part of students. They usually remain silent spectators and passive listeners ready to bear the consequences of a boring lecture, like tender flowers pelted with hailstorms. 4. Lecture strategy, in its present form, has no place for any practical activity, observation, experimentation and demonstration. Therefore, it is not suitable to teach many subject areas needing practical understanding and application of the facts and principles as well as development of practical skills and psychomotor abilities. 5. Verbal communication is successful only when it is understood and grasped by the listeners with the same speed. The youngsters in the lower classes usually do not attain such maturity of mind as well as mastery over the oral communication. Therefore, lecture method becomes a failure with the students of lower classes. 6. Lecture strategy is a group strategy of verbal communication. There is no scope of meeting the requirements of individual learners in this type of teaching. 7. It leaves gaps in understanding. What a teacher says is not conveyed or understood by the students in the required form. It may prove costly as the students may pick up incomplete and wrong information or develop many misconceptions about the contents of the subject. 8. It provides full freedom to the teachers to speak at their will. They are in the habit of over-speaking and, in many cases, they are usually drifted away from the real teaching issues. Beating about the bush or irrelevant talking may result into unnecessary waste of the classroom time costing dearly to the students. 9. All teachers are not good speakers. They may also lack in preparation as well as depth and knowledge of the delivered lecture. Some are in the habit of providing very routine and

crammed knowledge through their lecture providing no attraction to the students for listening to it. In this way, the class period becomes too tiresome, boring and uninteresting giving rise to many disciplinary or behavioural problems and leading to develop a distaste and hatred towards the subject and the teacher. 10. It is not at all helpful in organizing the teaching-learning act at the reflective level. We can’t expect the development of proper reasoning and thinking power, power of observation, discrimination, creative thinking and problem solving behaviour, with the use of this strategy. Even understanding objective may also not be realized with the help of this strategy. It may thus meet the need of organizing teaching-learning on a very low level, i.e. memory level. With the shortcomings and limitations listed here for the lecture strategy, we should not presume that lecture strategy is absurd and we should not use it in our teaching. It is true that it may not be suitable for certain subjects and teaching-learning situations. But, on the other hand, it is also true that it is quite effective in many other situations like (i) to introduce and explain new concepts, (ii) to build larger logical structures through smaller units of information, (iii) to provide further insight with the already presented concepts, (iv) to expand the knowledge and understanding span of the students, (v) to review and summarize the content material, etc. Moreover the limitation of providing information or fulfilling limited cognitive objectives on the part of lecture strategy does not arise on account of the defects and drawbacks of this strategy. It is the result of the lack of proper knowledge of the subject matter, understanding and required skills on the part of its users. Let us try to improve the present state of affairs by taking care of the following things at different stages of teaching-learning process.

Suggestion for bringing desirable improvement in lecture strategy Planning stage: At this stage the users of lecture strategy need to care for the following: 1. The purpose or goal of the lecture strategy should be properly identified. The type of information, knowledge, understanding or reflective thinking, that you want to develop among your students should be very clear to you before planning for the use of lecture strategy. 2. The nature of the learning along with their learning potential should be properly identified. It will definitely help you in taking appropriate decision about the contents of your lecture as well as mode of its delivery. 3. Try to acquire sufficient mastery over the subject matter and contents to be delivered in the classroom through your lecture. It will make your task easier by providing necessary confidence and understanding about the subject matter. 4. Consult useful reference books, current journals and books other than the prescribed textbooks for preparing your lecture notes. Try to give the students something extra and useful not provided in their textbooks. 5. Plan and develop your lecture by identifying a few key concepts. Choose the appropriate language. Try to prepare notes for highlighting the key concepts, sub-concepts or points to be clarified during your lecture. Try to work out for the appropriate examples and illustration, to be used for presenting various concepts. 6. Have in your mind the total teaching-learning environment (the physical set-up of the class, available resources, and social and cultural environment of the students) available to you for the proper planning of your lecture.

7. In support of your lecturing, you may need to apply various tactics and techniques like question-answer, demonstration, use of blackboard, use of proper display material and A.V. aids. Try to prepare for their effective use at the right time. 8. Try to think properly for the measures you will employ for creating and maintaining interest and enthusiasm in your lecture. Presentation stage: considerations:

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1. Try to motivate your students for attending to your lecture not only in the beginning but to maintain it throughout. It needs careful attention and deliberate efforts on the part of a teacher. His lecture should not loose strings at any time. The students should never be allowed to feel bored or fatigued. They should also neither be frustrated nor be left unchallenged. 2. Always show your enthusiasm for the teaching and keep your students fresh and enthusiastic about your teaching. 3. See that the subject matter, style and language of the lecture should be quite communicable from the angle of the students. What is interesting and suitable to the students from the angle of the mental level and previously acquired knowledge in the subject should always be kept in mind. 4. Mind that the success of lecture strategy depends on the effectiveness of your communication skill—verbal or nonverbal. For this purpose take special care of the following: • Try to exercise reasonable control over your voice. It should neither be too low or too loud. Each and every student of the class should be able to hear your lecture. If needed, the help of the audio devices like microphone may be taken for making your voice audible. • Try to introduce humour for reinforcing ideas and concepts by providing interesting examples and illustrations.

• Try to make use of variations while lecturing by introducing elements like pausing, changing voice tone, using gestures and physical movements, and adopting multimedia approach. 5. Try to care for the proper organization and sequencing of the presented subject matter. Always try to provide it in meaningful small units or steps focusing on a single concept or line of thought. 6. Try to make your presentation as interesting and understandable to the students as possible. You may make use of other strategies, tactics and techniques like narration, exposition, description, explanation, illustration, demonstration, use of A.V. aids, etc. for this purpose. 7. In order to compensate the limitation of lecture as a teaching strategy, it is better not to confine to mere lecturing but to use this strategy with suitable variations in the shape of lecturecum-demonstration strategy, lecture-cum-blackboard strategy, lecture-cum-question answer strategy, etc. 8. Try to avoid showing your back to the class even at the occasions like writing on the blackboard, showing maps and charts, etc. Try to attend to every student of your class by having your eyes and gestures on them. 9. Don’t waste your time in irrelevant facts and unrequired detailed explanations. Be relevant, exact and to the point. However, do not miss any important idea or thing by making unusual hurry. 10. Don’t turn your lecturing into mere paper reading or notes dictating task. It does not only expose your weakness as a teacher but also becomes uninteresting to the students. 11. Don’t make your teaching through lecturing as a one-sided affair. Always encourage and involve the students for participating actively in the process of teaching-learning. 12. Try to summarize the key points of the presented material at the end of your lecture. It can be done orally as well as in the

form of writing on the blackboard, using overhead projector, display charts or making the students summarize them. Evaluation stage: This stage comes not necessarily at the end of the lesson. A teacher may evaluate the outcomes of his lecture at any time during his lecture, as and when he feels the need for doing so. It is quite essential to monitor the progress of his teaching, and exercise desirable control over the learning of his students. For getting desired success in this task, the teacher must try to pay attention to the following: 1. He must always keep in mind the goals and objectives of his teaching and evaluate his teaching outcomes in the light of the realization of the set objectives. 2. At the end of the coverage of a particular unit or segment of the content and before proceeding to the next point in his lecture he must try to evaluate the students’ understanding of the presented material. 3. He must try to monitor, control and evaluate the progress of his teaching by maintaining a proper flow of question-answer. 4. The evaluation task, at the end of the lesson or in the midcourse, may be performed either orally or by presenting response sheet, questionnaire or a proforma to be filled in by the students. 5. Besides evaluation of the students’ learning, attempts should also be made to assess the effectiveness of the lecture strategy by seeking opinion of the students through questionnaire or rating scale. This task can also be entrusted to any fellow teacher who may sit in the class and give his opinion about the strength and week points of the lecture. A teacher himself may have self-evaluation about the effectiveness of his teaching through the adoption of lecture strategy. The results of such evaluation should be properly

utilized for providing appropriate feedback to improve the processes and products of lecturing as a teaching strategy. In this way, if we keep in mind the suggestions for the improvement of the lecture strategy at the different stages of teaching, we can surely improve the effectiveness of lecturing as a teaching strategy.

Group Discussion Strategy Meaning and definition In its simple meaning, the term group discussion stands for the discussion held within a group. In this sense, group discussion as teaching strategy may be defined as some sort of discussion, i.e. interchange of ideas between students and the teacher or among a group of students, resulting into active learning for the realization of the predetermined teaching-learning objectives. This group discussion, in no way, occurs occasionally or incidentally but is planned and organized with deliberate efforts on the part of the teacher and students for achieving the set goals.

The organizational procedure In this strategy, students of a class may form a group along with the subject teacher. The teacher is the leader of this group on account of his status, functions and responsibilities fulfilled by him in the organization of group discussion. Usually the following three stages and steps are involved in the employment of group discussion at a teaching strategy: 1. Planning and setting the proper stage for discussion. 2. Ensuring active, democratic and useful participation of the group members.

3. Evaluating the outcomes of the discussion in the light of the realization of objectives. At the first stage, the teacher induces the need of holding group discussion and sets the stage to make necessary assignment for facilitating the application of group discussion as a teaching strategy. At the second stage, an environment for the proper implementation of the strategy is ensured. The teacher, at this stage, ensures that every member of the group plays active role in the group discussion. The discussions are held in a perfectly democratic style providing full and free exchange of ideas within the group. The teacher, as a group leader controls and monitors the progress of the discussion in a perfectly democratic way with his least involvement in the discussion. The aim remains to make the members engaged in useful discussion for achieving the desired teaching-learning objectives. As happens with all the methods and strategies, the group discussion strategy also carries strengths and weaknesses as pointed out in the following way:

Advantages of group discussion strategy Group discussion strategy has the following advantages: 1. It ensures the active participation of the students in the process of teaching-learning. 2. It trains the students for carrying out group activities and cooperative tasks. The qualities linked to proper social development and democratic living is also developed with the adoption of this strategy. 3. It provides opportunities to the students for imbibing the qualities of a good listener as well as an effective leader. When a group member speaks others listen to it with patience and try

to show respect for his opinion, but at the same time they may also put up their own views in a quite democratic way. 4. Here, students may be able to develop their abilities and skills regarding critical thinking, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, inferring, problem solving, and also the abilities like understanding other opinions, initiating and supporting the shy members of the group, waiting for their turn to put their own point of views, reacting patiently to negative and opposite remarks, and working cooperatively for the attainment of the proper results of the discussion. It may also help in developing desirable interests, attitudes, ideas and other social and moral traits. Thus, group discussion strategy proves to be quite effective for the realization of objectives related to higher cognitive and affective domains of the learner’s behaviour. 5. It teaches the students not to accept any idea blindly but to weigh it with all its pros and cons and consequences before practising. 6. It provides good training for verbal communication, expression of ideas and creative and constructive thinking. 7. A free and democratic discussion provides proper check over the wrong information, ideas and ways of problem solving.

Drawbacks and limitations Group discussion, as a strategy, may suffer from the following drawbacks and limitations: 1. The teacher, as a group leader, may take all initiative in his hand by unnecessarily interfering in the thought process of the members or talking too much. 2. The group discussion may go out of track by paying little considerations to the set objectives. 3. The group members may clash with each other cutting loose and negative personal remarks.

4. Any member of the group may dominate the whole discussion leaving little or no chance to others for expressing their views. 5. The shy or inactive members may not show any interest in the discussion or they may feel neglected or depressed on account of the lack of ability for initiative and expression. 6. A group in discussion may be divided into cliques. They then adopt non-compromising postures and thus may create problems for arriving at useful decisions and conclusions.

Suggestions for the effective utilization of group discussion strategy Following suggestions may prove quite useful for effectiveness in the adoption of group discussion strategy:

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1. The goals and objectives to be achieved through group discussion should be made quite clear to the members. 2. The topic and theme for discussion should be quite useful and interesting. It should be linked to the needs, abilities and interests of the students. 3. The students should have proper background and experience related to the topic of discussion so that they may be able to express their views or understand other’s views on this topic. 4. The tone for discussion should be properly set by the teacher, i.e. the leader of the group. He may initiate it by posing a problem for its solution or he may ask question for which there is no ready answer. It must be definitely linked with certain educational objectives to be derived through group discussion. 5. The teacher, although acting as a leader, should never dominate or hold the key of discussion by acting as a gatekeeper or dictator. His role should be changed from giver of information to facilitator of interaction. For this purpose, he must try:

(a) to encourage student-to-student dialogue without going through him. (b) to avoid putting questions to the students in between their discussion and exchange of ideas. (c) to refrain from commenting after the views expressed by members of the group. (d) to listen to carefully and actively to the exchange of ideas among the group members. (e) to show sufficient interest and enthusiasm through verbal or non-verbal clues for the discussion held in the group. (f) to monitor and control the discussion to proceed on the right track. (g) to see that all students take part in the discussion by following a democratic pattern for the realization of the set objectives. (h) that while the most vocal ones should be controlled and checked for their over-activeness and enthusiasm, the shy and backbenchers should be encouraged to come forward for putting up their views. 6. Students must be trained for the proper utilization of group discussion strategy by pointing out to them some of the following rules: (a) See that you are required to listen to actively while someone is talking or putting up his ideas. (b) Allow your colleagues to express their ideas; do not talk, interfere or put questions to him until he finishes. (c) Do not make personal remarks or killer statements leading to hurt the members. (d) See that others are also there to express their views. Be brief and to-the-point. Once you finish, do not try to take the floor every time. Talk only when you have something extra or more knowledgeable to say.

(e) Try to help the group to reach to some conclusion. Never make cliques or take tough uncompromising stand without proper and reasonable base. (f) Have patience for listening to other’s opinion, if disagreed, try to put your views as politely but firmly as possible. 7. The outcomes of the group discussion strategy should be evaluated from time to time in the light of the realization of the act objectives through the help of the adoption of some evaluation proforma or the decision and conclusions arrived at through the end of the discussion. The whole proceeding of the discussion should be carefully recorded by the leader or the member secretary for deriving necessary educational benefits and realization of the set teaching-learning objectives.

Demonstration Strategy Meaning Demonstration, as a teaching strategy, refers to the visual presentation of the action and activities or practical work related to the facts and principles of a delivered lesson by the teacher in the classroom, aiming to facilitate the task of teaching and learning. A teacher, while using this strategy, demonstrates, in a practical form, the objects, instruments, phenomenon, actions and events related to the teaching of his lesson. All students of the class simultaneously gain practical, richer experiences with the common demonstration exhibited to them by the class-teacher. As a result, such demonstrations help them in understanding the facts and principles in their proper form, practically as well as theoretically.

Uses and importance Demonstration as a teaching strategy, helps the teacher in his teaching task to a great extent. He can make his student understand

and grasp the contents of his lesson with great care by saving a lot of time and efforts for achieving the desired objectives. Demonstration puts the necessary zeal and enthusiasm among the students for teaching the facts and the principles in a proper way. The knowledge and experiences, so gained, help them to remember these facts and principles for a long time and to use them in a practical way. Moreover, the demonstration helps in cultivating genuine interest and attention of the students in the class activities. It makes the students active participants in the teaching-learning process and provides them opportunities for the development of their mental faculties like faculty of observation, reasoning, deep thinking and creative imagination. With all such advantages drawn with its use, it is not uncommon to find that demonstration strategy proves quite helpful in the teaching-learning of almost all subjects of the school curriculum, including work experience, fine arts, music, games and other co-curricular activities and hobbies. In the teaching of languages, a teacher may successfully use demonstration as a teaching strategy for explaining the meaning, feeling, emotional touch and latent expression covered by a word or sentence for example, shyness, anger, fear, laughter, and sadness can be successfully demonstrated for learning the true meaning of these words. Weeping and laughing in their various forms—lighter, mild, stronger and excessive—can also be successfully demonstrated. In the teaching of social sciences, also there arise many occasions for the use of demonstration strategy. A teacher may demonstrate the process of electing people’s representative in a civics lesson. He may demonstrate the clothes, ornaments and other things related to a particular civilization and regime in a history lesson. In a geography lesson, effects and principles related to the relative position and movements of the various planets, the movements of the earth and its impact, the phenomenon of lunar and solar eclipse, volcanoes, flowing of the rivers, etc. can be successfully demonstrated. In mathematics, topics related to

demonstrative geometry and practical arithmetic as well as trigonometry can be successfully taught with the help of demonstration device. In the teaching of science, this strategy has a tremendous scope. Science lessons need a lot of activity and practical work which can be successfully demonstrated through the use of this device. For example, the teacher can demonstrate the construction and working of a water pump, diesel or petrol engine, human eye or heart, for the required teaching and learning. In this way, various facts, concepts and principles related to physical and life sciences may be first demonstrated through their actual shape, aid material and relevant experiments and then students may be helped to generalize and learn them. In other subjects, where we aim to develop certain skills among the students like music, dancing, games, or work experiences, the planned demonstration of the various objects, instruments and activities may serve very useful purpose in making the students acquire the desired knowledge and skills.

Limitations and defects The demonstration strategy suffers from the following defects and limitations: 1. All the topics related to various subjects can’t be demonstrated. Therefore, this strategy can’t be applied for the teaching of all the topics and subjects of the school curriculum. 2. Demonstration strategy, for its use, requires competent teachers well acquainted with the theoretical concepts and their related practical demonstration. In the absence of such skilled teachers, we can’t expect good results through the use of demonstration strategy. 3. The success of demonstration lies in its proper observation on the part of the students. It requires small number of students in a class, proper equipment and material, facilities to make the demonstration visible to whole class and keen attention and

alertness on the part of students throughout the process of demonstration. Since all such requirements are hardly fulfilled in the present classrooms of our country, the desired success in the use of demonstration device cannot be achieved. 4. Demonstration strategy only demonstrates the action but do not provide actual opportunities for learning by doing or selfexperimentation for the students. Consequently, the desired knowledge and skills cannot be properly acquired, as often claimed by the use of this strategy. 5. Demonstration, if not tackled properly, may also lead to the waste of time and energy of the students and the teacher with quite insignificant gains in terms of achieving the desired objectives related to the teaching of a lesson.

Suggestions for the effective use of demonstration strategy The teacher should take care of the following things for effective use of demonstration as a teaching strategy: 1. The teacher should carefully plan the demonstration work carried out in the class. In the delivery of his lesson, first of all, he must mark where he has the need and scope for demonstration. Then he should look into the resources including his own ability to arrange for such demonstration. In the light of all these considerations, he should have an advanced rehearsal of the demonstration before actually doing it in the class. 2. The teacher must have the definite objectives to be achieved by him through the use of demonstration as a teaching strategy. 3. The demonstration carried out in the class should be in perfect tune with the topic taught, teaching objectives to be achieved, and the needs, interest, mental level and previous experiences

of the students, and the teaching-learning situations prevalent in the class at the time of demonstration. 4. The teacher should always keep in mind the “principle of integration of theory with practice”. Accordingly, the students should be given proper theoretical knowledge along with the practical side covered by the demonstration. 5. The teacher should try to acquaint the students with the material apparatus and equipment to be used in the demonstration work. 6. The teacher must ensure that all the students of his class are able to observe the things and events demonstrated to them in a proper way without any interruption. 7. Each and every step related to demonstration should be made clear to the students in reference to the basic questions—what, why, how of the ongoing activities. The students should be given proper freedom to put such questions which should be clearly responded by the teacher from theoretical as well as practical angles. 8. The necessary precautions to be observed in the demonstration activities by the teacher should be made clear to the students. 9. The teacher should attract the attention of his students in his demonstration just like a magician and keep it sustained throughout. 10. The students should be active partner in the demonstration process instead of remaining mere observers. They should be provided the adequate opportunities to handle the things and apparatus connected with demonstration work and, if possible, should be allowed to repeat the experimental work done by the teacher. 11. The teacher should take all precautions and care for the successful demonstration. However, in case he fails to do so, he should not get perturbed but try to involve the students for

finding the cause of the failure of the experiment in demonstration. In such case, he should attempt afresh or postpone it for another occasion. 12. The material and apparatus to be used for the demonstration should be kept in such a place that can be located and used with convenience at the needed hour. 13. Demonstration strategy, for better results, should be supplemented by other strategies like questioning-answering, exposition, narration, explanation and using aid materials like charts, pictures, models, graphs and slide as suitable in a particular situation. 14. In addition to the above, the teacher should make use of the blackboard for writing out the main points related with his demonstration work including sketches of apparatus and procedures involved. 15. Every demonstration should have a proper evaluation session. The teacher should ask proper questions concerning theory and practice of the presented facts and principles. He should also encourage the students for clearing their doubts, filling up the gaps in their studies or knowing more on the topic.

Discovery or Heuristic Strategy Meaning of discovery or heuristic strategy The term heuristic has been derived from a Greek word heurisco which means ‘to discover’ or ‘to find out’. Defining the discovery or heuristic strategy, H.E. Armstrong, a London based Professor of Chemistry writes, “Heuristic strategy of teaching is that strategy which involves our placing students as far as possible in the attitude of discover or problem solver, the strategy which involves their finding out instead of being merely told about things” (Cited by Brock 1973). This definition reveals that heuristic or discovery strategy aims for the development of an attitude of problem solving or discovery among

the learners. It wants to make a student an active and independent inquirer and discoverer of the knowledge instead of a passive listener and recipient of the knowledge. Instead of getting information students must be engaged in discovering the things or solving the encountered problems with their own independent efforts.

How to use this strategy in the classroom Heuristic or discovery strategy is, in fact, a problem solving strategy. Here the teacher poses a problem before the students or the students may come across with certain problems in the course of their study or experimentation, field work, etc. The teacher persuades then to solve the confronted problem independently by providing all essential facilities, guidance and instructions for its solution. The students may be encouraged to discuss all the aspects of the problem and then given freedom of thought and action for finding out its solution. However, they are also provided with the necessary guidance and help by the teacher in a reasonable amount when and where required.

Steps involved in the implementation of strategy The heuristic or discovery strategy requires the following systematic steps for its implementation: 1. Confrontation with the problem: There should arise some problem needing solution before the students. This situation may arise in a natural way or may be posed by the teacher with planned or deliberate efforts. As far as possible, this problem should properly match the abilities, interests and capacities of the students, conform to the requirements of educational objectives and relate to the real life situations. 2. Describing and understanding the problem: The problem faced should be clearly defined and understood by the students for its desired solution. For this purpose, it should be properly

analyzed. The students should feel the need of solving this problem, the purpose served by the solution of this problem and the possible ways of discovering the solution of the problem. 3. Gathering relevant information or data: In this step, the students are made to collect relevant information or data for the probable solution of the problem. Useful discussion may be held in this class for arriving at the probable solutions. The students may be persuaded to use their previous stock of information and knowledge, gather new information from available records or by consulting books and literature from the library or through any other means available to them. The teacher’s role is limited to provide valuable guidance in a proper degree at the proper time. 4. Analyzing the collected data or information: In this step, the collected data or information is analyzed in the light of finding out the probable solutions of the problem. What is relevant to the solution of the problem is properly picked up by leaving the non-relevant and superfluous parts. 5. Formulation of hypothesis or tentative solutions: On the basis of the analyzed data or information relevant to the problem, the students are directed and guided to formulate probable hypotheses, i.e. tentative plans for the solution of the problem. 6. Selection and testing of a proper hypothesis: Out of the probable tentative plans for the solution of the problem, the most suitable one is selected. It may be done by taking all hypotheses (tentative plans) one by one, discussing and weighing them in terms of their usefulness and practicability. The most relevant one is then further subjected to proper testing. 7. Application of the accepted hypothesis or conclusion: The hypothesis, after proper testing, is accepted as a best possible way to find out the solution of the problem. Attempts are then

made to apply it in the solution of the other similar problems. In case it helps, it may be accepted as a valid and reliable conclusion or hypothesis which can be applied in the solution of similar problems in identical situations.

Advantages of heuristic or discovery strategy The advantages of heuristic or discovery strategy are as follows: 1. Heuristic strategy makes the students feel confident in facing the problems not only in the classroom but also in real life. 2. It provides valuable opportunities for the proper development of the cognitive abilities of the students. The realization of higher cognitive objectives is also facilitated with the use of this strategy. 3. The use of this strategy provides training in analyzing as well as discovering the solution of the faced problems. 4. It makes them self-reliant for pursuing the learning activities with their own independent efforts. 5. Being a child-centred approach, it makes the task of learning quite absorbing, interesting and purposeful.

Drawbacks and limitations The heuristic strategy is criticized on account of its following drawbacks and limitations: 1. It is difficult to utilize heuristic strategy for deriving specific educational purposes. 2. Heuristic strategy requires independent efforts on the part of students to find out the solution of the problems. It requires proper patience, abilities and capacities on the part of the students. Every student cannot be expected to possess such abilities, and consequently to have expectation from all the

students of the class for the adoption of this strategy may pose a serious problem. 3. The task of thinking about the probable tentative solution or hypothesis is a quite challenging one. Students often have a temptation to pick up wrong hypothesis and are thus bound to waste their time and energies in useless and irrelevant activities. 4. The strategy requires more preparation and abilities on the part of the teachers. They are supposed to lead and guide the students for independent problem solving by helping them to select appropriate problems, analyze and then find out their solutions with their own independent efforts. To provide such timely proper individual or collective guidance is not an easy task. Any inadequacy on the part of teachers may prove costly in the realization of the objectives of this strategy. 5. Heuristic strategy, for its effective implementation, requires a small number of students in the class along with the availability of the proper resources in the form of an organized library, workable laboratory, and materials and equipment as well as the presence of desirable teaching-learning situations and environment. In the absence of such facilities, it becomes difficult to adopt such strategy.

Suggestions Whatever may be the difficulties, the merits of heuristic strategy cannot be ignored. Therefore, every attempt should be made for making use of this strategy for deriving useful educational gains by taking care of the following things: 1. The teacher should be properly trained and motivated for the adoption of heuristic strategy. 2. The problem selected should be of utmost concern and importance to the students. It should be challenging but should

not go beyond their abilities and capacities. 3. The students should be provided adequate training and guidance to systematically follow the steps involved in this strategy. 4. The technique of means-end analysis may fit well in learning to employ this strategy. Accordingly, the students must be encouraged to identify clearly the goals (ends) of the problem, the current situation (in terms of the acquired information and available means) and what needs to be done (possible means and alternatives) for finding out the solution (reducing the difference between means and ends). 5. Students should be provided sufficient but supervised freedom to independently solve the problems with the help of free and frank discussion as well as pursuit of independent and group activities. They should never be discouraged or rebuffed for trying out their plans and failing to get required success with initial efforts.

Project Strategy Project strategy is the outcome of the pragmatic ideas propagated by Sir John Dewey. “What is to be taught should have a direct relationship with the actual happenings in life”—this central idea forms the basis of project method. The principle of correlation has been given a very practical shape through this strategy as it tries to impart education of all the subjects in an integrated way by correlating them with the real life activities. In order to understand this strategy, let us try to think over the meaning of the term ‘project’. It has been defined by different educationists as follows: According to Stevenson (1922), “A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its most natural setting.” According to Kilpatrik (1921), “A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.” Ballard, H.G. (1936) says, “A project is a bit of real life that has been imported into school.”

These definitions clearly reveal the following characteristics of a project: 1. A project is an act related to actual life activities. 2. It is that activity which is undertaken to solve an emerging or felt problem or to realize some useful and purposeful objectives. 3. It is always completed in a social environment and natural setting. 4. It is such an act that is most interesting and absorbing. These characteristics may help us to view and understand a project as some spontaneous, interesting, self absorbing, problem oriented and purposeful act which can be accomplished in a complete natural as well as social settings.

The nature and form of the project strategy Project is the core and heart of the project strategy. For carrying out the solution of a day-to-day need or problem, the students pick up a suitable project to be completed in a cooperative way as naturally as possible. While planning and executing the project, they have to perform a number of activities that, in turn, may need the knowledge and skills concerning various subjects of the school curriculum. They have to acquire such knowledge and skills with the help of their teacher then and there as they feel need of its acquisition while working on the project. In this way, what is learned or taught in the project strategy comes up in a very natural way as a result of the felt needs of the students. It is a type of incidental learning where learning or teaching is undertaken as a result of mere coincidence in a very informal way and, that is why, while working on a project the students may get valuable information and education pertaining to almost all the subjects of the school curriculum in a very informal and interesting way.

What type of projects should be chosen for the teaching-learning? The question regarding the type of projects chosen for the desired teaching-learning may be answered in the light of the definition and characteristics of the term project as well as purposes to be served through project strategy in a particular teaching-learning situation. The nature of the subject and topic taught by a particular teacher also may force the teacher for the selection of a particular type of projects. For example, whereas a science teacher may opt for the selection of the projects like establishment of a science museum, neighbouring birds and insects, electrification of the school campus, a history teacher would like to prefer the projects such as visit to some historical places, collection of coins belonging to different periods, dramatization of historical characters, etc.

Steps involved in the implementation of project strategy There are some definite planned steps necessary for going up with the project strategy as follows: 1. Providing a situation 2. Choosing and purposing of the project 3. Planning of the project 4. Execution of the project 5. Evaluation of the project 6. Recording of the project Let us now discuss these steps one by one. 1. Providing a situation: First of all, attempts are made to provide a situation for feeling a necessity of choosing and working on a project. Many times there is a spontaneous upsurge of such

situation, otherwise the teacher has to plan for the creation of such situations. The students may spot out a problem while having discussion in the classroom, working in the laboratory or engaging in extracurricular activities, going on some excursions, or visiting some places of scientific or general interest. 2. Choosing and purposing: After having confrontation with some genuine problem, the students may be persuaded to think about its possible solution by selecting some appropriate project. In the light of the many alternatives suggested by the students, they are persuaded to choose the best appropriate project subject to the availability of the resources in hand and the derivation of maximum educational advantages out of it. The objectives and purposes of choosing this project should then be made clear to all the students after having useful discussion. 3. Planning of the project: Every project, for its useful implementation, needs a careful planning. Therefore, all efforts should be made by the students for chalking out a detailed strategy to carry out the chosen project. Under the active guidance of the teacher, the students should be made to hold lively discussion, have consultation with suitable experts and utilize library and other resources for the planning of their project. The duties and responsibilities, individually or collectively in small groups, should also be distributed among them at this stage and decision about the collection of finances, should also be taken for carrying out the project. 4. Execution of the project: The project is a joint venture and hence its successful execution needs the combined efforts and joint responsibility on the part of all students related to the project. What is planned at the planning stage is thus made the subject of implementation at the execution stage. Every member of the group works wholeheartedly with a sole

purpose of its successful execution. The difficulties, if any, are solved by mutual cooperation under the guidance of an experienced teacher. Students may thus get valuable opportunity for having theoretical understanding and practical application of the many facts and ideas of the subjects of their curriculum. 5. Evaluation of the project: Evaluation is a continuous process and for having evaluation of the project work, efforts are made to have review and assessment of the individual and group work of the students from time to time. Discussions are held to have a free and frank exchange of ideas, self or group evaluation for improving the execution of the activities of the project or seeking changes in the planning and procedure in any aspect or dimension of the execution work. In the end, when the project is fully executed, an overall assessment in terms of what is being done, achieved or not achieved, difficulties felt or lessons learned is made by holding useful discussion. 6. Recording of the project: There should be a truthful recording of the work and events related to each and every step of the project. How the project was chosen, how it was planned and executed, what difficulties were faced and what results were achieved, should be adequately recorded for future reference as well as improvement.

Merits of project strategy Project strategy proves quite advantageous on the following grounds: 1. Psychologically sound: Project strategy is considered to be a psychologically sound strategy on account of the following reasons: • The approach is child-centered rather than being subjectcentred.

• The students work on their self chosen project. It is related to their own problem. The goal and purpose of working is very clear to them, and hence they are naturally motivated and inclined to put their heart and soul. • There is reasonable freedom provided to them for working in a social environment. • The principles of learning like law of readiness, law of exercise and law of effect and factors of motivation and capturing attention, are all properly employed in working with the project strategy. • The strategy provides enough opportunity for meeting varying interests and abilities of the students. 2. Practical and applied approach: It provides a practical and applied method of learning. Here, the activity of the child is given due importance by adopting the principles of ‘learning by doing’. The project is chosen in a way to correlate with the real life situations in their natural settings, and is also helpful in solving the problems of the day-to-day life of students. Therefore, what is learned and gained through this strategy is quite practical and applicable to one’s life. 3. Provides integration of physical and mental activities: While working on the project, students have to work with their hands in doing manual labour and also apply their minds in planning and execution of many tasks related to the project. Consequently, the project strategy provides good opportunity for the coordination and integration of the body and mind, and thus proves quite helpful in the balanced development of their physical and mental abilities. 4. Democratic way of teaching: Since the project is chosen after due deliberations of the group and mutual agreement and understanding, the groups are led to work in full cooperation with each other as the work and responsibilities are divided in the groups in a democratic way. However, the pupils are allowed to work according to the plan chosen with freedom of

thought and action and, thus, a democratic environment prevails throughout the whole working with this strategy. 5. Development of social virtues: With the help of this strategy the child can be moulded according to social needs. It also makes the child conscious about society. The child works with full agreement of the group and works for the group as well. The child learns his responsibility and sense of social cooperation and thus imbibes many good social virtues essential to lead a happy social life. 6. Positive attitude towards manual work: The pupil gets the habit of working with his own hands. They learn the dignity of labour which is a very good habit and trait, essential for lading a social and industrious life. 7. Provides teaching through correlation: Project strategy is an ideal strategy for providing teaching through the principle of correlation. Project works as the centre of all the activities, both of non-academic and academic natures. As the work on the project goes on, students get opportunity to gain theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the various curricular areas in a well-integrated way. A project itself represents some meaningful task from the real life situation. The students, therefore, get proper opportunity to correlate the curricular experiences with their day-to-day life activities surrounded with their own physical, social and cultural environment.

Demerits and limitations Project strategy suffers from the following limitations and drawbacks: 1. Financial constraints: The execution of a project requires a lot of financial liabilities. For example, in laying out a flower garden in the school compound, a lot of finances are involved in purchasing seeds and plants, cultivation and manuring of soil, watering, wiring and meeting many other requirements for

the growth and protection of the flowering plants. The return in terms of the yields, from such project is much less than the expenditure involved. Moreover, there is not only one project that is undertaken by an institution for all the classes and for all the curricular areas. Therefore, on account of financial constraints, the use of project strategy becomes only a matter of dream or theoretical discussion in many of our institutions. 2. Too much time-consuming: It takes a lot of time to plan and execute a single project. For example, the project ‘laying out flower garden’ may require a number of years for its total completion. If one has to make it a centre of teaching-learning process, he is bound to wait for the natural happenings of the events and the related felt needs of the studying or knowing some or other curricular areas. Moreover, every topic or content of a subject cannot be covered through one or the other projects, and to have a number of projects simultaneously in a particular session is neither possible nor feasible. Therefore, to talk about the completion of some or other syllabi through the help of project strategy is hardly practiceable. 3. Too much expectation from the teacher: Project strategy expects too much from the teacher for its successful implementation. Right from providing situations and opportunity for the selection of the project to its planning, execution and recording, a teacher has to remain alert for providing help and guidance to the students individually and in groups for the success of the project. He has to provide the knowledge and skills related to various curricular areas to the students as and when needed by them while working on the project. In this way, the teacher is expected to be a walking encyclopedia capable of imparting every type of knowledge besides being a jack of all trades for helping in all sort of activities related to the project.

4. Not helpful in providing systematic and adequate learning: Project strategy is a strategy of incidental learning. Here, students learn only the needed things on their part in relation to the completion of the project. Therefore, no systematic and orderly treatment of the curricular areas is possible through the teaching work performed through the project strategy. The children thus get opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills of various areas in the style of mere ‘patchwork’ or ‘byproduct’ for realizing their main target—completion of the project. In this way, project strategy poses a serious question for its adoption as a teaching strategy for a curricular subject on account of its failure to provide any systematic, sequential and organized learning experiences. 5. Practical difficulties: Some of the practical difficulties are as follows: (a) Proper funds are not available in the schools for carrying out projects. (b) The student-teacher ratio is very high and there is an acute shortage of properly trained teachers in this teaching strategy. (c) The courses of study in schools are very vast, leaving no scope for the proper use of this strategy. (d) The examination system in vogue does not conform to the needs and requirements of the project strategy of teaching. In view of the merits and shortcomings listed here, one has to remain a little cautious in making use of the project strategy. It is certain that it cannot be used as an exclusive strategy for teaching as it does not provide any systematic, formal and organized teaching. In a real sense, project strategy works more as a strategy of utilizing or making use of the knowledge and skills acquired by the students than a learning strategy or teaching strategy. As a result, project strategy should be used as a supplement for the application and utilization of

the usual classroom teaching undertaken with the help of some good methods and strategies of teaching.

Problem Solving Strategy Definition Problem solving strategy, as a teaching strategy, may be defined as a strategy which provides opportunity to the students for analyzing and solving a problem on the basis of the previous stock of their knowledge enriched with the present means available to them, quite independently by following some systematic steps and arriving at some basic conclusion or results to be utilized in future for the solution of similar problems in identical situations. In fact, in its form, nature, goals and objectives it is quite similar to the strategy known as heuristic or discovery strategy. Therefore, its organizational process (steps involved in the implementation of this strategy) are quite similar to that employed in heuristic strategy. Therefore, these may figure as below: 1. Confrontation of the problem 2. Describing and understanding of the problem 3. Gathering relevant information or data 4. Analyzing the collected data or information 5. Formulation of hypothesis or tentative solution 6. Selection and testing of a proper hypothesis 7. Application of the accepted hypothesis or conclusion We have discussed already these steps earlier under heuristic strategy in this chapter. Therefore, we would not be repeating it here. Similarly the advantags, drawbacks and limitations, and suggestions for the effective implementation of this strategy are also quite identical and similar to those discussed with heuristic strategy and hence not to be repeated here.

Narration Strategy Meaning Narration, as a teaching strategy, stands for presenting a wellordered and well-sequenced verbal account of an object or event, recount some past experience or incident, tell stories and the like, to pupils in such an interesting and creative way that it may be able to produce a clear, vivid, interesting and orderly picture in the minds of the pupils for their quick understanding and easy grasping of the subject matter. For this purpose, a teacher may narrate his own experiences regarding the object or event or he may be competent enough to reproduce the experience or stories of others effectively or he may use his own creative imagination for making plots of his own either from his life experiences or from fictions and history which he has read somewhere.

Use and importance The importance of narration strategy lies in its ability to produce a well-ordered and sequenced verbal account of the objects and events in a most interesting way. The children are very fond of listening and when they listen to the narration of a good teacher, they find themselves completely lost with the narration and soon they find themselves living in imagination either as spectators or actual participants of the narrated incidents or events. In this way, narration, for the teacher, provides an art of telling or verbal representation of the things and events at the right time in the right way and, on the part of the students, it presents a practical media of learning interesting things in an interesting way. That is why narration, as strategy, can be used to teach almost all the subjects of the school curriculum. A language teacher may make its use in presenting the account of the ancient and cultural past as well as the live experiences related to his prose, poetry and composition lesson. A

science teacher may take the help of the art of narration for elucidating the cause and effect relationship. He may also create interest in his lesson while narrating the relevant incidents from the biographies of the scientists. However, in the subject of social sciences (history, geography, political science, civics and economics), narration as a teaching strategy becomes a big asset to the teacher. The material, incident and events related to these subjects can be beautifully and interestingly potrayed by a good narrator in an orderly and sequenced way.

Limitations and defects Narration, as a teaching strategy, may suffer from the following limitations and defects: 1. Narration is an art and a skilled job. It expects that a teacher besides knowing his subjects should be a skilled narrator. In the absence of such qualities, it may not be a successful device for a teacher. 2. Narration, if not tackled properly, may turn into a simple telling involving no enthusiasm and interest on the part of the teacher as well as the learners. 3. There lies danger that narration may turn the teaching-learning process into a one-sided affair, i.e., the teacher narrating and the students simply listening to him as inactive and passive recipient of the knowledge. 4. In narration, the narrator may go astray. He may talk irrelevant, side-tracking the main objectives of his lesson, and, in his way, a lot of valuable time may be wasted without any significant gains. 5. Use of this strategy is limited to the learning at memory and understanding levels. It does not help in the learning at the reflective level.

6. Narration as a strategy has its limitation in the use of describing the whole incident and events in its totally and true form. Here, the narrator colours the events according to his own angle and taste and tells only that which he thinks suitable for the purpose.

Suggestions for the effective use of the narration strategy The following things should be kept in mind by the teacher while resorting to narration strategy. 1. The language used for narration should be simple and easily understandable by the students. In addition to language, one should also learn the art of good communication through appropriate gestures. 2. The art of narration requires from the teacher to narrate at the right time in the right way. Therefore, a teacher must resort to this device only when it is required by the students. He should also keep in mind that the interest of the students should be continuously maintained in his narration. He should also keep his narration within the track and never talk irrelevant things by side-tracking the main objective of his lesson. 3. The pace of the narration should be taken care of. The teacher should not make undue hurry for narrating the incidents and events as it takes time on the part of the students to listen, record and think about them. On the other hand, he should not be too slow to bore the students. 4. A teacher must have a through knowledge or imagination about the objects and events narrated by him so that he may be able to project the required picture before his students in a commanding and interesting way. 5. The teacher must demonstrate a reasonable confidence and patience at the time of narration. He must try to involve the

student in his narration by making them disciplined, good listeners and active participants in the thinking, imagination and creative process related to his narration plot. 6. The teacher should carefully plan and prepare himself for the use of the narrative strategy. He must carefully select various places and opportunities in his lesson, effectively handled with narration device. Then, he should plan for the relevant stories, incidents, objects and events and think about the ways and means of making his presentation simple, vivid and interesting. 7. The material for narration should be carefully selected. The use of only one type of the material may cause monotony and dullness. Therefore, a teacher should try to draw his narration material from a variety of sources and present it in a variety of ways—creative, informative or factual—suiting the needs and interest of the students and the objectives of his lesson. 8. The name of the objects, places and other important points concerning the narration should be written on the blackboard for providing easy recall and proper wings to the imagination and understanding of the students. 9. Narration, for its effectiveness, may be supplemented by other strategies like demonstration, dramatization, illustration, and questioning. Its value may be enhanced by the use of relevant teaching aids and by providing opportunity to the students for gaining directs experiences of the narrated things with the help of excursions, museum, library, visits of places, etc. 10. The teacher must try to put the essence of storytelling and the art of dramatization in his use of narration strategy. He must try to arouse the emotions and sentiments of the students as needed for the clear mental visualization of the events and happenings. 11. The teacher should never resort to endless narration without any break. It creates unnecessary monotony and disinterest. He should involve the students in his narration by providing

them opportunity to raise question, remove their doubts and test their creative imagination. He must also put questions to the students for evaluating the outcome of his narration and making them attentive and disciplined.

Illustration Strategy Meaning Illustration as a teaching strategy stands for the use of the means and material—verbal or concrete—for helping the students to acquire correct knowledge of the presented material by making it quite clear, interesting, intelligible or comprehensible. In this device, the teacher has to elucidate, explain or exemplify represented facts and phenomenon by means of certain aid material in a verbal or concrete form or both. Illustrations as such are generally divided into two categories— verbal and concrete. When a teacher makes use of word pictures, puts examples for comparisons, studies analogies, uses metaphor, explains the meaning of a thing, object or phenomenon by giving equivalent terms for associating with the previous knowledge of the students, he is said to make use of verbal illustration. When a teacher makes use of concrete material like real objects, specimens, models, charts, pictures, graphs, maps and diagrams by making the direct appeal to the senses of his learners, he is said to make use of concrete illustration. Accordingly, illustration as a teaching device, covers the entire field of mental vision of the learners, stimulated by word pictures or physical material.

Use and importance The real importance of the illustrations lie in the fact that they make the abstract ideas concrete and thus make the task of teachinglearning quite interesting and meaningful. They are the best attention

catching device and motivating agents. The mental picture of the presented material become clear, definite, precise and graspable with the help of appropriate illustrations. Accordingly, the use of illustration (verbal as well as concrete) as a teaching strategy proves quite useful and effective in the teaching of all the subjects of the school curriculum. In the teaching of grammar in languages we use inductive-deductive method, provide examples for deducing the rules with the help of examples. Similarly, the teachers many times make use of metaphor, incidents, stories, equivalent words, popular saying and idioms, for clarifying many concepts and ideas in the prose and poetry lessons. He also makes use of pictures, charts, models and maps for making his language lesson interesting, catching pupil attention and fascilitating understanding. Like language, the social science subject such as history, geography, civics, economics and political science also have a wide field of application for both verbal and concrete illustrations. Geographical facts, ideas, concepts and principles can never be properly taught without maps, graphs, globes, pictures and charts. Verbal examples also remain handicapped without the use of illustrations. Similarly, science and mathematics are no exceptions; here also illustration plays a major role in the teaching of various facts and concepts related to these subjects. For example take the case when a teacher teaches the effect of heat on objects and reaches the generalization that “the objects whether solid, liquid or gas get expanded when heated and contracted when cooled”. Reaching this generalization needs the help of concrete experiences gained through the use of concrete illustrations and afterwards the application of generalized fact can only be properly understood if we provide appropriate verbal illustration to the students from their day-to-day life experiences. In mathematics we need the help of various illustrations in the form of charts, graphs, models, slides and real objects for clarifying the facts and principles related to all its branches such as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

Defects and limitations Illustration, as a teaching strategy, suffers from the following drawbacks and limitations: 1. Overloading of the lessons with the use of illustrations may provide negative results to the process of teaching-learning. It may halt the feeling of curiosity and creative spark generated by illustration, make the children disinterested and bored and waste their valuable time with little gains. 2. The use of illustration needs proper care and training on the part of the teacher. The illustration needs to be judiciously selected and wisely used for achieving the desired learning outcomes. A teacher for this purpose must have full understanding, knowledge and skill related to its use. In the absence of such quality the use of illustration does not show any favourable results. 3. The use of illustration needs a lot of time, energy and resources—human as well as physical from an educational set-up. In the absence of such resources this device cannot work effectively. Moreover, in the crowded environment of classes of our country, we cannot expect from the teacher to cover the entire syllabus in the limited time with the help of the appropriate use of the illustrations.

Suggestions for effective use of illustration strategy 1. The teacher should properly plan for the use of illustrations in his lesson. He must carefully locate the places, where to use verbal illustrations and where the concrete ones. He should also think beforehand the nature and contents of the verbal illustration and the types of concrete illustrations to be used for illustrating the presented subject material.

2. The illustrations used should be such that they may be well understood and accepted by the learners on the basis of their experiences. 3. Illustrations should be quite relevant to the topic and contents taught. They should be used at the proper time when they are most needed for the development of the lesson. 4. Illustrations, whether verbal or concrete, should never be used merely for recreation or for their own sake. Their main purpose is to illustrate, elucidate, and make the presented material as simple and understandable as possible. 5. A teacher should maintain proper balance in the use of illustrations. Too much illustrations often provide hindrance in the achievement of teaching objectives. On the other hand, not to use sufficient and proper illustrations, even when it is most needed, results into lack of interest and attention on the part of the learners. 6. Illustrations, whenever used should be quite relevant to the occasion, nature of the subject material and needs, interests and abilities of the learners. 7. A teacher must try to acquire the sufficient knowledge and skills of using illustrations in his teaching. While using verbal illustrations we must have command over the language, communications skill and sufficient memory and awakening for the use of verbal illustrations in the right way at the right time. Similarly, he must take proper training in the selection, preparation, use, safety and maintenance of the concrete aid material. 8. An illustration, whether verbal or concrete, should be reasonably accurate and true in depicting and illustrating the required subject material. 9. For the better results, a teacher should try to provide adequate pre-experiences and training to his students for deriving due advantages from the illustration employed by him.

10. While making use of the verbal illustrations the teacher must be quite careful about the language. It should be simply based on the common experiences of the teachers. It should have a dramatizing effect involving the use of gestures, suitable voice with proper pitch, movements, etc. 11. A teacher should follow the principle of change and variety in the use of illustrations. Constant use of the same type of illustrations, makes the presentation dull, boring and monotonous. 12. The illustrations used, whether verbal or concrete, should be quite attractive and interesting besides their proper educational value. 13. What is to be used in the form of concrete illustration should be properly visible to all the learners in the class. If it is a chart, picture or a map, it should be properly hung and if it is a threedimensional illustration for instance, a real object, specimen, or a model, it should be placed at the right place in a right way so that all the students can observe it. 14. For deriving better results from the illustrations, a follow-up work in the form of putting relevant questions to the students after the use of the illustration should always be done by the teacher.

Questioning-Answering Teaching Strategy Meaning Any teaching necessarily involves the act of asking questions and responding to these questions. In this way, it is not practicable to separate answering from questioning. Both go side by side. Consequently, questioning-answering as a teaching strategy, refers to an art and skill of managing the task of putting questions and receiving answers to these questions. In the teaching-learning process, these questions can be asked by the teachers and students

both depending upon the requirement and similarly response can be required from both of them. A teacher, in this way, must learn the art of (i) asking questions to his students, (ii) receiving proper answers in a proper way from them, (iii) encouraging his students to ask questions from him, and (iv) providing satisfactory answers to these questions and queries.

Use and importance There is no subject, topic or content of the school that can be taught properly without resorting to the questioning-answering strategy at one time or the other. The use of this strategy helps the teacher in the process of teaching-learning in the following directions: 1. For testing the previous knowledge, interest and abilities of the students. 2. To make them ready for learning and to prolong their interest and motivation in the process of teaching-learning. 3. To make both teachers as well as students alert, attentive and active participants is the process of teaching-learning. 4. To diagnose the learners’ misconception, difficulties, strength and weakness. 5. To stimulate the students as well as the teacher to think, reason and imagine for running the teaching-learning process in an active and proper way. 6. To bring changes in the attitudes and interests and to develop proper habits and ideals. 7. To develop better insight into the task of problem solving and cause-effect relationship. 8. To help in the task of effective class control, maintenance of the discipline and proper rapport with the students. 9. To help in fixing the acquired knowledge and skills in the minds of the students.

10. To recapitulate the knowledge of the learned material and evaluate the teaching-learning outcomes. 11. To develop originality, initiative and inventiveness among the students.

Limitations and defects Question-answering strategy suffers from the following limitations and drawbacks: 1. The success of this strategy lies mostly on the competency and efficiency of the teacher. He must be quite skilled in the art of framing, asking questions, receiving proper answers from the students and stimulate them to ask relevant questions at the right time in the right way. It is not a simple task. It needs and expects too much from the teacher as well as the students. In the absence of the same, this strategy does not prove effective. 2. Sometimes the teachers may put a large number of questions in their excessive zeal and enthusiasm blocking the path of real learning. At another times they may miss the gains by putting only few questions. 3. Questioning-answering sometimes, if not tackled properly, may discourage the students, create apathy and distaste towards the subject and even to the teacher.

Suggestions for the effective use of questioninganswering strategy The effective use of questioning-answering as a teaching strategy, demands the following things on the part of the teacher and the students: 1. The teacher should carefully plan for the use of this strategy at the time of the delivery of his lesson. In this regard, he should

plan and think about the necessary and effective questions at the introductions, developing and recapitulation stages of his lesson. He must also think about extracting responses for his questions from the students in a proper way. 2. The objectives and purposes of the use of questioninganswering strategy should be quite clear to the teacher. 3. The teacher must be careful in framing the questions. For this task, first of all, he must see the purpose and relevance of his questions and then he must try to frame these by taking into consideration the six basic characteristic of a good question mentioned as follows: (a) Clarity in its purpose and form (b) Simplicity in its wording (c) Challenge offered by it to the pupils to think (d) Specificity and definiteness provided by it for responding (e) Its adaptation to the age, ability and experiences of the learners (f) Singleness of the idea or purpose. 4. A teacher should acquire sufficient mastery over the subject matter along with the habit of logical thinking, alert mind and self-confidence. 5. The teacher must ask relevant and appropriate questions in perfect tune with the demands raised by the teaching-learning situation. He should never go astray and put questions for questions sake. Overloading of the lessons with questioning should also be avoided. However, he must not also miss any opportunity of making use of questioning-answering device when it is needed in the course of delivery of a lesson. 6. While asking questions to his students, a teacher should take all possible precautions in respect of putting right questions at the right time in a right way. For this purpose he is advised to take care of the following points:

(a) Address the question to the whole class before naming and asking some student for its answer. It gives needed time and opportunity to the students for thinking and responding to the raised question. (b) Questions put should be quite simple, definite and pinpointed. Each question must have specific aim and concentration on one idea. (c) Language used by the teacher should be quite clear, simple and concise. It should be clearly worded and asked in a language the pupils can understand. (d) The teacher should try to spread his questions over the whole class. To ask the questions always from the front liners or the good and favoured ones is not a good practice. Teacher should see that all students are made active participants in the use of questioning-answering device. (e) It is proper to grade the questions according to the level of difficulty. The beginning is to be made with the simple questions. Accordingly, the weak students should be given opportunity by answering the questions, gaining confidence and further encouragement and the bright ones having challenging questions for the required stimulation of their thoughts and imagination. (f) Repetition in questioning should be avoided and question should be clear and audible to all the students of the class. (g) The questions should be asked in a pleasant mood in a pleasant way. In any case, the children should not get afraid of the questions but feel inspired and encouraged for responding to them. (h) The question asked should exhibit variety in their composition and style of asking. 7. The teacher should be able to distinguish among the good and bad questions. In the light of this knowledge he must try to do

away with the bad questions by keeping following things in his mind: (a) He should never frame and ask suggestive questions, for instance, “Is the shape of the blackboard rectangular?”, “Was the first battle of Indian independence fought in 1857?”, “Is it true that matter gets expanded when heated?”, “For how many years a five years plan run?”, etc. Such questions, as may be evident, neither stimulate necessary thinking on the part of the students nor they are able to test their past learning. (b) When a teacher, after presenting some points immediately asks question about that, he is said to put the echo question. For example, a teacher just says that the Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shahjahan and then immediately asks “Well boys; tell, who built the Taj Mahal?” It is no secret that such questions cannot serve any purpose simply because what has been told still remains in the air and, as a result, the students have nothing to think, memorize, retain or reproduce for answering the teacher’s question. (c) The questions which are tricky and confusing in nature should also be avoided in the class. There is no point in putting the question like: “Name the important cities of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh along which the river Ganges passes? “If it takes 10 minutes to dry a towel in the sun, how many minutes are required to dry eight towels?” Such questions may prove useful in testing the intelligence of the students but in the classrooms, while dealing with some or the other topic, these serve no useful purpose. 8. In addition to learn the proper art of framing and asking questions, a teacher must acquire necessary knowledge and skill about managing the answers of his questions. For this purpose, he is advised to take care of the following points:

(a) A teacher should try to respond to the pupil’s answer in a positive way. He should never rebuke or discourage his students. He must attempt to be fair, impartial and sincere in his efforts to make his students feel free and encouraged for making responses. A lack of sympathy and disrespect shown to the students for their responses is a cardinal error which should be avoided by the teacher in all possible ways. (b) As a matter of rule, a student should not be interrupted while trying to provide answers to the questions put by the teacher. Unnecessary interruption may harm and interfere with his process of thinking, reviving the past teaching and working out the answer. It may also discourage him to respond. (c) As far as possible, the answer given by the pupils should be reasonably complete but perfectly true. A teacher should never accept the answer of the student that does not satisfy the purpose of asking the question. In such case he should prompt and encourage the student to complete and correct his answer. In case of his failure, the student should not be snubbed, but made to correct himself after getting proper answer from the other students of the class. (d) All students of the class should be given proper opportunity for responding to the questions asked by the teacher. The proper way of getting answer in the class is to address the asked question to the whole class, give some time to respond, ask the students to raise their hands if they know the answer and then ask some student to respond. It should also be seen that only one child responds at a time. At the time of providing answer he must be made to stand straight and speak in a clear tone with a reasonably audible voice and pace. (e) The appropriate as well as right attempts of providing correct answers by the students should get proper immediate

reinforcement in the form of some appreciation, from the teacher. However, the teacher should not be used to utter the words good, very good, right, or good boy off and on as the excessive use of such appreciation looks quite awkward and diminishes the impact of uttering these words. (f) Sometimes, students provide ridiculous answers only to create mischief in the class. Such answers should always be discouraged and the child should be made to realize his mistake in a tactful manner. (g) The incomplete and inaccurate answers should be made clearly complete and corrected with the help of students. In case of their inability, the teacher should try to provide it with full explanation. Such corrected answers should always be written on the blackboard. 9. In addition to get proper training in the art of framing and putting questions as well as receiving answers from the students, the teacher must also acquire necessary knowledge and skill regarding encouraging them with their answer. For this purpose, he is advised to take care of the following things: (a) Children have instinctive curiosity to ask questions. It should be duly encouraged by providing appropriate opportunities for raising questions on the part of students in the teaching-learning process. There may arise natural occasion or a teacher may create deliberate situations in which a child may feel to know more, to investigate the cause of some happening and desire to know what will follow the present. (b) Very often children have hesitation and fear for asking questions in the class. Such children should be sympathetically treated and psychologically pushed forward for asking questions. In every case, they should be

encouraged to remove their doubts and quench their thirst of enriching their knowledge. (c) Students must be trained in asking proper questions at the right time in the right way. They should be told that (a) they must put questions one by one showing due courtesy and self-restraint, (b) their questions must be relevant to the needs and timings of the ongoing lesson, and (c) they should never ask questions for question’s sake or to create fuss and indiscipline in the class. (d) In providing answers to the questions asked by a student, a teacher must first encourage other students to provide answer to the question asked by their follow student. If the need arises, he must himself give the answer as clearly and to-the-point as possible. (e) The answers to the questions related to individual difficulty of the students should be given to these students individually, preferably after the class hours. However, the question meeting the needs of the majority should be answered then and there by providing proper attention and time. (f) In case, the student asking question is not satisfied with the answer given by the fellow student or even by the teacher himself, the teacher should not loose patience, he should try to convince the student by providing other clues, statement, and illustration. (g) Sometimes the teacher is unable to provide answer to a particular question asked by the student. In such case he should not feel perturbed or insulted and in no case should get annoyed with the student. In such situations he must have the guts to admit frankly that at that moment he had no answer but he would be providing it on the next day. The promise thus made should surely be fulfilled. However, the teacher should not make a habit to say sorry and do commitment for providing answer next day. Such habit

proves costly to the prestige of the teacher as he looses confidence and regard of his students, simply on account of his carelessness in preparing his lesson properly.

Exposition Strategy This strategy may be used by the teachers for presenting the subject material particularly at the presentation stage of their lesson. While using this strategy the subject matter is first logically sequenced and organized by the teacher. Then he puts it before the students in a clear and interesting way so that it may be easily grasped and understood. In this way, the main emphasis in the exposition strategy is on the manner and way of exposing the topic and subject matter to the students. Here, every precaution is taken to select, sequence, organize and present the subject matter before the students in a simple, interesting and lucid style so that pupils may understand and grasp it easily and properly. Clarity of thoughts and ideas inherent in the subject matter, not from the angle of the teacher but from the angle of the students, is the basic thing that is clearly emphasized through this teaching strategy.

Uses and importance In a general sense, this strategy can be used in the teaching of all the subject of the school curriculum. However it takes different shapes and dimensions in the teaching of different subjects and topics. For examples, in the teaching of languages, a teacher may be able to express the subject matter through verbal illustration, whereas in a science lesson one may have to demonstrate for providing clear exposition of the subject matter, or in a geography lesson he may have to make use of maps and globes for such exposition.

Limitations and demerits This strategy suffers from following limitations and defects:

1. The strategy needs that the presented subject matter is exposed with needed clarification and explanation. There is no limit of simplifying or clarifying a subject matter. If it is sought from the pupil’s angle then there is a problem of individual differences and it is difficult to adjust the simplification of exposition according to the needs of every student. 2. The whole responsibility in exposition strategy lies on the shoulders of the teacher. For the required success he must have a complete mastery over the subject matter along with the necessary competency in use of this device. Accordingly, while carrying out the task with the help of this device he has to make all arrangements and take all precautions for the exposition of the subject matter. Every teacher is not supposed to be so competent in doing what is needed from him with respect to the use of this strategy. 3. In this strategy the students have to remain more or less inactive and passive, they don’t have to tax their brain and engage in discussion or learning the thing with their own attempts. In the absence of such requirements from the students, the teacher has to work more for the realization of better results.

Suggestions for the effective use of exposition strategy A teacher should try to take care of the following things while making proper gains with the use of this strategy: 1. He must first try to have mastery over the subject matter which he is going to present to his students. 2. The objectives of the lesson should be then properly set and put before the students. 3. The subject matter should be properly sequenced and organized.

4. The subject matter should be presented in meaningful small units and steps one by one. A teacher should not present a large detail or more information which can be difficult for the students to understand or grasp. 5. As far as possible, the students should be involved in the teaching process. They should be left free and rather encouraged to put questions in order to remove their doubts and gaps in their learning as well as understand and grasp the subject matter as comprehensively and usefully as possible. 6. The teacher should write down the main points and central events on the blackboard while exposing the material to the students. 7. The help of illustrative material like charts, maps, objects, and models should be properly sought for the clear and effective exposition. 8. Other teaching strategies like narration, description, explanation, questioning-answering and discussion should also find its place for making the exposition as interesting, meaningful and effective as possible. 9. Teacher must try to evaluate the outcome of his exposition through proper questioning and fix the learning in the minds of the students through review, practice and other suitable fixing strategy.

Description Strategy Meaning Description as a teaching strategy, refers to an act of representing an object, person or event through words, oral or written in its full form or shape for providing the learner its total definite, mental picture. It is similar to narration in many ways. Both are the verbal representation of person, object or event. Both aim to provide a mental picture of certain experience generally in the form of visible images in an

organized and interesting way. Effectiveness of both the strategies depends upon the verbal skill of the teacher in the use of proper language, selection and organization of proper content at the right time in the right way. However, there lies some difference in these strategies that can be outlined as follows: 1. Description, unlike narration, involves large details of a thing or an event. Narration by name is more or less a brief description involving necessary detail in an interesting way. 2. We aim to provide a total definite mental picture of an object, person, place or event in the course of describing the experiences concerning it. For example, while describing Indus Valley Civilization we first provide its necessary introduction, then try to acquaint the learners with the special characteristics of the civilization, and then try to evaluate this civilization with all its strong and weak points and compare it with the other prominent civilizations from ancient right to the present age. However, in narration we don’t go into such details. The task here is limited to present a verbal account or picture of the experiences (without elaborating or evaluating) in an orderly, sequenced form. 3. While the narration, in its verbal representation, is limited to oral communication, the use of both oral and written forms can be made in description.

Use and importance Description as a teaching strategy plays a key role in the teachinglearning process. It may prove very useful for the teaching of almost all subjects of the school curriculum. However, its use is much popular in the subject of languages and social sciences. In teaching languages, the teacher often has to describe the objects, persons, places and events in many of the prose, poetry and composition lesson. History, a sequenced portrayal of events, provides enough

opportunity for a teacher to make use of a description device. In dealing with topics like “First battle of Indian Independence”, “Causes of the downfall of the Mughal empire”, and “The Golden age of Gupta dynasty”, there is no other useful strategy than the description strategy for providing total visual picture of the things, persons, places and event concerning the topics in a limited time with limited physical and human resources at the teacher’s command. Similarly, in geography, the knowledge of places with their physical and political location and their special features and characteristics can only be successfully taught through a good description. The cause and effect relationship in geography as well as in other sciences can also be effectively explained through proper description of the conditions and situations surrounding the things and events. Similarly, in teaching of many lessons in sciences like “How does a cycle pump, water pump or electric bell function?” or “How do our various body system work?”, a teacher has to resort to the strategy of description in making the things clear to his students. Similarly while explaining about the preparation of gases and to organize demonstrations, the teacher has to describe all what is there in terms of objects, precautions and ways of performing the experiments.

Limitations and defects The strategy suffers from some of the following limitations and defects: 1. The use of description strategy makes the students mere listeners but not active participants in the teaching-learning process. It leaves the entire responsibility on the shoulders of the teacher. 2. Its use is limited to the teaching-learning carried out at the memory and understanding levels. Reflective level of teachinglearning cannot be carried out with the help of this strategy.

3. There is a danger involved that the description may become quite lengthy and cumbersome, resulting into dullness and monotony in the class. 4. The description may turn into mere telling and lecturing on the part of the teacher. 5. It becomes a tedious task to take appropriate decision about the length and scope of the details involved in description. 6. Description, as a strategy, needs and expects much on the part of the teacher. Besides having thorough knowledge of the subject, a teacher must learn the proper art of using description as a teaching strategy. In the absence of these qualities, it becomes difficult for a teacher to get desired success in the use of this strategy.

Suggestions for the effective use of description strategy In order to get the desired success in the use of description strategy, a teacher must take care in the following ways: 1. A teacher must try to have mastery over the subject matter related to his lesson before resorting to the description strategy. 2. He must carefully plan for the use of description as a teaching strategy. The various points where there is scope for the use of description strategy should be carefully located and relevant subject matter should be properly selected and organized for the verbal representation of the experiences. 3. The language used for description should be quite simple and understandable from the angle of the students. In addition to the use of words, the other modes of communication like gestures should also be employed for effective description. 4. For deriving better results, description strategy should be supplemented with other strategies like explanation,

illustration, narration, dramatization, and question-answering. 5. In the course of providing description about the object, place, person and events, the names, dates and other important points should be written on the blackboard. 6. The description should not be limited to the use of words. For better results, it should be supplemented with the useful and related teaching aids like pictures, charts, maps, models, slides, etc. 7. The description should be done where it is needed. Unessential description works negatively and provides obstacles in the path of learning. Its details should be properly decided. In any case it should be neither too long nor too brief. 8. The description should be quite purposeful, essentially planned for achieving the set objectives of the lesson. 9. The description should be according to the needs, interests and abilities of the learners. 10. The pace of the description should be reasonably set. It should neither be done in undue haste nor it should be carried out at a snail’s pace. 11. The teacher must have a clear visual image of the object, person, place or the event which he is going to describe to his students. 12. In case the description fails at the first instance to get the desired results, it should be repeated with more precautions and necessary use of appropriate skill. 13. Description should never be thought as an end in itself and, therefore, description for the sake of description or seeking pleasure should always be avoided and discouraged. For the better results in every sense it must aim to present a complete, vivid and clear mental picture of the object and events for the proper grasping and understanding on the part of the students. 14. Description should be accompanied with the appropriate questioning in its course of delivery, and also at the end of the

evaluation of its outcomes as well as for making the students attentive, disciplined and active in the process of teachinglearning.

Explanation Strategy Meaning In the course of exposing the material to the students a teacher may need the services of explanation strategy for making the facts, principles and events quite clear and understandable to them. Dictionary meaning of the word explanation is “to make plain or clear”, “to lay open the meaning of”, “to elucidate the matter and ideas in questions”, etc. Consequently, through this device, the complex and difficult portion of the presented material is simplified in such a way that students can easily and effectively grasp the inherent ideas and concepts. However, in practical sense, explanation differs from exposition. Exposition, as such, aims merely at placing facts clearly before the learner while explanation aims at showing facts in their proper relation to other facts in a system. Thus, explanation goes further in the process of exposition to make the things more plain and explicit.

Objects The objects of the explanation strategy are to make the pupils (i) active and intelligent partner in the teaching-learning process, (ii) to grasp the meaning and purpose of the presented material, and (iii) to make its use in enriching their experiences.

The importance and use The explanation strategy is quite popular in the teaching of languages. A language teacher often resort to this strategy for (i)

explaining the meaning of the difficult words in his prose or poetry lesson and (ii) explaining the hidden true meaning of a prose and poetry lesson, the emotional expression or feelings of the writer or poet which he wants to communicate to his readers. In addition to the language and literary lessons, this strategy can be successfully used in the knowledge and skill lessons belonging to other subjects. In physical and biological sciences, Geography, Agriculture and military sciences, it can be effectively used to teach cause and effect relationship. How does this happen? What has led to this situation or outcome? Such question can be properly handled with the use of explanation strategy. In mathematics, a teacher has to resort to this strategy for making the students understand what is to be done for solving a particular problem for explaining the use of a formula. In this way, explanation strategy can be successfully used for facilitating the task of the teacher in teaching various subjects.

Limitations and defects The explanation strategy suffers from the following limitations and defects: 1. The use of explanation strategy makes the teaching as a oneway traffic. Here, the students remain almost inactive and passive leaving the whole responsibility of the teaching on the shoulder of the teacher. 2. The explanation helps merely in the task of analyzing the subject matter. It neither cares for putting up the total picture of the presented material before the students nor it helps in learning the application of the new knowledge. 3. The use of this strategy needs a thorough and deep knowledge of the subject matter besides professional competency on the part of the teachers, in the absence of which, it does not produce favourable results.

Suggestions for the effective use of explanation strategy The following suggestions may prove helpful in making the explanation strategy as effective as possible: 1. The teacher should try to take proper decision and locate the difficult notions, concepts, ideas and facts related to the presented subject matter needing explanation. 2. Then he should try to take decision about the ways of explaining the things to the students in the light of their previous knowledge and mental abilities. 3. Explanation should meet the specific requirement of making the difficult portion of the presented material easily understandable to the students. It should always be done according to the needs, interests and mental level of the students. 4. Explanation should be relevant and to-the-point. In any case, teacher should not go astray or beat about the bush while providing explanation. 5. Explanation should not be merely in the form of telling. For better results, it should be given by using relevant devices like illustration, storytelling, questioning, audiovisual aids, etc. 6. The important points regarding explanation should always be written on the blackboard. 7. While providing explanation, a teacher should be careful in the use of language. It should be simple and well within the comprehension of the students. 8. The explanation should be given at the proper time when such need is felt by the students. 9. It is not proper on the part of a teacher to provide the explanation in toto and thus not leaving anything on the part of students as a part of their own contribution.

10. The explanation should not be given in the form of sermons or instruction. In true sense, it should always lead the students to understand the things which they can’t understand by themselves. 11. Due cooperation from the students should be sought while providing explanation by the teacher. The teacher must put the relevant question to the students while explaining the things to them. They must also feel free to put questions to the teacher for solving their difficulties regarding needed explanation. Here, the use of questioning device may also help in the task of evaluation besides supplementing the task of explanation. 12. The teacher must work sincerely to have mastery over the subject matter and learn the proper art of explanation for deriving better results.

Dramatization Strategy Meaning and significance Dramatization in the form of an act of dramatizing may be understood as teaching strategy, helpful in understanding the concepts and events related to various subjects of the school curriculum by converting them into an act of play or drama. The events of the past, the unreachable present and the abstract concepts, quite difficult in comprehension, becomes too lively, interesting and comprehending on the part of the students with this single act of dramatization. In a history lesson, when the past events or happening are dramatized through the dramatic action by the teacher himself or are translated into dramatic behavioural actions in the classroom or stage by the student actors playing the different roles of the persons associated with particular historical scene or events, the teaching becomes a lively process quite helpful in attaining the objectives of history teaching. The same is in the case of language teaching, social sciences teaching and teaching of various incidents and concepts

related to the various subjects. Particularly, the history of the inventions and development as well as the biographical knowledge of the inventors in natural and applied sciences, mathematics, and art and culture may become too lively with the acts of dramatization. Similarly, different scenes and concepts, dramatized by the students, may provide valuable knowledge and understanding related to the important curricular areas and topics like pollution; interdependence of animals, plants, insects and human beings; the water cycle; the useful and harmful insects; the menace of population rise; the significance and advantage of population control; the prevention and control of harmful diseases; healthy habits of happy living; or health and hygiene.

Various forms of dramatization The dramatization, as a teaching strategy, may be employed in various forms and styles as follows: 1. In its quite simple and inexpensive form, the teacher while teaching a particular concept or events related to his topic of teaching may act out the same by playing the various roles of the persons, animal, birds, or inanimate objects, and even provide the sensory experiences of the happenings or incidents related to that very concept or event. In this way, the teacher takes up the multidimensional responsibilities of dramatic representation of the stories of the life and action as needed for providing knowledge and understanding of the topic in hand. It is a type of monoacting performed by the teacher himself in front of the students of his class. 2. In its second form, the teacher may prepare the dramatization script and then ask a number of students of the class to play the roles of different persons, and animate or inanimate objects for providing dramatic presentation of the concepts and events

related to the topics and learning experiences of the curricular areas in the classroom period. 3. In its third form, dramatization needs a lot of preparation, arrangement and organization as it needs a very lively, real and effective presentation of the concepts, happenings and events related to the topics and subjects of the school curriculum on a drama or play stage specially meant for this purpose. As a result, the task becomes quite costly in terms of time, labour and money. However, its instructional and nurturing effects are quite praiseworthy as it helps in leaving a permanent impression on the minds of the actor as well as play watching students with regard to the proper realization of the set instructional objectives.

Merits of dramatization strategy Dramatization as an instructional strategy may have the following advantages: 1. Children take genuine interest in the act of imitation and observational learning. Dramatization provides adequate opportunities for initiating and observational learning and this may prove helpful in providing valuable opportunities for the learning of the concepts and facts related to different subjects of the school curriculum. 2. Dramatization may help in providing training and opportunities to the students for the development of language and communication skills like art of speaking, art of listening and comprehending the verbal and non-verbal means employed for communication by the actors and director of the play. 3. Dramatization rests on the use of various sense organs on the part of student actors or teacher as a mono-actor and play watchers. Therefore, it may be quite helpful in providing desirable sensory training to the students.

4. Dramatization may also help in the development of various cognitive and mental abilities of the students like ability to memorize, imagine, think and reason by getting opportunities of role-playing and deriving generalization and inferences from the observation of the dramatic scenes. 5. Dramatization, as a teaching device, may help the teachers in getting their students properly motivated and taking necessary interests in the learning of the topic and subjects taught by them. 6. Dramatization may prove to be an excellent device for providing adequate opportunities to the students for their selfexpression and self-actualization. The students may express their inner self, feelings and emotions, hidden talents and creative self through the dramatization activities. 7. Dramatization, as a teaching strategy, demands a close cooperation among the students of a section or a class for playing the various roles or participation as observers under the supervision and direction of their subject teachers. Such cohesive group activities help a lot in the development of cooperative and group feelings among the students. 8. Dramatization, as a teaching strategy, may help in the proper socialization of the students. They get proper opportunity for understanding and developing healthy social relationship with each other. The shy and hesitant students may get proper incentive and encouragement for being socialized, confident and expressive in the group through dramatization. 9. Last but not the least dramatization proves to be a potent play way exercise and technique for making the students understand various concepts, events and facts related to any specific topic and subject in an interesting way. Its entertainment potential thus may help in deriving the joy of entertainment along with the acquisition of useful learning experiences both at the same time with a great ease.

Demerits and delimitation of dramatization strategy All is not well with dramatization as a teaching strategy. It is said to be suffering from a number of demerits and delimitations as follows: 1. Dramatization may prove quite expensive and uneconomical in terms of time, money and labour. Much is demanded in terms of creating real natural scenes and playing different roles in dramatization. The return sometimes is too less in comparison to the resources invested. Even in the case of mono-acting on the part of the teacher, the time and energy spent is too much in comparison to other useful modes and strategies of teaching. 2. Dramatization, as a teaching strategy may only be used for illustration of the concept, facts and ideas capable of being portrayed or dramatized. Its use thus may be limited to the teaching of certain specific topics in the areas of history, civics, political science and languages. The facts, principles and skills related to mathematics, sciences, arts and craft thus may not be acquired through the simple use of the dramatization technique. 3. Dramatization may prove detrimental to the educational progress and development of the students. They may be tempted to devote too much time and energy for playing their roles or helping and participating in the dramatization activities. Little time and energy then may be left for the necessary study and drillwork for the academic and other activities leading to the wholesome development of personality. 4. It is not easy to make proper use of dramatization as a teaching strategy. The teachers need to be quite efficient and trained either for playing the role of a good director-cuminstructor or a mono-actor quite capable of converting the various concepts, facts and events related to his topic into

gains. There is a much shortage of such capable teachers, who in addition to a full command over the subject may prove good actors and directors for the dramatization of educational experiences. In such a situation, it becomes quite difficult for utilizing dramatization as a teaching strategy for the proper educational gains. 5. Dramatization demands a lot of activities on the part of students or teachers. Sometimes teachers may be so absorbed in dramatizing concepts and events that can create problems of indiscipline in the class. Similarly, the freedom granted and closeness developed in allowing the students to play the roles of actors or observers may generate serious disciplinary problems for the management of instructional and other activities of the school.

Suggestions for the proper use of dramatization strategy The use of dramatization as a teaching strategy, pointed out above may involve some serious limitations and difficulties on the part of the users. However, nothing can discourage the spirit of a strongly determined teacher. He can sail well for deriving the desired educational gains from the dramatization activities. However, in such a situation, the following precautions and pre-preparations are to be observed by him: 1. The teacher must carefully select the themes and topics suitable for teaching with the help of dramatization. In other words, he must carefully analyze the possibility of a concept, fact, event and learning experience related to his subject for being dramatized. He should not unnecessary try for using dramatization for each and everything related to his teaching. 2. The selected theme and topic should then be placed before the students with the necessary details of the sources helpful

in collecting desirable information for the writing of the script and providing necessary details regarding the dramatization of the theme, concepts and events. 3. It is better to make the students write dialogues and help in the preparation of the scripts along with taking decisions on the setting of the stage, dresses, language of the actors and many other things helpful in getting better output from dramatization. 4. Although it is neither always feasible nor practicable to use dramatization strategy in its full form by making the student play different roles and creating real life situation on the stage, yet it is always better to involve every student of the class either as actor or helper and observer for getting appropriate educational gains from the dramatization strategy. However, for the simple concepts and self-motivated incidence, the teacher may resort to mono-acting by carefully playing the roles of concerned persons and producing the desired environmental effects needed for dramatization. 5. Dramatization necessarily carries its entertainment, artistic and aesthetic values. However, care should be taken not to overemphasize these values by neglecting the emotional appeal and educational messages planned to be delivered through dramatization. 6. The teacher has to remain quite vigilant in providing necessary guidance to the students for playing their respective roles and participating according to the requirement of the dramatization activities along with learning necessary lessons and deriving the set educational benefits from the use of dramatization strategy.

Independent Study Strategy There is no parallel to independent or self-study for acquainting with the facts and gathering of the information for acquiring necessary

knowledge and skills regarding any area or topic of the school curriculum. Independent study means the study to be done by an individual himself with his independent efforts. As a teaching strategy independent study may be defined as an attempt on the part of a teacher to persuade his students to pick up the path of independent learning resulting in the development of the habit of acquiring knowledge or skills through his own independent efforts. In this way, the term independent or self-study clearly stands for the development of a habit of independent learning so that the students may be able to acquire necessary information and knowledge regarding any areas and subjects of the school curriculum with their own independent learning pursuits. It is no secret that actual learning occurs only when one is totally set for carrying out such learning. If we can make our students learn the desired things with their self-study and independent efforts, then really it will be a tremendous task and marvellous achievement on our part. Once the habit of independent learning or self-study is picked up by the students, the process of knowledge getting and information seeking automatically starts resulting in the attainment of the stipulated teaching-learning objectives. It is equally true with the learning of all the topics and contents related to all the curricular areas. That is why, independent study, as a teaching strategy, fits equally well for the teaching and learning of all the subjects and activities related to school curriculum. You may be eager to know the nature of the independent study as a strategy of teaching-learning. Let us illustrate its nature and applicability as a teaching strategy. 1. Students may be asked to grasp and understand the meaning of a stanza or paragraph of a piece of poetry or prose with the help of their independent study made through the help of

dictionaries, encyclopedias, reference books, hints given in the textbook and other literature available in the school libraries. 2. Students may be asked to write a story, letter, essay, or description of an event in their own words. However, they may take the help of library and other communication and literary resources for building the body of their compositions. 3. Students may be given assignments related to the acquisition of knowledge and facts belonging to a particular topic or curricular areas. They may take the help of relevant resources for finding out, discovering or collecting the desired information for this purpose. However, they have to pursue their search in their own ways with their own independent efforts. 4. Students may be asked to solve the problems related to the subject mathematics, statistics, economics, physics, chemistry, and mechanics with their own independent efforts. 5. Students may be asked to perform necessary practice and drillwork for the acquisition of necessary skills in any curricular and co-curricular areas.

Merits and advantages of independent study strategy Independent study as a teaching strategy may prove fruitful in the following ways: 1. It can create genuine interest of the students in learning. 2. It helps in making the students self-reliant and self-dependent in the process of learning. 3. In addition to the coverage of the syllabus, it helps the teacher to make his students strive for indepth and intensive study of the subject. 4. It may help in widening the mental horizon of the students. It takes them higher and higher on the ladder of acquiring knowledge and skills related to a particular curricular area.

5. Independent or self-study is an essential footboard for making the students creative and research minded. 6. It discourages rote learning; rather it helps the students to develop their intellectual capacities and use them judiciously for acquiring the knowledge with their own independent efforts. 7. It is helpful in doing independent practice and drillwork, most needed in various curricular areas. Actually, the task of teaching and learning of many skills may be appropriately carried out with the help of the use of independent study as a teaching device. 8. It helps in building the confidence of the students in their independent learning and knowledge acquisition task. The confidence so built may be a big helping hand to the students at the crucial juncture of any testing or examination. 9. The development of the habit of independent or self-study as a result of the use of this strategy may persuade the students to go for the study of the topics to be taught in the class beforehand. It helps them understand properly what is being taught in the class. 10. The habit of self-study, developed as a result of the use of this strategy, may help the students in the proper utilization of their leisure time.

Demerits and limitations of independent study strategy Independent study strategy may suffer from the demerits and limitations as follows: 1. It does not go well with the younger children studying in lower classes. One should be able to feel one’s own responsibility and significance of such study before asking to do so. 2. Even with the grown up children studying in higher classes, the independent study as a teaching-learning strategy may fall on

account of their not taking proper interest or showing careless attitude for such study. They may unnecessarily waste their time in pretending to be engaged in the independent study. 3. A teacher may utilize it as a good excuse for not teaching or working hard with their students in the pursuit of knowledge and skills. 4. Independent study or self-study on the part of students needs an appropriate learning environment and the resources or facilities for carrying out the desired independent study in the various curricular areas. In the absence of such environment and facilities, it may not yield any worthwhile outcomes. 5. In all situations and circumstances, the use of independent study always demands a very careful planning on the part of the subject teacher along with the need of a properly organized supervision of the process and efforts carried out by the individual student and group of students engaged in independent study. The task is quite cumbersome and it needs the services of a well-informed and devoted teacher, well versed in the use of this strategy. The non-availability of such competent teachers coupled with the shortage of time and motivation on their part, are other handicaps that may put question mark in the successful utilization of the strategy.

Suggestions for the effective utilization of independent study strategy The following suggestions may prove helpful in the effective utilization of independent study as a teaching strategy. 1. The teacher himself should demonstrate a genuine love and interest for doing independent or self-study for providing an exemplary model to the students. 2. He must explore the proper and genuine possibilities of performing independent study on the part of his students for

the teaching-learning of specific topics and experiences related to his subject. 3. He must adopt such progressive methods and approaches in his teaching that may demand on the part of students for being engaged in the self-study or independent learning. As far as possible he should discourage the acquisition of facts through rote learning, copying and blind imitation of the observed behaviour and rather encourage facts finding, problem solving and independent thinking leading to the necessity of independent study on the part of his students. 4. Students should be provided essential resources and facilities like a well-equipped library along with a list of references for carrying out independent study, facilities and equipment for doing practical work in the laboratory and workshop, congenial and appropriate environment in the school or home for carrying out independent study. 5. A teacher must try to gain proficiency in the utilization of independent study as a teaching strategy. They must also train, guide and inspire their students for carrying out independent study for the realization of proper educational gains. In no circumstances they should escape from their responsibility of planning, supervising and guiding the process and products of the independent study carried out by their students.

Supervised Study as a Teaching Strategy Meaning and definition Supervised study means the study performed under supervision. In actual practice, when the students engage themselves in some learning activities under the properly organized supervision of their teacher, the phenomenon is labelled as supervised study. It may take either of the two forms—individual or collective. This means self study

or group study when performed under the proper supervision of a teacher or a group of teachers make take the shape of supervised study. Here students are free to go ahead in their learning of facts and skills as independent learners or as members of the group. But, in doing so, they have to plan and perform their learning activities in consultation with their teacher. The teacher who acts as a guide also shares the responsibility of supervising the learning activities of the individual student or the group. He has to remain very cautious in supervising such activities. He has to see that the process of study goes on in the right direction, and the students do not waste their time in irrelevant tasks and do not feel discouraged for the failure of their attempts. But, in doing so, he should not make the students dependent on him; rather he should build their self-confidence by encouraging their self-learning and independent efforts. The views expressed above about the meaning and nature of supervised study seem to have perfect coordination with the views expressed by Bining and Bining (1952) in their following description of the term supervised study: By supervised study we mean the supervision by the teacher of a group or class of pupils as they work at their desks or around their tables. In this procedure, we find pupils busy at work that has been assigned to them by the teacher. Whey they meet a difficulty that they cannot overcome, they ask the teacher for direction and assistance. The teacher, when not called upon, walks quietly up and down the classroom or remains at his desk watching the pupils do their work, continually on the alert for any wrong procedures that the pupils may follow. He is always ready to direct and aid them.

By understanding the meaning and nature of the term supervised study in the above described way we may now be in a position to define the term supervised study as a teaching-device. Consequently, we may understand supervised study as a teaching device that may help the learner individually or collectively to proceed on the path of their learning with their independent efforts under the proper guidance, effective direction and adequate supervision of the teacher.

How to make use of supervised study a teaching device A teacher may effectively use supervised study as a teaching device for the teaching of various topics and providing useful learning experiences to the pupils related to his teaching subject. Its use may take variety of shapes and styles as demanded by the nature of the subject and types of learning experiences needed to be acquired in particular teaching-learning situations. Let us cite a few modes for the purpose of illustration. 1. The teacher may ask the students to study general literature related with his teaching subject. This study may be aimed to collect relevant information about various facts, concepts, principles, events and processes related to the subject. For making the study a planned study, teacher may provide individual or group assignment and then may try to guide the attempts of the students through his able supervision. 2. The teacher may ask the students to discover facts or principles related to various aspects of his subject through their own independent efforts. The students may take the help of the relevant resources for this purpose and may resort to necessary activities for achieving the desired ends. The teacher will certainly be there to provide needed guidance, direction and supervision to the students for the realization of the set objectives. 3. In agreement with the nature of the topic and subject proper, students may resort to revision, drill and practice work under the adequate supervision of the teacher. 4. The practical application of the knowledge and skills acquired in the teaching-learning of a subject may be made a subject for supervised study. Students may take individual or group projects for this purpose.

5. The subjects requiring practical work like physical, and life sciences, art and painting, music, work experiences, etc. may have enough scope for the utilization of supervised study as a teaching strategy. The teacher may help the students for learning necessary concepts and skills related to these subjects through their independent efforts and activities carried out under the adequate supervision of the teacher and laboratory and workshop trained personnel.

Merits and advantages of supervised study as a teaching strategy Supervised study as a teaching strategy has the following advantages: 1. It provides a well-organized supervision of the independent or group study done by the students in the process of information and knowledge getting or practising the necessary skills for useful application. 2. In supervised study, students are able to get appropriate guidance at the proper time as and when needed by them for carrying out their independent or group study. 3. Supervised study needs a living contact between the teacher and the taught and thus helps in developing cordial and intimate relations. 4. A close supervision helps the teachers to have a continuous appraisal of the progress of his students. 5. Supervised study encourages students for self-learning. It helps in building the self-confidence of the students for the solution of the problems independently. 6. Supervised study helps in controlling the problem of indiscipline. Students, while remaining under supervision, develop proper leaning and behavioural habits.

7. It also helps in exercising proper control over the shirkers and irresponsible students. 8. It also helps in the inculcation of the habit of regularity, punctuality and systematic work. 9. Supervised study reduces the chances of wastage and stagnation. Students do a lot of work without wasting their time under such study.

Demerits and limitations Supervised study has the following disadvantages: 1. Supervised study demands too much work from the teacher. He has to plan, supervise, guide and evaluate the work of all students. The regular heavy schedule of the present day subject teacher hardly allows him to devote much time and energy for such supervision work. 2. The success of supervised study lies in paying individual attention to every student of the class. It may be only possible with a limited number of students. Thus, the present day crowded classes hardly leave any scope for such study. 3. Supervised study needs a lot of supervision. It is practically impossible to supervise the individual or group work of the students from the beginning till the end. Therefore, in supervised study, the possibility of wasting time and energy by the students can never be ruled out. 4. In supervised study, guidance is to be rendered in the proper amount at the proper time. Too much guidance spoils the habit of students by making them dependent on the teacher. On the other hand, non-availability of the guidance at the proper time may discourage the student to the extent that he may develop distaste and apathy towards the subject. 5. In supervised study, the teacher should know the exact purpose and the significance of his supervision. The

supervision done merely for the sake of fault finding, accusing, alarming and penalizing the students does not bring any fruitful results, rather it destroys the very purpose and foundations of the supervised study. Thus, it may be seen that supervised study along with its plus points does also suffer from some limitations and defects. On close examination, it may be revealed that these negative points are not much alarming. Suitably organized supervised study has no match. With a little care and experience the teacher may learn the art of good supervision. He may drive his students towards self-learning, self-discipline and self-supervision requiring minimum help and guidance from the teacher for their independent, self or group study.

Drillwork Strategy Meaning Drillwork, as teaching strategy, is said to be one of the most important and indispensable devices employed by the teacher in his teachinglearning process for fixing in the minds of the students the material already learnt by them. Thus, in the delivery of a lesson it comes after the presentation of the whole material or a part or unit of it in the form of practice or revision of the learned material. In all aspects, drillwork is a teacher-initiated and teacher-directed classroom practice or exercise work performed by the students which aims for the perfection of a skill or permanence of the material to be retained in the memory of the students.

Use and importance Drillwork occupies immense importance in the teaching-learning process as it helps in the clear understanding, improvement of the performance of skills and permanent retention of learned material. As far as its use and scope is concerned, drillwork as a teaching device

can be used by the teacher for fixing the knowledge and skills in the minds of the students almost in all the subjects of the school curriculum. However, it is found to be more effective with those subjects where there lies a sufficient material and scope for practice. Mathematics is one of such subjects where there lies enormous opportunities for doing drillwork in perfecting the skills like computational skill, drawing skill, problem solving skill, tabulation skill, etc. Solving of numerical problem, application of the rules and principles, drawing inferences from the observation and experimentation in physical and life sciences also require sufficient drillwork for gaining proficiency. Statistics, commerce and accountancy also provide sufficient scope for the use of drillwork. In geography, the drawing of maps and outlines, location of places on the maps and globes, and in history remembering dates and sequence of events, and drawing as well as interpretation of timeline require enough practice in the form of drillwork. Similarly, in languages, many aspects especially in the field of composition like vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, sentence structure, essay, story and letter writing, reading and writing require sufficient drillwork for reaching a desired level of improvement. In addition, drill-work provides opportunity for independent problem solving, utilization and training of mental faculties of the children, ability to apply the learned facts in understanding the environmental surroundings and building self-confidence in self-study.

Defects and limitations Drillwork, as a teaching strategy, suffers from the following defects and limitations: 1. Drillwork is a fixing strategy. Sometimes a teacher, due to their ignorance or laziness, commit mistakes by asking students to do practice or revision work of the facts and principles without actually teaching these to students. In such cases, it cannot

serve any purpose other than developing apathy for the drillwork. 2. Drill, as a serious work activity, demands a lot from the teacher in pre-preparation, having thorough knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, skill and experience for making the students to do the drillwork in a proper way at the proper time. In the absence of such things in the teacher, this device does not yield desirable results. 3. There is a danger that drill or practice work may be used as a means of evaluation or testing of the results rather than a device for the strengthening the learning. 4. It may also be used by the teacher as means of punishment or as a sort of scapegoat for doing his own personal work and remaining absent or taking rest during its duration. 5. In case the drillwork is not planned according to the various needs and abilities of the students and given in the proper amount in a proper way, it may create distaste and disinterest towards the subject leading to the truancy and backwardness on the part of the students. 6. If it is not carefully supervised and the errors are not properly detected and rectified by providing individual attention, the results are drifted into negative channels making the students learn faulty concepts, wrong habits and misfired applications. 7. Drillwork needs individual attention that, in turn, needs a limited number of students in the class. However, in the present classroom it is not feasible. 8. A lot of time is needed to provide sufficient drillwork but in the sort duration of 30 or 35 minutes where a large syllabus is to be covered by the teacher, it is difficult for him to afford so much time for drillwork.

Suggestions for conducting effective drillwork

For the effective use of drillwork as a teaching strategy, the teacher is advised to go ahead by taking care of the following points: 1. A teacher should try to have mastery over the subject matter along with the necessary skill for its presentation. After making a successful presentation, he should make use of the drillwork as a means of fixing the knowledge and skill already acquired by the students at the time of his teaching. 2. The type of drillwork done in the classroom should be carefully planned by the teacher in view of the nature of the subject, needs of the lesson, interests and abilities of the students and the time in hand. 3. It is better not to have drillwork continuously for a long period as it may result into boredom and fatigue. For better results, it should be done in reasonable rounds by giving proper break and rest. 4. The principle of change and variety should be followed for getting better results in drillwork. Accordingly, the drillwork may be done in oral, written or practical form for the needed practice of learned facts, principles and activities. 5. The principles of individual differences should also be kept in mind for engaging the students in drillwork. It should be graded properly according to the difficulty and students should be asked to do the drillwork suiting to their interests and abilities. 6. The drillwork should always be related to the topic currently taught by the teacher. In all cases it should be remembered by the teacher that drill is a strategy for providing clear understanding and long retention of the knowledge and skill gained by the learner through the first impression of the topic taught by the teacher. 7. It should be remembered that drill is a fixing strategy, used for improving the performance in terms of retention of knowledge and acquisition of skills and accordingly it should not be used

as a measure and means of testing the achievement and performance of the students. 8. It should never be given with a view to punishing the students. Giving so, it gets associated with the unpleasant experiences resulting into distaste and disinterest in the subject and apathy towards the teacher. 9. The most important thing for getting desired success in drill work is to secure pupil’s active and continuous participation. Accordingly, a teacher should work for getting their proper cooperation, participation, and involvement in the task of drillwork from the beginning to the end. 10. Interest is the greatest factor in any task related to learning and improvement in performance. Therefore, the drillwork should be planned and carried through not to miss the thread of attentiveness, concentration and enthusiasm on the part of the students. 11. It is to be seen that every pupil gets opportunity in participating in the drill practice. For this purpose, it is better to provide little time for many rather than allowing more time to a few. 12. Drillwork should never be made a blind repetition. Children should be given enough opportunities to reconstruct their responses and to think, reason and solve the problem in their own ways. 13. Since drill is a serious and sincere activity, the teacher should try to keep the students quite alert and attentive by maintaining proper discipline. 14. The drill work should be properly guided and meaningfully directed towards the desired objectives. It should never be allowed to go out of track resulting into waste of time and resources. Irrelevant activities interruption and disturbances should be totally stopped during the specified period. 15. In the drill process, there should be appropriate provision for the supervision of the practice work done by the students

themselves. Mistakes and errors should not be allowed to occur in the work done by the students. These should be immediately detected and got rectified in a proper way leaving no chance of their fixing into wrong reaction and improper habits. 16. The progress achieved in the drillwork should be properly evaluated from time to time.

Review Strategy Meaning and definition The meaning of the term review is revision or crucial examination. In this sense, review strategy may be considered as a strategy for reviewing, i.e. revising or critically examining the learning experiences already provided to the learners in the form of content material or work experiences. Actually, teaching of a particular topic or imparting the learning experiences does not stop with its presentation, delivery or sharing with the students. A teacher has to ascertain whether the knowledge imparted or skill taught to the students has been fixed in their minds properly or not. If not, sufficient follow-up work needs to be carried out for making the knowledge or skill learned a permanent, useful and practicable asset. For the realization of this objective, we may make use of the fixing devices or strategies like questioning, review and drillwork. Consequently, we may define review as a fixing device or strategy used by the teacher for fixing up (making the learning permanent or usable) the things already taught to the students by resorting to its revision or critical examination.

How to use review strategy 1. While teaching with lecture method, the teacher, after the narration and exposition of the delivered content material, may

try to focus again on the main points and ideas inherent in his teaching verbally or with the help of writing on the blackboard, or presenting on charts or slides. Such emphasis may help students in the proper review of the delivered lesson and presented material resulting in the fixation of the learning impressions acquired earlier through the lecture methods. 2. While using demonstration or lecture-cum-demonstration method for acquainting students with the processes, approaches or activities related to some experiments or practical work, the teacher may repeat or re-emphasize on some essential practical aspects of his demonstration. In a skill lesson, he may repeat or re-emphasize the steps needed for the learning of that skill. It may help the student to review the art and technique needed for the learning of that skill. 3. While using assignment method, a teacher may first train and instruct the students in the art and skill of reviewing the related literature. He may then provide them adequate references and bibliography relevant to the assignment work given to them. The students may go through the pages of the relevant literature, have a proper review of this literature and then note down the important things related to their assignment. This review of the related literature is although performed by them in oral form, yet its application is made through the writing down of the main points and ideas as needed for the completion of the given assignment. 4. Review strategy may also be used by the students for the preparation needed in the proper understanding and grasping of the ideas going to be presented by the teacher in the class. For this purpose, the teacher may tell the students in advance the topic to be taught and content material and learning experiences to be provided in his next lesson. He may then give them relevant references and sources of information. Students may go through the review of such related literature

and information and thus may adequately prepare them for the proper understanding and grasping of the delivered lesson. 5. This process may be repeated for the proper fixation of the knowledge and skills acquired in the classroom. The students may go through the proper review of the things taught in the class either through their classnotes or memories preserved in their minds or through the proper review of the literature and information related to the classroom teaching.

Merits and advantages of review strategy The review strategy has the following advantages: 1. It helps the teacher to highlight the main points and ideas related to his teaching lessons for the proper realization of the teaching objectives. 2. It helps the learner as a fixing device for fixing the knowledge and skill acquired through the delivery of a lesson by the teacher. 3. The review of related literature beforehand may help the learner to become properly prepared for the understanding and grasping of the ideas presented in the classroom teaching. 4. It may help the students for completing their assignment work related to a particular topic or subject. 5. It may help the students to make a proper use of the things and ideas learnt in the classroom.

Demerits and limitations of review strategy Following are the disadvantages of review strategy: 1. Reviewing is an art as well as science. One should be properly trained and motivated to make a proper use of the review strategy.

2. It needs extra efforts, time and labour on the part of a teacher for going through the review of the lesson taught. Mostly, teachers do not devote enough time, skill and interest for the employment of review strategy. As a result, the desired purpose is hardly achieved through the use of such strategy in our classroom. 3. The length of the syllabus covered by the teacher in a limited amount of time available in the classroom forces the teacher to remain in the state of undue haste and, as a result, they usually try to avoid any revision through the adoption of review strategy. 4. Students usually are not so serious and also not well-trained for adopting review strategy either for pre-preparation or for fixing the knowledge and skills acquired through classroom teaching.

Conclusion The demerits and limitations pointed out in connection with the employment of review strategy, however, should not discourage the teacher as well as students for the adoption of review strategy. It is quite a meaningful and result-oriented strategy that can be successfully used for the acquisition and fixation of any new knowledge or skill. Its proper use may help both the teacher and students in the realization of the teaching-learning objectives.

Assignment strategy Meaning and definition The meaning of the work assignment is allotment. In this sense, the term assignment strategy of teaching stands for the strategy in which students are assigned or allotted some special duties for carrying out theoretical study or practical activities on individual or small groups

basis aimed at the realization of the stipulated teaching-learning objectives.

Procedure for adopting assignment strategy 1. The prescribed course of study for the whole year is divided into suitable parts according to topics or, otherwise, so that it is successfully finished within the available time. These divisions of the course are known as assignments. These may be weekly, fortnightly or monthly according to the syllabus or available circumstances. 2. The students have to finish their assignments within the specified period. They may work according to their capacities. Brighter students may be asked to take up the next graded assignments in order after finishing the allotted ones. The slower or weaker students may take longer time or may require frequent help of the teacher. However, in any case, a student is not allowed to move on to the next assignment unless he finishes the previous one. 3. While allotting assignments the teacher provides in writing a thorough insight of the procedure and precautions to be adopted by the students for completing their assignments. However, it serves as a mere guidance, the responsibility of completion of the assignments, theoretically or practically lies with the students themselves. 4. The assignments are well graded and systematized. The initial assignments are preparatory in nature. The one leads to the next, and so on. Theory is taught first and the practical work is given later for making the child able to utilize what is learned by him. 5. Assignments in practical work include the necessary suggestions and guidelines for handling the apparatus and performing various experimental activities. As a whole, proper

guidance of the teacher is available during the completion of the assignment by the students. 6. Students who have not finished the theory part of a certain topic are not allowed to go ahead with the practicals related with these theoretical concepts. 7. For the adoption of assignment strategy, the time spent in teaching may be divided into two parts or the students may also be grouped into two major groups. On a particular time or scheduled hours of the school, one group may be engaged in working on the theoretical assignment, discussing, reading and observing demonstration under the leadership of the teacher and the other group which has competed theoretical assignment may be allowed to proceed with the practical application or experiments based on the theoretical understanding of the concept. 8. The students are required to keep a written record of their assignments. This helps the teacher as well as students in the evaluation of the progress of the teaching-learning process.

Merits of assignments strategy The merits of assignment strategy are as follows: 1. Recognition of individual differences: The assignments are allotted to the students on the basis of their mental abilities, capacities, interests and aptitudes. They are also allowed to execute their assignments according to their own pace. The brighter ones do not have to wait for the slow learners as they can undertake the next higher assignments after finishing the one in hand. Similarly, the slow learners need not to be disappointed for their inability to race with the fasts learners. 2. Development of useful habits: Assignment strategy helps in imbibing useful habits such as:

(a) a sense of responsibility of finishing the task in hand (b) habit of self-study and self-confidence in one’s abilities (c) self-dependency in action and thought 3. Provides freedom to work: There is no restrictions of time both in terms of starting and finishing with the assignments. The duration for the execution of the assignment depends upon the mental and physical stamina of the pupils. They may go to the library or work in the laboratory according to their convenience. They are also free to get instructions and guidance when they need. The freedom such availed proves an asset to bring efficiency in the teaching-learning process. 4. Good relationship between the teacher and the taught: In giving suitable assignments to the pupils and rendering timely guidance and help to the pupils on individual basis, a teacher has to draw closer to them. Similarly, while working on their assignments, the students are also needed to be in close touch with their teacher for seeking guidance and help. This mutual necessity of coming closer to each other build a proper environment for developing intimate teacher-pupil relationship. 5. Advantage of keeping progress report: Proper recording of the progress of each pupil is not only helpful to the teacher to assess the capacity and progress of their pupils but the pupil may also understand his shortcomings and progress in comparison to other pupils of his group or class. This provides incentives to some and guidance to others. A spirit of healthy competition, thus, generated gives impetus to their efforts in learning and achieving their ends. Moreover, keeping of the progress report is helpful to the teacher to evaluate the performances of his students, grade them, promote them to the higher class and also in guiding them accordingly when and where the need of doing so arises. 6. Getting rid of the problem of indiscipline: In this strategy students are given complete freedom to work with their own

pace and are made fully responsible for completing their assignments. As the work involves their own initiative and interests and they are further motivated with the thrill of picking up new assignments after finishing those in hand they are bound to be completely absorbed in their work which makes them regular, sincere and self disciplined in their pursuit giving no opportunity and time for the upsurge of indiscipline. 7. Due importance to the principle of activity: Assignments strategy of teaching involves the ‘principle of self activity’ and ‘learning by doing’ which makes the task of teaching more effective, impressive and lasting.

Demerits and limitations of assignment strategy Following are the demerits of assignment strategy: 1. Not suitable to all types of students: This strategy does not suit student of low intelligence and also those having average capacities. Similarly, it cannot also work with the students who are irresponsible or careless and thus cannot be relied to finish their assignment properly in a specified time. This means that assignment strategy suits a limited number of the learners specially those who possesses a reasonable sense of initiative and responsibility and the required ability and capacity to work and finish the assignments properly in the desired time. 2. Provides stimulation for cheating: Assignment strategy may provide temptation or compulsion to a number of students for copying the answers of the questions and results of the experiments from the readily available sources or notebooks of their classmates. If it happens, the very purpose of these assignments is completely lost. 3. Strain on the teacher: The teacher is expected to work hard in the strategy for preparing the assignments, assigning these to the students individually or in groups, guiding the students at

the proper time in a proper way and evaluating their work. It is, in fact, a big expectation from the teacher which can hardly be realized in the present circumstances. 4. Uneconomical method: It proves to be an expensive strategy of teaching. The assignments on every topic should get either printed or cyclostyled by the teacher for giving to the students. It involves extra expenditure that is beyond the capacity of most of the schools in our country. 5. Unpractical in the existing conditions: There are many practical problems that come in the way of implementing this strategy. The usual ones are as follows: (a) Non-availability of proper textbooks written in the light of this strategy (b) Paucity of teachers, properly trained in the use of this strategy (c) Problem of providing individual attention to the pupils by the teacher in the existing crowded class conditions (d) Difficulty in covering the syllabus in time (e) The non-conformity of the present examination system with the assignment system of teaching and evaluation.

Suggestions In view of the merits and demerits of the assignment strategy, it is desirable to modify it or supplement it with some other good strategy of teaching. The regular classroom teaching, demonstration and necessary practical work, in no way, should be abandoned and assignment strategy should be well integrated with the regular formal teaching. For getting desired success, the assignments related to various topics in curricular subjects should get printed or cyclostyled. In a graded order these should be assigned to the students for a week or fortnight. Students should be asked to complete them either in the school library, laboratory, workshop or at their homes with their

own independent efforts. Such assignments must be planned in view of helping the students either in the revision and application work or providing a basis for advanced study and creative production. In some cases, these assignments can be synthesized with some useful project for making the school teaching more useful and practicable.

Tutorial Strategy Meaning and definition Tutorial strategy is a strategy of teaching in which one or a small group of students (tutees) is provided personalized and individualized education from a tutor. As a teaching strategy, it may be used to teach all the subjects of the school curriculum as well as providing training and experiences for the development of many aspects of one’s personality. It is applicable to the learners of all ages and all levels of ability and potential. However, in school situations, it is generally used as an adjunct to traditional classroom instruction mainly for serving the following purposes: 1. To provide remedial or supplementary instruction to the students who are lagging behind or feeling learning difficulty in their school set-up. 2. To provide students with increased opportunities to actively participate in the learning process and receive immediate feedback. 3. To provide a close personalized and individualized attention to the students for attaining better results in their educational efforts. 4. To help and relieve the classroom teacher of routine instructional and non-instructional duties (in case tutorial is done by the peers, teaching machines and computers).

Various models and styles of tutorial strategy

Tutorial strategy is employed in various forms and styles depending upon the nature and function of the tutor, teaching-learning situation and purposes served. 1. A regular classroom teacher or subject teacher may own the extra responsibility of tutoring the individual student or a group of students for helping them in doing away with their specific or common learning difficulties in an extra period or time decided with mutual consultation. 2. A school may provide the facilities of tutoring to the slow learners, learning disabled, handicapped and other similar type of students who are lagging behind in the usual classroom teaching-learning on account of some reasons with an objective of overcoming their learning difficulties and deficiencies as much as possible. On the other hand, such enriched facilities of tutoring may also be extended to the exceptional and bright children for nurturing their talents for earning distinction in the academic field with an eye to build the image and reputation of the institution. 3. A teacher may take the help and assistance of some bright and talented students of the class by assigning them the role of a tutor with the sole objective of helping and assisting their peers in removing their learning difficulties and attaining mastery or a reasonable level of performance according to their interests and abilities. These student tutors may play quite a significant role in guiding and supervising their fellow students especially in the learning of various skills, performing of needed experiments and acquisition of desired learning experiences in the work places. 4. The needy students, those who are lagging behind and wish to catch the speed along with other students of the class and those who intend to earn distinction or seek admission to some higher academic or professional courses, may go for private

tutoring popularly known as coaching. The tutoring is done by the regular teacher or some professionals at their home or coaching institutes. It may be arranged at the residences of the individual students also depending upon their paying capacities and willingness of a tutor for doing so. In this way, this type of tutoring source is absolutely private and personal and can be performed on the individual as well as group basis. Such type of tutoring done by regular teachers is many times decried on account of its evil effects. It is alleged that the class teachers do not pay desired attention in the classroom teaching and almost compel the students for attending their tutorial classes purely for mercenary motives. 5. Tutoring to the needy students (slow learners, backward, learning disabled and bright ones) may also be arranged in the form of self-learning or auto-instructional material with the help of programmed learning packages, or teaching machines and computer-assisted instructions. Nowadays no other resource can match the capacity, speed and ability of computers for playing the role of a good tutor. They can serve a countless number of learners having varying interests following various courses and needing tutoring for a variety of theoretical and practical things at a time simply with the request clicked through the mouses of their PCs or laptops.

Procedure for adopting tutorial strategy While adopting tutorial strategy in his teaching, a teacher may proceed as follows: 1. Establishing rapport with learner: Tutorial strategy requires an appropriate rapport between the teacher and the taught. Therefore, a teacher, while playing the role of a good tutor, should also try to understand the students or group of students being tutored by him. He must try to win their confidence and

trust so that they may express themselves properly before him and willingly cooperate in getting the due benefit from tutoring. 2. Knowing the abilities, interests and potential of the students: The teacher should know all about the interests, abilities and potential of the students with the help of suitable tests and techniques. Diagnostic testing may provide due information about the learning difficulties of the students including their strengths and weaknesses regarding their knowledge and skill in a particular learning area. 3. Providing remedial or supplementary instruction: Based on the findings of diagnosing testing, interest and abilities measurement techniques, the teacher may now plan and provide remedial and supplementary instruction to the students. This work is to be done on a proper individual and personal basis. Every student must get proper individual attention and personal care for the removal of his learning difficulties or nurturing his talents for progress on the academic path. 4. Providing individualized and personalized instruction: At each and every step on all occasions, due care is taken for providing individualized and personalized instruction to the students. The students are encouraged to ask questions for the solution of their difficulties and care is taken for providing appropriate responses and solutions in proper tuning with their interest, abilities and capacities. Teachers may take help of the monitors, bright and capable students for playing the role of tutors for guiding and helping their fellow students. Autoinstruction and remedial measures may be taken with the help of programmed packages, teaching machines and computerassisted instructions, specially designed in a tutorial mode. 5. Appropriate evaluation and feedback: Tutorial strategy requires timely evaluation and subsequent immediate feedback to the students for the proper progress and advancement of the

students on the path of learning. Therefore, the tutor should have time-to-time evaluation of the progress of the students with the help of unit tests and summative evaluation. The results of such testing and evaluation may be utilized for providing proper immediate feedback to the students for their educational progress.

Merits of tutorial strategy Tutorial strategy is said to possess the following merits and advantages: 1. Tutorial strategy paves the way for very cordial and intimate student-teacher relationships for providing effective instructions. 2. Individual attention, care and help may be given at the maximum to the students tuition. 3. It provides best opportunities for providing individualized and personalized instruction. 4. Diagnostic and remedial teaching may be best provided with the help of tutorial strategy. 5. Students may be able to get proper freedom for the expression of their thoughts and putting up their learning difficulties, problem and expectation before the teacher for the immediate response, guidance and help. 6. The strength of tutorial strategy lies in its proper feedback mechanism. It gives opportunities for the proper interaction between the teacher and the taught. Every question asked by the student is properly responded by the teacher and every response given by the student is properly reinforced by the teacher. Immediate knowledge of the results and progress of the student reinforces his learning behaviour for the further progress on the path of learning.

7. While on one hand, it may prove to be a best strategy for providing remedial and supplementary instructions to the slow learners, backward students with learning difficulties and problem children, it may on the other hand provide enriched experiences to the bright, gifted and creative children for their proper progress.

Demerits and limitations Tutorial strategy may be found to suffer from the demerits and limitations as follows: 1. A tutor needs to be quite affectionate, sympathetic, democratic and master of his subject for winning the confidence, establishing rapport and guiding the students in every aspect. In the absence of such heart-to-heart tutorial abilities, a teacher may fail in the tutorial tasks. 2. A high degree of individualization of instruction, demanding a lot of individual and personal attention, is needed for the success of the tutorial strategy. In our usual classroom settings, such individualization of instruction is hardly possible. We have crowded classes and ill-equipped laboratories or workplaces. Syllabi of the subjects are lengthy and time at the disposal is short. A teacher has to take a number of periods in different classes or sections besides other regular and administrative functions. It hardly leaves any scope for the energy, interest and enthusiasm required for the highly individualized and personalized teaching needed for the adoption of tutorial strategy. 3. School timetable, the environmental set-up and administrative machinery are not favourable to the organization of tutorial classes or adoption of tutorial strategy in the classroom teaching.

4. The idea of taking the help of bright students, having desired mastery over the subject material, may also many times run into rough weather as the students needing tutoring may not pay attention to the help or assistance given by their peers. Therefore, the problem of arranging individual attention and individualized instructions may not be successfully faced with some of the students being assigned the role of peer tutors. 5. The measures like programmed packages, textbooks, teaching machine and computer-assisted instructions adopted for providing instruction in a tutorial mode may not prove effective or functional on account of their non-availability, lack of competent staff for handling such instructions and cost involved in their employment. 6. The practice of tutoring may degenerate into a dangerous evil, tempting the classroom teachers to give tuitions at their home purely for mercenary motives.

Suggestions With the drawbacks and limitations listed here, it should not be concluded that tutorial strategy is not at all practicable in the available teaching-learning environment of our schools. Much depends upon the will of the teacher. Tutorial strategy, in fact, has no parallel with regard to its utility in providing individual and personalized instructions. It may help in timely diagnosis of weaknesses and strength of the students and, therefore, corrective measures as well as enrichment programmes for both the deficient as well as bright and talented ones can be well arranged through the highly individualized instructions, attention and care provided through tutoring. The rapport established in such teaching may persuade and motivate the students to come out with their difficulties, problems and special needs and, in response, immediate help and feedback is possible through the adoption of tutorial strategy. There is not many obstacles in adopting it in the classroom situations. If a teacher

determines to do it, he can adopt it by spending a little extra time well within the school campus. In the regular period also he may provide due attention at the time of practice or drillwork, or at the time of performing experiments in the laboratory or doing practical work in workshops or other work situations. He may help them accordingly in doing away with their learning difficulties or nourishing their talents on an individual or small group basis. Suggestions in the form of reading relevant books and literature, doing practice and revision in one way or the other, applying the knowledge and skill for improving something or completing a given project, may be given to the students for making up their deficiencies and improving their learning performances. Hence, the application of tutorial strategy, along with the adoption of any progressive method of teaching in the existing classroom conditions, is by all means a reality that can take its shape properly if a teacher is fully determined to do so.

Brainstorming Strategy Meaning Brainstorming, as the name suggests, implies storming of the brain, i.e. to evolve or generate a number of ideas and the though lines as quickly as possible without paying consideration about their validity and appropriateness. As a strategy, it was popularized by A.F. Osborn (1963) through his writing Applied Imagination. According to him, this strategy can be used with a group to explore a number of ideas related to a situation or solution of a problem without passing any judgement or censure. This strategy is specially useful for the development of higher cognitive abilities like reflective thinking, creative imagination and problem solving. It is also helpful in the attainment of the learning objectives related to affective domain.

The organization procedure

The procedure for using brainstorming as a teaching strategy may be outlined as follows: 1. To start with, a small group of students (say 10 to 15) is formed. They are asked to sit in a group and provided with a focus, e.g. a particular problem like “student unrest”, “growing unemployment in India” or “how to check truancy in our school”, etc. 2. Teacher, as a leader of the group, then asks the group members to think about the solution of the problem and give their ideas one by one as rapidly as possible. They are advised to attach the faced problem without any inhibition from many angles; in fact, literally storming it with all possible ideas and solutions. For providing these ideas, they may be instructed as follows: (a) You are faced with this problem now; think about the possible solution or solutions as you may think proper. (b) Come out with as many ideas or solutions as possible. Don’t care for the criticism. Provide your suggestions and ideas without any hesitation even if they seem to you quite noble, unusual and unorthodox. (c) Don’t criticize others’ ideas, but you are free to make alternation, enlargement and synthesis in the ideas or solutions given by others. (d) You are also free to alter or improve your own ideas and solutions given by you earlier in this session. 3. In this way, students are encouraged and inspired for giving as many as ideas or solutions as possible. The group members and the leader are supposed to receive these responses in the light of the following precautionary measures or norms: (a) All ideas are to be encouraged and appreciated; therefore, no criticism is allowed during the brainstorming session.

(b) Ideas are to be listened and accepted patiently, without passing any judgement or comment of any sort until the session is over. (c) Members are not restricted to new ideas but are also encouraged to enlarge upon ideas put forward by other fellow students. (d) All the ideas and alternations are to be recorded properly (preferably written on the blackboard or displayed on the screen). 4. At the end of the brainstorming session, all the solutions and ideas received from the members are discussed in a free and frank democratic environment. Out of this discussion (wisely guided by the group leader) the most viable ideas are accepted for the solution of the problem in hand.

Advantages of brainstorming strategy Brainstorming strategy is credited with the following advantages: 1. It discourages spoon feeding and information given tendency or rule on the part of the teachers. Students become active and independent enquirer and discover of the knowledge instead of remaining passive partners in the teaching-learning process. 2. It provides opportunity to think, reason, analyze and synthesize and thus it proves helpful in the development of higher cognitive abilities among the students. 3. The main advantage of this strategy is to help students in the development of their creative and constructive potentialities. The originality and novelty of the ideas, the varied responses marked with divergent thinking, the removal of fear of being ridiculed or criticized, may always encourage and inspire the

students for developing their creative imagination and problem solving ability. 4. It encourages the group activities on the part of students for finding out the solution of a problem of common interest. It makes them cooperative and teaches them to have respect for other ideas and points of view.

Demerits and limitations Brainstorming strategy may suffer from the following limitations and drawbacks: 1. All the members of the group may not be interested equally in the solution of the problem. 2. The group may not be homogeneous with respect to general mental level or knowledge and skills required for the solution of the problem. 3. The group members may not come forward for putting up their ideas. 4. The brainstorming session may not yield into convincing solutions. The members may clash with each other and indulge in verbal conflicts. 5. The concluding session may not result into useful conclusion or solution of the problem. 6. The members may waste their time and energy without getting opportunity for the realization of cognitive or affective objectives. However, we must not get discouraged by the above cited limitations and drawbacks of the brainstorming strategy. These are very poor barriers and, if proper care is to be taken by the teacher in making use of the brainstorming as a strategy, he may be able to achieve the desired purposes and advantages served by this strategy.

Role-playing Strategy Meaning and definition Role-playing is a teaching strategy in which a situation is dramatized by a group by playing specific roles, as desired by the situation, under the direction of a teacher for deriving useful educational experiences. For example, the students for learning the working of a parliament or legislative assembly may dramatize the scene of the parliament or assembly by playing specific roles of speaker, ministers, ruling and opposition parties MPs or MLAs, Marshals, etc. Similarly, for acquainting students with the problems and ill effects of over affection, and protection given to a male child by his parents, the situation may be enacted by the students by playing the roles of parents, brothers and sisters, child and other family members and companions. The role-playing strategy, thus, represents a spontaneous, unrehearsed life-like presentation of some situation for gaining insight into a specific problem or deriving useful educative experiences. For making role-playing strategy to attain its desired objectives, it is essential to meet the following conditions: 1. The students who engage in role-playing must understand clearly the situation and the roles to be played by them for depicting the scene of that situation. 2. The roles must be portrayed or played with quality. 3. The roles or situations must have a real life quality. 4. All the members of the group should be closely and actively attached to the role playing either as role-players or observers. All the other essential details regarding the mechanism of adopting role-playing strategy along with is merits and demerits have been explained in detail in the Chapter 16 of this text and hence the readers are advised to gain knowledge about it from there.

Sensitivity Training Strategy Meaning and definition Sensitivity, according to its dictionary meaning, stands for the state of being sensitive. The sensitive people are supposed to possess feelings and considerations for others in addition to the developed capacities and abilities with regard to the use of their sense organs like sense of touch, smell, hearing, sight and taste. In this way, they are found to be very touchy and humane in respect to the emotional aspect of their personality and strong in terms of the power of their sensitization, i.e. knowing and judging the world through their senses. Both these qualities help a child to become a good learner and grow as a good human being, quite sensitive to his surroundings and environment full of living and non-living objects. Nature has endowed the child with such sensitiveness; however, it needs proper nourishment and training for its full blossom and proper utilization. A teacher has to take care of its proper development among the children by providing a meaningful training called sensitivity training. In this way, the term sensitivity training strategy must stand for a teaching strategy that aims to provide adequate training to the youngsters for the proper nourishment and development of their sensitivity, i.e. the ability to make proper use of their sense organs and remain sensitive to their environment including both living and non-living beings.

Procedure for the employment of sensitivity training strategy Sensitivity training strategy may be employed in its various shapes and styles as discussed in the following: 1. Senses are said to be the gateway of knowledge. Therefore, sensory training should start from the early years of childhood.

Children may be provided with various sensory experiences through a number of ways. In nursery classes, there lie many ways and means, aid material and equipment that may be employed for making children’s sense organs quite sensitive to gain desired sensory experiences. 2. In the later years of school life, the teachers must remain very conscious in developing the sensitivity of the children with regard to the use of their sense organs for acquiring necessary learning experiences in the various subjects of the school curriculum. A science or social studies teacher may take them for nature study. The students may gain various direct experiences through seeing, hearing, smelling, touching and tasting various things and events occurring in the natural surroundings. The experiences may be repeated or refreshed through the aid material like projective aids, movies, video and audio recording or laboratory experiments, work situations and real life experiences. In this way, the children may be adequately helped for developing their sensitivity with regard to the proper use of their sense organs for gaining useful learning experiences. 3. The students may be made to become sensitive to the happenings in their surroundings. For this purpose, they may be provided guided experiences through excursions, field trips and organized visits to the places of natural surroundings, historical places, industrial establishments, geographical locations, political institutions, hospitals, social organizations, etc. These visits may be followed with the useful discussions evolving valuable conclusion for making the students sensitive to many of the burning issues affecting their personal and social life. These may include sensitivity towards pollution, use of drugs, alcohol and tobacco products, awareness about AIDS and other fatal diseases, polio eradication, the energy resources and their proper utilization, social evils and their

eradication, child abuse, and atrocities on women and other weaker sections of the society. In this way, there may be a number of issues of the social, cultural, medical, occupational and general interests that may need the students’ awareness and sensitivity. One of the major goals of any useful education is to make the students sensitive to all such issues affecting their own welfare as well as the welfare of the society, nation and humanity at large. It is their sensitivity that can eventually make this earth worthy to live on and the society to serve the social cause. 4. Students may be persuaded to develop their general awareness about the nature, people, society and world through various means of information like newspapers, radio and television broadcasting, video films, computer stored or generated and transmitted information, library books and magazines. Occasionally, they may be provided opportunities for the demonstration of their sensitization to their surroundings and environment by holding useful small group discussions, debates and declamation contests, symposium and seminars, and literary and cultural contests. 5. The teachers may themselves exhibit sensitiveness to the issues of social, cultural, political, geographical, ethical, medical and environmental interests. They may very well integrate and correlate their classroom teaching and other practical and co-curricular activities by going inside the school with the need of the essential training provided to the students for the development of their sensitivity. In teaching a particular topic or lesson in the class, a wise teacher should always keep in mind the discussions and occasions that may prove advantageous for providing some type of sensitivity training to the students. 6. Through individual contacts, personal and educational guidance, organized counselling services, the teachers should

try to develop sensitiveness among their pupils. There may be small or large group discussions, seminars and workshops where this issue of sensitivity towards the work, people and environment may be made a topic for lively discussion and useful training. The help of multimedia may also be taken for this purpose. The experts and role models may also be invited for casting desirable impact on the student community for the enhancement of the needed sensitivity. Some of the other useful objectives of such all round efforts regarding the sensitivity training may be formulated as follows: (a) Sensitivity towards the feelings, views and opinions of the others in the group and surroundings. (b) Sensitivity towards their own behaviour and its impact on the welfare of others. (c) Sensitivity towards their own modes of actions and behaviour as judged in the eye of the others. (d) Sensitivity shown in making the judgements of others emotions and then behaving likewise for adequate adjustment and understanding. (e) Sensitivity with regard to showing sympathy, empathy and fellow feeling with the members of the group, society and humanity at large including even the animals, birds and nature’s eco-balance.

Merits of sensitivity training strategy Sensitive training strategy is credited with the following merits and advantages: 1. It may provide adequate training for the development of sensory abilities of the students helpful in the attainment of the desired teaching-learning objectives.

2. It may make the students properly sensitive to the issues related to their society, culture, health, political system, nature and ecological balance. 3. It may help them to become properly sensitive to the welfare of their self, other people, society and humanity at large including caring for the nature, animals, birds and all that surrounding them.

Demerits and limitations Sensitive training strategy may suffer from the drawbacks and limitations as follows: 1. The capable teachers who may be entrusted with the task of providing sensitive training may not be easily available. 2. It may not be practicable to assign such extra responsibilities to the subject teacher and class teachers as they are usually overloaded with curricular and other administrative duties. 3. The resources and the existing environment of our schools may not suit the employment of sensitive training strategy. 4. Being unrelated with the requirements of our examination system, it may not catch the interest and attention of the students as well as of the teachers.

Suggestions The difficulties and limitations pointed out above are more superfluous then real. These may be properly tackled with a determination on the part of teachers and arousal or interest and motivation on the part of students. Sensitivity plays a dominant role as a means as well as goal of purposeful education; hence, every care should be taken for utilizing all opportunities and resources available in the school for the provision of sensitivity training through curricular as well as co-curricular means.

Apart from the teaching strategies discussed above in detail we may plan, and employ various others autocratic or democratic strategies, suiting the requirements of the teaching-learning objectives to be realized and available teaching-learning situations. The names of these strategies have already mentioned in the table of classification provided in this chapter. For keeping length of the present chapter in its viable scope, we are not discussing all these strategies here. However, a few strategies like programmed learning, computer-assisted instruction, use of audio-visual aids and equipment including mass media like radio, television, etc. are being discussed in this text in the coming relevant chapters. Readers are advised to go through these for gaining proper insight in their planning and use as effective teaching strategies.

SUMMARY 1. The term teaching strategies refers to the plans, means and specific ways specially devised and employed by the teachers for the proper realization of the desired teaching or instructional objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation. It differs significantly from the terms such as teaching methods, teaching tactics and teaching devices in terms of its composition as well as scope. 2. Teaching method refers to a particular mode employed by the teacher for the presentation of some specific contents of a particular subject. Teaching strategy, on the other hand, is selected and employed not only for the proper presentation of some specific material but also for the realization of the predetermined teaching-learning objectives. In this way, the teaching strategy, as a term, is more comprehensive in its scope as well as composition in comparison to the term ‘method of teaching’.

3. Teaching tactics refers to those behaviours and activities of a teacher that he employs while making use of a particular teaching strategy for the realization of the desired objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation. A tactic representing a small segment or unit of a teacher behaviour/teaching act, therefore, is a quite small term in its composition and scope in comparison to the term teaching strategy. 4. The term teaching devices stands for a variety of teaching tricks, techniques and tools employed by the teacher for producing better outcomes of his/her teaching. These are found to provide valuable assistance to a teacher in carrying out his strategy for the realization of the predetermined teaching-learning objectives and that is why the teaching devices as a term is smaller and narrower in comparison to the broader and comprehensive term teaching strategies. However, the distinction between teaching devices and teaching strategies becomes narrower as and when each of them tends to focus on the realization of the teaching-learning objectives effectively and this is why many times these terms may be found to be used synonymously. There are a number of teaching strategies that are being employed by the teachers at one time or the other. These are broadly classified as the autocratic (content centred and teacher dominated) and democratic (student centred and democratically organized) strategies. 5. While making use of the lecture as a teaching strategy, a teacher tries to present a segment or unit of the desired content material of a subject to a group of learners through lecturing (verbal communication of ideas). It aims to attain the specific teaching-learning objectives related particularly to the cognitive and affective domains of the learner’s behaviour. The lecture strategy, as an oldest traditional mode of teaching, may prove quite advantageous in so many ways for the present-day

classroom teaching-learning. The main criticism labelled against the use of it lies in its focusing to organize the teaching-learning act merely on the memory level rather than the understanding and reflective levels. The group discussion strategy involves some sort of discussion, i.e. exchange of ideas between students and teacher or among a group of students resulting in some learning for the realization of the predetermined teaching-learning objectives. It may prove quite helpful in a number of teaching-learning situations if handled properly in an able leadership. The demonstration strategy refers to the visual presentation of the action and activities, practical work, or the experiments related to the facts and principles of a delivered lesson by the teacher in the classroom to facilitate the teaching-learning task. The heuristic or discovery strategy aims for the development of an attitude of problem solving or discovery among the learners. In adopting this strategy, the teacher’s task is to persuade the students to solve any confronted problem independently by providing the essential facilities, guidance, instructions, etc. The project strategy requires on the part of the students to select an appropriate project and then make it a centre of their teachinglearning activities under the proper supervision and guidance of their teacher, who should provide them the needed information and knowledge irrespective of the subject area it belongs as and when needed. The problem solving strategy refers to a teaching strategy that provides opportunity to the students for analyzing and solving a problem on the basis of their previous stock of the knowledge enriched with the present means. The narration strategy calls for the capacity and ability of a teacher to produce before the students a well-ordered and sequenced verbal account of the objects and events related to the teaching-learning of a particular topic or subject in a most interesting way. The illustration strategy involves the use of

verbal examples and concrete illustrations for making the abstract ideas of the presented learning material quite clear, interesting, and comprehensible on the part of the students. The question-answering strategy refers to the art and skill of managing the task of teaching and learning by putting questions and responding to them by both the teacher and the students in a quite appropriate and interactive way. The exposition strategy pays a lot of consideration to the manner of putting the subject matter before the students in a simple, interesting and clear style to make them understand it easily and properly. The description strategy refers to an act of representing an object, event or person through words (oral or written) on the part of a teacher as thoroughly as possible for providing its total mental picture to the students. It differs from narration in the sense that it calls for a relatively large details of a thing or event and is not limited to the oral communication. In making use of the explanation strategy, a teacher goes a step further to the exposition strategy for making the things more plain and explicit. In exposition he places facts clearly and vividly before the students, whereas in explanation he aims at showing facts in their proper relation to others in a system. In making use of the dramatization and role-playing strategies, a teacher tries to make his students understand the concept and events related to his subject by converting them into an act of play. In role-playing, it is essential on the part of students to enact the roles of the persons involved in the learning episode, but in dramatization a teacher may himself take this responsibility for the purpose of making an audio and a video presentation of the things and events. By the utilization of the independent study or self-study strategy a teacher aims for the development of a habit of independent learning or self-study among his students for acquiring the necessary information and knowledge regarding a topic in hand. In the adoption of

the supervised study strategy, he goes a little ahead in its overall management by allowing the students to get engaged in their self-study or group study under his properly planned and organized vigilance and supervision. In addition to using a number of teaching strategies helpful in the presentation of the subject matter, a teacher has to make room for the adoption of some suitable strategies for their fixation in the minds of the students. The review strategy, drillwork, and assignment strategies may prove quite beneficial in this direction. The tutorial strategy, on the other hand, may help in supplementing or enriching the traditional classroom instruction by calling up on a tutor to provide his personalized and individualized services to a student or a small group of students (tutees for their required betterment). The brainstorming strategy is utilized by a teacher with a group of students to explore a number of ideas related to a situation or solution of a problem without passing any judgment or censure. It is, therefore, especially useful in the development of higher cognitive abilities like reflective thinking, creative imagination, and problem solving among the students. A teacher should also make use of the sensitivity-training strategy for providing adequate training to the youngsters for the proper development and nourishment of their sensitivity (ability to make proper use of their sense organs and remain sensitive to their environment).

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the term ‘teaching strategy’? Discuss its meaning in detail. 2. What is teaching? How does it differ from the methods of teaching and the learning tactics? 3. Define the term strategy and discuss its specific features.

4. Explain the concept of teaching strategy. Distinguish it from methods, devices and tactics of teaching. 5. Name different types of teaching strategies used in carrying out the process of teaching-learning. Discuss one of them in detail. 6. Distinguish between autocratic and democratic strategies of teaching by giving examples of the strategies included in these categories. 7. How are teaching examples.

strategies

classified?

Illustrate

with

8. What is lecture strategy? Discuss its advantages and limitations. Give practical suggestions for its effective utilization. 9. What is meant by group discussion as a teaching strategy? Discuss its advantages and limitations along with practical suggestions for its effective utilization. 10. Discuss, in detail, demonstration as a teaching strategy by mentioning its advantages, limitations and suggestions for its effective use. 11. What is heuristic or discovery strategy? How is this strategy used in the classroom? Discuss the various steps involved in its implementation. 12. Discuss the advantages and drawbacks of heuristic strategy along with some useful suggestions for its effective utilization. 13. What is project strategy? Discuss its nature and form along with the steps involved in its proper implementation. 14. Discuss the merits, demerits and limitations of project strategy of teaching. 15. What is review strategy? How can it be used as a teaching strategy? Discuss its main advantages and limitations.

16. What is assignment strategy? Discuss the procedures for adopting assignment strategies in the classroom teaching along with its merits and limitations. 17. What is tutorial strategy? What are its various modes and styles? Discuss the procedure for its implementation. 18. Discuss the merits, demerits and limitations of tutorial strategy along with some practical suggestions for its effective utilization. 19. What is brainstorming strategy? Discuss its organization procedure along with its merits and limitations. 20. What is role-playing? How can it be utilized as a strategy for teaching? Discuss its merits and limitations. 21. What is independent study strategy? What is its significance? Discuss the procedure of its use in detail. 22. What is sensitivity training strategy? Discuss, in detail, the procedures for its employing as a teaching strategy. 23. What do you mean by sensitivity training strategy? Discuss its merits and demerits along with some practical suggestions for its effective utilization as a teaching strategy. 24. Discuss the following strategies in relation to their use, advantages and limitations for the teaching of various subjects: (a) Narration strategy (b) Exposition strategy (c) Explanation strategy (d) Illustration strategy (e) Problem solving strategy (f) Dramatization strategy.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Armstrong, H.E., quoted in Brock, W.H., H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science 1880–1930, London: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Ballard, H.G. (1936), quoted by Sharma, R.C., Modern Science Teaching, Delhi: Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1992 Bining, Arthur C., and Bining, David H., Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools, New York: McGraw-Hill, 3rd ed., 1952. Frieberg, H.J. and Driscoli, Amy, Universal Teaching Strategies, Boston: Allyan and Bacon, 1992. Joyce, Bruce and Weil, Marsha, Models of Teaching, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1980. Kilpatrick, W.H., The Project Method, New York: Teachers college, Columbia University Bulletin, 3rd ed. (tenth series), 1921. Osborn, A.F., Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem Solving, (3rd ed.), New York: Charles Scribers’ Sons, 1963. Stevenson, J.A., The Project Method of Teaching, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1922. Stones, Edgar and Morris, Sidney, Teaching Practice: Problems and Perspectives, London: Methuen & Co., 1972. Woods, Paul J., The Psychology: Major Training and Employment Strategies, Washington: American Psychological Association, 1979.

11 Communication and TeachingLearning CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction The Concept of Communication The Communication Process The principles of Communication The Facilitators and Barriers of Communication Communication Situations Classroom Communication Achieving Effectiveness in Classroom Communication Different Media of Communication Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Communication plays an effective and essential role for running the show of any formal or informal teaching-learning process. In many ways, teaching is communicating and in this sense good teachers are always good communicators. It is also equally true for the learners. He who learns well is the one who participates well in the communication process. Good learners are always good receivers

and responders. In this way, communication, as a vehicle or tool for running the show of teaching-learning act, must always be treated as a two-way process in which both the source (teacher) and the beneficiary (learner) of teaching interact well for the proper realization of the teaching-learning objectives. However, for this proper interaction, teachers and students are required to acquire the art and technique of good communication. This chapter focuses on these aspects.

The Concept of Communication Communication, in its literal sense, stands for the act of communicating. One can communicate his ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc. or transfer any type of information and knowledge to others through this act. For this purpose, he may also take the help of some instruments, appliances or devices like telephone, teleprinter, telegram, fax, e-mail, radio broadcasting, and telecasting. In this sense, communication may be taken as a one-sided transaction of a piece of information, knowledge, ideas, thoughts, and feelings from a person (source of transmission) to another person or persons at the receiving end. However, its meaning cannot be limited to such a oneway transmission. It is always a two-sided affair. The source of transmission and its receiver equally share and participate in the communication process. The etymological derivation of the term communication also supports the above line of thought. As is commonly known, the term has been derived from the Latin word Communis meaning ‘common’. In this sense, as a verb the term stands for an act of sharing commonness or common understanding and experiences with others. Edger Dale (1961), the Newton of audio-visual aid and instrumental technology, has defined the term in the words: “Communication is defined as the sharing of ideas and feeling in a mood of mutuality.”

Consequently, communication is to be taken as a sharing process. What we know or have in ourselves in the shape of ideas, thoughts and feelings is shared with others through the process of communication. It is done through the help of some or the other media of transmission preferably in the way being well received by the receiving person or persons. The person or persons on the receiving end try to receive and respond to it for the necessary interaction with the source of transmission. Thus, a chain process or cycle involving the cooperation of the source and its receivers comes into operation for the effective realization of the fruits of communication. On the basis of what has been said above, we can have a workable definition of the term communication in the following way: Communication is a process of sharing or exchanging experiences, information, ideas, opinions, sentiments, thoughts, feelings, etc. between the source of communication and receiver through some mutually agreeable or known media (verbal or non-verbal).

The Communication Process Communication as a two-way process involving interaction between two or more persons (on giving and receiving ends) is carried out in a cycle illustrated in Fig. 11.1. We may notice the presence of six main components or elements in general in any process of communication: 1. Source of communication or the sender of the message 2. Contents of communication or message 3. Media or channel of communication 4. Receiver of the communication 5. Response material or feedback 6. Facilitators or barriers of communication

Figure 11.1 The process of communication.

The Source of Communication (The Communicator) The process of communication essentially starts with a source of communication. There must be somebody to initiate the process. This source, whether in the form of some object/event or person, must be in a position to transmit information, ideas, thoughts, opinions, feelings, etc. known or possessed by it with the other person or persons on the receiving end of the communication. It is generally named as ‘sender’ in the language of communication technology. In the teaching-learning process going on inside the classroom, the teacher is regarded as the sender of the message whereas in any other communication or communication situation any source of knowledge (man or material) can be regarded as the source of communication.

Contents of Communication or Message What is intended to be communicated or transmitted by the source, i.e. sender, from his own stock of knowledge, information, thoughts,

opinions, feelings, etc. to the other person or persons (receivers) is known as the contents of communication. These may be well organized and structured or unorganized and unstructured or spontaneous depending on the nature and purpose of communication and the media chosen or situation prevalent at the time of communication.

Media and Channel of Communication What one wishes to convey to others is always communicated with the help of appropriate media or channel. The media in general takes the two distinctive forms—verbal (spoken or written words) and nonverbal (gestures, sign language, body language, morse code, etc.). In a communication process, both the sender and receiver are forced to make use of the media or channel of communication that is mutually acceptable as well as effective. At the onset of any communication process, when one as a source of the message tries to convey some information or own ideas, thoughts and feelings, he is in fact motivated to transmit it to the receiver. For this, he first tries to organize the communication material in proper shape and then searchers for an appropriate media, verbal or non-verbal. He has to make use of a special transfer mechanism known as encoding (transfer of thoughts and feelings into widely accepted, agreeable and understandable verbal or nonverbal signs and symbols). For example, when one tries to convey his displeasure about something, he may use the distinctive language such as ‘I don’t like this’, ‘don’t do this’, and it is highly objectionable’ or express it through non-verbal gestures and body movements. Further, for the actual physical transmission of this symbolic expression, he may use a variety of channels. These channels of transmission are in fact nothing but the media or means which call for the use of our senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. According to the demands of the situation and the effectiveness of communication, one may

plan for the use of the appropriate verbal or non-verbal symbolism and sensory channel. The intended encoded message travelling through the sensory channel then can move to the receiver. Since it is encoded in a symbolic language, the receiver has to resort to its decoding for understanding its meaning, in the way as intended by the communicator. The receiver after receiving the message then tries to respond. He now takes initiative for opening the channel of communication with the source. For transmitting his response or providing feedback, he also takes the help of encoding his response in the non-verbal or verbal symbols. This encoded response is then travelled through the sensory channels and reaches the source which further decodes it for getting the needed feedback for maintaining the desired flow of communication between him and the receiver.

Receiver of the Communication The receiver is the person who remains at the receiving end of the communication. He is to receive the encoded intended message of the source of communication, decode it for its proper interpretation and react or produce a desired response (feedback) to the source. In this way, the receiver like a far end pole is equally important for the flow of the current of communication between him and the communicator or the sender of the message. The communication can remain operative only if the receiver is interested and possesses the required competency to decode, understand and effectively respond to the communicated message.

Response Material or Feedback The response material or feedback may be defined as the reaction or response signals (in the encoded form transmitted back by the receiver) on the part of the receiver to the communicated message

(after its proper decoding, interpretation and understanding) in order to maintain the flow of communication. The effectiveness in the flow is dependent much upon the quality and effectiveness of the contents. It is through feedback that one may evaluate the outcomes of his communication, i.e. what was intended to be communicated, if it has or has not reached the receiver, has there been any gap in the communication process, has there been any difficulty or misgiving in the interpretation of the message, etc. Thus, the quality of communication as a two-way process may thus be properly maintained through a proper feedback from the receiver and its subsequent follow up on the part of the sender.

Facilitators or Barriers of Communication The quality and effectiveness of the process of communication is affected favourably or adversely through the presence of some other intervening variables lying between the source of communication and the receiver. These variables according to their nature helping or obstructing the path or communication may be termed as facilitators or barriers of communication. The presence of congenial, physical, psychological and environmental conditions and facilities available for effective communication may facilitate and help in providing the desirable effectiveness to the communication system. The types of barriers to be discussed in this chapter later on may cause difficulties and hurdles to the sender and the receiver in the matter of desired flow of communication.

The Principles of Communication Communication as a two-way channel requires certain basic principles to be observed for its effective outcomes. We may discuss these principles now:

Principle of Readiness and Motivation

Both the communicator and the receiver should be ready and remain motivated throughout the process of communication. Lack of interest, zeal and enthusiasm on the part of either of them may adversely affect the process and products of communication.

Principle of Competency and Worth The communicator and the receiver should be quite competent and efficient in terms of communicating and receiving the desired information or message. There is a great need of development of the required communication skills so that the task of communication in terms of transmission and receiving may be performed by them as effectively as possible. In addition, as a source of communication, the communicator or teacher must be imbibed with sufficient knowledge (coupled with its skill and application components) for allowing the flow of communication to the receiver (students) as naturally and pursuasively as possible.

Principle of Sharing and Interaction Since communication is a two-way process, its success lies in allowing as much sharing of the ideas and keeping mutual interaction between the source of communication (teacher) and receiver (students) as possible. Greater the interaction more will be the involvement and participation of the students in the teaching-learning process and it will definitely bring positive results to the process of communication.

Principle of Suitability of the Communication Contents What is to be communicated in a communication process should be quite appropriate on the part of both the communicator and the receiver. The communicator (teacher) must be able to handle the communication contents for being transferred to the receiver

(student), and at the receiving end, the communicated material should be suitable enough for being grasped and responded. In addition, the communicated material should have a definite purpose, cohesiveness and appropriations in the light of the objectives set and the situation prevailed at the time of communication.

Principle of Appropriate Media and Channel The effectiveness of the process of communication will lie in the appropriateness, quality and strength of the communication media and channel. Therefore, it is quite worthwhile to make use of the verbal or the non-verbal or both means and media for the efficient and effective flow of communication. Similarly, as far as possible the use of multimedia should be preferred over the single or restricted use of the media and channel of communication for the fruitful results.

Principle of Appropriate Feedback The communication enjoys its effective flow if it continues to receive the desired feedback from the receiver and vice versa. In the classroom, if a teacher gets the desired feedback from his students in terms of the quality of his teaching efforts, it will definitely boost up his morale and give the desired direction to his further efforts.

Principle of Facilitators and Barriers of Communication There are many intervening variables lying between the source and the receiver of communication. The way these variables affect, positive or negative, or favourably or adversely the functioning of the source and receiver becomes a decisive factor for the success or failure of communication. Therefore, it should be so arranged as to eliminate barriers of communication as much as possible.

Facilitators and Barriers of Communication The effectiveness of communication very much depends on the presence or absence of the elements and conditions, facilitating or obstructing the proper flow of communication. In fact, these elements or situations effectively play the role of the intervening variables in helping or hindering the process of communication by standing between the communicator (independent variable or source) and the receiver (dependent variable). In this way, these are always in a position to increase or decrease the effectiveness of the communicator, the strength of the communication media, the power of the receiver, and the quality of the communicated message by their typical nature and characteristics. As a matter of common experience, we all are aware with the role of the physical and the psychological factors inherent in the environmental situations or conditions prevailing at the time of communication. The favourable situations such as calm and quiet environment, tension-free mutual interaction, proper climate and weather conditions, and proper facilities in terms of using multimedia may play wonder in enhancing the effectiveness of the communication process. On the other hand, unfavourable conditions or situations in the form of noise, indiscipline, improper physical facilities, non-availability of appropriate aid material, mutual conflicts and tensions, improper climate and weather conditions may play havoc by disharmonizing the process. As a communicator, receiver or organizer of the show of communication, we must be fully aware of the nature and effect of the facilitators and barriers of communication. As we know, the facilitators are the friends or companions of all the factors and things that cater for the effectiveness of communication. These should be, therefore, provided due encouragement and, incentives. One should always try to have provision for as many facilitators as possible. However, on

the other hand, the barriers must be taken as the negative and detrimental force and, as such, every effort should be made for keeping them totally away or reducing their impact on the communication process. These barriers may diminish and distort the quality of the signals sent and received by the persons connected with the process of communication. We shall now try to identify and name these barriers.

Internal Barriers The roots of the internal barriers of communication lie in the sender and the receiver of the message. These are: 1. Poor physical health or illness. 2. Poor background in terms of previous learning and general knowledge about the subject of communication. 3. Poor mental health and improper psychological make up such as prejudices, non-attention, feeling of insecurity, anxiety, depression, and dissatisfaction. 4. Handicap in understanding the symbolic expression, verbalism, graphical representation, etc.

External Barriers The roots of the external barriers of communication lie in the environmental conditions prevailing at the time of communication. These conditions can be: 1. Noise and other similar distractors. 2. Polluted environment. 3. Invisibility. 4. Environmental and physical discomfort. 5. Improper functioning of the communication channels involving audio-visual materials and equipment.

6. Non-cooperative or unhealthy rivalries and competitions among the participants. 7. Lack of proper motivation, incentives, zeal and enthusiasm needed to remain active on the part of the sender and the receiver.

Communication Situations There may occur a variety of situations or environment in the communication process involving two or more individuals at one time or the other. These may be categorized or grouped in the following types:

One-to-one Communication The one-to-one communication takes place between two individuals. Most of our day-to-day informal or formal communication occurs in this form. As examples, we may cite the communication between wife and husband, lover and beloved, shopkeeper and customer, any two relatives, friends, colleagues and even two strangers.

Small Group Communication The small group communication occurs in both formal and informal ways among the members of a small group (consisting more than two individuals). As examples, we may cite communication among (i) the members of a family, (ii) students of a section or class, (iii) passengers of a bus or railway coach. Instead of individuals, the communication may also take place between groups such as between two families as a neighbour, or units of a locality or a sector.

Large Group or public Communication Public communication involves a large number of people on individual or group. It is usually conducted in an organized or formal way. For

example, (i) the communication carried out during morning assembly, or any co-curricular activity organized in a school’s open space or assembly hall, (ii) discourse or some religious preaching at a religious gathering or places of worship, (iii) public functions organized for honouring the individuals, and (iv) address by leaders in political gatherings.

Organizational or Institutional Communication The organisational communication is carried out within the four walls of various organizations or institutions like factory or industrial establishments, government offices and secretariats, police, army, hospitals, professional and educational institutes. The style and functioning of this type of communication is quite formal, systematic, planned and organized.

Mass Communication The range, field and application of mass communication is quite wide and extensive. It is carried out through different types of mechanical means, appliances and mass media such as radio, television, video, cinema, films, books and literature, newspapers and magazines, email, Internet and teleconferencing, and satellite communication and transmission. Although, here we don’t have any direct face to face natural communication between the sender and the receiver, yet it is the only way to reach the masses with a meaningful message full of information and education with utmost economy and effectiveness. Any organization, institution or individual can communicate its thoughts, feelings, intentions and programmes to a huge number of individuals or groups within no time with the help of mass media. It has resulted in the globalization of the humanity. In a single moment, we can communicate to the masses residing in any corner of the world through the sophisticated modern means. It has resulted in the development of proper channels for carrying out the task of distance

education and fulfilling the duties of providing the required information to those who ask for and need it. The masses can send their responses to the source through their writing or show the impact of the message through their actions and behaviours.

Classroom Communication The small group involving 20 to 50 or 60 students in the class represents the classroom communication environment of most of our schools’ theory and practical classes. Classroom communication is mostly carried out through verbal and non-verbal means. The communication in which we make use of the oral and written form of language is termed as verbal communication. In contrast, we can also communicate our feelings and thoughts through non-verbal means—with or without making any use of verbal or written language.

Verbal Communication Language is the key and the base of any verbal communication. Each society develops one or more forms of languages with spoken or written words for communicating with each other. Accordingly, we have local, regional, national and international languages for the required communication. The basic units of any language are words and sentences which are governed by the rules of the grammar. Language can make use of one of the three forms: (i) oral, (ii) written and (iii) oral and written. In the oral form, one can communicate one’s feelings, thoughts and intentions to others by the speaking and listening channel. For this purpose, the sender/communicator makes use of some precise and distinct sounds which when heard by the receiver, are decoded for understanding their meaning. In the written form of language communication, the communicator/sender makes use of the script of the language such as Devnagari for Hindi and Gurumukhi for Punjabi. For the

communication of thoughts and feelings one writes about it through some written mode, pencil, paper or chalk, board or print media and the person at the receiving end understands the meaning of the communicated message through its reading and decoding. In the usual classroom communication, a teacher while writing on the blackboard also makes use of language for the explanation and exposition of the written contents. In this way, the oral form combined with written form of communication or vice versa always proves more effective than any of these forms used separately.

Non-verbal Communication The communication process can also be carried out without the use of any verbal means. In many cases, (such as communication with deaf and dumb, mentally retarded, the persons not knowing the language of the sender or sending a secret message in the commonly coded and symbolic expression), it may become a necessity as well as compulsion to make use of the non-verbal communication. In the normal situations also the non-verbal media is generally used for giving strength and effectiveness to the verbal communication. Some of these important modes of non-verbal communication are discussed now.

1. Facial expression Facial expression may very well communicate the feelings, thoughts and intentions of the communicator. In general, face and facial expressions may be said to be a true index of one’s emotional and thinking behaviour. When one is perturbed, his face gives the identity of the level of the anxiety and stress. Similarly, when one is in a happy or joyful mood, his or her facial expression reflects it. It may also be seen that much of the language of the facial expression is almost similar and universal to all around the world. Seeing the facial expression, we can easily conclude if one is angry, fearful, jealous,

astonished or showing love, sympathy or hatred. In this way facial expression may be termed as one of the important modes of nonverbal communication.

2. Language of the eye Language of the eye may be considered as another important mode of non-verbal communication. Eyes, in fact, may forcefully convey all what is intended to be communicated by the communicator. Language of the eye may also be considered as common and universal to almost all cultures and societies of the world. The various idioms and phrases showing movements and actions of the eyes like ‘Aankhe Bichhana’, and ‘Ankhe Dikhana’, easily provide valid testimonial of its role in communication. The language of the eye movements is somewhat so universal and familiar that it is very easy and simple to decode the feelings, thoughts and intentions conveyed by the communicator. When one turns his eyes, we can conclude that he is not interested in our friendship or conversation or wants to avoid us. Similarly, one can communicate well his emotion of fear, jealousy, anger, enjoy, hatred, greediness, temptation, lust, love, affection, apathy or sympathy, etc. through the eye language. Actually eye-to-eye contact forms the very basic of effective communication. When one focuses his eyes for having eye-to-eye contact with you in conversation, it means that he thinks you quite important for conversation. However, the way he gazes may convey his liking or disliking for you. In the classroom communication, the necessary interaction links between the teacher and pupils are mostly maintained through the related eye language. The eye movements of the teacher may encourage or discourage a student in giving response or participating actively in any teaching-learning activity. Similarly, by reading through eye movements, the teacher can know whether the student is showing interest or disinterest in any classroom activity.

3. Body language Our body has an impressive and effective language for communicating our feelings, thoughts and actions. A classical dancer while performing on the stage may provide a substantial proof of the effectiveness of such communication through various gestures, postures and movements of her body parts. By seeing the body language, you may well conclude that now she is offering prayers, getting annoyed, nervous, tensed or feeling shyness, fearful, angry, jealous, envious, anxious, in love, or affection. The body language, although seems to be somewhat universal and common, yet has a perfect cultural and social base. As a result every culture or society has its own body language which can be learnt the same way as the spoken language. Hence, one should be quite cautious while making use or interpreting of body language in communication. Let us cite a few instances for this purpose: In Tibet, the tribal people exchange greetings by protruding their tongues. In India, it will be communicated as insulting and teasing to the receivers. In India, you may use your stretched open palm for conveying the stop signal. However, doing such in Greece will be an outright insult to the receivers. In the western culture, the people may welcome or greet through kissing, whereas kissing in public is not liked in India. We usually welcome or greet through joining hands, touching feet or shaking hands, etc. The body language in its broad form may include various types of gestures and physical movements of the body parts. In such a broad form, it is quite commonly used by all speakers, stage or media actors, political and religious leaders, lawyers and advertising models while giving their performances at their workplaces. In our day-to-day conversations, we all are quite habitual to make use of it for

communication. We convey the feelings of respect to our elders by touching their feet, welcome through joining our hands or say goodbye by shaking or raising our right hand. Our body speaks about our feelings of anxiety, fear, anger, happiness, sadness, love, affection, hatredness, empathy and sympathy through its various actions and movements. The body language can be very effectively used by the teachers and pupils in the classroom for the healthy classroom interaction in almost all types of teaching-learning situations. The teachers may add colours and effectiveness to their explanations, expositions and demonstration skills, with the use of appropriate body language.

4. Sound symbols Many sound symbols and vocal cues also prove an effective medium for the desired communication. For example, when we are saying, narrating or explaining something to somebody and he is responding simply by uttering the sound hunh-hunh, it may work well for maintaining the chain of communication. We may properly visualize that he is paying attention and agreeing to the message communicated to him. Contrarily, when the listener utters the negative sound ‘unu hunch’ it means his disinterest or disagreement to the conveyed message. It becomes more distinctive and prominent when he also nods his head and neck along with the utterance of the negative sounds. Similarly, the utterance of the sound ‘uanh’ accompanied with the turning of the neck and twisting of the nose may provide a signal of one’s complete disliking or even feeling of hatred. In addition to playing the role of a mediator or reinforcer in conversation, the sound symbols or vocal cues may effectively act as potent carrier and conveyer of one’s thoughts and actions. For example, when one is making a pleasant sound through whistling or humming we may know that he is in a pleasant and happy mood and when one utters ‘hunn’ with anger he is said to be in angry or fighting

mood. However, the interpretation of the sound symbols can only be made in context to the tone, volume and the situation prevailing at the time of the utterances of these sounds, i.e. whistling may be made to tease, attract and making indecent remarks to somebody.

5. Symbolic code language Many times some special code language can also be used as an effective mode for the desired communication. The special code language prepared through the help of various gestures, postures and body movements can be used for communicating with the deaf and the dumb. You may very well judge the effectiveness of such communication if you have ever seen the telecasting of the AIR news bulletin specially meant for the deaf and dumb population. One can also mix vocal cues and sound symbols with the body language for having a code language. Since it is to be commonly shared, it must be well understood, used and interpreted in any form by its users. The users (senders and receivers) thus are free to invent any set of code language using any type of verbal and non-verbal symbols commonly shared among them. In the Mahabharata, Krishna made use of such a coded language for telling Bhim how Duryodhana could be put to death during the ‘gada yoddh’. In the Ramayana also Ram and Lakshman had an essential communication with the help of their own code language for dealing with Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana. In our day-to-day life also, we must have heard some children and youngsters often talking to each other in their own code languages. You may feel helpless in making any sense of their communication but they have their language for proper communication. Similarly, various types of well-thought and organized code languages are very effectively used in exchanging quite meaningful and secret information by the detective and security agencies operating all over the world. In this way, any commonly shared code language may

prove an effective mode for the desired communication between the shared group members.

Achieving Effectiveness in Classroom Communication Effective communication is the essential requirement for having an effective interaction or getting maximum advantages from the process. In this way, the degree of its effectiveness can be judged from the amount of advantages drawn through it. Now the question arises what should be done for realizing the utmost effectiveness in communication. The answer is very well linked with our attempts in improving each component or element involved in the process of communication. Let us think over the ways and means to bring efficiency in the nature and working of these components.

Source of Communication A communication’s effectiveness very much depends upon the strengths and qualities of its source. As a student, you must have noticed that while some of your teachers are able to prove themselves as an effective source of communication, the others fail in such. What strength and qualities have you noticed in the successful communicators? Some of these may be (i) their proper knowledge of the subject matter, content or field of information, (ii) your own confidence in their knowledge and stock of information, (iii) their name and fame (credibility) as good teachers, (iv) their way of communicating and interacting with you, and (v) the impact of their overall behaviour and personality. In this way, the personality characteristics, and potential in terms of the content and presentation of communication count very much for the effectiveness of a person as a communicator. The teachers, lawyers, political and religious leaders, writers, actors, artists or any others who want to

communicate their feelings, thoughts and ideas thus always try to imbibe all the essential virtues and qualities of an effective communicator. An actor, actress or model dresses himself or herself in a way that may make him or her an effective source of attraction. They give proper attention to their physical and mental health and many other observable personality traits to make them as the most appealing, attractive and acceptable source of communication. Afterwards, they try to say or show whatever is desired from them according to their roles and needs of the situation. If they are able to do so effectively, the purpose of their communication may be properly served, otherwise their name and reputation as a communicator get lowered day by day. A successful political leader may drift the opinion of the masses within no time in his favour through the magnetization effects of his personality, and by way of his communication. So is true with your teachers. A teacher proving as an effective source of communication may take you along with her/him quite effectively on the path of teaching-learning, take active part in acquiring the learning experiences and be able to achieve the desired learning objectives at your satisfaction. This is what a process of good communication aims to achieve and it can happen only through the presence of a proper communicator.

Communication Material The effectiveness of a communication process in any classroom situation very much depends on the quality and nature of the communication material. If the content and message has some attraction, force and value to the receiver, it will surely catch his attention and make him quite attentive and an active participant in the communication process. On the contrary, if there is nothing new, novel or valuable in the message, i.e. the piece of instruction imparted by the teacher, it will neither attract nor motivate the students to take genuine interest for becoming active partner in the

ongoing classroom communication. Therefore, it is the prime duty of all the communicators to think seriously about the quality and nature of the content material and the message given to the receivers. As far as possible, it should be quite relevant to their needs, interests, previous background, mental horizon and communication level. In brief, if there lies strength and effectiveness in the communication material, it will automatically penetrate into the eyes and ears of the receivers for the meaningful interpretation, understanding and responses on their part.

Communication Media or Channel The communication media or channel just lie in between the source and the receiver like a bridge or connecting link. What the source of communication says or shows to the receivers, can be done only with the help of some or the other verbal or non-verbal communication channel. The nature and quality of the traffic flowing on the bridge is very much dependent on the appropriateness, strength and quality of the bridge. Similarly, the effectiveness and the strength of the communication flow between the communicator and receiver surely depend upon the nature and quality of the verbal and non-verbal means, and the media and channels employed in the process of communication. For this purpose, the following things should always be kept in mind: Use the language that is quite known and understandable on the part of the receivers. The verbal means should be supported by the non-verbal clues, gestures, body language, physical movements, etc. for giving the required strength and effectiveness to the process of communication. To reduce the ill effects of verbalism, attempts should be made to make use of audiovisual aid material and appliances suiting to the very nature and timings of the communication.

The essential skills should be learnt well both by the communicators and the receivers for drawing the maximum advantage through the communication. As a communicator you never use that media or means for the communication that is not capable of conveying what is intended by you. It should always be within the reach and comprehension of the receivers so that the chain of proper encoding and decoding can be continuously maintained. Have variety, novelty and creativity in making use of different means and media for the communication. Always prefer the multimedia approach over the single or the limited usual means.

Receiver of the Communication Where the initiator or the source of communication is the communicator, the receiver lies on the other end for actualizing the process of communication. Actually, what is done through communication is always intended for the benefit of the receiver. A communication can only be carried out effectively with his active involvement and cooperation. In case he is not interested or not capable of receiving and understanding the meaning of the message or does not respond in a proper way for maintaining the flow of communication, the communication will turn into one-sided affair and thus lose its purpose and significance. In this way, the actual key of effective classroom communication lies with the receiver. If he has the characteristics of a good receiver, he may rise to the occasion for making the communication efforts of the communicator most fruitful and commendable in spite of the slackness, deficiencies and hurdles in terms of the use of proper media and channel of communication. These characteristics may be summarized as given below: The receivers must have sufficient previous knowledge and general background for receiving and understanding the

communicated message. They must have the required proficiency and abilities in terms of communication skills such as listening, observing, reading, writing, speaking, mapping, drawing, measuring, surveying, thinking, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating and drawing inferences. They must have the skill and potential required for the use of various modes, media and means of communication. Their sense organs should be well adapted to the use of various audio-visual aid material and appliances. They must remain quite alert and attentive for receiving the intended message and provide essential response for giving the required feedback to the communicator for carrying out the chain of communication. They must show proper zeal, enthusiasm, curiosity as well as need for maintaining the chain of communication. They must not put themselves into a passive recipient of the information or message given by the communicator but should make themselves enquirers and active partners in the process of communication.

Different Media of Communication It is a well-known fact that a teacher who can communicate well is bound to get success in the on-group teaching-learning process. But his success is quite dependent upon the success of the learner’s power of communication. In turn the success of the task very much depends on the appropriateness of the media of communication. We have already discussed the role of the media and channel of communication in the on-going communication process with reference to the two distinctive forms of media: verbal and nonverbal. Therefore, in general, we can classify the media of communication as verbal and non-verbal. However, in particular, a

different type of classification approach may also be adopted for describing various types of media used in the communication processes.

1. Audio media In a communication process, both the communicator and receiver may rely on the audio media only. It means in a classroom situation, the teacher may communicate only through verbalization or lecturing and the students may receive the communicated knowledge only through hearing. The communication through radio, tape recorder, etc. also provide the examples of audio media.

2. Visual media The classroom communication may involve only visual media for the required transmission and receiving of the communication. A learner may receive information or message by reading out a written or printed statement or through the visual interpretation of the graphic material (chart, diagram, graphs, etc.) A student may grasp the content material through the writing on the blackboard, etc. The communication through newspapers, magazines, books, etc. as well as learning through demonstration are also carried out through visual media.

3. Audio-visual media In most occasions, the communication in the classroom or in the dayto-day situation is generally carried out through a combination of audio and visual media. When a teacher writes on the blackboard, draws a diagram, displays a model or graphic, demonstrates on the demonstration table, he also makes use of his skill of narration, explanation, lecturing, and exposition along with his visual display. No doubt, the audio-visual media proves more effective than the use of the only audio or visual media for communication.

4. Multi-sensory media Our senses are said to be the gateway of knowledge. Hence, each of the five senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch) separately or in combination may work well as an effective media for the communication process. As a result, if we are able to make use of the different types of media and aid material involving as many senses as possible, we will certainly bring better results in the teaching-learning communication process.

5. Mass media A certain type of communication media proves useful in carrying out communication with the masses. Radio, television, video, cinema, films, printed media like books, newspapers and magazines, the Internet communication in the form of e-mail, teleconferencing, and satellite communication and transmission all come in the provision of the means and media of mass communication. The on-line education and correspondence courses run by many institutions make use of the mass media in a quite formal and organized way.

6. Multimedia A communication process may be termed as based on the multimedia approach when it employees a number of media in a planned and organized combination for deriving the maximum output in a particular communication situation. Most of the well-organized programmes of the reputed open education or distance education institutions like IGNOU are run through the multimedia approach adopted for the interaction with the learners. In the advanced countries such as USA, UK, Australia, and Canada, it is used in a quite effective way for carrying out a number of on-line courses.

SUMMARY

1. Communication is a process of sharing or exchanging information, ideas, thoughts and feelings between the source of communication (a teacher) and the receiver (a student) through some mutually agreeable or known media (verbal or non-verbal). 2. The six elements or components involved in a properly maintained two way communication process are the source, contents or message, media or channel, the receiver, response material or feedback, and the facilitators or barriers of communication. 3. The principles followed for making the process of communication effective and successful are termed as the principles of communication. The notable ones among them include the principle of readiness and motivation, principle of competency and worth, principle of sharing and interaction, principle of suitability of the communication content, principle of appropriate media and channel, principle of appropriate feedback, and principle of exercising proper control over the facilitators or barriers of communication. 4. Communication may be categorized into various types in view of the different criteria adopted for this purpose. In view of the media and channels utilized for communication, there are (i) verbal and non-verbal communications, and (ii) natural and mechanical communication. From the viewpoints of the persons involved and the situations prevailed at the time of communication it may be categorized as (i) one-to-one communication, (ii) small group communication, (iii) large group or public communication, (iv) organizational or institutional communication, and (v) mass communication. Its another mode of classification depends upon the multiplicity of senses or sensory experiences chosen for carrying out the process of communication. It includes (i) audio media, (ii)

visual media, (iii) audio-visual media, (iv) multi-sensory media, (v) mass media, and (vi) multimedia. 5. The effectiveness and success of a process of communication depends on the quality of the role (positive or negative) played by the elements or components associated with it. As a communicator, receiver or organiser of it we must be quite conscious about exercising proper control over the facilitators and barriers of communication. Where on the one hand, we must do our best to give proper incentives and encouragement to the facilitators, on the other we must try to keep the process of communication free from the negative impacts of the barriers as far as possible for ensuring the desired success in it. 6. In order to achieve effectiveness in the classroom communication, a teacher should always try to concentrate over increasing the effectiveness of all the constituents or factors involved in the process, namely (i) the communicator, i.e. the teacher, (ii) communication material, i.e. the subject matter being presented in the class, (iii) communication media or channel, i.e. the methods and techniques adopted for presenting the subject matter, (iv) the receiver of the communication, i.e. the students of the class, and (v) the situations and conditions prevailing in the classroom at the time of exchange of the communication.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is communication? Discuss its process in detail. 2. Explain the meaning and nature of communication. Discuss the roles of various elements associated with the process. 3. Discuss, in brief, the various types of communications carried out in different situations.

4. What are verbal and non-verbal communications? Illustrate with examples. 5. What is meant by effectiveness of communication? How can it be increased? Explain. 6. Discuss the different barriers in communication. 7. Discuss, in detail, communication.

the

various

principles

of

good

8. What is classroom communication? Discuss it in relation to the verbal and the nonverbal communications. 9. How can you achieve effectiveness communication? Discuss in detail.

in

classroom

10. Describe the possible modes and media of classroom communication.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Buch, M.B. and M.R. Sanathanan, Communication in Classroom, CASE, M.S. University, Baroda, 1970. Dale, Edgar, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, 2nd ed., New York: Holt, 1961. Taroi, Sheela, Communication in Schools, New Delhi: Regency Publications, 1994.

12 Management of TeachingLearning CHAPTER OUTLINE Meaning of Management of Teaching-Learning The stages or steps The Need and Significance Planning Teaching-Learning Organization of Teaching-Learning Leading Teaching-Learning Controlling Teaching-Learning Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

MEANING OF MANAGEMENT OF TEACHING-LEARNING It will be worthwhile to understand the meaning of the term ‘management’ before knowing about the management of teachinglearning. Management, in simple words, stands for the attempts of managing the available resources so properly as to yield the best possible results. In other words, the process of mobilization and utilization of the available men-material resources for achieving the desired objectives in an efficient and effective way is termed as

management. In this way, it may be termed as the art and science of achieving the desired objectives in an efficient and effective way. In the language of system approach, it is the process of making the best use of the input and the transformation processes to result in the best output. A little more analysis of the process of management may reveal that as a process it involves the task of managing various important aspects like planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of the activities and roles of the available men-material resources for achieving the desired objectives in a best possible way. Let us now try to define and understand the term management of teaching-learning. We have to manage the process of teaching-learning. A teacher has to teach and the learner has to learn. Both work as independent and dependent variables in the process of teachinglearning. Midway between them lie the intervening variables, the teaching-learning situations, and the facilities and resources for it. Both teaching and learning aim towards the same thing, i.e. achieving the desired instructional objectives by helping the learner to bring the desired changes in his behaviour. In this way, the process of managing teaching-learning needs management of all the variables involved in the teaching-learning process in such a way as to end with the best possible achievements of the set objectives. We would like to define the term management of teaching-learning here for the purpose of this text in the following words: Management of teaching-learning is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the efforts of the variables involved and the resources available in the process of teaching-learning in such a way as to result in the attainment of stipulated teaching-learning objectives with the maximum possible efficiency and effectiveness. This definition brings into focus the following facts about the management of teaching-learning: It is the process and not the product. This process of management is carried out in four systematic steps, namely planning, organizing, leading and controlling of the teaching-learning activities.

It calls for the best mobilization and utilization of the available men-material resources. The variables such as teacher, learner, learning situations, methods, and materials involved in the teaching-learning process are better organized, controlled and manipulated resulting into the success of the process. It is helpful in the better management of the teaching-learning system, improving the input and the processes resulting into a better output. The teaching-learning objectives are attained in a desired way with greater efficiency and effectiveness with the help of such a management.

The Stages or Steps The process of managing teaching-learning is carried out by the teacher for properly exercising his duties as a teacher and instructor. In this sense, he is the manager who has to exercise his managerial obligations and authorities and take along with him a group of learners by making optimal use of the available resources for the realization of the stated objectives. In doing so, sometimes, he has to play an authoritarian role or as a democratic leader. He has to maintain a perfect interaction with his students in all situations as he himself is responsible of all the activities related to the process of teaching-learning. These activities, as emphasized by I.K. Davies (1971) in his work ‘Management of Learning’ are carried out through the four systematic steps, namely planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. All these four steps are interrelated and interdependent. This relationship can be properly understood with the help of the diagram given in Figure 12.1.

Figure 12.1 Relationship between the steps of managing teaching-learning.

The diagram represents a cyclic intimate interrelationship among the four steps. Planning is the initial step. What is to be performed at the organization phase and leading phase directly or indirectly depends upon the activities carried out at the planning stage. Both the phases provide proper feedback for improving the activities of the planning stage. The same is true with the activities carried out at the organization stage. Better planning leads to better organization which, in turn, leads the learner on the proper path of attaining the stated objectives. Whether the learner is proceeding on the right path, and the teaching-learning activities are organized in a proper planned way or not are evaluated and controlled by the activities carried out at the controlling stage. In this way, the four stages and steps seem to be quite essential, interdependent and interconnected for helping the teacher play his managerial role in a teaching-learning system. How can he play his role properly by performing activities related to these four steps? What activities are supposed to be performed under these steps? These are explained in subsequent discussions.

The Need and significance The need for managing teaching-learning can be supported on the basis of the following advantages drawn from it.

1. It helps in identifying the teaching-learning objectives, specifying them in behavioural terms and make the teacher and the pupils conscious of attaining them within the specified time and available resources. 2. It helps them to identify the available men-material resources and to attempt for their maximum mobilization and utilization for the attainment of the objectives by setting the following things right: • Identifying the needs and characteristics of the learners and help them accordingly. • Helping in better teacher-pupil relationship, close cooperation and healthy integration in the process of instruction. • Improving and enriching the curricular contents, learning experiences and their proper organization and presentation to the learner. • Helping in coordinating and enriching the efforts of the people and other resources engaged in the task of teaching-learning. • Helping in the proper organization and control of the physical facilities and the overall classroom environment for better teaching-learning. • Identifying and utilizing the appropriate teaching-learning strategies, methods, tactics, teaching aids, etc., in view of the learning experiences, objectives and the available teachinglearning environment. • Securing the cooperation of the authorities and the community for improving the facilities and resources. 3. It works towards a congenial environment giving no or least chances of internal conflicts among the efforts of the people and other resources for achieving the stipulated objectives. It tries to reduce the number of people, situations and resources that create hindrances and obstacles in the realization of these objectives. 4. It helps in economizing the efforts of the men-material resources as well as in avoiding wastage. The teacher can teach well and the learner can learn well by economizing their time, labour and efforts. 5. It helps in the establishment of proper stability and certainty and reduction in the instability and uncertainty of the factors and

situations prevailing in the teaching-learning process. 6. It improves the overall teaching-learning system in terms of its parameters, namely input, processes and output. 7. The teacher becomes a better teacher by improving his behaviour and acquiring the desired effectiveness and efficiency in the process of teaching-learning. 8. It helps in building the confidence of the teacher and the learner and provides opportunities and proper conditions for them to make the best use of their abilities, labour and time. 9. It helps in making prediction about the teaching-learning outcomes on the basis of the quality of the managerial activities of the teacher. 10. The educational goals and instructional objectives can be achieved with greater efficiency and effectiveness with the help of proper management of teaching-learning. To summing up, the management of teaching-learning helps in the overall improvement of the processes and products of the teachinglearning. It helps in resolving the conflicts, smoothening and coordinating the working, and improving in the efficiency and effectiveness of the efforts of the resources. Let us now discuss the process of managing teaching-learning under the four steps or stages:

Planning Teaching-Learning In our day-to-day or professional lives we have to plan wisely for accomplishing a task and getting the desired benefit out of it. In fact, planning is the basic process in all situations where we use to select our goals and determine how to achieve them. In the case of managing teaching-learning, planning thus must be considered as the first stage or the basic process that helps in the establishment of the teaching-learning objectives and determine what to be done for their proper attainment.

Basic steps Involved

In planning, no matter whatever field and dimension it may have, the following four basic steps are essentially involved. 1. Establishment of goals or objectives 2. Defining the present situation 3. Identifying the helpful factors and barriers in the attainment of goals 4. Developing a plan or set of actions for the attainment of goals. Let us consider these four basic steps and think about the various planning activities or set of activities that a teacher has to perform initially for managing teaching-learning. According to these steps, the planning begins with the task of setting goals or objectives. Identification of such objectives is quite essential. No planning can be done if the planner does not know where he has to go and what to achieve. In clear terms, one is engaged in the task of planning to achieve these objectives. It is here then he pays attention to the identification of the prevailing situations. How much ability of strength one possesses? What are the resources available now or in due course for helping him in the attainment of his objectives? What are the obstacles or possible hindrances? How do these obstacles can be overcome or minimized? In this way, attempts are made first for the identification of the circumstances or situations helpful in the process of teaching-learning, and then the appropriate strategies, methods and aid material are so planned for the proper realization of the set objectives. In view of what has been said above, the activities or the set of actions carried out at the hands of a teacher at the planning stage may be broadly classified into the following two major heads: 1. Formulation of teaching-learning, instructional or educational objectives. 2. Task analysis for the purpose of attaining objectives.

Formulation of teaching-learning or instructional objectives

What is to be achieved out of the on-going teaching-learning process should be first determined in clear definite terms. It requires proper identification of the teaching-learning objectives and their attainment in behavioural terms. These objectives are the statement of a set of behaviour (knowledge gained, skills acquired, attitude and interest shown, etc.) demonstrated by the learner at the end of some period of instruction. A taxonomy, or system of classification, can help a teacher in their proper identification. With the work done by many researchers, we have at our disposal definite taxonomies related to the different domains (Cognitive, Affective and Conative or Psychomotor) of our behaviour. These taxonomies have already been discussed by adopting different approaches such as Mager’s, Miller’s and R.C.E.M. in an earlier chapter.

Task analysis for the purpose of attaining objectives The teaching-learning process is to be carefully planned for the purpose of attaining the set teaching-learning objectives. What a teacher is expected to do for this purpose needs to be properly analyzed. It is termed as the analysis of the task (or tasks analysis) in the language of educational technology. “The process of breaking tasks down into their simpler components is called task analysis” (Gagne, 1977). In planning the activities for attaining the teaching-learning objectives, the task may be broken down into the following sub-tasks: 1. Identifying the entry behaviour of the learners and their performance deficiency: To help the learners in reaching the terminal behaviour, i.e. attaining the set objectives, it is essential to know about their entry behaviour in terms of their potential abilities, previous knowledge of the curricular subjects, interests, aptitudes and attitudes, etc. Regarding terminal behaviour as we know, what should the learner know, do and feel at the end of a piece of instruction is termed as their terminal behaviour. The gap between terminal behaviour and entry behaviour is known as the performance or behavioural deficiency. This deficiency is to be identified properly so that the learners may be helped in reaching the terminal behaviour.

2. Identifying learning experiences to be given to the learners: Learning experiences are the means to achieve the ends, i.e. helping learners to reach the terminal behaviour. The teacher for this purpose should try to plan for the essential curricular and co-curricular experiences. The contents of these experiences should be carefully analyzed by adopting the technique of content analysis. In such an analysis, care is first taken to select appropriate learning experiences matching the needs and entry behaviour of the learners, the set objectives, teacher’s own ability and other available teaching-learning resources. Then, these learning experiences or content materials are broken down into topics and sub-topics and each subtopic is further broken down into its components or elements. At the latter stage, care is taken to have proper synthesis of the various elements of these learning experiences. Content analysis is quite important from the angle of a teacher who is going to face his class for the attainment of particular teaching-learning objectives related to certain content material prescribed in the syllabus of that class. As a matter of definition, the term content analysis according to I.K. Davies (1971) may be defined as “the analysis of topic or content unit to be taught, into its constituents or elements and arrange them in a logical sequence”. While following the spirit of this definition, practically we try to (i) decide the contents of the topic or learning experiences provided to the learners into certain specific sub-topics, (ii) divide each specific sub-topic into its constituents or elements, and (iii) then arrange these sub-topics and their elements in an appropriate logical sequence. The content analysis task thus may take the following shape as shown in Figure 12.2. As a matter of illustration we may select a topic named as “Matter and its kinds” in the subject Physical Sciences as in Fig. 12.3.

Figure 12.2 A flow chart of the content analysis scheme.

Figure 12.3 Content analysis of the topic “Matter and its Kinds”.

In fact, while preparing for teaching, a teacher has to be very much careful about the content material to be dealt with in the classroom. He has to go properly through its selection, analysis and organization (synthesis) in the manner discussed below. At the first state he has to look forward for the: 1. Age, mental level, interests, previous knowledge and achievement levels of his students. 2. Requirement of the teaching-learning objectives set for the study of the topic in the class or grade.

3. Availability of the material resources and environmental facilities available at the time of teaching the topic. 4. Scope and the depth to which the study of the topic is to be required in relation to the prescribed syllabus and papers set or other evaluation work demands of the home and public examinations. 5. Relevancy, adequacy and effectiveness of the content material for acquiring the best possible results in terms of the defined teaching-learning outcomes. 6. Helpful in seeking horizontal and vertical correlations with the study of other topics, subjects and life experiences, and practical application in day-to-day life of the students. 7. Skill, ability and will-power of the teacher himself for teaching the selected content material. At the second stage the following things may prove fruitful. 1. The content material related to a unit or topic is to be broken into several meaningful and independent subunits or sub-topics. 2. Each subunit or sub-topic is to be further subdivided into specific independent and meaningful constituents or elements. 3. Every element or constituent of a sub-topic must be quite complete in itself in relation to the expected behavioural outcomes (knowledge, understanding, application, etc.). 4. The expected behavioural outcomes regarding each element of the sub-topic should be evaluative in terms of the questioninganswering device or any method indicative of the changes in behaviour of the students. At the third stage for the proper organisation of the selected and analyzed content material into a meaningful whole (synthesis), the following things may prove beneficial. 1. Sub-topics and their constituents or elements must follow the important maxims of teaching like ‘from simple to complex’, ‘from

concrete to abstract’, ‘from known to unknown’, and ‘from part to whole’, in their organization and synthesis. 2. These must follow the principle of correlation in its various aspects like correlation with other topics, with other subjects of the school curriculum, with life, with the previous study related to that topic in earlier classes, and with the higher studies to be made in that topic in the coming higher classes. 3. It must follow the principle of both logical and psychological organizations. While logical organization of the topics, sub-topics and elements of the sub-topics demands that content material should be organised in a logical sequence depending upon the fundamental processes and modes of thinking, the psychological organization advocates the organization according to the development of the mind of the children, their needs and interests, etc. 3. Identifying the appropriate methods and strategies for providing learning experiences: After deciding about the type of learning experiences to be given to the students, a teacher has to take decision about the methods and strategies to be adopted for providing these experiences. The decision should be taken in the light of various factors such as the nature of learning experiences, content material or topic, the characteristics of the learners, the teaching-learning objectives, and the situations and resources available for carrying out the process of teaching-learning. 4. Planning for the appropriate teaching-learning situations or environment: Effective teaching-learning requires appropriate environment. Therefore, a teacher should wisely plan for the arrangement of proper conditions, congenial and favourable physical and psychological climate in the course of a teaching-learning process. It should be so planned as to minimize or eliminate the negative factors causing hindrance in the attainment of the set objectives on one hand and maximize the positive factors that help in the proper attainment of these objectives on the other. The analysis of the task related to the

achievement of the set objectives can be properly understood through the diagram as given in Fig. 12.4.

Figure 12.4 Task analysis for attaining the teaching-earning objectives.

Organization of Teaching-Learning Organizing teaching-learning makes the second stage, next to planning, in the process of managing teaching-learning. In this way, what is planned at the first stage is organized at the second stage. It is in fact the executing or functioning stage where attempts are made to organise the available teaching-learning resources for the proper accomplishment of the objectives. As a definition, thus we can say that organizing teachinglearning is the step next to planning in the management of teachinglearning process where attempts are made to arrange, relate and organize all the available teaching-learning resources for the realization

of the stated teaching-learning objectives in the most effective, efficient and economic way possible.

Organizational Task For the proper organization, let us see what type of resources are generally available to a teacher in a teaching-learning process. These resources may be roughly divided as the human and the material resources. The organizational task demands to arrange and organize these resources in such a way as to result in the effective and efficient realisation of the set objectives. The teacher and the students are said to be the main human resources in any process of teaching-learning. Although indirectly the administrative personnel, the parents and the community people also are involved, yet the whole responsibility falls on the shoulders of the teacher. The activities on the part of a teacher can be outlined as: Seeking cooperation of the administrative personnel such as the head of the institution, the district education officer, and the managing body of the school. Seeking cooperation and involvement of the parents and community. Seeking cooperation and involvement of the students in the teaching-learning process. Making himself competent and capable by acquiring mastery over the content material and its transaction to the students through appropriate tactics and strategies. Besides human resources, the physical and material resources available in a particular teaching-learning situation carry a wide significance for the better organization and effective outcomes of the teaching-learning process. A wise teacher always pays proper attention for their effective organization, and such organizational tasks involve the following aspects:

Arrangement concerning proper size involving number of students effectively managed by a teacher in a theory and practical class. The physical arrangement and facilities in the classroom. The selection and use of appropriate teaching aids and communication strategies. Caring for the organization and utilization of the resources such as library, laboratory, and museum. In this way, we can observe that the responsibilities of a teacher regarding the organization and proper utilization of the available human and material resources are quite varied, and technical in nature. It needs quite sincere efforts for the desirable teaching-learning outcomes. As a teacher trainee, you need to be quite aware about the proper organization of such human and material resources and as such there is a need of elaborate discussion here on this aspect. However, we are hereby mentioning quite a few organizational tasks very much in command of the teacher for developing himself as a better source of teaching-learning. We may for the sake of simplicity thus divide the teacher’s organizational responsibilities into three sub-heads: 1. Selection of appropriate teaching strategies and tactics. 2. Selection and use of proper teaching aids. 3. Selection and use of appropriate communication strategy. Let us discuss these aspects one by one.

Selection of Appropriate Teaching Strategies and Tactics A teacher in the classroom needs to adopt a particular strategy or a number of strategies in combination depending upon the available teaching-learning situations and the realization of the set teachinglearning objectives. The success of a particular teaching-strategy, however, rests on the selection and use of proper teaching tactics that play a central part in its implementation. By definition, teaching tactics may be said those behaviours or activities of a teacher, verbal or non-

verbal, which he works out and makes use for the development and application of a particular teaching strategy. A teaching strategy can always be implemented by employing suitable teaching tactics, i.e. the components or basic units of teaching behaviour through which the teacher, the students and the subject matter interact. There are a number of teaching strategies such as lecture, demonstration, explanation, narration, role-playing, discovery, problem solving, group discussion, question-answer, project, and drillwork (a detailed description of such strategies is given in Chapter 10) available for being employed in a particular teaching-learning situation. The teacher has to select a particular strategy or a combination of the strategies. In this way, for the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives, a teacher is bound to select first a particular teaching strategy or combination of teaching strategies helpful in a particular teachinglearning situation and then use appropriate teaching tactics for being employed in the development and implementation of the selected teaching strategy. These tactics in the form of activities and teaching behaviours (verbal and non-verbal) are so selected as to make a healthy triangular interaction among the teacher, the taught and the subject-matter for creating an appropriate structure aiming to achieve the set teachinglearning objectives. Let us illustrate the selection and use of the teaching tactics in the implementation of demonstration as a teaching strategy. In this particular strategy, a teacher tries to demonstrate in a practical form, the objects, instruments, phenomenon, actions and events related to the teaching of his lesson. For its successful implementation, the following tactics may be adopted: Providing proper theoretical knowledge along with the practical side covered by the demonstration. Acquainting the students with the material, apparatus and equipment, etc., to be used in demonstration work. Ensuring the visibility of the demonstration to all students of the class.

Seeking active cooperation of the students in the demonstration work. Attracting the attention of the students in the demonstration, like a magician. Using lecture, exposition and explanation device for making the purpose of demonstration clear to the students. Using blackboard or some other graphic aid material for highlighting the processes and outcomes of the demonstration. Encouraging students to draw out inferences from the demonstration work. However, a question at this stage may emerge—What are the various factors or conditions that may work as a dependable criteria for the selection of particular teaching strategy and teaching tactics? Such factors, in general, may include: The changes in behaviour to be brought in cognitive, conative or affective domains. The type of specific objectives such as knowledge, skill, application, interest, appreciation and attitudes to be achieved. The nature of the subject, topic or content material. The nature and characteristics of the learners. The teacher’s own mastery and proficiency in using or handling the tactics and strategy. The availability of the aid material, proper teaching-learning environment, and other resources for making use of the strategy and tactics. The nature of the learning conditions or stage of learning, e.g. signal learning, chain learning, discrimination learning, concept learning or rule learning. The type of learning S-R, R-S, conditioning, or cognitive to be involved in the teaching-learning situation. The nature of the type of approach such as teacher-centred, student-centred, interactive, individual and group adopted for carrying out the teaching-learning process.

Whatever teaching strategies and tactics may be selected by the teacher for serving his purpose, the important thing that needs consideration on the part of a teacher is that he must gain proficiency in making the best use of them for realization of the set teaching-learning objectives. It is of no use to select a strategy or tactic which can’t be handled by the teacher or for which he has not developed the desired proficiency. In using these tactics and strategies, a teacher should also take care of the following things: The needs and interests of the learners should never be sacrificed. Variety is quite important. A combination of tactics and strategies works more towards the effective organization of the teachinglearning process. It gives students and teachers a better opportunity. For providing variety, let the students learn through their own observation and experimentation besides demonstrating something in the classroom by the teacher. Let them put heuristic questions and engage in the task of problem solving while narrating, explaining and lecturing on some phenomenon. In the similar way, the programmes for a day, week or a month be so organized as to give the students a variety of modes for their learning. Oral, written, or practical works, individual struggling, group project, cooperative learning, all should find place in such a programme. The nature and form of the learning structure also provide a solid base and criteria for the selection and adoption of a particular teaching strategy and tactics. I.K. Davies (1971) after taking care of Gagne’s eight types of learning mentioned five types of learning structures to be considered by a teacher for the organization of the teaching. These learning structures arranged in a hierarchical order are: 1. Signal-learning structure 2. Chain-learning structure 3. Multiple-discrimination learning structure

4. Concept-learning structure 5. Principle-learning structure According to him, a teacher must try to select and employ one or the other particular teaching tactics depending upon the type of learning structure prevailing in a particular teaching-learning situation. For example, if in a situation the signal learning structure appears, the teacher has to choose those tactics which are helpful for him to organize his teaching in such a way as to realize the set teaching-learning objectives at the maximum possible way. Same is true with other learning structures prevailing at other teaching-learning situations. Let us see through Table 12.1 the possibility of applying suitable teaching tactics in realization of the objectives for different learning structures in hierarchical order. TABLE 12.1 Learning structures and teaching tactics

Selection and Use of Proper Teaching Aids Meaning of teaching aids A teacher has an inherent desire that his teaching should be as effective as possible. What he teaches should be carefully attended, clearly understood, grasped and fixed in the minds of his students. In other words, a good teaching always aims at the effective communication and appropriate learning outcomes. For realizing both these objectives, a

teacher has to make use of different types of aid material just as charts, maps, models, concrete objects, films, tapes, projectors, radio, television and similar other resources. All such materials, instruments and resources that aid to the effective realization of his teaching objectives may be termed as teaching aids in the field of teaching-learning. These aids are also named as audio-visual aids in the sense that they call upon the auditory and visual sense of the learners. They provide valuable means for enjoying an experience at second hand that has been a first-hand experience for someone else. Through the wise use of our senses of hearing and sight, they prove magnificently helpful in making the learning more meaningful, more interesting and more effective. It is in the sense that we can define audio-visual or teaching aids as instructional material or devices that help a teacher in the effective realization of his teaching objectives by calling upon the auditory and visual sense of the students.

Classification Teaching aids and material can be classified in a number of ways. However, here we may mention two different approaches for their classification. A. Traditional approach: This is an age-old approach, and according to this, we can classify teaching aids into four categories: 1. Audio aids: This category includes audio aids—the aids which call upon the auditory senses and thus help the individuals learn through listening. The examples are phonograph records, radio broadcasts and magnetic tape recordings. 2. Visual aids: In this category we may have visual aids—the aids which call upon the visual senses and then help the learners learn through viewing. These aids may be further broken into subcategories: projective and non-projective aids. Under the projective aids, we may have visual aids like silent motion picture and filmstrips, epidiascope, magic lanterns, micro-projections, and projection with the opaque and overhead projectors. The non-

projective aids appeals to the sense of sight. It may include chalkboard, felt board, bulletin broad, photographs, posters, maps, charts, globes, models, specimens, textbook illustrations, etc. 3. Audio-visual aids: In this category, we may place audio-visual aids—the aids which call upon the auditory and visual senses and thus help the learners learn through listening as well as viewing. Examples are television, sound motion pictures, synchronized audio-slide projection, radio vision and computer-assisted instructions. 4. Activity aids: We may place the aids that facilitate learning through sight and sound as well as through doing in this category. The examples of such aids are dramatization and role-playing, experimentation in a laboratory or workshop, etc. B. Technological approach: According to this approach, the teaching aids may be classified into the following categories: 1. Simple hardware: Magic lantern, epidiascope, slide projectors, filmstrip projectors, opaque projectors and overhead projector, etc. 2. Hardware: Radio, television, radio-vision, telelecture, records player, tape recorder, motion pictures, teaching machines, and computer. 3. Software: Slides and filmstrips, pictures and other printed material, graphic aids such as graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, cartoons and posters and three-dimensional objects like models and specimens.

Guiding principles for the use The value of a teaching aid for the realization of teaching-learning objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation lies in its proper and effective use. One has to learn it with experience and training. However, for the beginners, the following guiding principles may provide a good lesson for getting the desired outcomes.

1. Principle of preparation: This principle demands from the teachers and students due pre-preparation for the effective utilization of hardware equipment and software materials. For this purpose the following things should be kept in mind. (i) The teacher should be fully aware of the nature of the aid and the way it is to be used for the effective realization of the set objectives. (ii) The teacher should thoroughly preview the material and process of the aid that is to be utilized. He may consult the necessary instruction book, teacher’s guides, information bulletin, etc., for the utilization of a specific aid. In any case, he should never be taken by surprise what appears through the aid but be prepared for its processes and products. (iii) The students should be helped in acquiring necessary background in the form of previous learning, attitudes, and interests for receiving what is being presented to them. (iv) The students should be made clear about the objectives of their participation in the teaching-learning activities involving the use of hardware and software aids. (v) The students should be properly guided about directing their perception towards the significant areas for understanding the aid material and deriving the desired factual information. 2. The principle of physical control: It requires to arrange or handle the necessary details relating to physical facilities and conditions for using the aid materials by the teacher in such a way that it may help in safeguarding the material and equipment and provide for economy of time and optimum learning conditions. 3. The principle of proper presentation: This principle requires appropriate presentation of the aid material on the part of the teachers. In this regard, the following things are to be kept in mind: (i) The teachers should carefully plan and visualize the use of aid material before its actual presentation.

(ii) They should learn the techniques of the showman to ensure the success of presentation. (iii) Proper care is to be taken for utilizing the aid material for the attainment of specific instructional objectives. (iv) An audio-visual presentation can be ineffective if the equipment is opened incorrectly or if the materials are mishandled. Proper care is to be taken to minimize such occurrences. (v) The aid should be displayed or utilized properly for enabling all the students of the class to derive the maximum benefit out of it. As far as possible, distraction of all kinds should be eliminated so that full attention may be paid to the material at hand. 4. The principle of action: It demands from the teachers to guide their students in the process of reacting to the audio-visual experience situations in an appropriate manner. They should be encouraged to respond actively to the experiences gained through hardware and software aid material particularly in the teaching-learning process and utilize these experiences in acquiring new learning. 5. The principle of appraisal: This principle emphasizes the need of continuous evaluation of both the aid materials (hardware and software) and the accompanying techniques in the light of the realization of the set educational objectives. Such assessment may be made by asking appropriate questions set before starting the use of the aid material or by evaluating the attainment of the objectives through the written tests, quiz, etc.

Guiding principles for the selection It is true that an aid can serve its purpose only when we know how to use it in a proper and effective way. The guiding principles discussed above may help a teacher in his task. However, another thing that needs serious consideration before taking decision for the proper use of a teaching aid is its selection. Before putting teaching aids to their use we should take decision about its appropriateness, i.e. the need and validity of its selection. Let us, therefore, look into some guiding principles for the

selection of one or the other teaching aid in a given teaching-learning situation. 1. The principle of learner-centredness: The selection of the teaching aids should be made in relation to the needs, interests and abilities of the learners. It must also suit the age, grade and other unique characteristics of the learners in the class or group. 2. The principle of realization of objectives: The use of teaching aids is primarily aimed for the realization of the stipulated objectives. Therefore, at the time of their selection the set objective should be closely analyzed. What is aimed in terms of gaining should be closely analyzed knowledge, understanding, skills, application, attitude and appreciation, etc. should be clearly defined and then efforts should be made to find out what type of aid material (software and hardware) can help as much as possible for the realization of the different objectives related to the cognitive, conative and affective domains. 3. The principle of interest and motivation: Interest and motivation are said to be the key factors in any process of teaching and learning. One of the major purposes served by the teaching aids lies in their capacity of creating genuine interest and motivating the learners in the task of teaching-learning. Therefore, while planning them as an aid, due consideration should be paid for their value as the generator and promoter of the genuine interest, attention and motivation of the learners besides its educational value for them. 4. The principle of suitability to the subject matter and the learning experiences: The major purpose of the utilization of the teaching aids lies in their capacity of communicating well with the learners in providing the needed learning experiences. Therefore, while going for their selection, their appropriateness and suitability for that particular subject matter and learning experiences should be considered. Actually such selection depends upon the nature of that subject matter and leaning experiences. If it is activity-centred or involves the task of learning specific skills, it is natural to make use of those teaching aids which help

in its proper demonstration. If it is a location of a place in a region, it is always wise to select map and globes rather than pictures and diagrams. Similarly, if it involves continuous flow of communication, the best purpose can be served from displaying it through films. 5. The principle of availability of resources: The selection of the teaching aids for instruction must meet the criteria of the availability of resources in a particular teaching-learning environment. For this purpose, one has to take care of the following things: (i) The aid material and equipment should suit the financial position of a school and the learners group. It should not be too costly to the terms of its purchase, storage, repair and use. (ii) The size of the classroom and the number of students in the class should be considered while making such selections. (iii) The facilities needed for the use of the teaching aids must be studied before going for their selection. In case, there are no proper arrangements for their use and presentation, there lies no justice in planning for their selection. (iv) The use of the aid material and equipments, especially the sophisticated hardwares, need specially trained and experienced teachers. If there is no one to operate and look after them, it is not proper to go for their selection. We have specified in the above lines some of the guiding principles for a wise and proper selection of some particular teaching aids. In the light of these, a wise teacher has to take care of the following things: The type of objectives to be achieved—knowledge and understanding, application, skill, interest, attitude, etc., and type of changes desired in the behaviour with respect to cognitive, conative and affective domains. The nature of the learner. The nature of the learning experiences to be provided. The nature of the teaching methods and strategies to be adopted by the teacher.

The type and nature of the learning process or learning structure involved in the teaching-learning process like signal learning, chain learning, discriminating learning, concept learning and rule learning. The type of individualized instruction, interaction or group processes involved in teaching-learning. The competency of the teacher and the students. The environmental conditions and facilities available at the time of teaching-learning. However, much depends upon the competency, resourcefulness and ingenuity of the teacher. A teacher may devise his own ways and means as an aid for communication with his students. At this age of rapid advancement, he should not only be well versed or master of his subject but also know every means of communicating. For this purpose, he should never rely on a single media, but should be properly trained in the utilization of a number of teaching aids and media (multimedia).

Selection and Use of Appropriate Communication strategy Communication plays a quite substantial role in the process of organizing teaching-learning. Actually, the key of its success lies in the hands of effective communication carried out in the living environment of the classroom—we have already discussed about these in the previous chapter.

Classroom communication strategies The small group involving 20 to 50 or 60 students in the class represents the classroom communication environment of most of our school, theory and practical classes. The type of communication maintained in the classroom is almost carried out through verbal and nonverbal communication strategies as discussed in detail in the previous chapter. In reality, however, the communication strategies carried out in the classroom verbal and non-verbal—eventually, give birth to the following

types: Speaking and listening strategy (oral use of language) Writing and reading strategy (written use of language) Oral and written language strategy (oral and written use of language) Communication strategies involving no language, e.g. facial expression, eye and body languages, sound symbols, and symbolic code language. However, in addition to these, we can follow an altogether different pattern for describing different types of communication strategies depending on the types of media used in the communication processes. These have been discussed in section “Different Media of Communication” in Chapter 11. In this way, while organizing teaching a teacher has to take into consideration the various types of strategies available and weigh them against (i) the objectives to be realized and (ii) the teaching-learning situation prevailing. Accordingly, he may plan for the verbal, non-verbal or verbal cum non-verbal communication strategy or audio, visual, audiovisual, multi-sensory or multimedia communication strategy.

Communication strategies for complex rules and procedures of instructions Apart from the normal teaching-learning situations, these may arise some occasions where a teacher has to search for the communication strategies especially needed for dealing with complex rules and procedures of instructions. A few such important strategies are discussed now: 1. Continuous prose communication strategy: Here the teacher may provide (both in oral and written form) detailed instructions for dealing with difficult and complex concepts, tedious procedures of doing something, etc., in the shape of continuous prose. What one has to do, and how he has to proceed for understanding and application of a given

concept, rule or procedure are explained through verbal language (in a prose form instead of poetry) easily understandable by the students. Its success depends on the nature and structure of the prose employed in verbal communication. If the sentences employed are small and simple, their comprehension is within the reach of the student’s linguistic ability, and the desired illustrations are provided for the classification of concepts and application of rules, this strategy may prove quite effective in realizing the objectives of communication. 2. Algorithms communication strategy: Algorithms may be defined as a strategy that exhausts every possible step to land up at the correct solution. It is in fact a set of rules which, when followed, must lead to a solution because it is systematically applied in a specific order to all possibilities and their outcomes. It can be effectively employed in providing instructions regarding the solution of the problems, complex rules and procedures. For illustration, let us utilize the strategy for the solution of the following problem. Problem: There is anagram UBC. You have to build up a meaningful word using the three letters U, B and C of this given anagram. Solution: Teacher while using algorithms communication strategy will be prompting the students to put the three letters U, B and C in every possible combinations like CBC, BUC, BCU, UCB until the correct order CUB (a meaningful word) is found by them. 3. Heuristics communication strategy: In comparison to algorithms, heuristics as a communication strategy helps solving complex rules and procedures. It proves more economical in terms of time and labour. Its use and application are simpler and less demanding. As a strategy, heuristics represent such strategies in which we make use of some mental short cuts or rules of thumb for restructuring a problem or complex concept in a certain way to its solution or understanding. The most commonly used strategies are: Sub-goal analysis

Means-end analysis Working backward Using an analogy Sub-goal analysis strategy: In this, the complex concept, procedure or the goal or target reached to find a solution to a problem are divided into easily understood facts, contents or easily attainable sub-goals. In other words, here complexity of the task is reduced to a series (or hierarchy) of simplicity and certainty by the teacher for the proper help of the students. It is similar to covering a long, tedious and difficult journey by dividing it into short lengths instead of feeling tired, bored or puzzled by trying to cover it at a single stretch. Means-end analysis strategy: Here, a teacher helps his students for a proper analysis of the complex concept or nature of the problem, in perfect coordination with the means, materials and resources available at present. What they already know and what should be further known, the identification of this difference is first made and the efforts are made to reduce this difference for arriving at the solution. Working backward strategy: In this, the students are helped in solving a problem or understanding a difficult concept by working backward, i.e. starting with what is to be known or found out and then working backward until the initial state (the known fact, understood information or known procedure) is reached. Using an analogy strategy: The teacher helps or prompts the students for making use of their previous experiences, training and practice work for the understanding of the complex concept or procedure or solving the problem in hand by simply searching for the analogy between what is to be known at present (problem at hand) and what is already known through previous experience or learning (knowledge of the solution of the similar problems). 4. Decision table communication strategy: This strategy may be very well used for teaching difficult and complex concepts and procedures including problem solving. It is most suitable when the task or content

can be organized in steps and is diagnostic in nature. For adopting this strategy, the following factors are noted: (i) The content material or task is first divided into some wellorganized meaningful units or steps. (ii) The sequenced units are presented in such a way that the student commits minimum errors. (iii) When a student is presented with a particular subunit and is asked to respond and confirm that his responses are correct, he may get due reinforcement and may be allowed to proceed on the next subunit or task. However, in case he is incorrect his wrong responses may be used to diagnose his learning difficulties and consequently remedial steps may be initiated before allowing him to proceed. (iv) The content material is presented to the learner in the shape of factual information or a problem well-defined in its nature and well-explained in terms of cause and effect relationship. The design and form of putting the information before the students, for understanding the content, concepts or steps for solving the problem may thus be known by the term decision table (helping the learner to take decision and responding). (v) Through this decision table the learner is quite free to take decision or providing his responses. These responses are reinforced and the learner is allowed to proceed further on the path of learning if he provides correct response, subjected to remedial work if he suffers from learning difficulties. Such decisions are well conveyed to the learner with the help of the decision table communication strategy. (vi) This type of communication strategy is usually employed in the (i) self-learning programmed instructions, (ii) teaching of content material capable of being properly structured and organized into meaningful units, (iii) instructions carried out on teaching machine, and (iv) computer-assisted instruction.

Leading Teaching-Learning Leading teaching-learning is the third step or stage in the management of teaching-learning. What is planned or organized at the first and second stages cannot be executed properly unless the teacher is determined to lead his students on the path of learning for attaining the stipulated objectives. Thus, we can define leading is that stage or step in the management of teaching-learning, where a teacher has to perform the responsibility of motivating, encouraging, guiding and, thus, leading his students on the path of learning for the realization of the set teachinglearning objectives.

Tasks Related to Leading The tasks and activities to be undertaken by the teacher at the leading stage can be grouped as:

1. Motivating students to learn These are the students who have to learn, introduce necessary changes in their behaviour and attain the desired teaching-learning objectives. They are to be led on the learning path and this can only be materialized if they are properly motivated, i.e. ready and willing to learn. A teacher, therefore, has to perform his duty of motivating his students. The following measures may prove quite helpful in this task: The students should be acquainted with the set learning objectives in clear and precise terms. The learning experiences given to them should be based on their past experiences. The principles of association and correlation should be made into use while acquainting them with the new experiences. The learning experiences should be linked with the needs, interests, and motives of the students. The level of aspiration and achievement motivation of the students should be set at the appropriate level suiting their very nature.

Students should be kept informed about their progress in learning. Immediate knowledge of the results and progress, if provided properly, can make them constantly motivated. Judicious use of praise and blame, rewards and punishment, and competition and cooperation can prove a good external source for the motivation of the students. A teacher should, therefore, make himself quite competent in making use of these techniques. Students absorb themselves in the work when their ego is properly involved. A teacher should try to make use of such general characteristics of the human beings. Interest, attention and motivation are very closely linked to each other. A good teacher, therefore, should try to capture the interest and attention of the students towards his teaching by adopting proper methods and strategies.

2. Providing due encouragement and guidance Leading is not merely telling or informing the students about the facts and principles related to a particular curricular area. The students should be encouraged to take initiative in the task of learning. They should be left free, quite unbridled or unguided. In all cases, they should be supervised and guided in proper direction to achieve the set objectives. The following hints can prove quite helpful in the accomplishment of this task. Everything should not be told or explained to the students. They should be left free to think independently and discover the things by themselves. The teacher should be quite vigilant, ready to help the students when they need so. The students should not be allowed to waste their time and resources. Care should be taken to guide and help the students in a proper way, at a proper time, and in a proper degree. Too much help and guidance can make them dependent upon the teachers, and denial of such help in a reasonable amount at the needed hours can make them disheartened, anxious and frustrated.

Appreciation and encouragement should follow the principle and schedules of proper reinforcement. The students should feel quite encouraged and inspired for their efforts and initiative in the teaching-learning process. Students may get guidance from the teacher collectively or individually as the teaching-learning situation permits. But in all cases it should lead them in the positive direction for the attainment of the objectives. They should be saved from the factors or conditions that may lead them nowhere, retard their progress, or create obstacles in their learning path.

3. Using appropriate methods and strategies of teaching A teacher has to be very careful in the selection and use of the proper methods and strategies of teaching. There are wide variety of methods and strategies available for providing learning experiences to the students. The teacher has to arrive at the proper conclusion with regard to the use of these methods and strategies in the light of the following factors. Nature of the learners. Nature of the objectives to be realized. Nature of the learning experiences to be provided to the learners. Nature of the available teaching-learning environment or situations. The aid material and other resources available for a method and strategy. The teacher’s own ability and proficiency.

4. Seeking involvement of the students Students are to be actively involved in the process of teaching-learning. For seeking their active participation and involvement, a teacher must try to care for the following things:

Students realize the need and importance of learning a particular thing, facts, or phenomenon. Students are not made passive listeners and silent spectators. They should be inspired, encouraged and provided due opportunity for satisfying their curiosity, asking questions for their understanding and removal of any doubt or misconception. There should be proper interaction between the teacher and the students as well as among the students themselves. Students must realize that the classroom instructional events stand for their own benefit, i.e. to bring desirable changes in their behaviour for the attainment of the teaching-learning objectives. In the light of this realization, they should involve themselves in the process of teaching-learning by cooperating and supplementing the efforts of the teacher. Students may be given responsibilities concerning the organization of library services, laboratory work, museum and exhibition, organization of excursion and other useful activities related to productive work, hobbies, library, culture and sports. It will help in the proper participation of the students in all these useful activities which will ultimately help in improving the process of teaching-learning.

5. Monitoring the progress of the learners The learners can only be properly led on the path of learning if their progress on this part is properly monitored by the teacher. There is every possibility that a learner may go astray on his path of learning. It is the teacher’s duty to have proper supervision and check. This progress may be visible through their performance in the periodical tests, drillwork, homework, laboratory work, project work, and interaction with the teacher at various occasions of the teaching-learning process. Taking proper clues from their performance, a teacher may provide them due assistance and guidance for their proper progress.

6. Acquainting the students with their progress

It is a very sound principle with regard to leading the students properly on the path of learning. They are engaged in learning for achieving the learning objectives. How are they proceeding on their learning path? The knowledge of this aspect matters too much for them. If they are provided the knowledge of their progress and efforts, they are intrinsically motivated, encouraged and inspired to work with a fresh zeal and enthusiasm. It gives them opportunity for introspection, correcting and rectifying their efforts and mistakes and reinforce their learning behaviour in positive direction.

Controlling Teaching-Learning Controlling teaching-learning is the fourth step or stage in the task of managing teaching-learning. However, it has a wider significance and importance in comparison to the other three stages, as it is concerned with the controlling functions of the teacher on the process of teachinglearning. A system however efficient it may look cannot work properly if it is not maintained and controlled in a proper way. A good working of a good system only can yield satisfactory results. The same is true with the teaching-learning system. The management of teaching-learning can show the desired results only if proper care is taken for its adequate controlling. Controlling is thus the key and barometer for the success of the whole teaching-learning process right from its planning to execution. Defining it I.K. Davies (1971) writes In teaching, controlling is the work a teacher does to determine whether his plans are being carried out effectively, organization is sound, leading is in right direction and that how far these functions are successful in realizing the set objectives.

The above definition, thus, beautifully summarizes the needs, importance and functions of the task—controlling. It clearly emphasizes that controlling is very much essential for (i) carrying out the task of planning the teaching as effectively as possible, (ii) organizing the teaching activities in a proper way, and (iii) keeping track of the teachinglearning activities and process in a right direction.

But how can a proper control be exercised over the process of teaching-learning (involving planning, organizing and leading of the teaching-learning activities)? How can we as a teacher know that the planning, organization and leading functions are being carried out effectively and properly? These questions have also been attended by Davis in his definition. He points out that in the teaching-learning process, the goal is the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives, also termed as educational or instructional objectives. How far this goal has been achieved? The measurement or assessment of this aspect can be made a criterion for the required success of the teaching-learning process, involving its planning, organizing and leading. Such measurement or assessment, thus, in turn, can work as a controlling factor for the proper functioning of the total teaching-learning process. It can bring into limelight the strengths and weakness of the instructional system and the outcomes (the output of the system) in view of the set objectives. In other words, an instructional system can be termed effective and successful to the extent it is helpful in the realization of the set objectives, and the extent to which the set objectives are realized can only be known properly through some objective, valid and reliable measure or assessment of the teaching-learning outcomes. Ultimately, in this way, the assessment or measurement of teachinglearning outcomes becomes a necessity for exercising desirable control over the INPUT and PROCESS of the teaching-learning system. What we plan, organize and lead or, in other words, implement as INPUT and PROCESS of the instructional system can thus be controlled by resorting to a proper measurement of the teaching-learning outcomes, i.e. the OUTPUT of the instructional system. Let us now know how we can effectively plan and carry out the process of measurement and assessment of the teaching-learning outcomes so that it can function as a proper tool and means for controlling the teaching-learning process. Measurement and Assessment of the Teaching-Learning Outcomes

Measurement refers to the quantitative expression of the observations made of the quality and characteristics of an object or a person. Mind that an object of the person is never measured, it is the quality or characteristics of that object or person that becomes the subject of measurement. Thinking in this way, the teaching-learning outcomes, i.e. the changes brought out in the behaviour of the learner, are communicated in a quantitative form through the process of measurement. Numerical expression in the form of scores and measuring units usually signifies the outcomes of the measurement strategies. The measurement techniques usually involve mathematical and statistical rules, procedures, and phenomenon and are, therefore, regarded as accurate and absolute. The teaching-learning outcomes in the form of acquisition of skills and information can be adjudged through the techniques of measurement like achievement tests. However, the field and scope of teaching-learning outcomes cannot be limited to the mere acquisition of information and skills. If we analyze, why we teach and why the students learn, we can safely infer that the goal of our teaching and the student’s learning is to bring desirable changes in the overall behaviour of the learner covering all the three behavioural domains—cognitive, conative, and affective. Measurement is a too short term to know the extent to which specific behavioural changes, covering all the three domains of the learner’s behaviour, have occurred in the behaviour of the learner as a result of the process of teaching-learning. Moreover, changes are to be brought in the affective domain of the behaviour and these are to be measured. However, these changes in the areas like interests, attitudes, habits, temperament, personal and social adjustment, cannot be measured as absolutely as in the measurement of the acquisition of skills and information related to the conative and cognitive domains of the learner’s behaviour. The changes in the affective domain can only be assessed and not measured, in absolute terms. In this way, we need both measurement measures and assessment techniques for knowing about the outcomes of the teachinglearning process in terms of the resulted changes (quantitative and qualitative) in the total behaviour of the learner.

However, what we require from the terms measurement and assessment can be successfully met through a single term—evaluation. Therefore, nowadays for exercising control over the instructional system, we prefer to use this term. Let us try to know the meaning, nature and functions of it. What is Evaluation? Evaluation as a term has been variously defined. Let us consider a few of them. Good, C.V. (1959, p. 209): Evaluation is the process of ascertaining or judging the value or amount of something by use of a standard of appraisal. Stufflebeam and others (1971, p. 25): Evaluation in the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives. Remmers, Gage and Rummel (1960, p. 6): Evaluation is not just a testing programme. Tests are but one of many different techniques such as observation, checklists, questionnaires, interviews, etc. that may contribute to the total evaluation programme. Wrightstone (1956, p. 8): Evaluation is a relatively new technical term introduced to designate a more comprehensive concept of measurement that is applied in conventional tests and examination…. The emphasis is upon broad personality changes and major objectives of educational programme. These include not only subject matter achievements but also attitudes, interests, idea, ways of thinking work habits and personal and social adaptability. Torgerson and Adams (1955, p. 5): To evaluate is to ascertain the value of a process or a thing, thus educational evaluation is the passing of judgment on the degree of worthwhileness of a teaching process or learning experience.

Ahmann and Glock (1959, p. 13): Educational evaluation is a process in which a teacher commonly uses information derived from many sources in order to arrive at a value judgment. The information might be obtained by using measuring instruments as well as other techniques that do not necessarily yield quantitative results such as questionnaires, direct observation and interviews. An evaluation may or may not be based on measurement data, though appropriate measurement results are customarily used if they are available. Thus, evaluation includes not only measuring or in some way identifying the degree to which a pupil possesses a trait or the degree of which a pupil’s behaviour may have been modified as a result of an educational experience, but also judging the desirability and adequacy of these findings. Indian Education Commission (1966): It is now agreed that evaluation is a continuous process, form an integral part of the total system of education and is ultimately related to educational objectives. It exercises a great influence on the pupil’s study habits and the teacher’s method of instruction and thus helps not only measure educational achievements but also improve it. An analysis of these definitions may clearly reveal the following facts about the nature and characteristics evaluation: Evaluation is a more comprehensive term than measurement or assessment. It represents a continuous process and overall efforts for knowing about the progress of the learner. It provides quantitative and qualitative descriptions of the outcomes of a teaching-learning process. It helps in knowing about the changes in behaviour related to all the domains of the learner’s behaviour as a result of the process of teaching-learning. It provides greater scope and flexibility for the use of variety of means and techniques rather than limiting itself to certain tests or conventional examinations.

It represents a comprehensive plan of better assessment and measurement for inquiring into the quality of the output in the light of the set objectives. It provides sufficient value judgement about the progress of the learner, teacher’s efforts and the effectiveness of the instructional programmes.

Types of evaluation used for controlling teachinglearning For utilizing evaluation as a means for controlling teaching-learning, the teachers generally make use of three major kinds of evaluation: (i) diagnostic, (ii) formative, and (iii) summative, which help in taking proper decisions before, during and afterwards their instructions. Let us know something about these. 1. Diagnostic evaluation: This evaluation task if performed prior to teaching may help in providing the information the students know about a certain topic, and the contents or area of learning that is going to be taught to them. In this way, the teacher can plan his instructional programmes suiting the needs, interest and abilities of the students. The strategies used for such an evaluation may be both informal (like observation and discussions) and formal (like pretest, inquiry and questionnaire). However, the diagnostic evaluation does not limit itself to the pre-stage or beginning of the instruction. One can make use of it throughout his delivered lesson or unit of teaching for diagnosing his students’ understanding and interest. Making use of evaluation during teaching pushes it near to another form of evaluation named as formative evaluation. 2. Formative evaluation: This type of evaluation is conducted well during the teaching-learning process. If a teacher has taught some content or unit, or provided some learning experiences, he has a need to determine the outcome. Similarly, the students also need to know about their progress in the path of learning. Formative evaluation helps in this task by providing useful information to both teacher and students about

the strengths and weaknesses of their teaching and learning. In the light of this information, they may plan and engage for the mid-course corrections in pace or content and methodology of instruction. It may be carried out both in formal (like checklists, quizzes, question-answers, assignments and tests) and informal (like observations, listening to students comments and conversations) way. The essential characteristics of such an evaluation may be briefly summarized now: It is administered during the lesson taught or instruction imparted. It helps in informing the students about their progress chiefly about the amount they have yet to learn before achieving the set objectives. It is useful to the extent it remains informative, closely related to the things being taught timely, and frequent. It helps the teacher by providing him qualitative and quantitative data for bringing necessary modification in his teaching. It proves very useful in planning remedial instruction, guiding the students, and prompting them to ask for necessary help. It should in no way be used by the teacher for making comparison among the students or for making a certifying judgment. The result of such evaluation should not appear in any official record. 3. Summative evaluation: It is carried out at the end of a piece of instruction, lesson or unit. Actually, it represents a final test or measure of the student’s progress or gains made by him as a result of a course of learning. Both formal and informal techniques may be used for conducting this evaluation. The formal techniques may include tests(standardized as well as teacher made), questionnaires, interviews, rating scale, work assignments, and projects. In the informal techniques, we may include observations, discussions, comments, and feedback given by the students. The summative evaluation is chiefly characterized as the following ways: It summarizes the final progress of the students as a result of a course of learning unit or lesson.

It is carried out less frequently than formative evaluation, usually at the end of a unit or course of instruction. The results of this evaluation may be safely used for making comparison among students, placing them in order of merit or taking decisions about their promotion and awarding degree or diploma. This characteristic enables summative evaluation to be called as certifying evaluation.

Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced evaluation The evaluation task may also be categorized as criterion-referenced and norm-referenced. In the former, the tools of evaluation, tests, and techniques are so constructed as to measure student learning according to a predetermined standard of achievement or performance. In other words, evaluation measure or a test based on reference to a “criteria”, i.e. specific teaching-learning objectives fixed in advance, may be referred to as a criterion referenced evaluation. It is deliberately conducted to provide results that can be directly interpreted in terms of the acceptable level of the performance, i.e. previously specified level of performance. In no case it tries to compare a learner’s performance with that of another or a group of learners as happens in the case of normreferenced and summative evaluations. Its primary and sole purpose is to determine whether a learner has or has not acquired mastery over the specific learning task regardless of the fact that how other learners performed on the same task. In criterion referenced tests or evaluation measures, thus, a criterion (an accepted level of performance called mastery level) is fixed well before the beginning of the actual teachinglearning session. In the end or anywhere during the instructional period, an attempt is made to know the extent to which the predetermined level of performance in mastery level has been achieved by the individual learner. The results of such evaluation is interpreted in terms of the predetermined standard of absolute performance such as “The learner understands 90 per cent of the technical terms” and “explains at least five conventional sources of energy”.

The norm-referenced evaluation, as the name suggests, is based on reference to the ‘norm’ (i.e. in accordance with the statistical curve for the results of all the learners who have undergone the same evaluation measure). It focuses on comparing the scores or performance of a learner with that of another learner. It is in fact a competitive evaluation, which provides information relating to a student’s performance in comparison with other fellow students regardless of the fact whether he has acquired or not acquired mastery or attained any specific level of performance over a learning task. The results of such evaluation are often used in declaring the first, fifth or fifteenth student in a particular class or assigning some grade level, or showing that his scores or level of performance falls below or above in comparison to a regionally or nationally representative group’s norm. The entrance test used for selection to some particular course or profession, or promotion to a higher post generally makes use of such evaluation based on reference to the norm only because of its distinctive characteristic of making valid discrimination between the performances of the competitive individuals.

Purposes of evaluation Evaluation in its all forms and shapes helps in exercising the following functions: 1. Motivational functions: The knowledge of the results and progress is a quite strong factor for motivating an individual to continue his efforts in the right direction. The evaluation measures helps in acquainting the learners as well as teachers about the outcomes of their efforts and may in turn, prove a good incentive for keeping them on the teaching-learning track. In addition, the evaluation data is quite often used for providing proper incentive to the students as well as teachers in the form of appreciation, grades, stickers, comments, division, certificate, etc. Such incentives play a dual role: firstly to motivate the individual who receives such incentives and secondly to the other who takes it a challenge for working effectively to get such incentives.

2. Informational or communication functions: The evaluation data may be successfully used for providing useful information in the concerned personnel in order to maintain the essential communicational channel in the process of teaching-learning. It may provide a good feedback to the students by constantly informing them about their progress (strengths and weaknesses) and the level of performance concerning their learning efforts. It may give sufficient feedback to the teachers in terms of functionability and effectiveness of their methods and strategies of teaching. The outcomes of the evaluation in the form of test scores, grades, stars, certificates, report cards, comments and remarks of the teachers provide unique information to the parents about the progress of their children. Such information is quite valuable for the welfare of the child, firstly because he may get the desired help and assistance from his parents for his educational progress and developmental needs and secondly for reinforcing his learning behaviour and keep him motivating outside the boundary walls of the school. It may provide the necessary information to the school personnel other than the teachers connected with the evaluation task. They can know much about the learning potential, abilities and capacities, interests and attitudes of a child concerning the different learning areas. It may in turn help the child in his proper growth and development. It provides information to the school administrators and educational authorities about the progress and functioning of the teaching-learning activities. Based on this, they may be able to exercise proper control over the working of the schools in their charge. It may give valuable information about the working and functioning of a school to the general public . Many a time, a school’s reputation is associated with the shining of its students in public or state examinations and competitions.

It also help in fixing responsibilities and accountability for the poor performance of the students with regard to their needed development in a particular area or subject. 3. Planning functions: Evaluation whether diagnostic, formative or summative may play its role in exercising the following functions related with planning of the teaching-learning tasks: In the formulation of the set objectives. In the selection and organization of appropriate learning experiences, framing syllabus and developing curriculum. The methods and strategies of teaching-learning, the aid material used, etc. can be properly planned in view of the evaluation outcomes. Remedial teaching, individual teaching and group activities, and special educational programmes can be better planned in the light of the evaluation outcomes. 4. Decision-making functions: The evaluation data may prove quite useful for taking important decisions related to the welfare of the students and society as well as improving the processes and products of education. It helps decision-making in the following tasks: In making decision for the selection of students to various courses and areas of study. In taking decision regarding promotion or retention of the students, assigning grades, merit position, certification and awarding of degrees and diplomas, etc. In taking valuable curricular decisions like continuing or discontinuing a scheme of studies, methods of instruction, introduce changes in the instructional objectives and methods of evaluation. In taking decision regarding the type and amount of guidance, children need and how it can be properly imparted. In deciding the need of special or remedial education to the children and the ways and means of providing such education.

In taking valuable and serious administrative decisions such as rewarding or punishing the child, and maintaining or dismissing a teacher or other professional connected with the instructional work of the school.

Technique and devices of evaluation These represent those ways and means which help measure and assess the teaching-learning outcomes, i.e. to know the extent to which the desired behavioural changes have taken place in the learner. These changes, both quantitative as well as qualitative, occur in all the three domains—cognitive, conative and affective—of the behaviour of the learner. The teachers make use of so many formal and informal techniques for the measurement and assessment of the teachinglearning outcomes, which include: Oral tests and examinations. Practical tests and examinations. Written tests and examinations consisting of essay, and objective and short answer type questions. Techniques and devices such as observation, discussion, questionnaire, inventory, interview, checklist, attitude scale, rating scale, case study, projective techniques, assignment, project work, and creative and production works of the students. Now we will see description of a few important evaluation techniques: 1. Viva-voce or oral tests: These tests are based on oral communication between the examiner and examinees. Here, in general, oral questions are put to the students for being responded by them in oral form. Besides question-answer, other verbal communication and dialogue techniques such as interviews, quizzes, group discussion, panel discussions, debates and declamation contests, and symposiums also are used for evaluating students’ abilities and learning potential in oral form.

2. Practical tests: In such tests students are required to demonstrate their learning performance by engaging themselves in experimental and work activities. They have to create or produce something, report their observations of a relevant phenomenon, demonstrate the applicability of theoretical information in a concrete form and perform some motor behaviour or skilled activity as asked to be done for testing their behavioural outcomes related to the cognitive, conative and affective domains. 3. Written tests: These tests require writing material such as paper and pencil from the examiner and examinees. Students receive test questions through written media, known as question paper and are required to give their responses on the supplied answer sheet or the question paper itself in the written form. The scoring and interpretation of these answer sheets or written responses thus becomes a basis for the evaluation of the teaching-learning outcomes, performances and abilities of the students. Written test is the most frequently and popularly used evaluation technique. The question framed in these tests are usually of three types: (i) essay, (ii) short answer, and (iii) objective. Essay type questions: In a written test (whether teacher made or standardized) essay type questions are characterized with their demand from the students to respond by providing quite lengthy, descriptive, detailed and elaborate answers. The answers are so lengthy and descriptive that these might look like essays on the related subjects. Students are at liberty to respond to the presented questions in a way they like. The following questions may be cited as illustrations for the setting of essay type questions: Describe the possible causes responsible for the outcome of the Indian independence war of 1857. What are chemical and physical changes? Discuss with illustrations. How do we learn? Discuss in the light of the theories and principles of learning.

Short answer type questions: Set in a written paper short answer type questions represent those questions which need a short and pinpointed reply either limited to a fixed number of words say 100 or 200, or restricted in its scope by delimitation and specification such as list, define, give three examples and provide a most suitable reason. For the illustration purpose, we may cite the following questions: Define intelligence. Describe the role of rewards and punishment in maintaining classroom discipline (write your answer in 100–150 words). Cite three examples each for distinguishing between physical and chemical changes. Objective type questions: Set in a written paper these questions represent those questions which can be responded by just writing one or two words or numerals, filling up the blank, choosing one out of the multiple given responses, etc. The answers to such questions are one and the same and, therefore, do not vary from one examinee to another. Their interpretation and scoring is also quite objective, reliable and valid. On account of requiring very less time for responding and writing the responses, a sufficient number of questions may be set in a given paper and this characteristic makes them more comprehensive and useful for serving the evaluation purpose in a more effective way. These objective type questions may appear in various forms in a written paper meant for the evaluation of the required achievements or performances. Some of the commonly used types are given: (i) True-false type: This type represents those questions which ask the students to respond to a given statement by indicating ‘true’ or ‘false’, ‘yes’ or ‘no’, ‘agree’ or ‘disagree’, etc. Illustration. Respond by writing ‘yes’ or ‘no’ in the bracketed space in front of the given statement.

(ii) Completion or fill in the blank type: It represents those questions which require to be answered by completing the given sentence or filling up the blanks: ...... is the largest state of the Indian republic. The first Prime Minister of independent India was ......... (iii) Multiple choice type: It represents those questions which ask students to select their response from a number of alternate responses (usually four or five): Who is known as Flying Sikh? (a) Balbir Singh (b) Buta Singh (c) Milkha Singh (d) B.S. Bedi The instrument used for measuring the temperature is named as (a) Barometer (b) Thermometer (c) Lactometer (d) Hydrometer (e) None of these. (iv) Matching type: It represents those questions which have a provision of presenting two sets of items in two different columns. The one set generally on the left side contains information, i.e. the stimuli type items prompting or requiring some response or answer. The other set on the right side contains possible responses (either exactly of the same number as written on the left column or one less or more for exercising check on the guess work). The students are required to select out of the items listed in the right column for matching with each of the item listed in the left column. Example: There are two sets of items in Column A and B. You have to select the items given in Column B as to match the items in Column A.

Write your match by indicating the serial alphabet of your matched response.

4. Rating scales: The abilities, behavioural characteristics, and performances of the students can be judged and evaluated through suitable rating scales. There are, in general, two types of rating scales, (i) qualitative scales, and (ii) frequency scales. (i) Qualitative scale: In it, the quality or characteristic of the behaviour or performance is rated by using the terms ‘excellent’ and ‘very poor’, e.g., • Where does the student stand with regard to his performance in drawing political maps?

(ii) Frequency scales: In this, the frequency of a behaviour is to be rated by using the terms ranging from always to never, e.g., • The student draws a political map of India in a quite neat and proper form.

5. Checklists: These represent the “non-testing technique” used for the observation of certain characteristics, qualities, standards of the performance, etc. by noting down their presence or absence.

Example: 6. Questionnaire: As an evaluation technique, it consists of a sufficient number of questions related to the evaluation of a particular performance or behaviour. The questions may take the form of a simple checklist (multiple alternatives) or responded as yes or no (two alternatives) or yes? or no (three alternatives). These may also be open ended providing greater scope and freedom for the student responses. As illustration, we may have the following items:

7. Interview: It consists of a face-to-face dialogue and interaction between the examiner and the examinee. The student facing interview is required to answer or demonstrate his performance as asked by the interviewer or panel of interview board. Here, little time or almost no time is given for responding to the enquiry questions asked. The interviewers may put a set of pre-developed questions or ask spontaneous questions depending upon the reactions and responses of the interviewee for evaluating his behavioural changes and performances related to a particular field. 8. Observation: It consists of observing and taking note of the observed behaviour by the examiner or group of examiners. How much and in what way the expected behaviour changes have occurred in the learning behaviour of the children, can be safely assessed by employing the observation technique. It may be performed in many ways. It can be conducted quite unconsciously and in secret by not telling the students of it. For this purpose, the examiner may hide his presence or be able to

merge his identity among their group. The other way is to have controlled formal observation like observing the students while engaging in practical work, doing sums in the class or having discussions and conversation.

Assessment of personality and adjustment How far the study of a particular subject has been successful in bringing the desired development in the personality of the students including their social, cultural and overall adjustment to self and others? It can be properly assessed through a number of personality measures and adjustment inventories available in their standardized form published abroad as well as in our country as well as abroad. As examples we can cite Mooney Problem Checklist, R.B. Cattell and IPAT Staff 16 PF Questionnaire, Minnesota, Multi-phasic Personality Inventory, A.K. P. Sinha and R.P. Singh Adjustment Inventory for School and College Students (separate version), Joshi and Pandey Problem Checklist, etc.

Interest inventories These devices may be successfully used for assessing the changes brought out in the interest patterns of students through teaching and learning of a particular subject. Many of such inventories standardized on the Indian students population are available in India. An example, we can cite the names of Bawa’s Multi-phasic Interest Record, Kulshrestha’s Vocational Interest Record, Kapoor and Singh Multi Factor Interest Questionnaire, etc.

Attitude scales Education aims to bring desired changes in the attitudes of the students. As the learning outcomes these changes falling in one’s affective behaviour need to be evaluated. This task can be properly executed by making use of the teacher mode or standardized attitude scales. For this purpose, we can make use of two types of scales: (i) the Likert scale and (ii) the semantic differential scale.

Likert scale: In using it we can have a suitable number of items for the measurement of student’s attitude towards a thing, person, institution, belief and events. Here the following items are related to the attitude towards democracy: (i) I don’t believe in democratic values. (ii) Democracy is the best system of governance. (iii) Democratic values are the best asset for the humanity. (iv) Only fools can expect any good from democracy. (v) I believe in guided democracy. Students may be asked to express their opinion on the above statements by making use of the five-point scale given:

Semantic differential scale Object: Attitude towards Democracy/Democratic Values

(Here the numbers from one to six may be assigned to responses with six being the most positive rating. In this scale, the scores could range from 4 to 24). An attempt has been made to acquaint with some of the commonly employed evaluation techniques that can be instrumental for exercising proper control over the total process of teaching-learning. What technique(s) would a teacher like to use in a particular teaching-learning situation depends upon so many factors. Let us have a look into such a choice.

Selection of the appropriate evaluation technique The decision about adopting a particular evolution technique or combination of techniques depends on so many factors such as:

Objective or objectives of teaching-learning. Contents or the learning experiences provided to the learner. The methodology and strategies adopted. The behavioural domain, (cognitive, conative or affective) in which the behavioural changes are to be measured or assessed. The purposes such as diagnostic, formative or summative or providing information, feedback, incentive, etc. served by the evaluation. Emphasis on mastery learning, acquisition of required level of performance, reliable comparability and grading, etc. The level, memory, understanding, and reflective of the organization of teaching-learning. The nature of the evaluation technique or techniques suitable for serving some particular or required purposes. Let us consider the problem of right selection of the evaluation techniques from another angle. The main emphasis in any teachinglearning process is on introducing desirable changes in the behaviour of learners. Setting of objectives is thus a beginning stage in any process of teaching-learning, including evaluation. The measurement and assessment of the teaching-learning outcomes in context to the predetermined objectives is the sole function of most evaluation techniques. Since the changes are simultaneously brought in all the behavioural domains of the learners, we have to look for the appropriate techniques most suitable for measuring and assessing the teachinglearning outcomes related to different behavioural domains. Let us analyze the different evaluation techniques on this criteria. Psychomotor domain: The behaviours falling in this domain range from reflex movements to skilled movements as emphasized in Chapter 9 of this book. For evaluating the behavioural outcomes of this domain at all the levels, the observational technique serves a quite useful purpose. For proper, reliable and objective recording of the observed behaviour and performance, the checklist, rating scales and scientific recording devices like tapes and films also may be helpful.

Affective domain: The behaviours falling in this domain are levelled as receiving, responding, valuing, organizing and characterizing (see Chapter 9). Usually, the techniques that serve the evaluation include: rating scales, checklists, questionnaires, personality inventories, interviews, attitude scales, interest inventories, observations— spontaneous or controlled. The student’s participation in work projects, debates, declamation contents, symposium, discussions and mutual conversations also come under this. Besides, essay type questions in oral and written forms can serve useful purpose particularly for the behaviours following in the valuing level of this domain. Cognitive domain: The school activities and instructional works are highly loaded with the responsibilities of bringing desirable changes in the behaviours following in the cognitive domain. Almost all evaluation techniques are employed for the evaluation of this domain. However, its specific behaviour levels may require special evaluation techniques as shown in Table 12.2. TABLE 12.2 Evaluation techniques for the cognitive domain

Improving the evaluation programmes or system Effective controlling of the teaching-learning demands proper measures of evaluation. It needs to be sufficiently reliable, valid, objective,

comprehensive, diagnostic, formative, summative, and practicable. The on-going measures and techniques adopted in our schools and educational set-up suffer from many drawbacks and limitations. Some of the significant measures for bringing improvement in the evaluation system include: 1. Construction of the evaluation techniques in the light of clearly defined and set behavioural objectives and the learning experiences provided to the learners. 2. Measurement and assessment of the total changes in the behaviour of the students falling in all the three domains of the learners’ behaviour. 3. Bringing improvement in the construction of essay type, short answer type, and objective type questions. 4. Giving place to all the three types of questions in the setting of a written paper. 5. Bringing improvement in the scoring and interpretation of the written answers of the examinees. 6. Holding internal examinations and making provision for internal assessment. 7. Recommending use of books by the students at the time of examination or testing and bringing sufficient modifications in the paper and testing procedure in the light of such concession. 8. Maintaining cumulative records of the achievement and performances of the students. 9. Provision of question banks. 10. Adoption of grade system. The last two provisions are quite innovative not only in appearance but also in their utility and application. Let us gain some idea about these. Question banks: As the name suggests, these are the banks or treasures (available in the printed and bound form or computer software) from where we can have a number of questions set on each subject for the evaluation of the students. These banks provide valuable assistance

to the teachers and paper setters in terms of the supply of well-framed and standardized set of questions for various class levels and learning areas. The questions available in the question banks are of very good quality. These can help and serve the following useful purposes of a good evaluation technique: In the diagnostic task. To the teacher at the introductory, developing and final stage of his lesson. Drillwork and home assignment can be properly given with the help of these questions. Need of the individual differences can be successfully met with the variety of questions available with varying difficulty levels. In the development of the instructional programme, curriculum, and instructional strategies. To have questions well related to the instructional objectives of all the behavioural domains and levels. In the proper scoring and interpretation of the student responses. In providing proper instructions to the examiners and examinees. In organizing teaching and learning at all the three levels— memory, understanding and reflective. To set before the learners the required learning objectives and keep them purposefully motivated in the classroom instructional work or self-study. The questions available from questions banks are framed with utmost care with all the technical formalities and statistical soundness, so that these may help in proper evaluation of the potential and learning outcomes of the students. As regards the availability of these question banks, we may approach NCERT, SCERTs located in various states, UGC, universities, colleges, state libraries, various examining and testing bodies, private publishers, etc. Grading system: It calls for providing grades in the students for their educational achievements instead of declaring them passed or failed or

assigning numerical marks on a 100-point scale. It is preferred to the old system of percentage marking on account of the following reasons: (i) It is simple to assign grading than the exact numerical marking. It involves no biases and subjectivity. (ii) The examiners do differ in their marking on account of the subjectivity and standard of their marking. Grading reduces the subjectivity and unreliability on the part of the examiners. (iii) In the old system, there is a provision of pass-fail or assigning divisions—1st, 2nd or 3rd—for a certain percentage of marks. Grading makes it more wider by providing more graded categories. In the old system there is a practice of bunching the marks at the end for declaring pass or assigning particular divisions. The grading system helps in removing this evil. (iv) Usually, different subjects have different ranging marks, and combination of such heterogenous scores as an aggregate or total marks for pass-fail or division is quite unsound and inaccurate from statistical as well as mathematical angles. The grading system provides good alternative for this defect. (v) The grading system provides scaling of the evaluation on a uniform basis for the better comparison and combination of the evaluation outcomes in the different subjects and by the different examiners. Generally, two types of letter grades are assigned (i) one is to assign A, B, C, D or E and (ii) the other consist of assigning O, A, B, C, or D representing outstanding, very good, good, poor or very poor level of performances respectively. For assigning such grades, generally two methods, known as absolute grading method, and relative grading method are employed. Let us discuss these methods. Absolute grading method: In this, a pre-determined level or standard is fixed for assigning letter grades. It can be carried out in two ways: (i) A pre-established percentage scores required for a given grade is fixed. In other words, we fix different ranges of percentage marks for assigning them grade letters, e.g.

Criterion-referenced grading is another form of the absolute grading. Here, the criterion performance standard is fixed by the teacher or authorities in advance in the light of the difficulty level of the test and the standard or quality of learning performance needed from the learners. In other words, the decision is taken well before examining or testing the students what performance (in terms of the changes in their behaviour) will help them earn various letter grades. The performance level and letter grades can be represented in the following way: Grade Performance level (in Relation to the Achievement of the Predetermined Objectives)

Relative grading methods: In this method, grades are provided on the basis of the comparative or relative positions (ranks) of the students in their class or group. In usual practice, relative grading follows the ‘normal curve’ distribution for the allocation of grades. The assumption is that, in general, the distribution of marks over a population of students follows the distribution pattern of a normal curve. The area under the normal

curve may be statistically divided into equal segments helping the teachers to mark the percentages of cases falling in each segment. This further may help to take the decision the following way:

The decision about the top 7%, the next 24%, middle 38%, and so on may be taken on the basis of the numeral scores carried or the performance level shown by the students on any evaluation measure. The students’ role numbers may then be arranged in descending order on the basis of their numerical scores or performance ratings. Top 7% are then assigned Grade O, the next 24 Grade A, 38% Grade B, and so on.

SUMMARY 1. The term of management teaching-learning refers to a process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling of the activities, resources and the variables in the process of teaching-learning in such a way as to achieve the desired objectives in an effective way. 2. The process of the management of teaching-learning is carried out in four specific and systematic steps, named as planning, organizing, leading and controlling. All these steps are interrelated and interdependent. Effective organization of the activities related to a particular step adds to the efficiency realized in the organization of the other three stages and vice versa.

3. The task of the management of teaching-learning helps much in the effective organization of the process of teaching and learning along with the possibility of getting the best outcomes in terms of the realization of the pre-determined objectives. However, the success in this direction solely depends on the pains taken by the persons responsible for the management of teaching learning to take proper care of its tasks and activities related to all the four stages or steps. 4. In planning, we are concerned with (i) the formulation of teachinglearning or instructional objectives, and (ii) determining or deciding what to be done for their attainment. For the former, we first decide what type of changes in the cognitive, affective and conative domains of the behaviour are to be brought about in the students through a particular teaching-learning act. These expected changes in the behaviour are then expressed in a clear behavioural terms by making use of a variety of approaches named as Mager’s, Miller’s and R.C.E.M. Then comes the turn of taking decision about the ways and means to be adopted for the realization of the instructional objectives. It is done through task analysis, i.e. analysis of the task to be taken in hand for the attainment of the desired instructional objectives. In carrying it out, it is further broken down into certain sub-tasks, namely (i) identifying the entry behaviour of the learners and their performance deficiency, (ii) identifying the learning experiences to be given to the learners, (iii) identifying the appropriate methods and strategies for providing learning experiences, and (iv) planning for the appropriate teaching-learning situations or environment. 5. In the second step of organization of teaching-learning, attempts are made to arrange, relate and organize all the available resources for the realization of the predetermined teachinglearning objectives in the most effective, efficient and economic ways. Both types of resources—human and physical—should be properly cared for this purpose. Although the caring is a subject of

the persons related to the administration and management of school education, yet a teacher is supposed to do whatever best he can in this direction. He should contribute significantly in the organization of the physical resources such as school library, subject libraries, laboratories and workshops, games, and recreational facilities besides providing proper leadership in the organization of instructional activities. For the organization of the latter activities, his task may be subdivided into certain specific sub-tasks, e.g. (i) selection of appropriate teaching strategies and tactics, (ii) selection and use of proper teaching aids, and (iii) selection and use of appropriate communication strategy. 6. In the third step, leading teaching-learning, a teacher is supposed to motivate, encourage, guide and thus, lead his students on the path of learning for the realization of the set objectives. For this purpose, the task is divided into sub-tasks, namely (i) motivating students to learn, (ii) providing due encouragement and guidance, (iii) using appropriate methods and strategies of teaching, (iv) seeking involvement of the students, (v) reinforcing the progress of the learners, and (vi) acquainting the students with their progress. 7. In the fourth step, controlling teaching-learning, a teacher is supposed to exercise proper control over the overall activities of the teaching-learning process by resorting to the measurement and evaluation of the teaching-learning outcomes. The feedback received through the findings of such measurement and evaluation may help in assessing the effectiveness of the work done at the planning, organization and leading stages of the management of teaching-learning and then take necessary steps for bringing further improvement in the managerial task related to teaching-learning. A teacher has to employ a number of informal and formal techniques and devices for the measurement and evaluation of the teaching-learning outcomes, i.e. to know about the level or extent to which the desired behavioural changes have been introduced in the pupil’s behaviour. These may be grouped

as (i) oral tests and examinations, (ii) practical tests and examinations, (iii) written tests and examination, and (iv) techniques and devices such as observation, group discussion, questionnaire, inventory, interview, checklist, rating scale, attitude scale, case study, projective techniques, assignment, project work, and assessment of the creative and productive output of the students.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Explain the term ‘Management of Teaching-Learning’. 2. Why is it essential to have management of teaching-learning in the process of education? 3. Discuss the need and various stages or steps involved in the process of managing teaching-learning. 4. Throw light on the need and significance of managing teachinglearning. 5. Discuss in brief the various steps suggested by I.K. Davies for managing teaching-learning. 6. What is meant by planning of teaching? Discuss its need in management of teachinglearning. 7. Discuss the various steps involved in the planning of teaching. 8. Formulation of objectives” is one of the essential steps in planning for teaching. Discuss, in brief, its procedure. 9. Define the term “task analysis”. How can it be carried out for planning the activities needed to attain the set teaching-learning objectives? 10. Discuss the tasks carried out in planning of teaching as an initial step in the management of teaching-learning. 11. What is meant by organizing teaching-learning? Discuss its need and importance.

12. Discuss the various organizational tasks related to the organization of human and physical resources in the management of teaching-learning. 13. Describe how as a manager of teaching-learning you will take care of the various resources—human as well as physical—for organizing them in a proper way. 14. Discuss, in detail, the procedure of selecting appropriate teaching strategies and tactics. 15. Discuss, in detail, the learning structures as criteria for the selection of teaching tactics. 16. What are teaching aids? Name their different types and throw light on their significance and uses in the teaching-learning process. 17. What is meant by the term ‘leading teaching-learning’? Explain, in brief, the tasks related to it. 18. Discuss the need and significance of the step ‘leading’ in the management of teaching-learning. 19. Tell as a manager, what activities would you like to perform for leading the process of teaching-learning. 20. What do you understand by controlling teaching-learning? Discuss its significance. 21. Discuss the ways and means, in brief, for exercising control over teaching-learning. 22. Explain, in brief, the process of measurement and assessment of teaching-learning outcomes as a means of controlling teachinglearning. 23. What is evaluation? Discuss it as a means of exercising control over teaching-learning. Tell how it can be effectively organized and carried out for serving its controlling functions. 24. Throw light on the various types of evaluation and their specific uses. 25. Distinguish between the following terms: (a) Formative and summative evaluations

(b) Criterion and norm-referenced evaluations 26. Discuss the various techniques and devices used for evaluating the teaching-learning outcomes. 27. Discuss what type of techniques would you like to employ for the evaluation of learning outcomes related to cognitive, affective and conative domains of the students’ behaviour. 28. Write short notes on the following: (a) The need and significance of controlling teaching-learning. (b) Techniques for the evaluation of teaching-learning outcomes. (c) The controlling of teaching-learning through evaluation of the outcomes. (d) Essay type and objective type testing in evaluation.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Ahmans, J.S. and M.D. Glock, Evaluating Pupil Growth, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1959. Bhargava , Mahesh, Modern Psychological testing and Measurement (7th ed.), Agra: Harprasad Bhargava, 1987. Davies, I.K., The Management of Learning, London: McGraw-Hill, 1971. Gagne, R., The Conditions of Learning, 3rd ed., New York: Holt, 1977. Good, C.V., Dictionary of Education, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. Gronlund, N.E. and R.L. Linn, Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching, 6th ed., New York: Macmillan, 1990. Indian Education Commission, (1964–66), New Delhi: Ministry of Education, Govt. of India, 1966. Kubiszyn, Tom and Garry D. Borich, Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom application and Practice (8th ed.), New York: John Wiley, 2006. Kellaghan, T. and D.L. Stufflebeam, (Ed.), International Handbook of Educational Evaluation, Dodrecht, Boston: Klubby Academic Publishers, 2003.

Phillips, Ray Cook, Evaluation in Education, Columbus, Ohio: C.E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1968. Phophan, W. James (Ed.), Evaluation in Education: Current Applications, Berkeley, Calif: Mc Cutchan Pub. Corp., 1974. Quillen, I.J. and Lavone, Hanna, Education for Social Competence, Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1961. Remmers, H.H., N.L. Gage, and J.F. Rummel, A Practical Introduction to Measurement and Evaluation, NewYork: Harper & Row, 1960. Stufflebeam, D.L., et al., Educational Evaluation and Decision Making, Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa, 1971. Torgerson, T.L. and G.S. Adams, Measurement and Evaluation, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1955. Stone, J.W. Wright, J. Hustman, and G. Robbins, Evaluation in Modern Education, New York: American Book Company, 1956. Wolf, Richard M., Evaluation in Education: Foundation of Competency Assessment and Program Review, 3rd ed., New York: Praeger Publishers, 1990.

13 Modification of Teacher Behaviour and Interaction Analysis “Systematic observation represents a useful means of identifying, classifying, studying and measuring specific variables as they interact within the instructionallearning situation.”

— RICHARD L. OBER CHAPTER OUTLINE Teaching or Teacher Behaviour Modification of Teaching or Teacher Behaviour Techniques for the Modification Interaction Analysis Transaction Analysis Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Teaching or Teacher Behaviour In simple words, the behaviour maintained and demonstrated by a teacher at the time of teaching is known as his teaching behaviour. Actually in the practical classroom situations, what does a teacher do with his students in terms of verbal and non-verbal behaviours is quite important for making the students achieve the desired learning experiences. Sometimes the teacher asks the students questions, explains, demonstrates, illustrates, and guides, other times he encourages them to participate and respond, diagnoses the feelings, and so on. All these activities and functions involve both the verbal

and the non-verbal behaviours of the teacher. True that the verbal behaviour almost dominates the scene, but the role of non-verbal behaviour in terms of movements, gestures, pause, demonstration, using blackboard writing or other aid material cannot be underestimated in realizing the classroom instructional objectives. It is in this sense that the term teaching or teacher behaviour has been defined by Ryans (1969) in the following way: The term teaching or teacher behaviour may be defined as the behaviour or activities of persons as they go about doing whatever is required of teachers, particularly those activities which are concerned with the guidance or direction of the learning of others.

Do all teachers behave in the same way in a given situation? Does the teaching behaviour of a teacher remain uniform or change in relation to environment, or his own personal considerations or teaching tasks? These are questions that may naturally emerge while searching the concept of teacher or teaching behaviour. McNergency and Carner (1981) have tried to think over these aspects. According to them teaching or “teacher behaviour may be regarded as a function of the characteristics of the teacher, his environment and the task in which the teacher engages”. In this way, how a teacher behaves during teaching is almost guided by his own personality (characteristics of individual teachers) and the situation or environment in which he is behaving (engaged in the teaching activities). Further, there is no doubt that desirable or undesirable behaviour on the part of the teacher significantly contributes towards his effectiveness or ineffectiveness. For a desirable control, guidance and direction of teaching behaviour, there must be some methods of finding out how a teacher behaves in a particular teaching-learning situation. Also, there must be some proper ways and means for bringing desirable modification in the teaching behaviour for the ultimate success of the process of teaching-learning.

Modification of Teaching or Teacher Behaviour The term modification of teaching or teacher behaviour stands for the attempts made or processes undergone for bringing desirable improvement or modification in the teaching or teacher behaviour with an objective of making one as a quite effective and competent teacher for performing one’s

professional duties as effectively as possible. Modification or improvement in one’s performance and behaviour is a continuous process. It starts for a teacher quite early before his entry into the teaching profession and goes till he or she is associated with the task of teaching and guiding the students. As a pupil teacher, now you need desirable modification in your teaching or teacher behaviour so that you may require essential skills, abilities, characteristics and competencies for behaving and performing your duties as teacher as effectively as possible whenever you get opportunities for doing so in the near future. The task is not so simple. It needs a complete and thorough analysis of what you at present possesses in terms of your entry behaviour, i.e. the teaching competencies, and teacher behaviour for performing your duties as a teacher and what you are expected to demonstrate as a teacher in the field, i.e. the terminal behaviour. The gap between the expected terminal behaviour and the existing entry or potential behaviour can only be filled up with the measures attempted for bringing modification and improvement in your teaching or teacher behaviour. That is what is to be achieved in any teacher preparation programme. Therefore, the term modification of teaching or teacher behaviour essentially stands for the attempts or modification in the existing entry behaviour of a teacher for helping him to attain the level of the desired terminal behaviour in order to exercise his professional duties as effectively as possible.

Techniques for the Modification In fact, all that stands in a teacher preparation programme or in service education in the shape of theory and practice is always aimed for bringing the needed modification and improvement in the existing teaching or teacher behaviour of the concerned pre-service or in-service teacher. However, researches in the field of pedagogy and teacher education programme have brought out a number of innovation and techniques specially suitable for bringing planned modification and improvement in it. These are especially concerned with the process of modifying the ways of interaction with the students and improving one’s behaviour as a teacher. In this text, we will try to have necessary discussion on the following topics through which modification of teaching or teaching behaviour is possible: 1. Interaction analysis and transaction analysis 2. Action Research

3. Micro-teaching 4. Role-playing (simulation) and gaming 5. Teacher evaluation Here, we will discuss the techniques of interaction and transaction analyses. The others will be discussed in the subsequent chapters.

Interaction Analysis Technique Meaning and definition The competency of a teacher may be adjudged through the degree of effectiveness of his teaching which is objectively assessed through his classroom behaviour or interaction. It may provide a reliable assessment of what goes on inside the classroom in terms of teaching and learning. Such type of analysis is known as interaction analysis. Thus, interaction analysis refers to a technique consisting of objective and systematic observation of the classroom events for the study of the teacher’s behaviour and the process of interaction going inside the classroom. It helps a teacher bring desirable modification in his behaviour and improve his interaction with his pupils. A system of interaction analysis essentially consists of the process of encoding and decoding. While encoding helps in recording the classroom events in a meaningful way, decoding is used in arranging the data into a useful display and then analyzing the results in order to study patterns of teacher behaviour and classroom interaction. Interaction analysis, in this way, works as a standardized observation tool and analysis technique for identifying the patterns of teacher behaviour and analyzing classroom interaction between the teacher and the students.

Systems of interaction analysis As a result of various researches, more than hundred systems are available at present for the analysis of teacher behaviour and classroom interaction. Richard L. Ober et al. (1971) have tried to classify these systems into two groups: (i) sign and (ii) category. The sign system comprises a list of behaviours. In this, the observer simply checks or marks, in some way, each behaviour that occurs during a given

period of time. Regardless of the frequency of its occurrence, the behaviour is marked only once during the observation period. In the category system, the teacher behaviour is first divided into various behaviour units. Each unit is then classified into categories. In this system, at regular intervals of the observation period (e.g., within each three seconds of duration), the task of an observer consists of determining in what category the observed behaviour falls. He also takes note of the category number. Here, a behaviour may be encoded as many times it occurs contrary to the sign system where it is recorded only once. The sequence of occurrence of various behaviours also is recorded in this system. The Flanders’ System of Interaction Analysis represents a good example of this system. This system was developed by Ned A. Flanders (1966) in the year 1959, at the University of Minnesota, in the form of a teachers training technique. It involves categorization of all the sets of possible verbal behaviours of a teacher in the classroom while interacting with his students.

Flanders’ interaction analysis categories In total, there are ten categories of verbal behaviour in this system, which are grouped into three major sections: (i) teacher talk, (ii) student talk, and (iii) silence or confusion. Teacher talk consists of seven categories. The first four categories belong to indirect influence and the latter three to direct influence. The category of indirect influence covers those verbal behaviours of the teacher which give the students greater opportunity to respond or maximise their freedom of action. In contrary, the category of direct influence exhibits those verbal behaviours of the teacher which tend to restrict or minimize the students’ freedom of action. Pupil talk is divided into two categories. The third section, silence/confusion, includes all those behaviours that are not covered in the first and second sections. These sections and their ten categories with underlying component behaviours are summarized in Table 13.1. TABLE 13.1 Flanders’ interaction analysis categories

How to use Flanders’ interaction analysis This system involves three major steps: 1. Observation or recording or classroom events. 2. Construction of interaction matrix. 3. Interpretation of interaction matrix. Let us discuss these aspects in details: Observation or recording of classroom events: The observer is required to select appropriate position in the classroom to listen and watch the events as smoothly as possible without disturbing or interfering with the spontaneous activities. He is also required to train himself for the proper recording (referred to as encoding in the language of interaction analysis). For this purpose, he must memorize the code numbers (the category number) in relation to the component behaviours represented by the different categories. The next thing he is to do is to note down within every three seconds the code or category number which best represents the interaction event just observed. For instance, when the teacher is praising, he should put 2; when he is lecturing he should write 5; when he is asking questions, he should write 4; and again if he praises, he should write 2 on his datasheet. The procedure of recording or encoding of the classroom events may go on at the rate of 20 to 25 observations per minute. Here, the observer, in a sense, acts as an automatic device, highly discriminating and objective in observing each and every aspect of the classroom events and recording it in terms of the code or category number. These numbers are recorded in a sequence in a column. Therefore, at the end of his observation, he may get a long series of numbers written from

top to bottom so that the original sequence of events is preserved. Besides, he may write down marginal notes for explaining the unusual class events. Certain ground rules: The task of observation, recording, or encoding is quite complex and needs sufficient training, practice and care on the part of the observer. For maintaining objectivity and reliability of the process there are certain ground rules which have to be kept in mind: Rule 1: When not certain to which two or more categories a statement belongs, choose the category that is numerically farthest from category 5; e.g. for choosing between 3 and 4, choose 3, and for 8 and 9, choose 9. Rule 2: If the primary tone of teacher’s behaviour has been consistently direct or indirect, do not shift to the opposite classification unless a clear indication of the shift is given. Rule 3: The observer must not be concerned with his own biases or teacher’s intent. Rule 4: If more than one categories occur during the three seconds interval, all categories used in that interval are recorded; therefore, record each change in category. If no change occurs within three seconds, repeat that category number. Rule 5: For silence longer than three seconds, record 10 for every three seconds. Rule 6: A teacher’s joke which is made at the expense of children is recorded as 7. Rule 7: It is recorded as 8 if a student gives a specific predictable answer to a narrow question, or a number of students respond collectively. Construction of interaction matrix: After recording or encoding the classroom events into ten categories, the next task is concerned with the construction of an interaction or observation matrix table. The matrix table consists of 10 rows and 10 columns. The category numbers of the record sheet are tabulated in the table. Each number is entered in the form of sequence pairs, being used twice, firstly as the first number and secondly as second number. Its rows represent the first number in the pair and the column, the second. Each pair of numbers overlaps with the previous pair and such overlapping pairs of observation are entered in appropriate cells of the matrix. In the matrix construction, one is to make sure that the entire series begins and ends with the same number. It is customary to add a 10 to the beginning

and end of the series if it is not already present. Let us illustrate the process of matrix construction with an example. Suppose that an observer has recorded or encoded the category numbers as 5, 4, 3, 10, 6, 2, 6, 1, 8, and 2. Let us add 10 in the beginning and 10 at the end of this series and try to form pairs. The result may be presented as:

The pairs may be now entered in the matrix as given in Table 13.2. Explanation about entries in the matrix table: The first sequence pair (10, 5) has been tallied in the cell located at the intersection of 10th row and 5th column. The next pair (5, 4) is being tallied in the cell located at the intersection of the 5th row and the 4th column. Similarly all the remaining pairs have been tallied in their respective cells as shown in Table 13.2. For exercising a check in the construction of the matrix, the total number of observations N will always be tabulated by N – 1 tallies in the matrix. In the present example, there are 12 category numbers (including the extra 10), which have produced a total of 11 tallies in the matrix. TABLE 13.2 Interaction matrix table

Interpretation: The process of interpretation of interaction or observation data is often called as decoding. It may help in knowing what was going on inside the classroom in terms of teacher behaviour and classroom interaction for communication. It has two broad aspects: (i) quantitative, and (ii) qualitative. Quantitative analysis of teacher behaviour: It may be based on the following aspects: 1. Interaction categories 2. Areas of interaction 3. Behaviour ratios 4. Interaction variables. Let us discuss them one by one. Interaction categories: It represents the simplest way of interpreting the interaction data. Here the total of the column representing the use of various categories are taken for the interpretation. These are converted in percentages, which help in ascertaining the relative importance given to the use of various categories by a teacher. For example, if we take the matrix Table 13.2 for interpretation then, by applying this method, we would be getting the percentage of categories given in Table 13.3. TABLE 13.3 Percentage of categories for interpretation

Areas of interaction: A useful interpretation of the interaction matrix may be made in terms of these areas. Usually, for this purpose, the tabulated matrix is divided into 10 areas (Flanders, 1963), namely A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J: Area A: It represents the indirect influence of teacher talk. It is calculated by combining the percentage of teacher statements falling into categories 1, 2, 3 and 4. Area B: It stands for direct influence of teacher talk. It is calculated by combining the percentage of the categories 5, 6 and 7. Area C: This area represents pupil talk. It is computed by adding the percentage of categories 8 and 9. Area D: It involves the silence or confusion category. Operationally, it is the percentage of category 10 in relation to total tallies. Area E: It represents a block of nine cells involving 1, 2, and 3 categories and gives an index of teacher’s dealing with students on affective plane. Operationally, it may be defined as the percentages of tallies in nine cells (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), and (3, 3) with respect to the total tallies. Area F: It represents a block of four cells involving categories 6 and 7. This area is sensitive to difficulties that teacher may face with regard to direction and criticism in dealing with students. Operationally, it is defined as the percentages of tallies in four cells (6, 6), (6, 7), (7, 6) and (7, 7) with respect to total tallies. Area G: It represents a block of six cells (8, 1), (8, 2), (8, 3), (9, 1), (9, 2) and (9, 3). It indicates the teacher’s responding to the termination of pupil talk with indirect influence. Operationally it is the percentage of the total of these six cells. Area H: It represents a block of (8, 6), (8, 7), (9, 6) and (9, 7) cells and indicates the teacher’s responding to the termination of pupil talk with direct influence. Operationally, it is the percentage of the total of these four cells. Area I: It represents a block of four cells (4, 8), (4, 9), (5, 8) and (5, 9) and indicates the type of statements that trigger student participation. The students often respond to questions posed by the teacher and hence there is usually high tally loading in cells (4, 8) and (4, 9). A high loading on (5, 8) and (5, 9) indicates classroom drill directed by the teacher. Area J: It involves four cells (8, 8), (8, 9), (9, 8) and (9, 9) and represents the sustained pupil initiation or response of one followed by the other.

In addition to these areas, the following information following may prove helpful in the task of interpretation. 1. If the proportion G/H and A/B are quite different, it may be interpreted as flexible teacher influence. 2. The study of area G with areas E, H and F may help in studying how long indirect or direct influence following the pupil talk was sustained. 3. An above average frequency in area C but not in area J indicates short answers usually in response to teacher stimulation. Behaviour ratios: This method calls for converting all column totals to percentage of the matrix total and then calculate certain interaction or behaviour ratios. The calculation of behaviour ratios may be done directly from the formulae constructed for this purpose. Behaviour ratios are fifteen in number: 1. Teacher talk ratio (TT): It represents the performance of a teacher in terms of actions reflecting the tendency of teacher talk. It is calculated by the formula: TT = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7)/N X 100 For this purpose, the frequencies belonging 1 to 7 categories are added, multiplied by 100, and divided by N, i.e. the total tallies or frequencies of the matrix. 2. Indirect teacher talk ratio (ITT): It involves the performance of a teacher in terms of the actions encouraging and supporting pupil participation. The formula runs as: ITT = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)/N X 100 3. Direct teacher talk ratio (DTT): This ratio represents the performance of a teacher in terms of the actions restricting students’ participation. It is calculated by the formula, DTT = (5 + 6 + 7)/N X 100 4. Pupil talk ratio (PT): It refers to the ratio of verbal activities of the pupils in response to the teacher. It can be calculated by the formula: PT = (8 + 9)/N X 100

where (8 + 9) stands for the addition of the frequencies of the 8 and 9 categories. 5. Silence or confusion ratio (SC): This ratio represents the silence or confusion, i.e. any event not included in other categories. The formula runs as: SC = (10)/N X 100 where 10 stands for the frequencies of category 10. 6. Indirect to direct ratio (I/D): It involves the proportion of indirect influence of the teacher the formula is, I/D = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)/(5 + 6 + 7) X 100 7. Pupil initiation ratio (PIR): It refers to the pupil talk judged by the observer to be an act of initiation. It is calculated by the formula: PIR = (9)/(8 + 9) X 100 8. Teacher response ratio (TRR): It represents an index of teacher’s tendency to the ideas and feelings of students. It is computed by the formula: TRR = (1 + 2 + 3)/(1 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 7) X 100 9. Teacher question ratio (TQR): It shows the teacher behaviour involving the use of guiding more content-oriented part of the class discussion. The formula is: TQR = (4)/(4 + 5) X 100 10. Context cross ratio (CCR): It is an indication of the extent to which the focus of discussion has been on the subject matter. It represents the proportion of the classroom activity related to the teacher’s questions and lecturing with respect to his total classroom interaction. The formula for its calculation is: CCR = (4) + 5/N X 100 11. Steady state ratio (SSR): It indicates the tendency of teacher and pupil talk to remain in the same state for a period longer than three seconds. Operationally, it is the percentage of the frequencies in steady state cells [(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7,) (8, 8), (9, 9), and (10, 10)]. The formula runs as: SSR = Total Frequencies Steady State Cells/N X 100 12. Pupil steady ratio (PSSR): It indicates the tendency of pupil talk to remain in the same state for a period longer than three seconds. It is the

percentage of the (8, 8) and (9, 9) out of categories 8 and 9. The formula is: PSSR = (8, 8) + (9, 9)/(8, 9) X 100 13. Instantaneous teacher response ratio (TRR-89): It is an index of the teacher’s tendency to praise or integrate pupil ideas and feelings into the class discussion when pupil stops talking. The formula runs as:

where (8, 1), (8, 2), etc. stand for the tallies or frequencies of these cells. 14. Instantaneous teacher question ratio (TQR-89): It indicates the tendency of the teacher to respond to pupil talk with questions based on his own ideas compared to his tendency to lecture. It can be computed by the formula: TQR-89 = (8, 4) + (9, 4)/(8, 4 + 8, 5) + (9, 4 + 9, 5) X 100 15. Vicious circle ratio (VC): It indicates the teacher’s restrictive behaviour involving directions and self-justification, which is sensitive to difficulties faced by the teacher when the students are not complying satisfactorily. The formula is: VC = (6, 6) + 6, 7) + (7, 6) + (7, 7)/N X 100 Interpretation: The index of a behaviour ratio is meaningless unless it is interpreted against the norms, i.e. the standard normative expectations. Flanders tried to develop such norms for various grades in U.S.A. These have also been developed to suit the Indian conditions. For illustration purpose, we are reproducing these norms in Table 13.4 for class VIII. TABLE 13.4 Behaviour ratio norms

Note: The teachers exhibiting greater values of behaviour ratios mentioned on serial numbers, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 11 than the norms provided above may be termed as effective teachers while those exhibiting greater values of behaviour ratio, as mentioned on serial numbers 1, 3, 7, 9, and 10 may be termed as ineffective teachers.

Interaction Variables: These also may be used for the analysis of teacher behaviour and classroom interaction. In comparison to behaviour ratio, these provide deeper probe into the nature of classroom communication. Ten such interaction variables are summarized in Table 13.5. TABLE 13.5 Interaction variables with their formula

Qualitative analysis of teacher behaviour: This method employs the following methods for the analysis of teacher behaviour: 1. Clockwise flow diagrams 2. Box-flow diagrams 3. Interaction models of critical teaching behaviours Let us have a brief idea of these methods. Method of clockwise flow diagrams: A clockwise flow diagram provides a visual display of the chain of classroom interaction which may prove more acceptable for understanding the nature and structure of classroom verbal

behaviour. The following procedures summarize drawing a flow diagram from an observation matrix: 1. Draw a blank matrix form consisting of 10 rows and 10 columns each properly labelled. 2. Locate and encircle the highest cell frequency of a matrix. Now take the cell of the highest frequency as the starting point of the flow diagram since it is the sequence pair which occurs most often. 3. After locating the starting point, try to identify the event which is most likely to follow. For this, move in the clockwise direction in the row belonging to the starting point cell and encircle the highest frequency other than the starting point cell. 4. Connect these two marked cells with a little looping arrow. 5. For locating the third point, search the column of the second point for the highest frequency cell. The highest frequency should be noted only upward side from the second point so that the clockwise flow may be maintained. Note and encircle it and connect it by an arrow with the second point. 6. After locating the third point, inspect the row towards the right side of the column, locate the highest cell frequency, and encircle it. It is the fourth point. Connect it by drawing a looping arrow from the third point. 7. Follow the procedure for locating other points and connecting them with the preceeding ones. It will help in preparing a clockwise flow diagram for the interpretation of observational matrix. Flow diagrams help in clarifying the sequence of events and making the matrix to be more understandable. What events precede and what follow also can be inferred. It also helps in locating the transition of events and the state of steadiness. Besides, this diagnosis proves helpful in making comparisons between two matrices with normative expectations. Method of box flow diagrams: In place of clockwise flow diagrams, Flanders suggested to draw box-like diagrams, which look little less complicated and help more in understanding the nature and structure of verbal behaviour of the teacher. It attempts to use space in ways that are proportional to the communication pattern. Let us mention a few things regarding the construction of such diagrams:

1. Steady state pairs related to teacher-talk and pupil-talk should be drawn separately. 2. The size of the steady state pairs box should be in proportion to their cell frequencies. 3. The boxes should be connected by looping arrow by inspecting the frequency of the matrix that precedes and follows. 4. The thickness of connecting arrow should be proportional to the frequencies of the cell. 5. The boxes are connected by the interchange events of any cell. There may be interchange within the same domain. Method of interaction models of critical teaching behaviours: A critical teaching behaviour has been defined by Flanders as a pattern of acts or interaction models that: 1. are logically related to certain educational outcomes. 2. follow a certain sequence with measurable probability. 3. seem crucial in terms of a theory of teacher influence verified by past research. He has developed seven interaction models of critical teaching behaviour. The first three models involve teacher initiation and, thus, provide more scope for active teacher role. The last four involve pupil initiation and cell for more students’ participation. These models may be listed as: 1. High content emphasis under close-teacher direction. 2. Teacher-directed quick drill. 3. Drill combined with lecture demonstration. 4. Teacher gives directions with some clarification. 5. Stimulating independent student thought. 6. Attending to student feelings. 7. Teacher transitions from affective to an intellectual emphasis. A wise inspection of clockwise flow diagrams may prove helpful in locating these interaction models and useful interpretation may be made for analyzing the teacher behaviour and classroom interaction. Advantages and limitations of Flanders’ interaction analysis system:

Advantages 1. It is a reliable and objective technique of observing and analyzing the verbal behaviour of a teacher and classroom interaction. 2. It may help in determining the pattern and flow of teaching behaviour. 3. It helps in understanding analytically what in fact goes on in the classroom. 4. Through the use of this system, student-teachers may practise and learn many new desirable teaching behaviours quite unknown to traditional teaching. 5. Being a potential tool of the feedback, it helps in acquiring the desirable patterns of teaching and modifying one’s teaching behaviour. 6. It adds and supplements the training techniques such as micro-teaching and team teaching. 7. It can be used for carrying out research in the areas of teaching, teacher-behaviour, and pre-service and inservice education of teachers. Limitations: The Flanders’ System of Interaction Analysis suffers from the following drawbacks and limitations: 1. The system concentrates on verbal behaviour and does not describe the classroom interaction or teacher behaviour in its totality. Some behaviours are always overlooked, which might be important too. 2. The system, being content free, does not incorporate various essential steps of teaching a particular subject and, therefore concerned behaviours have to be arbitraily categorized by the observer. 3. It focuses a great deal of attention on direct/indirect teacher influence and teacher talk. These are provided, respectively, three and four categories. 4. Classroom interaction in the form of pupil-pupil interaction does not find place in this system. 5. The processes of tallying, constructing matrix, and interpreting matrix prove uneconomical in terms of time, labour and money. 6. Its use requires highly trained, reliable and competent observer/interpreter which are always in acute shortage. 7. It does not provide value judgments about good and bad teaching behaviours.

8. Certain activities such as demonstrating an experiment in Science, model reading in language, map and chart reading in Social Studies do not find appropriate classification in this system. 9. Only one category has been provided to silence and confusion. Equating of silence with confusion is not appropriate. Moreover, in this system no attempt has been made to classify silence as purposive and non-purposive which is a serious drawback. 10. In this system, fourth category related with asking questions does not classify this types of questions asked. Therefore, it becomes very difficult to interpret or analyze the teacher behaviour in its true form on the basis of the observations of this category. In this way, the Flanders’ System of Interaction Analysis suffers from some serious drawbacks and limitations. For doing away with these difficulties, many attempts have been made to suggest suitable modification in this system. We would like to throw light on some of these attempts in the following pages.

Reciprocal category system (RCS) Symbolically known as RCS, this system represents one of the several modifications suggested in the Flanders’ ten category system. It was developed by Richard Ober et al. (1971) of the University of Florida. The reciprocal category system is based on the principle of reciprocity which assumes that for any phenomenon or event, there exists a reciprocal. Therefore, for every teacher behaviour or teacher talk, there should exist a corresponding student behaviour. Consequently, the system provides nine categories of verbal behaviour, which can be applied to students talk or teacher talk in a reciprocal way. In addition to these nine categories, it provides a general category concerned with silence or confusion. Let us now try to have a summarized view of this system with the help of Table 13.6. TABLE 13.6 Reciprocal category system (RCS)

Advantages 1. RCS devotes equal attention to student and teacher talks by providing reciprocal categories.

2. The system makes it possible to observe classroom verbal interaction with a particular stress on the socio-emotional climate of the classroom. 3. It assists the teacher in planning strategies by providing a set of organized patterns of instructions. 4. It may encourage the development of teacher-made observation systems. 5. It makes provision for noting the warming and cooling behaviours of students and teacher in addition to the positive and negative reinforcement factors. 6. It may be effectively employed in providing pre-service and in-service training to the teachers. 7. With the help of systematic and objective feedback, this system may add in the improvement of the teaching effectiveness and meaningful classroom interaction. 8. It may help as a research tool in the field of teacher education, teacher behaviour, classroom environment and management, teaching methods and strategies, student teaching, etc. 9. The major advantage lies in the fact that it may help in maintaining the secrecy of a teacher with regard to his teaching performance. He may record the classroom event on a tape or video and evaluate his behaviour and, thus, may be freed from the anxiety and pressures of being observed by others. Limitations 1. RCS does not describe the classroom interaction or teacher behaviour in its totality. Some important behaviours like quality of verbal information and reacting behaviour are overlooked. 2. It concentrates heavily on the socio-emotional aspect of learning at the cost of the cognitive aspect and the intellectual activities of the classroom. 3. There is no provision of managerial skills in this system. 4. To make sensible value judgements about good or bad teaching behaviour is not possible in this system.

Equivalent talk category system (ETC) The system represents an extension of RCS for bringing suitable modification in the Flanders’ system. Here the classroom interaction is divided into

equivalent categories in contrast to reciprocal categories of RCS. Its main feature lies in classifying classroom verbal interaction and placing particular emphasis on the quality of verbal actions and reacting behaviours. This system was developed by Earnest L. Bentley and Edith Miller at Atlanta in 1970. A summarized view of this system can be obtained from Table 13.7. Advantages 1. ETC serves as an organized frame of reference, observing and describing actual classroom interaction. 2. It helps in providing valuable data for the evaluation and modification of teacher behaviour. 3. It considers teaching of thinking as an important educational activity. Consequently, it may help in developing thinking skills and improving the levels of thinking of both students and teachers. 4. It provides objective feedback for improving instructional skill particularly related to teaching strategies, participation, and quality of content. 5. There is a provision of self-observation in this system for appropriate evaluation. This provision helps the teachers’ move to bring the desirable modification in their teaching behaviour as they may be got rid of unnecessary fears of anxieties of being evaluated by others. 6. It is generally applicable to most school subjects. 7. Its use is relatively simple. It can be learned by most classroom teachers in a relatively short training period. TABLE 13.7 Equivalent talk category system

Limitations 1. ETC neither provides any standard nor passes any final judgement about teacher behaviour.

2. It makes it possible to analyze cognitive verbal behaviour only. In this way, it not only neglects non-verbal behaviours but also pays no consideration for the socio-emotional interactions of the classroom. 3. It does not provide for the improvement of managerial skills.

Regional college of education Ajmer system (RCEAS) This system represents another approach to modify Flanders’ ten category system with a view to make it more reliable, broad-based and applicable to the Indian conditions. Its main features may be summarized as: 1. RCEAS contains ten categories, out of which three have been subdivided into two sections each for providing a more comprehensive analysis and description of classroom interaction. 2. It gives special emphasis to relevance of a particular type of classroom behaviour to be adjudged by an expert observer with reference to the standard of particular class and desirability of certain classroom behaviours. 3. By splitting the category of questioning into two parts, it provides for convergent and divergent questions separately. 4. The category of silence/confusion has been split into two parts separately as purposive and non-purposive silence/confusion. 5. It provides valuable opportunity to assess and develop managerial skills among teachers. 6. The importance of demonstrating activities has been recognized by way of incorporating a full fledged category to this effect. 7. It attempts to provide more motivational value. 8. Its feedback value and usability in Indian conditions has been adjudged greater than the Flanders’ system. A summarized view of the RCEAS system may be obtained through Table 13.8. TABLE 13.8 Regional college of education Ajmer system of interaction analysis

Note: There is no scale implied by these category numbers. Each number is classificatory; designates particular kind of communication event. To write these numbers down during observation is to enumerate, not to judge a position on the scale.

Limitations: The RCEA system suffers from a few limitations. Vashistha (1982) has summarized them as given below: 1. There may be behaviours which might not be covered under the categories of this tool since it is difficult to develop a category system inclusive of all kinds of classroom communication.

2. The non-verbal behaviour is not encoded through this system. 3. To interpret data is a cumbersome job and requires trained personnel. 4. Observations through this system require a content-oriented person. 5. As the focus of this tool has been the modification of teacher behaviour, more attention has been given to indirect/direct behaviour of the teacher and little attention has been given to pupil talk. 6. Although the system has inferential power, its potential as a research tool for wide application to various problems is yet to be explored.

Conclusion We have seen the attempts made to define teacher behaviour and classroom interaction analysis. The procedure and methods of analyzing verbal behaviour of the teacher and classroom interaction suiting to general and special local conditions have also been discussed. However, this analysis has remained confined to verbal level only. The non-verbal teacher behaviour/ interaction of classroom communication is equally important. There has been very limited attempt for the analysis of the non-verbal aspect. In an ideal analysis, both verbal and nonverbal aspects should find a proper place and surely it will aid to bring desirable improvement in the behaviour of teachers and classroom interaction patterns leading to more effective classroom teaching. In the coming pages of this chapter, we would be focusing on an analysis involving both verbal and non-verbal aspects of teacher behaviour.

Transaction Analysis What is transactional analysis? In simple words, transaction analysis in a classroom situation stands for a mechanism of analyzing transaction of behaviour between teacher and students. As a terminology, transaction may be defined as an exchange or communication of thoughts, feelings and actions between two or more people. The effectiveness or non-effectiveness of such transaction is judged through the mechanism or process of transaction analysis. In the language of behavioural psychology, transaction behaviour consists of a transactional stimulus (TS) and a transactional response (TR). TS, in fact, stands for a particular type of behaviour (verbal or non-verbal) elucidated by a person in the acknowledgement of the presence of others, when two or more people interact with each other. TR is the response given to TS by another

person in such an interaction. What is transacting between the interacting people in terms of the qualities and effectiveness of TS and TR is thus, judged through the process of transaction analysis.

Theoretical framework Transaction analysis as a method of analyzing behavioural transaction is the outcome of the ideas and the philosophy propagated by the famous psychoanalyst Dr. Eric Berne (1968). According to him, the main ideas or concepts lying behind the mechanism of transaction analysis are: 1. All individuals, regardless of their age, have three main behavioural characteristics, namely, Parent (P), Adult (A) and Child (C). These are called ego states . 2. Each of the ego states represents a set of behaviours (verbal and nonverbal). 3. The parent ego state (P) is a state of the behaviour demonstrated by the individual just the same as demonstrated or taught by his parents or elders to him in his childhood. It may be further divided into two parts based on the type of behaviour shown by parental figures: (i) Nurturing (called Nurturing P—the mother’s role): The related behaviour characterized by this state may be cited as advise, feed, coach, train, protect, etc. (ii) Criticizing or controlling (called Critical or Control P—the role of father): The related behaviour characterized by this state may be cited as punish, criticize, scold, blame, lay down rules, etc. 4. The adult ego state (A) represents the behavioural state of the individuals in which they behave, feel and think in terms of the reality that exists here and now, using all the resources in their hands as an adult human being with many years of experience of life to guide them. Thus, in actual practice, the behaviour of the individual representing this state is characterized by the verbal and non-verbal behavioural acts such as use of discrimination, reasoning, evaluation, data analysis, use of logic, and ability to observe objectively and correctly. 5. The child ego state (C) represents the behavioural state of the individuals in which they revert to behaving, feeling and thinking close to how they did in childhood. It may be further subdivided into the following parts:

(i) The free child state (FC) demonstrating his innate spontaneous and uninhabitated nature like having fun, being inquisitive, crying, demanding, being impulsive, curious, shy, and fantasizing. (ii) The adaptive child state (AC) demonstrating the adaptable nature of the child to the environmental forces, characterized by the behaviour showing sign of obedience, sulking, manipulating, aggression, rebelliousness, feelings of guilt, shame and anxiety, etc. in his behaviour. These five ego states may be clearly represented through Figure 13.1. In this way, depending on the circumstances and needs, people change from one state to another or one state dominates the other in the course of their transactions. It gives birth to a particular type of behaviour, which may be easily noticed through the ego state indicators now described.

Ego state indicators In the transactions of thoughts, feelings, altitudes, etc. in the class, the ego states demonstrated by a teacher may be well indicated through his verbal and non-verbal behaviours (voice, facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc.). Through the help of these indicators we may be able to judge the type of ego state a teacher is passing through at one or the other moment of the transaction. The analysis of these ego states and resulted behaviour then, may help us to suggest or devise ways and means for the proper modification of a teacher’s behaviour. It is a happy co-incidence that all these five ego states lying in an individual’s behaviour may be properly revealed through his verbal and non-verbal behaviours. What one says and the manner in which it is uttered, definitely conveys too much about the ego states and the desirability and undesirability of his behaviour. Let us analyze the transaction of the words “Have you solved the assigned problem?” For example, the tone, pitch, volume, facial expressions, gestures, and postures adopted by a teacher in the transaction of these words may at once reveal the ego state through which he is passing at the time of such transaction. The nature of the ego state will definitely convey the real meaning of the words used for transaction/ communication between the teacher and student. The above question, belongs to the adult ego estate (A) wanting information for assigning next problem to the child, or the nurturing parent ego state (NP) wanting to know whether any

help is required or the controlling parent ego state (CP) wanting to know why he has not solved the problem yet.

Figure 13.1 Ego states of an individual during transaction.

In this way, a mere observation and analysis of the verbal and non-verbal behaviours of the teacher may clearly reveal the underlying ego state at the time of transaction, the analysis of which may further convey the desirability and undesirability of such behaviour and consequently, the ways and means of its desirable modification may be chalked out. Dr. Eric Berne has provided a list of words and voices, gestures and attitudes indicating the ego states. These are reproduced in the Table 13.9.

Procedures of transaction analysis (as Used for behaviour modification) Transaction analysis may be carried out by the following steps: 1. Observe the verbal and non-verbal behaviours of the teacher (in terms of the uttered words, voice characterized by his tone, pitch, volume, etc., facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc.) at the time of transaction. 2. Analyze the behaviour for taking decision regarding the ego state through which the teacher is passing at the time of transaction. 3. Each ego state carries its own merits and demerits resulting into positive and negative impacts on the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the teacher’s classroom behaviour. Such advantages and disadvantages of the different ego states of a teacher are summarized in Table 13.10. 4. In the light of these advantages and disadvantages arising in the behaviour of the teachers during classroom transaction, we may plan for the appropriate guidance to the teacher for the needed modification in

their behaviour as per the requirement of the teaching-learning situation resulting into the best realization of the teaching-learning objectives. TABLE 13.9 Ego state indicators

TABLE 13.10 Implication of the ego states during transaction

SUMMARY 1. The term teaching or teacher behaviour refers to the behaviour (verbal and nonverbal) maintained and demonstrated by a teacher at the time of carrying out his teaching activities in the classroom along with his students. The way a teacher behaves during teaching is almost guided

by his own personality and the situation or environment in which he is behaving. 2. The term modification of teaching or teacher behaviour refers to the attempts or measures adopted for bringing desirable improvement or modification in the existing entry behaviour of a teacher for helping him to attain the desired terminal behaviour in order to exercise his professional duties as effectively as possible. It can be properly modified through the adoption of a variety of techniques including the most commonly used techniques such as interaction analysis and transaction analysis. 3. The term interaction analysis refers to a technique consisting of objective and systematic observation of the classroom events for the study of the teacher’s classroom behaviour and the process of interaction going inside the classroom. It helps a teacher bring desirable modification in his behaviour and improve his interaction with his pupils for making his teaching more effective and purposeful. 4. There exists more than hundred systems of interaction analysis. Flanders’ system of interaction is known as the most popular technique used for the analysis of the teacher behaviour (although verbal only) and interaction going on in the classroom at a particular teaching-learning situation. It tries to categorize all the sets of possible behaviours while interacting with his students in ten categories divided into three major sections, namely: (i) teacher talk, (ii) student talk, and (iii) silence or confusion. The application and utilization of Flanders’ interaction analysis mainly involves three major steps: (i) observation and recording of the classroom events, (ii) construction of the interaction matrix, and (iii) interpretation of the interaction matrix. However, for one reason or the other, this system suffers from some serious drawbacks and limitations. For doing away with these difficulties, a few alternative systems of interaction analysis have been evolved. These include Reciprocal Category System, Equivalent Talk Category System, and Regional College of Education Ajmer System. 5. The Reciprocal Category System developed by Richard Ober is based on the principle of reciprocity conveying that for any phenomenon or event there exists a reciprocal. Therefore, for every teacher behaviour there should exist a corresponding student behaviour. Consequently, the system provides nine categories of verbal behaviour that can be applied

to student talk or teacher talk in a reciprocal way. In addition to these, it provides a general category concerning with silence or confusion. 6. The Equivalent Talk Category System developed by Earnest L. Bentley and Edith Miller, tries to divide the classroom interaction into equivalent categories in contrast to the reciprocal categories. Its main features lie in classifying classroom verbal interaction into some specific verbal behaviour categories (like presenting information, questioning, responding, reacting, and structuring) and placing particular emphasis on the quality of verbal actions and reacting behaviours. 7. The Regional College of Education Ajmer System represents an approach to modify Flanders’ ten category system with a view to make it more reliable, broad-based and applicable to Indian conditions. It contains 10 categories out of which three have been subdivided into two sections each for providing a more comprehensive analysis and description of classroom interaction. 8. The transaction analysis developed by Dr Eric Berne carries a considerable advantage over most other systems of interaction analysis on an important ground that it lays emphasis on both verbal and nonverbal aspects of teacher behaviour. As a term, transaction analysis stands for a mechanism or technique of analyzing transaction or interaction of behaviour (verbal and non-verbal) between the teacher and the students in a particular classroom setting. In behavioural psychology language, transaction behaviour consists of a transactional stimulus (a particular type of behaviour elucidated by a person while interacting with others) and a transactional response (the response given to transactional stimulus by another person in such an interaction). What is transacting between the interacting people in terms of the qualities and effectiveness of transaction stimulus and response is thus judged through this process. According to Dr Berne, the teacher and the students pass through five specific ego states in the transaction of thoughts, feelings, attitude, etc. in a particular classroom interaction indicated through their verbal and non-verbal behaviour. In this way, a mere observation and analysis of the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the teacher may clearly reveal the underlying ego state at the time of transaction, the analysis of which may further convey the desirability and undesirability of such behaviour and, consequently, the ways and means of its desirable modification may be chalked out.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define the term “teaching or teacher behaviour”. Suggest suitable techniques for the modification of teacher behaviour. 2. Define the term “interaction analysis”. Discuss its role in a technique of modifying teacher behaviour. 3. Clearly distinguish between the sign and the category systems of recording observation in interaction analysis. 4. Describe Flanders’ Ten Category System in detail by outlining its encoding and decoding processes. 5. Point out the ground rules in the task of observation or encoding the classroom events in the Flanders’ system. 6. Discuss, in detail, the construction of Interaction Matrix in the Flanders’ system. 7. Describe the process of interpretation of Interaction Matrix or decoding in the Flanders’ system. 8. Describe the process of qualitative analysis of teacher behaviour in the Flanders’ system. 9. Discuss the advantages and limitations of Flanders’ Ten Category System. 10. Describe the Reciprocal Category System, in detail, by outlining its categories, special features, and limitations. 11. What is transactional analysis? How can this technique be used for bringing modification in the teacher behaviour? Explain. 12. Throw light on the theoretical framework of transactional analysis. Discuss the procedure of its utilization in the analysis of teacher behaviour.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Amido, Edmund J. and J.B. Hough, Interaction Analysis: Theory, Research and Application, Reading Massachusetts, Cal. Addison Wesley, 1967.

Amido, Edmund J. and Elizabeth Hunter, Improving Teaching: The Analysis of Classroom Verbal Interaction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. Barnes, Graham (Ed.), Transactional Analysis after Eric Berne: Teachings and Practices of Three TA Schools, New York: Harper’s College Press, 1977. Bentley, Earnest L. and Edith Miller, “Equivalent talk categories” in R.L. Ober, E.L. Bentley and E. Miller (Eds.), Systematic Observation of Teaching, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1971. Berne, Eric., Beyond Games and Scripts: Selections from His Major Writings, Claude M. Steiner and Carmen Kerr (Eds.), New York: Ballantine Books, 1979. ________, The Happy Valley, New York, Grove Press, 1968. ________, Intuition and Ego States: The Origins of Transactional Analysis: a series of papers, Paul McCormick (Ed.), San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1977. ________, Games People Play: the Psychology of Human Relationships, New York: Grove Press, 1967. Flanders, Ned. A., Analysing Teacher Behavior, California: Addison Wesley, 1972. ________, Interaction Analysis in the Classroom—A Manual for the Observers, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan, 1960 (Lithographed). Flanders, Ned A., Interaction in the Classroom: A Manual for Observers, Ann Arbor, Mich.: School of Education, University of Michigan, 1966. Jorgensen, Henry Irvin and Elizabeth Watkins, Eric Berne, Master Gamesman: A Transaction Biography, New York: Grove Press, 1984. McAvoy, Thomas J., Interaction Analysis: Principles and Applications, Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument Society of America, 1983. McNergency, Robert F. and Card A., Carner, Teacher Development, New York: Macmillan, 1981. Meininger, Jut, Success through Transactional Analysis. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1973. Ober, Richard L., et al., Systematic Observation of Teaching, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1971. Ryans, D.G., Characteristics of Teachers: A Research Study, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1969.

Summerton, Oswald, Transactional Analysis: An Introduction to Basic Concepts, New Delhi: Manohar Publications, 1979. Vashistha, K.K., Interaction Analysis: Theory and Research, Ajmer: Regional College of Education, Extension Services Department, 1982.

14 Action Research “The secret of our cultural development has been research, pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which in turn leads to better ways of doing things and better products.”

— JOHN W. BEST CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction The Concept of Action Research Historical Development Goals or Objectives of Action Research Characteristics Action Research Procedure Significance of Action Research in Teacher Education Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Man from time immemorial has been continuously struggling with his environmental forces and trying to search ways and means for quality living on earth. In other words, he has been engaged in continuous experimentation and research for bringing improvement in his ways of

life. Research on each stage has proved a potent weapon in his hand and a short cut to progress and ultimately to success. While, in general, the history of research and invention is quite old, the need for research work in education has not been felt in so much degree as it had been in other fields. But now with a change in the aims and the structure of the teaching-learning process, this need has begun to be felt intensely. We teachers are now supposed to play a leading role in carrying out research in education. But to carry out research, as to invent something new, is not an easy nut to crack. In fact, it will be too much to expect from the teachers to take up rigorous and sophisticated research studies under the normal working hours and conditions of the schools. From the practical angle, it sounds more feasible and desirable that the teachers and the headmasters must concentrate over solving the simple school and classroom problems by evolving suitable techniques and programmes through scientific approach. Action research in education is an attempt to meet such requirement. It is relatively a new dimension in the field of research. Traditionally, it was believed that educational research is the province of the well-trained research experts only. But now, the approach of action research emphasizes encouragement to the practitioners— school teachers, administrators and others—to do research in order to improve both their own work and the functioning of schools.

The Concept of Action Research The concept of Action Research can be better understood by first defining the term action research and then distinguishing it from other types of researches in the field of education.

Defining the Term Action Research Various thinkers have tried to define the term action research. Let us have a look at those definitions.

Stephen M. Corey (1962): Action research is the research a person conducts in order to enable him to achieve his purpose more effectively. A teacher conducts action research to improve his own teaching. A school administrator conducts action research to improve his administrative behaviour. Good (1959): Action research is research used by teachers, supervisors and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions. J.W. Best (1963): Action research is focused on the immediate application, not on the development of theory. It has placed its emphasis on a real problem— here and now in a local setting. George J. Mouly (1964): On the spot research aimed at the solution of an immediate problem is generally known in education as action research. So, action research is concerned itself with the immediate problem faced by the teachers and administrators. It helps them make judgment and engage in better practices on their respective jobs. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that action research is the research by the practitioner (teacher or administrator), of the practitioner, and for the practitioner.

Distinguishing Action Research from Other Researches Fundamental research and action research Fundamental research can be stated as pure research. Its purpose is to develop theories by discovering broad generalization and principles. It has little to do with the application of findings. This type of research has interested the doctoral candidates, and only a small portion of teachers who have been the casual rather than active consumers are participants in this research.

Action research, on the other hand, although employs the spirit of fundamental research, yet it focuses attention on the solution of the immediate problems faced by the teachers, supervisors and administrators who, while performing their duties, are the targets of study in this research. It emphasizes a real practical problem here and now in a local applicability and not in terms of universal validity. It starts with dissatisfaction on the part of teachers and administrators with what they have been doing traditionally and is carried out to improve their practices at their own initative. Moreover, it does not involve so much complexity in its operation as fundamental research. With a little conscious effort, even an average teacher can understand such research. Therefore, it is more meaningful, feasible and effective than the fundamental research.

Experimental research and action research In schools, experimental research usually takes the form of experimental projects. Both experimental projects and action research have a common purpose and it is the improvement of educational practices. But both differ a lot in the methodology or process of conducting the research. In experimental research, one has to work under carefully controlled conditions and observe and analyse what will be or what will occur in such conditions. So, there is no scope to change the method or the process during the period of experimentation. But in action research, one has neither to create some artificial conditions nor to disturb the normal class routine that very often happens in the case of experimental projects. Moreover, it is comparatively a flexible process depending on the need and conditions as it allows change in the line of action or the process during the period of experimentation if that does not help in the solution of the problem. In this way, in comparison to experimental research, action research is more simple, flexible, and practicable which can be conducted even by ordinary teachers in the prevailing circumstances.

Historical Development The beginning of research may be traced back to the development of thinking and problem solving in man. However, the organized efforts for the research in the field of psychology and education may be linked with the work done by Wilhelm Wundt, a German psychologist, in his laboratory in 1879. Prior to this, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827), a Swiss educator also had attempted to have scientific study of pedagogy by establishing his pedagogical research and practising school. However, as far as the evolution of the concept is concerned, it is not so ancient as the educational or psychological researches. This concept, is known, to have been mentioned first by the famous educationist Buckingham in 1926 in his book “Research for Teachers”. However, it was Stephen M. Corey (1953) who, first provided it a solid foundation by using it for the solution of the educational problems as witnessed through the following assertion: I have lost much of the faith I once had in the consequences of asking only the professional educational investigator to study the schools and to recommend what they should do. Incorporating these recommendations into the behaviour pattern of practioners involve some problems that so far have been insoluble... . These studies must be undertaken by those who may have to change as a result of the studies—singly and in groups they must use their imaginations, creativity and constructivity to identify the practices that must be changed to meet the needs and demand of modern life, courageously try out these practices that give better promise and methodically and systematically gather evidence to test their worth. This is the process I call action research. I hold no special brief for the same. What I will talk about is research that is undertaken by educational practitioners because they believe, by doing so, they can make better decision and engage in better actions.

The question arises from where Buckingham (1926) and Corey (1953) might have taken the clue for proposing the concept of action research. It is possible that they have drawn the ideas from

organizational or social psychology. Organizational psychology for the organization of human resources reveals that the workers or the personnel attached with an organization can work more effectively if they are given opportunities to study and solve the ongoing problems concerning their work environment. Similarly, a society or group may function more effectively if the individuals singly and in groups come forward to study and solve their problems with their own efforts. However, whatever may be the basis of their inspiration, the concept of action research introduced by the founders has been a subject of great interest right from late 1930 onwards.

Goals or Objectives The main goals or objectives for carrying out action research are: To improve the practices going on in the schools. To remove the notion that educational research is the job of specialists only. To make teachers and the educational administrators researchminded. To develop in the practitioners the required confidence and ability to carry out research for solving their own problems. To make the students, teachers and the educational administrators more conscious about their problems and immediate solutions. To make the school or educational personnel more cooperative and democratic in their work. To make the environment of the school more conducive for effective teaching and learning.

Characteristics

On the basis of what has been said so far, we may be able to summarize the main features and characteristics of action research: Action research is focused on the immediate problems and their solutions within the available resources. It is not concerned with the building of theories, broad generalizations and principles. It aims to improve the practices or work conditions of the people who conduct such researches. It involves little efforts, resources and finances in comparison to fundamental or pure researches. The person who conducts the research and applies its findings is the one and the same. It inculcates a spirit and an ability in the practitioners to improve their practices. Its main purpose is to create such healthy and proper conditions and environment as to facilitate better teaching as well as learning for the maximum welfare of the students.

Action Research-procedure Action research is conducted by passing through some of the following specific stages and steps: 1. Identification of the problem 2. Listing the probable causes of the problem 3. Analysing the probable causes and formulation of action hypotheses 4. Action programme 5. Evaluation of the action programme 6. Follow-up and communicating the findings to others. Let us illustrate the procedure of action research by following the above steps through some examples.

Example 1: Action research for doing away with the habit of copying on the part of the students

Step 1 Identification and specification of the problem: A mathematics teacher at the time of practice and drillwork finds that some of the students are not able to solve the problems in spite of the fact that (i) the topic has been taught to them in the class. (ii) the problems have already been assigned to them in the form of home assignments to provide opportunity for practice work. (iii) while checking the home assignments, the teacher has found that they have correctly solved the problems. The teacher goes deep in the problem. How have they been able to solve these problems in their home assignment? He asks some basic questions pertaining to the solution of these problems and finds that the students really do not possess the basic knowledge and skills concerning the solution. He ultimately finds that the students have copied the solution from some help books and keys. The problem is thus identified and can be further specified as: “Copying of the solution of the problems of mathematics given as home assignment from help books and keys by some students of IX class.”

Step 2 Listing the probable causes of problems: The possible causes concerning the problem can be listed as: 1. The sums are given only from the textbooks for which readymade solutions are available in the keys or help books. 2. The students are afraid of punishment. 3. The students are shirkers; they do not want to tax their brains.

4. Lack of reasoning and problem solving ability among the students. 5. No proper supervision of homework by the teacher.

Step 3 Analysis of the probable causes and formulation of action hypothesis: From the probable causes, those most relevant to the problem and situation in the school are selected. These will form the action hypotheses. Thus, we can have one or more hypotheses depending upon the nature of the problem and the circumstances in the present problem; for example, one of the hypotheses may run as: “If the problems are constructed by the teacher himself and the solution of the problems is not found in the help books or keys, the habit of copying from help books or keys can be checked.”

Step 4 Action programme: Action programme is the pivot of action research. Here, on the basis of action hypothesis, some action is taken in the prevailing situation and the relevant evidence is gathered. For the present problem, the action plan may go as in Table 14.1.

Step 5 Evaluation of the action programme: After repeating the cycle mentioned of action programme for the number of different topics in the class, the teacher will try to know whether the students have abandoned the habit of copying or not. For this purpose, they will be assigned problem from their textbooks and from the stock of the teacher’s self-made problems. On the basis of this evaluation, the hypothesis framed will be either established or rejected. TABLE 14.1 Programme for action hypothesis

Step 6 Follow-up and communicating the findings to others: The results arrived at, may, then be used by the teacher for bringing improvement in his own practices. He may, thus, gain opportunity for verifying the results of his action research before communicating them to others for similar uses. Example 2: Behaviour modification of some student-teachers who do not give demonstrations to their pupils while teaching science lessons.

Step 1 Identification and specification of the problem: During the practice teaching schedule, it was observed and reported by the supervisors/class teachers/headmasters that some of the student teachers teaching Class X were not using demonstration techniques

for teaching the concept of science. The problem is identified and specified as: “The habit of not using demonstration technique for teaching science to Class X students by some of the student teachers.”

Step 2 Listing of the probable causes: The problem as identified and specified above will be discussed with the fellow teacher educators, methodology experts, science teachers, laboratory assistants, and headmasters of the practising schools. The teacher educator himself will pay attention towards problem for finding out the relevant causes. Gradually, these causes may be listed as: 1. There is no laboratory in the school. 2. Inadequacy of equipment and material in the laboratory. 3. Pupil teachers do not get cooperation from the laboratory staff. 4. Pupil teachers do not possess the necessary demonstration skills. 5. Pupil teachers have not observed demonstration or been guided in the model lessons given by the teacher educators. 6. Pupil teachers are not serious and also do not take much interest in the proper delivery of practice lessons. 7. Pupil teachers are not getting due cooperation and are also fearful of indiscipline on the part of the school children. 8. Pupil teachers are not supervised of their practice lessons properly and do not get sufficient incentive for performing demonstration.

Step 3 Analysis of the probable causes and formulation of action hypothesis: After analyzing the probable causes, the most relevant ones are handled properly by the investigator and, workable in the

prevailing situation, may be selected for the formulation of the following two action hypotheses: Action hypothesis no. 1: If the teacher educators teach about demonstration method and demonstrate it practically while giving model lessons in science, the pupil teachers will acquire necessary knowledge, skill and inspiration for making use of the demonstration in their practice lessons. Action hypothesis no. 2: In the practising school, if the student teachers get proper cooperation from the science teachers and the laboratory staff, they will make use of the demonstration for delivering their practice lessons.

Step 4 Action programme: For the above-formulated action hypothesis, the action programme may run as shown in Table 14.2. TABLE 14.2 Programme for action hypothesis no. 1.

Step 5 Evaluation of the action programme: On the basis of the supervision work done by the teacher educator and the concerned subject teachers as well as the report from the class students and the head of the practising school, attempts will be made to know about use of demonstration technique and the degree of the skill demonstrated by the individual pupil teacher during the practice teaching session. A day-to-day record of the same will help in providing proper feedback for the follow-up action. TABLE 14.3 Programme for action hypothesis no. 2

Step 6 Follow-up and communicating the finding to others: In the light of the evaluation of the action programme, the results and conclusion drawn will be utilized by the teacher educator for bringing desirable modification in the behaviour of his pupil teachers with respect to the use of demonstration technique in science teaching. Being satisfied with the results of his action research, he will try to communicate his findings to the fellow teachers serving in his own or other training colleges.

Significance of Action Research in Teacher Education As emphasized earlier, action research is the research conducted by the practitioners to bring improvement in their practices. On the part of the teachers, we can say that they conduct action research for (i) improving their own teaching, and (ii) bringing the desired modification in the behaviour of their pupils. Similar is the case with a teacher educator. Besides this, a teacher or teacher educator may conduct action research in bringing improvement in the performance of the task or duties assigned to him other than teaching and behaviour modification. The knowledge and skills relating to carrying out action research may be properly learnt by a teacher during the in-service or preservice teacher education provided to him. It makes the inclusion of action research in any course of teacher education a very necessary phenomenon. Perhaps, this is why you as a teacher trainee are going through these pages and it has been included as one of the topics in the compulsory paper of your teacher education curriculum. Surely, it will be going to help you in acquainting with the necessary knowledge and skills required for carrying out action research in your personal life. What will you study here in the topic action research may also acquaint you with its global significance in the field of your professional life in the following manners: 1. Action research dispels the fear that research is only a job of highly qualified persons. It has caused to develop problem awareness among the teachers and administrators and has made them research minded by developing a scientific and objective attitude. Also, it has given them necessary training in scientific method for solving their problems.

2. Most of the research works done by professional students of educational research are not noticed by the workers engaged in their respective duties in the actual field of education. A person who faces the problems should be given an opportunity to discover the solution of these problems in the prevailing conditions. Action research provides a systematic study carried out on the spot in the natural conditions of the problems felt and the effect of the changes introduced by the actual practitioners. Thus, it gives them opportunity to test their beliefs and to take advantage of their own experiences. 3. Action research improves the quality of teaching-learning process without involving extra financial expenditure. It has given the earliest solution of the day-to-day classroom and administrative problems. Also, it needs no special arrangement and creation of artificial conditions. Normal functioning of school work does not need to be disturbed in carrying out this research. 4. Action research is a sort of cooperative enterprise that involves teachers, administrators, supervisors, pupils, parents, etc. All join their hands to bring improvement in education. It gives birth to cooperative feeling and develops love and mutual understanding among the different partners of the teachinglearning process. 5. The working of the present day schools has been so mechanical and of routine nature that the teachers fear to take any progressive step. Action research can help in improving such an atmosphere. It will certainly reduce wastage and stagnation in the teaching-learning process by developing a progressive outlook and bringing flexibility in the school programme. Filled up with such strong notion and understanding about the significance and use of action research in your professional life, the

knowledge and skills acquired by you as a teacher trainee will in fact, be an asset to you. In the true sense, it is that which is aimed by the inclusion of action research in any programme of teacher education.

SUMMARY 1. Action research stands for relatively a new approach and attitude towards conducting research in the area of educational researches on the part of the persons associated with the management of the processes of education. In the school situations it concerns itself with the immediate problem faced by the teachers and administrators. It helps them make judgment and engage in better practices on their respective jobs. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that action research is the research by the practitioner (teacher or administrator), of the practitioner, and for the practitioner. In its nature, operation, and applicability, action research differs significantly from the traditional researches such as Fundamental Research and Experimental Research. 2. Fundamental research can be stated as a pure research. Its purpose is to develop theories by discovering broad generalization and principles. It has little to do with the application of findings. Such type of research work is usually undertaken by the research scholars or doctoral candidates. Action research, on the other hand, focuses its attention on the solution of the immediate problems faced by the teachers, supervisors or administrators who while performing their duties improve their practices. Moreover, it does not involve so much complexity in its operation as fundamental research. It can be easily understood and undertaken by an average teacher with a little conscious effort on his part. 3. Experimental research also is undertaken by scholars and experts well versed in the art and science of undertaking

researches. In it, one has to work under carefully controlled conditions and to observe and analyze what will be done or what will occur in such conditions. But in action research, one has neither to create some artificial conditions nor to disturb the normal class routine that very often happens in case of experimental projects. In this way, in comparison to experimental research, action research is more simple, flexible and practicable that can be conducted even by ordinary teachers in the prevailing circumstances. 4. Historically, the concept of action research was first introduced in 1926 by Buckingham in his book “Research for Teachers”. However, it was Stephen M. Corey who tried to provide it a solid foundation in 1953 through his book “Action Research to Improve School Practices”. 5. The main objective of carrying action research is to make the practitioners (teachers and administrators) more conscious about their problems and to seek their immediate solution with their own efforts by engaging in the necessary task of action research. 6. Action research is conducted by passing through some specific stages and steps such as (i) identification of the problem, (ii) listing the probable causes of the problem, (iii) analyzing the probable causes and formulation of action-hypotheses, (iv) action programme, (v) evaluation of the action programme, and (vi) follow-up and communicating the findings to others. 7. The inclusion of action research in all the courses and curriculum meant for the pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes is quite enough to justify its need and importance for the school teachers. The knowledge and competency about conducting action research gained by the teacher trainees may prove quite useful to them in (i) dispelling the fear that the research is only a job of the research workers

and persons of some different nature, (ii) creating problem awareness among them as the practitioners, and (iii) enabling them to undertake action research programmes for seeking immediate solution to their problems, (iv) making desired improvement in their own teaching, and (v) bringing desired modification in the behaviour of their pupils.

STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What is action research? Justify its need in the field of education. 2. Define the term action research and clarify its concept. 3. Throw light on the historical evolution of action research. 4. Point out the main goals or objectives of action research and throw light on its features and characteristics. 5. How is action research different from fundamental research? Explain. 6. How does action research differ from experimental research? Explain. 7. Explain with examples the various steps related to action research. 8. Illustrate with an example the procedure of conducting action research for the solution of an educational problem. 9. “Action research is the research of the practitioner, by the practitioner, and for the practitioner.” Discuss this statement. 10. Prepare a detailed action research plan for the solution of the following classroom problems: (a) Improving writing or pronunciation of the English language. (b) Stealing habits of some students of Class VI. (c) Weaknesses and deficiencies of the students in drawing geometrical figures.

(d) Disinterest of the science students in laboratory work. (e) Truancy of some students of Class IX. (f) The habit of pupil teachers not to make use of demonstration while teaching science lessons.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Best, John W., Research in Education, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963, p.10. Buckingham, B.R., Reserach for Teachers, New York: Silver, Burdette and Company, 1926. Corey, Stephen M., Action Research to Improve School Practices, New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1953. Corey, S.M., Research in Education (Bulletin), New Delhi: NCERT, 1962, p.17. Good, C.V., Dictionary of Education, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959, p. 464. Mouly, George J., The Science of Educational Research (Indian ed.), New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House, 1964, p. 406.

15 Micro-Teaching Learning to teach successfully is like learning to drive a car or learning of any other complicated performance. Likewise, a teacher should practise and develop various skills and operations involved in the task of teaching.

— D.L. COOK CHAPTER OUTLINE Meaning and Definitions Micro-teaching Procedure: An Indian Model Advantages of Micro-teaching Identification of Teaching Skills Practising of Teaching Skills through Micro-teaching Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Meaning and Definitions Various research workers and writers have defined micro-teaching in a number of ways. Let us reproduce here a few important definitions. D.W. Allen (1966): Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in class size and time. Allen and Eve (1968): Micro-teaching is defined as a system of controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behaviour and to practice teaching under controlled conditions.

R.N. Bush (1968): Micro-teaching is a teacher education technique which allows teachers to apply clearly defined teaching skills in carefully prepared lessons in a planned series of five to ten minute encounters with a small group of real students, often with an opportunity to observe the result on video tape. McAleese and Unwin (1970): The term micro-teaching is most often applied to the use of closed circuit television to give immediate feedback of a trainee teacher’s performance in a simplified environment. Clift and other (1976): Micro-teaching is a teaching training procedure which reduces the teaching situation to a simple and more controlled encounter achieved by limiting the practice teaching to a specific skill and reducing teaching time and class size. B.K. Passi and M.S. Lalita (1976): Micro-teaching is a training technique which requires student teacher to teach a single concept using specified teaching skill to a small number of pupils in a short duration of time. L.C. Singh (1977): Micro-teaching is a ‘scaled down teaching encounter’ in which a teacher teaches a small unit to a group of five pupils for a small period of five to twenty minutes. Such a situation offers a helpful setting for an experienced or inexperienced teacher to acquire new teaching skills and refine old ones. N.K. Jangira and Azit Singh (1982): Micro-teaching is a training setting for the student teacher where complexities of the normal classroom teaching are reduced by: practising one competent skill at a time, limiting the content to a single concept, reducing the size to 10–15 pupils, and reducing the duration of the lesson to 5–10 minutes. The above definitions lead us to the following conclusions about the nature and characteristics of micro-teaching: 1. It is relatively a new experience or innovation in the field of teacher education, more specifically in student teaching. 2. It is a training technique and not a teaching technique. In other words, it is a technique or design used for the training of teachers (or make them learn the art of teaching). It is not a method of classroom

instruction or teaching like inductive-deductive, demonstration or question-answer method. 3. It is micro- or miniaturized teaching in the sense that it scales down the complexities of real teaching with the provisions such as: (i) Practising one skill at a time. (ii) Reducing the class size to 5–10 pupils. (iii) Reducing duration of the lesson to 5–10 minutes. (iv) Limiting the content to a single concept. 4. There is provision of adequate feedback in micro-teaching as it provides trainees due information about their performances immediately after the completion of their lesson. 5. Teaching is said to be composed of very specific skills. These skills cannot be mastered through the traditional approach to teacher training. Micro-teaching provides opportunity to select one skill at a time and practise it through its scaled down encounter and then take other in a similar way. 6. Micro-teaching is a highly individualized training device permitting the imposition of a high degree of control in practising a particular skill. Looking at the above characteristics and features, the term microteaching may be defined appropriately as a technique or device of imparting training to the inexperienced or experienced teachers for learning the art of teaching by practising specific skills through a “scaled down teaching encounter”, i.e. reducing the complexities of real normal teaching in terms of size of the class, time and content.

Micro-Teaching procedure: An Indian Model Micro-teaching as a training technique involves three phases (Clift, et al., 1976) presented in the figure given below: In view of the phases given in Fig. 15.1, a standard procedure of microteaching conducted in a teacher training course may involve the following steps. These are discussed in view of the conditions and situations available in our country.

Figure 15.1 Phases of micro-teaching.

1. Orientation: In the beginning, the student teacher should be given necessary theoretical background about micro-teaching by having a free and fair discussion of the following aspects: • Concept • Significance or rationale of using micro-teaching • Procedure • Requirements and setting for adopting micro-teaching technique. 2. Discussion of teaching skills: Under this step, the knowledge and understanding about the following aspects is to be developed: • Analysis of teaching into component teaching skills. • Discussion of the rationale and role of teaching skills in teaching. • Discussion about the component teaching behaviour comprising various teaching skills. 3. Selection of a particular teaching skill: The teaching skills are to be practised by taking them one at a time. Therefore, the student teachers are persuaded to select a particular skill for practice. They are also provided with necessary orientation and processing material for the practice. Most of such material may be found in the literature available with NCERT. The student teacher may be given a necessary background for the observation of a model or demonstration lesson on the selected teaching skill.

4. Presentation of a model demonstration lesson: Here, a demonstration or model lesson for the use of the selected teaching skill is presented before the trainees. This is also termed as “modelling”, i.e. demonstration of the desired behaviours in relation to a skill for imitation by the observer. Depending on the availability of the resources and the type of skill involved, demonstration or model lesson can be given in a number of ways: • Providing written material such as handbook, guides, illustrations, and video tape. • Exhibiting a film or videotape. • Making the trainees listen to an audiotape. • Arranging a demonstration from a live model, i.e. a teacher educator or an expert demonstrating the use of the skill. 5. Observation of the model lesson and criticism: What is read, viewed, listened and observed through a modelling source here is carefully analyzed by the trainee. In a demonstration given by an expert or teacher educator, the student teachers are expected to note down their observations. An observation schedule especially designed for the observation of the specific skill is distributed among the trainees and they are also trained in its use beforehand. Such an observation of the model lesson and its relevant criticism provide desired feedback to the person giving the model lesson. 6. Preparation of micro lesson plan: Under this step, the student teachers are required to prepare micro-lesson plans by selecting proper concept for the practice of demonstrated skill. For their preparation, help may be taken from the teacher educators and the sample lessons available in NCERT. 7. Creation of micro-teaching setting: The following is the standard setting for a micro-class: (i) Number of pupils: 5–10. (ii) Types of pupils: Real pupils or preferably peers. (iii) Types of supervisor: Teacher educators and peers. (iv) Time duration of a micro lesson: 6 minutes. (v) Time duration of a micro-teaching cycle: 36 minutes. This duration is divided as:

8. Practice of the skill (teaching session): Here, the student teacher teaches his prepared micro lesson for 6 minutes (prescribed time schedule for teach-session) a micro-class consisting of 5–10 real pupils or peers (Student teachers). It is supervised by the teacher educator and peers both with the help of appropriate observation schedule. Where possible, the student teacher may also have his lesson taped on a video or audio tape. 9. Providing feedback: The greatest advantage of micro-teaching lies in providing immediate feedback to the student teacher on his teaching performance demonstrated in his micro-lesson. The feedback is provided in terms of his use of component teaching behaviours emphasizing the skill under practice so that he may be able to modify them in the desired direction. This feedback in the Indian situation may be properly provided by the peers and teacher educators observing micro-lesson. Where possible, help may be taken from the mechanical gadgets like videotape, audio tape, and closed circuit television. 10. Re-planning (re-plan session): In view of the feedback received from the different sources, the student teacher tries to re-plan his microlesson. He is provided 12 minutes time for this purpose. 11. Re-teaching (re-teach session): In this session of 6 minutes, the student teacher re-teaches his micro-lesson on the basis of the preprepared plan and re-arranged setting. 12. Providing re-feedback (re-feedback session): On the basis of his performance in the re-taught micro-lesson, the student teacher is provided re-feedback in the way outlined earlier.

13. Repetition of the micro-teaching cycle: A micro-teaching cycle used to practice a teaching skill consists of planning, teaching, feedback, re-planning, and re-feedback operations as shown in Fig. 15.2. The micro-teaching cycle is repeated and the student teacher is required to re-plan and re-teach his lesson till he attains mastery over the skill under practice.

Figure 15.2 A micro-teaching cycle.

14. Integration of teaching skills: The last step is concerned with the task of integrating various teaching skills individually mastered by a student teacher. This helps in bridging a gap between training in

isolated teaching skills and the real teaching situation faced by a student teacher.

Advantages of Micro-Teaching In the Indian context, micro-teaching has the following advantages over the traditional methods of learning the art of teaching: 1. In our traditional mode of teacher training, a great dependence is observed on the availability of pupils, classrooms and cooperation from the staff of the practising schools. The micro-teaching approach incorporating simulating technique helps a training institution in overcoming the hardships faced in the task of organizing students teaching. 2. The global concept of teaching is replaced by the analytical concept in micro-teaching approach. Here, complex task of teaching is looked upon as a set of simpler skills comprising specific classroom behaviours. This helps in the proper understanding of the meaning and concept of the term teaching. 3. Micro-teaching helps in reducing the complexities of the normal classroom teaching. It is a scaled down or miniaturized classroom teaching as it reduces the size of the class and duration of the lesson and provides proper opportunities for practising one component teaching skill at a time by using single concept of the content. 4. In micro-teaching, the student teacher concentrates on practising a specific and well defined teaching skill consisting of a set of teacher behaviours that are observable, controllable and practicable. Consequently, it provides a more appropriate technique of learning the art of teaching (although mastering one teaching skill at a time) than the traditional programme. 5. Micro-teaching helps in the systematic and objective observation by providing a specific observation schedule. 6. Micro-teaching works as a laboratory exercise to focus training on the acquisition of teaching skills and instructional techniques. Here, a trainee can experiment with several alternatives in a limited time and resources. It is just like learning the art of operating human body

parts in a medical laboratory by a student doctor before actually operating a patient. 7. Micro-teaching provides economy in mastering the teaching skills. It saves the time and energy of the student teacher as well as of the pupils. It is not only easy for a student teacher to handle a microgroup (5–10 pupils) but it is also safe because they will have less problems of classroom discipline and subsequent mental tension as faced commonly in the traditional practice teaching programme. It also saves the pupils from being unnecessarily used as guinea pigs for training student teachers. 8. A major advantage of micro-teaching lies in the provision of immediate, systematic, pin-pointed, and objective feedback in behavioural terms. In the traditional teaching practice, it is usually given in global terms such as ‘improve handwriting’ and ‘seek pupil’s participation’ after the lapse of a lot of time. 9. Micro-teaching caters to the need of individual differences in the training of teachers. Here an individual trainee may work for the development of teaching skills at his own rate depending on his teaching abilities. 10. Unlike traditional practice, it focuses on the modification of teacher behaviour and improvement of interaction process involved in the teaching-learning process. So, we can easily conclude that micro-teaching may be described as an effective, well managed and controlled device of learning the art of teaching. However, it is not free from criticism. It is generally argued that microteaching presents fragmented view of teaching. It may enable a student teacher to seek mastery over the isolated teaching skills but hardly trains him to meet the needs of the real teacher encounter. This objection may be ruled out by incorporating in the scheme of micro-teaching the concept of integration of teaching skill and mini-teaching. The other problems regarding the availability of pupils, space for conducting micro-teaching programme, and supervision of micro-lesson can also be handled by thinking possible alternatives just as the use of peers as pupils and training student teacher themselves as peer supervisors.

Identification of Teaching Skills The analytical concept of teaching considers teaching as a complex skill comprising various specific teaching skills. Those teaching skills can be defined as a set of interrelated component teaching behaviours for the realization of specific instructional objectives. These may be modified through the exercise done in micro-teaching and thus a student teacher may be able to acquire necessary teaching skills for becoming an effective teacher. Now the questions arise are: What are those specific teaching skills that are associated with the complex task of teaching? In how many components or constituents can the task of teaching be broken or analyzed”? What are those skills described as teaching skills that lead towards effective and efficient teaching? Answers of these questions lead us to engage in the task of identification of teaching skills. The research workers in the areas of teacher effectiveness, analysis of teaching, psychology of learning and teaching, observation of teaching, and organization of student teaching, etc. have tried to identify several sets of component teaching skills. A number of these skills are common with a little different terminology and associated teaching behaviours. While Allen and Ryan (1969) have listed fourteen teaching skills, Borg and his associates (1970) have increased the number to 18. In India, Passi (1976), on the basis of work done in CASE, Baroda, has given a list of 21 skills, whereas Jangira and Singh (1982) have listed them as 20. The list provided above is not exhausted and conclusive. We can add or subtract some or the other skills depending upon the desired teaching competency and the prevailing situations for our micro-teaching programme. However, a list of probable teaching skills required at different stages of lesson is given in Table 15.1. Essentials of Educational Technology TABLE 15.1 Component teaching skills associated with different stages of a lesson

Practising Teaching Skills through MicroTeaching Micro-teaching primary aims at the development of component teaching skills involved in the complex task of teaching. How can these skills be developed is a quite technical question? The general procedure involved in this technique used for practising individual (component) teaching skills has been described earlier. However, each skill involves its own component

behaviours and thus needs somewhat a special dealing for its practice and development. Now we would like to illustrate the process of developing teaching skills by dealing with a few important skills.

Skill of Introducing the Lesson Meaning of the skill The skill of introducing the lesson may be defined as proficiency in the use of verbal and nonverbal behaviours, teaching aids and appropriate devices for making the pupils realize the need of studying the lesson by establishing positive and affective rapport with them. This skill involves the following component behaviours: (i) The student teacher is able to utilize previous knowledge and experiences of his pupils. (ii) He is able to maintain continuity of the ideas and information in the introduction of a lesson.

Components In this way, utilization of previous experiences, and appropriate devices, maintenance of continuity in the main parts of the introduction and relevancy of the verbal and non-verbal behaviours are the major component behaviours or constituents of the skill of introducing lesson. 1. Utilization of previous experiences: One cannot teach in vacuum. The new learning is to be based or completed with the help of previous learning, knowledge or experiences acquired through formal or informal education and direct or indirect experiences. A teacher has to acquire the art of utilizing such knowledge and experiences, and has to take care of the following things: (i) Knowledge of the subject or subjects acquired by the pupils in the previous classes or days of the present session. (ii) General awareness of the pupils with their physical and social environment. (iii) The devices and techniques of exploring the previous knowledge.

(iv) The techniques of establishing link between the previous and the new knowledge. (v) The ability of creating situations in the class for the utilization of previous experiences. 2. Use of appropriate devices/techniques: A teacher should essentially acquire the ability of using appropriate devices or techniques for introducing a lesson. The various devices used for this purpose include: (i) questioning, (ii) narration, description or lecturing, (iii) story telling, (iv) using audio-visual aids, (v) demonstration or experimentation, (vi) dramatization or roleplaying, (vii) visits or excursions, and (viii) use of examples, analogies and similarities. 3. Maintenance of continuity: Proper introduction requires continuity in the ideas or information presented to the pupils. There should be a logical sequence between the main parts of the introduction. One question/statement or activity on the part of the teacher should lead to the other related ones in a chain of continuity creating the need of studying the lesson. What is done at a particular moment should be properly related to pupil’s previous response and it should be properly linked with the preceding activity of the teacher himself. 4. Relevancy of verbal or non-verbal behaviour: A teacher should try to observe relevancy in his behaviour. What is to be stated, asked, demonstrated, dramatized, or illustrated should contribute maximum towards the introduction of lesson in some of the following ways: (i) Testing of the previous knowledge. (ii) Utilization of the past experiences. (iii) Establishing cognitive and affective rapport with the pupils. (iv) Making the pupils feel the need of studying the lesson. (v) Pinpointing the aims of lesson. For providing feedback on the teaching performance, the micro-lesson given by a trainee is supervised by the fellow trainees or teacher educator. For the purpose of obtaining objectivity and reliability in the observation process, it is always better to lay down an observation schedule and get the supervisors trained in its use.

The observation schedule-cum-rating scale for the skill of introducing a lesson may consist of three columns. The first column indicates the tallies against the occurrence of the different component behaviours of the skill. The second column specifies the components of the skill. The third one contains a seven-point rating scale for each of the components. It is being illustrated in the proforma given below: TABLE 15.2 Observation schedule-cum-rating scale for the skill of introducing lesson

Model micro-lesson for the skill of introducing lesson

(Showing the cardboard cylinder in Fig. 15.3.)

Figure 15.3 A cardboard cylinder.

Announcement of the topic : Well boys, today we will learn to find out the area of such cylindrical figures.

Another model Micro-lesson for the skill of introducing lesson

Announcement of the topic: Well boys, we will today learn about the rule and policies of Aurangzeb responsible for the downfall of the Mughal empire.

Skill of Explaining Meaning of the skill A teacher has to learn the skill of explaining in order to make the pupils understand many ideas, concepts or principles that need explanation. Explanation is nothing but a few interrelated appropriate statements. Thus, the skill of explaining may be defined as the art of learning the use of interrelated appropriate statements by the teacher for making the pupils understand the desired concept, phenomenon or principle. It is, by all means, a verbal skill and has two main aspects: (i) The selection of appropriate statements relevant to the age, maturity, previous knowledge, and content of the concept or phenomenon.

(ii) The skill of interrelating and using the selected statements for the proper understanding of the concept or phenomenon. The statements are generally of three types: the descriptive, the interpretive, and the reason giving (usually meant for answering the questions: how, what and why of concept or phenomenon or principle).

Components of the skill The skill of explaining a concept or phenomenon consists of two types of behaviour— desirable and undesirable. In the practice of the skill, the occurrence of the desirable behaviour is to be increased whereas that of the undesirable behaviours is to be decreased and extinguished. These behaviours are summarized in Table 15.3. TABLE 15.3 Components of the skill of explaining

Let us now understand the meaning of these component behaviours. Desirable behaviours 1. Using appropriate beginning and concluding statements: The beginning statement is an opening statement announcing what is going to be explained by the teacher. It prepares the pupil mentally to receive the explanation. On the other hand, the concluding statements are made after the end of the explanation in order to summarize or conclude the whole explanation. 2. Using explaining links: The explaining links in the form of words and phrases are meant for establishing links or continuity in the statements used for explaining a concept, phenomenon or principle. Some of these linking words and phrases generally used for explaining are: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, since, because,

so that, in spite of, as a result of, the function of, the purpose of, the cause of, due to, that is why, this is how, in order to, in order that, on the other hand, why, while, etc. 3. Covering essential points: The explanation given for the understanding of a given concept or principle should be as complete as possible. The completeness is determined by the scope of the concept or principle as specified in the instructional objectives. It should aim for covering all the essential points leading to clear understanding of the desired concept or principle. 4. Testing pupil’s understanding: This involves asking appropriate questions to the pupils to ascertain whether the purpose of explaining the concept or principle has been achieved or not. Undesirable behaviours 1. Using irrelevant statements: This behaviour covers the statements not related to the concept or principle being explained. These statements, instead of helping the pupils to understand the concept, create confusion and distract the attention of the pupils. 2. Lacking continuity in statements: It involves a missing link or break in the logical sequence of the interrelated statement by the teacher for explaining a concept or phenomenon. 3. Lacking fluency: Fluency relates to the flow of uninterrupted statements for explaining a concept or principle. In case a teacher lacks fluency, he may be seen to show the following types of behaviours: (i) Does not speak clearly, (ii) Utters incomplete or half sentences, (iii) Tries to reformulate or correct his statements midway of a sentence or a statement, (iv) Uses fumbling ideas or inappropriate words or statements. 4. Using inappropriate vocabulary, vague words and phrases: This behaviour consists of the following aspects: (i) Use of vocabulary not known to pupils or inappropriate to their age, grade and maturity level.

(ii) Use of certain vague words and phrases (such as, in fact, somewhat, you see, you know, I mean, actually, probably, perhaps, and almost a little) obstructing the understanding of an explanation. TABLE 15.4 Observation schedule-cum-rating scale for the skill of explaining

Model micro-lesson for the skill of explanation

Teacher: Students, in the previous lesson, you have studied the concept of universe. Actually, nobody knows how big the universe is or whether it has any limits. The solar system, stars and galaxies are the important constituents of the universe. Today, we shall study about galaxies. A galaxy is a vast collection of stars, dust and hydrogen gas. The solar system—our own Sun and its family of planets—belongs to a particular galaxy known as the Milky Way. In this way, our Sun and its family constitute a small fraction of a galaxy.

For a long time, astronomers called Milky Way “The galaxy”. But it is by no means the only galaxy in the universe. There are million others. One of the most famous “the Andromeda galaxy” can be seen with the naked eye. It is two million light years away from our own. You can well imagine the magnitude of this long distance if you have remembered that it takes only 8 minutes and 30 seconds for the light to travel from the sun to the earth. So, there are millions and millions of galaxies in the universe, each of them containing millions of stars and their families like our sun and its family. Let me ask now you a few questions—What is a galaxy? Pupil 1: It is a vast collection of stars, dust and hydrogen. Teacher: Tell me something about the Milky Way galaxy. Pupil 2: The Milky Way galaxy is that galaxy which contains our own sun and its family of planets including our earth. Teacher: Good, can you tell me something about the famous galaxy that can be seen with the naked eye? Pupil 3: The name of the famous galaxy is Andromeda. It is two million light years away from us.

Skill of Illustrating with Examples Meaning of the skill Many times, a teacher feels difficulty in making the pupils understand an abstract idea, concept or principle despite the best explanation, lecturing or description on his part. He may then resort to the following process: 1. He begins with an example and tries to illustrate the abstract idea, concept or principle with the help of it. 2. He repeats the process of illustration by giving various other examples. 3. He helps the students generalize or infer a rule or principle. 4. He asks the students to give examples related to the generalized concept, rule or principle and thus tries to verify whether the students have understood the concept or principle.

This process is concerned with the use of the skill of illustrating with examples. The examples are nothing but the situations or objects illustrating the occurrence or application of an idea, concept or principle. The medium and ways of illustrating with examples may cover: giving analogy; telling story or incidents; showing objects, models, pictures, diagrams, maps, charts, etc.; and demonstrating experiments based on the pupils’ experiences, etc. The proper use of examples, in any way, necessitates to learn it as a skill and thus the skill of illustrating with examples may then be defined as the art of judicious selection and proper presentation of suitable examples in order to generate a concept, idea or principle with a view to its understanding and proper application.

Components of the skill The main components of the skill of illustrating with examples can be: 1. Working out relevant examples. 2. Formulating simple examples. 3. Formulating interesting examples. 4. Using appropriate media for examples. 5. Making use of the inductive-deductive approach. Let us now understand the meaning and nature of these components, in brief. 1. Formulating relevant examples: An example is said to be relevant when it is related to the concept or principle being explained and helps effectively in its proper understanding. 2. Formulating simple examples: These are those examples based on the pupil’s past experiences and that suit their level of maturity. Whether a teacher is putting simple example or not can be judged through (i) the level of participation of the pupils, and (ii) the correctness or relevancy of their responses to the questions put by him in presenting or making use of them. 3. Formulating interesting examples: An example is said to be interesting when it is capable or capturing and maintaining the attention, interest and curiosity of the pupils for the proper understanding of an idea, concept or principle. In what type of examples the pupils should be interested depends

upon their age, maturity and past experience. Whether a teacher is putting interesting examples or not can be judged through the overt behaviour of the pupils and overall classroom environment and management. 4. Using appropriate media for examples: The examples are conveyed to the pupils through some particular media, verbal or non-verbal, like story telling, analogy, concrete objects, maps, pictures, models and experimental demonstration. Whatever form or kind of the media is selected by the teacher for developing examples, it should be quite appropriate from the viewpoints of (i) the units or lesson taught, (ii) the age, grade and maturity levels of the pupil, and (iii) the past experiences of the pupil. 5. Making use of the inductive-deductive approach: The skill of illustrating with examples involves two aspects (i) understanding a concept or establishing a rule/principle, and (ii) using or applying the established or understood rule, principle or concept. While the former can be properly realized through inductive approach, the deductive approach helps in latter. The task of illustrating with examples required the use of both approaches, hence a teacher should try to learn the use of a combination of inductive and deductive approaches for the development of the skill. The observation schedule-cum-rating scale may consist of five components as illustrated in Table 15.5. TABLE 15.5 Observation schedule-cum-rating scale for the skill of illustrating with examples.

Model micro lesson for the skill of illustrating with examples

Skill of Stimulus Variation Meaning of the skill

Generally, a teacher makes use of an appropriate stimulus for evoking the desired response/ responses. However, a continued use of such stimulus may induce disinterest and inattention on account of may physiological and psychological factors. The stimulus variation, i.e. variation or change in the stimuli available in the learner’s environment, provides an answer. Thus, the skill of stimulus variation may be defined as a set of behaviours for bringing the desirable change of variation in the stimuli used to secure and sustain pupils’ attention towards classroom activities.

Components of the skill The skill of introducing change or variation in the attention capturing stimuli in a classroom comprises the following component behaviours: (i) movements, (ii) gestures, (iii) changes in voice, (iv) focusing, (v) change in the interaction styles, (vi) pausing, (vii) aural–visual switching, and (viii) physical involvement of the students. Let us know the meaning of these components. Movements: The moving objects are capable of capturing more attention than those nonmoving or static. Therefore, the movement of the teacher in the class carries wide significance in securing and sustaining the pupils’ attention. However, all types of movements do not bring positive results. So, a teacher while practising the skill of stimulus variation should learn to make well-planned, meaningful movements. Gestures: These are non-verbal cues provided in the oral message given by the teacher for enhancing the value of the message. They are usually made with the help of eye, hand, head, body movements, facial expression, such as extending the hands in a typical shape to indicate how big or small an object is. Change in voice: This attention-capturing behaviour of the teacher is related to the art of bringing appropriate variation or change in the tone, pitch or speed of his voice. Focusing: It refers to the behaviours that help in focusing the pupil’s attention on a particular object, word, idea, rule or generalization. Such behaviours may take the following forms:

1. Use of verbal statements like “look here in this map”, and “it is important to note”. 2. Use of gestures. 3. Use of both verbal statements and gestures. Change in interaction styles: The communication process going inside the classroom is termed as interaction. There are three main styles of this interaction: 1. Teacher-group interaction (teacher conveys and gets response from the class or group as a whole.) 2. Teacher-pupils interaction (Here, a teacher employs many pupils in a dialogue without doing direct discussion.) 3. Pupil-pupil interaction (Here, the teacher communicates with an individual pupil.) For bringing effectiveness in teaching a teacher should learn the art of bringing variation in interaction styles. Pausing: Pausing refers to the behaviour related with introducing silence during talk. A pause of approximately three seconds is regarded as quite effective in securing and sustaining pupils’ attention. Aural-visual switching: This behaviour refers to the introduction of the change or variation in the use of medium e.g. (i) From aural to visual, (ii) From visual to aural or a combination of aural and visual. Physical involvement of the students: This behaviour involves the introduction of the change or variation in the types, forms and styles of the physical involvement of the pupils in the class. Sometimes, they may be engaged in dramatizing and other times in writing on the blackboard, participating in the demonstration or handling some instrument or aid material, etc. TABLE 15.6 Observation schedule-cum-rating scale for the skill of stimulus variation

Model Micro-lesson plan for practising skill of stimulus variation

Figure 15.4 Crossroads.

Skill of Reinforcement Meaning of the skill Reinforcement as a technique belongs to the area of psychology of learning and helps in influencing the response or behaviours of the learners. There are two types of reinforcement: (i) positive and (ii) negative. While the use of the former (providing pleasant experiences) contributes towards strengthening the desirable responses or behaviours, the latter (providing unpleasant experiences) is used for weakening or eliminating the undesirable responses or behaviours. For

better results, the use of positive reinforcement is to be increased while that of negative reinforcement is to be decreased or eliminated. In view of the above discussion, the skill of reinforcement may be defined as the art of learning the judicious and effective use of reinforcement by a teacher for influencing the pupils’ behaviour in the desired direction towards maximum pupils’ participation for realizing the better results in the teaching-learning process.

Components The skill of reinforcement has the following components: 1. Desirable behaviours (i) Use of positive verbal reinforcers (ii) Use of positive non-verbal reinforcers (iii) Use of extra-verbal reinforcers. 2. Undesirable behaviours (i) Use of negative verbal reinforcers (ii) Use of negative non-verbal reinforcers (iii) Inappropriate or wrong use of reinforcement Let us understand the meaning of these components. Desirable behaviours 1. Use of positive verbal reinforcers: Positive verbal reinforcers refer to those verbal behaviours of the teacher that bring positive reinforcement, i.e. increase the chances for the pupils to respond correctly. They may be divided into the following categories: (i) The use of praising words such as good, very good, fine, yes, well done, excellent, right, etc. (ii) The use of statements accepting pupils feelings like “yes, you have judged correctly, now explain it in detail”. (iii) Repeating and rephrasing or summarizing the pupil’s responses. 2. Use of positive non-verbal reinforcers: Positive non-verbal reinforcers refer to all those non-verbal (without words) behaviours of the teacher which bring positive reinforcement. They may be divided into:

(i) Writing the responses on the blackboard. (ii) Use of gestures and other non-verbal actions conveying a pleasant feeling or approval of pupil responses like nodding of head, smiling, clapping, keeping eyes, turning ears or moving towards the responding pupil. 3. Use of extra-verbal reinforcers: This type of reinforcers fall midway between positive verbal and non-verbal reinforcers and consist of such remarks as ‘hm-hm’, ‘Uh-Uh’ or ‘Aaaah’, etc. Undesirable behaviours 1. Use of negative verbal reinforcers: Negative verbal referencers refer to those verbal behaviours of the teacher that bring about negative reinforcement, i.e. decreasing the chances for the pupils to participate in the classroom or respond correctly. Such reinforcers may be categorized as: (i) The use of discouraging words such as ‘no’, ‘wrong’, ‘incorrect’, ‘stop it’, and ‘nonsense’. (ii) The use of discouraging cues and voice tones as ‘humph’ in a sarcastic voice. (iii) The use of discouraging statements, e.g., ‘I do not like what you are doing’, ‘do something else’, ‘that is not good’, and so on. 2. Use of negative non-verbal reinforcers: Negative non-verbal reinforcers are those nonverbal behaviours of the teacher that bring about negative reinforcement. The examples are frowning, raising the eyebrows, disapproving stare, tapping foot impatiently and walking around, etc. 3. Inappropriate or wrong use of reinforcement: Only proper and right use of possible reinforcers brings encouraging results. The following reinforcers belonging to the category of undesirable behaviours should be avoided by the teacher: (i) Using reinforcement when not needed. (ii) Not using reinforcers when needed. (iii) Using reinforcers in a less or excess amount than desired. (iv) Encouraging or reinforcing only a few responding pupils.

In the light of these behaviours, a teacher is required to practice the occurrence of all the desired behaviours and avoidance of the undesired ones. TABLE 15.7 Observation schedule-cum-rating scale for the skill of reinforcement

Model micro-lesson for the skill of reinforcement

Teacher: Yesterday, we were discussing about the land breeze. Can you tell me its definition? Pupil 1: A land breeze is that wind which blows from the land towards the sea.

Teacher: (Teacher noded when the pupil was responding and afterwards writes his response on the blackboard). Can you suggest a definition of the sea breeze in the light of the definition written here? Pupil 2: A sea breeze is that wind which blows from the sea towards the land. Teacher: (Moves nearer to the responding pupil, writes his response and says “very good” after the response and also pats him on his back). Now just see these two definitions on the blackboard. What do you conclude about the nature of these two winds? Geeta, you tell. Geeta: Sir, they are opposite to each other in their functioning and nature. Teacher: (Smiles and nods when Geeta is responding. After the response, he says) You are right, now let us find out how the sea breeze is caused. You have studied that wind blows from the place of high air pressure to the low air pressure in order to equalize the pressure. Now tell me, how this principle may be applied in the case of the blowing of the sea breeze. Pupil: The air pressure on the land must become less than the air pressure on the sea. Teacher: Yes, go on … (moves nearer to the pupil), try further and tell how it should happen. (No response). Teacher: No matter, sit down; I will ask you another question. Meanwhile, Ram, you tell me at what time do we get the sea breeze on the seashore? Ram: During day time, Sir. Teacher: (Keeps his eyes on Ram, while responding). Fine, what should happen to the air above the land and sea at day time, Radha, you tell me? Radha: The air above the land gets heated faster than that on the sea. Teacher: (Keeps eyes on Radha while seeking answer). Good, carry on and explain the creation of the difference in pressure on the land and the sea. Radha: The hot air on the land being lighter rises up and this creates low pressure on the land in comparison to that on the sea.

Teacher: (Teacher puts remarks ‘uh-uh’, carry on, in between the answer. After response he says, excellent and thus pushes out Radha for the answer further). Radha: The cooler air from the sea blows towards the land to equalize the pressure. Teacher: (Listens carefully to Radha, nods and says) Yes, you are right, the sea breeze blows towards the land, the place of high pressure to low pressure at day time.

Skill of Questioning Meaning and definition Putting questions to the students is being practised from the very ancient period for instructional purposes. Before the advent of the printing media, the ancient Gurus used to teach their disciples orally through the questionanswer dialogues. In the modern age, despite so much scientific and technological progress, there is no decrease in the level of the significance and importance of the questioning device in the classroom teaching-learning process, rather it has been upsurged as an urgent necessity for carrying out effectively the classroom interaction process. In addition, the knowledge about the previous awareness and entry behaviour of the students, their interest and attitudes towards the subject and the topic in hand, and even the success of their methodology and techniques adopted by the teacher, including the overall teaching effectiveness very much depend on the art of questioning. In fact, an adequate questioning skill may help him much in carrying out an effective interaction with his students, including motivating and drawing their attention towards teaching. In this way, the whole fabrics of the classroom teaching-learning process is being weaved around the activities associated with the employment of questioning skill on the part of a teacher. Bossing (1942) has rightly remarked on this account that “no teaching method can be successfully carried out without taking cognizance to the art of questioning”. As a result, it is quite essential on the part of a subject teacher for taking active interest in the acquisition of this skill through the application of the micro-teaching training technique. However, for the initiation of such a task,

we must have a clear and concise definition of the term questioning skill in the following words: Questioning skill may be defined as a teaching skill helpful in putting the desired meaningful, clear and concise, grammatically correct, simple and quite straightforward questions to the students in a classroom teaching-learning situation for the purpose of drawing their attention on one or the other teaching points, making them active and alert to the ongoing teaching-learning process, testing their understanding and comprehension at the various stages of the lesson, and motivating as well as providing them opportunity for the proper expression of their thoughts, imagination, recall and recognition and creative and constructive faculties.

Elements or components These may be properly discussed by placing them into their two-fold divisions, namely (i) framing of the questions, and (ii) presentation of them to the students. Framing of questions: Questions can serve their purpose well when they are framed with necessary care and preparation on the part of a teacher by taking cognition of the following things: 1. Relevancy: Questions framed should be quite relevant to the topic being taught. There stands no use of the irrelevant questions being framed and put to the students at any stage of the lesson. Moreover, these may prove a great hindrance in the process of teaching-learning by getting them astray from their learning path or making them unnecessary puzzled and confused for responding properly to them. 2. Clarity: The question should be framed in a simple and clear language. Ambiguity of any kind may kill the very purpose of putting questions. In a case when the students are not able to understand the meaning, nature and motive of the question put to them how they can be expected to respond to it properly. 3. Precision or conciseness: Brevity is said to be the soul of expression. As a result, while framing the questions, due care should be taken for keeping them as precise and brief as possible. For example, it is better to have a question in a precise and concise way like “Name the Mughal Emperor who constructed the Red Fort” instead of its framing as “Can you

tell the name of the Mughal Emperor in whose regime the Red Fort was constructed?” However, it should not also be too brief as to loose its identity of conveying the desired sense, e.g. “Who constructed the Red fort?” 4. Specification: The questions framed should be quite specific and to the point related to the content material presented to the students, the demand of the specific stage of the lesson or the purpose to be served by it So due care should be taken to frame such questions that may allow to ask only one specific thing at a time to the students. It is also proper to frame such questions as to be responded only through a single specific way, i.e. having only one answer for being responded. 5. Grammatically correct: It should be duly cared that the framed question should be grammatically correct. Failure to do so may confuse the students or may not help them in their proper understanding of the nature and meaning of the question. For example, we should try to have a question like “Where was the great Emperor Ashoka born?” instead of a grammatically incorrect question like “Where is the great Emperor Ashoka born?” or “Where has been the great emperor Ashoka born?”. Presentation of questions in the class: The questioning skill asks for the proper presentation of the questions in the class on the part of a subject teacher. It calls usually for paying attention over the following components: 1. Voice of the teacher: A teacher should try to present the questions in a quite clear and audible voice being properly heard by all the students. He should also be careful about the proper accent, tone, pitch, and rhythm of the voice along with the accompanying gestures and other non-verbal expressions while putting any question. 2. Speed and pause: Due care should be taken for the maintenance of proper speed in the asking of the questions on the part of a teacher. He should give enough time to a student or the class for responding to the question asked by him on a simple logic that the rate or speed of thinking and responding on the part of the students tends to be slower than the speed of asking questions. In addition, he should try to provide a suitable pause (e.g. looking here and there in the class before asking for the answer once the question is put.)

3. Distribution of questions: Question should be addressed to the whole class rather than its being put to an individual student. Out of the raised hands of the students who are willing to answer the question, a teacher may now provide opportunity to any one of them, or may choose from the group of the students who have not raised their hands for the purpose. As far as possible, the distribution of the questions must be quite fair and even all along the corners of the class. As a result, every student of the class must feel that he may be asked to respond to a question any time during the course of the lesson, therefore, he must remain quite alert and attentive to things going on in the classroom. 4. Teacher behaviour: A teacher must demonstrate a quite spontaneous and natural behaviour while asking questions in the class. He must possess a necessary degree of patience, restraint and sweetness in his voice and style of asking questions as well as responding to the responses of the students. He should not try to repeat his questions as it may result in developing a wrong habit among the students for not attending the questions properly. He should also try to refrain himself from the task of discouraging or ridiculing/snubbing them for their incorrect answer or no responding. By all means, he should try to reinforce their responding behaviour through his pleasant behaviour. He should also try to bring variety, novelty, and change in the mode and style of his asking questions. As far as possible, he should not try to put such questions as to be responded only by uttering yes or no (e.g. Is the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb responsible for the downfall of the Mughal rule in India?). Such questions cannot provide any opportunity for evaluating the proper understanding and comprehension on the part of the students about the presented lesson. In this way, acquisition of the proper art of framing questions along with their proper presentation may help the teachers in learning and acquiring the skill of questioning for bringing needed effectiveness to their classroom teaching. However, acquisition of the skill requires necessary practice on the part of a subject teacher through the micro-teaching technique. For this very purpose we are now trying to present a micro-lesson plan.

Model Micro-lesson plan for practising skill of questioning

TABLE 15.8 Observation schedule cum rating scale

Comments if any Signature of the Supervisor

Map-reading Skill The use of maps in the teaching and learning of the various school subjects occupies a quite prominent place. Every student and subject teachers therefore must have necessary abilities and skill for making proper utilization of the services of various types of maps (such as historical, physical, political, social, economic, and geographical) in the teachinglearning. A proper utilization of it actually asks for the proper development of the map-reading skill among them. For this purpose, initiative should be taken in the training period of the pupil teachers providing them opportunities by making use of the micro-teaching training technique, Let us now highlight the meaning of the term “skill of map reading”, its components and the procedure and ways of its practice.

Defining the term “map reading”

A map of any type or variety is a quite technical one in the sense that it requires the required ability, competency and skill on the part of its user for its proper understanding, comprehension and interpretation. There are many facts, a variety of information and knowledge in the maps that are usually depicted through their own language. These consist of lines, letters, figures, colours, shades and other symbols. In this sense, we can define the term map reading skill, as a skill demonstrated by a teacher in helping his students in the task of the proper understanding, comprehension and interpretation of the knowledge and information imparted by the drawer of the map in some or the other standard skilled ways resulting into the proper utilization of it in the better teaching—learning of a topic or specific areas of the subject concerned.

Components The map reading skill seems to have the following components. Use of introductory statements: The acquisition and utilization of the map reading skill on the part of a teacher demands a proper use of the appropriate introductory statement for initiating the use of maps in his classroom teaching. Such statements may attract and motivate the students for being mentally alert and attentive for grasping the facts and information contained in a map. For example, a teacher while acquainting his students with the different types of soils found in India may make use of a map by making the following introductory statement: Students, let us see now in a map of India and find out what type of soil is available in a particular part or region of our country. Proper understanding and use of map language: A map of any kind has its own standard and technical language. A teacher should not only be quite skilled in the proper comprehension and understanding of the elements and language of a map but also be an expert for making its use in his instructional work including making his students understand and utilize this language. These elements and components may be classified and discussed now. 1. Knowledge and use of lines: Lines on the map as pictorial symbols may be used to depict and convey various types of situations and information

related to a particular aspect, e.g. straight lines for roads on level land, curved lines for roads on hilly land, lines winding between hills for rivers, and winding line by the ocean for the coastline, etc. In addition to such customary uses, we can make their use in some other symbolized ways as shown in Figure 15.5.

Figure 15.5 Lines used in a map for conveying a particular physical aspect.

So, a teacher while making use of a map should try to convey to the students the sense denoted by the uses of the lines in various situations. 2. Knowledge and use of figures: It is quite customary to use different types of figures in maps for conveying and depicting different types of information and situations. A teacher should therefore, be properly acquainted with such figures. As illustration, see the two specific figures used for showing the forests and plateaus on a land map shown in Fig. 15.6.

Figure 15.6 Figures used in the maps for conveying relevant information.

3. Knowledge and use of specific symbols: Many times, quite specific symbols may be used for conveying one or the other specific information or situation related to an aspect of the study of a topic or unit in the subjects like the status of the population, industrial units, and distribution of natural and physical resources. These symbols may be of varying nature:

In addition, we can utilize a particular cluster of symbols as shown in Fig. 15.7 for conveying a specific information related to the subject social studies.

Figure 15.7 Symbolic representation of the types of soils in a map of India.

A teacher should, therefore, take due care for acquainting his students with such a use of symbols. 4. Knowledge of colours: It is not unusual to see the use of a variety of colours for providing a proper visual presentation of the similarities and dissimilarities of some or the other features and characteristics found in the facts and information related to the subject of teaching. The teacher must try to get his students properly acquainted with uses of colours in the maps. For illustration, two examples of the colour schemes are presented: Example 1: A colour scheme for a physical map of India to show the facts related to the natural vegetation found in different regions of India.

Example 2: A colour scheme for showing elevation on a wall map.

Knowledge and use of scale: A map is a quite smaller representation of an area, region or country. So, the distance between two places located on the map has to be shown in a relatively smaller size in comparison to their real distances. For this purpose, in drawing the maps, we make use of the concept of the scaling, i.e. expressing the real distances in terms of some hypothetical distance on a measuring scale. Therefore, usually while using the scaling concept, a map developer may try to show the distances on the map graphically by making the following statement: Scale: one inch equals 500 miles or one centimetre equals 500 km. As a result, a large distance like 10,000 km can be conveniently expressed through a straight line of the length 20 cm. This fact may be clearly made known to the students. Knowledge and use of directions: It is very essential to have a proper knowledge of the concept of directions related to map reading. It should be well known by the students that, on a map hanging on the wall, north is always located on the upper side and the south in the lower side of the map as a matter of their identification with the north and south poles of the earth. Similarly, the students may also be properly acquainted with the concept of other directions being used in the marking of the location of places on the maps. The use of the directional diagram as shown in Fig. 15.8 may suitably serve this purpose.

Once they get the knowledge of the location of such directions on the maps, the students should be helped to gather the facts related to a particular landscape, i.e. in our country, we have Himalayas in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south, the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west. Proper knowledge and use of latitudes and longitudes: Knowledge of latitudes and longitudes may help the students locate the correct position of a particular country or region along with a reliable estimate of its temperature and climatic conditions. Therefore, a teacher should try to make an earnest effort for enabling his students to grasp the ideas that (i) the lines of latitudes on a map or globe are true east-west lines encircling the earth and (ii) the lines of longitudes are true north-south lines running across from the North to the South Poles. Going further, they should be taught the degrees as a concept of measures in relation to latitudes and longitudes, and the location of main places, e.g. our county India lies in the east of 0° longitude and north of 0° latitude. Then the students should be made to have an estimate of the temperature, atmospheric pressure, rainfall and other facts regarding the climatic conditions prevailed in some particular places, regions and countries located within the boundaries of these latitudes and longitudes.

Figure 15.8 The directions on a wall map.

Active participation of the students: Proper acquisition and utilization of the skill of map reading involves the task of seeking active involvement and participation of the students at the time of making use of a map in classroom teaching. For this purpose, he may resort to the activities seeking involvement of the students in pointing out or identifying the information, places and objects on the map, e.g. come and identify or locate the origin of the Ganges river, locate the places or regions in this physical map of India showing availability of black soil, locate and name the states or regions having an average rainfall of more than 100 cm, tell about the extension/boundaries of the empire of Ashoka. No doubt, such seeking of the participation or involvement of the students in the task of map reading has a quite positive repercussions in terms of creating their interest in the learning of the facts of a particular subject including providing them valuable opportunities in learning and using the art of map reading.

Use of concluding statements: It is an essential and significant component of the map-reading skill. In practice, it demands from a teacher to make appropriate concluding statements after his making use of a map. With the help of such statements he should try to clarify and summarize the things depicted and the information given through the showing of the map in the class. It can help in the proper revision of the things taught and proper realization of the objectives of the use of a map in the classroom teaching. Let us now discuss the evaluation schedule of the acquisition of map reading skill on the part of pupil teachers along with the presentation of a micro-teaching lesson plan for its practice. TABLE 15.9 Observation schedule-cum-rating scale for the skill of map reading

Signature of the Supervisor

Model micro-lesson plan for the skill of map reading

SUMMARY 1. Micro-teaching represents an appropriate innovative technique for helping the pupil teachers being trained in the colleges of education in their acquisition of the desired teaching skills. As a matter of definition, we can define micro-teaching as a sort of specialized training technique that provides appropriate opportunities to the pupil teachers for the practice and development of some specific teaching skills by organizing teaching it its micro-form (miniature in terms of class size, time duration and content to be covered). 2. The micro-teaching procedure adopted for practising teaching skills in our teacher education institutions involves quite systematic steps named as: (i) orientation, (ii) discussion of the teaching skills, (iii) selection of a particular teaching skill, (iv) presentation of a model

demonstration lesson, (v) observation of the model lesson and criticism, (vi) preparation of a micro-lesson plan, (vii) creation of a micro-teaching setting, (viii) practice of the skill (teach-session), (ix) providing feedback, (x) re-planning (re-plan session), (xi) re-teaching (re-teach session), (xii) providing re-feedback (re-feedback session), (xiii) repetition of the microteaching cycle and finally, (xiv) integration of teaching skills. 3. The use of micro-teaching technique in reference to the teacher education programmes adopted in our country may prove advantageous on account of the specific features and characteristics inherent in this technique such as (i) non-dependence over the practising schools and their students for the practice of skills, (ii) providing opportunity for the practice of one teaching skill at a time, (iii) reducing the complexities of the normal classroom teaching, (iv) providing appropriate opportunities for systematic observation of the teaching and immediate feedback to bring improvement in one’s teaching skill, and (v) providing opportunity to the teacher trainees for the development of their teaching skills in the laboratory like controlled conditions. 4. A teacher makes use of a number of instructional techniques and devices for making his teaching as effective as possible in the course of his teaching. In brief, these are designated as teaching skills. In reference to the teaching of a number of subjects of the school curriculum, the school teachers have to make use of many important teaching skills during the instructional activities going on inside the classroom. The significant ones are skill of introducing the lesson, skill of explaining, skill of illustrating with examples, skill of stimulus variation, skill of reinforcement, skill of questioning, and skill of map reading. 5. The skill of introducing the lesson proves helpful in making the teaching-learning environment of the classroom quite congenial by realizing the pupils’, need of studying the lesson and thus making them quite curious and motivated for the study of the topic. Its development involves the modification of the pupil teacher’s behaviour related to the components such as (i) using previous

experience of the pupils, (ii) proper use of device and techniques, (iii) maintenance of continuity in the ideas or information presented, and (iv) relevancy of verbal or non-verbal behaviour used in introducing the lesson. 6. The skill of explaining needs the use of interrelated appropriate statements on the part of the teacher for making the pupils understand the desired concept, phenomenon or principle. Its development needs to take care of two types of component behaviours: desirable and undesirable. For this purpose, the pupil teacher has to increase the frequency of the desirable behaviours (such as using appropriate beginning and concluding statements, using explaining links, covering essential points and testing the pupils’ understanding) and decrease the frequency of the undesirable behaviours (like use of irrelevant statements, lack of continuity in statements, lack of fluency and use of inappropriate vocabulary, vague words and phrases). 7. The skill of illustrating with examples involves judicious selection and proper presentation of suitable examples on the part of a teacher in order to generate a concept, idea or principle with a view to its understanding and proper application. The behavioural activities related to the different components of this skill may be identified as: (i) providing relevant examples, (ii) giving simple examples, (iii) providing interesting examples, (iv) using appropriate media for examples, and (v) making use of the inductive-deductive approach. The pupil teachers are given enough opportunity for the use of the activities related to these component behaviours. 8. The skill of stimulus variation involves a set of behaviours for bringing desirable change of in the stimuli used in securing and sustaining pupils’ attention towards classroom activities. The component behaviours involved in its use may be identified as movements, gestures, change in voice, focusing change in interaction styles, pausing, aural-visual switching, and physical involvement of the students. For the development of this skill, using micro-teaching techniques, therefore the pupil teachers need to be provided enough

practice for making use of these component behaviours in their teaching. 9. The skill of reinforcement requires a judicious and effective use of reinforcement on the part of a teacher. A pupil teacher for practising the use of this skill has to increase the frequency of the related component behaviours such as using positive verbal, non-verbal and extra verbal reinforcers and decreasing the frequency of the undesirable component behaviours like use of negative verbal and non-verbal reinforcers and inappropriate or wrong use of reinforcement. 10. The skill of questioning makes a teacher expert in the art of putting questions to the students in the classroom teaching. The skill mainly involves two types of components behaviours, namely the framing of the questions and putting these questions to the students. These activities may be identified as relevancy, clarity, conciseness, specificity and grammatical correctness of the questions framed as well as the appropriateness of the voice, speed, pause and distribution of the questions put in the class. In the practising of this skill, therefore, a pupil teacher is supposed to gain competency in the proper use of these component behaviours. 11. The skill of map reading occupies a unique place in the teaching of various subjects of the school curriculum. The proper acquisition of this skill can make a teacher quite capable of making use (its reading and interpretation) of a particular type of map (historical, geographical, political, social, economical, surveying, etc.) in an effective way for serving the desired instructional purposes. Its component behaviours may be identified as (i) the use of introductory statements, (ii) understanding and use of map language, (iii) proper knowledge and use of scales, (iv) good knowledge and use of directions, (v) proper knowledge and use of latitudes and longitudes, (vi) active participation of the students, and (vii) use of concluding statements.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the term micro-teaching? Discuss its nature and characteristics. 2. Give a suitable definition of micro-teaching applicable in the Indian conditions. Describe the meaning and nature of micro-teaching in the light of this definition. 3. Discuss the general processes involved in micro-teaching by mentioning the different steps and activities. 4. “Micro-teaching is a powerful training technique most suitable in the present Indian conditions for training student teachers.” Discuss the validity of this statement in the light of the advantages of microteaching over traditional student-teaching programme. 5. What do you understand by the term ‘identification of teaching skills’? Name any four teaching skills involved at the presentation stage of a lesson. 6. “Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter.” Discuss the statement and enumerate the nature and characteristics of microteaching. 7. Discuss the merits and limitations of micro-teaching for teacher’s training programme. 8. What do you understand by skill of explaining? What are its essential components? Discuss the process of practising this skill through a suitable micro-lesson plan. 9. Describe the skill of questioning along with its different components. How can this skill be practised through micro-teaching? Illustrate with example. 10. What do you understand by skill of stimulus variation? Illustrate the process through a micro-lesson. 11. Define the skill of reinforcement. Describe its essential components and present a suitable micro-lesson plan for practising it. 12. What do you understand by the skill of map reading? Discuss its various components and present a suitable micro-lesson plan for its proper development.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Allen, D.W. (Ed.), Microteaching: A Description, California: Standford University (Mimeo), 1966. Allen, D.W. and A.W. Eve, “Micro-teaching”, Theory into Practice, Vol. 70, pp. 181–85, 1968. Allen, D.W. and K.A. Ryan, Microteaching, Reading Massachusetts, California: Addison Wesley, 1969. Borg, W.R. et al., The Mini Course: A Microteaching Approach to Teacher Education, London: Collier Macmillan, 1970. Bossing, N.L., Progressive Method of Teaching in Secondary Schools, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942. Brown, George A., Microteaching: A Programme of Teaching Skills, London: Methuen, 1975. Bush, R.N., “Microteaching–Controlled practice in the training to teachers”, In Communication, pp. 201–207, July, 1968. Clift, J.C. et al., “Structure of the Skill acquisition phase of a Microteaching programme”, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46(2), 1976. Gregory, Thomas B., Encounters with Teaching: A Microteaching Manual, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1972. Jangira, N.K. and Azit Singh, Core Teaching Skills: The Microteaching Approach, New Delhi: NCERT, 1982. McAlease, W.R. and D. Unwin, Microteaching: A Bibliography, Education Center, Coleraine, North Ireland: New University, Ulster, 1970. Olivero, Lames L., Microteaching: Medium for Improving Instruction, Columbus, Ohio: C.E. Merrill, 1970. Passi B.K. and M.S. Lalita, “Microteaching: Skill-based Approach” in B.K. Passi (Ed.), Becoming Better Teacher: Microteaching Approach, Ahmedabad: Sahitya Mudranalaya, 1976. Singh, L.C., Microteaching: An Innovation in Teacher Education (Mimeo), New Delhi: NCERT, 1977.

16 Role-Playing and Gaming CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Role-Playing Gaming Summary Review Questions References

INTRODUCTION The strategies such as role-playing and gaming will prove quite effective in any well-thought process of teaching-learning for bringing the desired modification in the behaviour of the learners. Their main value lies in their capacity to provide the necessary self-experiences through carefully chosen and properly controlled acts and activities on the individual as well as group levels. Here, one learns on the basis of self-participation, by playing his own role and becoming a partner in any role situation and gaming activity. Let us discuss these strategies as a means of imparting instruction and training for behaviour modification.

ROLE-PLAYING

Concept and Meaning Role-playing may be considered a kind of an assumption or initiation of a particular appearance or form. When a male child puts beard and moustaches on his face and a little girl serves the dishes to him, they are said to be engaged in role playing, i.e. imitate the acts of their parents and elders. Through such role-playing, the children get the opportunity of learning or training themselves for the activities of future life. For the players, the essence of role-playing is the personal experiencing of emotions and perceptions by assuming a role in a defined situation and acting out its relevant behaviour. In the classroom situations, we may consider the role-playing as a teaching-learning technique or strategy in which a well-planned situation is dramatized by a group of students by playing specific roles, under the direction of a teacher for deriving useful educational experiences. For example, the students for learning the working of a parliament or legislative assembly may dramatize the scene of the parliament or assembly by playing specific roles of speaker, ministers, the ruling and the opposition parties, MPs or MLAs, marshals, etc. Similarly, for acquainting the students with the problems and ill effects of overaffection, and protection given to a male child by his parents, the situation may be enacted by the students by playing the roles of parents, brothers and sisters, child, other family members and companions, etc. The role-playing strategy thus represents a spontaneous, unrehearsed life-like presentation of some situation for gaining insight into a specific problem or deriving useful educative experiences. However, role-playing as a socio-dramatic educational strategy in the classroom differs from that which often occurs spontaneously in socialization and from that used as a therapeutic technique, as in psychodrama. In psychodrama, the actor generally portrays himself and re-lives his own role in dramatic incidents in his past. The direction of this type of role playing calls for a therapeutic

background which most educators do not have. Socio-drama, on the other hand, deals with generalized roles and situations in which the actor is not called upon to represent himself. It is this distinction which allows the teacher without therapeutic skills to assume responsibility for directing a role-playing sequence. For making the role-playing strategy in the classroom distinct from the role-playing through socialization, we may cite the examples of the developed socialization of early childhood of the nature “I will be the daddy, and you be the mommy”. However, in the classroom situation, the students will be playing the roles of daddy and mommy with greater sophistication: “If you were the parents of these two children, how would you have reacted and told them ...?” For making the role-play strategy to attain its desired objectives, it is essential to meet the following conditions: 1. The students who engage in role-playing must understand clearly the situation and the roles to be played by them for depicting the scene of that situation. 2. The roles must be portrayed or played with quality. 3. The role or situation must have a real-life quality. 4. All the members of the group should closely and actively be attached to the role-playing either as role-players or observes.

Phases or Steps Involved The role-playing strategy, according to Joyce and Weil (1980), may follow the following nine specific phases or steps in any classroom situation: 1. Warming up stage: It is concerned with the creation of a problematic situation or citing of a problematic experience. At the beginning stage, a teacher in his social studies class may arrive at the following situation: “The process of election in a democratic society”

For providing instruction about this topic, he may propose to enact the situation by asking the students to elect their class representative. 2. Selection of the role-players: It is regarding the selection of students for playing the specific roles as demanded by the situation. In this role-playing situation, there may be two or three students wishing to be elected as class representative. These may be assigned the role of candidates fighting election. For the election process, different roles such as presiding officer, polling officer, and other officials helping in the process, besides the role of votering, may be assigned to different students. 3. Setting of the stage for role-playing: It is about making necessary environmental setting for role-playing activities. After assigning the roles, the necessary arrangement related with the voting process will be made for creating a scene of the election process as naturally as possible. There will be ballot box, ballot papers, ink, stamp, furniture, list of the voters, etc., at their respective places as happens usually in an actual election process. 4. Preparing of the observers: It is concerned with the assignment of the roles of observers to the students who are not acting as specific role-players. Students who are not being assigned any specific role in the election process will be asked to watch the election process closely. 5. Enacting the story, roles and situation: In this actual roleplaying process, the role players may be asked to enact their specific roles as demanded by the situation. In this step, the role players as well as the observers may be asked to enact their respective roles as demanded in the election to the class representative. 6. Discussion and evaluation: It is about free and frank discussion about the qualities of the roles. After enacting the process of election

of the class representative, there will be a free and frank discussion of the whole process of role-playing with a view of critical judgement of the qualities of the roles played, difficulties experienced, the lesson drawn, etc. 7. Enacting again: It is regarding the re-enaction of the role-playing activities in the light of the modification suggested in Phase 6. Since there have been many gaps and shortcomings regarding the stage and role-playing by the students, these may be rectified by providing fresh opportunity for enacting the specific roles. Here the teacher may point out the requirements essential for a free and fair election and the precautions to be taken for this purpose. 8. Re-discussion and evaluation: It is concerned with the discussion about the specific roles, their effects as generating responses and deriving useful implications leading to solid conclusions and educative experiences. The re-enacting of roles may further be discussed and evaluated in the light of the final objectives to be realized for such role-playing. 9. Deriving generalization: It is about making relevant generalization and learning useful lesson applicable to real-life situations. After going through the above activities, the students may be made to derive useful generalization about the process of election, the significance of a free and fair election, the essentials for holding a democratic election, and thus learning finally the way of electing their representative. However, the above steps are only suggestive. These are not binding. A teacher in the capacity of the director of the role-playing strategy may modify them according to his convenience as well as the demands of the situation. However, it is not at all essential in the role-playing situations to provide opportunities for re-enacting and re-discussion. Therefore, the steps involved may be reduced and condensed as:

1. Selecting the situation for role-playing. 2. Setting the stage and assigning the roles. 3. Preparing for action (planning). 4. Enacting the roles (execution). 5. Discussion and evaluation. 6. Generalization. The role-playing strategy may be well utilized for providing training to the pupil teachers and thus modifying their behaviour for imbibing teacher-like skills and other traits. The utilization of role-playing strategy in the simulated (artificial teaching-learning set up) conditions for the training of teachers is technically known as simulated teaching.

Mechanism of Simulated Teaching (Role playing by student teachers) It revolves round the role-playing behaviour of the three, namely teacher, pupil and observer, under the supervision of a trainer (teacher educator in the case of teacher training). Here, attempts are made to create artificial teaching-learning situations (as much as resembling the real classroom settings) within the environment of the training institute and the student teachers are required to play the role of teachers, pupils and supervisors one by one within their limited groups for a limited time on a specific topic in order to learn or practice particular teaching behaviours or teaching skills. The specific procedure involved may be summarized in the following steps: 1. Orientation (warm up stage): In the beginning, the studentteachers should be given necessary theoretical background for the adoption of stimulated teaching by bringing into light the following important aspects:

(i) Concept of simulated teaching (role-playing in artificial teaching-learning setup). (ii) Significance and rationale of using simulated teaching for their training. (iii) The mechanism and procedure followed in its use. (iv) The role of student teachers in simulated teaching. (v) Requirements and setting for adopting simulated teaching. (vi) Selection of the theme (topic, methods or techniques) for teaching. 2. Giving demonstration lesson: Example is always better than precept. Keeping this thing in mind, the teacher educator should try to give demonstration of a good teaching for the practice of the skill selected, topic to be dealt with and the methodology to be employed by the student teachers. 3. Assigning of roles: Simulated teaching requires role playing. As pointed out earlier, there are three different roles: teacher, pupil and observer that are to be played by every pupil teacher in his group. Therefore, a prior judgement is needed for deciding the order in which different student teachers will play the role of the teacher, pupils or observers. However, it is always remembered that, irrespective of the order, everyone has to play all the three roles at one time or the other in the overall process of simulation. 4. Planning: The schedule of teaching, in every aspect, is now planned. Each trainee who is assigned the role of a teacher is now helped in the selection of a suitable topic of his interest in view of the skills to be practised. He is further helped in preparing a mini- or micro-lesson plan. The trainees who will play the role of pupils are also helped in deciding and planning for it. The anticipated classroom interaction is planned with respect to the role of the trainees as observers. The procedure and technique of observation also is decided and planned in advance. The decision regarding the

use of these observations in providing feedback to the teacher actors is taken in advance. 5. Execution of the first practice session: The student teachers are then asked to deliver their lessons one by one to their peers who play the role of pupils. Those playing the role of observers/supervisors engage themselves in noting down all the good and weak points of teaching, concerning classroom interaction, teacher behaviours, the content taught, skills practised and the methodology used. After delivering the lessons, free and frank discussions are held purely to provide feedback for modification and improvement in the teacher to improve his behaviour, classroom interaction and the overall art of teaching. The role of pupils and supervisors is also discussed in order to bring desirable modification. In view of such discussions, the whole mechanism of simulated teaching is then subjected to necessary alterations in terms of the roles of the teachers, pupils and supervisors. 6. Follow-up during subsequent practice sessions: What is decided in terms of modifications and alterations in the first session is being practised in the second and subsequent sessions till the goals of practising one or the other teaching skills and acquisition of sufficient art of teaching are not achieved. The roles of the student teachers also are gradually altered as to provide opportunity for playing different roles. In this way, all student teachers in the group are given full opportunity to practice their teaching skills, modify their teacher behaviours and acquire an overall art of teaching with the help of their fellow student teachers under the guidance of the teacher educator. The steps laid down above do not stand for any rigidity in carrying out the task of simulated teaching. One is free to adopt his own system and procedure as found most workable in his circumstances. The important factor is the initiation, motivation and enthusiasm of the teacher educator and the participating student

teachers to engage in active research and experimentation under stimulated conditions for finding the ways and means of providing best training technique to learn the art of teaching. They are free to adopt and synthesize the micro-teaching procedure with the practice of usual classroom teaching. They can concentrate on the improvement of one or the other skills or may have a full dress rehearsal of a class teacher. For example, in one situation, they may practise to learn the art of introducing the lesson by picking up a particular lesson. Turn-wise, they may play the roles of a teacher, pupil and observer and thus, get adequate feedback as well as opportunity for practising and bringing desirable modification in their own technique and skill. In other situation, they may learn or practise the art of class management or asking questions, etc., and finally rehearse for playing the role of a full-fledged classroom teacher and then offer themselves to be placed for practice teaching in the real classroom settings of the practising schools.

Advantages of Role Playing The role-playing strategy carries the following advantages: 1. It provides opportunities to the students to learn about a subject from the inside. It makes them feel the intensity of the situation by enacting it. 2. It increases the students’ interest, motivation and efforts for learning about a subject or phenomenon. 3. The students derive useful real-life-like experiences through playing specific roles of the players or observers and, in turn, prepare themselves for their future life activities. 4. It provides training in verbal and motor communication of the behavioural acts by expressing as spontaneously and freely as possible. 5. The students get opportunity to imbibe useful qualities for social participation and cooperation by giving due regard to

others’ feelings and points of view. 6. It can provide due insight into real-life problems and develop problem solving abilities of the students. 7. It can be used for illustrating and explaining various phenomena and incidents related to classroom teaching of various subjects.

Demerits and Limitations The role-playing strategy suffers from the following drawbacks: 1. The students may not understand the problems or the situation for playing the roles with needed effectiveness. 2. The role-playing strategy becomes effective only when the players and observers truly believe in the story or the situation to be enacted. Usually the students do not believe in what they are doing with their roles as players or observers. In such a situation, the role-playing strategy loses its impact and significance. 3. The students who may enact the assigned roles effectively are not easily available for making the strategy a success. 4. The role-playing strategy expects too much from the teacher as he is the one who has to create a life-like problematic situation or story plot, prepare and draft the role-playing activities, select the role-players, and watch and direct the role-playing activities for some useful educative gains. There is quite dearth of such capable and trained teachers and, in such a situation, we cannot expect the desired results with the use of role-playing strategy.

GAMING Definition

Gaming as an instructional strategy may be defined as a specially designed strategy or teaching-learning situation in which planned and organized play way activities and games are utilized for deriving useful educational purposes. However, the play way activities and games are generally known as “something enjoyable involving competition for specified objectives and observing rules” (Nesbitt, 1987). In this sense, the essential properties of a gaming act may be cited as: (i) A small fixed number of players. (ii) A common goal to be achieved by the players. (iii) The rules for playing the games. Although all games are bound to share the above qualities, yet there may be a great variation in terms of their structure and composition, such as relative amount of physical and mental activity or skill and luck to win, the number of participants and the degree of competition involved, and the mode of designating a winner. However, in all the play activities and games, whatever nature and objectives they may possess, one thing is quite common that they have enough potential for providing valuable learning experiences in a relaxed, spontaneous and evaluative situation.

Simulated and Non-simulated Gaming Playing of games may involve both simulated and non-simulated situations. The simulated situations may be defined as the selective representation of reality (desired artificial condition) for playing the player’s role as desired by the situation. In such a situation, the students try to simulate the real life conditions through the play way activities and thus experience the intensity related to a subject or area by themselves. The use of non-simulated games also can help in deriving many educational benefits. There are so many such

gaming techniques available for learning facts, principles and applications related to almost all the curricular and non-curricular areas. Both verbal and non-verbal stimulus material may be used in such techniques. For instance, in verbal transaction of ideas children may be engaged in: (i) quiz competition, (ii) puzzles and riddles competition, (iii) oral problem-solving competition, and (iv) exploring creative ideas regarding a thing, idea or a phenomenon. And in nonverbal transactions, they may be engaged in thinking, problem solving and role-playing games like: (i) building a pattern with the help of a given material (ii) construction or completion of a picture or design (iii) building and constructing something or anything out of the raw material (iv) constructing as many words as possible with the help of the given alphabets. These games may be played either individually or in a group. The group game strategy is always thought better because it develops cooperative feelings. It also saves the students from frustration suffered on account of winning the games always by a few able students.

Computer gaming Computer and teaching machines have almost revolutionized the gaming strategy. These are in a position to provide both simulated and non-simulated situations for gaming. A student may now try out alternative situations, ways and means by playing a game with a set of players and rules. These can ask puzzles and quizzes, or put up the problems in funny styles and situations for answering individually or in-group. There is no dearth of software programmes providing computer educational games in the curricular and cocurricular fields.

Languages, mathematics, basic and applied science, arts and crafts can now be well conceptualized and taught through these games quite interestingly. Series are available from nursery, kindergarten, grade 1, grade 2 and onwards. Games are also available for the development of skills in logical thinking, creative thinking and constructive thinking among the children. Let us illustrate the role of a computer game in providing varying teaching-learning situations and experiences through a well-known classical computer game “Sailing Ships Game” useful for the learning of geographical concepts. This game calls for skilful navigation around the oceans. The players have to choose a beginning and a finishing port from six ports, i.e. London, Rio-de Janerio, Chile, Sydney, Cape Town and Shanghai, for playing the game. The position of a ship at one time or the other is indicated on a world map displayed on the monitor, which also records the line of the ship’s voyage from the leaving port. As soon as the player types the name of the starting port, the latitude and the longitude of that place are displayed on the screen. It then asks the player to indicate the day and month of the intended voyage. The player has to reach the destination port in the shortest period of time by skillfully sailing his voyage from all the odds like storm and drifts due to wrong selection of the day and the month. The knowledge and skill gained through the computer game helps in providing rich educational experience, related to the following areas: (i) basic facts about sailing ships, (ii) direction of the compass, (iii) latitude and longitude, (iv) knowledge and application of the world map, (v) name and size of the oceans, (vi) name and location of the various ports around the world, (vii) seasonal shifts and major monsoon winds, (viii) the effects of the winds and seasons on navigation, and (ix) the development of proper reasoning and thinking skills.

Similarly, many science-linked games may help the children learn useful facts, principles and applications related to the science subject areas. They can provide rich thrilling experiences in developing laboratory and other applied science skills among the children. The mathematical games are helpful in learning concepts, skills, and application of the body of mathematics. The same way, the language-learning and adventure games have enough potential to fire the imagination of children along with the development of the necessary communication skills such as listening, talking, reading and writing through a wide variety of activities.

Educational Advantages Gaming as an educational device has the following advantages: 1. There is a greater scope for generating greater motivation and interest, more attention and less withdrawal from the learning situation in the gaming activities utilized for educational purposes. 2. The learning and retention of factual material is much greater from games than from textbooks, lecturers and other traditional modes. It happens because the games for a particular course are designed in view of the degree of success in the game, related with the basic knowledge and skills involved in that course. 3. The gaming device makes the learner’s role an active one. He is bound to remain an active participant, independent and active enquirer in the process of learning instead of a passive listener or motionless observer. 4. The gaming activities are self-disciplinary and self-judging in nature. All must obey the rules if gaming is to continue. Similarly, the outcomes of the gaming are enough to indicate as who has won or lost. One can, thus, easily evaluate his role in respect of his playing the games, i.e. acquiring the

learning experiences. One can win or lose on account of own actions and this is enough to teach the children that their selfefforts are the guiding factors in the acquisition of learning and success. 5. Gaming, as a model of actual processes, is helpful in linking the school world with the outside world. The children here acquire very useful learning experiences for playing the related roles in their actual life. Moreover, games with simulated environments or role-playing have been found to possess tremendous capacity to provide the children valuable opportunities to experience life situation that, for various reasons, cannot be provided to them quite directly. In this way, gaming, especially computer gaming nowadays, has almost every possibility of being utilized as a potential tool for providing curricular and cocurricular experiences in almost all the areas of information and fields of study. It has greater scope for utilizing as a tool for enhancing the knowledge, skills, application as well as influencing and modifying the behaviour of the learners simply on account of its greater appeal to the interest, motives and nature of the learners irrespective of their age, grade, culture and society.

SUMMARY 1. In the context of classroom teaching-learning, we may take role playing as such a teaching-learning technique or strategy in which a well-planned situation is enacted by the students by playing specific roles under the direction of a teacher for deriving useful educational experiences. For example, if we want to get our students acquainted with the working of our parliament or legislative assembly, we may provide them opportunity for dramatizing the scene of the parliament or

assembly by playing specific roles of speaker, ministers, ruling and opposition parties, MPs, MLAs, marshals, etc. 2. The task related to the employment of the role-playing strategy for the classroom instruction process may be properly carried out by making use of systematic steps such as (i) selecting the situation for role-playing, (ii) setting the stage and assigning the roles, (iii) preparing for action (planning), (iv) enacting the roles (execution), (v) discussion and evaluation, and (vi) generalization. 3. The role-playing strategy is appreciated on account of its use and advantages on the grounds of (i) providing opportunities for self-learning from the experiences of enacting the roles, (ii) development of the communication skills, (iii) giving opportunities for the development of sociability, (iv) development of problem-solving ability, (v) getting opportunities for arousing the necessary interest, motivation and enthusiasm towards learning, (vi) helping in linking the classroom teaching with the realities of life, and (vii) helping in acquiring the needed abilities and capacities for leading the future life. 4. The role-playing strategy is found to suffer from some defects and limitations: (i) its being taken as a source of mere entertainment or amusement on the part of the students, (ii) the limitations and difficulties felt by the students in playing the assigned role in a proper way, (iii) lack of teachers’ competency in accepting the challenge of using role-playing as an effective instructional strategy, and (iv) the unsuitability of the present teaching-learning environment for the application of the role-playing as an instructional strategy. 5. Gaming, instead of being taken as merely an entertainment means or playing activity may be understood as an effective instructional strategy or teaching-learning situation in which

planned and organized play way activities and games are utilized for deriving useful educational purposes. 6. Gaming or play way activities may be organized as individual or group activities in both simulated and non-simulated conditions. Moreover, we may also make use of both verbal (e.g. quiz competition, puzzles and riddles, oral problem solving and exploring creative ideas regarding a thing, idea or a phenomenon etc.) and non-verbal stimulus material (e.g. building a pattern, construction or completion of a picture or design, creating a thing out of the raw material and constructing as many words as possible with the help of given alphabets, etc.) 7. Nowadays, the software related to educational games and play way activities have almost revolutionized the use of the gaming strategy for deriving the desired educational and instructional purposes in a variety of teaching-learning situations. We can now make use of the services of PCs and laptops for getting benefited through the various types of educational and instructional software available for carrying out quite useful activities related to both the curricular and cocurricular fields. Such softwares provide the opportunities for gaining useful learning experiences and training facilities in the simulated conditions otherwise not available in the traditional classroom situations. 8. The gaming techniques may prove quite advantageous than the other traditional instructional techniques in so many ways. Major benefits from their use are: (i) in creating and sustaining interest and attention in the process of teaching-learning, (ii) in the acquisition as well as utilization of the knowledge and skills, (iii) in securing active participation of the students, (iv) in self-evaluation on the basis of the results of one’s participation in the games, (v) in developing problem solving ability and

facing the realities of life, (vi) in teaching the valuable lessons of self-discipline and self-control, and (vii) in developing sportsmanship and necessary self-confidence in the execution of the work and activities.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is role-playing? How can it be used as an effective technique for teaching-learning in a given situation? Illustrate with example. 2. Discuss the merits and demerits of role-playing as a technique of teaching-learning. 3. What are the various steps involved in the utilization of roleplaying as a strategy of teaching-learning? Discuss them with the help of a suitable example. 4. Discuss the meaning and significance of role-playing as a teaching-learning strategy. 5. Discuss in detail, the simulated teaching as a role-playing technique utilized in the training of student teachers. 6. How can role-playing be used in simulation? Discuss the procedure in the context of training of student teachers. 7. What is gaming? Discuss its importance and significance as a teaching-learning strategy. 8. How can gaming be used as an effective device for helping the children in their process of education? 9. Discuss the use and application of gaming as an educational device for the development of the children. 10. How can the use of computer gaming prove helpful in providing rich educational experiences to the players? Discuss with example.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Berne, Eric, Beyond Games and Scripts, New York: Grove Press, 1976. Berne, Eric., Games People Play: The Psychology of Human Relationships, New York: Grove Press, 1967. De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York, Behavioral Publications, 1973. Frieberg, H.J. and Driscoli Amy, Universal Teaching Strategies, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1992. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co., 1975. Joyce, Bruce and Weil Marsha, Models of Teaching, Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1980. Nesbitt, William A., “Simulation games for the social studies classroom”, New Dimensions I No.1, In A Program to Incorporate High Order Thinking Skills into Teaching and Learning, Robinson, I.S. (Ed.), Fort Landerdate, FL: Nova University, USA, 1987.

17 Teacher Evaluation CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Meaning and definition The Criteria Employed The Methods and Techniques Used Evaluation of Teachers by Their Students Evaluation by the Peers or Colleagues Evaluation by Supervisors Evaluation by the Members of the Community Evaluation on the Basis of the Teacher’s Contribution to Institutional Improvement Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION The teachers play a decisive role in any scheme of education. If destiny of a country is going to be shaped through the type of education to its children, then the actual destiny maker is the teacher. The child is turned into a social being, a good citizen capable of contributing a lot for his or her society and humanity at large through the unmatchable efforts of his/her teachers. However,

it can only be possible if we have effective and capable teachers for bringing such changes in the behaviour of the growing children. While such teachers on account of their magnificent qualities, virtues and skills may prove a boon to the proper growth and development of the personality of their students, the incapable and so-called poor or bad teachers may create havoc and darken the future of the youngsters in their charge. The question arises: how can we distinguish between good and poor or bad teachers, affective and non-effective teachers, so that we may save the youngsters from falling prey to them teachers or plan some remedial measures to help these teachers in doing away with their incapabilities and incompetencies?

Meaning and Definition The term teacher evaluation, as reflected through its naming, stands for the evaluation of teachers in terms of the quality of their roles played as a teacher, i.e. the extent to which they may be adjudged as good or poor in fulfilling their duties and obligations. When we use the term evaluation of the students, we are expected to measure the outcomes of the teaching-learning process in terms of the achievements or gains of the students with respect to the expected behavioural changes. To identify and measure the types of changes occurred in the behaviour thus becomes the focal theme of the students’ evaluation. Similarly, when we have to make use of the term teacher evaluation, it should also mean measurement of the effectiveness of a teacher in terms of the roles and responsibilities entrusted to him as a teacher, i.e. to know the degree or extent to which he has been able to help his students in bringing desirable changes in their behaviour for their proper growth and development. To conclude, we may define the term teacher evaluation as a process of helping the evaluators to draw inferences or pass judgement over the effectiveness of a teacher in terms of his

teacher-like behaviour and abilities demonstrable through his performance leading to an all-round growth and development of the personality of the students under his charge.

Criteria Employed Now, here, the question may arise that what should be a commonly agreed upon criteria (a set of observations that may be used as standards) for the evaluation of a teacher. If you try to analyze various components of the above definition, you may be able to draw some conclusions. Teaching evaluation helps in passing judgment over the effectiveness of a teacher which can be assessed or measured in terms of the following set of observations: 1. Teacher-like behaviour, abilities and qualities (presage variables) 2. Demonstrated performance as a teacher (process variables) 3. Gains achieved in terms of pupil’s growth and development (product variables) The Encyclopaedia of Education (Deighton, 1971, pp. 1482–84) while taking into consideration the above presage, process and product variable has tried to classify the criterion of teacher evaluation (measures of teacher effectiveness) into the following three categories: 1. Product criteria 2. Process criteria 3. Presage criteria

Product Criteria Under the product criteria, the evaluation of the teachers can be made by passing judgement over the gains achieved in terms of

growth and development or changes in the behaviour of the students. In other words, from the extent to which a teacher is able to help his students in the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives, he is said to be a competent or effective teacher. According to this criteria, the evaluation of a teacher’s work must be made through the nature of the end results of his effort, i.e. the gains achieved in terms of the pupils’ growth and development or the desirable changes in their behaviour.

Process Criteria In view of this criteria, a teacher needs to be evaluated in terms of the nature of the quality of his efforts made for the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives irrespective of the products, i.e. student gains, student growth or student changes. This criteria rests on the very assumption that the process chosen or the efforts made are more substantial and important than the outcomes achieved. Therefore, what goes at the time of ongoing teaching-learning process in terms of the typical situations involving classroom conditions and interaction of students and teachers, and the teaching competencies and skills demonstrated by the teacher thus, may be adjudged as various criteria for teacher evaluation.

Presage Criteria The presage criteria neither try to evaluate the ends of the teachinglearning process (like process criteria) nor lay emphasis on the nature of the means (like process criteria) for the evaluation of the teachers. On the other hand, it tries to focus on the evaluation of the total makeup, nature, qualities and characteristics of that very source (the teacher) responsible for carrying out both the means and the ends through his efforts. It may involve the personality attributes of the teachers, the number of years of the experience, academic and professional qualification, aptitude for teaching interest, attitude

towards teaching, personal and professional adjustment, knowledge of the subject, growth in basic skills of students taught, job satisfaction, etc.

The Methods and Techniques Used The product, process and presage criteria form the backbone of taking decision about the methods and techniques to be employed for the evaluation of teachers. Each of these criteria has its own merits and limitations for being used as a yardstick for the assessment of the goodness and effectiveness of a teacher working at any stage of the school or higher education. It is, therefore, quite safe as well as useful to employ an integrated approach (meaning hereby that a proper synthesis and combination of product, process and presage variables should be called for in the selection or devising of some or the other methods and techniques of teacher evaluation. Let us see how far we can integrate these criteria in this regard. For this, we now propose to take help of the following methods and techniques: 1. The results of the house tests; monthly, terminal and annual examinations of the school, board and other accreditation agencies showing academic achievements of the students taught by the teachers. 2. The results of the performance shown by the students in sports, constructive and creative activities, curricular and other fields attributable to the efforts made by the teachers. 3. The change in attitude, interests, philosophy of life, and overall growth and development in the personality of the students measured through special means and devices in terms of behavioural changes brought about by the efforts and influences of particular teachers.

4. The measurement or assessment of the adjustment level of the teachers through adjustment inventories or tool so constructed and standardized for this purpose like ‘Mangal’s Teacher Adjustment Inventory’ published by the National Psychological Corporation, Agra. 5. The measurement or assessment of teacher effectiveness by employing standardized tools like the Teacher Effectiveness Scales developed by Umme, Kulsum (Bangalore) and Pramod Kumar and D.N. Mutha (Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat). 6. The use of the properly constructed rating scales for rating the overall performance, teacher behaviour and personality characteristics of the teacher by the teachers themselves, their colleagues, head of the institutions, supervisors, students, etc. 7. The use of the questionnaire, inventory, etc., for collecting information about the product, process and presage variables of teacher effectiveness from teachers themselves, their colleagues, students, heads of the institutions, supervisors, etc. 8. The information received through self-assessment or appraisal pro forma filled in by the teachers themselves. 9. The record of the inspection committee and other day-to-day supervision work. 10. The overall impressions, likings and dislikings expressed by the students about their teachers in terms of their respective personality characteristics and behaviour. 11. The assessment of teaching competency by employing proper tools and techniques like teaching competency scale developed by B.K. Passi and Lalita (Indore). 12. The observation and assessment of the teacher’s classroom behaviour through special techniques like Flanders’ Interaction Analysis. (Discussed in Chapter 13 of the text)

13. The use of the personality characteristics of good and effective teachers established through researches for the evaluation work. Each of the methods and techniques listed above has its own strengths and weaknesses. For taking a comprehensive picture of the teacher effectiveness, therefore, we must try to employ as many methods and techniques practically employable and useful in a given situation.

Evaluation of Teachers by Their Students Among the methods and techniques employed for teacher evaluation we have just mentioned the part played by the students in evaluating their teachers through use of certain methods and techniques. Why should we involve the students in the evaluation of their teachers? What role can be played by the students in this task? Let us try to seek answers to these questions. It is almost certain that whatever lies in the shape of men and material resources in the total process of teaching-learning is absolutely meant for the welfare of the students, i.e. to bring desirable changes in their behaviour or to make efforts for the allround growth and development of their personality. The teacher is no exception. He also stands for the attainment of the teaching-learning objectives directed towards the total welfare of his students. A person himself knows well about the intention and work of his wellwisher. This is equally true for the students. They are perhaps the best judge of the qualities, characteristics, competencies, and the overall contribution of their teachers for bringing changes in their behaviour and developing their personalities through their personal influences and professional skills.

Ask the students, they will be able to tell about the teachers what is needed in terms of their proper evaluation. The type of knowledge the teacher possesses, the interests and attitude he has about his profession, the methods and techniques he uses for teaching, his overall behaviour as a teacher, his so many traits and characteristics reflected through his interaction with them, his efforts and sincerity in bringing desirable changes in their behaviour and developing the various aspects of their personality––all will be revealed about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the teacher in one or the other aspect. In this way, there is nothing wrong in involving the students for the evaluation of their teachers. In fact, it will be proving a right step in the direction of knowing about the qualities, competencies and effectiveness of the teachers’ influence and efforts, being made for the welfare of the students.

How Can Students Evaluate Their Teachers The students can evaluate their teacher by expressing their opinions about him with the help of the impressions and impact he has left on them through his personality characteristics, teacher behaviour and the overall efforts for looking after the interests of his students. As a result, the students may be helped in expressing their opinion through the following tools: 1. Questionnaire: Where they can provide answers to various questions meant for the evaluation of their teachers. 2. Rating scales: Where they can rate the effectiveness or goodness of their teachers on a 5 or 7 points scale. 3. Interview: Where they can tell many things about the quality, competencies and effectiveness of their teachers through face to face dialogues. 4. Indirect ways: Where they may be asked to write on the topics like “The teacher you like most”, “What is ideal in your ideal

teachers?”, “Goodness of your good teachers”, “Your impressions about your teachers”, and “Unforgettable about your teachers”.

Merits and Demerits Whether the teachers should be evaluated by their students or not is a debatable issue. There are many things that can be said for and against this issue.

Merits 1. The students are the best judges of their teachers—their qualities and competencies. Therefore, their evaluation may be quite just and appropriate from so many angles. 2. The students are the direct beneficiaries of the efforts and attempts made by their teachers. So, they are in a better position to tell about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of their teachers. 3. The teachers may get the desirable feedback from their evaluation by the students for improving their interaction with the students in order to attain the desired teaching-learning objectives as effectively as possible. 4. The knowledge that they are going to be evaluated by their students may keep the teachers on the right track in terms of improving their teacher behaviour, teaching competencies and knowledge of the subject matter, as well as acquiring the desirable personality traits for casting proper impact on the students. 5. By assigning them responsibility of evaluating the work of their teachers, the students will automatically begin to behave as a responsible partner in the whole teaching-learning process.

Demerits

1. The students may get biased in their attempts of evaluating their teachers. Moreover, they are not so matured to make use of the evaluation techniques for objective observations. 2. They may begin to threaten and blackmail the teachers and, thus, gain unbridled freedom for neglecting their classes and the teaching-learning work. Some may try to use the teachers in helping them for using unfair means in the examination by threatening that they will report negatively about them. 3. The teacher has to maintain a respectable distance from his students in order to have desirable discipline and provide guidance and direction by standing somewhat on a little higher position. This distance, position and respect will be automatically lost if the students are provided the power of passing judgement over the working of the teachers. 4. There may be unhealthy rivalry and competition among the members of the staff in using the students’ evaluation reports for damaging each other’s career. The Head of the institution, member of the community, officials of the institution also may make use of the students for settling scores with one or the other teachers and this may lead to utter disharmony and mutual discord among the family of the institution. 5. It may create unnecessary fear in the minds of the teachers. They may begin to lose their confidence in their teaching competency. Instead of trying hard for bringing changes in students’ behaviour, they may begin to pamper them for earning good grades and better impressions at the hands of their students. On account of the doubts expressed in the reliability, validity and objectivity maintained in the evaluation of the teachers by their students as well as its misuse on the part of the students, colleagues, and administration officials, it is generally feared and objected that students should not be allowed to pass judgement

about the competency, effectiveness and the overall working of their teachers. It is taken as giving a sword in the hands of monkeys. However, such fear and criticism are not proper. It is the students who have to bear the consequences of the teachers’ negligence, misbehaviour, maladjustment, incompetencies, and ineffectiveness. So, what is bad if the students are asked to identify and discriminate between good and poor teachers or effective and non-effective teachers? There is hardly any student who does not recognize or is influenced by the desirable teacher behaviour and efforts of the competent, hardworking and capable teachers. As a result, such teachers hardly have any fear of the students’ evaluation. Moreover, it gives them opportunity as well as proper timely feedback for their improvement in terms of personal habits and professional skills. Therefore, it is not proper to drop the idea or proposal of teachers’ evaluation by the students merely on the ground of subjectivity on the part of the students or fears expressed in its misuse. However, it does not mean that a teacher’s functions can only be judged on the basis of the students’ evaluation. There are many other ways and means, listed in this chapter, that can be successfully integrated for the effective evaluation of the teachers. Teacher evaluation by the students, thus, may work as one of the methods and techniques. In no case, it should be made sole criterion for the evaluation of teachers, rather, it should work in supplementing the data or results obtained through various means and criteria used for teacher evaluation.

Evaluation by the Peers or Colleagues The teachers may also be properly evaluated by their peers or colleagues. It is this group which is socially and professionally well associated with an individual teacher both in the school hours, in the leisure time, and in social get-together. They are quite familiarized

with the behavioural traits of their colleagues and their functioning as teachers. They know: Who is to be consulted in what type of personal and professional matters? Who is the master of his subject and possesses the essential skills for its effective delivery, interaction and application? Whose classroom behaviour is autocratic or democratic? What can be said about the personality traits and teacherslike behaviour of one of their colleagues? To what extent can he be termed as an effective teacher? What are his strengths and limitations? How does he behave with colleagues, administrators, students, parents and other members of the community? These are the questions or queries related to the judgement and evaluation of teachers, which can be successfully answered by their peers or colleagues. The information or data gathered from the peers or colleagues then can be safely used for making opinion or pass judgement about the qualities, characteristics, personality traits, teacher behaviour and teaching competency of an individual teacher. These can also be used in making intra-institutional or interinstitutional comparisons among the teachers for the recognition of their worth at the local, state and national levels. Let us know about the tools that can be used for the collections of relevant information or data from the peers or colleagues for the evaluation of an individual teacher. In general, such tools and techniques can be named as: 1. Questionnaire 2. Rating scale 3. Interview 4. Socio-metric scale or sociogram

5. Opinionnaire 6. Teaching competency scale 7. Teacher effectiveness scale 8. Observation and assessment of classroom behaviour through Flanders’ Interaction Analysis technique. In such collection of information or data from the peers or colleagues it is generally feared that they may report adversely on account of professional jealousy or provide a glorified picture of the competency of a teacher on account of their proximity. Although such subjectivity on their part in some cases cannot be ruled out yet there is no ground of generalizing the phenomenon. We should never hesitate to take the services of peers and colleagues in evaluating the performance of teachers as some or the other type of subjectivity is always present in any scheme of evaluation implemented by human beings.

Evaluation by Supervisors It has been an age-old practice to have evaluation of the performance or working of schools including teachers and other serving personnel through supervisors, better known as inspector of schools (known also as circle education officers, block education officers, and district education officers nowadays). This practice is still in vogue. The State and Central Government authorities and the educational bodies that are responsible for financing and providing affiliation to the schools use to send their supervisory team for such an evaluation of a particular school as and when such a need is felt. In addition, there may be some regular sessional inspection or supervision of the school for exercising control over as well as for providing adequate direction and guidance to the school personnel in their working and functioning. The supervisory team sent to the

school is supposed to carry out their work with an eye to collect information or data regarding the following things: 1. Out of the total working days, how many days the teacher was present in the school? 2. To what extent has he been punctual in attending his duties in the school? 3. How much time in a day does he devote for the curricular and other duties assigned to him from time to time? 4. How does he plan his teaching lesson in his subject? 5. How is he maintaining the records and registers under his charge? 6. What is reflected through the daily diary maintained by him? 7. How much effectiveness is shown by him in terms of teaching, desirable teacher behaviour, and management of the classroom situations? 8. To what extent is he effective and competent in giving demonstrations, organizing practical activities related to laboratory, workshops, projects and other activity-oriented situations? 9. How much helpful is he proving himself in the organization of co-curricular activities, games and sports, community and social services, etc.? 10. How much helpful is he in assisting the school authorities for the administration and management of the school? 11. How much effective has he been proving himself in providing assignments and homework to his students? 12. How much effective has he been in providing guidance and counselling to the needy students? 13. How much effective has he been in evaluating the output of his students in the curricular and co-curricular fields? 14. How much effective has he been in the organization of functions, extension lectures, seminars and workshops in the

school? 15. How much efforts from time to time has he been giving for his professional growth? 16. How much extent is he observing the professional code and ethics prescribed for the teachers in his school? 17. How much adjusted is he feeling in terms of his personal and professional life? 18. What type of feelings and opinions are possessed by the students, parents of the students, colleagues, the serving staff and the school officials about the teacher? 19. How much is he contributing in carrying out research work as an individual or in a group in the form of action research or otherwise? 20. How much is he contributing in the implementation of the new researchers, innovation and experimentation known in the field of education in the school?

Evaluation by the Members of the Community The members of the community including parents or guardians of the students can play a big role in evaluating the teachers who have been entrusted with the responsibilities of shaping the destiny of their children. The question arises is in what way they will be helpful in evaluating the teachers and how this task will be carried out. Definitely, it will require the opportunities of coming into contact directly or indirectly with the teachers as a person and professional. The following list outlines few of such occasions and opportunities: 1. Meeting and functions of the parent-teacher associations. 2. Inviting parents and members of the community at various functions and programmes of the school.

3. Informal meetings at the social and cultural functions, parties and get-together, marriages, religious gatherings, festivals, fairs and exhibitions, where teachers and members of the community get opportunities to come into contact with each other. 4. Visit of the teachers to the students’ homes for meeting with their parents and guardians. 5. Visit of the teachers to the homes and workplaces of the members of the community for seeking their help and assistance in raising funds and resources for the expansion, smooth running and progress of the institution. 6. Getting information about the teachers from their children about their behaviour and working. 7. Getting feedback from the teachers about their children through verbal communication, progress reports and personal meeting. 8. Getting timely guidance and counselling from the teachers regarding the adjustment, progress and future planning about their children. 9. Getting clues about the working of the teachers from the nature of assignments given to the students and the subsequent follow-up actions taken by the teachers for arranging remedial or enrichment programmes to the slow or gifted learners. 10. Getting information about the behaviour and working of a teacher from his peers, school officials, service staff, etc. Equipped with such opportunities of coming in contract, directly or indirectly, with the teachers, the parents and the members of the community may express their opinions about the behaviour and working of these teachers. Their opinions may be obtained by using the information and data collection tools and techniques like

questionnaire, rating scale, interview, detailed comments about the personality traits, and behavioural functions of the teachers.

Evaluation on the Basis of the Teachers’ Contribution to Institutional Improvement Human capital and resources count much in the progress and improvement of an institution. Therefore, the quality and excellence of an institution always exists in a direct proportion to the quality and excellence of its serving personalities, including teachers. The teachers on their individual basis as well as working in a group under the leadership of their head of the institution are responsible for glorifying the name and fame of the institution. However, there exist individual differences. Therefore, the quality, competency and effectiveness of a particular teacher may easily be judged through his share of contribution to the welfare and progress of the institution. The measuring stick or the pro forma used for the evaluation of the teachers on this account may involve the following type of information or data: The contribution of the teacher with regard to outstanding results in the public examination of VIII, X and XII classes of the institution, the merit positions earned, appreciation and recognition received from the State and Central Government bodies. The teacher’s contribution in the organization of material resources like construction and repair of the school building; extension of physical facilities; purchase and maintenance of furniture and equipment; construction; maintenance and equipping of the library; laboratories, workshops, auditorium,

school garden, indoor and outdoor games, and sports facilities. The contribution of the teacher with regard to the outstanding achievements of the school in the field of cocurricular activities, games and sports, N.C.C., N.S.S., scouting and other cultural, social and creative outputs, the name and fame earned through the individual or team participation of the students of the school in inter-schools, inter-district, inter-state or international competitions and tournaments. The contribution of the teacher with regard to the appreciable services of the school in the field of social services and community work meant for the welfare of the community, rural people, unprivileged and deprived sections of the society, etc. The contribution of the teacher in his own way or as per demand of the institution for enabling the institution to earn better grade, a letter of appreciation, awards and recognition at the local, regional, state or international level on the recommendation of some or the other formal or informal visiting, supervisory or evaluation teams. In this way, we may adopt different ways and means for the evaluation of school teachers. However, no single method or measure employed for this can be said as perfect and sufficient in itself. It has its own strengths and drawbacks. Therefore, it is always advisable to employ as many means and ways as possible for getting an objective, reliable and valid picture concerning the evaluation of teachers.

SUMMARY 1. The term teacher evaluation refers to a process of drawing inferences and passing judgment over the effectiveness of a teacher in terms of his teacher-like behaviour and the abilities

demonstrated through his performance leading to an all-round growth and development of the personality of his students. In other words, to take stock of the teacher effectiveness is known as teacher evaluation. 2. The criterion commonly used for the evaluation and measurement of teacher effectiveness may be broadly classified into three categories: (i) presage criteria (i.e. to know what the teacher is in itself by taking stock of his overall behaviour and personality), (ii) process criteria (i.e. evaluation on the basis of the quality of his efforts), and (iii) product criteria (i.e on the basis of the gains achieved in terms of growth and development of the personality or desirable changes in the behaviour of his students). 3. The methods and techniques employed for teacher evaluation are based on the presage, process and product criterion. The commonly used measures employed for this include: (i) evaluation of the students’ achievements, (ii) evaluation of the changes brought in the behaviour of the students besides the growth and development of their personality, (iii) measurement of the adjustment level of the teacher, (iv) use of standardized teacher effectiveness and teacher competency scales, (v) use of rating scales and questionnaires for knowing about the teacher effectiveness from the colleagues, administrators, supervisors, members of the community and the teacher himself, (vi) analysis of the day-to-day assessment and periodical inspection of the work of the teacher, (vii) use of special techniques like Flanders’ analysis or transaction analysis techniques, (viii) evaluation of the teachers on the basis of their contribution to institutional improvement, and (ix) evaluation by their students. 4. The students can play a quite effective role in the evaluation of their teachers. This is done by expressing their opinion

about their teachers through some direct measures such as questionnaires, rating scales, interviews, etc. and also by adopting indirect measures, i.e. asking the students to respond to the questions “The teacher you like most”, “ what is ideal in your ideal teachers”, etc. Generally, fears are expressed for allowing the students to evaluate their teachers. However, if judged otherwise, the students can only provide a valid and functional assessment of their teachers simply on the ground that only a user can tell the effectiveness of a thing or a process.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the term ‘teacher evaluation’? Discuss in detail, the different criteria employed for it. 2. Discuss the various methods and techniques used for teacher evaluation. 3. Why do we need evaluation of teachers? Discuss the role of students in such an evaluation. 4. How can the teachers be evaluated by their students? 5. Are you in favour of teachers’ evaluation by their students? Answer in view of the merits and demerits involved in such an evaluation. 6. How can the peers/colleagues help in the task of teacher evaluation? 7. Discuss the role of the supervisors’ rating as a method of teacher evaluation. 8. How can the community people help in the task of teacher evaluation? Discuss the method of community rating as a method of teacher evaluation.

9. How can we evaluate the performance of teachers on the basis of ratings used for institutional improvement?

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Deighton, Lee C., Encyclopedia of Education, vol. 9, New York, Macmillan Co. 1971. Kulsum, Umme, Teacher Effectiveness Rating Scale, Janakpuri, New Delhi: Psycho-Educational Testing Center, 2000. Kumar, Promod and D.N. Mutha, Teacher Effectiveness Rating Scale, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 1990. Mangal, S.K., Mangal’s Teacher Adjustment Inventory (MTAS), Long and Short Version, Agra: National Psychological Corporation, 1996, 2005. McNergency, Robert F. and Card A. Carner, Teacher Development, New York: Macmillan, 1981. Passi, B.K. and M.S. Lalitha, General Teaching Competency Scale, Agra: National Psychological Corporation, 1994. Ober, Richard L. et. al., Systematic Observation of Teaching, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1971. Ryans, D.G., Characteristics of Teachers: A Research Study, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1969.

18 Systems Approach CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction System Systems Approach Steps involved in Systems Approach Education System Instructional System Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction The concept of systems approach is relatively a new approach emerged in the field of education for managing its affairs. Historically, the concept originated during World War II as a result of the research and development in the context of the complex man-machine system. Gradually, it was applied in the areas of industry and management. Lately, it has been introduced in the field of education as a strategy to manage, control and improve the processes and products of education. In its application, the systems approach is based on the systems concept and its basic parameters. Let us have, therefore, an idea about the concept of system and its parameters.

System Meaning of the Term ‘System’ The term “system” signifies a connotation of wholeness, interrelationships between parts or elements and self-regulation. Here it is explained more clearly in the light of some well-known definitions: R.L. Ackoff (1971): A system is the set of interrelated and interdependent elements. A.K. Jalaluddin (1981): A system may be defined as a dynamic, complex, integrated whole consisting of a self-regulating pattern of interrelated and interdependent elements organized to achieve the predetermined and specified objectives. Crawford Robb (1973): A system is a systematic organization of the elements that operate in a unique way. On the basis of these definitions the characteristics of a system may be summarized in the following ways: 1. A system is a general term applicable to many fields including instruction and education. 2. It is a dynamic and integrated whole. It is not merely a sum total of its parts or elements. 3. It represents a complex but systematic organization of interrelated and inter-dependent parts or elements. 4. In a system, all the parts or elements have their respective roles which have to be specified in relation to each other and in relation to the purposes to be achieved by it. 5. A system, as a whole, functions more effectively and achieves better results than any subsystem/part or combination of the effects of individual parts. 6. A system is a self-governing, self-maintaining, and selfregulating structure.

7. The functioning of the system is aimed to achieve the specific purposes or stipulated objectives. In this way, the term system may be understood as a selfmaintaining and self-regulating device consisting of interrelated and interacting elements or self-governing systems operating as a whole to achieve the predetermined purposes or goals with utmost efficiency, economy and productivity.

Types of Systems The systems may be classified into two broad categories: natural systems and man-made systems. 1. The natural systems, like solar system, and human body system, are the creation of nature or biological mechanism. Mostly, their functioning is beyond the control of man and, therefore, their behaviour cannot be predicted or determined precisely. 2. The man-made systems or man-machine systems, like telephone system, refreezing system, and education system, are deliberately designed or devised systems. The elements and the functioning of these systems are quite controllable, therefore, their behaviour can be predicted and determined precisely.

Parameters of a System Any system may be described in terms of four basic parameters: (i) input, (ii) process, (iii) output, and (iv) environmental context. 1. Input refers to what is put into a system. 2. Process is what goes on in a system. 3. Output is the product of a system and

4. Environmental context refers to all those conditions, factors and constraints related with the physical and social environment in which the system operates. A system cannot operate beyond the limits and boundaries of its environmental context and constraints. These basic parameters of a system can be diagrammatically represented in Fig. 18.1.

Figure 18.1 Parameters of a system.

Their nature and working can be better illustrated through the following example: The Atlas cycle factory at Sonepat in Haryana is a man-machine system. Its goal is reproduction of cycles. All the workers, technical and management personnel, machines and materials are its components or elements. Here, the men and material employed in the production of cycles may be referred to as inputs. What is going inside the factory for converting material into the product may be referred to as process and the production of cycle and its accessories, etc. as outputs. The factory operates in a definite social and physical environment and is controlled by these environmental constrains.

Systems Approach

Systems approach is a technique based on the systems concept and its basic parameters for understanding, predicting and controlling the operation of a system in a given environment to achieve the predetermined objectives in an intelligent, efficient and economic way. In this approach, a problem is taken into account in its totality and attempts are made to solve it in the context of the (i) predetermined objectives and (ii) functioning of its interrelated parts and the whole system under given environmental constraint. In its basic functioning, the system approach tries to have a reasonable control over inputs, process, outputs, and the environmental constraints. A system is maintained if it meets the requirements of the system objectives, and if it does not, it is modified. Consequently, there arises a need for adjustment either in the contents of the inputs or in the process, or both. Also there may be a need for change and development in the existing norms under which the whole system operates. In this way, various modes of adjustment involving parameters, components and functioning of the system are tried and the most feasible one is retained for getting the best results.

Steps Involved in Systems Approach There are three major steps involved in a systems approach: (i) System analysis (ii) Systems design and development (iii) Systems operation and evaluation. These steps are now described in brief.

System Analysis System analysis is concerned with the task of analysing a system in the form of identifying its elements, their organization, their function or performance individually or as a whole in order to determine the need

to make adjustment to ensure the achievement of system, namely inputs, process, outputs, and environmental constraints. It helps the designer of the system identify the constraints that interfere in the attainment of system objectives. Through this analysis, the appropriateness of the system objectives in view of the structure and functioning of the system may also be properly evaluated.

Systems Design and Development Whereas the system analysis is concerned with analysis, the systems design and development is related with the task of synthesizing. Here, attempts are made to design and develop the system on the basis of the finding of the former. The following are the main activities undertaken in this step. Determination of the objectives of a system. Selection of appropriate devices, methods, strategies and approaches. Formulating a scheme of comprehensive programmes for the working of the system in relation to its parameters and the stipulated objectives.

Systems Operation and Evaluation Systems operation and evaluation is concerned with the actual operation of a system and its evaluation in terms of the stipulated objectives for providing necessary feedback to bring desirable improvement and modification in the structure and functioning of the system. If the outputs of a system meet the expectations or requirements of the stipulated objectives or norms, the system can be allowed to carry on. The need for bringing necessary alternation or improvement in the system is felt, if there is a discrepancy between the two. It can be done in some of the following ways: Manipulating the elements or inputs of the system.

Pulling the functions of elements or inputs. Controlling the process and interaction among the elements of the system. Manipulating the environmental constrains of the system. In this way, the system may be restructured, reorganized and its functioning may be replanned, and re-operated in view of achieving better results. These processes are continued till the aim of getting best results in terms of the stipulated objectives with greater economy, precision and accuracy is not achieved.

Education System Education system is a man-made system. It may also be taken as a subsystem of the society in itself. It may be diagrammatically represented as in Fig. 18.2.

Figure 18.2 Structure of the education system.

On the same lines, the school system (a system of formal education through an educational institution) may be treated as a subsystem of the education system or a system complete in itself. It may have instructional (related with the cognitive development of pupils) and co-instructional system as its subsystem. However, both

the instructional and co-instructional systems, may exist and function quite independently as a complete system in themselves.

System Approach to Education As emphasized earlier, system approach refers to a well-thought technique or rational approach for designing, controlling and using a system for realizing the system objectives in the best possible ways. Its application in the field of education will surely make the system of education self-maintaining with its basic parameters operating scientifically on the principle of feedback and equilibrium. As a result, the systems approach to education is likely to solve various educational problems related with the organization and management of the process and products of education. The purpose served by systems approach in education may be summarized now: 1. It can effectively improve the instructional system. 2. It can bring efficiency in the school administration and management. 3. It may help in seeking the maximum effective utilization of the men and material resources. 4. A systematic educational planning (institutional, regional or national) in terms of long-range goals and specific short-range objective can be done by it. 5. It may help in improving the examination and evaluation system. 6. Improvement in the organization of co-curricular activities and other educational aspects of bringing conative and affective development of the pupils can be brought. 7. It may help in maintaining, controlling and improving the guidance services of the schools. 8. It may help in improving the training and development programmes, e.g. the training of teachers (pre-service and inservice) may be effectively improved.

9. It may prove an invaluable means for designing, controlling and improving the systems of non-informal and adult education. 10. Over and above, it may render valuable services in improving the quality of education in all its aspects and dimension.

Steps Involved in Systems Approach to Education Generally, in adopting systems approach for the solution of the problems in education, the following steps are employed: 1. Identification of the problem. 2. Specification of objectives. 3. Analysis of the task involved in achieving the objectives. 4. Systems analysis—analysis of the input and constraints of the system in the context of the stipulated objectives. 5. System design and development—by generating alternative strategies (change in input, process or constraints). 6. Identification of preferred solution in a given context. 7. Operation and implementation of preferred solution. 8. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the performance in terms of the specified objectives. 9. Providing feedback in the light of the evaluation for bringing necessary improvement and modification.

Instructional System The instructional work and activities being given inside a teachinglearning situation may be seen to work as a subsystem of the education system. However, in a particular teaching-learning situation, it may be found to work as a self-regulatory and independently functioning system along with its different constitutes or parameters as depicted in Fig. 18.3.

Figure 18.3 Structure of an instructional system.

Systems Approach to the Instructional System Systems approach to instructional system helps in understanding, controlling and improving the structure and functioning of the system in view of the effective realization of the instructional objectives. It helps in providing the best possible solution to the problems related to the planning, process and products of instruction.

Phase or Steps Involved After analyzing the instructional system, Robb (1973) has marked three major phases in the system approach to the instructional system: planning, execution and evaluation. Now this number has been increased to six (Jalaluddin, 1981), as outlined below with a slight modification:

1. Formulation of objectives This phase involves specification of instructional objectives in terms of the expected behavioural outcomes.

2. Pre-assessment of student-entering behaviour In this, attempts are made to assess the entry behaviour or initial performance of the student with the help of suitable criterion.

3. Designing and development of the system In the light of the instructional objectives and student-entering behaviour, what is to be considered appropriate in terms of inputs is planned and designed in the development of an instructional system. It may involve the following aspects: Analysis of the task related to instruction. Devising suitable teaching strategies or methods. Selection of appropriate media and material. Selection and organisation of appropriate contents (learning experiences). Defining and assigning roles to the elements involved in the instructional system.

4. Operation or implementation phase It is concerned with the actual operation or implementation of the instructional system. Here, the roles and the functions of the elements or the instructional systems are appropriately integrated or synthesized for achieving the desired instructional objectives under given conditions.

5. Evaluation of outcomes Under this phase, the students’ attainment is evaluated in terms of the stipulated instructional objectives on the basis of the post-test scores.

6. Improvement of the system It is concerned with the improvement of the system on the basis of feedback from evaluation results aimed to improve its effectiveness in terms of specified objectives. Thus, the technique of systems approach may be properly applied to understand, predict and control the elements and basic parameters

of the educational system and its subsystems in a given situation to achieve specified objectives in the most economical and scientific ways. It provides opportunities to modify and improve the system as best as possible in the light of the evaluation of the outputs and outcomes in relation to inputs, processes, environmental constraints and stipulated objectives. A teacher may thus be able to develop a suitable instructional design in terms of planning and execution of his teaching task based on the feedback provided by the system approach.

SUMMARY 1. The term system may be understood as a self-maintaining and self-regulating device consisting of interrelated and interacting elements or self-governing systems operating as a whole to achieve the pre-determined purposes or goals with utmost efficiency, economy and productivity. The systems may be classified into two broad categories: natural systems, like solar system and human body system and man-made or manmachine systems, like telephone system, refreezing system, and education system. In contrast to the natural system, the elements and the functioning of these systems are quite controllable, therefore, their behaviour can be predicted and determined precisely. 2. Any system may be described in terms of four basic parameters: (i) input (i.e. what is put into a system), (ii) process (i.e. what is going on in a system), (iii) output (i.e. the product of a system), and (iv) environmental context (i.e. the conditions, factors and constraints related with the physical and social environment in which the system operates). 3. Systems approach is a technique based on the systems concept and its basic parameters. In its basic functioning it tries to have a reasonable control over inputs, process, outputs

and the environmental constraints—the parameters of the system for achieving the specified objectives. If a system meets the requirements of its objectives, it is maintained and if it does not, it is modified. 4. There are three major steps involved in a systems approach: (i) system analysis (task of analyzing a system in terms of the identification, organization and performance of its elements), (ii) systems design and development (design and development of the system on the basis of the system analysis), and (iii) systems operation and evaluation (actual operation of the system and its evaluation for providing the necessary feedback). 5. Education is a man-made system. Systems approach to education is likely to solve various educational problems related with the organization and management of the process and products of education. Generally, in adopting systems approach in education, one is required to take the steps like (i) identification of the problem, (ii) specification of objectives, (iii) analysis of the task involved in achieving the objectives, (iv) systems analysis—analysis of the input and constraints of the system in the context of the stipulated objectives, (v) system design and development—designing the system by generating alternative strategies (change in input, process or constraints), (vi) identification of the preferred solution in a given context, (vii) operating and implementation of the preferred solution, (viii) evaluation of the effectiveness of the performance in terms of the specified objectives, and (ix) providing feedback in the light of the evaluation for bringing necessary improvement and modification. 6. Systems approach to instructional system helps in understanding, controlling and improving the structure and functioning of the system in view of the effective realization of

the instructional objectives. It provides the best possible solution to the problems related to planning, process and products of instruction. The major steps involved in the implementation of this approach are (i) formulation of instructional objectives, (ii) pre-assessment of student-entering behaviour, (iii) designing and development of the system, (iv) operation or implementation phase, (v) evaluation of outcomes, (vi) improvement of the system.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you mean by the term system? Discuss its main characteristics. 2. Define the term system and discuss its major types. 3. Briefly describe the major steps involved in systems approach. 4. What do you understand by educational system, school system and instructional system? 5. How can the systems approach be applied to education? Discuss it in the light of the major steps involved. 6. Discuss the process of applying systems approach to instruction while highlighting the various steps involved. 7. How can systems approach prove quite fruitful in the development of suitable instructional designs? Discuss in detail. 8. “Systems approach has wide applicability and bright future in the field of education and instruction”. Discuss the statement in the light of the utility of systems approach.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Ackoff, R.L., “Toward a system concept”, Management Science, vol. 17, no. 11, 1971. De Carlo, Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York: Behavioural Publications, 1973. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. Jalaluddin, A.K., “Systems approach”, in Training Courses in Educational Technology and its Application in the Preparation of Audio-visual Material, New Delhi: Department of Teaching Aids, NCERT, 1981. Kulkarni, S.S., “Teaching-Learnig Process: A Systems Analysis” in C.K. Basu (Ed.), Programmed Instruction in Industries, Defense, Health and Education, New Delhi: Indian Association for Programmed Instruction, 1969. Robb, Crawford, Notes on the System Approach to Management, Henley: Administrative Staff College, April, 1973.

19 Programmed Learning or Instruction Programmed learning is a term sometimes used synonymously to refer to the broader concept of auto-instructional method.

—D.L. COOK CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction What is Programmed Learning? Characteristics Fundamental Principles Styles of Programming Development of the Programmed Instructional Material Advantages and Applications of Programmed Learning Self-Learning Programmed Module Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Programmed learning or programmed instruction represents one of the effective innovations in the teaching-learning process. As a highly individualized and systematic instructional strategy, it has been found quite useful for classroom instruction as well as self-learning or auto-

instruction. In our country, also there have been attempts for the use of programmed instructions especially in providing material to the students of correspondence courses. Suitable self-instructional programmed materials for different subjects and grades have been prepared and it is being used for instructional or self-instructional purposes. Programmed learning occupies a unique place in the teaching and learning of the all the school subjects especially those requiring logical and systematic study coupled with independent practice and drillwork. Let us now have the desired knowledge and understanding of the skill of programmed learning.

What is Programmed Learning? Generally, the learning performed or instruction provided by a teaching machine or programmed textbook is referred to as programmed learning or instruction. Let us seek some help from the definitions put forward by various scholars regarding the meaning of the term programmed learning. Smith and Moore (1962): Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the students from a familiar background into a complex and new set of concepts, principles and understanding. Jacobs and others (1966): Self-instructional programmes are educational materials from which the students learn. These programmes can be used with many types of students and subject matter, either by themselves, hence the name “self-instruction” or in combination with other instructional techniques. Espich and Williams (1967): Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences, leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus responses relationship, that have proven to be effective.

Leith (1966): Programme is a sequence of small steps of instructional material (called frames), most of which require a response to be made by completing a blank space in a sentence. To ensure that expected responses are given, a system of cueing is applied, and each response is verified by the provision of immediate knowledge of result. Such a sequence is intended to be worked at the learners’ own pace as individualized self-instruction. Susan Markle (1969): It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of instrumental events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on the behaviour of each and every acceptable student. Gulati and Gulati (1976): Programmed learning, as popularly understood, is a method of giving individualized instruction, in which the student is active and proceeds at his own pace and is provided with immediate knowledge of results. The teacher is not physically present. The programmer, while developing programmed material, has to follow the laws of behaviour and validate his strategy in terms of student learning. N.S. Mavi (1984): Programmed instruction is a technique of converting the live instrumental process into self-learning or autoinstructional readable material in the form of micro-sequences (the segments of subject matter) which the learners are required to read, make some right or wrong response, correct wrong responses or confirm the right response and attain complete mastery of the concepts explained in the micro-sequences. In conclusion, the above definitions may reveal the things given ahead regarding the meaning, nature and characteristics of programmed learning.

Characteristics

1. Programmed learning is a method or technique of giving or receiving individualized instruction from a variety of sources such as programmed textbook, teaching machine, and computers with or without the help of a teacher. 2. In this technique, the instructional material is logically sequenced and broken into suitable small steps or segments of the subject matter, called frames. 3. For sequencing a particular unit of the instructional material, the programmer has to pay consideration for the initial or entry behaviour of the learner with which it begins and the terminal behaviour or the competence which the student is required to achieve. 4. In actual operation, a frame (a small but meaningful segment of subject matter) is presented to the learner. The learner is required to read or listen and then respond actively. 5. This learning system has an adequate provision for immediate feedback that is based on the theory of reinforcement. For instance, while responding to the first frame of the programmed material, the learner is informed about the correctness of his response. If he is correct, his responses are reinforced and if he is wrong, he may correct himself by receiving the correct answer. 6. It is the interaction between the learner and the learning material or programme that is emphasized in the programmed learning. Here the student is actively motivated to learn and respond. 7. It provides self-pacing; thus learning may occur at individual rate rather than general, depending upon the nature of the learner, learning material and the learning situations. 8. It calls for the overt responses of the learner that can readily be observed, measured and effectively controlled. 9. It has the provision for continuous evaluation that may help in improving the student’s performance and the quality of

programmed material. On the basis of these features, we may define programmed learning in the following way: Programmed learning is a systematically planned, empirically established and effectively controlled self-instructional technique for providing individualized instruction to the learner through logically sequenced small segments of the subject matter by using the principles of operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement.

Fundamental principles The studies and researches in the field of programmed learning have led to the establishment of some fundamental principles associated with a good programmed learning strategy. These are summarized below: 1. Principle of small steps: This principle is based on the basic assumption that a person learns better if the content matter is presented to him in suitable small steps. Therefore, a programmer while preparing a programme should try to arrange the subject matter into a properly sequenced and meaningful segment of information, called frames. These segments should be presented one at a time before the learner for responding. 2. Principle of active responding: This principle rests on the assumption that a learner learns better by being active. In programmed learning, the learner may remain active if he responds actively to every frame presented to him. Therefore, a good programme should actively involve the learner in the learning process. It should be so formed that the learner may not feel much difficulty in moving from one frame to another and to remain meaningfully, busy and active by responding to the frames thus, acquiring the knowledge step-by-step.

3. Principle of immediate reinforcement: The psychological phenomenon of reinforcement is the basis of this principle. One person learns better when he is motivated to learn by receiving information of the result just immediately after responding. Therefore, in a good programme, appropriate consideration is always made for the provision of immediate reinforcement by informing him about the correctness of his response. 4. Principle of self-pacing: Programmed learning is a technique of individualized instruction. It is based on the basic assumption that learning can take place better if an individual is allowed to learn at his own pace. So, a good programme should always take care of the principle of self-pacing. The programming of the material should be done in view of the principle of individual difference and the learner should be able to respond and move from one frame to another according to his own speed of learning. 5. Principle of student-testing: For better learning, it is always good to seek continuous evaluation of the learning process. The principle of student testing meets this requirement. In the programmed learning, the learner has to leave the record of his response because he is required to write a response for each frame on a response sheet. This detailed record helps in revising the programme. It may also prove a good source for studying and improving the complex phenomenon of human learning.

Styles of Programming In programmed learning, the presentation of instructional material or subject matter to the learner in a suitable form is termed as programming. Various types of programming have emerged on account of researchers and experimental studies in the field of programmed instruction. The following list gives some of the mentionable ones:

1. Linear or extrinsic programming 2. Branching or intrinsic programming 3. Mathetics programming 4. Ruleg system of programming 5. Computer-assisted instruction 6. Learner controlled instruction. The first three styles—linear, branching and mathetics—represent the actual basic formats. The Ruleg system represents the deductive and inductive approaches in teaching. Here, a perfect rule or special example works as a stimulus for evoking the responses in terms of imperfect rule or imperfect example. In practice, this system is just the extension of linear or branching programming. The other two other styles—computer-assisted instruction and learner controlled instruction—are actually the ways and means of providing instructions and not the special or basic format of the programming. In programming, usually the programmer makes use of the basic formats—linear, branching or mathetics—for developing programmes suitable to computer or learner controlled instructions. We would be now discussing, in brief, the most frequently used linear and branching programming styles.

Linear or Extrinsic programming The credit for propagating the linear programming style goes to B.F. Skinner (1955). It is directly related with his theory of “operant conditioning” and is based on the assumption that human behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually, step by step, with suitable reinforcement for each desired response. Consequently, in this programming, the instructional material is sequenced into a number of meaningful small steps, called frames. These frames are presented to the learner in the arranged sequence, one at a time. The learner is required to respond actively at each step. Immediately after responding, the learner is given information about the correctness of

his response. It reinforces his behaviour and he may be motivated to learn the next frame in the arranged sequence. By proceeding from one step to another, the learner may be able to acquire the desired learning experiences. As shown in the Fig. 19.1 the sequence of frames and path of learning in this programmed learning is systematic and linear. That is why, the type of programming is referred to as ‘linear’. Here all the learners have to proceed through the same frames and in the same order. The whole instructional procedure is well controlled. However, this control is quite extrinsic exercised by the programmer and so, the linear programming is also referred to as extrinsic programming.

Figure 19.1 Arrangement of frames in linear programming.

The linear programming lays great emphasis on making the sequences of response errorless. For this purpose, the steps are made so small and sequenced in such a way that the learner makes only correct responses throughout the instruction process and receives, in consequences, only positive reinforcement. If the learner does not respond correctly to a particular frame, he may be required either to repeat the frame or be acquainted with the correct response. In any case he is not allowed to move to the next frame unless he responds correctly to the present frame. Example: Our Solar System

Frame 1 The Earth on which we live, is an important member of the family of our solar system. In the nucleus of this solar system is the Sun. It has eight planets (nowadays leaving the Pluto) revolving around it on account of the gravitational force. The Earth is one of them that revolve _____________ the Sun on account of _____________ force. Response: a round; gravitational.

Frame 2 In addition to the eight planets, the satellites of these planets, comets, meteors and asteroids also are the members of the _____________. All these planets and the other heavenly bodies revolve around the _____________ in their own _____________. Responses: Solar system; Sun; orbits. In this manner, the students may proceed on their self-learning path by going from one frame to another arranged in a sequential and systematic way.

Branching or Intrinsic programming The credit for developing the branching programme goes to an American psychologist, Norman A. Crowder (1954). In his own words, branching or intrinsic programming is one which adapts to the need of the students without a medium of an extrinsic device such as a computer. In contrast to linear programming, the this style, therefore, provides an intrinsic arrangement in the sense that it is not controlled extrinsically by the programmer. Here, a learner is free to make decisions and is able to adapt the instruction to his needs. The basic assumptions underlying this style are as below: 1. The learner learns a thing better if it is presented in its totality or in the form of meaningful components or units.

2. Learning takes place better if the students are made to learn on the pattern of traditional tutorial methods. 3. The basic learning takes place during the student’s exposure to the new material. 4. Wrong responses do not necessarily hinder the learning of a correct response. In a learning process, errors may occur. If an error occurs, it may be detected and corrected before proceeding further on the learning path. 5. Learning takes place better if a learner is allowed sufficient freedom to take decisions for adapting the instruction to his needs. 6. Learning will be better if each response is used to test the success of the latest communication to the student and the testing is followed by remedial instructions. 7. Multiple-choice items help more in the learning process than the forced choice single response items. Based on the above assumptions, the procedure for branching programme may be outlined in the following way: 1. The instructional material is divided into ‘units’ of material called ‘frames’. Much information, one or two paragraphs or even a page, is provided in a frame. Thus, such a frame is quite larger than that employed in linear programming. 2. The learner goes through the frame. After that he is required to respond to multiple choice questions associated with the learning material of the frame. He has to discriminate and choose one right answer. 3. The learner moves forward if he answers correctly, but is diverted (branched) to one or more remedial frames if he does not. These frames explain the matter afresh, ask him questions to elicit the right answer and reveal his previous mistakes, and then return him to the original frame.

4. This cycle goes on till the learner passes through the whole instructional material at his own pace. Diagrammatically, the branching programme may be represented as in Fig. 19.2.

Figure 19.2 A diagrammatic representation of the main path and branching in branching programming.

Example: Programme: Page 1. The Earth has been evolved out of the Sun. Like the Earth, many of its constituents got separated from it, but remained attached to it on account of its gravitational power. They still may be seen to revolve

around their parent body, i.e. Sun. These are known as planets. There are eight such planets (Pluto once known as the ninth planet, has now been categorized as one of the dwarf planets along with Ceres and Eris) including our Earth. There are some heavenly bodies named as satellites in the solar system. They can be observed to revolve around their respective planets. The moon is one of such satellites. It revolves around the Earth. Question: What is solar system? (a) The Sun and the illuminated space around it is known as the solar system. (b) The solar system consists of the Sun and our Earth. (c) The solar system consists of the Sun and its eight planets. (d) The solar system consists of the Sun, its eight main planets, dwarf planets, satellites of the planets and other heavenly bodies like asteroids, comets and meteors. Answer: (a) Your answer is not correct. For the correct answer, you are required to study the given subject material on page 1. For knowing about the illuminated space around the Sun, you should read the subject material given on page 15. (b) Your answer is not correct. For the correct answer try to read carefully the content material provided on page 1. For knowing about the position of the Earth in the solar system and the relationship between the Sun and the Earth, you may read the content material given on page 9. (c) Your answer is not fully correct. You have to once again glance on page 1 for the correct understanding. However, for knowing well about the relationship of the Sun with its eight planets and the necessary description about these planets you should try to read the material provided in pages 4, 10 and 14. (d) Your answer is correct. You can now proceed on page 2 for your further learning.

[Note: Here all the above cited pages belong to the pages of the programmed text for illustration.]

Comparison of Linear and Branching programming Table 19.1 summarizes the comparison of the linear and the branching programming. Table 19.1 Comparison of linear and branching programming

Development of the programmed Instructional Material The development of the programmed instruction material in the form of programmed text or computer-assisted instruction is a highly specialized job. The task involves the following main phases: 1. Preparatory phase (preparation of the programme) 2. Development phase (writing of the programme)

3. Evaluative phase (testing or evaluation)

Preparatory Phase In any scheme of the development of the programmed instructional material, the preparatory phase occupies a very prominent place. It includes the planning and beginning. If one can plan and begin properly, the chances of winning the game are cent per cent increased. That is why, almost 25 per cent time is recommended to be spent for the execution of the activities concerning this phase. In general, the following activities or steps are to be executed during this phase:

1. Selection of the topic or units to be programmed A programmer, first of all, should concentrate on the wise selection of the topic or unit for his programming. Here, what is to be selected should, in general, meet the following criteria: 1. Is any programme already available on the topics? 2. Can’t it be conveniently taught by other already available methods? 3. Does it allow developing a simple, logical and systematic programme quite interesting, useful and suitable from the angle of the learner? 4. Does it meet the curriculum needs of the learner? 5. Does it belong to the subject and area specialized by the teacher? 6. Can it help in curtailing the teacher’s burden? 7. Does it allow for setting the real and useful objectives in behavioural terms and design a criterion test to measure the outcomes of the results of the programmed learning?

8. Will the labour and expenses incurred in the development of the programme be justifiable in terms of the gains?

2. Writing assumptions about learners The programme is meant for the learners. Therefore, a programmer should know and describe the characteristics of the learners in terms of their age, gender, socio-economic and cultural background, intellectual level, interest, general scholastic abilities, aptitudes, previous experience, potential of learning, etc. For this purpose, he may take the help of his own experience, cumulative record and various other testing devices, interest inventory, aptitude tests, intelligence tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests, etc. and conclude about the characteristics of the learners.

3. Writing objectives in behaviour terms After knowing about the potentiality of the learners, the programmer has to decide what he can aim for them through the programme. In other words, he has to set the definite instructional objectives. For deriving the desired results, these objectives should be stated clearly in behavioural terms, or he should state clearly the type and extent of the behavioural changes to be expected from the learners after going through the developed programme. It is this description of the terminal behaviour of the learners that is aimed at in writing the instructional objectives. (For the full details and know-how of writing instructional objectives, the readers are requested to go through the relevant texts referred at the end of this chapter.) However, for the sake of convenience, we just mention a few systematic steps and things to be performed in this direction: (i) Initially, the programmer has to select the domain—cognitive, effective or conative— of the behaviour for which the behavioural changes are to be sought.

(ii) The programmer has to take decision about adopting a particular approach, such as Mager’s, Miller’s or R.C.E.M. for writing instructional objectives in behavioural terms. While the Mager’s approach serves the purpose of cognitive and affective objectives, the Miller’s approach is meant for psychomotor (conative) objectives, and the R.C.E.M. approach can serve the objectives belonging to all the three domains of the behaviour. Each approach has its own taxonomy (system of classification) of education objectives. While the Mager’s and Miller’s approaches make use of the set of action verbs for writing the instructional objectives, the R.C.E.M. approach replaces these action verbs with a set of 17 mental processes or mental abilities (categorized in four classes). (iii) For writing an objective of a particular domain, suitable action verbs or mental processes are picked up from the list of action verbs or mental processes format in relation to the particular topic or content portion to be taught. The objectives can be written in behavioural terms by combining action verbs (in the case of the Mager’s or Miller’s approach) or mental process (in the case of the R.C.E.M. approach) with the content. The process of doing so has been already discussed in detail in Chapter 9.

4. Writing the entry behaviour of the learners The objectives and their statements in behavioural terms point out the finishing point or terminal behaviour of the learners as a result of the given programmed instruction. However, one has to start with something for aiming to end with the terminal behaviour. This starting point with respect to one’s behaviour is called his entry behaviour— the initial behaviour. Before going through the programmed instruction, this behaviour—like terminal behaviour— to be stated in clear terms so that the programmer may be very much clear about the programmed instructional material developed by him. Here, one

has to describe the behaviour of the learner in terms of the prerequisite knowledge, skills, interest attitudes, etc. as illustrated below: Before going through the present programme the learner is able to………read/write/define/observe/calculate/……….with……… efficiency or in ………circumstances.

5. Developing specific outlines of content The course contents to be covered through the programme are decided on the basis of basic assumptions about the learners, their entry behaviour, objectives to be realized in the form of terminal behaviour, and the courses of study prescribed to them by authorities like Boards of School Education, and University. At the planning stage, the programmer is supposed to develop specific outlines of the related course contents. For this purpose, he may take the help of the following: (i) His own experience and observation of the related course. (ii) The analysis of the curriculum or prescribed syllabus. (iii) The study of textbooks, workbooks, manuals, instructional guides, reference book and natural sources. (iv) Consultation and help from subject matter experts and experienced teachers. After collecting the content material from the sources, the programmer may go ahead for preparing the outlines. This can be done in two ways: logically or psychologically. Whereas logic demands systematic and orderly treatment of the subject, psychology advocates the arrangement that appeals to the basic interests and abilities of the learners. The programmer must try to organize the contents in such a way that it can suit both the purposes, i.e. logical and systematic treatment of the subject, based on the psychological requirement of the learners.

6. Preparing a criterion test At the planning stage, the programmer has to develop a criterionreferenced test to be administered at the completion of the programme for measuring its effectiveness in relation to the realization of the specific instructional objectives. The criterionreferenced tests are not the same as the traditional achievement or non-referenced tests. Whereas the traditional achievement tests are designed to measure individual differences and aim at comparing individual performances, the criterion-referenced tests are designed to ascertain the effectiveness of programme or instruction by measuring the learner’s performance on clearly defined educational tasks. Through the criterion tests, the terminal behaviour of the learner reached after the completion of the unit of a programme is assessed for ascertaining the extent to which the set objectives have been realized. Usually, the following points are to be kept in mind while preparing a criterion test: (i) The test items should be constructed in view of the assessment of the instructional objectives defined in behavioural terms. (ii) As far as possible, there should be at least two to three items for each instructional objective. (iii) In the format of text items, as far as possible, the programmer should try to use the objective-type questions. He should, therefore, acquire desirable competency and skill in the preparation of the objective test items. (iv) Each item of the test should undergo a process of item analysis. The programmer has to see that items are free from any ambiguity of language and content and possess reasonable discriminating power as well as internal consistency. It helps in avoiding repetition and eliminating of useless or less useful items.

(v) The items as well as the accompanied instructions of the test must be able to create the necessary conditions or situations calling the demonstration of the students or terminal behaviour for the assessment of the realization of instructional objectives. (vi) The programmer should try to establish the reliability and validity of the test. Reliability refers to a faith that can be put into a test and it can easily be verified through the test-retest method. The test may be repeated, and the extent to which the results are the same for the same individuals, the test is said to be reliable. Validity refers to the accuracy behaviour of the test. A valid test should always measure what it aims to measure. Validity of the test can be achieved by carefully going through item analysis, seeing that every item serves the purpose for which it is being constructed and comparing the results of the test with some already well-established valid tests or criterion.

Development Phase The development phase covers the actual writing of the programme. In writing the programme, besides taking decision about a particular style of a linear, branching or mathetics programme, the programmer takes all help from what is being done at the preparatory phase. The assumptions about the learner, his entry behaviour, the instructional objectives fixed in the form of terminal behaviour, the outlines of the contents chosen, all are given due consideration while engaging in writing programme. The writing of the subject matter as programmed instructional material differs much from the ordinary textbook writing. Here, the programmer has to follow the spirit and principles of programmed learning. The instructional material is to be broken into logically sequenced suitable small steps or segments of the subject matter called frames. These frames are so designed and sequenced that the learner remains meaningfully busy and active by responding to them,

one at a time, faces minimum or no failure, gets immediate reinforcement by receiving information of the result immediately after responding, and is able to respond and move from one frame to another according to his own speed of learning. In practice, the task of programme writing involves three steps, namely designing of the frames, sequencing of the frames and editing of the programme.

Designing of the frames A frame represents the basic smallest unit of the instructional material that is to be presented to the learner at a time. It varies in size from a few words to a full page or more (as in the case of branching programme). It has three different components, namely stimulus (for information presentation), response (for responding by learner) and reinforcement (knowledge of result in the form of answer) as illustrated: Cement and lime used as building material are obtained from the mines. These are called minerals. The marble used in the construction of building is also obtained from the mines. The marble is a …………….. In writing the frames for developing a particular programme, the programmer has to make use of certain special techniques like priming and prompting for helping the learner respond correctly and proceed successfully (with minimum error rate) from one frame to another. Priming: In the priming technique, attempts are made to pour the information into the minds of the learner for active responding in the way we pour in some water for drawing out water from a dry water pump. Let us now illustrate this technique with examples:

1. Cement and lime used as building material are obtained from the mines. These are called minerals. The marble used in the construction of building also is obtained from the mines. Kota stone also is obtained from the mines. Kota stone is a …… Response: mineral 2. The heavenly bodies once part of the Sun and now revolving around it on account of its gravity are called planets. The Earth, Mars and Jupiter are such heavenly bodies that were once the part of the Sun and now are revolving around it. These are called planets. Mercury and Saturn also are such separated heavenly bodies that are revolving around the Sun. These also are called …… Response: planets Prompting: In the prompting technique, we make use of prompts. In prompting, some additional help in the form of an extra stimulus is provided in the frame for helping the learner to respond correctly. Their use helps the learners in getting additional helping stimulus for responding to a given programmed material frame. It can be illustrated well through the following examples: 1. Cement and lime are such building materials that are obtained from the mines. These are called minerals. The marble used in the construction of building also is obtained from the mines. The marble is …… mineral. Response: a 2. The Earth, Mars and Jupiter, once happened to be a part of the Sun, are now seen revolving around it. These are called planets of the Sun. Mercury and Saturn also are similar heavenly bodies that revolve around the Sun. These are called the planets of the ……. Response: Sun

Sequencing of the frames The task of arranging the frames in some systematic order (on the basis of logical and psychological principles) to lead a learner from his entry behaviour to terminal is termed as sequencing of the frames. Usually, the following three approaches are employed for the sequencing: 1. Matrix approach 2. Ruleg approach 3. Egrul approach In the Matrix approach, a matrix is prepared by putting the learning points and a major concept including sub-concepts, minor concept information points, etc. on one axis and the frames of the programme that lead to the behavioural change to the learner on the other axis. Thus, a glimpse on this matrix may reveal everything aimed and systematically covered through the frames. In the Ruleg (rule + example) approach, deductive reasoning is employed in sequencing the frames. The fames putting or emphasizing rules or principles are given first. These are followed by examples frames depicting the meaning and application of the rule or principle. In Egrul (example + rule) approach, inductive reasoning is employed in sequencing the frames. The frames employing examples are presented first, these are followed by the frames depicting rules or principles generalised through the previous example frames.

Editing of the programme The first draft of the programme developed in the form of sequenced frames is subjected to a thorough review and editing process. This work is done at the following three levels in a hierarchical order: 1. Technical accuracy editing

2. Programme technique editing 3. Composition editing In technical accuracy editing, the programme is thoroughly reviewed for the purpose of removing any technical inaccuracies in the subject matter. The help of some subject experts and the audiovisual or methodology experts may be taken for this purpose. The programme technique editing is performed with the help of some experts in the field of programmed instruction, for removing any deficiency and inaccuracy in the technique of programme development including designing and sequencing of the frames, style and format of programming, and so on. In composition editing, the help is taken from some language expert to remove any inaccuracy and weakness from the language and composition point of view such as grammatical mistakes, spelling errors, inappropriateness of the language, and punctuation forms. The language of the instructions given to the learners in the programme should also be checked and, similarly, the other important aspects such as length of the blanks, uniformity of the numbering system, placement of example and illustrations also should be thoroughly checked as to remove any discrepancies from the point of view of composition.

Evaluative Phase The last phase of the development of the programmed instruction material, evaluative phase, is related with the try-out and evaluation of the edited programmed material available in the form of sequenced frame. With the help of activities undertaken in this phase, the programmer tries to test the efficiency and effectiveness of his programme and in the light of its results, he further tries to bring proper modification and improvement in his programme. The main activities undertaken in this phase are: (i) individual try-out, (ii) small group try-out, (iii) field try-out or testing, and (iv) evaluation.

Let us discuss these activities in brief.

Individual try-out In this, the programme is administered to a few learners, say four (representatives of whom the programme is written) by taking them out at a time. In practice, the learner is presented with the material of the frames one by one, and asked to write down his responses on a separate sheet of paper, and then tally them with the correct responses written on the back page of the frames. The learner is clearly told that he is not going to be tested but his help is being sought in the modification of the programme. Therefore, he has to provide free and frank suggestions for improving the content, sequences or organization of the frames. Here, the informal face-toface contact with a single learner, at a time, provides a valuable opportunity to the programmer to study the reactions of the learner regarding the difficulties he faces and the inadequacies of the programme. Consequently, based on the results of the tryout on individual level, the programmer tries to bring necessary improvement and modifications in the draft of the programme.

Small group try-out The modified programmed instruction draft (on the basis of the individual try-out) is then tried on a small group of learners, say five to ten. Here, with a proper rapport and in an informal environment, the learners are persuaded to render proper help in testing the appropriateness and effectiveness of the programme. They are provided with the copy of the programme along with a blank sheet to record their responses, point out difficulties and give suggestions for modifications and improvement. The time taken in completing the programmes is also carefully noted. Pre-test before proceeding on the programmed instruction and post-test after completing the programme also are conducted. The differences in the attainment

scores of pre-test and post-test are then employed to ascertain the effectiveness of the programme.

Field try-out or testing On the basis of the findings of the small group try-out, the programmer brings necessary structural changes in the programmed draft and goes a step further for testing its validity in the field, i.e. real setting. Field testing differs from the small group try out in the sense that it represents a full and final try-out of the programme and is undertaken by the teachers or instructors instead of the programmer with the real students in real learning situations. However, the method of testing is similar as practised in small group try-out. The difference found in pre-test and post-test attainment scores of the learners, the difficulties faced, and the suggestions received and responses analyzed on the basis of findings of the field testing provide valuable cues and keys for testing the validation and appropriateness of the developed programmed material.

Evaluation The results of field try-out in the form of data are properly analyzed through the process of evaluation for testing the validity and improving the quality of the prepared programme. This validation is carried out on two fronts: one on internal criteria and the other on external criteria. Whereas the internal criteria of the evaluation is concerned with internal features, strength and weaknesses of the programme, the external criteria provides support for the validation of the programme by giving evidence in favour of its effectiveness. Evaluation based on internal criteria: Here, the data of field testing may be evaluated in terms of (i) error rate, (ii) programme density, and (iii) sequence progression. In this text, we will discuss the first two, i.e. error rate and programme density.

(i) Evaluation in terms of error rate: The error rate is computed on the basis of the learner’s responses obtainable on each frame of the programme. If the learner is not able to respond correctly on a particular frame, it is considered as an error. This task of error detection is carried out for each frame and for all the learners who are tested in the field try-out. The errors detected are then used for computing two types of error rate: (i) the error rate of the total programme or a particular unit of the programme, and (ii) the error rate of a particular frame. The formulae used for the computation of these are:

The interpretation of error rates in terms of the evaluation of the programme should be made very cautiously. A lower error rate does not always ensure the effectiveness of the programmes. It may be the result of an easy programme or excessive priming or prompting used in designing the frames. However, the errors, especially the higher error rate, provide red signal to the programmer for making necessary modification in the programme. (ii) Evaluation in terms of programme density: The computation of programme density helps in the measurement of the difficulty level of a programme. It is usually measured in terms of a hypothetical ratio known as type token ratio (TTR). This ratio is calculated with the help of the following formula:

where Nd = the total number of different types of responses and Nt = the total number of responses required in a programme. For example, if in a particular programme, the learner is required to respond in 30 different ways out of 70 total number of responses required, its programme density can be computed as:

Since TTR is a ratio, its range lies between 0 and 1. Its value signifies the relative difficulty level of the programme. If the value is one, the programme density will be the maximum. The learner will be required to respond differently to each frame of the programme and hence the programme will be termed as the most difficult. Similarly, if every response that is required of the learner consists of the same word, the programme will be termed to have minimal density. The computation of TTR, thus, can serve very useful purpose in pointing out its difficulty level. In an ideal programme, the range of TTR is said to lie between 0.25 and 0.33 and consequently, every programme should try to maintain this level of TTR in the development of the programme. Evaluative measures based on the external criteria: Under this, the programmer can evaluate his programme in terms of: (i) criterion test, (ii) gain ratio, and (iii) learner’s attitude. Let us discuss these measures one by one.

(i) Evaluation in terms of criterion test: Evaluation of the level of performance of the learners under this test is done at the preparatory stage of the programme. Its results may reveal the extent to which the behaviour potential (from entry to terminal behaviour) is raised. Thus, the units or whole of the programme may be evaluated in terms of the realization of the set objectives. (ii) Evaluation in terms of gain ratio: The effectiveness of a programme can properly be measured with the help of a concept known as gain ratio. It is defined as the ratio between the amount learned and the amount could be learned. For a particular programme, it can be computed with the use of the following formula:

(iii) Evaluation in terms of the learner’s attitude: For this purpose, the programme is required to develop and administer an attitude scale. The use of a three-point attitude scale can serve the purpose well by making the attitude-linked statements as yes, no and ? (agreeing, disagreeing, and can’t say). With these attitude-demonstrable responses of the learner, the programmer can be acquainted with their reactions, liking and disliking for the content, style of programming, difficulty level, language, the design and sequencing of the frames, instructions, illustrations, and other such features of the programme. For objective evaluation, the programmer can go ahead with the task of computing the attitude coefficient with the help of the following formula:

where fyes = the total of the frequencies of responses marked as ‘yes’; fno = the total of the frequencies of responses marked as ‘no’; and f? = the total of the frequencies of responses marked as ‘?’.

Advantages and Applications of Programmed Learning Programmed learning may prove quite useful to the students, teachers and the educational administrators from various angles. Its advantages and applications are summarized as below: 1. Programmed learning may help in individualizing the instructional process. The scope of self-pacing gives opportunity to the students for learning with their own speed without obstructing the path of others. 2. It provides feeding material to the self-instructional devices such as computer, teaching machine, and programmed text. Such devices: (i) help the students in the task of self-learning (ii) solve the problem of paying individual attention (iii) solve the problem of dearth of trained and effective teachers (iv) help in revolutionizing, developing and providing the techniques of self and mass-education. 3. It may free the teachers from the hard labour and complexities of routine classroom activities. It may help them bear a larger load of the students and devote their time to more creative activities. 4. The social setting of the classroom may be properly improved and the problem of discipline gets solved automatically with the help of programmed instruction.

5. It proves an effective teaching strategy on account of the following: (i) The content may be thoroughly analyzed and presented in suitable steps and logical sequences. (ii) The instructional objectives are properly set. (iii) Reinforcement and feedback are properly provided. (iv) The learner gets opportunity for self-learning and initiating his response. (v) The learner is actively involved in the task of learning. He is provided with sufficient motivation, sustained attention and interest. (vi) The learner gets proper opportunity for self-assessment of his performance. 6. It may prove useful in the enrichment of curriculum and thereby, in the education of the exceptional children. 7. It may be effectively used in providing guidance and remedial instruction. 8. It helps in the development of interrogative, judgemental and creative learning. The power of discrimination and making immediate and effective response is developed through such instruction. 9. There are various special areas of the curriculum, and many complex behaviours and skill that can be effectively improved and mastered through the programmed learning technique. For example, drill and practice work in various school subjects, concept formation and learning of principles and similar other intellectual and motor skills can be effectively learned through it. Thus, programmed learning may prove a big helping hand in all the tasks and aspects of education. The fear that it is going to displace either the regular classroom teaching or the classroom teacher is baseless. It always works for providing assistance to the

teachers, students and educational administrators for playing their roles more effectively with great care and convenience in a more systematic and organized way for realizing specific instructional objectives and broader educational purposes.

Self-Learning Programmed Module What is a Module Individualization of instruction is the need of the time. The learners by nature possess specific individual characteristics of learning the things with their own pace. Programmed instruction provides them the required programmed material for learning with their own efforts. While planning for the self-instructional material, the whole curriculum can be successfully divided into meaningful units called modular units or simply modules. A module for the definition purpose may be known as “a set of learning activities intended to facilitate the student’s achievement on an objective or set of objectives.” (Arendset, R.L. and others, 1971). Thus, a module usually stands for a sub-part or subsystem of the curriculum or instructional programme. However, as a subsystem (irrespective of its size), it is quite complete in itself in the matter of providing the desirable learning experience and selfinstructional material to the learner. A self-instruction programmed module, thus, may include the following things: 1. A set of instructional objects for the module. 2. The broad lines of content or learning experiences. 3. The presentation of the subject matter in a programmed form. 4. The evaluation system. The self-learning modules so designed are always subjected to the length of the period and the size of the class. While framing them

on the basis of the length of the period, one should see that they involve the largest amount of time, the multiple of which may give the period lengths desired for any instruction. For example, a 15-minute module is desirable in case the period lengths are of 30, 45 and 60 minutes. Similarly, with respect to the class size, the modules are so framed as to cater to need of the maximum size of the class desired for any instructional purpose, e.g. a 20-student module is to be designed if we have a class size of 20, 40 or 60 students. Let us try to illustrate the process of preparing a self-learning programmed module with an example meant for the self-instruction in the subject geography. Example: Subject: Geography Class: VIII Module: Tides The objective of this self-learning module is to help you in the acquisition of the desired knowledge and skills regarding the topic in hand related to the subject geography. Now you read the instructional objectives given below carefully. It will help you know about the type of educational advantages that you can draw through the study of this module.

Instructional objectives The students are expected to demonstrate the following types of behavioural changes after going through the material of the present module: 1. Tell the meaning of the term tide or define the term tide. 2. Tell the meaning and consequences of the high and low tides. 3. Distinguish between the terms high tide and low tide or spring tide and neap tide. 4. Tell the causes behind the occurrence of high and low tides or spring and neap tides.

5. Explain the reason for the occurrence of the spring tide on the full moon and new moon. 6. Explain why the neap tide occurs when the moon is at the first and last quarters. 7. Provide examples of the advantages gained through tides. For the realization of these objectives, the learning material is organized into a few desirable frames. You are now required to gain the essential knowledge about the phenomenon of tides. The sea water as we see rises and falls at regular intervals twice a day. The daily rise and _________ of water in the seas at regular intervals is called a tide. (Response: fall) The duration between the occurrences of such a rise and fall of the water is 6 and a quarter of an hour. In this way, approximately, in 25 hours the sea water _________ and _________ at two times. (Response: rises; falls) The gravitational power of the moon is responsible for the tides. The moon attracts the sea _________. As a result, the water rises above causing high _________. (Response: water; tide) The moon is the satellite of our earth. It takes 24 hours and 52 minutes in its revolution around the earth. Hence, the time gap between the rise and fall of sea water in a tide is 12 hours and _________ minutes. (Response: 26 minutes) Both the Sun and the moon attract the seawater with their gravitational force; but the gravitational power of the moon on account of its nearness to the earth than the sun exercises greater effect on the _________. The tides are, therefore, caused on account of the gravitational force of the _________ than the _________.

(Response: seawater; moon; Sun) Tides are of two types: spring tides and neap tides. When the rise and the fall of the sea water are at their highest ranges, we have spring tides and when these are at their lowest, there occurs _________. (Response: neap tides) Spring tides occur on the full moon and the new moon days. On these days, the Sun, the Earth and the moon are in a straight line. Therefore, the gravitational forces of both the _________ and _________ are available for pulling the sea water up resulting into its _________ elevation. (Response: Sun; moon; highest) Neap _________ occur when the moon is at the first and the last quarters. At this time, the Sun and the _________ make a right angle at the Earth’s centre. (Response: tides; moon) In this way, the occurrence of the phenomenon of tides is very much dependent on the phases of the moon. On the full moon and the new moon where we have _________ tides, there happens _________ tides at the first and the last quarter of the lunar month. (Response: spring; neap) During the _________ tides when the sea water enters the interior parts of the coast, the valuable things belonging to the ocean such as pearls are surfaced on the banks. When it flows back to the sea during _________ tides, it carries away with it the mud and impurities deposited on the banks of the harbours. (Response: high; low) The high tides increase the depth of water by raising the water level. This makes it convenient for the ships to enter or leave the _________ safely. (Response: harbour)

Evaluation You have just gone through the learning material related to an important topic of the subject geography named “Tides”. Let us see what you have learnt through this self-learning module. For this purpose, you are advised to respond to the questions given below. Try to be as brief and straightforward as possible. 1. Define the terms (i) Tide (ii) Spring tide (iii) Neap tide 2. Tell the reason (i) Why do spring tides occur on the full and the new moon days? (ii) Why do neap tides occur at the first and the last quarters of the lunar months? (iii) How do tides help in the washing down of the mud and impurities on the banks of the harbour? 3. Fill in the blanks (i) High _________ increase the depth of water by raising the water level. (ii) The phenomenon of tides is influenced by the phases of the __________. (iii) The tides occurring on the full moon and the new moon are known as ___________. (iv) The daily rise and fall of the sea water at regular intervals is called ___________.

SUMMARY 1. Programmed learning represents one of the most effective innovations in the field of teaching-learning that proves very helpful in the development of an appropriate self-instructional

or self-learning material in a quite systematic and organized way by making use of five basic principles. The development of such a material, in fact, then paves the way for the preparation of the textbooks used in self-learning on the part of the students and the development of the needed softwares for the computer programmers. 2. The five basic principles are named as principle of small steps, principle of active responding, principle of immediate responding, principle of self-pacing, and principle of student testing. 3. A programme developer can make use of a number of styles programming styles for the presentation of the learning material before the learners. The most commonly used ones may be named as linear programming and branching programming. 4. B.F. Skinner is known as the propagator of the linear programming style. In adopting this style, one has to divide and organize the instructional or learning material related to a topic or subject into a number of small but meaningful frames in such a way as to allow the learner to respond to them immediately with minimum or no error, and, thus, make his task easy in proceeding straightly on the learning path comprising these frames, with his own pace. However, in case he commits mistakes in between he is acquainted with the correct answer for reinforcing him to get continued. 5. Norman A. Crowder is known as the propagator of the branching programming style. In this style the learning material is presented before the learner in a little larger size frames than those employed for the linear style. Usually, the multiple response type of questions are used in the branching format for responding on the part of the learner. If the learner responds correctly, he is allowed to proceed on the next frame,

but if he is unable to do so, he is directed to go for the study of the instructional material of other frames for the required understanding and re-learning on his part. 6. The development of a programmed learning or instructional programme on the topic of a curricular unit is carried out in three distinct stages or phases: (i) preparatory phase (requiring execution of the tasks such as selection of the topic to be programmed, writing assumption about the learners, writing objectives in behavioural terms, writing the entry behaviour of the learners, developing specific outlines of the content and preparation of a criterion test), (ii) developmental phase (requiring execution of the tasks such as writing of the frames, sequencing of the frames, and editing of the frames), and (iii) evaluative phase (requiring execution of the tasks, namely individual try-out, small group try-out, field try-out, and evaluation). 7. A subject teacher may go for the development of the appropriate programmed learning modules meant for selfinstruction or self-learning on the part of his students. Such module may be understood as a meaningful unit of the subject matter related to the school curriculum being helpful in the better realization of the aims and objectives of teaching of that subject. The task of the development of such a module is usually carried out through the activities organized in three phases, namely (i) taking decision about the instructional objectives and their writing in behavioural terms, (ii) the writing of the appropriate learning material frames by adopting a suitable programming style, and (iii) development of suitable questions for the required evaluation.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the term programmed learning or programmed instruction? 2. Discuss the nature and the fundamental characteristics of programmed learning. 3. What are the different styles of programming? Discuss, in detail, one of the widely used styles of programming. 4. What is linear programming? Why is it termed as linear and extrinsic? Discuss its procedure. 5. Discuss the basic assumptions and procedure of a branching programming. 6. How will you proceed for the development of a self-instructional programmed material in the teaching of a school subject? Answer in the light of the various phases of developing the programmed instructional material. 7. What is self-learning programmed module? Discuss its development by providing an example from the subject of the school curriculum.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Arendset, R.L. (et al.), “Handbook for the development of instructional modules” in Competency based Teacher Education Programs, Synacause, New York: The Center for Study of Teaching, 1971. Crowder, Norman A., “Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming” in E.H. Galanter (Ed.), Automatic Teaching: The State of Art, New York: Wiley, 1954. Espich, J.E. and B. William, Developing Programmed Instructional Materials, London: Pitsman, 1967. Green, Edward J., The Learning Process and Programmed Instruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962.

Gulati, R. and Gulati, K., Programmed Learning, Chandigarh: Mohindra Capital Publishers, 1976. Jacobs, P.I. et al., A Guide to Evaluating Self-Instructional Programmes, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. Leith, G.O.M. et al., A Hand Book of Programmed Learning, Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1966. Lumsdaine, A.A. and Robert Glaser (Eds.), Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning: A Source Book, Washington: Dept. of Audio-Visual Instruction, National Education Association, 1960. Lysaught, Jerome P. and Clarence M. Williams, A Guide to Programmed Instruction, New York: Wiley, 1963. Margulies, Stuart, Applied Programmed Instruction, New York: John Wiley, 1963. Markle, S.M., Good Frames and Bad: A Grammar of Frame Writing, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1869. Mavi, N.S., Programmed Learning: An Empirical Approach, Kurukshetra: Vishal Publications, 1984. Skinner, B.F., Technology of Teaching, New York: Appelton Century Crofts, 1955. Smith, W.J. and W.J. Moore, Programmed Learning, New York: Von Nostrand, 1962. Taber, Julian I., Robert Glaser, and Halmurth H. Schefer, Learning and Programmed Instruction, Reading Mass: Addision Wesley, 1965. Talyzina, Nina Fedorovna, The Psychology of Learning: Theories of Learning and Programmed Instruction, Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1981.

20 Learner Controlled Instruction (LCI) CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction LCI: Need and Origin Meaning, Nature and Definition The Procedure or Steps Involved Advantages Limitations Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction The psychologists all over the world agree that there lie wide individual differences among the learners, therefore, they strongly believe in tailoring the learning or education of the learners in accordance with their individualities. It has resulted in the persistent efforts on the part of the educationists for the individualization of the process of instruction. In this way, the task of the individualization of instruction in its simple meaning may stand for tailoring the instruction to the individual needs and abilities of the learner or

arranging for the learner the type of learning which he thinks most appropriate for him. For carrying out the task, the researchers have struggled a lot for developing a number of proper instructional plans and schedules which include: Programmed instruction or programmed learning Learner controlled instruction (LCI) Personalized system of instruction (PSI) Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Computer managed instruction (CMI) We have already discussed about programmed instruction in the previous chapter. In this chapter, we will throw light on the next, i.e. learner controlled instruction (LCI). The remaining ones, i.e. PSI and CAI will be discussed in the chapters to follow:

LCI: Need and Origin We have learned that the programmed instruction stands for the individualization of the instructional process. Here, a programmer develops the programmed instructional material catering to the needs of a particular category of individual learners. In actual practice, the story is different when the individual learners try to make use of such programmed material. They feel handicapped as it does not suit what they need and wish to do and study. Thus, there arises a need of such a programmed material or learning sequences that can suit their present individual requirements. However, in programmed material they have no choice but to carry on their instruction with what have been planned by a programmer. So, again, as in traditional teaching, they are not the masters of their destiny. They have no choice or freedom of their own to carry on their studies by themselves. The learning experiences are not planned and sequenced by them as per their requirements. This

needs a check if we want to introduce in letter and spirit an instruction that is worth a name for individualized instruction. It was the same need and situation that compelled Robert Mager and his associates in 1961 to develop another model of instruction quite different from the traditional, in which the instructional material or learning sequences were to be planned not by some other person— teacher or programmer—but by the learner himself. They did a number of experimental studies for providing the validity and workability of this new method. Let us mention two of such studies. 1. In one of their experimental study, the object was to ascertain whether the learner-generated sequences of learning tended to differ from the programmer-generated sequences of learning. Six students along with an instructor were part of this study. They had to learn about electronics. They were given full freedom of taking decision about sequencing of learning. They were free to put questions to the instructor and use him in any way as a resource person. The instructor was there all the time, but he was responsive rather than directive. His role was limited to work as a resource person only to respond to the student’s questions or lead them rather than providing any direction. Every thing regarding the learning behaviour of these students along with the learning sequences generated by them for achieving their learning objectives was fully recorded to arrive at the desired generalization. 2. In another study conducted by Mager with Mecann in 1961 on the Engineering graduates of an Industrial Training Institute, the learners were first provided with the detailed behaviourally-stated learning objectives and then asked to proceed on the learning path as they wished by developing their own sequences of learning. By permitting the learners to instruct themselves in any way and in any order that they choose, the way was properly cleared for providing them a

total control on the process of instruction. The researcher waited for the outcomes of learning and compared these outcomes with those of the previous learning performed through the learning sequences determined by the programmer or a teacher. They found that the learnercontrolled instructional system propagated by them helped in saving 65 per cent of the time in comparison to the old teacher-controlled instructional system. The conclusions drawn by these two studies were as under: The learner takes much interest in learning the things if he is provided opportunity to develop his own sequence of learning. He is one of the best sources of information about himself. Therefore, in taking decision about his initial behaviour, it is he who must be given due recognition. The learner-generated sequences tend to differ from the programmed or teacher-generated learning sequences. For example, the students at the initial stage are not interested in theory. They want practical things, concrete rather than abstract, and functions of the things rather than structure. Accordingly, they are likely to put the question how television is operated or works before asking the question regarding what makes it works. The learner should be given a proper say in setting the instructional objectives as it is he who has better knowledge of his needs, interests and abilities for helping him to reach the goal. The time and energy of both the learner and the teacher can be saved by making the instructional process learner controlled rather its being teacher centred and teacher controlled.

In this way, in their attempts to discover a novel way of individualized instruction in the context of industrial training, Mager and his associates brought forward a new procedure of method of instruction known as Learner Controlled Instruction. They first tried it to make the individual students learn about the topic electronics and later recommended it for the learning of the topics related to other fields of studies.

Meaning, Nature and Definition The learner controlled instruction (LCI), as the name suggests, stands for the type or method or instruction controlled by the learner. In the traditional teaching carried out by the individual teacher or team teaching, (handled by a team of teachers), the entire scene of the teaching-learning process is dominated by the teachers themselves. Whether an ordinary textbook or a programmed one is followed, the learning sequences are always predetermined and the learner has to travel along an already fixed learning path with almost no say in the instructional process. LCI is an open revolt against the rigidity of learning path and the teacher centred system of instruction. It works on a simple thesis that an individual learner can learn better if he is provided opportunity to choose his own learning path, develop his own sequence of learning and engage himself in learning the things related to a particular topic of his choice by using the teacher or instructor as a resource person. Here the learner takes the lead, the teacher follows. The teacher does not initiate. He remains silent until motivated and stimulated by the students with a variety of questions. The students themselves decide what to ask, what to do and how to proceed on the learning path for the realization of the set objectives. The teacher is almost there, but he does not act. He simply reacts and responds to the varying needs of the students. There is a close interaction between him and the learner, but the key of this instruction lies with the learner. If he

needs to learn he can learn. If he does not, teacher does not compel him. The teacher only creates favourable circumstances for inspiring and motivating the learner to feel the necessity of learning well with in his own means and methods. In such learner-controlled and learner-dominated instructional situation, the way the learner asks the question and the teacher responds is just reverse to the renowned pattern of Socratic dialogue or the method of instruction adopted for instruction in Gurukuls of our country. In Socratic dialogue or traditional Gurukuls instruction, the teacher used to dominate the scene. It was he who used to put questions to the pupils for leading them to the desired goal; but in LCI, it is the learner who holds the control of the teaching-learning process by asking questions and making the teacher respond for helping him to reach his goal. The most suitable example of LCI comes from our famous epic Mahabharat where, in the teachings of Bhagvat Geeta, Arjun as a pupil plays a significant role in deciding the learning sequence. He takes initiative, puts a host of questions to his teacher Krishna who does not respond until persuaded to do so by his pupil. It is Arjun who controls the instructional processes and learns what he desires for his ultimate satisfaction. Understood in this way, learner controlled instruction is that method or process of individualized instruction where the learner exercises full control over the total process of instruction right from the setting of objectives to their realization leading all the way throughout by making the teacher to assist or help him merely in the capacity of a good resource person.

The procedure or steps Involved Learner controller instruction, as we have already discussed, is a completely learner controlled and learner dominated individualized

instructional process. The following factors describe the procedure and steps involved in it.

1. Decision about the initial behaviour Since learner is the best source of information about himself he is provided opportunity to mark his own initial standing in terms of his abilities and potential.

2. Decision about setting of the objectives What the learner wants to study, and where he needs to reach in terms of educational goals, are then to be decided. The decision is again almost left to the learner himself. However, he is helped utmost by the teacher in this task so that the objectives are clearly specified in behavioural terms.

3. selection and sequencing of the learning experiences There lies no fixed pattern of learning experiences for LCI as happens with traditional teaching having a fixed curriculum, set learning experiences or instructional programmes prepared and determined by the teacher or programmer. Hence, the learner is left free to instruct himself in any way and in any order that he chooses for the realization of the behaviourally stated objectives. He may put any question to the teacher, do any activity or experiment he wishes, get any assistance or information he likes from the teacher or any resources. In this way, the learner may be able to develop his own sequence of learning according to his own needs, interest and abilities for the realization of the objectives.

4. Evaluation of the instructional process

Although the control lies in the hands of the learner, the whole instructional process becomes a shared responsibility of both the teacher and the learner. The teacher, although not playing a leading role, is always there to help and assist the individual learners. He persuades them to engage in self-evaluation of their learning outcomes in terms of the realization of the set objectives. Besides this he helps them in the supervision and guidance of their practice, drill, projects and other experimental activities. Periodic tests and other evaluation devices may also be held for the evaluation of the individual learner’s performance with respect to his learning through LCI programme.

Advantages The learner controller instruction has the following things on its credit side:

1. LCI provides better individualized instructions LCI is based upon the principles of individualized instruction. Here the instructional process is controlled by the individual learners. They study what they wish to study by developing their own sequence of learning. Each learner is free to put questions to the teacher and take his own time for learning the things of his studies. In this way, being a pure learner-centred and learner-dominated instructional method, it provides better individualized instruction to all types of learners.

2. Helps in proper identification of the initial behaviour LCI rests on the basic assumption that the learner is one of the best sources of information about himself. He himself is the basic source of identifying his basic potential or initial behaviour. Therefore, it is he

who is the best judge to decide from where he should start his journey of learning for achieving the desired objectives. Since in LCI the control over the whole process of instruction including passing judgement over the initial behaviour of the learner rests with the learner, proper identification of his initial behaviour can be made in a better way than any other modes of instruction.

3. Helps in setting the meaningful objectives LCI helps in a better way to take the individual learner from where he is to some place else of his choice suiting to his own needs, interest and abilities on the path of learning. Since he is familiar with his initial behaviour, he can take a better judgement about his terminal behaviour and accordingly can play a significant role in setting meaningful and realistic instructional objectives before him. That is why quite purposeful and self-satisfying objectives are set in LCI for directing the teaching-learning activities.

4. Provides opportunity to develop own sequence of learning Traditional teaching and programmed instruction, do not provide any scope to the individual learner for deciding the sequence of learning. He is forced to study what has been planned or programmed by the teacher or a programmer. However, in LCI, the scene is different. Here it is the learner who generates the learning sequences for his learning to achieve the set objectives. To provide such freedom for deciding own path of learning to the individual learner is a rare phenomenon that is witnessed only in LCI.

5. Maintains proper interest and motivation Here the instructional process is fully learner centred. Nothing is thrust upon the learner from outside. He is the key person in taking all decisions about his own welfare. He studies what he wishes. He

is free to ask any question or take any help from the teacher in his pursuit of learning. Such free and encouraging environment makes him quite enthusiastic and energetic so much so that he remains interested and motivated in the teaching-learning process from the beginning till the end.

6. Helps in the establishment of harmonious relationship between the teachers and the taught Traditional teaching is attacked on account of its incapability of developing cordial and harmonious relationship between the teachers and the taught. The students often fear their teachers and remain quite hesitant to ask any question. Contrary to this, LCI provides ample freedom to the pupils for asking questions to satisfy their curiosity and proceeding on the learning path. They do their studies in consultation with their teachers, getting their due attention, guidance and timely assistance. Moreover, here, as a piece of instruction nothing is forced on the learners by the teacher. He is most democratic and helpful. The students also pay him due regard and consider him as quite indispensable in the matter of helping them pursue their learning activities. In this way, LCI provides opportunities and environment for a healthy interaction between the teacher and the taught.

7. Helps in solving various classroom problems LCI is meant for individual learner. It is controlled and directed by the learner himself. He studies what he wishes and plans learning experiences according to his needs, interests and abilities. His interest and motivation is sustained throughout the learning process. He is free to satisfy his curiosity by asking questions and gets desired assistance when needed from the teacher. In such a stimulated work environment, it is hard to think about any problem that can arise on account of students’ lack of responsibility and

mischief. This is why LCI is characterized by the presence of selfimposed discipline in the class giving no headache to the teacher for wasting his time in class control. The other classroom problems of the teacher concerning the assignment of drillwork, homework, etc. also are automatically eliminated in such a instruction as here the instructional activities are planned and sequenced by the learners themselves.

8. Inculcates good habits LCI is the instruction controlled and carried out by the efforts of the individual learner. He is responsible for developing the learning sequences and organizing the learning structure according to his abilities. It is his individualized efforts that are responsible for the realization of the set objectives. He asks questions from the teacher for the satisfaction of his curiosity and advancement in his studies. All these activities provide him a lot of opportunity for the removal of unnecessary fear, shyness, hesitation, etc. and create an environment for the development of proper self-confidence, habit of independent self-study, persistence and hard work, problem-solving ability, originality, initiative, creativity, etc.

9. saving time and energy LCI is fully learner centred. The learner is already motivated to learn and remain interested and absorbed in his study throughout the learning process. Moreover, the learning sequence (what to study and how to study) is planned by the learner himself. Therefore, no time and efforts are wasted in making the learner to learn or deciding what course is suitable for him to help him in the realization of the set objectives. The results of the experimental studies conducted for comparing the outcomes of the traditional teaching and LCI also have gone in favour of the latter showing that it helps in saving the

time and energy of both the learner and the teacher for the realization of set instructional objectives.

10. Helps in gaining useful and practical learning experiences Since what is desired by the learner is studied in LCI, there is a wide scope for gaining rich practical life experiences. By nature, the students try to take interest in concrete things rather than the abstract principles, in the practical experiences than the theory; and that is why the learning sequences structured in LCI help them much in gaining useful and practical life experiences.

Limitations As we have discussed in the foregoing pages, the LCI provides a good method for the individualized instruction. However, there are a number of difficulties and limitations when it is applied to the actual classroom teaching.

1. In catering the needs of the individual learners In theory, it is well to say that in LCI, each individual learner will be free to develop his own sequence of learning. Like Socratic dialogue, he will be putting the question to the teacher the way he wants to study a given topic. Since no two learners are alike, each student present in the class or a group will have his own sequence of learning and set of questions to be put to the teacher. Each of them will need the material facilities also according to the requirements and abilities. In the practical sense, meeting of such needs and requirements is neither feasible nor possible, therefore, LCI may seriously fall in trouble for being used as a method of individualized instruction.

2. On account of the role of the students LCI advocates that the total teaching-learning process from the beginning till the end should be controlled by the students by playing a leading role. The students have to decide the sequence of learning experiences. They are free to put any question to the teacher for gaining the learning experiences they wish about a topic. The teacher’s presence is there only to respond to the questions asked by the students or rendering assistance desired by them. Such type of unbridled freedom given to the children in the course of learning may generate a host of problems. Children are yet children, we can’t expect from them to carry on the entire responsibility of the instructional process. They may fail in sequencing their learning task or may not be able to ask relevant questions for stimulating the teacher or not be able to understand and grasp the teacher’s response. There is also a danger that they may waste their time and energy in the pursuit of unnecessary and irrelevant things by going astray from the actual path of learning. In this way, LCI may not come to its expectation on account of the limitations suffered on the part of the students.

3. On the part of the teacher LCI is a highly individualized instructional method. Here the individual learner is to be helped by the teacher for realizing the learning objectives in his own ways. The individual learner decides the sequence of learning and he is free to ask questions and take required help from the teacher. It becomes a tedious task for the teacher to satisfy the needs of each and every individual learner. He must have a thorough knowledge and skill of providing responses to every question of the different learners, guide and assist them in every sequence of leaning activities for gaining theoretical and practical experiences and above all dancing on the different tunes of their pupils without having authority and control on the instructional

process. In practical sense, it is hard to achieve such teachers who can work so with the required success and, in their absence, it is not possible to make use of LCI in a proper way.

4. Not practicable in the present educational setup LCI requires a different set-up and teaching-learning environment other than that prevalent in our present educational system. It does not require any pre-determined or pre-programmed learning experiences. It means there should not be any fixed curriculum or syllabus for the learners to learn and teachers to teach. The teachercentred teaching-learning situations also need drastic change. How can we expect individualized learning (meeting the requirement of each and every learner) fully controlled and monitored by the learners themselves in our crowded and ill-equipped classrooms. The needed tutorial system and individual attention on every learner by a single teacher is neither feasible nor practicable in such conditions. Moreover, the prevalent curriculum, textbooks and examination system can’t match the requirements of LCI. In such circumstances, it is quite difficult to introduce this type of instruction in toto in our classrooms. In this way, we can observe that LCI suffers from serious limitations for being introduced as a method of instruction in our classrooms. However, these defects and limitations do not lie with the method itself. There is no doubt that it is the only method that can provide individualized instruction in a true and complete sense. Moreover, it is a new and novel idea and innovation in the field of instruction. Hence, there is every possibility of its being resented by the teachers and the educational authorities. The system prevalent as such can’t meet its requirements. Therefore, there is a need of change of attitude on the part of its users and also in the teachinglearning set-up for its being adopted as a method of instruction. The

learner should get his learning path according to his interest and abilities and, if LCI can serve this purpose well, there should not be any hesitation for trying it to some extent, along with other traditional and progressive methods.

SUMMARY 1. In the field of individualization of instruction where programmed instructional approach is regarded as the initial breakthrough, the second major breakthrough was in the name of learner controlled instruction. This system was originated in the hands of Robert Mager and his associates in the year 1961 through some notable conclusions drawn from their experiments performed on the students of an Industrial Training Institute. The system was first applied in making the individual student learn about the topics related to electronics and, later on, they recommended it for the learning of the topics related to other fields of studies. 2. LCI refers to a method or process of individualized instruction where the learner exercises full control over the total process of instruction right from the setting of objectives to their realization leading all the way throughout by making the teacher assist or help him merely in the capacity of a good resource person. 3. The major steps followed in adopting LCI are: (i) decision about the initial behaviour, (ii) decision about the setting of objectives, (iii) selection and sequencing of the learning experiences, and (iv) evaluation of the instructional process. 4. LCI is known for its numerous worth and contributions. The notable among these may be mentioned as (i) providing better individualized instructions, (ii) helping in proper identification of the initial behaviour, (iii) helping in setting meaningful

objectives, (iv) providing opportunity to develop own sequence of learning, (v) maintaining proper interest and motivation, (vi) establishment of harmonious relationship between the teachers and the taught, (vii) solving various classroom problems, (viii) helping in the inculcation of good habits, (ix) saving time and energy, (x) gaining useful and practical learning experiences. 5. LCI is described as suffering from a number of difficulties and limitations such as (i) difficulty in catering the needs of the individual learners, (ii) difficulty on account of the role of the students, (iii) limitation on the part of the teachers, and (iv) impracticable in the present educational set-up.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is learner controlled instruction? Throw light on its need and origin. 2. How is LCI different from the traditional pattern of instruction? Explain fully. 3. Define LCI by throwing light on its meaning and nature. 4. Discuss the advantages and limitations of LCI. 5. Discuss the procedure and the main steps involved in LCI. 6. Write short notes on the following: (a) LCI (b) Need and origin of LCI (c) Advantages of LCI (d) Difficulties in the use of LCI

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: selected readings, New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Publication Information Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. Packiam, S., Curriculun Innovations and Educational Technology, New Delhi: Doaba House, 1986. Wydra, Frank T., Learner Controlled Instruction, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1980.

21 Personalized System of Instruction CHAPTER OUTLINE Origin and Growth Meaning and Definition Objectives Fundamental Elements and Characteristics The Mechanism Advantages Difficulties and Problems for the Adoption of PSI in India Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Origin and Growth The personalized system of instruction (PSI) owes its origin to Professor Fred S. Keller (1974) who, along with some of his associates such as J.G. Sherman, put forward the idea of this new system of instruction in March 1963 and applied it initially in the teaching of a new psychology programme in the University of

Columbus. In the honour of its main inventor, the personalized system of instruction is also sometimes named as Keller plan. The propagators of this system were highly inspired and influenced by the then prevalent individualized instructional system known as programmed instruction developed by Professor B.F. Skinner of Harvard University in 1950. They tried to enlarge its scope and gave it a new shape for making its use with the students of higher classes and higher learning. Their search, for a new and better system of individualized instruction, was aimed to evolve a system that might: 1. provide larger frames than those provided by the prevalent programmed instruction system; 2. possess more flexibility and adaptability according to the teaching-learning situations; 3. introduce a personal-social element to the teaching-learning process; and 4. bring a significant change in the role of the teacher from a mere information giving person to the engineer or contingency manager of the learning of all the individual students. Taking all these considerations in their minds, Keller and his associates thus engaged in various experiments and research studies and, as a result, gave birth to this new system of instruction.

Meaning and Definition The personalized system of instruction, as the name suggests, stands for a system of instruction totally personalized or individualized. Here the person or individual who receives instruction is a key figure. He dominates the entire scene of the teachinglearning process. The decision on what should exist in a piece of instruction and how it is to be carried out, is made according to the

needs, interests and abilities of the person, i.e. the individual learner. In this way, instructions are carried out and received by the individual learner in his own way by making him a central figure of the teaching-learning process. For understanding and knowing more about the meaning and concept of this term, the opinions of two wellknown scholars in this field have been reproduced here. Green (1974): “The personalized system of instruction gets its name from the fact that each student is served as an individual by another person, face-to-face and one-to-one, in spite of the fact that the class may number 100 students. It is suitable for course for which the student is expected to acquire a well-defined body of knowledge or skill—the majority of college course. The PSI teacher expects almost all of his students to learn his material well and is prepared to award high grades to those who do regardless of their relative standing in the class. He accepts the responsibility of meeting this goal within the normal limits of manpower, space and equipment.” Naper (1980): “Personalized system of instruction is, basically, a self-paced mastery learning in which the students work independently on the specifically designed curriculum units. Every unit is provided with the objectives and instructions regarding the reading assignment and the related problems. When a student feels that he has got mastery over the subject matter he may undergo a brief test on that unit. It is essential for a student to get through this unit test for being allowed to work on the next unit. Scoring of these unit tests is carried out promptly by the proctor, a student observer.” The above definitions will enable us to derive the following conclusions regarding the nature and characteristics of the personalized system of instruction: Personalized system of instruction is a system of instruction in which instruction can be carried out on personal basis by

serving an individual learner individually according to his own needs and interest. The individual learner can work independently and maintain his progress according to his own pace. The subject matter can be divided into well-sequenced larger units and each student is provided with the necessary instructions and material facilities for going through these units one by one under supervision and guidance of the welltrained capable proctors, the student supervisors. Here an individual learner is required to acquire mastery over the subject matter. His performance is never compared with the performance of his fellow students. He can test his performance by appearing in a unit test and in case he passes this test, he may take the next successive units without waiting for other fellow students to complete their respective units. Since, learning is the responsibility of the learners in PSI, this type of instruction requires necessary maturity on the part of learners and so it is best suited to the college courses rather than school courses. The personalized system of instruction can be carried out within the normal classroom facilities. The manpower can be well arranged by training the capable students (who have acquired mastery over the subject matter) to supervise and guide their fellow students to acquire mastery through their own independent efforts. In this way, personalized system of instruction can be defined as a system of instruction capable of providing individualized instructions on personal basis to the individual learners for acquiring mastery over the subject matter according to their own pace by an individual teacher with the help of a few capable student learners called proctors.

Objectives 1. To help in the establishment of better personal-social relationship between the teacher and the taught. 2. To provide better individual attention towards the individual learner in the shape of face-to-face and one-to-one personal contact. 3. To help the learner in acquiring mastery over the subject matter of his learning with his own pace. 4. To make provision for the frequent and prompt reinforcement to the learners. 5. To make provision for the multimedia approach for providing information to the learner than relying on the lecture method alone. 6. To transform the role of a teacher from the dispenser of information to the engineer or contingency manager of the learning of his students. 7. To provide proper feedback to the teacher for a meaningful revision in programme content and instructional procedure.

Fundamental Elements and Characteristics The Keller plan or personalized system of instruction (Keller, 1968, 1974) is distinguished with some of its major characteristics and fundamental elements as described:

1. Introduction of personal element PSI gives a total personal touch to the process of instruction. Here the learners are served in their personal capacities face-to-face and one-by-one by the teachers or proctors. There is more emphasis on

personal-social relationship between the teacher and the taught in comparison to the traditional method of instruction.

2. Mastery learning PSI aims for attaining mastery level on the part of each and every student regardless of his relative standing in the class. Here, a student tries to go independently on the path of learning and strives hard to gain complete mastery over the subject matter of a particular curriculum unit. He is allowed to take the task of the next unit and is assigned grade or rewarded only when he has got the required mastery over the previous unit, and not on account of his relative position in the class.

3. Self-pacing PSI allows all the learners of a group or class to proceed on the path of learning according to their own pace depending upon their background, abilities and capacities, level of aspiration and motivation, etc. A particular student takes a curriculum unit for the required study, works on it and when he thinks that he has got required mastery over it, he can undergo the related unit test. After passing this test, he may proceed to work on the successive curriculum units. In this way, he is not made to suffer on account of the excessive or slow speed of his teacher or fellow students as in the traditional method of classroom teaching where the slow learners are bound to lag behind and the bright ones are bored.

4. Provision and emphasis on written work PSI gives more emphasis on the written work than the traditional methods of instruction, i.e. the oral. Here, the subject material is presented before the learner in written form. The instructions are also provided to him in writing. There are study guides available to the learners for guiding them on their path of learning. The written

instructional material is available in its various forms and styles, e.g. programmed text, ordinary text, summarized briefs, specially designed curriculum units, self-learning module, etc. for helping a particular learner to make his use according to the needs of the teaching-learning situation. The students are provided with written unit tests for testing their acquisition of mastery over the learning tasks.

5. Limiting the use of lecture or oral communication In PSI, attempts are made to reduce the importance of the lecture method and verbal communication. In the traditional method of instruction, usually, verbalism and lecturing dominate the entire scene of the teaching-learning process. The students are made to listen or, in some cases watch the demonstration work carried out by the teacher quite passively. In PSI, this type of passive transformation of message or information is not allowed. The lectures, demonstration and verbal communications are allowed to the extent of playing the role of motivator, instructor or guide rather than acting as a source of critical information or knowledge. Moreover, the use of multimedia is encouraged for the appropriate flow of communication and for getting in touch with a variety of learning sources on the part of individual learners. Consequently, in PSI, a learner is free to make use of all types of audio-visual presentation, pictures, models, graphic material, tapes, films, teaching machines, computers, etc. as a source of learning and also as a mode of inter-communication.

6. The provision of appropriate reinforcement PSI makes provision for timely and frequent reinforcement to the individual learners. As individual learner is free to work on the assigned learning units with his own pace. He is also free to test his

comprehension and mastery level through the unit tests as and when desired by him. The feedback provided by the result of this test provides him adequate reinforcement. There is no restriction of any kind on him in terms of the time schedule or frequency for taking these tests and getting knowledge about his progress on the leaning path. This way, the personalized system of instruction is quite capable of providing sufficient reinforcement and feedback to the individual learners both in terms of frequency and appropriate timings.

7. The use of the proctors A distinctive feature of PSI is its mechanism of utilizing the services of student leaders known as proctors in helping the student learners attain mastery over the given subject. These proctors are those students designated as such who in spite of their average abilities acquire mastery over the curriculum contents much earlier than their fellow learners. They are given necessary guidance and training for supervising and guiding the learning path of their fellow learners. They prove a big helping hand to the teacher for meeting the big requirement of PSI. The face-to-face, one-to-one interaction and personal guidance is only possible through a sizable group of proctors. They prove very much helpful in the task of tutoring, providing personal-social contact, taking unit tests, immediate scoring, providing timely feedback, reinforcement and encouragement as well as motivating the individual students for raising their performance level to the set mastery level.

8. Reducing the problem of wastage and stagnation In PSI, the stress is laid down on the acquisition of the set mastery level by the individual learners. No time limit is fixed for the attainment of it. When one attains this level with regard to the

learning of a particular unit, he is permitted to proceed further on the subsequent unit. In this way, for an individual learner, his learning is almost continuous, he does not have to waste his time for the sake of others, whether teacher or his fellow students. Moreover, he has not to repeat his study in a particular class for a particular time period on account of his failure in the annual or semester examination in contrast to what happens in the traditional system of instruction. In this way, PSI helps in reducing and checking the ill effects of the problem of wastage and stagnation faced by the learners in the traditional system.

9. Role of the teacher PSI requires a significant change in the role of the teacher as played by him in the traditional system of instruction. Here he does not merely remain a source of information. His role is not confined to the imparting of knowledge and information to his students rather he is required to provide individualized and personalized instruction to them. Merely lecturing or demonstrating the things in the class does not meet the requirements of this type of instruction. He has to arrange for suitable learning material, learning environment, timely frequent reinforcement and feedback to all the individual learners and add a personal social element in the teaching-learning process. He is to act as a capable manager of the learning tasks carried out by all the students and, in this way, his responsibilities as a teacher are greatly enhanced in the personalized system of instruction.

The Mechanism Generally, the following steps may prove helpful to know the mechanism of the operation or use of PSI as a method of instruction in our classroom situations.

1. Divide the course contents into proper units. These units are kept as relatively large in comparison to the programmed instructional units or frames. 2. Provide and arrange for the proper learning material, study guide, learning aids, material facilities, and learning environment to the learners. The objectives must be made quite specified and clear to them. They must have proper knowledge and access to the sources of learning. What is to be done by the learners should be properly explained to them through verbal instructions, written instructions, and study guides. 3. The individual learners are then asked to proceed on the path of learning by studying the assigned unit. The study guide proves quite helpful to him at this stage. It introduces the learner with the course contents of the unit, clarifies the instructional objectives, puts questions and queries to him, and suggests the ways and means of obtaining their answers. Students are free to work on these assigned units at their home, school, workshop, libraries and laboratories. They have to study, gain required learning experiences, and write answers to the assignment questions provided in the course units. They may seek guidance from their teacher and proctors as and when they need so. 4. All students are required to proceed on the path of learning with their own pace. The subject matter presented through the course unit is to be mastered to the extent of a predetermined and set level by every student in his own way. As and when he thinks that he has reached the mastery level, he may request the proctor or teacher for taking his test. In case he gets success, he is allowed to proceed on the next successive course unit, otherwise he has to study again the same unit unless he attains mastery over it as certified by the unit test.

5. The students who obtain mastery over the course units are picked up by the teacher and trained for playing the role of proctors. The duty of these proctors is to assist and help the student learners to attain the mastery level. The personal face-to-face guidance and assistance to the individual learner becomes easy with the help of these proctors. Guiding, testing, immediate scoring, prompt feedback and reinforcement are only possible through the art and skill of these trained proctors. Hence, due care and attention should always be given in the proper training of the proctors for getting the desired success in providing personalized instruction to all learners. 6. When a student attains mastery over all the assigned units of a course material (as he gets passed through all the unit tests) in the end, he is asked to appear in the final test comprising the total course material for being awarded grade. The task of awarding grade to him is quite unrelated to the relative performance of his fellow students. Its aim is to reinforce and motivate his behaviour for further learning and not to compare his performance with the others. In such an evaluation, no student gets frustrated on account of his relative performance and he receives due motivation for attaining the specific set mastery level of his learning.

Advantages There have been various research studies and experiments to measure the effectiveness and usefulness of PSI as a method of instruction in the classroom situations. In the light of these studies and practical experiences, its various advantages and merits have been identified. They are summarized here:

1. PSI can help the learners to work independently and proceed on the path of learning with their own pace. 2. It is a good instructional process to achieve mastery learning and accepted level of performance. 3. As a method of instruction, it proves more effective than the traditional methods such as lecture and demonstration. 4. It is useful in the teaching of all the subjects, but proves specifically effective for courses that need convergent thinking (rather than divergent) on the part of the learners. Similarly, it is more suitable to the teaching of higher classes and college courses in comparison to the lower ones. 5. It helps the students exhibit better performance in terms of retention and use of the acquired learning. Here, the learner is able to acquire real knowledge with deep understanding and better insight. There is no rote memorization of the facts as the learner tries to acquire meaningful learning through his own independent efforts. 6. The learner can acquire good study habits as he has to work continuously on the successive course units at his own. He has to achieve mastery over the subject matter and test the performance through unit test. This makes him quite responsible, disciplined and sincere in the task of learning. 7. The learner can develop proper positive attitude towards learning and education with the help of PSI. He gets proper feedback and reinforcement as and when needed by him in his process of learning. He never gets frustrated because he is not compared with other students regarding his performance. The aim is to achieve mastery irrespective of the time schedule. He is not rebuked for his failure but always gets proper guidance and personal assistance from his teacher and proctors. 8. PSI helps in introducing a very positive personal social element in the process of teaching-learning. The learners are

provided instruction and guidance on a personal face-to-face and one-to-one basis. Therefore, there is probability of more social and personal interaction between the teacher and the taught in this system of instruction. 9. The students who achieve the target of getting mastery over all the units of course material get opportunity of being selected as proctors—the supervisor and guide of the learning of their fellow students. This makes the students to work sincerely and speedily for getting the honour of being nominated as proctors. The use of proctors in the method of instruction makes the instructional process quite effective and efficient. The establishment of personal bond between the learner and the instructor becomes quite possible through this unique pattern of proctorship. Consequently, PSI proves a quite effective individualized instruction strategy in comparison to other ones.

Difficulties and Problems for the Adoption of PSI in India The personalized system of instruction has been tried successfully in the classrooms of the developed countries where it is possible to meet the challenges and requirements essential for its use. However, there are many hurdles and limitations, as given below, for its adoption in the classrooms of our country: 1. Our teachers are not equipped with the know-how of this new system. Most of them have not even heard the name of such instructional system. It is not included in the teacher preparation courses of various universities and hence the teachers suffer from the lack of the knowledge.

2. The teachers, the new entrants who have studied about it in their teacher preparation courses, face a stiff opposition from their elders as most of them do not wish to be side-tracked on account of their ignorance about such innovative instructions. The fear and temperament of rigidity is, thus, a great obstacle in adopting this new instructional system. 3. The workability, feasibility and effect of this system as a method of instruction have not been properly tested and evaluated in our institutes of learning. Unless it is not initiated and tested in a proper way, there would likely be reasonable fears and resistance from the traditionalists as well as progressives. 4. PSI may face a lot of practical difficulties in being adopted it as a method of instruction simply because our classroom environment and resources can hardly meet the needed requirements for its implementation. Some of these difficulties and problems may be: • Our classrooms are crowded. It is very difficult to provide personal assistance and attention on such personal basis as demanded in this method. • The course material, resources guides, test-material, etc. are not available for use. • The teachers are overburdened. It is difficult for them to carry out the varying demands and responsibilities as needed in this method. • The use of multimedia such as audio tapes, video, films, graphic aid material, libraries, and laboratories is not feasible on account of the lack of finances and in such a situation, implementation of PSI will not bring the desired results. • The implementation of this method requires spacious classrooms, resources and other related facilities that are hardly possible in such wide scales in the institutions of our country.

5. PSI may run into bad weather on account of its unique demand of needing the services of so many proctors. Such responsible students, who may play the role of a wellbalanced supervisor, guide and instructor can be hardly available in the present teaching-learning environment of our schools and colleges. Nobody is going to sacrifice his own time and energy for the sake of the welfare of their fellow learners and, in such a situation, there is hardly any room for the successful implementation of this proctor-based instructional strategy. 6. Last but not the least, handicap of PSI lies in its big expectation from the individual learners. The individual learner is provided with full freedom of completing his unit at his own pace. There lies a danger and possibility that he may misutilize this freedom in wasting his time in other misadventures than the real learning. In the absence of competition and comparison with the other students of the class, he may not take care of his progress and thus, take too much time for the mastery of a learning unit. In this way, we may observe that there lie many handicaps, obstacles and difficulties in the adoption of PSI as a method of instruction. However, many of them can be eliminated and overlooked in case we resolve to experiment with a novel idea and method of instruction. There is no denying of the fact that instructions received and carried out on a personal basis in a desirable personal-social environment bring the best teachinglearning outcomes and implement a new strategy which aims for the better individualization of the teaching-learning act. The hurdles, if any, can be removed by a perfect zeal, enthusiasm, pre-preparation and planning on the part of the teachers and educational authorities.

SUMMARY

1. The personalized system of instruction (PSI) owes its origin in 1963 to Professor Fred S. Keller. In honour of him, PSI is also sometimes named as Keller plan. The roots and developmental sequences of this instructional system may be linked to the then prevalent individualized instructional system known as “programmed instruction” developed by Professor B.F. Skinner of Harvard University in 1950. The propagators of PSI were highly influenced by the success of the Skinner’s system. They tried to enlarge its scope and gave it a new shape for making its use with the individual students at the most personal level. 2. PSI refers to a system of instruction capable of providing individualized instructions on personal basis to the individual learners for acquiring mastery over the subject matter according to their own pace by an individual teacher with the help of a few capable student learners called proctors. 3. PSI is characterized with a number of elements and characteristics such as (i) capability of providing a total personal touch to the process of instruction, (ii) aiming for attaining mastery learning on the part of every student, (iii) self-pacing, (iv) provision and emphasis on written work, (v) limiting the use of lecture or oral communication, (vi) the provision of appropriate reinforcement, (vii) reducing the problem of wastage and stagnation, (viii) the use of proctors, and (ix) the teacher’s role as the facilitator and manager of PSI. 4. For making use of PSI, one can proceed by following some of the major steps: (i) division of the course contents into proper units, (ii) writing of the instructional objectives of the unit in hand into behavioural terms, (iii) planning and arranging for the needed instructional material and facilities needed for individualized instruction, (iv) setting the mastery level that is

to be achieved by the individual learner, (v) making the individual learners to proceed on the path of learning by studying the assigned unit with their own pace, (vi) testing of the attainment of the mastery level with the help of a unit test, (vii) providing the status of proctors to the students who attain mastery over all the units of the course material and then assigning them duties to help others for attaining mastery, and (viii) asking students on the individual level to appear in the final test comprising the total course material for being awarded grade (as and when one gets through all the unit tests) with an eye to reinforce his behaviour for further learning. 5. PSI is credited with a number of merits and advantages like: (i) helpful to the learners to proceed independently on the path of learning with their own pace, (ii) in making all the students attain the desired mastery level, (iii) in carrying out the task of teaching learning at the understanding and reflective level instead of the memory level, (iv) in developing positive attitude towards learning and desirable study habits, (v) in developing desirable social and personal interaction between the teacher and the taught, and (vi) a special provision of providing motivation to the deserved ones by assigning them the status of proctors and then making their use for helping their classmates in their individualized instruction. 6. PSI suffers from a number of hurdles and limitations in terms of its employment as a method of instruction in our schools like: (i) ignorance and apathy of the teachers towards the use of PSI, (ii) usual fear and temperament of rigidity in switching over to a new thing or innovation, (iii) lack of the necessary studies and researches showing positive results of the adoption of PSI, (iv) a number of practical difficulties coming in the way of its adoption such as (i) overcrowding of our

classrooms, (ii) heavy work load of the teachers, (iii) lack of essential instruction material and facilities required for the proper adoption of PSI, (iv) non-availability of competent and sincere proctors for playing their desired roles, and (v) possibility on the part of the individual learner to misuse the freedom given to him for the individualized instruction.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by personalized system of instruction? Throw light on its origin and growth. 2. Discuss the fundamental elements and chief characteristics of PSI as a method of instruction. 3. Discuss the mechanism of use of the personalized system of instruction as a method of instruction. 4. Evaluate the utility of PSI as a method of instruction. 5. Write notes on the following: (a) The concept of PSI (b) Objectives of PSI (c) Fundamental elements and characteristics of PSI (d) The mechanism of PSI (e) Advantages and effectiveness of PSI (f) Difficulties and limitations of PSI

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York, Behavioral Publications, 1973.

Green, B.A. Jr , The Personalized System of Instruction, American Association for Higher Education, Washington, DC, 1974. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. Keller, Fred S., The Keller Plan handbook: Essays on a Personalized System of Instruction, Menlo Park, Calif: W.A. Benjamin, 1974. Keller, Fred S., Good bye, Teacher, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Vol. 1, pp. 79–89, 1968 Naper, (1980), Quoted by S.K. Mangal, Fundamentals of Educational Technology, Ludhiana: Tandon Publications, 1994. Ruskin, Robert S., The Personalized System of Instruction: An Educational Alternative, Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education, 1974. Ruskin, Robert S. (Ed.), An Evaluative Review of the Personalized System of Instruction, Washington DC: Center for the Personalized System of Instruction, 1976. Sherman, J.G. and Robert S. Ruskin, The Personalized System of Instruction, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1978.

22 Computer-assisted and Computer-managed Instructions CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Computer-assisted Instruction Computer-managed Instruction Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Computer is the finest and most important gift of science and technology to the mankind. It has done miracles in almost all walks of life. Today, there is no aspects of our life that remain untouched by the use and application of computers. In the field of education too, these are being used for managing its affairs including the actual teaching. With the introduction of New Education Policy in 1986, our country also have taken initiative for making their use in the teaching-learning activities. The instructional work so carried out with the help of computers is generally known as Computer-assisted

Instruction (CAI). In this chapter, we will know something about such type of instructions.

Computer-assisted Instruction Meaning and Definition Computer-assisted instruction (CAI), as the name suggests, stands for the type of instruction aided or carried out with the help of a computer as a machine. It is just one step ahead of the use of teaching machine and, probably, two of the use of programmed textbook in making the instructional process as self-directed and individualised as possible. The computer is said to be ahead of the teaching machine on account of its capacity of doing more work and multiple types of works at the same time for an unlimited number of individual learners than the teaching machine. CAI instruction, for this reason, is relatively a new and developed concept than the teaching machine and programmed learning-oriented instructional technology. As observed by Hilgard and Bower (1977), “Computer-assisted instruction has now taken as so many dimensions that it can no longer be considered as a simple derivative of the teaching machine or the kind of programmed learning that Skinner introduced”. In this way, the fact stands quite clear before us. The use of computer has now almost revolutionized the field of instruction in all its dimensions. It can’t be defined now as a teaching device for presenting programmed instructional material and, consequently, it will not be proper to define CAI as the type of instruction which makes use of computers. Let us examine one more definition of CAI by Bhatt and Sharma (1992). They state that “CAI is an interaction between a student, a computer controlled display and a response entry device for the

purpose of achieving educational outcomes.” This definition brings into limelight the following things: In CAI there is an interaction between an individual student and the computer just as happens in the tutorial system between the teacher and an individual student. The computer is able to display the instructional material to the individual student. The individual student takes benefit of the displayed material and responds to it. These responses are attended by the computer for deciding the future course of instruction displayed to the learner. The interaction between the individual learner and the computer device helps in the realisation of the set instruction objectives. However, the above definition is somehow lacking in respect of giving the basic essentials about the nature and characteristics of the instruction provided by CAI. For doing away with such weakness, it can be modified in the following way: Computer-assisted instruction is a method of instruction in which there is a purposeful interaction between a learner and the computer device (having useful instructional material as software) for helping the individual learner achieve the desired instructional objectives with his own pace and abilities at his command.

Basic Assumptions The computer-assisted instruction, meant for auto-individualized instructions, rests on the following basic assumptions:

1. Instruction for a number of learners at a time CAI can serve at a time thousands of learners in an individualized way. What an individual needs according to his ability and interest in

a particular subject or topic, and accordingly he can get the instructional material and help from the computer. Moreover, it is the best programmed instruction available to him in such a nice individualized way. Hence, the first assumption of CAI lies in its capacity of providing quality and quantity auto-instruction to a sufficiently larger number of the individual learners at a time.

2. Automatic recording of the learners’ performance How does an individual learner react to the presented instructional material? What are his quarries and difficulties? What is his performance in terms of learning outcomes? All such things can be successfully and accurately recorded by the computer device. It helps much in further planning the needed instruction to the individual learner for this proper advancement. This timely and proper auto-recording is the second assumption underlying CAI.

3. Variety in the use of methods and techniques CAI assumes that every learner cannot be benefited through a single method and all the subjects or topics in a subject cannot be handled through a common method or strategies. It believes that there should be a wide variety of methods and approaches for imparting instruction in a particular subject or topic so that all the individual learners may be able to choose a particular method or approach according to their own interest, ability and nature of the instructional material.

Technologies of CAl Computer assisted instruction requires a joint effort of various persons in the matter of wise handling of men and material resources. Generally, it involves three types of technologies, namely hardware, software and courseware.

1. Hardware The computer as a machine represents the hardware. In CAI, we certainly need an appropriate computer to suit our teaching-learning situation. It will require the services of an expert or technician for its maintenance and an operator (a teacher, a student or assistant may do the job with some training). The teacher himself must have a workable knowledge of the construction and working of a simple computer.

2. Software The computer cannot do anything for imparting instruction to the learners if it is not fed with the software. The programmes-containing instructions to the computer in a language that it can understand are called software. These programmes are developed by the experts called programmers. The software used in CAI is of two kinds: (i) application software, and (ii) system software. The application software includes instructions to the computer for carrying out a total function required by the user. The user’s concern is with this software. However, the system software is needed for organizing the resources of the computer to carry out the application tasks mentioned in the application programme. Its activities are: (i) to interpret the application programme in the code of the computer machine, (ii) to handle the input and output devices, and (iii) to schedule the work within the computer machine. Therefore, in a way, this software helps in the working of the computer or enabling it to do what is needed by the user in terms of its application.

3. Courseware The courseware technology is the base of the instruction that is imparted to the learner by CAI. For example, a student of IX class wishes to learn about the topic “Elements, Compounds and

Mixtures” in Chemistry. For this purpose, the computer machine as a hardware will need the services of software—the application and system programmes for its operation. These programmes will be prepared by the software programmer, an expert in the software technology. But for its preparation, he will certainly require the services of those who are experts in courseware technology who include: (i) experts in the subject, (ii) in the methodology and strategies of teaching the subject, (iii) in instructional psychology, and (iv) in audio-visual aid preparation and use. What the courseware technology will prepare in terms of the instructional material and method of instruction, etc. will be translated by the software technologists into software programmes for being used in the computer machine. In this way, these three technologies and the persons operating them are jointly responsible for the preparation of the instructional activities conducted in CAI.

Types or Modes Computer assisted instruction can take a variety of forms as detailed below for providing self-individualized instruction to a learner depending on the computer services availed.

1. Informational instruction It helps the learner get the desired information he needs. Here the computer can serve the role of an enquiry officer, to respond to the student’s enquiry with answers it has stored. It provides minimal interaction between the student and the computer programme. The sole purpose of this type of CAI is to provide essential information for the acquirement of concepts and skills. However, the individual learner can learn a lot by adopting an enquiry or discovery approach towards self-learning through such instruction.

2. Drill and practice programmes CAI provides the learner with different types of drill and practice programmes covering specific topics related to a particular subject. Through these, the services of computers can be properly availed for providing practice in something already learned in some other way. It helps in the development of a variety of skills. For example, for providing practices in multiplication skill, the computer may display on the screen a simple problem like 7 × 8 = ........... The child is required to respond to typing the numeric keys of the keyboard. If the answer is wrong, the computer immediately displays WRONG and if the answer is correct, another problem for carrying out the practice is presented. These responses come within a fraction of a second, therefore, the child has not to wait for the answer for feedback. On the other hand, the computer has the required patience to wait and allow the child to go ahead with his own speed and intention of responding and move forward. The advanced programmes on drill and practice select the problems of varying difficulty levels on the basis of the student’s performance during the earlier sessions. The computer is known to have a good memory for the errors of the learners and, therefore, proves a very effective teacher in providing the students proper material for their drill and practice.

3. Tutorial type computer-assisted instruction In this type of CAI, the computers are engaged in actual teaching. Here they can play effectively the role of a tutor by maintaining a perfect interaction and dialogue with the individual students. The tutorial programmes are prepared not only to have instruction in topics such as Newton’s laws of motion, sets and their operations, solar and lunar eclipses but also to provide sufficient practice, having proper track of the student’s difficulties and performance and move the students on the path of progress according to their own pace,

abilities and requirements. If the student has been able to master a concept, the CAI programme provides the next step of instruction, but if he is not able to achieve mastery, the programme provides remedial instruction.

4. Educational games type In it, the learners are provided with a variety of well-designed computer games. These games should not be confused with academic type games. Their purpose is only to provide intellectual challenge, stimulation of curiosity and serve as a source of motivation to the individual learner. In a course of learning, these games can be used as a source of review or as a reward for some accomplishment for the learner.

5. Simulation type of instruction Simulation is used as a technique for providing training to the students. Such type of instructional activities provide powerful learning tools to them. With the carefully prepared programmes, the students are made to face real or idealized situations. They have to play an active role and are required to take decisions that have consequences. For example, a simulation computer programme may put the participants in the shooting range of the enemies in the battlefront or in the role of a hunter in a jungle full of horror or beasts or in the role of an explorer who is looking for a buried treasure. The stimulation in all these proves much less expensive and dangerous to have a trainee blow up something on the screen than to face a real danger to make a real mistake while trained in real situations.

6. Problems-solving type This type of computer-assisted instruction focuses on the process of finding an answer to a problem rather than the answer itself. Here, the students are provided with programmes that can make them

think about the ways and means of solving the problem systematically. With the concrete ways suggested in the programmes, the students can divide or analyse the problem into its small constituents and are able to devise systematic procedure for its solution. One of the best known problem solving instructional material packages is Logo, a procedure-oriented language based on the learning theories of Jean Piaget. Besides, there are other programmes available for different types of students for increasing the sophistication of their thought process helping them learn good thinking strategies and problem solving abilities.

7. Practical work-oriented instruction CAI programmes can provide valuable help in supplementing laboratory and other practical work. A student can learn so many things about the science experiments before actually performing them in his practical class by watching and following a computer programme made for this purpose. Similarly, he can avail the necessary skills and experiences about practical tasks in other fields before actually engaging in such practical activities. Thus, the children will have a necessary preparation and background from computers for their better performances at the school hours.

8. Learning affairs-managing type In this type of instructional activities, the computer-assisted programmes provide valuable help in managing and supervising the learning affairs of the students. They can have a proper check over the learning activities of individual students by identifying their academic weaknesses through extensive diagnostic testing and to prescribe educational programmes to meet their individual needs. They can give assignments, help in self-study, library reading, group work, take a test over assignment, keep progress chart and guide the teacher as well as parents to plan their children’s education. In

the subjects and areas needing extensive computation and manipulation of data, such as mathematics, engineering, statistics and advanced researches, the computers can do wonders. A mini computer can do and replace the work of a giant calculating machine. In the education of the handicapped children, e.g. deaf and dumb, the computers can provide the needed learning experiences with quite negligible efforts to the children. In this way, the computers can play a leading role not only in managing the affairs of the teaching-learning process but also in the whole range and areas connected with the world of education.

Limitations and Difficulties The computer assisted instruction as we have seen is available in its various types for helping the students in their auto-instructional activities. Though perhaps, this is the most workable instructional device run by the individual learner with little or no teacher assistance. Yet, when coming to the practical use, it is found to suffer from a number of limitations and drawbacks: 1. The instruction of CAI in classrooms proves quite expensive and uneconomical in terms of educational returns. 2. Computer, as an electronic device, may invite significant hazards to children. There is a potential danger for the children either to damage the machine or be damaged by it. 3. Much of the difficulty is felt on account of the unavailability or usability of the educational software. Either we don’t get any programme for a particular type of instruction and teaching of a topic or we are cheated by the computer firms by selling us the software found virtually useless and unusable. 4. Serving of the hardware (computer machine) also poses a serious problem. If for one or the other reason the machine is failed, the expertise to operate it again or do repair work is not

easily available. Consequently, the regular instructional work on self-study of the students may receive a major setback. 5. The auto-instruction or self-study carried out in the form of CAI is basically a learners-controlled instruction. Here, the learner is the master of the whole instructional process and thus, there is little scope for keeping restraint and checks on the learner. It may lead to indiscipline, truancy, carelessness and unnecessary wasting of time on the part of the students. 6. The learners are supposed to type from the keyboard or use light pens against the screen for putting up their responses. During long study hours, this exercise may prove quite boring, mechanical and tiresome. However, they have to live up with it as a way to interact with the computer on account of the fact that there is no computer till now that can communicate and respond to the speech and writing of the students like their teachers. 7. CAI, how good and effective it may prove as an instructional device, cannot be accommodated properly in the set-up of our schools or colleges comprising set timetable schedules, uniform curricula and groups-oriented instruction, and examination system. Neither we can replace or build up altogether a new structure nor can we dare to invite chaos by introducing CAI. 8. The other major limitations of the CAI lie in the fact that computers are machines and no machine can ever match the human beings for effective interaction with the human beings. The emotional touch, warmth and sympathy as well as the heart link established in teacher-pupil interaction are not possible in CAI. These limitations and drawbacks, however, do not undermine the importance of computers as an aid to instruction. They are not to replace the teacher or the traditional teaching-learning system, but to

render a valuable help to the teacher as well as learners in their pursuit of excellence with regard to their responsibilities towards teaching and learning. Moreover, it is useless to say that the use of computers in classroom at once needs some advanced technical skills on the part of the teachers. In all practical sense, the computers may be handled like other hardware: T.V., video sets, camera and projectors. Even if one does not want to learn anything beyond how to load a programme (software) in the machine and run it, it is at his choice. Surely, it will not come in the way of a teacher to use computer as an instructional tool. He does not need to prepare the software (computer programme) as these programmes may be procured from the market or borrowed from some concerned educational agency. Therefore, there is a great need of making suitable environment by removing all type of hesitation and fear in the minds of the teachers for the adoption of CAI as a method or mode of instruction.

Computer-managed Instruction Meaning and Definition The term computer managed instruction (CMI) simply stands for the instruction managed with the help of computer technology. It directly calls for the services and applications of computers in the field of instruction. However, in the language of computer technology, computer managed instructions may be defined as a category of computer programme that may be used by educators and instructors to organize and manage data related to instruction for attaining the stipulated institutional objectives in a most effective way.

How are Instructions Managed by the Computers?

As said in the above definition, computers are able to perform the task of managing instructions with the help of a category of suitable software programme specifically designed for this purpose. Some of the functions performed with the help of such developed softwares related to the organization and management of instructions are described now:

1. Diagnosis of entry behaviour of the learners Computer programmes help in the early diagnosis of the strengths and weaknesses of the learners in terms of their previous knowledge and experiences related to a particular knowledge and skill area, their interests, attitudes and aptitudes, the needs and motives as well as other personality traits for determining their potentiality for going ahead in the learning of a particular instructional course or achieving a set of instructional objectives.

2. Setting of instructional objectives Computer softwares are available that can help in analyzing test data (results of the diagnostic testing) and the other database (pooled) information about the characteristics of the learners in relation to the needs and purposes served by a particular type of instruction at one or the other stages of school, college or public education. It will help in formulating the goals and objectives (educational as well as institutional) for a particular course or piece of instruction.

3. Generating individualized instructional plans Depending upon the need, characteristics, nature and individuality of the learners, computer softwares are able to generate and organize individualized instructional plans for countless learners at one or the other times—average, gifted, slow or disabled.

4. Generating instructional materials and learning experiences Suiting to the individualized instructional plans and strategies computer softwares can generate appropriate instructional material and opportunities of interactive learning experiences to the learners of varying needs, interests and abilities. A huge data bank of all types of information and instructional material is easily available through well prepared software packages, websites, online conferencing, networking, etc. The material generated and developed for instructional purposes may be used on a computer based system or in other forms of instruction, for example, programmed instruction, multimedia selfinstruction, or group instruction including slides or tape presentations. Most of the so developed instructional materials have been programmed in tutorial, drill and practice as well as stimulation and gaming modes and thus occupy significant advantages over the traditional instructional material available.

5. Availability of instructional material into curriculum units For the proper organization and management of the instructions, an inventory of the instructional resources available to the learners may be stored in the computer’s data bank. The total resources may be divided into properly required units having clearly specified set of objectives. There shall be clear directions available for telling the learners what to do for achieving the stipulated objectives. It may ask them to read a book, work off self-administered paper and pencil exercises, conduct experiment with a science kit, attend group instruction or see a film, and so on. It may also suggest the learners to take in the end a unit test after completing instructions or work prescribed for that unit. The computer after proper processing and

satisfied with the progress of the learners, then may suggest him to proceed on to the next unit of the instruction.

6. Monitoring of progress The computer managed instructions prove very effective in monitoring the progress of each and every individual learners in a quite satisfactory way. What one has done, is doing or will be doing in future can be properly monitored with the help of the great capacity of computers in keeping track of the countless learners in the progress of their instructional outputs. They are able to register the low achievement of the learners, detect the deficiencies in learning along with the possible causes and provide suggestions for overcoming the learning difficulties.

7. Providing remedial instructions Computer software can very well manage any progress related to remedial instructions to the needy learners. On the basis of the learning difficulties diagnosed and the probable causes detected, these softwares now can suggest all the possible remedies helpful in the planning and organization of instructions. For example, if the student is feeling difficulty in the work related to a prescribed unit he may be helped in learning the necessary prerequisites for that unit so that he may no longer feel difficulty in learning that. However, if it is a motivational problem, a suggestion may be forwarded to him to review the goals or help him see the relationship between the present unit and the achievement of those goals.

8. Management of information and record keeping Computer software may help in a big way for the collection, storage, classification and dissemination of information through a wellorganized system of record keeping and its maintenance. Storage of

information and record keeping are very much essential for the proper organization and management of instructions. The teachers and the learners may get a big help for their teaching and learning from the storehouses of such information data related to their respective field of teaching-learning. All types of information and data related to the interests, abilities, educational and environmental backgrounds of the learners belonging to their past and present can be very well available for the students in their instructional outputs and overall welfare. Their educational progress can be very well monitored and maintained through the help of a well maintained data record of all the individual learners which may prove quite helpful in maintaining an essential link between the classroom instructions and its administrative management.

9. Organization of testing and evaluation programmes Computer software may provide valuable services in the task of managing and organizing testing and evaluation programmes related to classroom instructions and educational progress of the students in a variety of ways. They are helpful in assessing the study behaviour of the students for getting them admitted to a course of academic or professional study. Later on, day-to-day, periodic or end evaluation are all possible through the well-framed unit or course tests and other evaluation techniques available with the suitable software. Computer managed testing can set unitwise questions distributed over a category of objectives belonging to different domains of learners’ behaviour from its pooled question bank by carefully selecting test items according to the difficulty level, discriminating index, the content covered, the objectives tested, etc. There is no problem of question leakage on the part of such testing. Moreover, a number of identical sets of question papers may be available for the proper administration and checking of malpractices during

examination. The chances of grammatical mistakes, language and printing errors also are minimized with these testing programmes. Scoring and interpretation also are quite objective and mechanical leaving almost no chance of traditional human errors.

10. Generating all types of reports Computer software help the processes and outputs of the instructional programmes by generating all progress and information reports related to the tasks of instruction. If you need the report related to the entry behaviour of the students, it is available on the computer’s hard disk or files maintained for the purpose. You may have a printed copy of the same for planning the individualized instructions for your students. The data regarding the available instructional resources, aids and equipments, unitwise organization of the curriculum and the progress regarding the attainment of instructional objects are readily available to the learners and the teachers. The testing, evaluation and progress reports of the individual students and the group as a whole, generated through computers, can be sent to the parents for acquainting them with the progress of their children and seeking their help for their welfare. Such reports can also be used for the removal of their learning difficulties or deficiencies and for nurturing their talents and creativity. In this way, computer softwares and their applications may be utilized for arranging and managing all the essential affairs related to the processes and products of classroom instructions. However, the field of CMI cannot be limited to the boundary walls of the usual classroom and school students. It encircles all types of self-learning and distance education modes and reaches all types of learners and their instructions such as adult learning, mass education programmes, special educations, provisions to the exceptional, disabled and disadvantageous groups and children of the society. Thus, CMI may be credited nowadays to have the capability of

managing the entire spectrum of the teaching-learning or instructional process covering all the fields and areas of our education system.

SUMMARY 1. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) refers to a method of instruction in which there is a purposeful interaction between a learner and the computer device (having useful instructional material as software) for helping the individual learner to achieve the desired instructional objectives with his own pace and abilities at his command. 2. CAI for its fruitful application rests on some basic assumptions: (i) instruction for a number of learners at a time, (ii) automatic recording of the learner’s performance, and (iii) variety in the use of methods and techniques. 3. In general, three types of technologies are involved in CAI, namely hardware, software and courseware. The hardware technology helps in the maintenance and operation of the computers as a machine. The software technology serves two purposes: helping in operating the machine through the application software and enabling the machine to provide the needed services to the users through its utility software. The courseware technology is meant for developing course material for the instructional purposes for being converted into software programmes by the software programmers. 4. There are a variety of forms and styles available for making use of the CAI depending upon the instructional and educational needs of the users: (i) informational, (ii) drill and practice, (iii) tutorial type, (iv) educational games type, (v) simulation type, (vi) problem-solving type, (vii) practical workoriented, and (viii) learning affairs-managing type.

5. The computer assisted instruction, when coming to the practical use, is found to suffer from a number of limitations and drawbacks such as (i) quite expensive and uneconomical in terms of educational returns, (ii) possibility of being a potential danger for the children either to damage the machine or be damaged by it, (iii) difficulty felt on account of the unavailability or usability of educational software, (iv) problems faced on account of proper maintenance and repair of the computer machine, (v) possibilities of turning independence granted to the learners into indiscipline, truancy, carelessness and unnecessary wasting of time on their part, (vi) working on the computers may prove quite boring, mechanical and tiresome to the students sometimes causing a serious health hazard, and (vii) difficulties to fit CAI into the prevailing system of education and evaluation in our schools. 6. Computer managed instructions (CMI) stand as a category of computer programme that may be used by educators and instructors to organize and manage data related to instruction for attaining the desired institutional objectives most effectively. 7. CMI may prove quite helpful and advantageous in serving so many useful purposes like (i) diagnosis of entry behaviour of the learners, (ii) setting up of instructional objectives, (iii) generating individualized instructional plans, (iv) generating instructional materials and learning experiences, (v) availing instructional material into curriculum units, (vi) monitoring the progress of each and every individual learner, (vii) providing remedial instructions to the needy learners, (viii) management of the task of information gathering and record keeping, (ix) organization of testing and evaluation programme, and (x)

generating all types of progress and information reports related to the tasks of instruction.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is a computer-assisted instruction? Throw light on its need and origin. 2. Give a suitable definition of CAI and describe its application as an instructional device. 3. What are the basic assumptions and requirements of CAI for its use as a method of instruction? 4. Discuss the three technologies of CAI. 5. Discuss, in detail, the types or modes of computer-assisted instruction. 6. “Computer-assisted instruction has a wide application in the field of education.” Comment on this statement. Discuss the various types of computer-assisted instructions. 7. Discuss the limitations and drawbacks in the use of computers for the instructional purposes. 8. What do mean by computer managed instruction? Describe the various steps involved in it.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Adams, Pamela W., Computer Applications for Teachers, Charlotte, NC: CPI Training Solutions, 1999. Atkinson, R.C., “Computerized instruction and the learning process”, American Psychologist, vol. 12, pp. 225–239, 1968. Bhatt, B.D. and S.R. Sharma, Educational Technology, Delhi: Kanishka Publishing House, 1992.

Ellis, Allan B., The Use and Misuse of Computers in Education, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. 1975. Hilgard, R.R. and G.H. Bower, Theories of Learning, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1977. De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. Koch, Warren J., The Use of Computers in Education in Secondary Schools, Washington, D.C.: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1972. Locard, James, Computers for Twenty-First Century Educators (6th ed.) Boston: Pearson, 2004. Merrill, Paul F. et al., Computers in Education, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1986. Mandell, Collen J., Computers in Education Today, St. Paul: West Pub., 1989. Peter Coburn et al., Practical Guide to Computers in Education (2nd ed.), Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1985. Willis, Jerry, Computers, Teaching and Learning: An Introduction to Computers in Education, Beaverton, or.: Dilithium Press, 1983.

23 Training Psychology CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Meaning of Training Psychology Basic Assumptions Basic Principles Utility of Training Psychology in Education Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Educational technology is mainly concerned with the task of improving the processes and products of teaching-learning. For this purpose, it has tried to make use of the researches and innovations in the field of instructional technology, instructional psychology and psychology of teaching-learning. Microteaching, simulated teaching, team teaching, personalized system of instruction, interaction analysis, systems approach, etc. fall in the line of helping the task of better teaching, training and effective learning by exercising appropriate control over the teaching-learning process. Training psychology and cybernetics represent two new concepts in the field of educational technology that need to be discussed. Training

psychology will be dealt with in this chapter, and cybernetics in the next chapter.

Meaning of Training Psychology Training psychology simply stands for that part of Applied Psychology that is used for training purposes. Training, as we know, is usually imparted to perform an act or task efficiently and effectively. Improvement in the performance, thus, is a sole objective of any training programme. In training psychology, the rules and principles of Applied Psychology are applied to bring desirable improvement in the performance of the trainees/learners with regard to certain learning acts or tasks. In the field of education, training psychology plays a leading role in the planning and structuring of appropriate instructional designs. The instructional designs are usually defined as a kind of systematic procedure to bring about learning or solve the problems of education and training. It means that training psychology appropriately helps in designing the framework or developing systematic steps and procedure for performing a task or act quite satisfactorily. The origin of training psychology is considered from military training. In military training, the military personnel are subjected to rigorous training to perform their tasks perfectly. In it, the tasks they are supposed to perform are first analysed in a proper away. It is called task analysis. Every task or activity, thus, is analyzed into its various proper elements or components. In a learning or training scheme, these task elements or components are arranged in a proper sequence for getting desired outcomes. Proper instructional designs in terms of structuring proper learning environment, methods and media are then planned for increasing the performance level with regard to these task elements. The performance with regard to one task element acts as a mediator for the subsequent tasks particularly, the last one. Performance in one task element, thus, reinforces the

learning behaviour of a trainee for acquiring efficiency in the performance of others. Inheriting the basic principles and structure from military training, training psychology thus aims to bring improvement in all the task elements or activities comprising a task or behaviour to be performed by a trainee or learner.

Basic Assumptions Training psychology, as a means of structuring proper instructional designs to improve the performance of the learners or trainees, is based on the following basic assumptions: Teaching is the independent variable where learning is the dependent variable. Learning outcomes or training output cannot be improved by learning theories. Therefore, emphasis should be laid on the teaching theories—learning conditions in teaching rather than the learning theories. The performance of the learner or a trainee with regard to the performance of a learning task can only be improved by planning and structuring of the appropriate teaching tasks. Learning or training depends on some specific norms and systematic designing of activities/tasks. A task, therefore, should be analysed into its proper elements or components for creating appropriate learning conditions to acquire the desired efficiency with regard to the performance of the whole task.

Basic Principles In training psychology, the focus is on task analysis. Therefore, its functioning depends upon the following principles:

1. Principle of analyzing the whole task A task or behaviour to be learned may be analyzed into its various elements or components called task elements for carrying out better learning/training.

2. Principle of providing training in task elements The task elements may be subjected to proper learning tactics and strategies. It may include facilitation of the learning by manipulation of media, methods and control of the environment.

3. Principle of sequencing the task element All the analyzed task elements or components can be arranged properly in a meaningful sequence for acting as a mediator in the accomplishment of the last event or task in the chain of task performance.

4. Principle of self-rewarding and reinforcement The task elements are helpful in the transfer of learning and training. Moreover, these are so analysed and sequenced as the mastery over one reinforces the behaviour of the learner to acquire mastery over the other in the chain of task performance.

5. Principle of learning with own pace Training psychology employs the principle of learning with own pace. The task elements are accomplished by each learner according to their own needs and learning abilities. Accordingly, one may get help and remedial instruction about his own felt difficulty with regard to the performance of a particular task element.

Utility of Training Psychology in Education Training psychology has proved its worth in the field of education by providing help for framing appropriate instructional and training designs. It has also helped in solving various practical problems concerning teaching and training. Its utility in the field of education is summarized here:

1. Providing specific models of teacher education Training psychology has established its worth in suggesting appropriate models of teacher education for the training of in service and students teachers. Through its basic nature and principles, it has helped on the analysis of teaching task and identification of teaching skills, and this has made possible the best suitable training programme for the training of teachers according to the available resources and the prevailing environment. Through the outcome of the various types of models it has been possible to: organize the training tasks in such a way as to develop the internal abilities and efficiency of the student teachers. develop teaching skills or teacher behaviour for the desired classroom interaction; and bring improvement in the outcomes of the teaching performed by the teachers.

2. Helping in solving the problems concerning education Training psychology has helped in solving the following practical problems related to the field of education, learning and training:

Designing individualized or remedial instructional programmes for the benefit of the individual learners. Organization and development of curriculum suiting the nature and characteristics of the individual and group learners. Selection of the appropriate strategies, means and material and seeking environmental control according to the nature of the teaching-learning task.

3. Providing appropriate instructional designs Training psychology has helped improving classroom instruction by suggesting appropriate instructional designs. For this purpose, the principles of training psychology have been appropriately applied for the analysis of the instructional task elements and then suggesting proper ways and means for their accomplishment and that of the related instructional objectives. How can the services of training psychology be availed for the purpose of developing a suitable instructional system for serving the ends of a particular teachinglearning situation is discussed now.

For Developing an Instructional System Training psychology can be effectively used in the development of appropriate instructional and training designs. This development procedure, in general, is said to involve the three basic stages, namely planning, implementation and evaluation: At the planning stage the activities are so selected as to (i) help in determining the objectives or outcomes of the training process, and (ii) select the means and materials for achieving these objectives or outcomes. At the implementation stage, the activities are so performed and executed as to help in achieving the set objectives of the training using the means and materials planned at the planning stage. The last evaluation stage is concerned with

knowing about the progress of the training procedure to achieve the training objectives. The functions carried out at those stages are practically overlapping. Their main aim is to provide better training for the better accomplishment of the functions. The main activities carried out at these stages are summarized here: 1. Explaining the learning or training objectives in brief and clearly defined behavioural terms. 2. Analyzing the task of learning or training into appropriate task elements or components. 3. Arranging the task elements into proper sequence in view of the accomplishment of the last task element in the chain of task performances. 4. Selecting proper learning/training strategy and means for the accomplishment of each task element. 5. Ensuring adequate transfer of learning/training from one task element to another enabling each element as mediator for the learning of the final and complete skill of the whole task. 6. Evaluating the progress in view of the achievement of the desired training/learning objectives. 7. Using feedback to monitor progress and make adjustment in training/learning strategy.

SUMMARY 1. Training psychology is the psychology used for training purposes. Here, the rules and principles of psychology are applied to bring desirable improvement in the performance of the trainees/learners. In the field of education, it plays a leading role in the planning and structuring of appropriate instructional designs for helping in the execution of instructional tasks as effectively as possible.

2. Historically, the concept of training psychology has originated from military training. In military training, the tasks in hand is first analyzed into its various proper elements or components. In the learning or training scheme, these task elements or components are then arranged in a proper sequence for getting desired outcomes. Inheriting the basic principles and structure from military training, training psychology, thus, aims to bring improvement in all the task elements or activities comprising a task or behaviour to be performed by a trainee or learner. 3. The application of training psychology for improving the performance of the learners or trainees is based on certain basic assumptions such as (i) treating teaching as the independent variable, and learning as the dependent variable, (ii) giving emphasis on the use of teaching theories than on the learning theories, (iii) emphasise on the need of planning and structuring of the appropriate teaching tasks, and (iv) lay stress on analyzing a teaching/training task into its proper elements or components for creating appropriate learning conditions. 4. Utilization of training psychology for the instructional or training purpose rests on certain basic principles such as (i) principle of analyzing the whole task, (ii) principle of providing training in task elements, (iii) principle of sequencing the task elements, (iv) principle of self-rewarding and reinforcement, and (v) principle of learning with own pace. 5. Training psychology has proved its worth in the field of education on account of its numerous utilities and applications briefly grouped as: (i) suggesting appropriate models of teacher education for the training of in-service and student teachers, (ii) helping in solving a number of problems related to the field of education, learning and training, and (iii)

improving classroom instruction by suggesting appropriate instructional designs. 6. Training psychology can be effectively used in the development of appropriate instructional and training designs. The development procedure carried out in the three stages, namely planning, implementation and evaluation may involve the main activities like (i) defining the learning or training objectives, (ii) analyzing the task of learning or training into appropriate task elements or components, (iii) arranging the task elements into proper sequence, (iv) selecting proper learning/training strategy for the accomplishment of each task element, (v) ensuring adequate transfer of learning/ training from one task element to another, (vi) evaluating the progress in view of the achievement of the desired training/learning objectives, and (vii) using feedback to monitor progress and make adjustment in the training/learning strategy.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is training psychology? How is it useful in the field of education? 2. What are the basic assumptions and principles of training psychology? 3. How can the services of training psychology be utilized for developing an instructional system for a particular teachinglearning situation? Discuss the procedure in detail. 4. Write short notes on the following: (i) Training psychology (ii) Application of training psychology in education (iii) Using training psychology for the development of an instructional system.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. Skinner, B.F., Technology of Teaching, New York: Appelton Century Crofts, 1968. Unwin, D., Media and Methods: Instructional Technology in Higher Education, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

24 Cybernetics CHAPTER OUTLINE Meaning and Definition of Cybernetics Theory and Mechanism Use in the Development of Instructional Designs Application and Advantages in Education Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Meaning and Definition of Cybernetics The cybernetics approach may prove very useful in developing appropriate instructional designs quite self-regulatory and autoinstructional in their execution by properly adopting the mechanism of feedback. The term cybernetics has been derived from a Greek word Kubernetes meaning Steersman. The function of steersman is to steer the ship or boat in a right way in a right direction. This means that the person should have proper control over the steering function. As and when he gets a hint or communication (feedback) that the boat or ship is going astray, he should exercise control and steer the vehicle again in the right direction. In this way, by exercising corrective device and appropriate control with the help of good

communication and timely feedback, the steersman is able to regulate the working of his vehicle. In the similar way, the teacher is the steersman of the teachinglearning process. He has to take along with him the pupils for reaching a set goal by steering out a learning path. For this purpose, the instructional system he chooses must be appropriately controlled. While working with system, if he gets feedback that the system is working properly in terms of output, it will be steered with no change. But if he gets communication that there is something wrong with the system, he will try to set it right. For this purpose, he may have to bring changes in his own method of teaching, the size or quality of the content or learning experiences, interaction with his students, etc. and again the system is put to work after being corrected. This is how a system is controlled by receiving proper communication and feedback about its functioning in right or wrong way. The control in such a case over the system is extrinsic. However good the extrinsic control may be, there are chances of its not being exercised effectively. There may be a gap in receiving communication feedback and responding to it for bringing required improvement in the system. If somehow or the other the system may be made self-functioning and self-regulatory, having an automatic control on its process as required from time to time as a result of the feedback received by it, the system may be termed as an improved system over the extrinsically controlled system. Our own body systems are good examples of such self-regulating systems. We, as human beings, develop our own actions for detecting and controlling the specific stimuli present in the environment. It brings automatic modification in our own behaviour and body system as a result of the process of sensory feedback. When we detect foul or good smell in the air, the sensory feedback makes us bring changes in our body system for avoiding or receiving the air as much as possible. The mechanism of homeostasis pertaining to the physiological and biological systems also brings into limelight the

process of automatic self-regulatory control. Under this mechanism, our body system constantly works towards maintaining a normal state of balance between input and output. For example, when the blood sugar level in our body drops, the brain, glands, stomach and other organs of the body send out signals (feedback) which activate a hunger drive or hunger motive and make us hungry. After food has been consumed, our body returns to a state of equilibrium. Similarly, when the hot day sets off or disturbs the physical mechanism of our body, it leads to perspiring resulting into a cooler environment. Consequently, the body again comes into a state of equilibrium. The other examples of such a system are found in the electric and electronic machines such as refrigerator, washing machine, iron, heater, and recording and playing devices. Cybernetics as a developing science and technology aims to help in the building of such a system which is self-regulatory. As a definition, cybernetics may be termed as the science of communication and control that can help in building as a selfregulatory automatic feedback system similar to that found in animal, men and machines. It stands for a self-regulating automatic system. It can modify its operation in the light of the feedback received by it through its output.

Theory and Mechanism Cybernetics, as already defined, stands for the science of communication and control. It refers to a self-regulatory automatic system operating in animals, men and machine. The principle can be equally applied on the field of education by taking education or instruction as a system. The main theoretical ideas and principles of cybernetics are outlined now:

1. Any system has three basic elements-input, process and output

The system needs something in the shape of men and material resources for its initial functioning. It is the input. The process unit that works for modifying the input and output is the unit for discharging the results of the process.

2. The system can be classified as an open loop system and a closed loop system The open loop system is not a self-corrective automatic system because it is not able to communicate and provide feedback about its working. But the cybernetic system stands for the closed loop system, in which, as we can observe Fig. 24.1, the output from a system can be effectively returned as input for controlling the future output. It is referred as feedback. This type of effective and dynamic feedback is available only in the closed loop system and it is the central nerve of the cybernetics approach. It is the communication machinery that alerts the system for adopting self-corrective device, control its working and making further necessary improvement in its functioning.

Figure 24.1 A closed loop system of cybernetics.

3. The feedback mechanism in a cybernetic system

As perceived by Smith and Smith (1966), the feedback mechanism is responsible for the following three main functions: (i) Generating actions of the system towards a goal. (ii) Comparing the effect of this action with the most appropriate way and detecting deficiencies/errors to meet the goals. (iii) Utilizing the deficiency/error signals to redirect the system. In this way, it is the feedback mechanism that is responsible for running a system in a proper way and providing clues for bringing desirable improvement in it for the effective realization of the objectives.

Use in the Development of Instructional Designs The cybernetics theory and mechanism can be properly applied to the process of instruction for making it a self-regulatory, selfcorrective and auto-instructional system. Let us see how can it happen. Ordinarily, the teaching or instruction as a system may be supposed to have three major elements—input, process, and output. The input elements of the instructional system here will consist of the learning experiences (in the shape of set curriculum, syllabus, etc.) to be given to the students, their needs and entry behaviour, the objectives of teaching, the teacher, the instructional methods, the material and material resources, and the teaching-learning environment. In process part, the actual instructional work will be carried out by involving and making use of the input material—human and physical.

The output part of the teaching or instructional system will bring the outcomes of the instructional process in the form of the students’ responses, their gain in knowledge, acquisition of skills, change in attitude and interest, etc. It will also throw light on the effectiveness of the system for the realization of the set instructional objectives. For turning the usual system of instruction into a cybernetics system, the main role is to be played by feedback mechanism. The output of the instructional process should properly return as input to control future output. It will automatically work as self-corrective device for detecting the strengths and weaknesses of the input element and also of the process part. After making needed correction and processing it afresh, it will bring improved results in the form of better output which in turn will provide fresh incentive and good feedback for the better functioning of the instructional system. Gradually, the system will yield into a self-regulatory auto-instructional system. A number of cybernetic instructional designs have been developed by the educationists of the advanced countries. We can cite the name of Keller plan developed by Fred Keller and J.G. Sherman for the purpose. We have already discussed the mechanism of this plan for being adopted in the separation or use of PSG in the Chapter 21 of this text. However, for being adopted as a cybernetic instructional design, we are again providing its necessary formalities in the manner given below. For the development of a cybernetic instructional design the learning material in the Keller plan is divided into units. Each unit is quite comprehensive and meaningful to be completed in a week’s duration. The course included in the unit consists of 1. The teacher-generated reading material 2. A study guide with an approach plan based on stated behavioural objectives

3. Four sets of evaluation material (equivalent in terms of testing and difficulty levels). In the instructional process, the students go through the reading material (quite programmed and structured) with own pace. They are required to read the instructional objectives carefully. They can take the help of the study guide for their independent pursuit. The study guide may suggest them original texts, articles, sources, etc. for their self-instructional activities. After going through a unit, they have to be evaluated. On their request, they are to be given randomly one of the four tests. The results of the test are transferred to them by the concerned tutor. The output works as input in the form of proper feedback for bringing self-correction and improvement to the individual learner. The Keller plan does not need any formalities of time table, attendance, etc. It is a self-paced auto-instructional plan that leads to mastery learning by independent efforts.

Application and Advantages in Education Cybernetics is defined as a science of communication and control. Its principles and mechanism can be properly applied in the field of education. Its advantages are summarized here: 1. The teaching and instructional process can be made selfregulatory and auto-instructional by properly adopting the mechanism of feedback as advocated by cybernetics. If we can arrange for the continuous flow of the feedback in the input element of the instructional system, it can reinforce the learner’s behaviour for becoming an independent and autonomous one. 2. The basic and central problem in any course of teachinglearning is the proper motivation. However, if we adopt the

cybernetics approach, the regular feedback automatically received by the learner may continuously reinforce him for getting due motivation and zeal for self-learning. 3. There can be proper control over the system of instruction as a whole with the application of the principles of cybernetics. With the adoption of this approach, the teachers can exercise full control over their teaching and the learners over their learning for the realization of the set objectives. 4. Cybernetics may be used for developing remedial instructional activities. The feedback provides information about the deficiencies and shortcomings creeping into the system. On the basis of such detection, a proper remedial programme may be chalked out by means of measuring the improvement in output and subsequent feedback. 5. Cybernetics is an automatic feedback system applied to the process of teaching and learning to help the teachers and the learners in their self-improvement. For example, when a teacher is teaching something to a class, he gets feedback from his students that they want to study some other thing in some other way. He gets himself corrected in the light of the feedback. Accordingly, he may bring change in his instructional methodology. The feedback received from time to time and the output of the instructional system will help the teacher for bringing improvement in his teaching. Similar help will also be rendered to the individual learner for brining self-improvement in his method of learning. 6. Cybernetics as a method of good communication and control can assume the role of a proper training technology. The cybernetics approach with its tool of controlled feedback has been able to give birth to a number of good innovations in the field of teacher education such as micro-teaching, simulated teaching, and interaction analysis. Accordingly, it can be properly utilized for bringing desirable modifications in the

behaviour of teacher trainees and helping them learn appropriate teaching skills. 7. The cybernetics technique leads to proper individualization of the instruction. Every learner may learn the thing with his own pace. He gets opportunity for self-correction with the help of dynamic feedback. Such individualized auto-instruction has provided the way for proper development of self-instructional material in the form of printed programmed texts and audio and video programmes for spreading the programmes of distance education.

SUMMARY 1. Cybernetics may be termed as the science of communication and control that can help in building a self-regulatory automatic feedback system similar to that found in animals, men and machines such as refrigerator, washing machine, iron, heater, and recording and playing devices, etc. In all of its forms it stands for a self-regulating automatic system that can modify its operation in the light of the feedback received by it through its output. 2. The cybernetics system stands for the closed loop system. In closed loop system the output from a system can be effectively returned as input for controlling future output. It is referred as feedback. This type of effective and dynamic feedback available only in the closed loop system is the central nerve of the cybernetics approach. In real sense, it is the feedback mechanism that is responsible for running a system in a proper way and providing clues for bringing desirable improvement in it for the effective realization of the objectives. 3. The cybernetics theory and mechanism can be properly applied in the development of appropriate instructional designs for turning the usual system of instruction into a cybernetics

system. For this purpose, the main role is to be played by the feedback mechanism. To begin with, the output of the instructional process may appropriately return as input to control future output. It can automatically work as a selfcorrective device for detecting the strengths and weaknesses of the input element and also of the process part. After making the needed correction and processing it afresh, it can bring improved results in the form of better output which in turn may provide fresh incentive and good feedback for the better functioning of the instructional system. Gradually, the system may yield into a desired self-regulatory auto-instructional system. We can cite the name of Keller plan as an illustration of such a developed Cybernetics Instructional Design. 4. The use and application of the principle and mechanism of cybernetics may prove quite beneficial and advantageous in the field of education in a variety of ways such as (i) in making the teaching and instructional process self-regulatory and autoinstructional, (ii) in providing the learners due motivation and zeal for self-learning, (iii) the teachers for exercising full control over their teaching and the learners over their learning for the realization of the set objectives, (iv) developing appropriate remedial instructional activities, (v) for the teachers and learners in their self-improvement, (vi) in arranging appropriate training programmes for the in-service and pre-service teacher education, and (vii) in the task of the proper individualization of the instruction, development of self-instructional material and extension of distance education and self-learning programmes.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by cybernetics? Discuss its theory and mechanism in detail.

2. Define cybernetics by throwing light on its main characteristics and features. 3. How can cybernetics be applied to the process of instruction for the development of a suitable instructional design? Discuss. 4. What is a cybernetics instructional design? Discuss its features and giving an example. 5. What is Keller plan? How can it be used as a cybernetics instructional design or system? Discuss in brief. 6. Discuss the application and advantages of cybernetics in the field of education.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Barry, Clemson, Cybernetics: A New Management Tool, Tunbridge Wells, Kent: Abacus Press, 1984. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. Keller, Fred S. PSI, The Keller Plan Handbook: Essays on a Personalized System of Instruction, Menlo Park, Calif.: W. A. Benjamin, 1974. Smith, K.U. and M.P. Smith, Cybernetics Principles of Learning and Instructional Design, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. Sherman J.G. and Ruskin Robert S., The Personalized System of Instruction, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1978. Young, John F., Cybernetics, London, Iliffe; New York: American Elsevier Pub. Co., 1969.

25 Models of Teaching “Schools, faculties and individual teachers create life in school by models of teaching they choose and create.”

— JOYCE BRUCE CHAPTER OUTLINE Meaning and Definitions Characteristics of Teaching Models Fundamental Elements Types of Teaching Models Description of Some Teaching Models Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Meaning and Definitions The term ‘model’ carries different meaning in our day-to-day life. We look at the model of Taj Mahal and find it an exact replica of the original. This is why models prove a quite effective aid as a substitute for reality in the classroom situation. In behaviour modification and in the task of helping the individual to learn good habits, to imbibe desirable attitudes, interests and other many personality characteristics, we generally use the term model or modelling in presenting some ideal figure or behaviour for the purpose of its copying or imitation by the individual concerned. A teacher, a leader or a screen hero may work as a model for a child and he may pick up the behavioural traits of the personality of that model.

In another way, the term model is profoundly used by the artists, architects or engineers in their professional activities. Initially, the models of dams, projects, installation, or construction of machinery and equipment are prepared and then the work is carried out exactly as it has been laid down in the model. Thus, different meanings may prove quite helpful in understanding or defining the term ‘models of teaching’ or ‘teaching models’. It has been defined by the research workers and writers in a number of ways. Some of these definitions are reproduced here. Joyce and Weil (1972:2): Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process of specifying and producing particular environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behaviour. Joyce and Weil (1972:3): Teaching model is “a pattern or plan”, which can be used to shape a curriculum or course, to select instructional materials and to guide a teacher’s actions. Weil and Joyce (1978:2): A model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing educational activities and environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that are intended to achieve certain kinds of goals. Paul D. Eggen, et al. (1979:12): Models are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish particular instructional goals. Jangira and Others (1983:10): A model of teaching is a set of interrelated components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. It helps in designing instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization of the stipulated objectives.

Analysis of the Definitions The first definition considers models as instructional designs. These designs help in the process of teaching in the following ways:

They suggest the ways and techniques of creating a favourable environmental condition for carrying out the teaching process. They help in achieving desirable teacher-pupil interaction during teaching. The ultimate goal of bringing desirable changes in the behaviour of pupil may be achieved through these designs. The second definition considers models as a sort of some patterns or plans prepared in advance for the success of the teaching-learning process: In the construction of a curriculum or contents of a course. In the proper selection of the instructional materials for teaching the prepared curriculum or course. In guiding the teacher to select appropriate teaching techniques, strategies and methods for the effective utilization of the teaching situation and material for realizing the set objectives. The third definition considers models as sort of specific guidelines helpful in the accomplishment of the following tasks: Designing appropriate educational activities. Arranging proper teaching environment. Specifying suitable ways and means of teaching and learning. Directing all the resources of teaching to achieve the specific objective or goals. The fourth definition views models in terms of some specific teaching strategies aimed at the realization of the set objectives. These strategies are prescriptive in nature. What is to be done and how it is to be done in the process of teaching are pre-planned and well thought in view of the teaching goals and the diagnosis carried out with the student and the teaching environment. Therefore, in exercising their prescriptive functions, models help in defining clearly the teacher’s responsibilities in the teaching process at the three stages of planning, implementing and evaluating. The fifth definition considers models as a well-planned guide sheet helpful in realizing the stipulated objectives of teaching by controlling the teaching environment and specifying the teaching activities.

The above discussion leads us to conclude that teaching models may be described as some sort of guidelines, plans or techniques or strategies designed to achieve specific educational objectives. They differ from general teaching techniques and strategies in the sense that they are designed to meet specific objective or goals. They help a teacher in his task in the same way as a constructed model or blueprint helps an engineer in his project. Commenting on this analogy, Paul D. Eggen et al. (1979) writes: An engineer, in considering a project, first identifies the type of structure to be build, e.g. a building, a bridge, or a road. Having done this, he selects an appropriate design or blueprint to follow in building that structure. The specifications of the blueprint determine the actions the builder takes and the kind of building that will result. The particular type of blueprint or model chosen depends on the type of structure to be built. In a similar manner, a teacher considering the choice of a teaching model first identifies what is to be taught and then selects a model in accordance with that goal. The model chosen is specifically designed to achieve a particular set of objectives and will determine in large part the actions of the teacher.

The use of this new term “blueprint” persuades us to define the term teaching model somewhat in the following way: Model of teaching is just a blueprint designed in advance for providing necessary structure and direction to the teacher for realizing the stipulated objectives.

Characteristics of Teaching Models What has been discussed above in terms of the meaning may help us in drawing about the following conclusions about the nature and characteristics of models of teaching: 1. Models of teaching are some sort of pattern or plans prepared in advance for the success of the teaching-learning process. 2. They differ from general teaching techniques and strategies in the sense that they are designed to meet specific objectives or goals. 3. Provide specific guidelines or blueprint in advance for the realization of the specific objectives by specifying the teaching activities and controlling the teaching-learning environment.

4. Give specific instructional designs for particular type of instruction in a specified teaching-learning situation. 5. Help in creating a proper teaching-learning environment. 6. Help in specifying the criteria of acceptable performance expected from the learners in a specific teaching-learning situation. 7. Provide systematic procedure and organized efforts for the desirable modification of the behaviour of the learners. 8. They first specify the teaching or learning outcomes in behavioural terms and then lay down a step-by-step procedure for the attainment of these outcomes. 9. Help the teacher in his task in the same way as an engineer is helped in the construction of a building or bridge by an appropriate model or blueprint prepared in advance. 10. Save the energy, time and efforts of the teacher and the learners besides providing better economy to the best utilization of the other teaching-learning resources. 11. Models of teaching are known to serve three major functions in a given teaching-learning situation, namely (i) designing and specifying instructional objectives, (ii) developing and selecting instructional material, and (iii) specifying the teaching-learning activities for the attainment of the stipulated instructional objectives. These functions can be explained with the help of Fig. 25.1.

Figure 25.1 Functions of models of teaching.

Fundamental Elements A teaching model provides valuable guidelines and blueprint for carrying out the task of teaching for the realization of some specific goals. In order that a teacher makes use of a model, he must be properly acquainted with its theory as well as practice, or proper knowledge of the fundamental elements involved in the description of a model. Generally, a teaching model is described with some fundamental elements. Here, we would be using the following six elements: 1. Focus 2. Syntax 3. Principles of reactions 4. The social system 5. The support system 6. Application

1. Focus It is the central aspect of a teaching model. For what the model stands is the theme of the focus. All the teaching models are meant for achieving some specific goals or objectives of teaching in relation to the environment of the learner. Therefore, the objectives of teaching and aspects of the environment, generally, constitute the focus of the model.

2. Syntax This term (or phasing of the model) refers to the description of the model in action. Each model consists of several phases and activities which have to be arranged in specific sequence quite unique to a particular model. The syntax helps a teacher use the model, and how he should begin and proceed further.

3. Principles of reaction While using the model, how a teacher should regard and respond to the activities of the student is a concern of this element. These responses should be quite appropriate and selective. Every model, through its

principles of reaction, provides the teacher with particular and unique rules of thumb by which to “tune in” to the student and select appropriate responses to what the student does. (Weil and Joyce, 1978).

4. Social system This element refers to the following descriptions: (i) Interactive roles and relationships between the teacher and the student. (ii) The kinds of norms that are encouraged and the student behaviour that is rewarded. The models differ from each other with regard to the description of the above aspects. In some models, the teacher is the centre of activity, or activities are somewhat equally distributed between the teacher and the students, while in others the students (a few or the whole group) occupy the central place. The leadership role of the teacher, comprising the location of authority and the amount of control over that emerge from the process of interaction, also varies from one model to another. Similarly, the way in which student behaviour is rewarded differs from one model to another.

5. Support system This element refers to the additional requirements beyond the usual human skills or capacities from the teachers and the facilities or schedules available in an ordinary classroom. Such type of additional support may demand some special skills, knowledge and capacities from the teacher or some special aid and material facilities like films, self-instructional system, visit to some place, a flexible schedule, and a particular organisational climate suiting to the requirements of the model. It is needless to emphasize that the support system contributes towards the success of a model by generating a desirable classroom environment.

6. Application This last element describes its application aspect. Some models are meant for a short lesson, some for the large, and some for both. They also differ in terms of the goal achievements— conative, cognitive or affective—and

subsequently prove suitable for one or the other type of teaching. Therefore, each model through its element of application context tries to describe the feasibility of its use in varying contexts, achieving specific educational goals and demanding specific work environment.

Types of Teaching Models As said earlier, there exists many teaching models arising from a variety of sources representing different frames of reference towards educational goals and methods. Many attempts have been made to classify them in some specific categories (Hilgard and Bower, 1977, Patterson, 1977; De Cecco and Crawford, 1977; Joyce and Weil, 1980, etc.). The latest attempt of Joyce and Weil needs special mention. By exploring many sources, they have grouped the models on the basis of specific educational goals and means into the following four families: 1. Information processing models 2. Social interaction models 3. Personal development models 4. Behaviour modification models.

Information Processing Models The term ‘information processing’ has been introduced by Joyce and Weil (1972). In their words, Information processing refers to the ways people handle stimuli from the environment, organise data, sense problems, generate concepts and solutions to problems, and employ verbal and nonverbal symbols. Thus, the information processing models are more concerned with the intellectual growth rather than the emotional or social development of the individual. However, to some extent, all these models contribute towards the realization of personal and social goals. They are illustrated in Table 25.1. TABLE 25.1 The information processing family of models

Adapted from: Marsha Weil and Bruce Joyce (1978).

Social Interaction Models The models belonging to the family of social interaction models are concerned with the attainment of the social goals belonging to the affective domain. Consequently, the social interaction models as Weil and Joyce emphasize, “give priority for improvement of democratic processes and the improvement of the society by the improvement of the individual’s ability” (1978, p. 3). The models belonging to this category give more emphasis on the development of the society. The family of these models is illustrated in Table 25.2.

Personal Development Models The family of social development models also is concerned with the realization of the instructional goals belonging to the affective domain. They emphasize the processes by which individuals can establish productive relationship with their environment and design their unique individuality for realizing the personal goals. Frequently, they focus on the emotional life of

an individual and ultimately aim for the development of an integrated functioning self. The models belonging to this family are illustrated in Table 25.3. TABLE 25.2 The family of social interaction models

Adapted from: Weil and Joyce (1978).

Behaviour Modification Models The models belonging to the behaviour modification family are related to the behaviour modification theories. They have evolved from the attempts to develop efficient systems for sequencing learning tasks and shaping the behaviour through management of the reinforcement contingencies. More precisely, operant conditioning has given birth to most of the models

belonging to this family. The contingency management model, training model, stress reduction model, desensitization model, and mastery learning model belong to the family of such models. TABLE 25.3 The family of personal development models

Adapted from: Weil and Joyce (1978). The categorization of these different teaching models does not represent a watertight compartmentalization. These families are by no means antithetical or mutually exclusive. The instructional activities and learning environments emerging from some of the models, even though classified in different families, are remarkably similar. Also, within the families themselves, models share many features in respect of the objectives and means to achieve them.

Description of Some Teaching Models Claser’s Basic Teaching Model The basic teaching model was developed by Robert Glaser (1962) on the basis of psychological principles. It is termed as ‘basic’ because it tries to explain the whole teaching process in an appropriate way dividing it into the following four basic components or parts: 1. Instructional objectives (A) 2. Entering behaviour (B)

3. Instructional procedures (C) 4. Performance assessment (D) These parts are diagramatically represented in Fig. 25.2.

Figure 25.2 Components of the teaching process in Glaser’s basic teaching model.

Instructional objectives: These indicate the stipulated goals that a student is supposed to attain upon completion of a part of instruction. Entering behaviour: It means the initial behaviour of the student before the beginning of instruction. It is his basic potential or level of performance in terms of educational abilities comprising the factors like previous knowledge of the subject or subjects, intellectual ability, learning ability and motivational state. The assessment of entering behaviour is a significant aspect of an instructional process. Usually, it is a starting point, but in this model, it occupies the second place and is viewed in the context of the pre-set instructional objectives. However, in actual teaching-learning situations, both interact to influence and help each other for the success of the whole instructional process. Instructional procedures: These are the most active or functional parts of the teaching process. These represent the teaching methods, strategies and student-teacher interaction patterns involved in teaching. The first two components—the stipulated instructional objectives and the entering behaviour—work as a deciding base for the selection and use of the instructional procedures. Performance assessment: This last component is related with the task for assessing the perfor-mance of the learner. Here, in the light of one’s entry behaviour and stipulated objectives, his terminal behaviour is assessed through some suitable evaluation techniques (test, observations, etc.). The assessment of the performance may prove as an effective ‘feedback’ device for each of the steps and elements of the teaching process. The objectives

may be modified and instructional procedures may be improved based on the end results shown under the performance step. In actual practice, these four basic components interact and influence each other. One sets the way for the other by proving as a base or feedback for the successful operation of the teaching act.

Description Let us now describe this model in terms of the fundamental elements, as mentioned earlier. Focus: The model tries to pinpoint the four basic functions, processess and major activities comprising the whole teaching-learning process. The sequence to be followed in the instructional process also is brought into limelight. Syntax: The flow of activities in this model is quite sequential. First of all, the objectives to be achieved through the instruction carried out by the teacher are fixed. Then attempts are made to assess the potentiality of the learners in terms of their entry behaviour. Then, in the light of the entry behaviour, the school instructional work is carried out to achieve the stipulated objectives and how far these objectives have been realised is ascertained in the last phase of the model. Principle of reaction: The main principles of reaction are summarized here: 1. Principle of active involvement and expertise: The teacher has to remain quite active in the execution of this model. He has to acquire essential skills in the formulation of the objectives, assessment of entry and terminal behaviours and devising suitable means and ways for the realization of the set objectives. At every stage, he has to develop proper understanding of the potential and difficulties of his students for reaching the goals. 2. Principle of interdependence: The four stages involving objectives, entry behaviour, instructional process and assessment of its outcomes are quite interconnected and interdependent. The student’s responses are to be understood and dealt with in the light of such interaction and dependence.

3. Principle of correction and follow-up: If the assessment in terms of the terminal behaviour does not match with the aspirations in terms of the set objectives and the entry behaviour, there lies something wrong either with the instructional process or with the setting of the objectives. What goes wrong should be detected and followed with necessary correction and subsequent activities for the improvement of the process. Social system: This model is sufficiently structured and supposed to be dominated by the active role and control of the teacher on the whole process of instruction from the beginning till the end. Its success depends on the competency and ability of the teacher in terms of the acquisition of various skills like formulation of objectives, employment of methods and strategies, and techniques of evaluation. Support system: The model for its success requires additional support in terms of the following things: 1. Requirement of sufficient pre-service and in-service training facilities for teachers to acquire needed skills and competencies for the use of the model. 2. Need for the desirable teaching-learning situations and environment for the employment of suitable teaching strategies and instructional technology. 3. Need for the appropriate evaluation devices for the assessment of entry and terminal behaviour of the pupils.

Applicability of the model The model is applicable to any teaching-learning situation preferably dominated by the teacher and requiring the flow of knowledge and information in a quite systematic and structured way and realising some well-defined instructional objectives within the limited means of the usual classroom situations.

Advanced Organizer Model of Ausubel The advanced organizer model owes its existence to the basic ideas and efforts of the famous educational psychologist David Ausubel. The ideas

and assumption responsible for the emergence of the theory and practice of this model have been quite effectively explained by him through his writings (Ausubel, 1963, 1968, 1977). These are also extensively discussed and analyzed by Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil (2003) in their textbook “Models of Teaching”. Let us have a summarized view of the ideas and assumptions in the model. 1. According to Ausubel, the type of learning material related with the content of a course or curriculum (no matter how difficult and abstract it may be) can be learned by the learner quite effectively and efficiently if due care is taken by the teacher in its presentation to him through bringing improvement in his presentational methods of teaching (lecture or other form of expository teaching like presentation of learning material through blackboard writing, visual graphics, charts and pictures, film, audio tapes, and transparencies.) 2. The method of teaching involving lecture or other form of expository teaching is known to be resulting in reception learning on the part of a learner. It is feared that such reception learning may breed passivity in the learner. He may become a passive recipient of the knowledge and information imparted by the teacher through his lecturing, or other form of expository teaching. Ausubel strongly refutes the allegation that learning through listening, watching or reading is necessarily rote, passive or non-meaningful. He argues that breeding of such passivity and non-meaningfulness is the result of the faulty ways and means adopted by the teacher for the presentation of the learning material. If due care is taken in this task by adopting the ways and means suggested by advance organizer model of teaching, the listeners and watchers in the classroom may not only be made quite active but also be helped in the meaningful acquisition and retention of the imparted information and knowledge. 3. Ausubel, thus, is of the firm opinion that a proper presentation of the subject matter (related with curriculum contents) on the part of a teacher is likely to result in meaningful verbal learning. However, in his opinion, it can happen only when the teacher is able to demonstrate required competency in dealing with the following three

issues simultaneously related with curriculum, learning and teaching (Joyce and Weil, 2003:267): (i) How knowledge (curriculum content) is organized, (ii) How the mind works to process new information (learning), (iii) How teachers can apply these ideas about curriculum and learning when they present new material to the students (instruction). 4. While recommending the use of his model for dealing with the abovementioned issues, he argues that every learner at any specific stage and period of his learning has his own cognitive structure for the learning or acquisition of a piece of knowledge or information. New ideas can be learned or retained only to the extent that they can be related to already available cognitive structure (in the form of knowledge of the facts, concepts or proposition) that provides needed linkage in terms of ideational anchors. This task may happen properly when a teacher tries to sequence the material to be learned and presents it in such a way that ideational anchors are provided (Joyce and Weil, 2003:270). Sequencing or proper prior organization of the learning material and presenting it in a properly organized way may, thus, prove a potent device in helping the learner to enrich and strengthen his cognitive structure by acquiring and retaining the new information or knowledge provided to him directly by the teacher through his presentation. It is the fulfillment of this task that needs the role of the advance organizers as claimed by David Ausubel. 5. Advance organizers, as Ausubel maintains, are the primary means of enriching or strengthening the learner’s cognitive structure and enhancing the possibilities of learning or retention of new knowledge or information. He describes them as introductory material presented ahead of the learning task and at a higher level of abstraction and inclusiveness than the learning task itself. Their purpose is to explain, integrate and interrelate the material in the learning task with the previously learned material (Ausubel, 1968:148). They are also known to play an effective role in inducing a proper set or bent of mind in the learner. Besides this, they can help him in the task of

processing and storing of information resulting in the proper acquisition and retention of the new information and knowledge. 6. Advance organizers are said to play their role before the teacher’s presentation of the learning material. In the opinion of Ausubel, the organiser is an important content in itself and, thus, needs to be taught by the teacher well before the presentation of the material. These are generally based on the major concepts, proposition, generalizations, principles and laws of a discipline, and subject or topic going to be taught by the teacher. Their presentation may, thus, be seen as a well-thought preparatory measure taken beforehand on the part of a teacher for the proper presentation of the subject matter. 7. In the opinion of Ausubel, the advance organizers being used by the teacher may be of two types, namely (i) expository and (ii) comparative. The expository organizer, as the name suggests, stands for that content which is helpful in providing and classifying the basic concepts at the highest level of abstraction, essential for understanding the unfamiliar learning material. For example, if the lesson is concerned with the salient futures of the Indian Constitution, then, while making use of the expository organizer, the teacher is supposed to present and provide explanation for the basic concepts such as sovereignty, socialism, democracy, republic, secularism, equality, fraternity, and liberty before presenting the verbal material related to the lesson. Comparative organizers, on the other hand, are typically used with relatively familiar material. They are designed to discriminate between the old and new concepts in order to prevent confusion caused by their similarity (Joyce and Weil, 2003:272). For example, comparative statements, examples and illustration may be given beforehand by the teacher for explaining the difference between autocratic and democratic, regular and non-regular, liberty and non-liberty characteristics and set-up of an institution or country for understanding fully the role of democratic, secular and liberty providing features of our constitution. 8. On the whole advance organizers (whether expository or comparative) are helpful in meaningful verbal learning on the part of the learners, are said to be characterized with the following features: (i) Showing set of verbal or visual information

(ii) Presentation prior to learning a larger body of to be learnt information (iii) Containing no specific content from the to be learnt information (iv) Providing a means of generating logical relationship among elements in the to be learnt information (v) Influencing the learner’s encoding process. In this way, loaded with the above-mentioned features, advance organizers are said to work for the smoothening of the task of meaningful verbal learning by providing specifically relevant anchoring ideas for the more differentiated and detailed material that is subsequently presented to the students by the teacher. Besides this, they may prove quite helpful in influencing the learning set by increasing students motivation and/or encouraging use of active encoding strategies on the part of the students resulting into the desired strengthening of their cognitive structure. 9. Basically, in recommending the use of his advance organizer model of teaching, Ausubel expects from the teachers to organize in advance the presentation of their teaching in the following manner: (i) To provide advance organizers (expository and/or comparative) in the shape of teaching essentially related with basic contents like concepts, terms, proposition, appropriate illustrations, and analogies in helping the students have proper bent of mind for the reception of the presented material and understand, grasp, and retain the material to be presented at the delivery stage of the lesson by the teacher. (ii) To have proper advance organization in the shape of logical as well as psychological sequencing and structuring of the learning material presented to the students at the delivery stage of the lesson by taking proper cognition of their existing cognitive structure and the nature of the advance organizer contents provided to them at the preparatory stage. However, in doing so, care is to be taken that the most general ideas related to the lesson delivered should be presented first followed by a gradual increase in detail and specificity. Also, as far as possible, new ideas should be consciously related to the previously learned contents or

environmental experiences resulting into the desired enrichment and strengthening of the learner’s existing cognition structure. (iii) To have proper advance organization in bringing desired improvement in the presentation methodology of the material to be learnt in such a way that the (a) New ideas may get properly assimilated with the already acquired knowledge or information. (b) Students may be persuaded to respond actively in the task of proper processing of the received information, to extract meaning from the processed information, and to retain it for the strengthening of their cognitive structure and making its use in their further learning or living. 10. Ausubel is of the opinion that one can learn properly through the organization of new information and placing it into coding system. He calls the general concepts and generalized ideas at the top of the coding systems the subsumer, because all other concepts and ideas are subsumed under it. He believes that learning should progress deductively, that is from an understanding of the general concepts to an understanding of the specifics. Therefore, he asserts for the presentation of the concepts, principles and generalized ideas in advance (in the name of advance organizers) before the presentation of the material. 11. Ausubel maintains that there is a hierarchy of organization in every discipline depending upon the level of complexity, leading in the formation of a sort of pyramidal structure of that discipline. Wherever a teacher tries to introduce a new concept of that discipline to the students, they engage in the information-processing exercise for assimilating the new concept/information in their existing cognitive structure. The understanding of the new concept takes up in the minds of the students only when there exists a condition of potentially fit between the existing cognitive structure and the new structure of a discipline. If it happens it can result in the enrichment and enlargement of the learners’ cognitive structure. Therefore, a teacher should try to present the learning material or task so skilfully before the students as the learner feels no difficulty in hooking the new knowledge with his existing cognitive structure.

Description of the model in terms of its basic elements Focus: The advance organizer model mainly focuses on 1. Helping the teachers in improving their methods of presentation of the subject matter, lecture and other expository form of teaching. 2. Organizing and conveying large amounts of information as meaningfully and efficiently as possible. 3. Helping the learners to strengthen their existing cognitive structures by receiving, processing and retaining the presented information/knowledge for its use in their further learning and living. Syntax: The activities are carried out in the following three phases (Table 25.4): Phase One—Presentation of advance organizers: It is the preparatory stage. Here, the stage is set for the actual presentation of the learning task or material on the part of the teacher. The following types of activities are generally undertaken during the execution of this phase: 1. Clarifying the aims of the lesson: Here teacher is supposed to introduce the students with the aims and objectives of the lesson. It may help the students in getting motivated for the proper acquisition of the presented material and also orient both the teacher and the students to their respective teaching-learning goals. 2. Presenting the advance organizer: After introducing the students with the aims and objectives of the lesson, the teacher tries to present the relevant advance organizer, expository or comparative to the students by keeping the following things in his mind: (i) The organizer has to be constructed in the manner so that it may contain ideas distinct from and more inclusive than the material in the learning task itself quite helpful to the learner in the task of motivating, understanding and grasping the information delivered by the teacher. (ii) While presenting the organizer, care should be taken for its proper teaching in the following manner:

(a) Its contents involving the major concepts and/or prepositions of a discipline or area of study should be clearly pointed out and carefully explained. (b) Teacher may cite the essential features, explain them and provide examples for its being clearly perceived, understood and continually related to the presented material on the part of the students. (c) For better results, the presentation of organizer may be repeated several times by having its illustration in multiple contexts or having its citation under new or special terminology. 3. Prompting awareness of the learner’s relevant knowledge: At the preparatory stage, before the actual presentation of the subject matter of the delivered lesson, it is also essential to have a prior idea and awareness of the learners’ existing cognitive structure in terms of their previous knowledge and experiences relevant to the learning task and organizer. Such awareness is going to help the teachers in a good way for the planning and delivery of their lessons. Phase Two—Presentation of learning task or material: It is the executive stage where the material to be learnt or lesson to be delivered is actually presented before the students. Generally, the following things are needed to be cared by the teacher in such a presentation: 1. There is a formal presentation of the learning material. It may be done by a teacher through a lecture, discussion, or presentation of films, transparencies, charts, pictures, visual writings, experiments, or readings. 2. Care is to be taken that what is presented before the students is well communicated to them by taking proper cognition of their existing cognitive structure as well as the intellectual food already supplied to them through the advance organizer. 3. During the presentation as Joyce and Weil (2003:275) observe, care is to be taken that “The organization of the learning material needs to be made explicit to the students so that they have an overall sense of direction and can see the logical order of the material and how the organization relates to the advance organizer”.

Phase Three—Strengthening cognitive organization: It is a follow-up stage that strengthens the impact of the activities performed at the second stage. In the words of Joyce and Weil (2003:275): “The purpose of phase three is to anchor the new learning material in the students existing cognitive structure, that is, to strengthen the students’ cognitive organization.” The following activities need to be performed for this purpose: 1. Promoting integrative reconciliation: New knowledge can be incorporated and acquired well if due care is taken for its reconciliation with the learner’s existing cognitive structure. The following activities may be undertaken by a teacher for the promotion of such reconciliation: (i) He can remind the students of the ideas related to the imparted learning material. (ii) He can ask the students to provide a summary of the major attributes of the new learning material. (iii) He can repeat precise definitions. (iv) He can ask for differences between the aspects of the material. (v) He can ask students to describe how the learning material supports the concept or proposition that is being used as organizer. 2. Promoting active reception learning: The advance organizer model wants to place the learner in an active receptive model instead of a micropassive recepient of the presented learning material. For this purpose, it recommends the following types of activities on the part of a teacher. The teacher may ask students (i) To describe how the new material relates to the organizer (ii) For additional examples of the concept or propositions in the learning material. (iii) To verbalize the essence of the material using their own terminology and form of reference. (iv) To examine the material from alternative points of view. 3. Eliciting critical approach to subject: Meaningful learning on the part of the learners can take place well if the teacher gets success in equipping them with a critical approach to knowledge or the learning material. In general, the following types of activities may be undertaken by the teacher. He may ask students to

(i) Reorganize assumptions or inferences that may have been made in the learning material. (ii) Judge and challenge these assumptions and inferences. (iii) Reconcile the contradictions perceived among them. 4. Clarification: New ideas or learning material can be fully assimilated or reconciled with the already existing ideas and knowledge only when these are fully understood and known. The unfamiliar can be made familiar only by providing its needed introduction, identity and meaningfulness to them. Hence, what is not clear and understable to the learners should be made absolutely clear and familiar by the teacher by making use of all the needed techniques, strategies, and aid materials. Thus, by mentioning the needed activities in the syntax of his model, Ausubel, (2003:276), has provided us with a method for “improving not only presentation but also students ability to learn from them. The more we teach students to become active to look for organizing ideas, reconcile information with them and generate organizers of their own (engaging in inductive activity while reading or watching)—the greater their potential for profiting from presentation becomes”. TABLE 25.4 A summarized view of the syntax of the advance organizer model

Social system: The social system of the advance organizer model is quite structured and teacher dominated. Here the teacher has to take lead the students to the learning track as it becomes an utmost necessity on his part to relate the learning material to the organizers and to help the students differentiate new material from the previously learned material. However, as

soon as the learning material is presented to the learners in the Phase II the social system of the model, the Phase III begins to be turned into an interactive style. The students now may engage in initiating many questions and comments as well as making use of their critical faculties for the desirable understanding and assimilation of the new learning material into their existing cognitive structure. Principles of reactions: The model calls for appropriate attention caring and responses on the part of the teacher to the students’ reactions and requirements concerning with the attributes, namely: 1. Seeking clarification about the meaning, nature and purpose of new learning material. 2. Differentiating it from and reconciling it with the existing knowledge for strengthening one’s cognitive organization. 3. Making the acquisition of new learning quite relevant to the students’ future learning and life. 4. Resulting in the promotion of a critical approach and informationprocessing ability for the acquisition of knowledge. In this way, the employment of the model requires a quite active role, keen observation and readily responses on the part of the teacher in dealing with the students’ silent and verbal reactions for acquiring meaningful learning as a result of the teachers’s expository teaching. Support system: The model requires the following support for resulting into some meaningful outcomes: 1. A well-organized learning material. 2. Conceptualization and building of the appropriate advance organizers relevant to the learning material. 3. Establishment of the integral and appropriate relationship between the conceptual organizer and the content. 4. The needed competence and presentational skills on the part of the teacher for helping the students gain maximum advantages out of his expository teaching.

Application context: The model can be used for teaching the contents related to almost all the subjects of the school and university curriculum through its skilled presentation. It can help the teacher convey a large amount of information meaningfully within a time frame through expository methods of teaching like lecturing, demonstration, reading and exhibiting verbal contents. The all-round applicability of this model as suggested by Joyce and Weil (2003:276–77) can be summarized as: 1. This model can be successfully used for structuring extended curriculum sequences or courses and to instruct the students systematically in the key ideas for ultimately gaining perspective on the entire curriculum area of a subject. 2. It can prove helpful in increasing the learner’s grasp of factual information linked to and explained by the key ideas through the advance organizer and presentation of the learning material on the part of the teacher. 3. It can be quite helpful to the teachers as well as learners for teaching and learning the skills of meaningful reception learning through expository teaching. 4. It can help in explaining and making the students learn the art of critical thinking and cognitive reorganization through its mechanism of direct instruction in orderly thinking and in the notion of knowledge hierarchies. 5. The material presented through the application of this model in a deductive way can be further subjected to inductive concept attainment for reinforcing the material and also informally evaluating the student’s acquisition of the material. 6. The use of the model may enable the students to learn from expository teaching like lectures, reading and other media used for presentation, besides being useful in developing their interest in inquiry and precise habits of thinking.

Suchman’s Inquiry Training Model The inquiry training model was developed by J. Richard Suchman for developing scientific inquiry training skills in the pupils. Suchman had a

particular system of beliefs which form the basic philosophy of the present model. His beliefs may be summarized in the following way: 1. All knowledge is tentative. A scientist generates a theory or principle. After some time, it may be pushed aside by a new one. 2. There is no one answer. We can always be more sophisticated in our explanations and most problems are amenable to several equally plausible explanations. 3. In a natural process, all of us often enquire when confronted with a problem or puzzle. 4. An individual can be made consciously aware of the process of inquiry and learn to analyze his thinking strategies. 5. In addition to what is already known to him, he may be taught new strategies to enquire and explore things. 6. A cooperative effort helps in the inquiry process. As a result, the development of knowledge is always facilitated by help and ideas from colleagues. Inspired by a set of his own beliefs and assumptions about the ways of thinking and learning, Suchman put a model of teaching and training in the name of Suchman’s inquiry training model. Let us understand its mechanism describing it in terms of the basic elements of a teaching model. Focus: Children are very curious by nature. For satisfying their curiosity, they may be seen to be engaged in the inquiry process, exploring and analyzing the things or phenomena by themselves. The model aims to refine or improve such inquiry skills of the children through a systematic inquiry training. It provides systematic structure within which the students have to ask questions, organize them to formulate and test hypotheses in the way as scholars and scientists do in organizing knowledge and generate principles for explaining the causation. Syntax: The model consists of five phases: (i) the initial encounter with problem, (ii) verification, (iii) experimentation, (iv) explanation, followed by the post mortem process (the analysis of the inquiry). These phases, along with the concerned operations, are summarized in Table 25.5. TABLE 25.5 Syntax of the inquiry training model

In the first phase, the teacher is required to explain the inquiry procedure and present the problem situation. The problem situation or the puzzling event should be such that it may provide a discrepancy or appear illogical, quite contrary to the common notion of reality. It may puzzle the students because they do not know the answer. The problem selected may or may not add to the knowledge of some or the other subject. However, the emphasis is always on inquiry training as explained by Weil and Joyce (1978:130–31): “The emphasis in this model is clearly on becoming aware of and mastering the inquiry process, not on the content and explanation of any particular problem situation. Although the model should also be enormously appealing and effective as a mode of acquiring and using information, the teacher cannot be too concerned with subject matter coverage or correctness.”

Regarding explanation of inquiry process, the students may be told to observe the following rules: 1. To phrase such questions as are answerable by a “yes” or a “no”. 2. Not to ask the teacher to explain the phenomenon to them, i.e. to give directly the cause or answer of the puzzling event. 3. Once a student has been called upon, he will be allowed and persuaded to ask as many questions as he wishes to test his hypothesis/hypotheses. 4. The students are free to consult or work with one another if they wish to do so.

5. Any student can test any explanation regarding his hypothesis at any time. 6. The students are free to use resource books, experimental kits and other aid material if they feel the need of doing so. Phases two and three belong to the data gathering operations of verification and experimentation. In these operations, data are gathered by the students in two ways: 1. By asking questions to be responded by the teacher in “yes” or “no” form. 2. Conducting a series of experiments on the environment of the problem situation. The process of verification is carried out in two steps: 1. Verifying the nature of objects and events such as the (i) identity of the objects; (ii) state of the objects or systems at a particular time (behaviour of objects under certain conditions); and (iii) nature of an action or happening. 2. Verifying the occurrence of event. This phase requires the teacher to be aware of the type of questions to verify all aspects of the problem and change the questioning pattern through intervention. The experimental phase is directed at exploration and direct testing. Here, the hypotheses involving plausible explanation are formulated and tested by the students. The teacher has to remain very careful in guiding and directing the student for the rejection of the inappropriate hypothesis and broaden the pupils’ view for the appropriate hypothesis. Phase four demands from the students: 1. the extraction of the relevant information from the collected data, and 2. the formulation of an explanation of the problem or puzzling event as best as possible.

The fifth phase requires working of the teacher and the students together for analyzing one another’s strategies. They can evaluate the modes of questioning and responding, the appropriateness of questions, the productivity of the lines of questioning, and the information they needed but did not obtain. Similarly, the suitability of the formulated hypotheses and its verification, etc. may also be properly discussed and evaluated. This analysis attempts to help the teachers modify and improve the inquiry process and equip the students with appropriate problem-solving skills.

Principles of reaction The particular and unique rules of thumb for responding and reacting to the actions of the students in the inquiry-training process may be summarized in the following way (Weil and Joyce, 1978:135): 1. Ensuring that questions are phrased so that they can be answered by a “yes” or a “no”. 2. Asking students to rephrase invalid questions. 3. Pointing out invalidated statements, for example, “We have not yet established that this is a liquid”. 4. Using the language of the inquiry process, for instance, identifying student questions as theories and inviting testing (experimenting). 5. Neither approving nor rejecting student theories (hypotheses). 6. Pressing the students for clearer statements of theories and more support for generalizations. 7. Encouraging interaction among students.

Social system The inquiry training model provides high weightage to the controlling of social system. The teacher and students, however, participate as equals where exchange of ideas is, employed. At every stage, the teacher has to respond in such a way that the students may be concouraged to initiate and persuade the inquiry as much as possible. Where in the beginning the social system may be arranged as highly structured, is may be relaxed when the students seem to learn the principles of inquiry. The open environment with a possibility of proper teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil interactions surely adds to the success of this model.

Support system While working with the inquiry training model, a teacher requires additional support in the form of: 1. A set of confronting materials; 2. Technical understanding of the intellectual processes and strategies of inquiry; and 3. The resource materials bearing on the problem.

Application context Basically, the inquiry training model has been developed to provide training on systematic inquiry. It is not a method of teaching or imparting information. However, it can work well to impart knowledge concerning with subject areas particularly in the field of natural sciences. Any event or topic from a curriculum area which can be converted into a problem situation or puzzle can be selected for inquiry training. ILLUSTRATION: The Use of Inquiry Training Model

Encounter with the Problem–1 The family of Mr. Gupta, headmaster of a school, was away during summer vacation. On return, they were shocked to see that their garden was destroyed. There were twisted fence, flattened flowers and damaged plants. The lock on the door was closed. There was dust settled on all furniture. One of the wall pictures which was about 1/2 metre below the roof was lying on the floor with glasses crashed. Mr. Gupta hurriedly turned to the almirah. It was lying open but all things were intact. The whole family felt surprised. What might have happened in their absence during the vacation? Can you find out the things? After presenting the problem (verbally and also in written form), the teacher will try to explain the essentials of inquiry procedures.

Details of the classroom interaction The students may respond immediately by naming several factors such as stray animals, pet animals, theft, and storm. The teacher’s responsibility lies

in bringing them to formulate specific hypotheses and test them by gathering relevant data through appropriate questioning. The interaction may, then, take the following form:

Encounter with the Problem–2

The incident took place in a village of south India towards the turn of the century. The village was an ordinary one. The chief occupation of the villagers was agriculture. They were tradition bound. A school was opened and there was much enthusiasm in the villagers. The enrolment in the school went on increasing. One day, all of a sudden, a number of parents withdrew their children from the school. This matter was reported to the inspector of schools of that district. He became too much perplexed by the event and could not find any reason. Could you help him in this matter? The classroom interaction during inquiry training may be summarized as below:

Possible encountering situations for inquiry training Situation 1 Subject: Physics Class: VII Topic: Law of floating bodies

The students of Science Club visited a seashore at Mumbai. They saw a number of ships in the sea. All of a sudden, a hair clip of a girl student slipped from her hand into the sea water. It sank immediately. The students were quite astonished to see how big ships could remain floating in the sea white a small hair clip got sunk. Could you help them by finding some reason? Situation 2 Subject: Geography Class: IX Topic: Local and standard time A gentleman boarded a train from Ferozepur at 12 noon. The train halted on a station after half an hour. He got down from the train for some refreshment. He looked at the clock of the railway platform. It was 12. Instantly, he looked at his watch, it was 12.30. He asked some other persons belonging to that station and they also told him that it was twelve. He could not understand why it was so when he has started at 12 and already travelled along for 30 minutes. Could you help him in this situation? Situation 3 Subject: Physics Class: VIII Topic: Electric current It was a noon of a bright hot summer. A child was standing beside a moving electric table fan. He suddenly cried and fell down. His mother felt nervous and could not understand the reason. When the father of the child came home, she narrated the incident. He thought that there might be current in the fan. He touched it but could not feel any current. But when the mother touched it she received a shock. She asserted that there was current in the fan, but the father was not agreed with her. Can you settle their disagreement? Situation 4 Subject: Biology Class: X Topic: Ecology

In a certain year 10 per cent of the wheat crops of a country was damaged on account of some pest. For seeking preventive measures, insecticides and other germs-killing material were sprinkled down heavily in the fields. But to the great astonishment, it was found that the crop damage percentage was increased from 10 to 15 per cent in spite of the expected decrease. Can you find the reason ? Situation 5 Subject: Chemistry Class: IX Topic: Dilute sulphuric acid The students were asked to dilute the given amount of concentrated sulphuric acid. Some of them added water in a beaker containing concentrated sulphuric acid while others added sulphuric acid in the beaker containing water. The latter observed that there was much heat generated through their experiment where the former could not experience such a one. Could you find the reason for the difference? Situation 6 Topic: General Age: 14+ It was summer vacation for a school teacher. His family was out of station and he was all alone at home. A friend of him had to leave for some distant place and he had to reach the station in time. He thought that he was getting late, so he rushed up by locking all the doors. On his return, he unlocked the gate lock and the corridor lock. When he entered the main room, he was surprised to see its door open but the lock was found intact. Could you find out what had happened? Situation 7 Topic: General Age: 14+ The incident is related to an examination of a school. It was winter and some of the students were used to put on blankets in the examination hall. An examiner on the basis of similarities in handwriting sensed cheating in the answer books of Roll Nos. 903 and 978 who used to sit quite apart in

the examination hall. Further enquiry revealed the repetition of similar cheating in other papers. Can you find out the mode of cheating?

Mastery Learning Model of Bloom The mastery learning model represents one of the most useful and practicable models of teaching being applied in schools and training settings for improving the instructional effectiveness. It belongs to the behavioural systems family of models as classified by Joyce and Weil (1980). Historically, the model owes its origin to a model of school learning postulated by John B. Carroll (1963). He wanted to do away with the ill effects of failures in school learning resulting in huge wastage and stagnation of the educational resources and frustrations and unhappiness on the part of the individual learner. He proposed through his model of school learning that there may be 100 per cent learning by 100 per cent of the students of a class in a particular learning task if genuine attempts are made to help them for gaining mastery over all the aspects of that learning task with due provisions of sufficient time and appropriate instruction. It is true that one may learn speedily and easily on account of his higher aptitude for that learning and, thus, may be able to demonstrate mastery in lesser time with lesser efforts. However, if others also are provided sufficient time, helped in getting out of the hurdles through a timely diagnosis of their learning difficulties and remedial education, or instructed in some other ways for the required understanding and practice of that learning task, they can attain the mastery level like those who are considered as bright or higher achiever. In this way, Carroll was very much against the prevailing practice of declaring a student passed and allowing him to enter in the next grade or class by attaining simply required pass percentage of achievement scores (like 33% or 40%). He argued that by doing so, he became master of only a fraction of the learning material meant for his grade or class. However, for the desired entry behaviour of the next class or grade, he must be the master of all that is included in the curriculum of the earlier classes. There must be 100 per cent learning of the contents taught to them along with the total realization of the set teaching-learning objectives for that learning. By bringing the concept of mastery learning and suggesting a model for the attainment of mastery, he suggested that it was possible for nearly all students of a class to master any given set of objectives if

sufficient time (the opportunity to learn) was provided to them along with appropriate materials and instruction. Carroll’s ideas regarding mastery learning were further taken ahead by B.S. Bloom (1971) for giving birth to a working model for mastery learning wherein he attempted the individualization of instruction to the context of group-based teaching. The models as such used for the attainment of mastery learning at present are mostly based on the latest attempts and views of B.S. Bloom (1971) with the following assumption, basic features and processes: 1. Any teacher can virtually help all students to learn excellently, quickly and self-confidently. A student failure rests with the instruction giving less time and using poor strategies and not with the lack of ability on the part of student. 2. In a mastery learning environment, the challenge before the teacher is to provide enough time and employ instructional strategies to help all students in achieving the mastery level of learning. 3. The time spent on learning is the key to mastery. All students can achieve mastery if they devote the amount of time needed to the learning. 4. Given sufficient time and appropriate type of help, 95 per cent of the students can achieve grade A as an index of mastery of a subject. 5. The students may vary with regard to the time required for mastering the content. However, the speed with which they master is not more important than mastering. In this way, the late masters are not in any way inferior to the early masters. 6. Mastery of any subject is defined in terms of sets of major objectives that represent the purpose of the course of unit. The mastery level, e.g. 95 per cent, of the objectives realized should be defined at the beginning of the study. 7. The specific instructional objectives relating to the learning task must be formulated. 8. The learning task or unit should be broken into small learning units, each one accompanied by its own objectives. 9. The students must understand the nature of the task or learning material and the procedure to be followed in learning it.

10. The learning material should then be identified and proper methods and strategy suiting to the needs and abilities of the learner should be adopted for its presentation. 11. Each subunit should be accompanied by a brief diagnostic test for measuring the students’ progress (the formative evaluation) and identifying their learning difficulties. Such testing proves valuable in providing feedback to both the teacher and the learner in specifying the aspects or elements of the learning unit still needed to be mastered. 12. The data obtained from the diagnostic test should be used to provide corrective measures and supplementary instructions to the students for overcoming learning difficulties in the path of attaining mastery over the learning units. 13. The students should not be allowed to proceed on the next learning unit unless they have the required mastery over the present unit. 14. If followed properly, asserts that under favourable conditions, namely optimal ordering of learning material, informing the student of learning tasks by stated objectives, and adjusting the amount of learning time in accordance with individual learning rates, 95 per cent of the students should be capable of attaining the level of achievement now reached by the top 20 or so per cent of learners.

Description of mastery learning model Let us try to understand the structure and working of the mastery learning model in terms of the basic elements of a teaching model. Focus: The mastery learning model is based on the assumption that all students of a class can learn and attain the mastery level if sufficient time, adequate instruction and timely help are provided to them according to their needs, interests and abilities. Therefore, the model focuses to attain mastery level (i.e. grade A as an index of mastery of a subject) by almost all the students, say 95 per cent of a class with due provisions of sufficient time and appropriate types of help (Bloom, 1971). Syntax: The mastery learning model in action can be explained through a number of phases:

Let us now explain, in brief, the different activities undertaken during the operations of the above phases. Phase One—Planning for mastery: The model requires a number of prepreparation and planning measures for its implementation as the following: 1. Analysis of the subject to be taught into proper units and subunits and their sequential organization. 2. Determining instructional objectives of the subunits level and for the entire learning unit, and their specification in clearly defined behavioural terms. 3. Communication of these instructional objectives to the students. 4. Orientation of students with regard to the concept and process of mastery learning. 5. Taking proper decision about the level of mastery attained in the learning units, e.g. attaining Grade A by all students of the class in the final test or attaining 95 per cent mastery over the given set of objectives by the 95 per cent students of the class. 6. Knowledge about the potential of the students with regard to their individual interests, abilities and prerequisites for the learning of the subject and individual units. 7. Pre-arrangement and planning for the use of instructional material, methods and strategies, aids and equipment in the given teachinglearning conditions for the attainment of mastery learning objectives. 8. Preparation of subunit and unit tests for the formative and summative evaluations. 9. Planning for the sufficient time needed to the individual learner or class as a whole for the attainment of mastery level along with the needed measures, ways and means for helping the students in attaining it.

Phase Two—Teaching for mastery: Here, a particular subunit—an initial and beginning sub-division of the whole unit—is taken first for the required teaching and mastery. For its proper teaching the following things should be kept in mind: 1. The instructional or learning material related to the subunit should be selected with proper care in view of the interests and abilities of the students. 2. A better choice is always made with regard to the methods and strategies for the instructional purpose. Help of suitable teaching aids should be taken for the clarity and understanding of the subject matter. 3. As far as possible, individual attention should be provided for making the students understand the presented subject material or demonstrated practical work. 4. There should not be undue hurry in presenting the subject matter to the students. It is natural that students may show wide individual differences with regard to the amount of time required to grasp the subject matter. Hence, speed should always be sacrificed for the sake of proper clarity and understanding of the subject matter. 5. The teacher must demonstrate his love and enthusiasm with regard to his teaching. He must try to involve and seek high participation of the students in the teaching-learning process for the better communication and understanding of the subject matter and learning of a skill. Phase Three—Formative evaluation for diagnosing mastery: After imparting instructions in a particular subunit, the degree of the mastery level attained by the pupils is ascertained through formative evaluation/diagnostic test. For this purpose, the following things should be kept in mind: 1. The specific objectives for the subunits and the unit as a whole as well as the learning contents should be properly considered while preparing the formative diagnostic test. 2. For each one of the formative test, mastery criterion has to be set, i.e. Grade A or 90–95 per cent marks.

3. It is better to develop two parallel forms of these formative tests. Out of these, one may be used at stage three (diagnosing the deficiency and difficulties for attaining mastery level) and the other at stage five (providing corrective measures and remedial education.) 4. Care is to be taken for knowing the extent to which the mastery level has been attained by individual students and class as a whole. The difficulties faced should be carefully diagnosed and the things which need more clarification should be properly noted. 5. The students who have been successful in attaining mastery level (masters) should be identified and the nature of deficiency in terms of attaining mastery for the non-masters should be properly recorded. Phase four—Providing differential teaching for mastery: Based on the findings of formative evaluation, serious attempts should now be made for covering up the deficiencies—achievement differences between masters and non-masters. For this, the following measures may prove fruitful: 1. In case many students of the class have not been able to master the learning task/subunit the teacher should reteach the subunit (providing due emphases on the things not grasped) by adopting different tactics and strategies. 2. The learning difficulties of the individual students and the group as a whole (sorted out by diagnostic or formative testing) should be solved through a number of measures, such as: (i) Giving extra time and more individual attention. (ii) Adopting various strategies like peer tutoring (assigning responsibility to the masters for attending the non-masters), small group study season, and quizzes. (iii) Providing corrective instructions through the use of useful instructional materials like workbooks, educational games, audiovisual aids, programmed learning packages, practical assignments, reference books, and other useful literature. (iv) Taking help of the parents in doing away with the learning difficulties of their children. (v) Providing opportunities for more practice, drillwork and working on task to enable the students for covering the gaps left between non-

mastery and mastery of the task. Phase Five—Re-evaluation and remedial work for mastery: After adopting corrective measures and providing differential teaching for helping the nonmasters to attain the required mastery level as discussed in phase four, the second parallel form of the formative test may now be administered to the group of non-master to ascertain the extent to which the gaps between mastery and non-mastery have been marginalised. The results of this reevaluation by the form second of the previously prepared parallel formative test may now be used to identify again the masters and non-masters. The so identified non-masters are again subjected to corrective instructions and remedial education in view of their learning difficulties, available resources and the time available for doing so. This work may be carried out in the regular period, or giving extra time in the school or giving meaningful wellstructured assignments and projects, etc. completed at home or at some other working situations. After adopting such corrective measures, when majority of the students (say 90 to 95 per cent) of the class seems to attain the mastery level, the teacher may proceed with the next subunit of the course. All what has been done in attaining mastery over the first subunit under the above phases is repeated with all the subunits of the course till a desired mastery over the full unit or course is achieved. Phase Six—Summative evaluation and grading for the mastery: Under this final phase, a summative evaluation test is performed for ascertaining the extent to which the desired mastery over the complete unit or entire course material has been achieved by the individual students and class as a whole. This test is based on the specified instructional objectives aiming towards the mastery over the entire unit of the course material. The summative evaluation test is always administered at the end of the courses. With the help of the data (in the form of single score) obtained through such test, we may be able to classify and have grading of the students. In a successful situation, almost all the students (90 to 95 per cent) may demonstrate the attainment of grade A (i.e. attainment of 90 to 95 per cent scores) implying that the desired objectives of attaining mastery over a learning material has been satisfactory achieved.

Principles of reaction

The main emphasis in the mastery learning model is on helping the students attain mastery over the material taught. Here the speed with which a particular student is learning has little significance to him. Therefore, the teacher is not to reinforce or reward the speed but he is to take care of the attainment of the mastery level by all the students of the class. Through formative evaluation, he has to know the nature of the difficulties faced by the individual student or a group as a whole and then provide them individual or collective help for the rectification of their shortcomings. He has to work hard and help every student in a learning task by diagnosing his difficulties and providing constant encouragement, needed corrective measures and guidance by establishing proper rapport. A teacher working with this model has to remain quite cautious in reminding the students that learning competently is more important that completing the task easily and late masters are in no way inferior to the early masters.

The social system In the classroom teaching situations, the mastery learning model provides quite upper hand to the teacher for being more active and dominant for the flow of the teaching-learning activities. He is assigned more responsibilities right from the planning to the teaching and evaluation stages. He has to analyze the contents properly, specify the instructional objectives, teach properly for the acquisition of these objectives, prepare the formative and summative tests, diagnose the learning difficulties and provide suitable corrective measures and remedial instruction for helping the students attain the desired mastery level in close cooperation of their basic needs, interests and abilities. However, for the fulfilment of his obligations, the teacher has to seek a close cooperation from the students at each and every stage of the planning and execution of this model. He has to make them acquainted with the concept and methodology of mastery learning, the nature of formative and summative evaluations and the importance of mastery learning for their own improvement. They must feel the necessity of attaining mastery over the learning material, realize the need of devoting the time and demonstrating required patience and strength for overcoming the difficulties in the learning path. The class, the teacher has to organize the class in small groups, take the help of early masters as monitors and help the students individually as a tutor. So the model provides opportunities not only

for the teacher-pupil interaction but for the pupil-pupil interaction as well. The social system of the mastery learning model presents a picture of cooperate learning characterized with a warm, cordial, cooperative and enthusiastic teaching-learning environment.

The support system The implementation of the model requires some additional support other than that is usually available in a normal classroom situation as mentioned here: 1. The services of the teachers who know the art and technique of implementing mastery learning model. 2. Extra support in terms of the suitable textbooks, supplementary reading material, question banks and assignment material for preparing the items for formative and summative evaluations. 3. The help of enriched instructional material, suitable techniques and strategies, audiovisual aid material, multimedia, educational games, etc. for the students in overcoming their learning difficulties and providing corrective measures and remedial education. 4. Make provision in the regular time table or school time schedule for the extra time needed in attaining mastery level. 5. Flexibility in scheduling and pacing of the curricular coverage.

Application context The application of mastery learning model brings two types of advantages in terms of cognitive outcomes and affective consequence: 1. According to the studies reported by Block (1971), adoption of the mastery learning model may enable about 90 per cent of the students to reach a level of achievement which less than 20 per cent attain under non-mastery conditions. 2. The model, although suitable for the mastery of some basic skills belonging to all the subjects or areas of the school curriculum, may prove more effective in the teaching of subjects and contents which are more structured, organized and sequential in nature. Learning of various concepts and skills in mathematics, sciences, music, arts,

statistics, commerce, economics, management studies, history, geography, and languages may well fall in this category. 3. The attainment of mastery over the learning material helps the learners take more genuine interest in the further learning of the subject. It helps them create a positive attitude towards the learning and application of the subject in real life situations. Mastery and its public recognition provide the learners with the necessary reinforcement to look upon themselves as adequate resulting into the proper enhancement of their self-confidence and self-respect.

Bruner’s Concept Attainment Model The term ‘concept attainment’ is historically linked with the work of Jerome S. Bruner and his associates and that it is why the model is named as Bruner’s concept attainment model. For the necessary background, let us mention some of the basic ideas from the work of Bruner (1960): 1. Our environment is full of tremendously diverse things and it would have been impossible to adjust in it if we had not been endowed with the capacity to discriminate, categorize things in groups, and form concepts. 2. A concept has three elements: (i) examples, (ii) attributes, and (iii) attribute values. Examples are instances of the concept. Some are positive and some are negative. In concept attainment, the negative and positive examples are tested and searched for their features. Each example can be described in terms of its basic characteristics called attributes, and each attribute has an attribute value. For illustration, if the concept is ‘apple’ each fruit is an example. Here, pears and oranges are negative and apples are positive examples. The colour may be an attribute and yellow or red may be the attribute values. 3. In categorizing or concept formation, although the content of categories may differ from one culture to another, yet all sets of concepts are the product of the same thought processes. Thus, the strategies for forming concepts or categorizing are more or less the same.

4. The categorizing activity actually has two components: (i) the act of category formation (concept formation), and (ii) the act of concept attainment. The concept formation is the first step towards concept attainment. 5. In concept attainment, the concept is determined in advance and the task is to determine the elements of the concept. While the concept formation, in contrast, is the act by which new categories are formed, it is an act of invention. 6. Concept formation and attainment differ significantly in terms of thinking processes and consequently require different teaching strategies. Hilda Taba’s Inductive Thinking Model is an example of concept formation. The concept attainment models are concerned with the process of concept attainment. 7. In identifying the strategies used to attain concepts, a distinction should be made between the two learning conditions of selection and reception. In reception conditions, the teacher presents the examples in a pre-arranged order, labelling them “yes” or “no”. In selection conditions, the examples are not marked “yes” or “no” but form a group of unmarked examples. The students are required to select one and enquire whether it is a “yes” or a “no”. On the basis of the above ideas and research work done by Bruner and his associates, several models of teaching have been developed. The original work of Weil and Joyce (1978) mentions three variations or models of concept attainment as designed by them: 1. The reception model 2. The selection model 3. The model for unorganized material. Each of these models has a slight different sequence of activities (syntax), but all are developed from a common conceptual base. A detailed study of any one model will help us to know others.

The reception model of concept attainment

Focus: The concept attainment model facilitates the type of learning referred to as conceptual learning in contrast with the rote learning of factual information or of vocabulary. In practice, the model works as an inductive model designed to teach concept through the use of examples. Therefore, in addition to help the students in the attainment of a particular concept, the model enables them to become aware of the process of conceptualizing. Syntax: The sequence of the phase and activities covering the reception model may be outlined as in Table 25.6. TABLE 25.6 Syntax of the reception model

Principle of reactions: The important principles of reactions for the responses and regard of the students may be put in the following way: 1. The teacher is to remain supportive of the student’s hypotheses, emphasizing, however, that they are hypothetical in nature. 2. He has to maintain record by keeping track of the hypotheses (concepts) of the attributes as they are mentioned by the students. 3. He is to remain supportive for turning the students’ attention towards analysis of their concepts and strategies. 4. He is to encourage analysis of the merits of various strategies rather than attempting to seek the one best strategy for all people in all situations.

Social system: In the initial uses of the concept attainment model, it is proper to be very structured. In most part of the teaching, the teacher has to exercise control over the social system. He has to present examples in such a way that the attributes are clear and are, indeed, both positive and negative examples of the concept. However, ample freedom is given to the students for carrying out their own thinking. They may formulate their own hypotheses and test them in the light of the available data. In case the students fail to reject wrong hypotheses, the teacher may prompt them to re-examine the data. He sometimes also persuades them to form new hypotheses. The social system of the model demands from the teacher to place the responsibility of identifying and verifying the concept on the student. The teacher should try to communicate the students that the solution to the problem of identifying the concept lies not within the teacher but in the data (examples). (Eggen et al., 1979:164) The system, as a whole, provides smooth interaction between the teacher and the students for a cooperative support in the following form: 1. It requires material in the form of well thought examples marked as positive and negative to be presented to the students for concept attainment. 2. As the students have to describe the characteristics (attributes) of the examples (marked as “yes” or “no”), something like a blackboard or tag-board is required for recording these responses. The formulated hypotheses can be evaluated in the light of these characteristics available to the class in a summarized form. 3. A flannel board may be used to present various parts of the evolved definition and explanation of a concept. Application context: The concept attainment model proves an excellent way (based on inductive reasoning and systematic thinking) to teach concept through the use of examples. It certainly helps the students acquire unfamiliar concepts. It can be used to teach concept related with any discipline or area of the curriculum. However, its use should be confined in such a way that he may persuade his students to determine the concept on the basis of the examples provided. What may be fit or not fit for teaching with the model may be adjudged from the following: the requirement to let

the students know about the concepts like triangle, regular polygon, proper noun, mammals, democracy, internal conflict fits well in this model. But when the content, and goals of instruction do not include concept learning, this model cannot be used. It may happen in the following cases: 1. Teaching of generalization like “solid gets expanded when heated” and “people resist changes”. 2. Teaching of facts like “hydrogen is lighter than oxygen”, and “Alexander invaded India in 327 B.C.” 3. Teaching of explanations for the questions like “Why Shimla is cooler than Chandigarh?” and “Why snakes get sluggish in cold weather while dogs and cats do not?”. ILLUSTRATION The Use of Reception Model. Let us utilize the reception model in teaching the concept of “Proper Noun”. 1. In the beginning the teacher will present two examples (one positive and other negative) of the concept written in the following way: (i) Delhi: Yes (ii) Cycle: No 2. The students will be persuaded to suggest possible categories that would encompass Delhi, the positive example. 3. The possible categories hypothesized by the students will be written on the blackboard, as: (a) The capital of country. (b) Cities over a million people. (c) Cities composed of five letters. (d) Places. 4. 4. An additional example (positive or negative) will be presented by the teacher. Let it be as: (iii) Rohtak: Yes. 5. The students will be asked to test their hypotheses in the light of the new example. It will result in the rejection of the hypotheses (a), (b), and (c). 6. At this stage, the students may be asked to suggest any new hypotheses. If they are agreed to test only one remaining hypothesis,

i.e., places, they will be presented with the following example: (iv) Home: No 7. This example may cause the elimination of the hypothesis “places”. Therefore, additional examples like the following may also be presented: (v) Tilak Nagar: Yes (vi) Fort: No (vii) Red Fort: Yes 8. The analysis of the above examples will result in the amendment of the hypothesis, places as “special places” or “particular places”. 9. This will lead to attain an important part of the desired concept in the following form: “Special or particular places are known as proper nouns”. 10. Similarly, by repeating the above process, the students may be helped attain the concept of proper noun and define it in the following way: “A proper noun denotes a particular or specific place, person or a thing as distinct from every other one.” The selection model of concept attainment: The reception and selection models have the common target of teaching concept attainment and both arise from the same conceptual base. However, they differ in some aspects as described now: 1. The reception model is highly structured and controlled by the teacher. It presents a direct way of teaching concept attainment to the students. The selection model permits more autonomy to the students by giving more freedom to their own initiation and control. 2. Initially, only two examples are provided in the reception model. In contrast to this, in the selection model, all the examples are displayed to the students from the beginning of the activity. 3. The two models differ in respect of the labelling of the examples. While in the reception model all the examples are labelled, the selection model requires unlabelled examples (with the exception of the first two demonstrated in the beginning).

4. In the reception model, the sequence of examples presented is decided by the teacher, whereas in the selection model, the students enjoy autonomy in controlling the sequence of the examples. They are free to choose in order to make the necessary inquiry. 5. The students may put their own examples in the selection model and ask the teacher to respond in ‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no’’ in order to attain the concept. 6. Unlike the reception model, the tracking and analysis of attributes is quite informal in the selection model. 7. The selection model puts more responsibility and demands on the students in comparison to the reception model. ILLUSTRATION The Use of Selection Model The working process in the selection model may be illustrated through an example involving the concept of quadrilateral. 1. As a part of the essential support, the teacher may prepare a large number of cardboard geometrical shapes (circles, rectangle, square, parallelogram, rhombus, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc.) of varying colours and sizes. 2. He may begin by presenting two labelled examples (as given below) and say ‘‘look, I have a category in mind, please try to find to out”. (i) A small green square: Yes (ii) A large green circle: No 3. The pupils may hypothesize as: (a) The category is green. (b) The category is squares. (c) The category is small. 4. The teacher will present all the geometrical shapes with him and ask the students to select the figures that could be used to test the hypothesis ony by one. It may happen as given in Table 25.7. TABLE 25.7 Testing of hypothesis in selection model

5. At this stage, the students will be persuaded to think about some other hypothesis as all the stipulated hypotheses have been eliminated. It may be thought as below: (d) the category is “Four Sided Figures.” 6. The newly suggested hypothesis will then be put to test by asking the students to select examples (Table 25.8). TABLE 25.8 Further testing of hypothesis

7. The help may also be taken from the previous data such as: Big green square: Yes Small green rectangle: Yes 8. The students may, thus, infer that the category in the mind of the teacher was nothing but “four-sided figures”. 9. After realising that the class had attained the concept, the teacher at this stage may label the category as “quadrilateral”. The model of unorganized material: The unorganized material model represents third variation in the teaching of concept attainment. It is similar to the reception and selection models in the following ways: 1. It has a common target of helping the student attain the concept. 2. The conceptual base is the same. 3. It uses examples to teach a concept.

4. It begins with the identification of one positive and one negative example of the concept to be attained. It can be differentiated with the earlier two variations in the following ways: 1. Leaving the first two, all other examples are provided by the students. 2. It provides more automony to the students. 3. It assigns more responsibilities to the students in the process of concept attainment. 4. The data presented is quite unorganised and unstructured. In brief, all the three models as Weil and Joyce (1978:45) put “constitute a continuum from direct instruction in concept theory under teacherstructured conditions to student control and application in naturalistic (unorganised) data situations.” ILLUSTRATION The Use of Unorganized Materials Model Let us take the concept “vegetables with edible roots.” The task may be carried out in the following way: 1. The teacher may begin by presenting the two labelled examples as: (i) Carrot: Yes (ii) Wheat: No 2. It may lead the students to suggest the following hypotheses (The same will be written on the blackboard): (a) Orange coloured vegetables. (b) Vegetables that are eaten raw. (c) Vegetables with edible roots. (d) Vegetables rich in vitamin A. 3. The students will be persuaded to provide suitable examples for testing the formulated hypotheses. The process may be summarized in the following way:

4. The students are left with only one hypothesis, i.e., vegetables with edible roots. They will be persuaded to search for more examples for the confirmation of the hypothesis such as turnip, and onion. 5. The students with the help of all positive examples will be persuaded to list all the attributes of the concept and distinguish them from other concepts as understood through negative examples. It will help them attain the concept “vegetables with edible roots”.

Choice of a particular concept attainment model As said earlier, all the three described concept attainment models lie in a continuum in respect of the autonomy and responsibilities on the part of the students. The choice of a particular model is likely to depend upon the complexity of the concepts taught as well as the experiences and maturity of the students. While the selection model may work well with inexperienced learners and the reception model with still more inexperienced, the unstructured material model will definitely require suitable learning experiences and maturity.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Model The cognitive development model is the outcome of the philosophy and views expressed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, about the pattern of cognitive or intellectual development of the children right from the period of their birth. Therefore, for knowing about the mechanism of the model, it is essential to be familiarized with the following essential theoretical notations and ideas related to the Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. 1. Piaget was of the view of that one’s cognitive development at any stage of his life is the joint product of his hereditary potential and interaction with his physical and social environment. For this, he postulated that like other physical organs of the human body, there are two aspects of the human mind, referred to as cognitive structure and its functioning. At birth, the human baby is supposed to be born with a certain cognitive structure and its mechanism of functioning. It may consist of a few practical instincts and reflexes such as sucking, looking,

reaching and grasping. Therefore, the initial cognitive structure of an infant is supposed to incorporate only those cognitive abilities or potentials (named as ‘schemas’ by Piaget) which help him do such simple cognitive acts as sucking, looking, reaching out or grasping. These schemas, represent the basic units of one’s cognitive structure in the shape of some general potential to perform a particular type of cognitive behaviours. It is also certain that the earlier schemas represent those reflexes and instincts that are biologically inherited. However, as the child grows with the interaction of the physical and social environment, different other schemas are acquired by him, resulting in desired changes and modification in his cognitive structure. 2. The key to the child’s cognitive development, according to Piaget, lies in his constant interaction with and adaptation to his physical and social environment. The task of such an adaptation is carried out through the process of assimilation (making possible the incorporation of new experiences into already existing schemas) and accommodation (modification of existing schemas for accommodating new experiences). In the process of acquiring new ideas and experiences, thus, where assimilation demands from the learner to bank upon the past experiences, accommodation asks him to learn the new ways of behaving or bring suitable modification in the earlier ways of behaving and learning. In this way, our mind processes new information in two ways: (i) first understanding whatever information fits into the already existing cognitive structure, and (ii) if fails to do so, re-examining and adjusting his thinking or cognitive structure for accommodating the new information by one way or the other. 3. The child’s cognitive structure and its functioning, thus, always remain in a state of constant change and development as a result of the process of assimilation and accommodation for bringing desired equilibration between his self and the environment. This task of continuous organization or development of the cognitive structure is, in fact, an individual phenomenon. However, as Piaget advocated, this development takes place in a particular order involving four definite stages of intellectual development as shown in Table 25.9.

TABLE 25.9 Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Piaget advocated stage-linked characteristics of cognitive or intellectual development, in one’s life. At any given stage, one is able to perform certain kinds of thinking and intellectual activities and not others. Therefore, any scheme of education or teaching learning process must be planned well in time with the nature of the cognitive development of the children belonging to a particular age and grade level. Such postulations provided sufficient ground for thinking about the development of teaching models suiting to the evolving stages of intellectual or cognitive development of the child. The cognitive development model is, thus, nothing but an attempt to apply the Piaget’s theory of cognitive development for the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives.

Description of the model Focus: The cognitive development model stands for organizing the teaching-learning environment and teaching-learning activities for (i) the development of stage-relevant cognitive abilities (by providing stagerelevant tasks and learning experiences to the children of a particular age group and grade level), and (ii) testing the nature of their cognitive development.

Basic assumptions: The working of the model is based on the following basic assumptions: 1. Teaching is the creation of suitable environment for facilitating stagerelevant thinking to attain the desired instructional objectives. 2. Teaching helps in acquiring all the three types of knowledge (i) physical (e.g. a ball bounces), (ii) social (e.g. language and social traditions), and (iii) logico-mathematical (e.g. the number and classification concepts). 3. Teaching is very much helped through the proper organization of social environment. Syntax: The model consists of the following three phases for its operation: Phase One—Confrontation with stage relevant task: In this starting phase, the students (after establishing proper rapport with them) are provided with a situation that may be somewhat puzzling, thought provoking, challenging, and problematic as well as effective enough to persuade them for seeking its explanation or solution. However, this confronted problematic situation should be such that it must: 1. be well in tune with the cognitive development stage of the learners, and 2. allow the learners to assimilate on the basis of their previous experiences but side by side should be new enough to require accommodation. Phase Two—Enquiry: In this phase, the students are persuaded to provide their suggestions, solutions and responses to the confronted problematic or puzzling situation. Their level of cognitive development may be recognized through their responses. It also provides opportunities for the development of their thinking, reasoning and other intellectual abilities. Some of the essential activities needed on the part of teacher at this stage are summarized here: 1. Teacher may put probing questions for eliciting responses from the students.

2. He may ask for the justification of the responses (given by the students) indicating his or her level of reasoning. 3. It may be followed by one or more counter-suggestions for verifying the soundness of the student’s reasoning. Phase Three—Transfer: In this phase, attempts are made to see whether the students are able to transfer their ability to think and reason (demonstrated in confrontation with this present problematic situation) to the solution of other similar problematic or puzzling situations. For this purpose: 1. A similar or related task in the shape of a puzzling situation is presented before the students. 2. They are persuaded to respond. 3. The teacher may put probing questions, ask for the justification of the responses and provide counter-suggestions as to help either in the proper development of their thinking and reasoning powers or test the level of their cognitive development. The social system: It is quite structured, ranging from partially structured to totally structured environments. It may be characterized as in the following way: 1. The teacher may take initiative in making the students confronted with the puzzling situation or mental task related to their level of cognitive development. 2. He is to provide reasonable freedom to the students for responding or manipulating the given material to gain cognition of the underlying concepts. 3. He is to initiate and guide the enquiry in a democratic social environment leading to logical conclusions transferable to the performance of similar mental tasks. Principles of reaction: The main principles of reaction are summarized below: 1. Principle of creating appropriate environment: The teacher has to create a stimulating and encouraging social environment, where the

students may feel the need of responding spontaneously to the encountered problematic situation. 2. Principle of providing cues: As far as possible the students must be given opportunity to respond on the basis of their own reasoning. However, whenever needed, appropriate cues must also be provided to stimulate their thinking and reasoning powers. These cues or hints facilitate cognition. However, no cue should be provided at the time of testing. 3. Principle of probing and providing counter-suggestions: The teacher must take the help of probing questions for analyzing the nature and depth of students’ reasoning and the justification of such reasoning. Moreover, he must also provide counter-suggestions for verifying the soundness and reliability of their reasoning. 4. Principle of helping in transfer: The reasoning and thinking developed on account of facing one puzzling or problematic situation may be transferred for facing similar situations. The teacher should try to provide such opportunities for transfer. The support system: The model requires the following types of support system for its useful implementation: 1. A knowledgeable and skilled teacher who can effectively use this model for the attainment of the desired objectives. 2. An appropriate stimulating, encouraging, social, and democratic environment. 3. Variety of objects as resources to construct mental tasks and puzzling or problematic situations desired from broad pedagogical areas, subject areas, or real life situations. 4. Adequate stock of probing and relevant counter-suggestions. 5. Timely help of the teacher in the form of a facilitator and guide.

Application of the model As the name suggests, the cognitive development model is mainly applicable for helping the students develop their thinking and reasoning powers by encountering them with puzzling or problematic situations belonging to both curricular areas and actual life. It can also help in

identifying and knowing about the level and nature of the children’s cognitive development at a particular age or grade individually and collectively. The model can also be used for instructional purposes by providing opportunities to do mental task matching the cognitive development of the children. Besides, it can be effectively used for helping the children in their social development by confronting with and devising solution of puzzling situations in a cooperative way as a responsible member of the group.

Social Enquiry Model The social enquiry model is the outcome of the efforts of Benjamin Cox and Byron Massials. The essence of this model lies in adopting social inquiry approach especially useful for the teaching of topics and contents related to social sciences/studies or dealing with the issues of social interests.

Description of the model Focus: The model aims to help the students in their adequate social development by acquiring desirable social virtues and characteristics. It focuses on the adoption of an inquiry approach in dealing with the matters of social interest and corporate living and allows the students to find out the solution of the problems through inquiry, mutual discussion, logical reasoning and reflective thinking. Syntax: The model may consist of the following four phases for its adoption: Phase One—Orientation of the problem: In this phase, the students are made to face some or the other problem particularly of a social interest and significance. This problem is then clearly stated and analyzed for identifying its true nature, characteristics and scope. Phase Two—Setting up of an appropriate hypothesis or hypotheses: The problem in hand, then becomes an issue for the group discussion. The students try to provide their suggestions and then help in setting up an appropriate hypotheses or more than one hypothesis as the tentative solution of the felt social issue or problem. Phase Three—Collecting data or evidences for the verification of hypothesis: In this phase, the students are made to collect suitable information, data and other needed evidence for testing the validity of their

hypothesis or hypotheses. They adopt a method of academic inquiry for the collection of evidences in the classroom set-up, and in their social environment and resources available outside the classroom. Phase Four—Analysis of data/evidence and drawing conclusions: Here, all the collected information, data, or evidences meant for the verification of one or the other hypothesis are properly analyzed for the acceptance and rejection of the set hypothesis. The students again, if needed, may resort to the process of social enquiry and logical reasoning for sorting out the most appropriate solution of the felt social issues. The conclusion, then arrived, may be accepted as a generalized statement or solution of the felt problem for its further use in the similarly felt social issues or problems. Principles of reaction: The main principles of reaction operative in the model may be summarized as the following: 1. Principle of providing social environment: In the execution of this model, the teacher has to provide a democratic social environment for his students for feeling, discussing and analyzing some or the other problems of social concern. 2. Principle of providing opportunity for social inquiry: The teacher has to provide adequate opportunities to the students for finding out the solution of the felt social problem through a systematic method of enquiry and investigation. He must always be ready for responding to the academic enquiry put to him or suggest appropriate resources for collecting reliable and valid information/evidences for the verification of their hypothesis. 3. Principle of guiding them to arrive at the correct solution: The teacher, while providing full freedom to the students for the process of their enquiry and ways of verification of the set hypothesis, must properly help and guide them for the appropriate analysis and interpretation of the collected evidences resulting into the search of the correct solution of the felt problem. The social system: The social system prevailing in the implementation of this model is moderately structured. As far as the initiation is concerned, it is the teacher who takes initiative and keen interest for providing appropriate situation for the felt social need, issue or problem. He is always there for

supervising, guiding and directing their method of social inquiry for arriving at some fruitful results. However, in no case he forces his opinions or tries to provide readymade solutions to the felt problem. The structure is kept quite flexible and unstructured for providing reasonable freedom and timely opportunities to the students for solving the social issues by their own enquiries, logical reasoning and reflective thinking. The support system: This model requires the following additional support for its effective employment: 1. The services of competent teachers well versed in handling the social enquiry process. 2. Enriched libraries, information centres, and services of the experts in dealing with social issues for helping the students in gathering desired data and evidences.

Application of the model The model may be very well used for the teaching of the topics, issues and problems related to the subject of social studies. It may also help the students for bringing desirable behavioural changes in their affective domain particularly in the development of awareness about the social issues and problems, acquisition of social virtues, and characteristics and adaptation to social environment. For adopting the method of systematic enquiry as well as application of logic and reflective thinking for the solution of the felt problem, it may also prove a big helping hand in the development of higher cognitive abilities among the students by organizing the teaching-learning process at the reflective level.

Laboratory Method Model The laboratory method model as claimed by Weil and Joyce (1978) has been developed by Bethel and Maine while working in the National Training Laboratory, USA. As a matter of classification, they have tried to put it in the family of social interaction models meaning thereby that the model may need a suitable social environment and social interaction for its operation in order to realize the desired personal and social aims of education.

Description of the model The mechanism of this model in terms of its various elements is given here: Focus: The laboratory method model mainly stands for the students’ realization of the following goals or missions: 1. To help the students in the development of their inter-personal or group skills leading to healthy group interaction, participation, and social development. 2. In the development of intra-personal skills for the desired personal awareness and flexibility leading to their healthy social adjustment. Syntax: The teaching-learning act here requires a laboratory-like setup. But the word laboratory here does not mean the one used in the teaching of sciences. Work experience in the subjects is almost essential for the operation of this model. Actually, by laboratory-like conditions, in this model we mean the place and environment where desired training in the acquisition of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills helpful for the better social development and adjustment may be properly provided. Therefore, the operational activities of the model may consist of the following phases: Phase One—Providing opportunity for group work: In this phase students are provided opportunity to do some group work. It may be of academic nature as to complete an assignment related to a broad area or topic of the school curriculum. There may be a project or work experience-related task that may need cooperative efforts of the group. Phase Two—Working in the group for the development of group skills: In this phase, the students themselves or under the guidance of the teacher voluntarily distribute their duties for the completion of the group work. Here, a democratic and social environment prevails for learning and getting training for the necessary interpersonal or group skills. The students acquire such skills as a matter of self-experience or are guided in the right direction through peer influence as well as through the planned efforts made by the teacher. Phase Three—Making provision for the development of intra-personal skills: While performing duties and working in the group for the completion of a

group assignment or project, the students on the individual basis may feel one or the other types of difficulties. It may be due to a variety of reasons such as, inability to identify their own strengths and weaknesses, and lack of flexibility or ability to adjust according to group needs. The teacher now may help them in the task of personal awareness and, accordingly, get adjusted to the needs and requirements of the working group. Principles of reaction: In this model, the teacher has to be quite vigilant in observing students’ performance regarding their abilities and capacities both as an individual and members of the group. This means he has to help them or respond in a desired way for providing them experiences and training for the acquisition of intrapersonal as well as interpersonal skills in order to realize the individual and social aims through the organization of an instructional programme. The social system: The social system of the model is both open and structured in so many aspects. On the one hand, it gives quite a free hand to the learners for going ahead in the completion of their group activities according to their own personal abilities and capacities, while on the other hand, it exercises desired control and provide necessary guidance and direction for making them trained in the acquisition of the necessary intrapersonal skills. The support system: This model requires some additional support such as: 1. A competent and skilled teacher well versed in the art of developing inter-personal and intra-personal skills among the students. 2. Democratic social classroom environment and other social situations helpful in developing desired social skills among the students for their adequate social adjustment.

Application of the model The laboratory method model is quite helpful in the acquisition of the learning experiences requiring social interaction, and inter-personal relationships among the learners. It is also beneficial in making the students

acquire necessary inter-personal and intra-personal skills for their proper social development and social adjustment.

Synectics Model The synectics model of teaching owes its origin to William J.J. Gordon (1968). Initially, this method was used to develop creativity groups within industrial organizations. Later on, he adopted it for developing creativity among school children. For designing and employing synectics as a model of teaching or procedure of training, Gordon made use of certain basic assumptions regarding the nature, process and development of creativity.

Basic assumptions The synectics model has an altogether new set of beliefs quite different from the conventional ideas about the nature, process and development of creativity. Its main ideas and assumptions are summarized as the following: 1. Creativity is not an exceptional and extraordinary thing necessarily associated with the development of great works of art or music or new invention in one or the other field. Creative work and process are very much linked with our everyday activities. We can very much use and develop creative expression in our daily work and leisure lives. 2. Creative process is not at all mysterious. It can be described and it is possible to help the children develop their creativity through teaching or training. 3. The process and the product of creativity exhibit uniformity in all the fields or spheres of life. The arts, sciences, business and agriculture and craft areas are all characterized by the same underlying intellectual process. The inventions in science are, therefore, not at all different from the creation in arts from the viewpoints of creativity. 4. The notion that creativity is an intensely personal experience is erroneous. Creativity whether demonstrated by the individual on a personal basis or along with the members of a group is one and the same thing. Individuals and group generate ideas and products very much in the same fashion. Therefore, it is possible or rather advisable to teach or train the children in a group for the development of creativity.

5. Creative capacity of both individuals and groups can be well enhanced by the conscious analysis of the creative process and thereby employing appropriate means and material for its development. 6. Usually, when we are faced with a problem or asked to perform a task, we adopt old ways of solving the problem or doing a task. However, sometimes it does not work. It is here that we can make use of synectics—an interesting and delightful approach leading to new ideas and innovations. 7. Creativity is essentially an emotional process, one that requires elements of irrationality and emotion to enhance intellectual processes. So, in providing training for the development of creativity we must lay more emphasis on the emotional component of the behaviour than the intellectual. 8. The individual and the group can increase their creativity by understanding and consciously controlling the elements of their emotional irrationality. 9. Metaphoric activity involving the use of analogy and compressed conflict may help in providing valuable structure for the development of imagination and insight into everyday activities for making creativity a conscious process and controlled exercise.

Description Build up on the above pillars of basic ideas and assumptions, the structure and functioning of the synetics model may be explained in forms of the fundamental elements of a model as outlined in the following way: Focus: Synetics model of teaching aims to increase the creativity of both the individuals and the groups in all areas of the curriculum, the sciences and the arts. Syntax: The synetics model makes use of two types of strategies for its functioning: (i) creating something new, and (ii) making the strange familiar. The first strategy aims to help the learners see familiar things in unfamiliar ways by using the analogy device to create conceptual distance. As pointed out by Joyce and Weil (1997:262) there are the following six phases in the operation of this strategy.

Phase One—Description of the present condition: Here the students are made to describe the situation, and present the condition or problem as seen by them at the present moment. Phase Two—Direct analogy: In this phase, the students are made to suggest direct analogies, select one, and explore/describe it further. By direct analogy, we mean a simple comparison of two objects or concepts. For the real topic or problem situation, the students may be asked to name the similar topic, concept or situation (not necessary to be identical in all aspects) as a matter of simple and direct analogy and then select a particular analogy for describing it further. For example, for providing analogy to a motorcycle, one can say it is like an enraged forest lion, a steel horse, and a flying bird. Phase Three—Personal analogy: In this phase, the students themselves become the analogy they selected in phase two. For example, for describing the concept of motor cycle the students may themselves consider them as a motorcycle, or an enraged forest lion and steel horse, etc. The teacher may ask them to pretend as a motorcycle or lion and horse, etc. Phase Four—Compressed conflict: Here, the students are required to take their descriptions from phases two and three, suggest several compressed conflicts and choose one. By the metaphorical form compressed conflict we mean a two-word description of an object in which the words seem to be opposites or contradictory to each another, e.g. How is your motorcycle timid and brave?, how does it smile and frown?, etc. Phase Five—Direct analogy: In this phase, the students are made to generate and select another direct analogy based on the compressed conflict. Phase Six—Re-examination of the original task: Here, the teacher tries to persuade the students in moving back to the original task or problems and use the last analogy and/or the entire synetics experience. The second strategy, i.e., making the strange familiar, aims to help the students in their understanding and internationalization of substantially new or difficult subject matter. It involves seven phases:

Phase One—Substantive input: In this phrase, some information on a new topic is provided by the teacher either verbally or through the presentation of a short substantive paragraph. For example, he may provide meaningful information on the topic “Human brains and its functioning”. Phase Two—Direct analogy: Here, attempts are made by the teacher to suggest some direct analogy and then ask the students to describe the analogy. For example, he may provide direct analogy to the human brain by citing the example of telephone exchange control room. Phase Three—Personal analogy: In this phase, the students are persuaded to become the objects of the direct analogy by themselves. For example, in their attempts for getting acquainted with the concept of democracy they may be persuaded to compare it with the functioning of their own body system or with the functioning of their home, school, etc. Phase Four—Comparing analogies: Here the students are required to identify and explain the points of similarity between the new material and the direct analogy. For example, they may be asked to locate similarities between the functioning of the human brain and the telephone exchange control room. Phase Five—Explaining differences: In this phase, the students are persuaded to point out the dissimilarities and then tell where the analogy does not fit, e.g. what are the different points of differences where human brain differs with the structure and functioning of a telephase exchange system?, and so on. Phase Six—Exploration: Here, the students are persuaded to re-explore the original topic in their own ways. They may take the help of direct and personal analogy besides other types of self-thinking, understanding and discussion in the group. Phase Seven—Generating analogy: In this phase, the students try to provide their own direct analogy and explore various similarities and differences for understanding and grasping the meaning and nature of an unfamiliar or new topic. Both these two strategies are aimed to provide training opportunities for the development of creativity among the children. Which one of these two

strategies should be adopted in a particular teaching or training situation depends on the fact whether the students need to be helped in creating something new or to explore the unfamiliar. The social system: The synectics model is regarded a moderately structured model as, here, the teacher is supposed to initiate the sequence and guide the students in making use of this model. He is also to help the students in intellectualizing their mental processes, inventing new ways of conceptualizing and solving the problems through the help of synectics exercises— analogies and compressed conflicts, etc. However, the students get needed freedom in discovering ways and means or discovering something new or getting familiarized with the unfamiliar concepts. There stands a quite friendly and wholesome environment for the close cooperation between the teacher and the students. The students are provided full opportunity and cooperation for the proper understanding and controlling of the element of irrationality in creating or exploring something new. Principles of reaction: The model requires the following types of reactions and responses on the part of teachers: 1. A proper knowledge about the experiences and the learning background of their students regarding the topic or problems in hand. 2. Discourage the students in making use of the old ways of doing things or the set channels of thinking and help in introducing elements of irrationality and new ways of doing things for creating something new or getting familiarized with the unfamiliar. 3. Learn to accept the responses of the students no matter how unusual and bizarre they may be for ensuring that they feel no external judgements about their creative expression. 4. Encourage and sometimes directly or indirectly help the students in inculcating necessary psychological states helpful in generating creative responses. 5. The students should be given proper time and opportunities for developing fresh and new perspectives on problems. Here, premature analysis should always be avoided for developing the desirable habit of problem solving among the students.

6. The motivation provided to the students is almost internal. Hence, they must be given opportunity to enjoy the fruits of their creative expression. Support system: The synectics model requires the following types of support for its proper employment. 1. Service of the competent teachers well versed in the functioning and use of this model. 2. A smaller cohesive and cooperative group for the development of creativity of the children in a democratic group learning situation. 3. Desirable help and guidance from the teacher for introducing elements of irrationality in inventing something new or getting familiarized with the unfamiliar. 4. The needed facilities in the form of laboratory, workshop, library readings, outings, audio-visual equipment, etc. for making the task of problem solving concrete and to provide opportunities for having creative expression in the real and practical form. Application context: The synectics model has a quite wide applicability in teaching-learning situation related to almost all the subjects and experiences of the school curriculum as summarized here: 1. The synectics activities provide unique shared experiences for fostering interpersonal understanding and a sense of community and group feeling. Moreover, the delight and playfulness of these activities inspires and motivates all members of the group (even the most timid and shy) to contribute significantly in providing solution of the problem or inventing something new. 2. The synectics model can be used to provide rich and vivid experiences to the students for understanding the unfamiliar and discovering the facts of the school curriculum in a quite interesting way. It is equally good for all areas of the curriculum—the sciences and arts, theoretical and practical, curricular and co-curricular, etc. 3. The synectics model can be used with the learners belonging to all ages and potential— the average, slow and fast. All types of learners may be benefited by sharing the synectics experiences.

4. As a means for nurturing and developing creativity and creative expression, the model is credited with a number of applications and uses (Joyce and Weil, 1997:258). (i) In learning the art of creative writing. (ii) Providing valuable means and techniques for the exploration of social issues, and investigation about the things and events in one’s physical, social and cultural environment. (iii) In developing the problem solving ability of the students by breaking set and conceptualizing the problem in a new way in order to suggest fresh approaches for its solution. (iv) In learning the art of creating a product (such as an idea for social gathering or new means of communication). (v) The strategies used may help in broadening the perspectives of the students related to the acquired concepts—even the difficult and abstract ones such as democracy, culture, economy, liberty, justice, discrimination, and prejudice.

Instructional effects The synectics model can prove quite worthwhile in terms of its instructional values. In brief, we can say the following things regarding the instructional use of this model: 1. Knowledge is not the power. It is the way of acquiring knowledge that is more important than the mere acquisition of it. The synectics model provides opportunities and training for the development of the ability of acquiring and discovering the knowledge. 2. Teaching can be carried out at three different levels known as memory, understanding and reflective. The experiences gained in the synectics model may help the teacher and learners organize the instructional process at the understanding and reflective levels. 3. The joy of teaching and learning is rested on the discovery and learning of new facts, investing some new ideas and ways of doing things, etc. The use of synectics model may make the process of instruction interesting and delightful.

4. Last but not the least the model may prove a very potent device not only in the development of general creative capacity but also in the specific creative capacities related to a variety of subject matter and experiences of the school curriculum among the students.

Operant Conditioning Teaching Model The operant conditioning model belongs to the family of behaviour modification models. It is based on the operant conditioning theory propounded by the eminent psychologist B.F. Skinner. According to this theory, learning is contingent or based on the consequences of the responses. If one is able to structure the learning environment in a proper way and may manage to provide appropriate reinforcement contingency to an emitted behaviour at a proper time in a proper schedule, the target of desired terminal behaviour may be achieved with greater care and accuracy. Since the focal point in this model lies on the manipulation and management of reinforcement contingencies, it is also named as contingency management model. In his theory, Skinner emphasises upon the conditioning operant behaviour rather than the respondent behaviour, i.e. the stimulus-response (S-R) type behaviour. Salivation at the sight of the food, closing of one’s nose on account of sensing some bad smell, etc. are the examples of respondent behaviour. In such cases, the behaviour is evoked by some known stimuli. However, in the case of operant behaviour, the presence of a known stimulus or stimuli is not at all essential. It may be some caused by some unknown stimuli leaving the impression that it has occurred by its own with no well-known cause. The movement of one’s legs or foot while sitting on a chair, while doing something in any way is an example of such behaviours. In operant behaviour, Skinner emphasized the individual behaves in some way, does something or in technical sense ‘operates’ on the environment. In turn, the environment also operates or responds to such behaviour by rewarding or punishing it and it is the kind of response (pleasant or unpleasant) which determines or sets the probability of its recurrence. In this way, according to Skinner’s theory, we must be able to operate on the environment or manage the teaching-learning process in such a way as to provide pleasant consequences for all the acts of the desired learning

behaviour of the child. If we want to shape his behaviour on desired lines, first we should set the norms of such desired behaviours. Now, as the child is able to respond in a way similar to the lines of the expected norms, we must provide immediate and proper reinforcement for helping the recurrence of the desired behaviour. If we want that a particular behaviour should not be repeated, we must try to ignore it, i.e. not provide any reinforcement for its recurrence. In such a case, the behaviour will not get any incentive for its recurrence and thus, will die its natural death.

Description Using the above theoretical notions are said to be based on the systematic management of the reinforcement schedules for the shaping of the desired terminal behaviour. The different elements of the model are explained now. Focus: This teaching model focuses on the modification of one’s behaviour by making use of the principles of operant conditioning. It aims to control and manage the learning environment in such a way as to provide proper reinforcement for the shaping of a new or desired behaviour like learning of academic, social and self-management skill and eliminating or reducing the chances for the recurrence of undesirable behaviours such as improper habits, attitudes and skills. Syntax: It can be explained properly through the following five phases: Phase one—Specification of the terminal or target behaviour: In this phase, the terminal or target behaviour finally to be shaped is properly defined and stated in behavioural terms. The procedure, tests and techniques for the assessment of the behaviour also are developed. Phase two—Assessment of the initial behaviour: Before taking into task the operant conditioning model, the potential of the initial behaviour of the learners is assessed through careful observation, test and other relevant techniques of assessment. Phase three—Formulation of behaviour-shaping programme: In this phase, attempts are made to chalk out an appropriate programme for the modification and shaping of the behaviour. For this purpose, an assessment of the available environment is first properly made and then, in the light of

the behaviour modification task and available resources, decision about the nature of reinforcement and reinforcement schedule is properly taken. Phase four—Implementation of the planned programme: The programme for the modification and shaping of the behaviour chalked out in phase three is implemented in this phrase. For this purpose, first of all, attempts are made to arrange or restructure the environmental conditions in such a way as to help in the task of desired behaviour modification. The learners or the students also are told about the necessity of bringing modification in their behaviour and their cooperation is secured for this purpose. Initially, some thematic or formal prompts may also be utilized for initiating the improvement. As and when the learner acts and moves towards the path of improvement or exhibits symptoms of modified behaviour, he is provided with proper reinforcement as scheduled and planned at phase three. Phase five—Evaluation of the programme: The progress of the prgramme and the activities undertaken for the shaping of the desired behaviour is evaluated from time to time through well structured and framed observational schedule, tests and other assessment techniques. In the light of the results, steps are taken to bring the needed change in the environmental conditions, the behaviour modification strategies, the type and schedules of reinforcement, etc. The social system: The social system of the operant conditioning teaching model is highly structured. Here, the key for all the activities primarily lies with the teacher, the person who is entrusted with the responsibility of behaviour modification. He is who assesses the learner’s initial behaviour, plans and implements the behaviour modification programme, and then take judgement about the success and validity of this programme. However, since modification is to be brought in the learner’s behaviour, his cooperation also is most essential. Therefore, in practical sense, the social system of the model needs a cooperative set-up and this is why many aspects of the social system, namely the nature of the reinforcement, their schedule and structuring of the learning environment, etc. are negotiated between the teacher and the students. Principles of reaction: The model works out the following principles of reaction derived from the theoretical notion of operant conditioning:

1. Accuracy and precision in the observation, recording and assessment of the behaviour should be properly ensured. 2. The nature and schedule of reinforcement should be carefully planned and wisely implemented. 3. Undesirable and inappropriate behaviour should be ignored or restructured if needed. 4. The appropriate and desirable behaviours should be properly reinforced. The support system: The model requires the support of the following for its successful execution: (i) Reliable and accurate measures for the observation and recording of the behaviour and performance level of the students. (ii) Cooperation from the students and support from the parents for bringing desirable modification in the behaviour of the students. (iii) Material support for providing reinforcement and arranging the learning environment according to the needs of the learning situation and the behaviour modification task.

Application of the model The operant conditioning teaching model has its applicability in the following dimensions: 1. In the development of instructional material, particularly for planning and developing programmed instruction for realizing educational objectives in all the behaviour domains—cognitive, conative and affective. 2. In the task of behaviour modification and shaping of the behaviour on desired lines. With the provision of highly structured learning material and appropriate schedule of reinforcement, it can be applied to the learning of a great variety of behaviours including elimination of undesirable behaviours. 3. As a training technique for the learning of difficult skills including teaching skills and teacher behaviours. 4. For structuring and designing the teaching-learning environment and managing the classroom instruction.

SUMMARY 1. The term model of teaching is referred to a model, a blueprint or action plan designed in advance for providing necessary structure and direction to a teacher for realizing the stipulated objectives in the same way as happens in the case of a contractor or group of labourers who make use of a model, blueprint, design or action plan drawn by an engineer or architect for the construction of a building, bridge or road. 2. Researchers and educationists have developed a number of teaching models for being used to guide the instructional work of the teachers in one or the other teaching-learning situations. The eminent educationists Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil have classified these models into four groups, namely information processing models, social interaction models, personal development models and behaviour modification models. 3. A model can be properly explained and understood in terms of its fundamental elements. It also facilitates its use and application for the desired instructional purposes. The fundamental elements of a teaching model may be named as: (i) focus (it tells for what the model stands), (ii) syntax (it refers to the description of model in action), (iii) principles of reaction (the rules followed for responding to the action of the students), (iv) social system (the type of interaction and role played by the students and teachers), (v) support system (the type of additional resources needed), and (vi) application context (where and in which form the model can be applicable for teachinglearning). 4. Glaser’s basic model proposes to perform the complex process of teaching by passing through the four stages associated with the four basic components of the model, namely instructional objectives, entering behaviour, instructional procedures and performance assessment. 5. Bruner’s concept attainment model is quite helpful in the formation and attainment of the concepts for the students. For this purpose, Weil and Joyce have provided three specific formats: (i) reception

model, (ii) selection model, (iii) unorganized material model. Where the reception model is said to work well with the attainment of the complex concepts, the attainment of the simpler concepts may be left on the application of the other formats. 6. The advanced organizer model of Ausubel works on the assumption that the presentation and reception of a learning material may go properly if the learner possesses the relevant previous experiences and the needed cognitive structure for the purpose. Keeping this thing in view, the model expects from the teacher to present the relevant information and ideas related to the topic of the study in the form of advanced organizers in such a way as to facilitate the acquisition of the new information and knowledge related to the presented lesson in a proper way. 7. Richard Suchman’s inquiry training model tries to provide essential training to the students in the method of the inquiry for investigating the causes of the occurrence of a phenomenon or happening of an event. For the purpose, a strange and challenging problem is put before the students and they are made to proceed to solve it by resorting to the method of inquiry, collect relevant data, and try to verify their hypotheses on the basis of the analysis of the data. 8. Bloom’s mastery learning model proposes that all the students of a class may be helped attain the mastery level in the learning of a piece of instruction if they are provided adequate time to learn besides being taught in a proper way with the proper means. The model recommends to proceed by following some systematic steps: (i) pre-preparation or planning, (ii) teaching for mastery, (iii) formative evaluation for diagnosing mastery, (iv) providing differential teaching for mastery, (v) re-evaluation and remedial work for mastery, and (vi) summative evaluation and grading for the mastery. 9. The cognitive development model propagated by Jean Piaget is mainly applicable for the cognitive development of the students. It provides them encounters with the puzzling or problematic situations belonging to both curricular areas and actual life. It helps in identifying and knowing about the level and nature of the children’s cognitive development at a particular age or grade individually and

collectively. The model can also be used for instructional purposes by providing opportunities to do mental task matching the cognitive development of the children. 10. The social enquiry model propagated by Benjamin Cox and Byron Massials emphasizes on the adoption of social enquiry approach (incorporating mutual discussion, logical reasoning and reflective thinking) for the acquisition of desired learning experiences. It may prove quite helpful to the students in their adequate social development by acquiring desirable social virtues and characteristics. In its implementation, one has to pass through four distinctive stages, namely (i) orientation of the problem, (ii) setting up of an appropriate hypothesis or hypotheses, (iii) collecting data or evidences for the verification of hypothesis, and (iv) analysis of data/evidences and drawing conclusions. 11. The laboratory method model propagated by Bethel and Maine is based on the assumption that the task of proper realization of the desired teaching-learning objectives depends much on an effective organization of an appropriate social environment and social interaction. Consequently, in its implementation, one has to make efforts for the creation of socially organized and controlled laboratorylike conditions and proceed systematically by following three major steps, namely (i) providing opportunity for group work, (ii) working in the group for the development of group skills, and (iii) making provision for the development of intra-personal skills. 12. The synectics model of teaching propagated by William J.J. Gordon stands for developing creativity among school children related to all areas of the curriculum, the sciences and arts, at the individual or group level. It makes use of two types of strategies: (i) creating something new, and (ii) making the strange familiar. The first strategy aims to help the learners see the familiar things in unfamiliar ways by using the analogy device to create conceptual distance. It is executed in six phases: (i) description of the present condition, (ii) direct analogy, (iii) personal analogy, (iv) compressed conflict, (v) direct analogy, and (vi) re-examination of the original task. The Second strategy (making the strange familiar) aims to help the students in

their understanding and internationalization of substantially new or difficult subject matter. It involves seven phases, namely (i) substantive input, (ii) direct analogy, (iii) personal analogy, (iv) comparing analogies, (v) explaining differences, (vi) exploration, and (vii) generating analogy. 13. In the operant conditioning model, attempts are made for the modification and shaping of the behaviour of the students in the desired way. This model was propounded by the eminent psychologist B.F. Skinner. It proposes to follow some definite sequential steps such as (i) specification of the terminal or target behaviour, (ii) assessment of the Initial behaviour, (iii) formulation of behaviour-shaping programme, (iv) implementation of the planned programme, and (v) evaluation of the programme.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define the term ‘models of teaching’ and discuss the significance of the teaching models in teaching. 2. Describe the fundamental elements of the teaching model in brief. 3. Broadly classify the modern teaching models and summarize their characteristics. 4. Describe Glaser’s basic teaching model in detail. 5. Discuss, in detail, Burner’s concept attainment model. 6. What do you understand by the term concept attainment? How will you utilize the reception model in teaching the concept? Illustrate with a suitable example. 7. Discuss Joyce and Weil’s classification of models of teaching. 8. What do you understand by the term “inquiry training’? How can you use inquiry training model to provide training in systematic inquiry to your students? Illustrate with examples. 9. Discuss the mechanism and operation of Suchman’s inquiry training model, in detail. 10. What is Jean Piaget’s cognitive development model? Explain its structure and functioning in detail.

11. What is Cox and Byron’s social inquiry model? Discuss in brief. 12. What is laboratory method model? Explain its mechanism in terms of the elements of a model. 13. Distinguish the selection model of concept attainment from the reception model. How would you make use of this model? Illustrate. 14. Differentiate the unorganized model of concept attainment from the reception and selection models. Illustrate the use. 15. What do you understand by the term mastery learning? Discuss, in detail, its use in the classroom teaching. 16. Describe, in detail, the structure and characteristics of advance organizer model. 17. What do you understand by the advance organizer model? How it can be used in the classroom teaching? Discuss in detail. 18. Discuss, in detail, Gordon’s synectics model. 19. How can the synectics model be utilized for the development of creativity among students? Discuss by throwing light on its nature and functioning. 20. Discuss Skinner’s operant conditioning model, in detail, in terms of the basic elements of a model.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Anderson, Lorin W., Perspectives on School Learning: Selected Writings of John B. Carroll, Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1985. Ausubel, David P., The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning, New York: Grune and Stratton, 1963. _______, Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1968. _______, “The facilitation of meaningful verbal learning in the classroom”, Educational Psychologist, 1977, vol. 12, pp. 167–168. _______, “In defense of advanced organizers: A reply to the critics”, Review of Educational Research, 1978, vol. 48, p. 251–257.

Bhattacarya, S.P., Models of Teaching, New Delhi: Regency Publications, 1994. Block, James H. (Ed.), Mastery Learning: Theory and Practice, NewYork: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1971. Block, James H., Mastery Learning in Classroom Instruction, New York: Macmillan, 1975. Bloom, B.S., “Mastery Learning” in J.H. Block (Ed.), Mastery Learning: Theory and Practice, New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1971. _______, All Our Children Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. Bruner, Jerome S., Process of Education, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960. _______, Child’s talk: Learning to Use Language, New York: W.W. Norton, 1985. Carroll, John B., “A model of school learning”, Teacher College Record, vol. 64, pp. 723–733. De Cecco, J.P. and Crowford, W.R., The Psychology, Learning and Instruction, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1977. Dell’Olio, Jeanine M., Models of Teaching: Connecting Student Learning with Standards, Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2007. Eggen, Paul D. et al., Strategy for Teacher: Information Processing Models in the Classroom, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1979. Glaser, Robert, “ Psychology of instructional technology” in R. Glaser, Training, Research and Education, Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, 1962. Gordon, William J.J., Synectics: The Development of Creative Capacity, New York: Collier Books, 1968. Hilgard, R.R. and G.H. Bower, Theories of Learning, New Delhi: PrenticeHall of India, 1977. Jangira, N.K., N. Sabharwal, and K.B. Rath: Draft Workshop on Teaching Models, New Delhi: NCERT, 1983. Joyce, Bruce and Weil Marsha, Models of Teaching, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972. _______, Models of Teaching, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980.

_______, Models of Teaching, (3rd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, N.J: PrenticeHall, 1997. _______, Models of Teaching, (5th ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2003. Joyce, Bruce , Weil Marsha and Emily Calhoun, Models of Teaching, (7th ed.), Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2004. Meyer, Merle E. and F. Herbert Hite, (Eds.) The Application of Learning Principles to Classroom Instruction, Bellingham: Western Washington State College, 1971. Patterson, C.H., Foundation for a Theory of Instruction and Educational Psychology, New York: Harper and Row, 1977. Singh, L.C. (Ed.), Multiple Models of Teaching for Educators, Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1995. Skinner B.F., Technology of Teaching, New York: Appelton Century Crofts, 1968. Weil Marsha,and Jouce, Bruce, Information Processing Models of Teaching, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall of India, 1978.

26 Unit Planning and Lesson Planning CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Yearly Planning Yearly Planning Lesson Planning Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Organized planning always plays a quite substantial role in the execution of any task in our life. It not only caters to the proper realization of the aims or purposes of doing that task but also helps in proper utilization of the time and energy on the part of human and material resources. It is equally true for the process of teachinglearning. The teachers who plan their work properly prove quite efficient and effective in their teaching. A subject teacher should always pay due consideration to the wise planning of his teaching and instructional work during the whole session. He may have three types of schemes for such planning:

1. Yearly planning 2. Unit planning 3. Daily lesson planning Let us discuss these three types of planning made by a subject teacher. Let us discuss these three types of planning made by a subject teacher.

Yearly Planning In yearly planning, in the teaching of a subject, the teacher tries to take a complete view of what he has to do in the whole session regarding the instructional work of his subject. In this way, by a yearly plan, we mean the sessional programme that has to be chalked out by the teacher in his subject of teaching in the shape of teachinglearning activities to be carried out. For chalking out such programme, a teacher has to take care of the following things: 1. The total number of working days available for the teachinglearning of the subject during the year. 2. The total number of periods or time available during the year. 3. The nature and scope of the subject in relation to the number of topics included in the syllabus, the contents covered in these topics, the types of learning experiences to be provided to the students, the objectives of teaching-learning to be realized, etc. 4. The means and material available for the teaching-learning of the prescribed syllabus in teaching subject.

Unit Planning in a Subject The yearly plan (what is to be done during the whole session) is further subdivided into monthly, weekly and daily plans for the

purpose of proper implementation. There is still another way for its division and implementation known by the term unit planning. Let us get acquainted with this term.

What is Unit Planning? In its simple meaning, unit planning stands for the planning of the instructional work of the session by dividing the prescribed syllabus into some well-defined and meaningful units. For more clarity, let us first define the term unit. Unit has been variously defined as the following: Carter V. Good (1959:44): Unit may described as an organization of various activities, experiences and types of learning around a central problem or purpose developed comparatively by a group of pupils under teacher-leadership. H.C. Morrison (1961:25): A unit consists of a comprehensive series of related and meaningful activities so developed as to achieve pupil’s purposes, provide significant educational experiences and result in appropriate behavioural changes. I.J. Quillen and Lavone Hanna (1961:109): A unit refers to material organized around a common principle, process, culture, or an area of living, and directed through the achievement of significant outcomes, thus giving unity to learning experiences. The analysis of the above definitions may reveal that: The contents of a unit are always woven or organized around a central or common principle, process, problem or purpose. Students may cooperate the teacher in the formation of units. A unit consists of well-integrated, meaningful wholes capable of providing useful learning experiences to the students for achieving the desired teaching-learning objectives. The subject matter or content of a unit represents continuity and comprehensiveness in conveying a proper sense or

understanding of a particular problem, theme or knowledge area related to a curricular subject. A unit represents a wholesome and complete subdivision of the contents of a syllabus quite useful and meaningful in providing rich educational experiences. Thus, by the term unit we may understand one of the complete and meaningful subdivisions of prescribed course of a subject, centred around a single principle, process, problem or purpose capable of helping in the realization of the desired teaching-learning of the subject. Now we may know about the nature and meaning of unit planning. As pointed out already, the syllabus for its proper coverage in a session is divided into units. The proper way for the teaching-learning of the subject matter or learning experiences contained in these units by keeping an eye over the proper realization of the teaching-learning objectives of a particular subject is known as unit planning in that subject. In this way, the term unit planning may be defined as a scheme or plan chalked out for the teaching-learning experiences to be given in the whole session in a unit of teaching subject mentioning the ways and means of imparting learning experiences reduced to that unit in view of the proper realization of its teaching-learning objectives.

Units Formation in a Particular Subject The task of unit planning in a subject starts with the formation of proper units out of the subject matter and teaching-learning experiences to be imparted to the students during the whole session. For this, a teacher may: 1. Accept the various topics as mentioned in the prescribed syllabus as different units.

2. Combine the different topics of the syllabus in view of the contents and learning objectives realized through the formation of units. For example, the topics such as forest wealth of India, mineral resources, water resources, and ocean resources belonging to the subject may be combined into a single unit named as “Natural resources of India”. 3. Attempt to combine the various topics related to the teaching subject in view of the similarities found in their day-to-day application in the natural, social and cultural environments of the students into a single unit, e.g. means of communication, means of transport, our universe, etc. In addition to the above considerations, a subject teacher should take note of the following things while dividing the syllabus/curriculum of his subject into various units: 1. The total days and working hours (classroom periods and other extra time) available for the teaching. 2. The completeness and meaningfulness of the units formulated in terms of some special purpose or objectives achieved. 3. Suitability in terms of the age, interests, needs and abilities of the learners. 4. Suitability in terms of the resources and teaching-learning conditions available for the teaching-learning. 5. Proper division of the whole syllabus (contents and learning experiences) in view of the total time and resources available. 6. Being in perfect tune with the realization of the teachinglearning objectives of the subject. 7. Proper integration and correlation of the subject matter and learning experiences available within the units themselves. 8. Proper correlation, coordination and integration among the different units formulated out of the prescribed syllabus for the needed continuity and convenience.

How to Proceed After organizing the subject matter and learning experiences into some complete and meaningful subdivisions, i.e. units, further work of planning may be undertaken in the following ways: 1. A unit in hand should be divided into some suitable subunits or parts. A subunit or part, as far as possible, should contain that much of the subject matter or learning experiences as could be covered within the available classroom period of 35 or 40 minutes. 2. The objectives related to the teaching-learning of the unit should be predetermined and properly framed by expressing them into behavioural terms for making clarity about the types of behavioural changes expected from the students after going through the unit. 3. Proper decisions should be taken about the methods and techniques used, the audiovisual aids and other material utilized, and the teaching-learning experiences given for the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives. 4. Decisions should also be taken about the type of interactions among the teacher and the students and the relative roles played by them in performing the various activities. 5. Proper decision should be taken for the evaluation of the teaching-learning of the unit. It is always better to prepare beforehand the desired unit test. The time and resources needed for the unit test also should be well decided. The procedure of unit planning is illustrated by taking into hand the task of unit formation in the subject social studies. Example: Unit Planning Name of the unit: Means of Communication Name of the subunits

The meaning and need of the means of communication The means of communication in the ancient age The means of communication in the medieval period The means of communication in the modern age The effect of modern means of communication on our life The means of communication in the coming future After dividing the subject matter, a social studies teacher then should take proper decision about: Laying down of the teaching-learning objectives of these subunits. Appropriate methods, devices, techniques, aid material, etc. for proper teaching-learning. The use of appropriate evaluation devices for the evaluation of the outcomes of the teaching-learning. The utilization of the outcomes of the evaluation for the proper follow-up and remedial teaching.

Importance and Advantages 1. The syllabus is suitably divided into units. It helps in the proper coverage of the syllabus of that subject within the available time and duration of the session. 2. Units represent the unified and integrated wholes of the meaningful and purposeful content material and learning experiences. Organization of the subject matter and learning experiences into such meaningful wholes proves quite advantageous from both the educational and psychological angles to the students. 3. Unit planning lays proper stress on the formulation of teachinglearning objectives of the unit in the behavioural terms. It makes both the students and the teacher clear about the functions and goals of their striving. The clarity of objectives

makes the teacher and the learners engage seriously in the teaching-learning of the unit. 4. In unit planning, a teacher is well informed about the type of methods and strategies used, and the material and resources utilized for the teaching-learning of various subunits. It helps him make adequate preparation for the utilization of proper methods and resource material for providing instructions. 5. Unit planning helps in the proper organization and systematization of the teaching-learning process. A teacher has a prior knowledge of the task and activities to be executed for the teaching and learning of the unit and the subunits and it makes him mentally and professionally prepared for the fulfillment of his obligations as a teacher. 6. Planning of the activities and resources beforehand and division of the content material into complete and meaningful units make the task of teaching and learning quite interesting and absorbing leaving no scope for the problem of indiscipline in the class. 7. Administration of the pre-prepared unit test in view of the stipulated teaching-learning objectives helps in the proper evaluation of the teaching-learning task. 8. Unit planning has a proper provision for the diagnosis of the learning difficulties of the students and subsequent remedial instruction. 9. Unit planning has a proper provision for the review, recapitulation, practice and drill-work related to the contents and learning experiences of the subunits. 10. Unit planning paves the way for a proper and appropriate daily lesson planning. A teacher feels quite at home in the task of his daily lesson planning in view of the blueprint provided by it.

Demerits and Limitations

1. The division of the contents of the syllabus into meaningful and complete units and subunits is not an easy task. Improper and faulty formulation of units and subunits may create hurdles in the path of the teachers and students for the proper teaching and learning of the subject. 2. The teaching and instructional task in any subject of the school curriculum most often needs a treatment of its subject matter in a well-organized, systematic and sequenced way. A certain types of information, pre-knowledge and skills are always required for the learning of one or the other topics. However, while organizing the syllabus into units, we have to set aside the logical and sequential development of the subject. It creates too much difficulty for the teacher and the students in performing their respective tasks of teaching and learning, 3. The unit planning puts restrictions on the freedom of teachers. The predetermined objectives, learning experiences, methods and resources, methods of evaluations, etc. leave little scope for the originality and creativity of the teacher needed in the changed situations and circumstances in the classroom environment. 4. The teaching-learning process becomes too much timebound through the adoption of unit planning. The task related with the acquisition of the desired skills and application of the knowledge and understanding in a subject needs a lot of exercises and activities in the form of practice and drillwork. Limitations and restriction of time provided by the unit planning thus may prove a big obstacle for the desired teaching and learning in one or the other subjects of the school curriculum. 5. Unit planning may make the teacher too much conscious for the implementation of planned scheme as the planning becomes an end instead of remaining means for the realization of the teaching-learning objectives.

6. The students and teachers have no ways but follow the guidelines provided by unit planning. It makes the teaching and learning as planning-centred rather than students-centred. Their needs, interests, abilities and capacities are thus, unnecessarily sacrificed. 7. Unit planning needs expertise and labour and time spent on the part of a teacher. Overloaded with teaching and other functionary duties he takes too little interest in the proper planning of the units. Absence of needed skill and lack of interest and enthusiasm for doing such work, may prove a big handicap in the successful realization of the purpose of unit planning. A close analysis may reveal that these defects and problems do not lie in the purposes, processes and outcomes of the unit planning. Planning for any task is always aimed for the proper execution of that task. Unit planning, in this way, is always aimed first for the proper division of the syllabus into suitable units and then thinking proper ways and means for the realization of the stipulated teaching-learning objectives through the meaningful instructions related to these units. The limitations and shortcomings, actually, lie in the system of implementation and not in the planning. Therefore, there should not be any hitch or doubt in the adoption of unit planning for carrying out the task of teaching-learning in the subjects of the school curriculum.

Lesson Planning What is Daily Lesson Planning? The daily lesson planning as the name suggests is the planning made for the instructional work carried out by the teacher on a day-to-day basis. However, the term is not much in use. It has been replaced by

the term lesson planning for conveying the same meaning. Let us now understand its meaning and purposes more clearly. Classroom teaching falls on the top in the list of the duties performed by a teacher. He has to teach daily one or more subjects to one or more classes in his school. While trying to perform his duties, he has to pass through the following phases: 1. Pre-active phase of the teaching 2. Interactive phase of the teaching 3. Post-active phase of the teaching The theoretical activities performed at the cognitive level by the teacher before the actual classroom teaching are related with the preactive phase of teaching. What a teacher does in the classroom with regard to his actual classroom teaching along with his students are covered in the interactive phase. In simple words, lesson planning with regard to the teaching of a school subject means the planning of a daily lesson related with a particular unit of that subject to be covered by the teacher in a specific school period for the realization of some stipulated instructional objectives. It is a sort of theoretical chalking out of the details of the journey that a teacher is going to perform practically in the classroom along with his students. Now the work of chalking out the details of such journey or preparation may be done either at the cognitive level or preferably in the written form by writing a lesson plan. In this planning, a teacher has to pay considerations to the following essential aspects: Broader goals or objectives of the subject to be taught. Setting and defining of the classroom objectives related with the present unit or topic of the subject. Organization of the relevant subject matter to be covered in the given lesson.

The decision about the method of presentation of the subject matter, teaching strategies, classroom interaction and management. Appropriate provision for evaluation and feedback.

Difference from Unit Planning Unit planning and daily lesson planning can be distinguished from one another on some of the following grounds: 1. Unit planning is meant for the division, organization and planning of the prescribed syllabus being covered in the whole session while daily lesson planning helps in the organization of teaching-learning in terms of a lesson delivered during a classroom period. 2. The scope of unit planning is much wider than the scope of daily lesson planning. 3. Unit planning may be done for the teaching-learning carried out in a classroom period or its duration can be extended to several days but in the case of lesson planning its duration is strictly limited to a single day task, i.e. a period of 35 to 40 minutes. 4. Unit planning carries objectives of the teaching-learning to be done for the whole unit comprising of various subunits. These objectives may have quite wider coverage in comparison to the objectives of daily lesson planning strictly limited to the expected behavioural changes brought out in the limited time of the classroom period. 5. Unit planning may give birth to a number of daily lesson planning depending upon the number of subunits carved out of a unit in hand. Sometimes, a subunit may need its handling through two or more days lesson planning depending upon the nature of instructional work to be carried out.

Need and Importance Behind every success lies a good planning. It equally applies to the success of a teacher in his teaching task. Briefly, the task of lesson planning helps him in the following ways: 1. It helps him delimit his field of work by specifying the objectives of his classroom teaching for a particular unit on a particular day and period. 2. The predetermined and well-defined objectives of the lesson plan helps the teacher make wise and appropriate selection of the contents, its organization, method of presentation and evaluation. In this way, the whole teaching task becomes well planned and systematically organized. 3. It brings economy in the teaching-learning process through its proper organization, orderly treatment and systematization. It keeps the teacher and the students on the proper track and thus serves as a desirable check on the possible wastage of time and energy on the part of both the teachers and the students. 4. It helps a teacher make use of the principle of correlation and integration by seeking the following types of links and associations: (i) Linking the new knowledge of the subject with the previous knowledge acquired by the students. (ii) Linking the lesson with the knowledge of other related subjects of socio-physical environment of the students. (iii) Linking the theory with its practical application. 5. It helps the teacher realize, imagine and gauge through the mental and emotional experiences of the classroom in advance, and to make adequate adjustment with regard to the classroom interaction, behaviour processes and controlling of classroom activities in a desirable direction.

6. It helps the teacher in having adequate mastery over the contents or the subject matter to be presented. 7. It makes possible to select suitable strategies for the presentation of the selected contents and accordingly plan beforehand for the proper use of audio-visual aids. 8. It helps in seeking appropriate cooperation from the students for the successful realization of the teaching objectives. It suggests solution in advance for various classroom problems. 9. It provides sufficient help to both the teachers and the students in respect of evaluating the teaching-learning activities. 10. The teacher and the taught can fix the new learning by making adequate provision for revision, practice, drillwork and assignment using lesson planning. 11. It helps the teacher arrange and grade the classroom learning according to the abilities and cooperation of his students in respect of their varying individual differences. 12. It helps a teacher use and practice essential component behaviours and skills of teaching for the realization of educational objectives. 13. In general, lesson planning helps a teacher in developing his decision-making ability, teaching competency and teacher effectiveness. It goes to build up confidence in his teaching abilities and makes him a successful teacher. In this way, lesson planning is considered a part and parcel of the teaching life of a teacher. It helps him at each and every stage of his teaching task and serves him as a reliable friend, guide and servant. However, it has to be pressed into service with good preparations and great precautions. In any case, the lesson planning should not be allowed to restrict the reasonable freedom of the teacher in taking decisions other than those specified, according to the need of the situations and benefit of the students. It should be considered as some sort of guidelines and need not be followed blindly. For the

desired success, the factors of flexibility and elasticity should always be taken into consideration by a wise teacher while making proper use of it for his educational journey. The characteristics for this journey in relation to planning has been beautifully summarized by K.K. Verma (1957) in the following words: Derailment may be disastrous and thorough running ruinous. Makeshifts and stopgaps as demanded by emergency and expediency are all to be devised.

Principles As pointed out above, lesson planning occupies a very important place in preparing the teacher for the journey which he is going to travel along with his students in the classroom. For this purpose, a teacher has to prepare his daily lesson plans very cautiously by taking care of the following important principles:

1. Principle of clarity and definiteness of the objectives While planning the lesson in the concerned subject, a teacher must be fully aware of its teaching or instructional objectives. He has to base his planning entirely on the type of objectives set and the subsequent changes desired in the behaviour of the students.

2. Principle of availability of resources and conditions It is quite essential on the part of a teacher while planning the lesson to take into consideration the availability of different types of teaching aids, equipment and other resources, situation and the environmental conditions likely to be prevailed at the time of the delivery of his lesson.

3. Principle of the knowledge of entry behaviour New learning is always based on the previous learning. Therefore, for teaching a particular topic, there lies definitely some prerequisites in the shape of previous learning. This entry behaviour of the students should always be kept in mind. Unless it is not properly assumed, it will be quite difficult to plan for the teaching of that topic.

4. Principle of motivating the students Motivation is the key of learning. If a teacher can motivate his students for taking a genuine interest in the teaching of his lesson, it can prove a big helping hand in the realization of his instructional objectives. Therefore, while planning his lesson the teacher must pay attention for its proper introduction so that children may be properly motivated in the study of the topic to be taught.

5. Principle of maintaining interest in the lesson The aroused interest through a proper introduction of the lesson needs to be kept maintained throughout the delivery of the lesson by the teacher. A teacher must therefore try to plan such activities and deliver his lesson in the way suiting to the needs, interests and ability of the students of the class.

6. Principle of appropriateness of teaching methods and techniques Proper delivery of the lesson aimed towards effective realization of the stipulated instructional objectives necessarily requires proper selection of methods and techniques well in time with the nature of the subject matter and topic being taught in the class. For meeting this requirement, the teacher should essentially give place to the most appropriate methods and techniques in the planning of his lesson.

7. Principle of mastery over the subject matter and related activities A teacher who does not possess adequate mastery over the subject matter-learning experiences and activities related to the topic being taught may miserably fail in planning as well as its proper delivery in the class. It becomes quite essential, therefore, for a teacher to acquire sufficient mastery over the subject matter and related experiences connected with the lesson.

8. Principle of active participation of the students Success of a teaching always depends upon the degree of the involvement and active participation of the students in the teachinglearning process. Therefore, a teacher must always have proper provision for the devices, strategies and techniques helpful in ensuring active participation of his students.

9. Principle of providing feedback and reinforcement A learner can only learn well when he gets proper feedback and reinforcement in the course of his learning. A teacher must take due care of this fact. Therefore, when the learner responds well and takes active and genuine interest in a teacher’s teaching or does well in the learning activities required on the part of learner, he must get immediate reinforcement and necessary feedback for his progress on the path of learning.

10. Principle of adequate class control and discipline Good teaching requires proper maintenance of discipline and adequate class control on the part of the teacher. So, he may plan to adopt well-thought tactics, strategies and devices, like questioning,

response management, active participation of the students, using audio-visual aids, and provision of adequate and purposeful learning experiences, etc.

11. Principle of appropriate evaluation It is very essential for a teacher for being acquainted with the fruits of his striving from time to time at the time of delivery of his lesson. He usually makes use of recapitulatory device like sectional and final recapitulation for this purpose. While planning his lesson therefore, he must take due care of the appropriate evaluation of the teachinglearning process going inside the classroom.

12. Principle of adequate fixation of the learning What should be taught to the students needs to be adequately fixed in their minds for its proper remembrance, application and transfer to the needed situation. A teacher should, therefore, provide due place for the needed fixation devices in the form of review, recapitulation, drill, homework, etc. in his lesson planning.

13. Principle of flexibility Last but not the least, it is also essential for the teacher to keep in the mind the principle of flexibility in his lesson planning. The planning should provide enough scope to him for being flexible in terms of presenting the subject matter in the class or sharing a variety of teaching-learning experiences with his students.

The Criteria of an Effective Lesson Planning We have seen that success of a teacher in the delivery of his lesson in the classroom very much rests on the quality of the preparation of his lesson plan. The question arises—What should be the essentials or characteristics needed by any effective lesson planning? In the

light of the above principles of lesson planning, the criteria of effective lesson planning can be summarized as below: 1. An effective lesson planning always needs its planning in the written form. It should not remain only in the oral or mental form in the minds of its planner (the teacher). 2. It must have instructional objectives properly expressed in behavioural terms. 3. The teaching-aid material utilized in the delivery of the lesson should be specifically mentioned in the lesson plan. 4. The assumption about the entry behaviour should be specifically stated and its testing procedure should also be mentioned. 5. It should specifically mention the procedure or the activities adopted for the proper introduction of the lesson. The need and importance for the learning of the very topic of the lesson must be invariably emphasized along with the proper announcement of the topic before beginning the presentation of the subject matter or learning experiences of the lesson. 6. The subject matter should be properly selected, organized and presented in the planning. 7. The methods, techniques and devices related to the presentation should be properly selected and utilized. 8. An effective lesson plan should provide due place and have adequate provision for the effective interaction between the teacher and the students. It should ensure active cooperation and involvement of the students in the teaching-learning process. 9. An effective lesson plan should take care of the age, mental level, previous knowledge, duration of the period, and the teaching-learning conditions and resources available at the time of delivery of the lesson.

10. It should specifically mention the measure of fixation of the things taught through the lesson in the shape of recapitulation, review, drill, homework, etc. 11. It should mention the type of blackboard work or summary, etc. to be developed during the delivery of the lesson. 12. It should cater to the individual differences of the students. 13. It should follow the principle of correlation and integration in the presentation of the subject matter, its application to the learning of other topics, subjects and doing activities related to day-to-day functioning.

Approaches to Lesson Planning For planning the lesson and writing it, various styles and approaches may be adopted. In general, the following five approaches are more popular: 1. Herbartian Approach 2. Morrison’s or Unit Approach 3. Bloom’s or Evaluation Approach 4. R.C.E.M. Approach 5. Gloverian Approach Let us describe these approaches now one by one.

Herbartian approach Generally known as Herbartian five steps approach, it is the product of the Herbartian School of Pedagogy propagated by J.F. Herbart (1776–1841) and his followers. The formal steps involved in it are: (i) preparation, (ii) presentation, (iii) comparison and association, (iv) generalization, and (v) application. 1. Preparation: This step is concerned with the task of preparing the students for receiving new knowledge. It is just like preparing the ground before sowing the seed in it. The students, by suitable means,

must be prepared for studying the present lesson. Once they are motivated and prepared, the teacher may proceed to realize the aims of the lesson. The Harbartian approach gives more emphasis on this step and considers it as a base for the delivery of the lesson. It is also termed as introductory step, as here, a teacher tries to introduce his lesson by taking care of the following things: (i) The previous knowledge of the students. (ii) The factors responsible for capturing attention and creating interest. (iii) The general or specific aims of the lesson. 2. Presentation: In this step, new learning material is presented before the students and efforts are made to help in acquiring new learning. It needs the following considerations on the part of a teacher: (i) What learning material is to be presented and how much of it is to be presented? (ii) How much is to tell and how much the students are to find for themselves? (iii) In which manner is the learning material to be divided into sections or subsections? (iv) How should each section or item of the learning material be attended exclusively and then integrated with what has proceeded? (v) What type of techniques, methods, devices or strategies is he to adopt for the presentation of the learning material and involvement of his pupils? 3. Comparison and association: The step is related with the task of strengthening the acquisition of new learning material. It is based on the assumption that a child grows in knowledge through comparison and association. Accordingly, a teacher is acquired to compare, contrast and associate every new knowledge to be learnt with the

previous or old knowledge of the students. While presenting a new material or knowledge, the teacher asks the students to attend to it very carefully and to compare it with another set of facts they already know, to associate it with the old and thus to turn it into something new. In this way, blending of old and new creates something new for the desired growth in the knowledge and experience of the students. 4. Generalization: It is concerned with arriving at some general ideas or drawing out the necessary conclusions by the students on the basis of the different comparisons, contrasts and associations observed in the presented learning material. It helps the pupils establish some general laws, principles, generalizations or formula. As far as possible, the task of formulation should be left to the students. The teacher, at this stage, should try to remain in the background for providing only necessary guidance and correction. 5. Application: Knowledge is useful only when it is capable of being applied. Consequently, in this step, efforts are made to seek applications of generalized facts or formulae. It is, in fact, a step for the fixing up or consolidation of the knowledge acquired in the lesson. Here, what is learnt or generalized is applied to particular situations or facts for its further verification and provision of review, practice or application in the similar situations. Model Lesson Based on Herbartian Steps

Aid material (i) Blackboard, chalk, duster, pointer, etc. (ii) A chart and a model exhibiting the first problem related to a lotus flower.

(iii) Second chart showing the 2nd problem related with the placement of a ladder on the walls of a street.

General aims (i) To develop the reasoning, thinking and imagination powers of the students. (ii) To develop interest in the study of geometry and to acquaint with the rules and principles of geometry and mensuration. (iii) To provide opportunity for the development of creative powers. (iv) To enable the pupils to make use of the mathematical knowledge in day-to-day life.

Specification To enable the students to solve some practical problems based on Pythagoras theorem.

Previous knowledge (i) Pupils are well acquainted with the right-angled triangle. (ii) They know that in a right-angled triangle “square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of its remaining sides.”

Testing previous knowledge and introduction (i) (Showing the figure of a right-angled triangle) What type of triangle is shown in this figure (Fig. 26.1)? (ii) (Asking about the different sides of the triangle) How do we call these sides (base, perpendicular, or hypotenuse)?

Figure 26.1 A right angle triangle

(iii) By what these sides are related? (iv) Who discovered this relation? (Pythagoras) (v) The following problems may be put before the class.

First problem

There is a lotus flower 10 cm higher than the water level in a pond. On account of blowing of the breeze it touches the water level at a distance of 30 cm. Tell the height of the lotus stem standing in the water.

Statement of the aim The students will be asked to solve the problem. After realizing their inability the teacher will announce that today they would try to solve such type of problems with the help of Pythagoras theorem.

Presentation The problem will be suitably presented through a chart or model analyzed as in the following table.

Figure 26.2 Visual presentation of the lotus problem.

Now the students will be persuaded to find out the value of BC by using the relation AC2 = AB2 + BC2. They feel that they do not know the value of AC. For the purpose, they will be persuaded to take help of algebraic method for finding the value of an unknown quantity. Let them value it (the height of the stem in water) as x, then the height of the total stem will be x + 10 cm. Now they will be able to determine x by using Pythagoras theorem as follows:

Second problem A ladder is 10 metres in length. It reaches the height of 8 metres while placed on one of the walls of a street. On turning it to the other wall of the street, only 6 metres height is reached. Find the width of the street. The problem will be presented through suitable chart or model and analyzed in the following table:

Figure 26.3 Visual presentation of the ladder problem.

Practical work For practice work, the following problems will be put before the students: 1. There are two poles 10 and 18 metres in length standing erect at the extreme points of a road. Their tops have been tied with a rope which measures the distance between the tops as 17 metres. Tell the width of the road. 2. Two poles are standing at a distance of 24 metres. The smaller pillar has a height of 10 metres. What would be the height of the bigger pillar if the distance between the tops of the pillars is 25 metres? 3. There is a tree 25 metres in height at the bank of a canal. One end of a 20-metre rope has been tied to the top of this tree, when the other end has been hooked on the top of a 10-metre pillar standing on the opposite bank. Tell the width of the canal.

Homework 1. Try to solve the first ten problems related to the problems based on Pythagoras theorem from your textbook. 2. Try to measure the width of the street of your house by the placement of a ladder.

Evaluation of the Herbartian Approach to Lesson Planning

The Herbartian approach has contributed a lot in making teaching a well-planned enterprise. It represents an orderly and systematic procedure based on sound psychological laws and is easily applicable to the teaching of almost all the school subjects. This approach makes the task of lesson planning quite methodical, simple and easy. However, in spite of its wide use and popularity this scheme has become a target of severe criticism. The main defects and shortcomings of this approach may be summarized as follows: 1. It does not provide for the specification of teaching or learning objectives in behavioural terms. 2. Its use is limited to the realization of cognitive objectives as it does not suit well for achieving affective and psychomotor objectives. 3. Though suitable for knowledge lesson, it is hardly feasible in skill and appreciation lessons. 4. It lays more emphasis on teaching than on learning. 5. It is highly structured. Almost all the activities in this approach are controlled and dominated by the teacher, leaving little opportunity for the initiation, originality and creativity on the part of the students. 6. The activities of the teacher are also very much restricted in this approach. The scheme is rigidly uniform and makes the task of lesson planning and teaching quite stereotyped, mechanical, dull, unimaginable and boring. 7. This approach meets the requirements of the average learners. The below average and the gifted cannot derive much benefit through this approach.

Morrison’s or unit approach This approach is associated with the name of Professor H.C. Morrison (1871–1945) of the University of Chicago. It lays greater emphasis on the unit method for the planning of the teaching-learning

activities and that is why it is also termed as unit approach. According to it, the teaching-learning process must result into the mastery over the subject matter or the contents prescribed for classes. For the realization of this aim, it advocates the division of the subject matter or content into small but meaningful units. Each unit derives life from the preceding one (or previous knowledge of the students) and gives way to those following it. While teaching, the teacher tries to present the subject material related to a particular unit and deals with it thoroughly. There is no time limit fixed for the completion of the unit. The teacher moves to the second unit only when he thinks that the students have acquired mastery over the subject matter of the unit and are capable of generalizing and applying the ideas of the learnt material. Some of the important ideas associated with this approach may be summarized as below: 1. A unit is to be considered as a part of the syllabus consisting of the coherent and correlated small “wholes”. 2. The contents of a subject prescribed for a class are first broken into a family of units (such as invertebrates, and areas of curved surfaces) and then these large units are broken into small but meaningful teaching units and subunits. In all cases each subunit appears as a ‘whole’ by itself. 3. A teacher has to visualize and write down the possible objectives and specifications that are likely to be developed by a teacher for a particular unit or subunit while planning his lesson. 4. A teacher has to identify the activities he has to undertake and he should entrust to his students in order to realize the predetermined instructional objectives of a particular unit or subunit. 5. A teacher has to list out the teaching material and aid required for teaching the unit or subunits.

6. The teacher has to mention about the evaluation procedure and devices he would like to use to assess the educational outcomes after completing the task of teaching a unit. Steps involved: The unit approach involves five main steps, namely (i) Exploration, (ii) Presentation, (iii) Assimilation, (iv) Organization, and (v) Recitation. Exploration: It matches the preparation or introduction step of the Herbartian approach. Here a teacher has to explore: 1. The previous knowledge of the students with regard to the learning material of the unit to be taught. 2. The interest, aptitudes and general abilities of the students. 3. The available environmental situations and resources for teaching the unit. 4. The decision about the method or strategies of presenting the subject material. Presentation: After a preliminary exploration and establishment of proper rapport with the students, the teacher tries to present the material of the unit without going into details. He tests the students to find out how much material they have been able to grasp. If need arises, he repeats the presentation and does not proceed to the next unit of the material until most of the students of the class fully understand it. The activities in this step are almost performed and controlled by the teacher. He remains more active than the students. Assimilation: This step aims at helping the student assimilate the knowledge gained in the presentation step. It is the stage of intensive learning, deep understanding and supervised study. Here, the work is highly individualized as the students engage themselves in the deep study of the learnt material by consulting library and other source material. Each student is provided with the guide sheet to note his difficulties or doubts about the material learnt and the teacher tries to

provide necessary help for removing these doubts and difficulties. A mastery test also is administered at the end of assimilation to diagnose the extent to which the students have acquired mastery over the learnt material. In case the students do not pass the test, they are asked for further assimilation. Organization: This step is meant for determining the extent to which the students are able to reproduce the material of the unit in writing without any outside help such as notes and books. This written reproduction of the unit has been named as organization by Morrison (1961). It helps in the complete understanding of the material learnt. This step proves more essential and useful in the subjects of extensive content that includes a large number of elements in one learning unit. Recitation: This last step is concerned with the oral presentation of the unit learnt by the student before the teacher and classmates. This presentation is not so mechanical as found in the usual pattern of recitation. It indicates an intelligent thorough grasping of the subject matter and the subsequent understanding and deep insight on the part of the students. The oral form is not at all compulsory for presentation in this stage. The students may take the help of blackboard, laboratory and its equipment or writing material for expressing their mastery. In some cases, recitation may be reached directly from the presentation stage without passing through the organization stage. Advantages 1. The unit approach is based on Gestalt psychology. The contents of a syllabus are divided into suitable broader units, teaching units and subunits as complete whole in themselves. 2. Distribution of the learning material into small units and subunits makes the task of teaching and learning interesting, simple and easy.

3. Teaching and learning become more objective and specified of unit objectives. 4. The approach aims at the complete mastery over the leaning material presented in a particular unit. All steps are directed to achieve the desired mastery. 5. Teaching and learning may be properly undertaken on understanding level by this approach. The students too are required to learn the things with full understanding and not merely memorizing and responding to them mechanically. 6. This approach encourages the habit of self-study and independent learning among the students. 7. It provides opportunities for active participation in various teaching-learning activities to both the teacher and the students, thus making the teaching-learning process an act of cooperative enterprise and healthy interaction. 8. The assimilation, understanding and mastery of a unit equip and motivate the students to learn the next teaching or learning unit. The whole learning material may be grasped and learnt properly through such systematic, organized and sequenced learning.

Bloom’s or evaluation approach In the field of lesson planning, the evaluation approach is quite popular. It is the outcome of the ideas propagated by B.S. Bloom (1981) in relation to the teaching-learning process. According to him, education may be regarded as a tri-polar process involving (i) educational objectives, (ii) learning experiences, and (iii) evaluation devices. It is diagrammatically represented in Fig. 26.4. Educational objectives

Figure 26.4 Education as a tri-polar process.

Formation of educational objectives: This step is concerned with the identification and formulation of educational objectives in relation to the entry behaviours, desired behavioural changes and learning experiences to be presented to the students. These are clearly specified and written in behavioural terms in Chapter 5. Providing learning experiences: This step is based on the provision of suitable learning environment and learning experiences for the realization of stipulated educational objectives. In the light of these objectives, the following things are to be kept in mind: The selection and systematic organization of the appropriate learning material or learning experiences. The selection of suitable teaching-learning strategies, methods or devices. The planning about the teacher’s and students’ activities and classroom interaction. The selection of the suitable aid material and resources.

Evaluating the learning outcomes: This step is with regard to the evaluation of the behavioural changes occurred in the students on account of the teaching-learning activities through suitable evaluation techniques. Evaluation of different types of objective—conative, cognative or affective, require different types of teaching-learning strategies and experiences and different evaluation techniques. A suitable planning should, therefore, take into consideration this important aspect and always select a suitable criterion for the assessment of the changes in behaviour. Lesson planning: Bloom’s evaluation approach (with a little modification) involves the following systematic steps for the lesson planning: 1. Content or teaching points: In this, the subject matter or content is written in the form of main teaching points. 2. Objectives and their specifications: It is concerned with the writing of educational or instructional objective in clear and concise behavioural terms. 3. Teacher’s activities: In this, all those activities which a teacher performs are mentioned for the realization of the stipulated objectives. 4. Students’ activities: Here the activities undertaken by students for the realization of teaching-learning objectives are mentioned. 5. Teaching aids: Different types of teaching aids used for providing desirable teaching-learning experiences are mentioned in it. 6. Evaluation: This step mentions the evaluation techniques or devices used for finding out the extent to which the stipulated objectives have been realized through the teaching-learning act. The result of such evaluation provides the needed feedback to both the students and the teacher for bringing desirable improvement in the processes of teaching and learning.

Merits and demerits: Bloom’s approach has boths good points and shortcomings. Its merits include the following: 1. The approach is based on sound psychological theories of teaching and learning. 2. It provides for the proper statement of educational objectives in behavioural terms. 3. The students’ and teachers’ activities are mentioned separately and are essentially related and integrated for the realization of the stipulated objectives. 4. The contents or learning experience are properly presented in a summarized form through the teaching points. 5. The specific strategies, methods and aid material used are properly mentioned. 6. It gives due emphasis for the evaluation of the desired behavioural changes. The demerits are: The demerits are: 1. Bloom’s approach does not take into consideration the mental processes or mental abilities for writing out the educational objectives. 2. It makes the task of lesson planning quite rigid and mechanical and, thus, kills the initiative, originality and creativity of both the teachers and the students. 3. It is highly structured and dominated by the teacher’s role in the teaching-learning process. 4. The task of integration among objectives, learning experiences and evaluation devices demands greater responsibility on the part of the teacher and the students.

R.C.E.M. Approach

The approach has been developed at Regional College of Education, Mysore (R.C.E.M.) and hence the name R.C.E.M. approach. Its main features in context with planning of the lesson may be summarized as below: 1. It makes use of the concept of system approach to education. 2. In all, the three aspects, elements or steps—input, process and output—are involved in this approach. In actual lesson planning scheme, based on the R.C.E.M. approach, these aspects are known by the terms: expected behaviour outcomes (EBOS) and communication strategy and real learning outcomes (RLOS). These aspects, in fact, resemble the introduction, presentation and evaluation phases of the traditional lesson plan. 3. The aspect of input is concerned with the identification and specification of the educational objectives pertaining to a particular lesson planned by the teacher. It also includes the identification of the entry behaviours of the students. 4. This approach makes use of its own scheme of writing objectives, instead of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. These objectives are written in behavioural terms by employing seventeen mental processes or abilities. 5. The aspect of process resembles the presentation step of the Herbartian approach or the stage of learning experience of the Bloom’s approach. It represents the communication or interaction process of the classroom. It describes the learning experiences (in the form of teacher’s and students’ activities), teaching strategy and tactics, audio-visual aids, techniques of motivation, way of securing proper classroom interaction, etc. for the effective presentation of the content and realization of the stipulated objectives. 6. In the third aspect output, attempts are made to assess the real learning outcomes. It is an evaluation phase of the lesson.

In this way, the R.C.E.M. approach may be taken as an attempt to bring necessary improvement in the prevailing practice of lesson planning. It has a number or merits over the Herbartian approach, unit approach and Bloom’s evaluation approach. The teachinglearning situations, strategies, and the aid material are properly stated in the name of communication and interaction process going inside the classroom. The evaluation aspect also is properly attended in this approach.

Gloverian approach This approach owes its origin and propagation to A.H.T. Glover. In his honour, it is usually known by the name Gloverian approach. Glover tried to put a different approach to lesson planning after disagreeing with the too rigid teacher centred five-steps approach as propagated by Herbart. He proposed a four-step learner-centred approach and has the following steps: 1. Questioning 2. Discussion 3. Investigation 4. Expression or pupil activity. Let us now understand these steps in detail. 1. Questioning: It is the initial and introductory stage of lesson planning. Here, the beginning is made with the help of the properly planned questions. The teacher may ask quite relevant and thoughtprovoking questions simply for the realization of the following objectives: (i) For the diagnosis of the previous knowledge of the students related to the topic in hand. (ii) For motivating them to acquire the new knowledge related to the topic in hand.

(iii) For motivating them to take active interest in the study of the topic. Besides putting questions to the students, the teacher may encourage and instigate them for putting their enquiries or expressing their curiosity about the things around their physical and social environment. They may also express their eagerness to know more than what was taught to them in the previous lesson or topics dealt within the class. These questions may then be exploited by the teacher for the introduction of the topic to be taught. 2. Discussion: It is the developing stage of the lesson. Here, the teacher presents the topic in the shape of a challenge or problem before them. For this purpose, he tries to highlight the main points covering the body of the topic. But instead of telling everything about the topic, he provides opportunity to the students for grasping and understanding the things by themselves. For this purpose, the students are initiated and motivated for having proper discussion, exchange of views and ideas among themselves. For the proper organization of the discussion work, they may be divided into two or three workable groups. Every group now has its own discussion session for exchanging views and ideas regarding the topic. They may be persuaded to arrive at some or the other conclusions for conveying the same to the teachers or putting before the joint session to have a common agreement or judgement, besides making use of the ways and means for strengthening the knowledge and skills associated with the learning of the topic. 3. Investigation: The conclusions arrived and the decisions taken in the discussion session is put to test and investigation under this third step. It may be done on the individual and collective basis as students may get them engaged in the independent study or group work as they wish. They may go to library and consult other sources of information for the enrichment of their knowledge regarding the

topic. They may resort to observation, experimentation and other practical activities for the verification, modification and investigation of the derived conclusions at the second discussion stage of the lesson. Throughout the independent or group activities, the teachers remain quite active for guiding and helping the students as and when they need so. 4. Expression: This fourth stage of the lesson plan is meant for knowing and evaluating the depth of the knowledge and skills acquired by the students theoretically and practically with the help of discussion and exploration. In fact, what they have gained as a result of the previous three stages is reflected through the activities and tasks performed at this fourth stage. These activities and task may be: (i) expressing themselves through creative writing; (ii) expressing themselves through art and painting; (iii) expressing themselves through handwork such as crafts and other activities; (iv) expressing themselves by making charts, pictures, models, improvised apparatus, etc. (v) discovering solution of the problem with their independent efforts; (vi) finding new ways and means of doing the things and activities related to the curriculum or day-to-day life; (vii) indicating the changed behaviour patterns, habits and attitudes; (viii) demonstrating their power of inventiveness and creation through experiments performed in the laboratory or work done in the classroom; (ix) demonstrating their performance in various cocurricular activities—literary, cultural, physical, social, etc. (x) proving their ability in the organization and participation in various group activities and project work.

Thus, the Gloverian approach lays emphasis on the student activities and initiatives rather than taking all responsibility of disseminating information and knowledge about the topic on the part of a teacher to his students in a non-flexible and undemocratic way.

Which Approach is to be Adopted for Lesson Planning? All the approaches described in this chapter have their own merits and demerits. The wise thing is to pick up the good points of these approaches and leave the things that do not suit our purpose of an effective lesson planning for realizing the stipulated objectives. It needs a happy blending of the developed approaches like Unit planning, Bloom’s approach, RCEM approach and Gloverian approach. The teachers’ training institutions should come forward for suggesting suitable model lesson plans based on these eclectic approaches for teaching different topics of the school subjects of various classes. Model Lesson Plan This example is an attempt to present an illustration for the preparation of suitable lesson plans on the part of subject teachers by synthesizing good points of the various approaches.

Subunits 1. Deriving the formula for finding the area of the total surface of a cylinder. 2. Solving the problems based on the formula.

Instructional objectives (in behavioural terms)

Knowledge (i) The students define and know the meaning of the term ‘cylinder’. (ii) They are able to recall the formulae for finding out the areas of both the curved surfaces and total surfaces of a cylinder.

Understanding The students develop understanding of deriving the formulae for finding out the areas of the curved surfaces and the total surfaces of a cylinder.

Application (i) The students are able to apply the formulae for determining the areas of the curved surfaces and the total surfaces of a cylinder. (ii) The students recognize the shape and figures of cylindrical objects. (iii) The students give examples of articles of cylindrical shape other than those shown in the class.

Skill (i) The students draw the figure of a cylinder distinctly showing and naming its different parts in their exercise book without using any ruler. (ii) The students solve problems related to the area of the surfaces of a cylinder with speed and accuracy.

Previous knowledge (i) The students are familiar with rectangular figures, the methods and the formula of determining the area of such figures.

(ii) The students know about circle, its various parts and circumference. (iii) The students are able to find the circumference and area of a circle by using relevant formulae. (iv) The students are able to give examples of two-dimensional and three-dimensional circular figures and objects.

Teaching aids (i) Blackboard, chalk, duster, pointer, etc. (ii) Cylindrical objects like talcum powder container, dalda tin, and so on. (iii) A cylinder made of thick paper or cardboard sheet in such a way that the lower and upper circular parts can be easily removed.

Figure 26.5 A carboard cylinder.

Figure 26.6

Figure 26.7

Figure 26.8

Figure 26.9

Home assignment

(i) List names of five cylindrical objects which you find at your home. (ii) Calculate the expenditure in whitewashing of the tower in the exercise given in the classroom if the rate of whitewashing is Rs. 1.50 per sq. metre.

Types of Lessons Plannned What types of lesson are needed to be planned by the teachers with regard to the teaching of various school subjects is a pertinent question being posed at the lesson planning stage. For this purpose, let us ask—what is our sole objective for providing instruction in various school subjects? The answer plainly may emerge as “to bring desirable changes in the behaviour of the students for an all round balanced development of their personality”. Thus, education and instructional activities as a whole certainly aim for the wholesome development of the personality of a child by bringing desirable changes in all the three domains—cognitive, conative and affective of the child’s behaviour. For bringing desirable changes in the cognitive domain or realizing the cognitive objectives the steps suggested in Herbart and R.C.E.M. approaches may work well. But for preparing and teaching the lesson emphasizing more on the conative and affective aspects, we need the service of some other approaches. The above discussion is enough to provide us a hint that there exists certainly some definite types regarding the nature of the lessons planned or taught in realizing the cognitive, conative and affective objectives separately or in combinations. As a result, we may classify the lesson planned or taught into three distinct categories namely, knowledge, skill and appreciation lessons, depending upon the degree of emphasis laid in the achievements of the above objectives.

Knowledge lessons

These are those lessons planned by a teacher in his subject that lay more emphasis on bringing changes in the cognitive domain of the behaviour of the students. These lessons may help the students in the acquisition of knowledge and understanding about the facts, principles and processes related to the contents or subject matter of a particular topic in a subject. Although all the subjects of the school curriculum have a clear-cut distinction of possessing a definite body of knowledge, yet a few subjects such as language, history, geography, civics, and economics are very much knowledgedominated in comparison to the learning needed in the areas of work experiences, art, poetry, music, etc. We have already covered this aspect in the Herbartian and R.C.E.M. approaches.

Skill lessons These belong to that category of lessons that lay more emphasis on the acquisition of skills, i.e. realization of the conative objectives (bringing desirable changes in the conative domain) in place of acquisition of knowledge or development of affective behaviour. The term “skill” carries a wide meaning. Here, all the desirable changes in conative behaviour, development in motor abilities and capacities and learning of all manual and motor acts and activities helpful in day-to-day life or earning one’s livelihood may all be included in the concept of a skill. Thus, walking, jumping, running, climbing, throwing, weightlifting, painting, sewing, singing, dancing, playing with musical instruments, drawing and sketching, calculating, computing, surveying, designing, improving, making charts and models, experimenting, handling the apparatus and equipment, reading, writing, speaking, listening, questioning, answering, discussing, debating, all thus may constitute the different examples of the term, associated with one or the other subjects of the school curriculum or aspect of growth and development of the child.

The skill lessons, irrespective of the nature of the subject taught or experiences gained mainly aim in making the students do something instead of mere telling or imparting information and knowledge about something as aimed in the planning and teaching of knowledge lesson. For example, in our secondary school teaching, we may aim to emphasize on the planning of skill lessons specifically at the occasions when we wish from our students: 1. To acquire skills in physical education and sports like skills related to the proficiency gained in indoor and outdoor games, sports events, gymnastic exercises, physical drill etc. 2. To acquire skills in language and communication skills like reading, writing, speaking and listening skills, composition, and creative expression etc. 3. To acquire necessary mathematical skills like computational skill, surveying skill, drawing and understanding of geometrical figures, tabulation skills, graphical presentation skill etc. 4. To acquire necessary skills related to the teaching and learning of sciences such as laboratory skills, skill of constructing improvised apparatus, demonstration skills, skill of handling apparatus and equipments, experimentation and observational skills etc. 5. To acquire necessary skills in social sciences like skill of map reading and making, surveying, estimating and planning, budgeting, role-playing, dramatizing, skill of using globe, skill of making time lines etc. 6. To acquire necessary skills in the art of acquiring expertization in the field of music, dance, home science activities, art and painting, agriculture and gardening, wood and carpentry work and other work experience areas. Teaching of skill lessons: It may be carried out by the following four orderly steps:

1. Preparation: It involves two phases, namely (i) introduction and motivation, and (ii) statement of the aim. Here attempts are made to introduce the lesson and motivate the students through the lesson taught in the class. It may be done in the following ways. Linking the present lesson with their previous knowledge and skills acquired earlier. Creating a problematic situation for feeling the necessity of learning the new skill. Taking the help of audio-visual material for creating desired interest in the learning. Emphasizing the value and importance of the new skills to attract the students. Taking the students for a visit to places where they may feel the need of learning the new skill. The teacher may then acquaint the student with the purpose and objectives of the lesson to be taught by clearly stating what skill they are going to learn and what are the benefits that may be derived by the acquisition of this skill? 2. Presentation: In this step, the teacher presents the contents and activities of his skill lesson: (i) Giving a theoretical background of the nature and procedure involved in carrying out the skill in question. (ii) Providing demonstration or model presentation of the processes of executing the skill. It may be done in the following ways: Using illustrative aids such as charts, pictures, models, sketches and diagrams, slides and transparencies, motion pictures, and video film for demonstrating the art and techniques of skills.

Taking the help of an expert or skilled professional for demonstrating the execution of the skill. The teacher himself may work as a model. Involving a few students for demonstrating the skill to the whole class by giving them proper direction. (iii) Inviting questions for filling up the gaps left in the understanding of the theoretical background and also in grasping the mechanism of the process involved. (iv) Helping the students reach at some set conclusions about the rules, methodology and procedural steps followed in the execution of the skill along with the necessary precautions to be observed. 3. Practice: In this third step, the students are made to repeat what has been demonstrated to them in the second step. This task is mostly performed on the individual basis as the learning of a skill is altogether an individual phenomenon. For example, if the skill lesson is concerned with the making of candles, every student is required to learn the art and mechanism of candle making. They have to initiate the acts of model presentation of candle making provided in the second step. Although there is no restriction in performing certain activities in collaboration with the other students, but each and every aspect or activity related to the execution of the skill must be mastered thoroughly with the opportunities of practice work done in the third step. While the students are engaged in the task of making the candles, the teacher (he may also take the help of instructor or other persons engaged for carrying out work experience activities) may remain quite vigilant, alert and attentive for providing timely guidance for correcting the students in learning the proper art and mechanism of candle-making. He may ask the students to repeat a particular process, modify their ways of doing, suggest otherwise for further improvement, etc. aiming to help each of them acquire perfection.

The same is true with the learning of other skills. A skill can only be learnt with the adequate and sufficient practice work, its proper praise, encouragement, incentive and other motivational drives, correction of errors, and will of bringing as much improvement in the learning of skills as possible. Needless to mention that all such type of efforts and precautions are needed in this third step of skill lesson. 4. Application: In this last step, the students are given opportunity to make use of their learned skill. For example, if they have acquired mastery in the candle-making skill through sufficient practice carried out in the third step, they are here required to demonstrate it. They may be, thus, asked to prepare candles for the coming Deepawali festival or some decorative candles for being demonstrated in the School office. Similarly, if they have learned the skill of making wooden furniture, they may be asked to make use of the skill in repairing and designing furniture for their institution or homes. With the execution of this step, thus, the real objective of learning a skill through a set of skill lessons may be effectively achieved.

Appreciation lessons These belong to that category of lessons which lay more emphasis on the development of aesthetic sense and appreciation power of the students, i.e. realization of the affective objectives (bringing desirable changes in the affective domain of the behaviour) in place of acquisition of knowledge or skills. The development of aesthetic sense and appreciation power carries a lot of weight along with the acquisition of knowledge and skills in one’s life. It is perfectly true the person who has a developed aesthetic sense and who has the ability to appreciate the truth, goodness and beauty (satyam, shivam, sundaram) in things, persons and idea only can live life in its full and also enjoy it in its totality. The person who has no feelings is nothing but a lifeless stone. The feelings and emotions are, thus, the signs and symptoms of our

existence as a human being. So it is quite natural for human beings to demonstrate their tastes, interests, attitudes, aptitudes, liking and dislikings, feelings and emotions in one way or the other towards the things, persons and events belonging to the physical and sociopsychological environment. The demonstration of such type of behaviour, no doubt, belongs to the affective domain of one’s behaviour. It is the function of one’s heart expressed in terms of feelings, emotions, interests and attitudes, etc. and it should be strengthened in such a way as to help in the proper self-expression of the feelings and emotions along with the development of proper aesthetic sense and appreciation power for both enjoying and contributing towards the enhancement of truth, goodness and beauty in and around one’s self. The acquisition of knowledge and development of skills can’t help in strengthening and refining the behavioural activities belonging to the affective domain. One can’t have a refined taste, desirable interests and attitudes, the ability to see and enjoy truth, goodness and beauty in the things, persons and events around them unless he is given opportunity for their proper development. Needless to mention, the planning and teaching of appreciation lessons may help much in this direction. Just as the knowing (cognitive) and doing (conative) aspects of students’ behaviour can be developed and shaped through the experiences provided with the help of knowledge and skill lessons, the appreciation lessons can play an effective role in the development and shaping of the feeling (affective) aspect of their behaviour. Now question may arise whether all the subjects and experiences of the school curriculum are suitable for the planning and teaching of appreciation lessons or not. The answer is very simple. When there is an expression of feelings of truth, goodness and beauty, there lies a need of feeling and realizing it and there is hardly any subject or learning experience associated with school curriculum that can be left untouched with these feelings. Therefore, although we

may have or seek opportunities for planning and teaching of appreciation lessons in almost all the subjects and areas of school curriculum, yet there lie some specific subjects and areas in the curriculum where we may very often need the services of these lessons for the effective realization of their teaching-learning objectives. For example, 1. Teaching of prose and poetry lessons in languages. 2. Teaching of the lessons on the historical development of different subjects such as mathematics, basic sciences, arts, music, computers, information technology, philosophy, psychology, and ethics. 3. Teaching of the life history of the creative artists, inventors, mathematicians, scientists, social reformers and religious leaders, saints, and great men and women. 4. Teaching of music, arts, painting and other areas of creative expression. 5. Teaching of the facts, principles and their application in the realm of nature belonging to geography, agriculture and other natural sciences. Teaching of appreciation lesson: It may be carried out by the following four orderly steps: 1. Preparation: This step may involves two subsequent phases: (i) Introduction and motivation: Here, the lesson to be taught is introduced with a clear-cut objective of making the students ready by realizing the need of studying it or feeling a somewhat curiosity for its study. For the purpose of properly introducing the lesson and motivating the students, the teacher has to take care of the following things: He must thoroughly prepare himself for the delivery of the lesson. The content material should be in his proper command

for grasping the meaning and the inherent view. In other words, a teacher should possess an appreciation and aesthetic sense for the contents of his lesson. He must have the desired knowledge of the basic potential of his students. He must prepare himself to make use of the possible creative situations, prevailing environmental surroundings, verbal illustrations, audio-visual aid material, etc. for making the students feel interested in studying the present appreciation lesson. He must try to build up an essential base for the proper grasping of the lesson taught so that the students may freely avail the opportunity of appreciating the feelings and activities. (ii) Statement of the aim: In this, the teacher is to declare or clearly state the objective of the appreciation lesson, i.e. “today we will be studying the poem ‘Jhansi Ki Rani’ composed by Shubhadra Kumari Chauhan or we will be developing an essay on the topic ‘Historical buildings built by Shahjahan.’ 2. Presentation: Here, the contents of the lesson are presented before the students. For this purpose the teacher may: Provide a model reading or recitation of a prose or poetry lesson with a clear-cut objective of communicating the feelings and emotions conveyed in the composition of this piece of literature by its writer. Demonstrate the work of art and culture through his own hands or make use of slides, transparencies, films, audio and video recording. Verbally narrate or present the written script through transparencies and other visual modes for the presentation of the contents.

Make the students to listen the composed music or witness the presentation through musical instruments in order to develop their aesthetic sense and appreciation power. For the proper presentation of his appreciation lesson, a teacher should take care of the following things: (i) He must be in a position to present the contents of his lesson quite effectively. In the case of a literary piece, he must develop the quality of its proper reading and recitation; for music the ability to sing along with playing well the musical instruments; for art and painting, the ability to draw figures and sketching along with necessary skill of painting and brushing, etc. (ii) He must try to present or portrait the contents of his application lesson in its totality and not in parts. The whole is meaningful and thereby appreciable and enjoyable. Therefore the poem, a whole unit of prose, story, picture, etc. should always be presented in their complete form instead of pieces. (iii) The appreciation lessons for realizing their aims need a properly arranged calm and quiet motivationally charged environment. For this, a teacher should take care of all the physical facilities and socio-psycho factors. 3. Contemplation and appreciation: In this step, the students are given time to think, contemplate and visualize the impacts and effects of the contents of the lessons presented to them in the second step. What lessons have they derived from the presentation of the literary piece, historical description, artistic or musical display? How can they express the things of beauty and joy inherent in this presentation? What type of feelings and emotions have been conveyed through this presentation? Such questions and themes may form a part of the discussion and exchange of views among the group of students under the supervision of the class teacher. The teacher may himself

express his views and provide suitable guidance and direction for understanding and grasping the truth, goodness and beauty of the contents of the lesson presented to them in the second step. 4. Practice and application: What the child has been presented and grasped in the second and third steps of appreciation lesson is practised and made into use by him in this fourth step. It is thus a fixing and application step of the appreciation lesson. Here the child resorts to action after appreciating and enjoying the contents of the appreciation lesson by (i) composing a poem, (ii) writing a story or action drama, (iii) writing an essay or narrating some events, (iv) drawing a picture, scenery or painting, (v) participating in role-playing or drama, (vi) engaging in the creative expression of some art and work experience, (vii) involving in nature study, and (viii) engaging and producing some creative results in the pursuit of scientific experimentation and innovations. For the successful implementation of this step, the teacher has to provide all the essential facilities and opportunities to his students for the practice and development of the abilities needed for the promotion of aesthetic sense and appreciation power in a quite democratic way. As the development or changes in behaviour with regard to their affective domain are quite individual or personal in nature, its development requires inner motivation instead of any external persuasion.

SUMMARY 1. A teacher is needed to plan the activities of his teaching related to the full academic session in order to achieve the desired success in his task. He may have three types of schemes for such planning named as yearly planning, Unit planning and Daily lesson planning. Where yearly planning is meant for the planning of the activities related to a teaching subject on the part of a teacher for the entire session, the unit

planning and daily lesson planning are respectively limited to the planning of such activities merely for the teaching of a particular unit or lesson. 2. While having unit planning a teacher first tries to divide the prescribed syllabus of his subject into some well-defined and meaningful units. These units are then properly sequenced and subjected to planning taken one at a time. For the planning of a particular unit, the work related to its teaching is divided into smaller but meaningful subunits capable of being executed within the available classroom period of 35–40 minutes. For the execution of the work now the teacher tries to formulate instructional objectives of the subunit in hand, and then plan for the teaching methods, devices and aid material for imparting learning experiences related to that subunit along with the planning for the evaluation of the learning outcomes. 3. Unit planning paves the way for daily lesson planning i.e. the planning for the instructional work on a day-to-day basis. In its practical shape, in reference to a particular subject, it is concerned with the planning of the daily lessons on the part of a subject teacher to the different grades or classes taught by him during the different days of the week. 4. The task of daily lesson planning may prove helpful to a subject teacher in a varieties of ways like helping in (i) specifying clearly the instructional objectives, (ii) providing child centred education, (iii) arousing proper interest and motivation for learning, (iv) proper selection and organization of the subject matter and learning experiences, (v) gaining mastery over the subject matter (vi) presenting subject material properly before the students, (vii) solving classroom problems (viii) the fixation of the acquired knowledge and skills, (ix) in the evaluation of learning outcomes, (x) saving the energy and time of the teacher, and (xi) the enhancement of self-

confidence. A subject teacher can make use of a number of approaches for the preparation of his daily lesson plans like Herbartian approach, Unit approach, Bloom approach, R.C.E.M. approach and Gloverian approach. 5. Herbartian approach, named after a famous educationist Herbart, is the oldest and most commonly used approach with the teacher education institutions of our country. This approach with its slight modification nowadays involves in its format a number of specific steps like: (i) identifying data, (ii) description of the aid material, (iii) stating instructional objectives in behavioural terms, (iv) describing the entry behaviour or previous knowledge of the students, (v) testing of the previous knowledge and introducing the lesson, (vi) announcement of the aim of the lesson, (vii) presentation of the lesson, (viii) recapitulation, revision or practice work, and (ix) assigning homework to the students. 6. Morrison’s or unit approach is named after a famous educationist H.C. Morrison. It lays greater emphasis on the unit method for the planning of the teaching-learning activities and that is why it is also termed as unit approach. While adopting this approach the teacher tries to present the subject material related to a particular unit at a particular time and deals with it thoroughly. There are five main steps involved in the Unit Approach of lesson planning, namely (i) exploration, (ii) presentation, (iii) assimilation, (iv) organization, and (v) recitation. 7. Evaluation approach is the outcome of the ideas propagated by B.S. Bloom. According to him education may be regarded as a tri-polar process involving educational objectives, learning experiences and evaluation devices. Evaluation approach thus involves the three main phases or steps named as (i) formation of educational objectives, (ii) providing learning experiences,

and (iii) evaluating the learning outcomes. Nowadays Bloom’s approach (with a little modification) involves six steps for the lesson planning, namely (i) content or teaching points, (ii) objectives and their specifications, (iii) teacher’s activities, (iv) students’ activities, (v) teaching aids, and (vi) evaluation. 8. R.C.E.M. approach to lesson planning has been developed at Regional College of Education, Mysore. In all three steps, namely expected behaviour outcomes (EBOS), communication strategy and real learning outcomes (RLOS) are involved in this approach. These aspects in fact, resemble the introduction, presentation and evaluation phases of traditional lesson plan. The first step is concerned with the identification and specification of the educational objectives and identification of the entry behaviours of the students. The second step is concerned with the communication or interaction process of the classroom and the third step is concerned with the assessment of the actual outcomes. 9. Gloverian approach to lesson planning owes its origin and propagation to A.H.T. Glover. In contrast to the traditional Herbartian approach it lays emphasis on the student activities and initiatives rather than putting all responsibilities on the shoulders of the teacher. For this purpose it proposes a four step learner centered approach to lesson planning named as (i) questioning, (ii) discussion, (iii) investigation, and (iv) expression or pupil activity. 10. We may classify the lesson planned or taught into three distinct categories namely knowledge lessons, skill lessons and appreciations lessons. The knowledge lessons are those lesson planned by a teacher in his subject that lay more emphasis on bringing changes in the cognitive domain of the behaviour of the students. As a result these lesson may help the students in the acquisition of knowledge and understanding

about the facts, principles and processes related to the contents of a particular subject. In the planning of these lessons we may take the help of Herbartian, unit, evaluation, R.C.E.M. or Gloverian approach according to our need and convenience. The skill lessons belong to that category of lessons that lay more emphasis on the acquisition of skills (bringing desirable changes in the conative domain of the behaviour). Teaching of skill lesson may be carried out by following the four orderly steps, namely (i) preparation (involving two phases: (a) introduction and (b) statement of the aim, (ii) presentation, (iii) practice and (iv) application. The appreciation lessons belong to that category of lessons which lay more emphasis on the development of aesthetic sense and appreciation power of the students (bringing desirable changes in the affective domain of the behaviour) in place of acquisition of knowledge or skills. Teaching of appreciation lessons involves four orderly steps named as (i) preparation (involving two phases: (a) introduction and (b) statement of the aim, (ii) presentation, (iii) contemplation and appreciation, and (iv) practice and application.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is yearly planning? How is it executed? 2. What is unit planning? How can it be performed by a teacher in relation to the subject taught by him? Illustrate with example. 3. What is lesson planning? How does it differ from unit planning? Discuss. 4. What do you mean by lesson planning? Discuss its need and importance. 5. Discuss the various principles of lesson planning.

6. Throw light on the criteria or characteristics of an effective lesson planning. 7. What are the different approaches to lesson planning? Discuss one of them in detail. 8. Discuss the Herbartian approach to lesson planning. Give its merits and shortcomings. 9. Develop a model lesson plan based on the Herbartian approach by selecting a suitable topic from the high school curricular areas. 10. Discuss the RCEM approach to lesson planning by illustrating its adoption through a suitable example. 11. Discuss the Gloverian approach to lesson planning along with its procedural steps. 12. What are skill lessons? Discuss their importance along with the various steps employed in their planning and teaching. 13. What are appreciation lessons? Discuss their significance along with the various steps employed for their planning and teaching.

REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED READINGS Bloom, B.S., All Our Children Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. Butt, Graham, Lesson Planning (2nd ed.), London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006. Good Carter V., Dictionary of Education, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. Henak, Richard M., Lesson Planning for Meaningful Variety in Teaching, Washington: National Education Association, 1980. Jalongo, Mary Renck, Planning for Learning: Collaborative Approaches to Lesson Design and Review, New York: Teachers

College Press, Columbia University, 2007. Jeffries, Derwinj, Lesson Planning and Lesson Teaching, Titusville: Home and School Press, 1966. John, Peter D., Lesson Planning for Teachers, London/New York: Cassell Educational, 1993. Morrison, H.C., The Practice of Teaching in the Schools, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Nerbovig, Marcella Hannah, Unit Planning: A Model for Curriculum Development, Worthwington, Ohio: C.A. Jones, Publishing Co., 1970. Plains, White, Lesson Planning (video recording), New York: Longman, 1992. Quillen, I.J. and Lavone, Hanna, Education for Social Competence, Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1961. Richey, R.W., Planning for Teaching, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952. Serdyukov, Peter and Mark, Ryan, Writing Effective Lesson Plans: The 5-Star Approach, New York: Allyn & Bacon, 2007. Skowron, Janice, Powerful Lesson Planning: Every Teacher’s Guide to Effective Instruction, Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, 2006. Verma, K.K., A First Course in Teacher Education: General Methods of Teaching, Allahabad: The Indian Press Ltd., 1957.

27 Team Teaching CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Origin and Growth Meaning and Definitions Objectives The Guiding Principles Organization, Procedure and Steps Advantages Drawbacks and Limitations Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Team teaching, as the name suggests, signifies the teaching work and activities organized by a team of individuals comprising teachers, resource persons, clerical staff and other employees. Although quite popular and prevalent in the western world, it is relatively a new concept in our country. We can term it as an innovation in the field of teaching and learning. In a simple way, it may be understood as an attempt to seek ways and means for bringing improvement in the process and product of teaching through

collective efforts by a group of individuals, mostly teachers teaching in the same school. Let us see what it is and how can it be best utilized for achieving its desired objective.

Origin and Growth It is difficult to pinpoint the exact origin of the new concept of team teaching in terms of the time, country or the personality responsible for its invention. However, it is true that the concept got its emergence around 1950. As a matter of historical interest, the Harvard University was the first to put forth a plan known as internship plan in 1955. In this plan, five teacher trainees were required to work simultaneously under the leadership of an experienced teacher. The second known project in this field along the line projected by the Harvard University was started in Lexington (1957–64). Then came the turn of the Chicago University where Francis Chase emphasized and worked for the development of a system of team teaching for the effective utilization of the best teachers. Another mentionable American personality of the mid 1960s was J. Leyod Trump, Director of the Commission of the Experimental Study of the Utilization of Staff in Secondary School, who contributed significantly in the growth of this concept. The concept gradually became so popular that it not only confined to the training of teachers or imparting effective instructions in the schools but also started to be used in the training of armed forces. From U.S.A. this concept got transferred to England and up to 1965 it was in proper progress in the schools and colleges of U.K. In the late 1970s, an educationist from this country, named Joseph Lancaster came into limelight for developing a monitorial system of instruction in the field of team teaching. In this system, a teacher, master in his subject, was supposed to teach a few monitors, the bright students who in turn worked as a team to teach what they had learnt to their fellow students. In this way, the concept of team

teaching reached its peak in the seventies in most parts of the western world. However, it took enough time to reach our country. Even up to this time it has only a theoretical value and is still not known by many of the pupil teachers trained in our universities and colleges of education.

Meaning and Definitions Several scholars have defined the term team teaching in various ways. Let us reproduce some of them. R.A. Singer (1964): Team teaching may be defined “as an arrangement whereby two or more teachers cooperatively plan, teach and evaluate one or more class groups in an appropriate and agreed teaching plan and is given length of time so as to take advantage of specific competencies of the team members.” Carlo-Olson (1971): Team teaching may be defined as “an instructional situation where two or more teachers possessing complimentary teaching skills cooperatively plan and implement the instruction for a single group of students using flexible scheduling and grouping technique to meet the particular instruction.” (S.S. Chauhan, 1979:114). J.T. Shaplin (1964): “Team teaching has been defined as a type of instructional organization involving teaching personnel and the students assigned to them, in which two or more teachers are given responsibility or working together, for all or a significant part of the instruction of the same group of students.” (Usha Rao, 1977:168). David Warwick (1971:35): Team teaching represents “a form of organization in which individual teachers declared to pool resources, interests and expertise in order to devise and implement a scheme

of work suitable to the needs of their students and the facilities of the institution.” S.G. Callahan (1971): “Team teaching is that teaching-learning process where two or more teachers cooperatively formulate a plan carry it out, evaluate its effectiveness as it relates to a specific group of students.” (Usha Rao, 1977:168). H.M. La Fauci and P.E. Richer (1970:42): “Team teaching is an organizational device which makes a number of individuals cooperatively engaged in some relevant instructional activities for achieving the common educational objectives. This concept carries the belief that the objectives are best achieved through organized cooperative efforts in comparison to unrelated individual efforts.” M. Haridwar (1986:67): “Team teaching is that organized form of the teaching structure in which two or more teachers cooperatively teach a particular subject or topic to a group of students.” The analysis of the above definitions brings into limelight the following characteristics of team teaching: 1. Team teaching is not a method of teaching but an organizational device to plan, execute and evaluate the teaching work in a cooperative way. 2. It represents an arrangement of teaching-learning situation where two more teachers join hands for achieving the desired teaching-learning objectives. 3. The teaching team consists of not only the teachers, but other personnel also such as laboratory assistant, librarian, clerk, expert from the relevant field, and researchers, who may join hands to help the teachers in their tasks. 4. Team teaching works on the principles of joint responsibility shared by the members of the team.

5. It is called cooperative teaching calling for the full willing cooperation of the members. Here their joint efforts are more important than the total individual efforts made by individual members in an unrelated way. 6. While calling for the joint responsibility and combined efforts, it provides full opportunity to the individual member of the team to contribute its maximum according to his interest, ability and needs of the situation. 7. Here, every teacher is provided appropriate time and opportunity for utilizing his specific talent and competencies for teaching a topic or content to a group of students. 8. It helps the students in getting the best services of the best talent of the team members at the proper time. 9. It provides flexibility in terms of scheduling and grouping techniques to meet the need of a particular instruction. Accordingly, it may allow the formation of student groups in varying sizes, i.e. large group class, small group discussion and individual study. 10. It calls upon the members to work hard for bringing improvement in the teaching-learning process. 11. It inspires and motivates the individual teacher to improve his knowledge and skills for contributing his share in the teamwork. 12. Team teaching provides autonomy and freedom to the members of the team to choose their teaching activities and responsibilities according to their interest and abilities. 13. It helps in utilizing the available resources—human and material—in a proper way and at the proper time in the interest of the students and institution. 14. The need and interest of the students are fully cared in the joint responsibilities shared by the teachers. 15. Here, the students are owned by all the members of the team and not only by an individual teacher.

Thus, we can think about team teaching as an innovation in the field of teaching and learning, aiming to improve its process and products by calling upon the joint cooperative efforts of a team of the personnel (teachers and others) by utilizing the resources available in a given teaching-learning situation, at the proper time and in a proper way.

Objectives Team teaching is generally directed to achieve the following objectives: 1. To bring improvement in the quality of instruction by making the best use of the available resources. 2. To develop a feeling of joint responsibility of instruction. 3. To make best utilization of the talents, interests, and expertise of the teachers. 4. To provide better organization of the teaching-learning by increasing grouping and scheduling flexibility. 5. To provide opportunity to a specific large or small group of students to take advantage of the specifically talented, experienced and more expert teachers, otherwise not available to them. 6. To meet the needs and interests of the students and institutions and removing their difficulties relating to the teaching-learning of some specific contents or activities. 7. To minimize the wastage and errors occurred in the instructional process.

The Guiding principles Team teaching for a particular teaching subject is organized under the following basic principles:

1. Principle of pooling the resources Team teaching is based on pooling and best utilizing the available resources and expertise in the field of teaching.

2. Principle of joint responsibility and cooperation Team teaching is organized to teach a specific group of students by a team of personnel headed by a leader. It requires that all the members of the team share joint responsibilities and work together for achieving the ends.

3. Principle of attending the needs of the students Team teaching is organized according to the interests, abilities and needs of the learners. Since a team as a whole shares the teaching task in it, it provides better opportunities to take care of the difficulties and needs of the individual students.

4. Principle of flexibility in terms of grouping and scheduling Team teaching requires adequate flexibility in terms of grouping of the students in the form of large classes, small group or study at the individual level. It also needs flexibility with regard to time factors and scheduling. Here, the time needs to be adjusted according to the requirements of the teaching-learning situation.

5. Principle of appropriate selection of the team members Team teaching requires joint responsibility and such responsibility can only be undertaken properly if the members of the team are

selected judiciously according to the needs of the instruction.

6. Principle of willingness and appropriate distribution of the responsibilities The team members should distribute duties among themselves properly for the realization of the set objectives. However, nothing should be thrust upon them by the head of the institution or the team leader. They should willingly come forward or be persuaded for sharing their responsibilities according to their abilities, experiences and needs of the situation.

7. Principle of appropriate teaching-learning environment Team teaching for its success needs appropriate teaching-learning environment. Here, nothing should be left for chance and the leader along with the members of the team should try hard for achieving appropriate teaching-learning environment, in terms of the readiness of the teachers to learn, members to work, arrangement of the proper material facilities and resources, suitable non-distracting environment, etc.

8. Principle of appropriate supervision and evaluation The team teaching activities require constant supervision and evaluation. This may be in the form of self-evaluation and check on the ongoing activities by the individual members or the leader can take up the task. Similarly, the learners should also be engaged in the task of supervised study, drillwork, homework and other activities for the needed practice, revision and evaluation of the learning.

Types of Team Teaching

Team teaching can be organized in various forms and styles. The common are the following:

1. Single disciplinary team teaching In this type, the members of the team belong to the same institution and also from the same discipline or subject. For example, the mathematics teacher teaching high school classes may form a team for the teaching of mathematics to a particular high school class. Here, every member of the team is allowed to teach that very branch, topic or content of the subject that can best be handled by him.

2. Interdisciplinary team teaching Here, the teachers from different disciplines, but working in the same institution, join hands to take responsibility of teaching the topics belonging to their own discipline. This type of team teaching suits most to the teaching of the interdisciplinary subjects. For example, in the teaching of some foundation course that includes the topics from various disciplines such as, economics, geography, civics, and history different teachers of the same institution belonging to these disciplines/subjects may form a team.

3. Inter-institutional team teaching In this type of team teaching, the members are not confined to the same institution. Here, we can call the services of any talented teacher, expert, etc. from any institution/public life for dealing with some or the other specialized field, topic, work activity, content material, etc., and in this way we can ask him to contribute in the capacity of the members of the team for a specific period, to teach a particular group of students.

Organization, procedure and steps Team teaching is carried out in a cooperative way by a team of persons. Every team has its leader and one or more cooperating teachers. Besides, this the team may have a clerk, a librarian, a laboratory assistant and other full time or part time professional for the desired help according to the needs of the teaching-learning situation. In terms of procedure, team teaching usually involves three main stages or steps: (i) planning, (ii) execution, and (iii) evaluation.

Planning stage At the planning stage, team teaching involves the following activities: 1. Decision about the topic to be taught. 2. Formulating the objectives and writing them in behavioural terms. 3. Identifying the initial behaviour of the learner. 4. Identifying the available men and material resources. 5. Selection of the members of team teaching, teachers, team leaders, and other professional and non-professional helping hands. 6. Taking decision about the tentative schedule, larger or small group teaching, the level of instruction and teaching strategies, etc. 7. Distributing responsibilities among the members of the team according to their interest and abilities. 8. Taking decision about the means and ways of evaluating the learning outcomes.

Execution stage

What is planned by the leader of the team with the active cooperation of other members at the planning stage is put to work at the execution stage. Here the actual teaching-learning activities are carried out by the members in the following three subsequent sessions:

1. Large group session (general assembly) In the beginning, the students are taught in a large group. Two or three sections of a class may be combined to form a large group. This group is taught by the most competent and expert teacher among the members of the team. All other members then provide the essential cooperation in his task. For example, one may provide some additional points or information, the others may show the map, draw summary on the blackboard, demonstrate some experiments, give examples, etc. as needed most. The maintenance of discipline also may be left to some cooperative teachers. The students are to listen to the lecture or observe what is demonstrated to them by the teacher. They are also free to ask question and discuss the matter taught and points raised by the teacher. Here other teachers play their part to help the main teacher in providing appropriate answers to the questions of the students.

2. Small group session After the general assembly, the students are divided into small groups. These groups work under the supervision of the individual teachers. Here, the teacher tries to discuss with the learners the common difficulties faced by them in understanding the material taught in the general assembly session. He may explain, illustrate, demonstrate and provide opportunities to them for doing experiments or other activities in the small groups.

3. Individual study session

Following the activities in large group or small group sessions, as discussed, the students are able to engage in self-study and do independent work on the individual level. Now they can go in library for independent reading, in laboratory for independent experimentation or in other work places for doing practical work. They can have drill and practice work or adopt other resources for self-study. Here, the teachers and other members of the team have a big responsibility of supervising, guiding and directing the students on the right path. They have to remove their individual difficulties and suggest ways and means for their progress according to their interests and abilities.

Evaluation Stage At the evaluation stage of team teaching, attempts are made for the evaluation of the progress and outcomes of the activities performed. The outcomes are subjected to evaluation in the light of the set objectives, the learner’s initial behaviour, the methods and strategies, planning, the responsibilities shared by the team members, etc. The evaluation of the student’s performance is done through oral, written and practical tests. Their sessional practice and homework also is evaluated from time to time for providing comprehensive picture of their learning outcomes as a result of team teaching. In the light of all such evaluation works, attempts are made to incorporate necessary modifications and improvements in the organization of team teaching programmes in the institution.

Advantages Team teaching as an organizational device has the following things on its credit side:

1. Best utilization of the available talents

Team teaching provides opportunities for the best utilization of the talents and expertise of the experienced and devoted teachers in their respective fields. Here the teachers discharge their responsibilities according to their own interests and abilities, hence they can play their role quite effectively and efficiently. In this way, the learners are greatly benefited for the different teaching-learning situations.

2. Best utilization of the available material resources In usual teaching, a teacher finds it difficult to take full advantages of the available material resources, but in team teaching he can get help from the members for the proper utilization of the available resources as some may render help in the utilization of audio-visual aids, some may help in maintaining discipline and others may note the difficulties of the learners and answer them at the proper time. In such a cooperative situation, it becomes quite easy for the teacher for attaining the set objectives.

3. Provides opportunities for professional growth Team teaching provides challenge and opportunities to the teachers for their proper professional growth. Here, the young and less experienced teachers get opportunities to work with the experienced and talented ones. They learn many things about their subjects and teaching skills. In addition, all the team members have to prepare themselves in a proper way for discharging their responsibilities. Thus, attaining perfection in terms of knowledge and teaching competencies.

4. Provides better learning opportunities Team teaching helps in getting better learning opportunities to the students in comparison to the traditional teaching. Here, they are

provided proper opportunities for raising questions, getting their difficulties solved and having free discussion on the topics of their interests from the best teachers. They get large exposure in the general assembly and have proper time and attention from their teachers in the smaller group discussions and self-study sessions. All this helps in removing their common and individual difficulties and provides them a stimulating the learning environment, suiting to their own needs and pace of learning.

5. Provides opportunities for interaction with the experts Both the teachers and the learners get opportunities to interact with the experts in a subject or a specialized field. It not only gives them a useful exposure in terms of learning so many new and specialized things but also provides due inspiration and motivation for reaching at the top in the field of learning, instruction and research.

6. Helps in maintaining proper human relationships and cooperative attitude Team teaching works on the principle of cooperation and shared responsibility. It makes the members of the team to come near to each other, understand the likings and competencies one another and develop sweet and cordial relations among themselves. Their cooperative attitude, helping nature and team spirit make the students to imbibe such things quite automatically and, in this way, team teaching helps in achieving a very important goal of education, namely helping the children in their proper social development.

7. Provides economical in terms of time and labour

Team teaching helps in reducing the level of anxiety in the individual teachers by assuring cooperation from the members for achieving the desired objectives. It helps in reducing the labour of the individual teacher. It also proves economical in the sense, that a large group having more than 200 or 300 students can be successfully taught by a single expert teacher at a time with the help of suitable communication aids and cooperating team members.

8. Provides proper flexibility Team teaching proves quite flexible in terms of scheduling and grouping techniques to meet the need of a particular teachinglearning situation. Accordingly, the learners may be taught in large and small groups or alone as individuals. Here, the timetable is never rigid.

9. Helps in maintaining discipline Team teaching is carried out by members of the team in a cooperative way. There are many teachers and other professional and non-professional assistants present in the teaching-learning situation who can share different responsibilities. Hence, the maintenance of discipline is not left to a single teacher only as happens in the traditional classroom teaching. The students get proper help, guidance and direction from the members. There is enough scope for the application of the principle of change and variety in the teaching-learning process. The teaching is done in accordance with the needs and interests of the learners. Care is to be taken for the arrangement and proper utilization of the material resources in terms of building, seating arrangement, proper ventilation, light and display of audio-visual aids.

10. Provides opportunities for proper supervision

There are a number of teachers and other personnel involved in team teaching. Therefore, there is no difficulty in having a quite planned scheme for the supervision of the independent and selfstudy made by the individual students. Their drill and practice work, homework and assignments, laboratory and other practical work can never go unsupervised and unchecked in team teaching as may be possible in the traditional teaching due to heavy load of work.

11. Provides an effective training technique Team teaching may prove a good and effective technique for the training of would be teachers. Here, only one or many student teachers can work under the leadership of an expert or an experienced teacher for learning the art and technique of the teaching profession. The practice is similar as adopted in medical colleges, where a number of medical students doing internship or engaged in M.D. or M.S. studies acquire valuable practical knowledge of their profession while working with a senior doctor.

Drawbacks and Limitations Team teaching suffers from the following serious drawbacks and limitations:

1. Difficulty in the distribution of the responsibilities Proper sharing of responsibilities is required on the part of the term members. For this purpose, the members should willingly come forward. However, it is seen that members try to avoid or hesitate to share the responsibilities, as a result, the task or distribution of the responsibilities is left entirely to the team leader who feels a lot of difficulty in choosing the proper persons for the particular tasks and then persuading them to take over the assigned responsibilities.

2. Difficulty in maintaining harmony and understanding Team teaching requires proper understanding and cooperation among the members. The goal is to achieve the set objectives and, for this purpose, every member should have proper team spirit and a positive attitude towards the assigned work. There is also a need of doing away with their ego, hesitation, inferiority complex, etc. for working for the common cause. The teachers with the required attitude are hardly available and, consequently, it will become difficult to maintain proper coordination and harmony among the members for getting desired success through team teaching.

3. Too much expectations from the teachers Team teaching for its success demands a lot from the teachers. Every teacher should have a thorough knowledge of the subject along with the necessary skills to handle small group discussions, individualized study and many other experimental and project works. Such competent teachers with complete willingness and positive attitude towards team teaching are hardly available.

4. Undue importance of the teachers at the cost of the learners The entire scene of the team teaching is dominated by a team of the teachers. The activities concerning planning, execution and evaluation are entirely teacher’s task and thus, the learners are given an insignificant role in the teaching-learning process.

5. Difficulty regarding lack of material facilities in schools The organization of team teaching requires proper space and material facilities in the terms of a big hall, large rooms, furniture,

laboratory, library, workshops, teaching aids and communication equipment. Lack of these material facilities proves a big obstacle for the success of the team teaching.

6. Not suitable to the present educational set-up Team teaching for the required effectiveness necessarily demands some changes in the existing school organization, selection and appointment of teachers, school’s curriculum, system of evaluation, etc. which is not an easy work.

7. Teachers’ resistance for any change Team teaching is a new thing for our teachers. Most of them live in a world of inertia and do not want to change the mode of traditional teaching. So, team teaching for its success requires a change in the attitude and philosophy of the teachers. It also requires from them to learn the art and skill of team teaching. In the absence of these requirements, it is difficult to adopt team teaching in our schools.

8. Expensive in terms of finances Team teaching requires more facilities in the form of space, material and equipment in comparison to traditional teaching. Our schools, where it is difficult to have even sheds and blackboards for all the classes, we can’t expect to arrange for the finances involved in making arrangement for the needed men and material facilities.

9. Limitation in terms of planning and execution Team teaching requires quite appropriate planning and its execution. The planning itself is not a simple task. It needs full cooperation of the team members and planning skill of the leader. Such type of cooperation is hardly available to the leader. If he himself is lacking in the required planning skill, team teaching cannot be organized in a

proper way. At the execution stage, the members must feel the responsibility of sharing the planned activities. However, practically it is seen that the team members, instead of sharing their responsibilities with full sincerity, begin to blame each other and quarrel for very petty things.

10. Lack of accountability In the traditional teaching, a teacher teaches a subject to a particular class or classes and he is accountable for the results and progress of the students belonging to this class in his subject. However, in team teaching it is not the individual but the whole team who is accountable for this. It can make the individual teachers quite careless and irresponsible towards exercising his teaching duties as he can blame other members of the team for any failure. In this way, team teaching has almost equal points on its credit and debit sides. However careful scrutiny of its defects and limitations may reveal that the defects do not lie within the innovation itself. It reflects the natural tendencies and work habits already prevalent in our teachers and education system. There is nothing bad in adopting a good practice for improving our school teaching. Team teaching provides a way and it is our duty to experiment it with full understanding and determination. The beginning can be made with our colleges of education where we can equip the pupil teachers for the effective organization of team teaching. In addition, to this we must have desired research work for carrying out necessary modifications in the basic philosophy and organizational procedure of team teaching as to suit the requirements of our students and schools.

SUMMARY

1. Team teaching, as the name suggests, is a type of teaching in which a number of teachers and other personnel of the school work as a team for providing instruction to a group of students by utilizing the resources available in a given teachinglearning situation at the proper time in a proper way. 2. Team teaching aims for (i) seeking cooperation of all the members of a subject faculty and other personnel in the instructional work, (ii) developing feelings of joint responsibility towards the students, (iii) proper realization of the teaching objectives of a particular school subject by making best use of the available men-material resources, (iv) removing some of the difficulties and problems of the teaching of a particular subject faced on account of the paucity of resources, and (v) minimizing the wastage and errors occurring in the instructional process. 3. Team teaching in the teaching of a particular school subject is to be organized by keeping certain basic principles in mind like (i) principle of pooling the resources, (ii) principle of joint responsibility and cooperation, (iii) principle of attending the needs of the students, (iv) principle of flexibility in terms of grouping and scheduling, (v) principle of appropriate selection of the team members, (vi) principle of willingness and appropriate distribution of the responsibilities, (vii) principle of appropriate teaching-learning environment, and (viii) principle of appropriate supervision and evaluation. 4. Team teaching with regard to the teaching of a particular school subject can be organized in a number of forms and styles like (i) single disciplinary team teaching (consisting of the members of the faculty of the particular teaching subject only), (ii) inter-disciplinary team teaching (incorporating also the members and personnel from other faculties of the school, and (iii) inter-institutional team teaching (incorporating

teachers and other personnel from other schools along with one’s own in the team). 5. The task of team teaching in reference to teaching of a particular school subject can be organized by following the steps like (i) planning for the team teaching, (ii) execution of the team teaching task, and (iii) follow-up or evaluation of team teaching activities. 6. Team teaching with regard to the teaching of a particular school subject can be found helpful in gaining the advantages like (i) best utilization of the available talent, (ii) best utilization of the available material resources, (iii) providing opportunity to the teachers for their professional growth, (iv) providing better learning opportunities to the learners, (v) providing opportunities for interaction with the experts, (vi) helping in maintaining proper human relationships and cooperative attitude, (vii) proving economical in terms of time and labour, (viii) providing proper flexibility, (ix) helping in maintaining proper discipline, and (x) providing opportunities for proper supervision. 7. Team teaching with regard to the teaching of a particular school subject may also be found to possess the limitations and drawbacks like (i) difficulty in the distribution of responsibilities, (ii) difficulty in maintaining harmony and understanding, (iii) too much expectations from the teachers, (iv) undue importance to the teachers at the cost of the learners, (v) difficulty regarding lack of material facilities in schools, vi) not suitable to the present educational setup, (vii) teachers’ resistance for change, (viii) expensive in terms of finances, (ix) limitation in terms of planning and execution, and (x) lack of accountability on the part of the team members.

8. In spite of its suffering from some limitations and difficulties, team teaching may play a quite effective role in the teaching and learning of a number of subjects of the school curriculum particularly the subjects of multidisciplinary nature. For example, in the subject social studies the content material, the valuable learning experiences and topics of study are drawn from the various disciplines of social sciences like history, geography, civics, economics, political science, etc. We cannot expect from a single teacher to have proper mastery over the subject material of all these disciplines and here the team teaching approach can prove a valuable substitute or supplement to the traditional classroom teaching in the teaching and learning of the subjects of multidisciplinary nature.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by team teaching? Define its main characteristics. 2. What are the main objectives and purposes of team teaching? Discuss. 3. Discuss the objectives and various types of team teaching in relation to teaching of a particular subject of the school curriculum. 4. Discuss, in detail, the organizational procedure of team teaching by pointing out the main steps involved. 5. Discuss the main advantages of team teaching with reference to the teaching of a school subject. 6. Team teaching is criticized on account of its various drawbacks and limitations. What are these? How far do you agree with the criticism? Comment.

7. How can team teaching be carried out in our schools? Discuss in the light of its organizational procedure and practicability.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Buckley, Francis J., Team Teaching: What, Why and How? Thousand Oaks, Cal.: Sage, 2000. Beggs, David, W. (Ed.), Team Teaching, Bold New Ventures, Indiana: Unified College Press, 1964 Callahan, S.G. (1971), Successful Teaching in Secondary Schools, Usha Rao in Educational Technology, Bombay: Himalaya Publishing House, 1977. Carlo, Olson, quoted by S.S. Chauhan in Innovations in TeachingLearning Process, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1979. Chamberlin, Lesliej, Team Teaching—Organisation Administration, Columbus: C.E. Merrill Publishing, 1969.

and

Chase, Betty N., Team up for Better Teaching, Cincennati: Standard Publishers, 1977. Glenda, Hanslovsky, Why Team Teaching? Columbus: C.E. Merrill, Publishing, 1969. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. Haridwar, M., Team Teaching in Shiksha Tachniki Visheshank, vol. 2, Sahitya Parichya, March– May, 1986, pp. 62–70. De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. La Fauci, H.M. and P.E. Richter, Team Teaching at the College Level, New York: Programme Press, 1970. Polos, Nicholos C., The Dynamics of Team Teaching, Dobuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown, 1965.

Shaplin, Judson T. and Henry F. Olds Jr. (Eds) Team teaching, quoted by Usha Rao in Educational Technology, Bombay: Himalaya Publishing House, 1977. Singer, I.R.A., J., “What team teaching is”? in Team Teaching, Bold New Ventures, Beggs, David, W. (Ed.), Indiana: Unified College Press, 1964. Warwik, David, Team Teaching, London: University of London Press, 1971.

28 Audio-Tutorial System, Language Laboratory and Teleconferencing CHAPTER OUTLINE Audio-Tutorial System Language Laboratory Teleconferencing Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Audio-Tutorial System The audio-tutorial system, as it stands today, owes its origin to the ideas propagated by an American educationist S.N. Postlethwait. According to him, learning is an activity performed by an individual and not something done to an individual. It means that a learner learns by himself through his own efforts and the teacher merely facilities or provides necessary assistance for such learning. However, such assistance must be provided truly in the shape of a tutorial system. The teacher in the role of tutor should provide a situation quite conductive to his students’ learning by providing the needed direction, facilities and motivation. Such assistance can be

properly programmed on the audiotape. The tutorial system carried out through such audio-tapes is named as audio-tutorial system in the field of teaching-learning. Postlethwait started the so-called audio-tutorial system in 1961 by introducing supplementary lectures on audiotape to provide an opportunity for his biology students with poor backgrounds to keep up with their classes. Thus, the first tapes employed in this system were supplemental lectures. But soon the nature of these tapes was changed into an audio-programming of a variety of learning experiences. Initially, these tapes were accompanied only with certain types of diagrams and photographs, but Postlethwait soon realized that other learning material could also be included. It led naturally to the inclusion of whole experiments and a variety of activities liable to be conducted under the guidance of the audiotape programme. Gradually, he developed a weekly learning kit in the shape of an audio-tutorial programme for enabling the students to do the full range of study for a week without attending any of the formal sessions for the course. The effectiveness of this programme was verified through an experimental study. Postlethwait took two groups of the students for his study as (i) control group, and (ii) experimental group. While the control group was taught through conventional means, the experimental group received all its instruction programmed by an audiotape. The students of the experimental group met their instructor only once in a week for discussion sessions. Both the groups, were then subjected to the same examination. The results showed that their performance was substantially the same, clearly demonstrating that an audioprogrammed course was just as effective as the conventional lecture course. By getting encouragement from such experiments, Postlethwait alongwith his associates (1972) went on formulizing his system of teaching-learning by introducing it on a much larger scale. He laid down necessary ingredients for the adoption of such an approach

along with the procedural activities/basic study session, etc. needed for carrying out the teaching-learning activities through his audiotutorial system. Before discussing these things, let us define the audio-tutorial system propagated by Postlethwait in some simple but specific terminology.

Definition On the basis of the origin and development and the inherent philosophy of the audio-tutorial system we can define the term in the following manner: Audio-tutorial system stands for a system or teaching-learning strategy in which well planned instructions carrying appropriate learning experiences and specially assigned activities are provided to the learners on the audiotapes for being followed by them according to their own pace and requirements within a specific duration of time occasionally helped by an instructor available on the study centre with an eye of achieving maximum teaching-learning output.

Necessary Ingredients of the Audio-Tutorial Approach According to Postlethwait and his associates (1972), the following are the major ingredients for adopting the audio-tutorial approach in a given teaching-learning situation: 1. Repetition 2. Concentration 3. Association, in the form of a coherently structured system 4. The use of units adapting to the individual student needs 5. Provision of appropriate experiences relevant to the course objectives 6. Multiplicity of approaches to accommodate the different degrees of receptivity of students

7. The use of an integration-experiences approach, with each activity supplementing previous experiences, resulting in greater total achievement.

Study Sessions There are three basic study sessions usually associated with the teaching-learning carried out in an audio-tutorial system: 1. Independent study session (ISS) 2. General assembly session (GAS) 3. Small assembly session (SAS), including integrated quiz session (IQS).

Independent study session (ISS) In this session, the instructions related to the course units (lying on the audiotapes) are followed by the learners as a part of their independent study in the learning/study centres. In these centres, booths are provided for the individual independent study. These booths are equipped with a tape recorder and a movie projector together with the materials appropriate for the assigned work. They may also have a central table for keeping bulky materials–books, references, expensive equipment, etc. for helping the learners. On entering the study centre, the students are assigned specific booth by using a record card. A time card is also filled in by each learner for indicating the precise time of arrival and departure. Each learner is then provided with a set of behavioural objectives for the week’s work. A learner thus begins his session of independent study by carefully studying these objectives and listening to the introductory remarks recorded in the audiotape. Followed by these remarks, the learners may be engaged in consulting study guide and other study material. They may again hear the tape and go through a systematic and relevant study of a particular section of the guide, study material, etc. or engage in one or the other practical/experimental activities for

acquiring necessary learning experiences related to the assigned task/learning course. In carrying out their independent studies, students may be required to undertake a number of activities such as reading journal articles, consulting reference books, encyclopedias or viewing a movie either at the central location or in their own individual study booths. However, most of the time the students are required to go through the relevant pages of the study guide and study material meant for acquiring the required learning experiences related to certain experimental or practical activities or solving a number of problems from a standard text. During such independent study, they may be helped by an instructor on duty for giving individual assistance when necessary. Proper arrangement also is made in these study centres for helping the students relax, take refreshment and discuss work with other students.

General assembly session (GAS) This session is open for all the students associated with the teachinglearning of the week’s work/unit of a learning course. Usually, it is scheduled near the end of the week’s work. In this session, the students are exposed to the views of guest lectures, films, computer presentations, etc. for throwing light on the various issues related to the week’s work assigned to the students for their independent study. They are given opportunities for discussing their individual problems, expressing their views and consulting each other for helping them in their independent study of the week’s assignment. This session may also be utilized for holding test/examination to evaluate the learning outcomes of the independent study session. The attendance, however, is not made compulsory in this session, the students attend the session for their own benefits.

Small assembly session (SAS)

A group of 7 or 8 students assembled in the study centre regularly for interaction with themselves and also with the course instructor is known by the term small assembly session. Such sessions are usually held as a matter of follow-up work carried out in the independent study sessions. Here both the individual and the group guidance may be available to them through the resources available with the course instructor. He may arrange for a lively discussion on the learning units of the course covered in the independent study sessions. The students may deliver short lectures or respond to oral quiz on the subject matter and issues related to their previous independent sessions. The most important feature of the delivery of such lectures or response to quiz items lies in the proposition that all the members of this group must be ready to give an account of any part of the work carried out in an independent study session. It is based on the simple notion that one really learns a subject better when he is subjected to respond orally on the quiz items (specially prepared to test the comprehension of the subject) or is required to teach it. Following such lecturing on the part of the group members or responses to the oral quiz, written test also may be administrated to the group usually consisting of the small number of items and lasting about 15 to 20 minutes. In this way, the small assembly session may be utilized for filling up the gap in the study left through the independent study session and for providing desirable opportunities for fixing up the knowledge and understanding related to the learning experiences gained. Thus, with the help of the above activities, the students may be helped in acquiring the desired learning experiences related to one or the other units of their prescribed courses.

Advantages and Merits A number of researchers have tested the utility and effectiveness of audio-tutorial system as a method of instruction. In the light of the

findings of these studies, we may summarize the utility and merits of this system in the following way: 1. The audio-tutorial system is no less effective than the usual classroom instruction provided through lecture method. The student achievement on written examinations with audiotutorial instruction nearly always equals and usually exceeds that obtained with the conventional method. 2. It can help the learners work independently and proceed on the path of learning with their own pace. 3. It proves a better means of providing learner-based and individually tailored education through the distance education mode. One receives instructions through audiotape for proceeding on the learning path in this system. It may suit the requirements of so many learners who can’t afford attending regular classes. 4. It suits the ability and needs of all types of learners—low and average students—and may also help the brighter students move more rapidly through the course. 5. Economically also, this system is more advantageous to both the students and the educational authorities in comparison to the conventional mode of classroom teaching.

Demerits and Limitations The audio-tutorial system suffers from the following drawbacks and limitations: 1. The instructions provided through the audio-tutorial system rest on the utilization of only one sense, i.e. the sense of hearing. The strong impact of the actual presence and interaction of the teacher with the student for moulding their behaviour and personality is not possible in such type of instructions.

2. The freedom provided to the learners for learning with their own pace through their interaction with the lessons or instructions carried out in the audio-tapes may prove costly to the children who are less conscious of their responsibilities or are not habitual to independent study. 3. This system needs the services of the properly maintained study centres and capable instructors quite conscious of their roles. In the absence of these human resources facilities, this system may fail in its objective. 4. The set-up costs for running the audio-tutorial system, especially at the initial stage, are quite high and sometimes many years may take for the proper realization of the full cost advantage. In such a situation, establishment and running of the instructions through this system may not prove a worthy exercise, especially, in a developing country like ours. With these limitations and drawbacks, it is in no way a safe idea to recommend the use of audio-tutorial type of instruction for all types of learners in different types of courses. Its limited use for a particular type of needy learners may, however, prove the very purpose for which it stands. It will definitely be a boon to many of the learners and learning situations where there is a need for the introduction of such a system for the instructional purposes.

Language Laboratory What is a Language Laboratory Language is the most needed medium for interaction and communication among the individuals. It is the key of all types of progress and development that can be made by an individual as a social being. In this context, our all efforts through formal or informal education are always directed from the very early age of our life for

gaining proficiency in one or more languages according to our needs and opportunities available. However, gaining proficiency in a language is not a simple task. It needs a lot to be done on the part of the learner and the teacher or the source of learning that supplies the necessary information, skills and likewise things. The language laboratories, here, can come forward for providing a proper platform to the learner and the teacher in gaining useful experience for the development of essential proficiency in the learning of a new language. In terms of its meaning and definition, the term language laboratory stands for inducing laboratory-like learning and training conditions in a specified room (named as language room or language laboratory) of the school to help the students in gaining proficiency regarding the learning of a new Language with the active assistance of hardware and software technologies adopting both auto-instructional and classroom training modes under proper supervision and guidance of a language teacher or instructor.

Why We Need a Language Laboratory The word laboratory sounds quite familiar in the study of the science and technological subjects. We have physics, chemistry, biology, and computer science laboratories in our schools. However, the establishment of a language laboratory is quite uncommon in our schools or even in the colleges of education that are supposed to provide essential training to the pupil teachers. Like science and technical subjects language is also a skilled subject. It needs the development of four basic skills, namely (i) hearing or listening, (ii) speaking, (iii) reading and writing of a language. Skills, as we know, can only be developed in the children through proper demonstration, observation, practice and drillwork as well as experimentation under the guidance of a person well-versed in that

language and capable of providing adequate training. The task of the development of skills then can only be carried out in laboratory-like controlled observational and experimental conditions. This is why, we are supposed to induce such conditions for the acquisition of proficiency in language learning.

Types of Language Laboratories and their Functioning Generally, we can divide the prevalent language laboratory systems into the following five types according to their levels of operation:

In the level I (A type audio system) we have an instructor/teacher console (control centre where teacher’s equipment are located) and a number of student consoles, i.e. booths where the students’ equipment are located. At the teacher’s console, we have a central tape or cassette recorder and also a microphone for delivering audio message to the group of students sitting in their booths with headsets or earphones for merely listening the audio-programme transmitted from the teacher’s console (either in the form of teacher’s voice or recorded programmes from the central tape recorder). This type of audio system provides only one-way communication. There is no scope for any response or interactive role on the part of the students. Everything is communicated and controlled from the teacher’s console. In the level II (AA type audio-active system), facilities are provided to the students sitting in their booths not only for the listening of audio programmes or messages transmitted from the teacher’s console but also for oral responses (verbal feedback)

through the microphones for being listened by the teacher or recorded in the tape/cassette recorder kept in the teacher’s console. The students can also put their question or enquiry through their microphones to the teacher. It allows a complete two-way transmission of the communication from the teacher’s console to the students’ booths and vice versa. The level III (AAC type audio-active comparative system) provides an improved technological system in comparison to the level II AA type system. Here, in addition to headsets/earphones and a microphone each student is also provided with a 2-track/2-channel cassette tape recorder/reproducer remotely controlled from the teacher’s console as and when needed. The learning material is available by live voice from the instructor or programmes being sent to them from the teacher’s cassette recorder/reproducers and or prerecorded (Master track only) non-erasable tapes which are inserted in the cassette compartment of each of the student tape recorders. Whatever the technique used for sending programmes to students, each student responds via their microphone and their voice is recorded on the second (student) track of the cassette tape, continuing until the lesson material has ended. As time allows, each student can take control of their cassette recorder/reproducer and rewind/replay and re-record as often as desired in order to achieve lesson proficiency. Playback is performed in a serial format so that the student first hears the Master programme, then their response for facilitating the required comparison. The level IV (AACC system) surpasses the level III AAC system on the ground that it provides adequate provisions of controlling function on the part of the teacher (sitting in his console) and the learners (sitting in their respective booths) for the full-scale intercommunication and drillwork. Consequently, a teacher can address all students by stopping their function or he can address and monitor the student of his choice or he can check the progress of all the students at a time by posing question or conducting test. On the other

hand, the students may also feel themselves free to play, stop, rewind and fast forward the tape or cassette filled up with training or learning material at their will or when asked by the teacher for doing so. They can listen and record the delivered messages or their responses by the intensity and speed they like or demanded in a particular situation. They may engage in auto-instruction or take help from the teachers according to their needs and situation. In this way, the AACC system helps the individual student to learn or teach himself with his own pace, as well as equips the teacher or instructor to take full control of the on-going teaching-learning process for the realization of the language laboratory objectives. The level V (AACI system) represents a computer-based interactive language laboratory system. It is known for delivering a full range of software formats such as audio cassettes, audio CDs, audiovideo cassettes and CD-ROM multimedia programme formats. For this purpose, it contains a fully equipped personal computer (PC) at the teacher console and also at each student console for providing interactive control of lesson materials, with each student participating via keyboard, mouse, and the audio-active amplifier. An optional feature, a local area network (LAN) kit, which provides the networking of the students and the capability to allow the classroom access to the Internet, can be purchased. Telephone connection to the Internet is to be arranged for better results. The teacher can selectively monitor each student’s audio and visual channels (via the Master Control Panel) to evaluate how they have progressed through the programme material/instruction. The online training and learning facilities can also be provided to the individual learners of the class with the help of such language laboratory system.

How is a Language Laboratory System Operated The operation of a language system depends upon the type of laboratory system installed in your institution. As far as the situations in our country are concerned, the levels II and III suit much to our

pockets and the teaching-learning environment. Let us, therefore, discuss in brief the methods of their operation.

Level II While using this AA type language laboratory system, the beginning can be made by loading a cassette tape or audio CD, containing the language lesson material for the day, into the console cassette recorder/reproducer or the audio CD player, if so equipped. Then you may send the selected programme to individual students or groups of students who have been assigned to listen to that particular lesson. For the better outcomes, up to four (audio) lessons may be distributed simultaneously. After that you may place the programme recorder/reproducer into the play mode and set the volume level for comfortable listening. The students may hear the lesson materials and respond accordingly after hearing their own voices in their headset (side tone). When an AV accessory package is purchased, you can deliver the selected audio and video programme to the 25inch or 14-inch TV’s for student viewing located at the master console for your viewing. You can now monitor the programme audio sound track through the headphones or via the console mounted speaker.

Level III This language laboratory system operation is identical to level II except in the student records on the student recorder/reproducer (the day’s language lesson on the Master track and the student responses on the student track). Only the teacher/instructor can erase the Master track. The student may record the student track as often as necessary to perfect the lesson. Each time the student track is rerecorded, it erases all previous student track recordings. Once each student has recorded the responses to the Master track, on a separate track, the students can rewind the cassette tape to the beginning and proceed in the “compare” mode of self-study, whereby

they hear the target (Master track) instruction followed by their responses previously recorded. In this mode, each student can work independently (practice), as time allows, improving and perfecting his or her individual responses to the lesson material.

Uses and Applications In terms of learning or understanding a new language, a language laboratory can play the following roles: 1. It can help in the proper acquisition and mastery over the four basic skills of a language, namely listening or hearing, speaking, reading and writing through their phase-to-phase acquisition. In the beginning, it lays total emphasis over spoken language and then proceeds for the development of written expression. 2. It may help specially in enabling the students to have mastery over the sounds, the essential art of listening, proper grasping and understanding the meaning of the words, sentences and their conveying or expressing through proper sound symbols or speech with correct intonation, pronunciation, accent and fluency like an educated native speaker of that particular language. 3. Apart from developing the linguistic abilities for successful communication, the language laboratories may be utilized for carrying out constructive and creative activities helpful in the overall learning of other curricular subjects or enriching the personality development of children. A few of such possible activities are mentioned here: (i) The students may record their own statement or critical analysis of a topic on tape. The topics so dealt must be of free choice or specified by the teacher and should not be a repetition of the previously prepared speech.

(ii) They may study individually one of a series of similar calendar or magazine pictures (pets, cars, landscapes, etc.) and record a description of the material on their blank tape. They may then listen to each other’s tapes to identify the picture in its true nature. (iii) They may build or make something based on taped instructions (toy horse, paper airplanes, an improvised apparatus, etc.) (iv) They may listen to a problem (personal, academic, societal, environmental etc.) on tape and then record a solution. They may then listen to each other’s solutions for necessary comparison and generalization. (v) They may record directions to a particular place on a map. Other students may listen to the directions, trace the route on a map, and attempt to find the correct destination. (vi) They may record a schedule of their day/week/weekend, and other students may listen and complete a chart leading to a better schedule preparation. (vii) They may record the weather forecast for different times of the year. Other students may listen and complete a weather chart for arriving at the most agreed forecast. (viii) They may record directions for locating various objects/words/numbers in a grid. Other students may then listen to the tape and complete the grid. (ix) They may listen to a series of sentences about a process or narration in random order. They may then collaborate on reconstructing the correct order of sentences and record the story/process in their own words. (x) They may tell a chain story by starting a story with two or three sentences at one tape recorder, moving on to the next tape recorder to listen to the beginning of another student’s story and adding several more sentences. When the process

is completed, they can listen to and comment on the completed stories. 4. The functioning of a language laboratory in the school brings extra advantages to both the students and teachers in the following manner: (i) The students get full opportunity otherwise unavailable in normal classrooms for the required drill and practice making them able to speak and/or listen at their own pace resulting in decreased anxiety and a greater willingness to take risks. (ii) In language laboratory, the students get enough opportunities for recording and listening to their own strengths and weaknesses and evaluating their own progress from time to time. All such developments may help them attain desired proficiency in learning of a particular language. (iii) The language laboratories may provide utmost efficiency for the students. (iv) These facilities may render valuable help to the language teacher for supplementing their teaching activities. (v) The teachers will be helped in a greater task of individualizing instruction according to the different learning styles and needs of their students. Here they feel quite at home in monitoring and evaluating student performance, correct errors on an individual basis and may ensure that both shy and outspoken students participate on an equal basic. (vi) Language laboratories enhance the teacher’s quality of language teaching by providing variety of channels and activities for stimulating and maintaining the students’ interest. It also provides enough scope for the demonstration, revision, practice and drillwork for the

learning and application of language skills and linguistic abilities. Thus, language laboratories provide tremendous scope and opportunities for the teaching and learning of the essentials related to the acquisition of basic skills, understanding and application of a new language. Hence, efforts should be sincerely made in establishing them.

Teleconferencing What is Teleconferencing Teleconferencing stands for the conferencing made possible among the participants even by remaining at a large distance from each other. As we know, face to face (FTF) interaction is the traditional standard for holding conferences (interactive group communication). However, holding of such conferences becomes a tedious task when the people involved in these conferences are located at a long distance. The time, money and energy spent in bringing people together for these conferences create numerous problems. The alternative lies in changing to teleconferencing by leaving behind the traditional face-toface conferencing. So, this mode of conferencing can be defined as an interactive group communication or a real time interaction between two or more people in two or more locations through an electronic medium. On account of the use of a sophisticated electronic medium for communication, teleconferencing may bring people together under one roof even though they are separated by thousands of miles for the exchange of information and opinion. Historically speaking, teleconferencing was first introduced in the 1960s with American Telephone and Telegraph’s Picture phone. Today, it has vast potentiality on account of the great advances made

in the field of communication through modern hardware and software technologies.

Basic Types of Teleconferencing Today, teleconferencing is prevalent in many ways. Its three basic types are: 1. Audio conferencing 2. Videoconferencing 3. Computer conferencing

Audio conferencing It is nothing but a natural extension of the person-to-person telephone call for enabling communication and conversation among more than two persons at a time.

Videoconferencing It helps communicate both orally and with face-to-face dialogue by making use of television and audio system. Here, we can listen and view the faces and actions of the people interacting with us in conferencing.

Computer conferencing It helps the participants communicate with each other by making use of computer technology. Here we can communicate text and graphics to participants who may access it with the help of own personal computers. We can also view the faces and actions of the people under conversation through web cameras. Computer conferencing has an extra advantage as it permits people to participate at different times according to their convenience. Here, the transmitted communication may be stored for being used by the

participant later on at their convenience. In this way, all participants need not be on line at their computer terminals at the same time. However, practically in most situations, teleconferencing is always aimed for having total interaction matching with the true spirit of faceto-face conferencing. For this purpose, a synthesis of the audio-video and computer conferencing is employed. Sometimes we just adopt a synthesis of any of the above two or other times audio and video modes are well integrated to computer conferencing. In this way, different configuration teleconferencing systems may emerge from the possible synthesis of the different modes of teleconferencing and possibilities of signal transmission. Out of these various possibilities, audio system conferencing involving transmission across telephone lines, may be considered as the most economic and viable means of teleconferencing. It can be further improved by being named as audio plus transmission system and supplemented through the following means of visual display: 1. Fax, i.e. electronic copies of pieces of typewritten information may be transmitted to the participants. 2. Electronic chalkboard, where what is written on the board can be converted into digital information. As a result, the blackboard work may be easily viewed by the remote participants on their monitors. 3. Videotext system, i.e. teletext, where we can send the digital information with text and graphics to the participants for viewing on the monitors/television screens. Video conferencing facilitated by computer technology: It possesses tremendous possibilities and wide educational applications for the best possible outcomes of the teleconferencing system. It has now made quite easy for the students sitting in a classroom in Shimla or Delhi edit and discuss a project with students in Bangalore or London. These students can see real-time video image of a classroom in a distant location. The learners can type the

messages on the screen in a “Chat Window” as they smile at each other on the screen. With a document camera, they can share slides from a science experiment by positioning the camera over a microscope, or zooming in on some authentic artefacts from a geological dig. They can easily exchange information, have conversation and get immediate feedback through such lively information provided through this mode. In the above mode of transmission, the video images are beamed back to participants from a special computer used as a “reflector”. This reflector can host multiple sites and hence several institutions located at varying distances can meet at once to hold discussion on an important theme or subject. If you desire to hold such video teleconferencing for the benefit of the students of your school, you must have necessary preparation for this purpose based on the objectives you want to achieve from such conferencing. As a matter of beginning, it is better to limit the partner sites to one or two by working on useful themes given below: The students of social studies classes can collect and tabulate data about local geographical features and meet to share the outcomes. The students of science classes can collect leaves of indigenous trees and compare their colours and characteristics as the seasons change. They can also study water or air quality and compare microscopic slides of bacteria, flora or fauna. The students of language class can write and share ideas of their own composition, have evaluation of some literary piece, etc. The students can work on a joint project by adopting the mode of teleconferencing. They can hold such conferencing at the end of a unit of study for sharing ideas and information for the better understanding

and application of the learned material. Web conferencing: It offers another opportunity for modernizing the affairs of video-cum-computer conferencing. It can mean many things to all of us. At the most basic level, it is the ability to hold a conference where the participants can listen by phone and simultaneously see visuals through their web browser. One as an organizer can control what the participants see, keeping everyone on the same page, and can use drawing tools to emphasize points. In its most advanced form, the organizer of conference can show web page of the participants, draw on a “white board” to illustrate a point and use any piece of software so that all participants can see the software in action. You can even allow the participants to add comments and drawings to a presentation or hand off conference control to another participants entirely. All in all, it’s not as good as being there, yet you can have an effective meeting where everyone hears and sees the same thing at the same time—without the hassle and trouble of remaining present at the spot of conferencing. The web pages may contain quite useful information regarding the theme or the subject of conference. An institution can initiate a dialogue by placing a theme, subject or point of discussion on the web page and then encourage the viewers scattered around a vast region for playing their roles as participants in such web-conferencing communication. We know that a picture is worth a thousand words and web-conferencing allows us to share pictures, graph, slides and software with the interested participants thousand of miles away from us.

Educational Advantages Teleconferencing claims to offer a variety of educational advantages as pointed out below:

1. It saves money, time and energy of the participants by allowing them to participate in the conference from their own places; instead of travelling a long distance. 2. It offers a good source of communication in the form of exchange of ideas and knowledge, sharing of experiences, and execution of common projects, doing surveys and investigations, writing of a report, etc. for a number of students or institutions scattered in a wide region. 3. It can help the students and teachers for getting up-to-date information and experiences related to their topics and areas of interest by communicating with the people and sources of authenticity. 4. It reduces the chances of wastage of time and other resources as usually happens in fulfilling social formalities during the face-to-face traditional conferencing. Here contacts are shorter and primarily purpose oriented. 5. The members can participate more freely and equally with their adequate preparation in comparison to traditional face-to-face conferencing. 6. The developed technology available through audio-plus teleconferencing, video conferencing supported by computer technology may help the learners and teachers for gaining useful experiences in the form of auto-instruction and autotraining well in tune with their pace, availability of time and diversities of interests, particularly through e-mail transaction and web-conferencing. 7. It has made possible a unique collaboration and cooperation among the subject experts, teachers and students of diversified capabilities and interests for enriching their thirst of knowledge and sharing their contribution in the field of education. The information available on websites, through online chatting and video display has eliminated the barrier of distances and timings for the useful interaction among the

people who want to consult each other or wish to knock a door for getting to a source of their requirements. In this way, it can be safely concluded that teleconferencing possesses a vast potential for increasing the communication among the group of learners and teachers. However, we can’t take it as a substitute for class-room teaching or face-to-face intercommunication availed in the traditional conferencing. Instead, it should always be used as a supplement of these.

SUMMARY 1. The audio-tutorial system owes its origin to the ideas propagated by Postlethwait in the year 1961. Initially he used it for overcoming the learning deficiencies related to the teaching learning of a particular subject but latter on he developed a weakly learning kit in the shape of an audio-tutorial programme for enabling the students to do the full range of study for a week without attending any of the formal sessions for the course. 2. Audio-tutorial system stands for a system or teaching-learning strategy in which well-planned instructions carrying appropriate learning experiences and specially assigned activities are provided to the learners on the audiotapes for being followed by them according to their own pace and requirements within a specific duration of time occasionally helped by an instructor available on the study centre with an eye of achieving maximum teaching-learning output. 3. The necessary major ingredients for adopting audio-tutorial approach in a given teaching-learning situation may be identified as (i) availability of the learning material organized in to appropriate and meaningful units on the audiotapes, (ii) multiplicity of approaches and techniques in the presentation of

the learning material, (iii) totally structured and interdependent learning material, (iv) expectation from the students to listen carefully and attentively the presented audio material, (v) repetition of the presentation of the learning material on the tapes, and (vi) following the principle of integration and correlation in the presentation of the learning material. 4. There are three basic study sessions that are usually associated with the teaching learning carried out in an audiotutorial system. There are named as (i) independent study session (requiring independent study during the days of the week on the part of students with the help of the supplied audiotapes and other instructional material while sitting in their respective study places or booths), (ii) general assembly session (providing opportunity for the students at the end of the week to overcome their learning deficiencies and exposure for enriching their independent learning experiences at the study centres), and (iii) small assembly session (a group of 7 or 8 students assembled in the study centre regularly for interaction with themselves and also with the course instructor as a matter of follow-up work carried out in the independent study sessions). 5. Audio-tutorial system is credited with a number of advantages and merits mainly named as (i) providing opportunities to the learners to work independently and proceed on the path of learning with their own pace, (ii) providing a workable system to the students of distance education mode, (iii) helpful in providing independent study facilities to all types of learners through tutorial mode, and (iv) proving quite cost effective then the usual classroom instructional system. 6. Audio-tutorial system is decried on account of a number of its shortcomings and limitations like (i) resting of the instructions provided through it on the utilization of only one sense, i.e.

sense of hearing, (ii) possibility of wasting time on the part of the students as a result of the independence provided to them for their study, (iii) difficulties faced in the utilization of this system on account of the non-availability of the properly maintained study centers and capable instructors quite conscious of their roles, and (iv) difficulties faced in the utilization of this system on account of the non-availability of the required finances for the up keep of the needed physical and human resources. 7. The term language laboratory stands for inducing laboratory like learning and training conditions in a specified room of the school to help the students in gaining proficiency regarding the learning of a new language with the active assistance of hardware and software technologies adopting both auto instructional and classroom training modes under proper supervision and guidance of a language teacher or instructor. 8. The prevalent language laboratory systems may be divided into five major types according to their levels of operation, namely (i) level I—A type, i.e. audio system (providing instructional material to the students sitting in their respective booths through one way oral communication mode), (ii) level II —AA type, i.e. audio-active system (providing opportunities for oral responses to the students through the microphones in addition to listening of audio programmes or messages transmitted from the teacher’s console), (iii) level III—AAC, i.e. audio-active comparative system (providing facilities for the use of 2-track/2-channel cassette tape recorder/reproducer in addition to the provision of headsets/earphones and a microphone to each student), and (iv) level IV—AACC, i.e. audio-active comparative system (providing facilities of controlling functions on the part of teacher and students for the full scale communication besides all other facilities provided in the level I to level III systems), and (v) level V—AACI system,

i.e. audio-active computer-based interactive system (a highly developed computer-based interactive language laboratory system providing delivering a full range of software formats and Internet facilities). 9. Language laboratories may prove quite helpful in terms of learning or understanding a new language in the manners like (i) helping in the proper acquisition and mastery over the four basic skills of a language namely listening or hearing, speaking, reading and writing, (ii) enabling students to use and understand a language like an educated native speaker, (iii) enabling the students in carrying out other constructive and creative activities helpful in the overall learning of other curricular subjects or enriching the personality development of children, and (iv) providing proper opportunities to both the teacher and students in carrying out their responsibilities in a proper way. 10. Teleconferencing stands for the conferencing—an interactive group communication or a real time interaction between two or more people in two or more locations through an electronic medium even by remaining at a large distance from each other. 11. Today, teleconferencing is prevalent in so many ways. Mainly we can observe its three basic types named as (i) audio conferencing (allowing conversations through telephone call), (ii) videoconferencing (allowing listening as well as viewing), and (iii) computer conferencing (availing multimedia and internet facilities of the computer services). 12. Teleconferencing claims to offer a variety of educational advantages pointed out as (i) saving money, time and energy of the participants by allowing them to participate in the conference from their own places, (ii) providing valuable opportunities for the inter-school and inter-institution

interaction, dialogue and communication, (iii) helping the teachers and students for availing the services of the experienced teachers and experts sitting far away, (iv) providing more simple, convenient, free and cost effective environment for interaction in comparison to the traditional face-to face conferencing, (v) providing valuable opportunities for the auto-instruction and self-learning, (vi) opening the gates of all types of knowledge and communication to the teachers and students by removing all barriers of time and distances, and (vii) contributing significantly in the implementation and extension of distance education and on line programmes.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is audio-tutorial system? Trace its origin and growth. 2. Discuss the necessary ingredients for adopting audio-tutorial approach. 3. Throw light on the various study sessions held in an audiotutorial system. 4. Discuss the various advantages and merits of audio-tutorial system. 5. Discuss, in detail, the merits and limitations of audio-tutorial system. 6. What is a language laboratory? Why do we need a laboratory for learning a language? 7. Explain the functioning.

types

of

language

laboratories

and

their

8. What is a language laboratory system? How can you operate it system? Explain clearly. 9. Discuss in detail, the uses and applications of language laboratory.

10. What is teleconferencing? Discuss in detail its various types 11. What do you mean by the term teleconferencing? Discus its educational advantages. 12. Throw light on the mechanism of computer conferencing for instructional purposes.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Adam, J.B. and A.L. Shawcross, The Language Laboratory, London: Pitman, 1963. Bleazard., G.B., Introducing Teleconferencing, Manchester: NCC, 1985. Julian, Dakin, The Language Laboratory and Language Learning, New York: Longman, 1979. Kelleher, Kathleen, Teleconferencing: Linking People Together Electronically, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985. Olgren, Christine H. and Lorne H. Parker, Teleconferencing Technology and Applications, Dedham, MA: Artech House, 1983. Parker, Lorne H., Teleconferencing in Education, Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources, Syracuse University, School of Education, 1983. Postlethwait, S.N., J. Novak and H.T. Murray, The Audio-tutorial Approach to Learning, Through Independent Study and Integrated Experiences (3rd ed.), Minneapolis: Burgess Pub., 1972. Rao, K. Ramamohan and Srinivasan Ram, Teleconferencing, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, c1985. Russell, James D., The Audio-Tutorial System, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, c1978.

Stack, Edward M., The Language Laboratory and Modern Language Teaching, (3rd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Turner, Lohn Derfel, Introduction to the Language Laboratory, London: University of London Press, 1968.

29 Cooperative Learning CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Definition of Cooperative Learning Basic Assumptions and Features How to Proceed with Cooperative Learning Merits and Advantages Obstacles in Introducing Cooperative Learning Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Our on-going classroom teaching is totally teacher dominated and content centred. Here, the teachers are regarded as the repositories of subject knowledge and their role is simply to pour into the open, empty and willing (or non-willing) minds of students their vast reservoir of knowledge. They do not trust their students to learn. They think that they must tell them what to learn and provide all the structure for the learning to take place. This learning structure is highly individualistic. It encourages individual and competitive learning in place of group and cooperative learning. Here, the students are tempted to learn more and more in order to gain good

grades, divisions, certificates and appreciations by excelling their own peers. Cooperative learning says no to such practices. It advocates cooperative and group learning in place of the competitive and individualistic approach prevalent in our educational system by redefining the roles of the teacher and the learners in a particular teaching-learning set-up. How is it done and what do we mean by cooperative learning as a teaching-learning strategy? Let us now look into these issues.

Definition of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning, as the name suggests, stands for a learning process or strategy in which the students get opportunities to learn by themselves in a group in a cooperative or non-cooperative environment by forming a number of teams, each consisting of a small number of students of different levels of ability for the understanding of a subject. They share all information among themselves and help each other for having the required knowledge, understanding and application of one or the other aspects of the content material, or course units included in their syllabus. It seems quite contrary to the practice of teaching-learning prevalent in our current educational system.

Basic Assumptions and Features 1. The cooperative learning ideology rests in making the teaching-learning process as leaner centered rather than being content or teacher centred. 2. It advocates constructivist ideology for the better teachinglearning outcomes by encouraging the students to formulate their own constructs and ways of understanding the content material.

3. It believes in redefining the role of a teacher from a lecturer, expert or repository of subject knowledge to capable facilitator for helping his students in their cooperative learning task. 4. It advocates proper teaching-learning environment instead of mere lecturing and demonstration on the part of the teachers. Here, the responsibility for learning is, thus, shifted to the students from the teachers’ efforts for making them to learn by resorting to various tactics. 5. It emphasizes social learning by assuming that learning takes place better in a social situation and group environment rather than in isolation. 6. It assumes that children learn better in a non-competitive anxiety-free cooperative environment than in a competitive stressful environment as available in the traditional classroom situations. 7. It believes in group efforts and cooperation among the learners in place of individual efforts and competition. 8. It is of the view that children learn better in a cooperative way from each other on account of the proximity, equality, interdependence and rapport existing among them instead of the learning thrust upon them by some outside agency, including teacher. 9. It believes that students achievements and performances may be evaluated better in term of group achievements in the less threatening group situation rather than the competitive more threatening individualistic situations. 10. It believes that students learn best when they are totally involved in the learning process by cooperating each other for attaining the maximum benefit. 11. It advocates that the two necessary elements—group goals and individual accountability— should be used together for the evaluation of group achievements in cooperative learning.

12. It believes in providing the students the opportunity to learn and work cooperatively in a group in order to develop them into a cooperative and responsible social being on the very assumption that students who cooperate with each other in learning learn to like each other in real life.

How to Proceed with Cooperative Learning To replace the traditional classroom learning and setting into a cooperative learning set-up is not an easy task. One may have to face so much opposition and resistance from the fellow teachers, students, authorities and parents in doing so. Moreover, the present circumstances and educational system are not at all favourable for the introduction of such innovative but useful practice in our schools and colleges. However, much depends upon the teacher who is himself convinced about the fruitful outcomes of the cooperative learning. For this purpose, he must learn the art and skill of employing it as a useful strategy of teaching-learning. Then he must get his students, authorities and parents of the students convinced about the utility of employing this noble practice. With such background and initiation, he should settle down for devising and employing variety of ways and means for the adoption of cooperative learning as a teaching strategy. In doing so, he may try for a number of typical cooperative learning set-up as mentioned here. 1. A unit of the course in a subject may be broken down into certain meaningful subunits. These subunits may, then, be assigned to the different teams (each having 5 to 8 students) of a class or grade for cooperative learning. The team members may collect relevant information and go through learning experiences, activities, etc. for gaining the required

knowledge and understanding about the assigned subunit in a quite cooperative way mutually helping and complementing each other’s efforts. After sometime (this duration may be fixed in advance), the members of the different teams may sit together for discussing their learning outcomes with respect to the subunits. In fact, they may teach each other the content material or learning experiences acquired by them. After grasping the knowledge and understanding of the whole unit, they may again be asked to work in their respected groups/teams for gaining more insight and understanding of the unit through cooperative efforts and then show the outcomes of their striving to all the students of the class. 2. Students of a class in any subject/grade may be asked to work on a group project, for which they may have a hand in selecting. It may give extensive opportunities to them for cooperative learning and working in the group. Such group projects or investigations may be highly structured to emphasize higher order thinking, analyzing and evaluating skills. They may also provide a proper platform for the demonstration of practical and working abilities on the part of the students working cooperatively. 3. In another cooperative learning set-up, the students with varying academic abilities may be assigned to 4-5 member teams for studying what had been initially taught by the teacher and to help each other reach his or her highest level of achievement. After doing such cooperative efforts, all the students are then tested individually. Then, the different teams may be awarded certificates or other recognition on the basis of their progress over their past records. 4. In another cooperative learning set-up, a particular topic or unit of the subject is assigned to five or six groups or teams of a class. Each group or team may have a small number of students of varying interests and abilities. In a team, each

team member is responsible for learning a specific part or subunit of a topic. He himself strives hard in the learning of this assigned sub-part in close collaboration with his or her counterparts in other teams. In fact, they work closely in a quite cooperative spirit for acquiring the necessary knowledge, experience and application related to that subtopic. Then, all members of the team sit together for discussing the fruits of their striving and acquire complete picture of the knowledge and understanding of the sub-topics or subunits. They may go for its deep understanding and advanced study by repeating their cooperation exercise in the process of learning.

Merits and Advantages Cooperative learning may prove quite fruitful and advantageous on account of various benefits derived through its use.

Academic Benefits 1. It involves students actively in the teaching-learning process. 2. It makes the students responsible for their learning. 3. It makes the teacher-learning process as learner centred rather than content and teacher centred. 4. It helps the students in developing higher-order thinking, critical thinking and oral communication skills. 5. It helps the students in learning so many tasks requiring manipulation, demonstrative and practical skills simply on the basis of learning through imitation and observation of the behaviour of their peers. 6. It helps the weaker students in improving their performance when grouped with higher achieving students.

7. It gives opportunity for deeper understanding and insight into the subject matter as a result of discussing and teaching the material by them to their peers. 8. It provides interactive model for the classroom teaching in place of one-sided teacher-dominated lecture or demonstration method. 9. It improves classroom results by making the students more involved, motivated and determined to learn and achieve the learning targets by providing an anxiety-free non-competitive stimulating environment. 10. It helps in improving the learning environment of a classroom by re-scheduling the roles of the teachers and the learners. Here the teacher now acts as a facilitator in the task of learning totally planned and implemented by themselves. 11. It makes the teacher more free and capable of guiding and supervising the learning activities of his students as groups are easier to supervise than the individual students.

Phychological Benefits 1. The students learn better in a cooperative environment that keeps them away from the unnecessary anxiety of being excelled by others. 2. Cooperative learning encourages students to seek help and accept tutoring from the pears. It provides a sense of security that is almost endangered in a competitive traditional classroom environment. 3. Cooperative learning helps in building the student’s selfconfidence and self-esteem in a better way than the traditional classroom teaching. 4. Cooperative and team spirit help the students in reducing their classroom learning and test anxiety.

5. Cooperative teaching helps in developing healthy interaction among the students and between the teacher and students. Students acquire a quite healthy and positive attitude towards each other and to their teachers who are always ready for helping them in their learning tasks.

Social Benefits 1. Cooperative learning is helpful in the development of many social qualities and virtues among the students for becoming an adjusted social being. 2. In cooperating learning, the students get a healthy positive atmosphere for modelling and practising cooperation and consequently, the art of getting and giving proper cooperation can be properly learnt through the practice of cooperative learning. 3. It helps in promoting leadership skills among students. 4. Through cooperative learning, the students get along with the people of diverse opinion, background, socio-economic status, religion, caste, colour, creed, etc. This is helpful to live and adjust in a democratic society.

Obstacles in Introducing Cooperative Learning As discussed above, the cooperative learning strategy offers a teaching-learning platform to bring a desirable reform in the present day teaching-learning system. It is aimed to provide more responsibilities on the part of the learners for carrying out their learning business by themselves while cooperating and working together in small or large group as per demands of their learning situation for the satisfactory accomplishment of the learning

objectives. In reality, it suits the very nature and purposes of the learners belonging to a free and democratic society and, as such, it needs to be adopted as one of the good teaching-learning strategies at all levels of school or college teaching. However, in spite of so many benefits derived from its introduction, it has not yet taken any shape in the system of our school and college education.

Resistance from the Teacher The teachers themselves do not favour the introduction of cooperative learning in their teaching-learning on account of the following reasons: 1. They themselves have not been taught through cooperative learning or teaching strategy at their school or college level. 2. They have not got any orientation and training for the use of cooperative learning strategy in their teacher preparation courses—D.Ed., B.Ed., etc. They have also not been exposed to its orientation and training through in service programmes. As a result, most of the teachers do not know how or where to start the cooperative learning techniques in their classrooms. 3. They fear that they may give up control of the class and their authority if they give more responsibility to the students for their learning as it is bound to happen in a cooperative learning set-up. In fact, they fear to accept their role as mere facilitator instead of all and all in the present educational system. 4. They lack in self-confidence for trying methods and innovative practices thinking that it may expose them to potentially different situation. They, in fact, suffer from the well-known principle of inertia, i.e. resisting any new change or practices.

5. They feel that the students will be wasting their time in a cooperative learning set-up. There will be a chaotic state upsurging in the classroom environment with serious disciplinary problems for which they themselves be blamed by authorities and parents. 6. In the present set-up, the teachers are supposed to finish the prescribed syllabus of a subject in a fixed duration and days of the session. The teachers fear that it could not be possible by adopting cooperative learning techniques. 7. They feel that the required teaching-learning and curricular material for the successful use of cooperative learning is not going to be available to them. They themselves have no knowledge, skills, and abilities to develop worksheets, project descriptions and other set of handouts helpful as support or base material for cooperative learning. Textbooks are also not written in view of the requirements of cooperative learning. In such circumstances, they feel hesitation to switch over to cooperative learning. 8. The use of cooperative learning requires altogether different assessment techniques in terms of assessing group efforts and assigning grades to groups on one hand and evaluating individual’s role and efforts in such group venture on the other. Their unfamiliarity to such innovative assessment techniques may persuade them to oppose cooperative learning on the assumption that the system will fail in the absence of the assessment of individual accountability of the learners.

Resistance from the Students The students may also be seen to oppose the introduction of cooperative learning as a teaching-learning strategy mainly for the following reasons:

1. The students are habitual in seeing the teacher in his authoritarian expert role presenting each and every type of information and skill before them. They feel much more uncomfortable in making their own attempts for the acquisition of information and skills and hence oppose the introduction of cooperative learning. 2. They feel that lecture method is a proper method of teachers for teaching and they can also learn easily through its use by remaining quite passive in the teaching-learning process. Therefore, they resent any type of responsibility handed over to them in terms of interactive and cooperative learning. 3. They think that a teacher resorts to cooperative learning simply for saving his own labour and energy otherwise required for classroom teaching. They, therefore, begin to criticize the role of a teacher as a mere facilitator instead of expert information presenter. 4. They are not subjected to any training or experience to cooperate in an academic environment. They are habitual to the spirit of maximum competition for excelling one another in the race of gaining grades and recognition. Therefore, they try to resent or become fearful when asked to share information and study techniques or to help their peers in the cooperative learning processes. 5. It becomes quite difficult for the students to feel their utmost individual responsibilities for the greater cause of group work and cooperative learning. They feel, that the peers in their team may not provide due cooperative or may play the role of a shirker.

Resistance from the Authorities The authorities put hurdles to the introduction of cooperative learning on account of the following reasons:

1. They fear that the teachers will not be doing their duties and may play the role of shirkers as an excuse for introducing this system. 2. It will be difficult to evaluate the teachers’ effectiveness and output in the absence of the evaluation of the students’ individual performance and accountability. 3. The authorities and administrators themselves have no proper knowledge about the philosophy and methodology of cooperative learning. 4. They fear that an altogether new infrastructure needs to be developed for the introduction of this innovative practice.

Resistance from the Parents The parents also oppose the introduction of cooperative learning chiefly on the following grounds: 1. The parents have not been taught or exposed to the philosophy and methodology of cooperative learning. 2. They fear that this system will hamper the proper individual development of their children and they will become unfit for competing in this world of cut-throat competition and high speed advancement. 3. Parents of the bright and upper grade students fear that their children will be used as tutors or will be wasting their time and energy in carrying the load of their teammates in the name of cooperative learning. 4. They take it as an excuse on the part of teachers for getting rid of the load of their teaching assignments and think it better to get their children educated through distance or on-line education mode instead of wasting their time in cooperative learning.

In this way, we may notice a number of hurdles, fears and resentments standing in the way of introducing cooperative learning in our educational system. However, as may be analyzed and concluded easily, all these fears and resentment are absolutely erroneous and baseless. The ignorance regarding the philosophy, methodology and fruitful results of the cooperative learning seems to be the only cause working against the introduction of this noble/and effective teaching-learning strategy. Surely and certainly, the lead should be taken by the teacher education institutions for nurturing the clear picture and methodology of cooperative learning in the minds of the teachers, so that they may share the desired responsibility of its introduction in the schools in the future.

SUMMARY 1. Cooperative learning stands for a learning process or learning strategy in which the students of a class engage themselves in a variety of useful learning activities in a cooperative noncompetitive environment by forming a number of teams, each consisting of a small number of students of different levels of ability for the understanding of a subject. 2. The basic assumptions and features associated with cooperative learning may be outlined as (i) emphasis on making the teaching-learning process as leaner centred, (ii) engaging in leaning collectively in a cooperative way rather than doing it individually in a competitive way, (iii) redefining the role of teacher from a lecturer, expert or repositories of subject knowledge to capable facilitator, (iv) shifting the responsibility of learning to the students instead of the teachers’ efforts for making his students to learn, (v) helping the students to learn in a quite healthy and meaningful cooperative environment, (vi) emphasis on the evaluation of group performance or achievement rather than the individual

performance or achievement, and (vii) helpful in developing many social virtues. 3. Cooperative learning may be executed in a number of ways like (i) the teacher may first divide a unit of the course in a subject into certain meaningful subunits and then these subunits may be assigned to the different teams (each having 5 to 8 students) of a class or grade for cooperative learning, (ii) students of a class in any subject/ grade may be asked to work on a group project, (iii) students with varying academic abilities may be assigned to 4-5 members teams for studying what has been initially taught by the teacher and to help each other to reach his or her highest level of achievement, and (iv) a particular topic or unit of the subject may be assigned to five or six groups or teams of a class. After then all members of the team sit together for discussing the fruits of their striving and acquire complete picture of the knowledge and understanding of the sub-topics or subunits related to a particular topic. 4. Cooperative learning may prove quite fruitful and advantageous on account of a number of educational, psychological and social benefits derived through its use, In educational benefits we my include the benefits like making the teaching learning process learner centered, seeking active participation and involvement of the students, getting opportunities of learning from the fellow students, getting competition free, friendly, cooperative and inspiring environment for learning. In deriving psychological advantages we may specifically mention the anxiety free inspiring and stimulating environment of learning created through cooperative learning that may help in developing a positive attitude towards the classmates and teacher. In the social advantages we may mention all those outcomes that

draw the students nearer to each other, work cooperatively by respecting the work and value of each other and learn the valuable lessons of group participation and cooperation. 5. We may face so many difficulties and obstacles in the path of the adoption of cooperative learning in our system of education. On the very first front, we may face a tough resistance from the teaching community itself. Then the resistance provided from the students, authorities and parents on one account or the other may prove a big handicap in the adoption of such strategy. However, in fact, all these fears and resentment are absolutely erroneous and baseless. There is thus a great need of the attempts for doing away with such fear and resentment by removing the ignorance regarding the philosophy, methodology and fruitful results of the cooperative learning.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is cooperative learning? Provide a suitable definition of this term. 2. Throw light on the basic assumptions and features of cooperative learning. 3. Discuss various ways and means for adopting cooperative learning as a teaching strategy in our secondary schools. 4. Discuss the merits and advantages of cooperative learning. Point out the factors coming in the way of its introduction in our schools. 5. Explain how cooperative learning is a complex process involving so many identifiable characteristics and factors that promote and inhibit it.

REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED READINGS Cohen, Elizabeth G., Celeste M. Brody and Mara Sapon-Shevin (Eds.), Cooperative Learning: The Challenge for Teacher Education, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004. Gillies, Robyn M., Cooperative Learning, Integrating Theory and Practice, Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2007. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. Jolliffe, Wendy, Cooperative learning in the Classroom: Putting it into Practice, Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2007. De Carlo, Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. McConnell, David, Implementing Computer Supported Cooperative Learning, (2nd ed.), London: Sterling, VA: Kogan Page, 2000.

30 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Definition of Cooperative Learning Basic Assumptions and Features How to Proceed with Cooperative Learning Merits and Advantages Obstacles in Introducing Cooperative Learning Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Today, we are living in a knowledge-based society, and knowledgebased global world where knowledge is a great power, economy and strength of an individual, and the asset of a nation. It is also true that these are in tremendous explosion in its quality as well as growth. We are in need of new technologies to have access and proper use of this fast growing knowledge. Moreover, a mere acquisition of

knowledge is not enough, we have a complete access and mastery over the knowledge getting process. It can only happen with the assistance of the science of information and communication technology. In this chapter, we would be learning some essentials about the nature and use of information and communication technology.

Meaning of Information and Communication Technology Experience is said to be a great teacher. This experience may be gained by the learner through direct and indirect means. Direct access to the source for gaining first-hand experience is neither always possible nor desirable. Consequently, most of our learning is based on secondhand experiences in the form of information received by us about the objects, places, persons, ideas or events. This information provides a base for our knowledge and understanding about them and the environment surrounding them. For this purpose, the learner must be able to learn the art of getting information, store and make its use as and when desired. Such type of activities are said to be the part and parcel of Information Technology (IT). However, the use as well as access to the information remains incomplete without the involvement of the art of communication. Communication as a two-way process stands for the sharing of ideas, thoughts, beliefs and information with others. The mutual sharing between the source and receiver of the information, thus, tends to add in its increase, understanding and use that ultimately help in building up knowledge. In this way, both information and communication are utmost needed in acquiring knowledge and getting involved in the knowledge-acquiring process. Now, the efficiency and effectiveness in the activities selected to information and communication is availed from information and

communication technology or ICT. In this way, information and communication technology is that type of technology employed in the shape of tools, equipment and application support which helps in the collection, storage, retrieval, use, transmission, manipulation, and dissemination of information as accurately and efficiently as possible for the purpose of enriching the knowledge, developing communication, decision-making and problem solving ability of the user.

Origin and Growth Communicating and collecting information, and using them for specific purpose are as old as the human civilization itself. In the absence of the means and tools, the primitive way was to carry out them orally, store them in the memory, and transmit them orally to the user. In this way, invention of paper and ink must be regarded as the first breakthrough in the field of ICT. One scientific invention that provided better means for this purpose may be named as the movable type (invented by Gutenberg in 1438 in Germany). The print media also has helped a lot in the development of ICT. Some of the advanced technological development, that helped in the task of ICT are outlined below: Photography in 1849, by a Frenchman L.G.M. Daguerre and an Englishman W.H.F. Talbot. Photostat in 1900, by Professor Abbe Rene Graffin of France. Xerography in 1938, by Chester F. Carlson of U.S.A. Micrography (obtaining copies of the recorded material in highly reduced format) in 1940, by an Englishman J.B. Dancer and Frenchman Rene Dagran. Laser technology (used for printing and memory device) in 1960 by Theodore Maiman of U.S.A.

Magnetic video camera, video disc and computers developed in the 20th century. Besides these, the advancements in the field of telecommunication technology have contributed a lot in the evolution of ICT. Starting from the era of sending messages through pigeons, we have reached the age of satellite communication. The landmarks in such development can be cited as below: Telegraph invented by S.F.B. Morse of U.S.A. in 1837. Telephone invented by Alexander Graham Bell of Scotland in 1876. Radio invented by G. Marconi of Italy in 1895. Television invented by J.L. Baird of Scotland in 1925. Development of communication satellites (first satellite Sputnik was launched by U.S.S.R. on 4th Oct. 1957) and cable and facsimile transmission (Fax) technology in the 20th century. Equipped with the modern invention in the field of collection, storage, retrieval and transmission and exchange of information, the serious attempts in the direction of exercising scientific control over the process of information and communication was introduced in the latter half of the 19th century. The credit goes to U.S.A. where the term "information science" (later called as information and communication technology) was first introduced in 1950 for the effective handling of the interchange of scientific information among the scientists there and other foreign countries. The following are the objects of such information science services: 1. To provide or arrange for the provision of indexing, abstracting, translating and other services leading to a more effective dissemination of scientific information.

2. To undertake programmes to develop new and improved methods including mechanized systems for making scientific information available to the users. Initially, the thrust of ICT was primarily focused on the handling of bibliographic records and textual information in the scientific sector. Later on, at around 1960, it was also applied in the field of industry. At this stage, computer-aided techniques and systems were developed for more efficient information and communication purposes. In the later years, the use and application of ICT could not remain limited to the field of science and industry, but gradually got broadened to encompass other fields of operation, areas and professions such as banking, management, education, medicine and healthcare, government offices, law and judiciary, the police and military establishment and others. As a result, today, we are making its use in our classroom teaching-learning, distance and on-line education, establishing virtual classrooms thus harnessing its power as an effective tool and media of formal, informal and non-formal education as well as quite reliable helping hand to the personnel working for the welfare and progress of the growing children of the country.

Traditional and Modern ICTs As we can visualize through the previous discussion ICTs are in vogue from the olden days. So, these can be classified as traditional and modern.

Traditional ICTs The traditional ICTs may include the following means and media: Printed media in the form of textbooks, resource books, journals, news items and other literature available in the

school and public libraries. Verbal information and ideas exchanged with the peers, teachers, parents and other members of the society. Graphical material such as pictures, charts, maps diagrams, posters and cartoons. Three-dimensional aid material such as specimen, model, puppetry, and mock up. Audio-visual hardware equipment like radio, television, slide projectors, overhead projectors, motion pictures, tape recorder, audio-video recording device and teaching machines.

Modern ICTs The modern ICTs are not single technologies like the traditional technologies. They are a combination of hardware and software, media and delivery systems. In addition, they have gone digital. Some of these may be named as below: Digital video camera Multimedia personal computer (PC), laptop and notebook Application softwares such as word processing spreadsheets, powerpoint simulation and speed recognition Multimedia projector (LCD or DLP) to communicate to large group Local area network (LAN), metropolitan area network (MAN) and wide area network (WAN) Multimedia PC/laptop with video card and web camera or digital video camera Computer database and data processing mechanism, CD ROM and DVD Digital libraries E-mail, Internet and World Wide Web (WWW)

Hypermedia and Hypertext resources Computer-mediated conferencing-video and audio conferencing Video text, tele-text, interactive video text, interactive video disk (IVD) and interactive remote instruction (IRI) Idea of virtual classroom and virtual reality.

Uses and Advantages ICTs can play the same role in our information and communication processes and their outcomes as played by other technologies in making our lives quite comfortable and purposeful. As a result, they have become quite popular in all walks of our life. The modern ICTs, in fact, have brought a revolution in the field of business, industry, insurance, banking, agriculture, medicine, transport, postal and telecommunications, service organizations and various other fields affecting our day-to-day activities. They have fundamentally changed the way we think, communicate and do most of the things. The field of education is no exception. Here, their use has a tremendous potentiality of serving its cause and helping the persons connected with the processes and product in a number of ways. We can summarize the use and advantages of ICT in the field of education in two ways: (i) to the personnel connected with education and (ii) in revolutionizing the system of education. The persons connected with education are as given below:

1. The students They may get the required opportunities and training for receiving and using information for their self-improvement. ICT may help them to satisfy their urges of curiosity, inventiveness, construction, etc. They get acquainted with the relevant sources of information, the ways and means of extracting required information, methods of

information processing, etc. The training received in proper decisionmaking and problem solving may enable them to bring necessary changes in their behaviour. Most of what they acquire in terms of knowledge, understanding, skill, interests, attitudes and appreciation is received through the process of information and communication controlled by ICT. It also helps them get self-paced auto-instruction related to the curricular and non-curricular areas of education. The precision, speed and accuracy in receiving, transforming and using information and communication is well acquired through ICT, as they become acquainted and trained for handling well the sophisticated electronic appliances, software and techniques used for information and communication purposes.

2. The teachers The teachers get sufficient help from ICT in their task of teaching. Their acquaintance with the relevant source of information in the form of books, journals and other reading-material, audio-visual material and equipment and electronics and telecommunication media makes them able to acquire necessary teaching material and techniques. They may also enjoy some sigh of relief if they see their students making use of the ICT resources for self-learning. Programmed learning material, self-learning modules, teaching machines and computers may help them much in this direction. ICT makes it easy the realisation of the teaching-learning objectives to them if its services are well employed.

3. The counsellors The counsellors working in schools and outside the schools in the community can be greatly benefited through ICT. They can have proper access to the various sources of information and can communicate and interact well with their clients for providing desired educational, vocational and personal guidance as well as counselling

to the students along with their parents. On the other hand, with the help of the recorded electronic devices, they may be acquainted with the educational level, interests, aptitudes, attitudes and other personality characteristics of the students which can further enable to meet the guidance and counselling needs of the students.

4. The educational administrators and planners ICT may help the educational administrators and planners in the task of exercising their professional responsibilities in an appropriate way. On the one hand, it makes them well informed regarding the development in the field of education, educational administration and planning and on the other hand, they can have proper access to the information data regarding the functioning of the institution, working of the teachers, and achievements of their students and other personnel. It can also help them in chalking out the activities and work performed in the school by the students, teacher and other personnel. For the educational planners, such data bank may prove quite useful in taking decision about the courses of study, educational aims and objectives at the various stages, the evaluation strategies, the resources to be allotted to the various schools, etc. The communication facilities they avail out of ICT services give them additional advantage in the administration activities.

5. The educational researchers The students of education desirous to undertake research projects in the field of education are greatly benefited through the processes and products of ICT. They need quite diversified, pinpointed and reliable information and this need can be properly fulfilled through the organized sources of information controlled through IT. The channels of communication are open to them and they can have useful interaction for carrying out their research activities.

In this way, ICT may prove quite useful in helping all the personnel connected directly or indirectly with the processes and products of education. Information and communication are the keys of knowledge and learning and then proper and scientific organization and control is bound to lead towards the effective educational effort for the proper realization of the educational goals. The potentials of ICT in revolutionizing the formal and non-formal system of education in a number of ways are given below: 1. ICT can help in a big way to bring the existing educational systems into alignment with the knowledge-based informationrich society by providing the services of sophisticated tools, techniques and methods at its disposal. By our traditional approach to teaching-learning and ways of maintaining systems of education we can’t prepare our youngsters to face the coming changes in this age of globalization. However, the proper use of ICT may come to our rescue on this account. 2. ICT has great potential in bringing a paradigm shift in the traditional views and methods of teaching-learning and instruction in the following manner: • In the process of transitioning from broadcast model of learning (teacher broadcasting the knowledge to the students) to interactive learning. As a result it can ensure that students are able to work actively in collaboration with their peers. • In the process of transitioning from teacher-centred instruction to learner-centred instruction. With the assistance of ICT, the students are able to get exposed to large amount of information, and opportunities for collaborating with others in accomplishing complex tasks and effectively communicating knowledge to others. In this way, the students become more self-reliant and self-directed in the acquisition and application of knowledge and skills.

• The potential of ICT in shifting emphasis from teaching to learning has helped in creating a more interactive and engaging learning environment for both the learners and the teachers and, thus, made the teaching-learning process a quite cooperative enterprise and challenging pursuit for the realization of the common goals in an interesting and purposeful way. • It can help in bringing a necessary shift in the role of the teacher from a mere knowledge transmitter to that of a learning facilitator, knowledge guide, knowledge navigator and an active co-learner along with his students. • It can provide greater responsibilities on the part of the students for their own learning as they are supposed to seek out the relevant information and knowledge through their own efforts, synthesize and share their knowledge with others and grow and develop for the realization of the set educational objectives. • ICT helps in the process of transitioning of the students from the position of a mere knowledge seeker and knowledge getting individual to those who can think critically and creatively, reflect on their own learning processes and set their individual goals for the growth and development of their potentialities. 3. Today, ICT has enough potentiality in preparing the teachers for meeting the challenges of the teaching-learning task besides helping them in the proper execution of their multidimensional responsibilities of their work areas. It can now be properly infused into the entire teacher education programme (both pre-service and in-service) not only to help them using it for their own education and training but also learning to use it creatively and constructively for fastening the educational

growth of their students and playing the role of effective teachers as demanded by the ICT-ruled modern society. In this way, use of educational technology has a bright vision for guiding the path of education of the growing children. A sound system of education is earnestly needed to reap the rich dividend from the use and application of ICT for the benefit of the children and society.

Limitations 1. The ICT facilities are not available in the schools. Most of the schools are not in a position to afford the purchase, maintenance and other expenditure involved in its use. 2. There is a widespread ignorance about the use, applications and advantages of ICTs on the part of teachers, head of the institution and educational authorities responsible for bringing improvement in the functioning of the school particularly related to teaching-learning and organization of cocurricular activities with the help of such technologies. 3. There is fear and apprehension on the part of teachers for losing their dominance over the teaching-learning activities and becoming abundant and surplus or playing a quite negligible role on account of the use and application of ICT in the instructional process. 4. The teachers do not want to have transition to new methodologies and ways of teaching-learning. They still want to stick over the broadcast model of teaching instead of interactive model designed through the use of ICT. 5. Many of the students are not in favour of the transition of their role to the active independent enquirer and discoverer of the knowledge from the passive recipient of knowledge on account of the fear of complexities involved, difficulties

encountered and pains taken in the independent or interactive learning methods generated through the use of ICT. Their apprehension and fear for the use of such technologies sometimes stem out of their ignorance and lack of training for the use and understanding in them. 6. In our teachers training system, neither at the pre-service stage nor at the in-service stage there lies any adequate provides for equipping the teachers with the necessary knowledge, skills, attitude and interest needed for the utilization of ICT. It should be clearly observed that a mere literacy related to the use of ICT (e.g. computer literacy) is not enough for enabling the teachers to make use of ICT with their students. There is a great paucity of such competent and skilled teachers, who can use and integrate right technology in an appropriate manner for the effective integration of ICT in dealing with school curriculum bringing desired improvement in the behaviour of their students. 7. The prescribed school curriculum, the examination and evaluation system, the available instructional material and the infrastructure of the school all are not in a position to provide desirable support for the use and application of ICT in the school’s teaching-learning and other useful activities for the benefit of the pupils. 8. Last but not the least, the school authorities and administrative personnel of the State Government are not at all enthusiastic and helpful for creating a favourable environment and arranging men-material resources for the use and application of ICT in school education. Thus, the task of employment and integration of ICT in school education is facing a lot of limitations and difficulties. However, there is a great need to bring positive changes in this scenario and the school system can’t afford more to neglect the use of ICT in

managing its affairs. There is a strong link between a nation’s level of development and the level of technology used for such development. The teachers, educational authorities and policy makers, thus, should become quite conscious that information and communication technologies are of utmost importance for the future of education.

SUMMARY 1. Information and communication technology refers to a technology employed in the form of tools, equipment and application support which helps in the collection storage, retrieval, use, transmission, manipulation and dissemination of information as accurately and efficiently as possible for the purpose of enriching the knowledge and develop communication, decision-making as well as problem solving ability of the user. 2. Invention of paper and ink coupled with the print media may be regarded as the first breakthrough in the evolution of the concept of information and communication technology. It was further given a new impetus through the inventions related to photography, photostat technique, xerography, laser technology, and magnetic video camera, videodisc and computers. Beside this, the advancement made in the field of telecommunication technology in the shape of the invention of telegraph, telephone radio, television and communication satellites, cables Fax, etc. has contributed a lot in the evolution of ICT at the present age. But as far as the origin of the term information and communication technology (ICT) is concerned, the credit goes to U.S.A. where the term “information science” (later called as information and communication technology) was first introduced in 1950 for the effective handling of the interchange of scientific information among the scientists in U.S.A. and foreign

countries. Later on, around 1960, it was began to be used in the field of industry and now today we may witness its wide use in all fields and walks of our life including education and instructions. 3. Information and communication technologies for the purpose of their better understanding and application may be properly classified into two broad groups, namely traditional and modern. In traditional technologies, we may include the means and media like printed media, verbal information and knowledge and a variety of audio-visual aids and equipment. In the modern technologies, we may include the advanced and sophisticated means like digital video camera, multimedia personal computer (PC), laptop and notebook, multimedia projector (LCD or DLP), computer networking, Internet and world wide websites, computer mediated video and audio conferencing, video text, tele text, virtual classroom, virtual reality, etc. 4. The use of ICT is playing a quite vital role in the field of education in so many ways. It is providing immense help and assistance to all connected with the tasks of education like students, teachers, guidance and counselling personnel, educational planners and research workers for performing their responsibilities as adequately as possible. Besides this it is also performing a great role in bringing desired changes and revolution in a big way in the whole system of formal and non-formal education and instruction. 5. Use and applications of ICT in our schools suffers from the limitations, difficulties and drawbacks like (i) lack of needed facilities, material and equipment and favourable conditions for the use of ICT, (ii) a widespread ignorance about the use, applications and advantages drawn out of the ICT on the part of teachers, head of the institution and educational authorities,

(iii) resistance on the part of teachers and students for its use on account of their attachment to old ways and fear for the adoption of the new, and (iv) lack of provision to equip the teachers neither at the pre-service stage nor at the in-service stage in the utilization of ICT for the instructional and other educational purposes in the schools.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do we mean by the term information and communication technology (ICT)? Explain its concept clearly. 2. Describe in brief the origin and growth of ICT. 3. Name the important traditional and modern ICTs used to help the cause of education in our school. 4. Discuss the uses and advantages of ICT in our school education system. 5. Discuss the uses and applicability of ICT in improving the functioning of the schools. Also point out the main limitations and difficulties being faced for such applicability.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Beena Shah and D. Venkateshwarlu, "Information technology and teachers", University News, September 4–10, 2002. Bouwman, Harry, et al., Information and Communication Technology in Organizations: Adoption, Implementation, Use and Effects, Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2005. Choudhary, Girish, "Online education: Possibilities and challenges, University News, September 27–30, 2001. Les Lloyd (Ed.), Technology and Teaching, Publication Information, Medford, Medford NJ: Information Today, 1997.

Mohanasundaram, K. and D. Kumaran, "Web-based instruction: An innovative teaching strategy", University News, November 19– 25, 2001. Raymond, Frank B., Leon Ginsberg and Debra Gohagan (Ed.), Information Technologies: Teaching to Use—Using to Teach, Publication Information, New York: Haworth Press, 1998. Somekh, Bridget, Pedagogy and Learning with ICT: Researching the Art of Innovation, New York: Routledge, 2007. Srivastava, D.S. and Sarita Kumari, Significance of Information and Communication Technology, New Delhi: Shree Publishers and Distributors, 2004. Srivastava, Anand P., "Information technology and higher education", University News, August 17–23, 1998.

31 Computer-Operation and Networking CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction What are Computers Classification of Computers General Structure and Working Language of a Computer Components of a Personal Computer (PC) How does a Personal Computer Machine Operate What is Computer Network Computer Virus Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Thanks to the fascinating world of computers. Today, computers have become the part and parcel of our lives. Every field and activity of our life is now affected and benefited by the use and application of the computers and computer technology. Education is not an exception. Today, the teaching and learning is making use of computers in so many forms and ways. So, a learner or teacher is in a need of some

working knowledge of the use of computers. This chapter will provide a necessary background for understanding the concept, structure and functioning of computers in the manner we often make use of them in our school’s computer lab.

What are Computers For tracing the evolution of computers, we will have to go back to the age of discovery of numbers and counting systems. Counting with the aid of pebbles was perhaps the first calculating technique used by the human beings. However, the credit for being called as the first computer goes to ‘Abacus’ a counting machine used by the ancient Orientals. It is more than 5000 years old and is still the primary form of “number crunching” in many parts of the world. In its present form, it makes use of beads to represent decimal numbers as shown in Fig. 31.1.

Figure 31.1 Abacus

The next attempt after the invention of the Abacus, for automatic computation, was made by a French scientist Blaise Pascal in 1642. He invented an arithmetic machine actually for the purpose of helping his father in his business of tax collection. This machine had eight wheels, each wheel having the numbers 0 to 9 painted on it. The wheels were attached to gears. The gears, in turn, were attached to each other in such a way that simple addition and subtraction could take place by dialing the amounts to be added or subtracted. Pascal’s machine was, in fact, the first calculator and non-portable computer of the world. The computer world has acknowledged his contributions by naming a computer programming language as ‘Pascal’. In view of the above-mentioned historical evolution and also on its literal meaning, the term ‘computer” stands for a device helpful in computing or calculating at a faster speed with greatest possible accuracy. However, as we know about the modern computers, their field is not limited to computation. They handle any type of information or data and work in almost all the fields of human endeavour. Therefore, to define them merely as a device helpful in computation is not justified. In search of some alternative definition, we can safely consider a computer as a thinking machine of the human being that makes use of some well-framed meaningful programmes (software) for its operation and utilities. Therefore, as a programmable machine, every computer is known to possess the following two characteristics: 1. Responding to a specific set of instructions, in a well defined way. 2. Executing a pre-recorded list of instructions (a programme) for performing various tasks. In the language of technology, every computer is composed of two components (i) hardware (its machine like body), and (ii) software (the instructions followed for its operation and data which it processes for its utility).

Classification of Computers Modern computers are electronic and digital. These digital computers are broadly classified into the following four categories depending upon their performance, size and cost: 1. Microcomputers (or micros) 2. Minicomputers (or minis) 3. Mainframes 4. Super computers

Microcomputers These are low-cost small-size computers. These have been so named on account of their employing micro-processors. They represent a typically single-user systems, meaning that a microcomputer can be used by only one user at a time. The personal computers (PC) that you are using in your computer laboratory are microcomputers. These are named personal on account of being used by any person (without specialized training) for his personal use.

Minicomputers These perform better, are larger in size, and cost more than microcomputers. They also possess larger storage capacities and are faster. Normally, they are designed to support more than one users at a time. That is why these may also be used as servers in local area network (LAN). Minicomputer, thus as a multi-user computer, can support ten to hundreds of users simultaneously.

Mainframes These computers are more powerful and faster than minicomputers. They have a quite larger storage capacity and are able to support

many hundreds of users simultaneously. Their real values lie in their processing power to handle large database systems, i.e. handling the records of thousands of employees working in an organization. On account of their large support base, they can be safely used as servers in WAN.

Super computers Where microcomputers lie at the lowest end of the computer range, the super computers stand at the highest end (apex). They are the most powerful, fastest and expensive machine and thus, can be afforded only by rare organizations working on the national level. These computers have remarkable performance as billions of calculations may be performed by them in a second. Some of the areas in which these are in use are sophisticated scientific and biomedical researchers, weather forecasting, designing of sophisticated machines and warfare equipment, etc.

General structure and working The structure and working of a computer resembles the human brain. In general, a computer system consists of the subsystems, namely: (i) Input, (ii) Memory, (iii) Arithmetic and logic, (iv) Output, and (v) Control. 1. The input subsystem in the form of keyboard cassette recorder, etc. works for putting outside information in the machine just as our eyes, ears and other sense organs work for our brain to collect information from the environment. 2. The memory subsystem helps in storing information and data electronically which can be retained indefinitely and used when needed. However, this memory is erasable and hence the stored information can be replaced with new one within a few microseconds.

3. The arithmetic and logic subsystem is the arithmetic and logic mind of the computer. It is responsible for all types of data manipulation and computation work. This work is carried out with an unimaginable accuracy and extremely high speed. 4. The output subsystem resembles the output system of our brain to furnish the answered information. Whereas in our case it is done orally and by writing, in computers it is carried out through display (visualized) in the screen of the monitor, the printer (in the form of printed material) or the cassette recorder (voice). 5. The control subsystem, as the name suggests, controls the execution of the programme and coordinates all the activities of the computer. It functions in two phases in a cyclic manner: (i) the instruction phase, and (ii) the execution phase. In the former a command of the programme is brought to the control subsystem from the memory, and in the latter the command is executed. The arithmetic and logic and the control subsystems together is called the central processing unit (CPU) or simply the processor signifying that what is to be processed in the machine is done through CPU (Fig. 31.2).

Figure 31.2 Working and organization structure of the subsystems of a computer.

The computers in all their sizes and applications are machine-like devices and, thus, belong to the family of hardware. They possess vast memory, unusual flexibility and unimaginable scope for computing and manipulating data in unlimited ways. For this purpose, like other hardware, computers make use of software. The software used in them is in the form of a written programme prepared by human being. A computer works in the manner what it gets in the form of programme. That is why, the computer in itself is not an independent thinking machine, but a machine of a thinking man, the programmer. The job of a computer programmer is quite technical which needs the knowledge of the language spoken by the computer and its coded specific instructions, besides the knowledge of the subject matter and instructional technology.

Language of a Computer The computer language serve much the same purpose as a human language, i.e. communication. But they can’t communicate in the languages of ours. They have their own languages such as BASIC,

PILOT, LOGO, FORTRAN, COBOL, and JAVA, etc. If we wish to communicate with them, we have to know their languages. Each of these languages tries to adopt a particular type of number system— binary, hexadecimal or octal system, etc.,—in place of the usual decimal system adopted by the human beings for the general computation work. Most of the computers make use of the binary system with two-digit symbols, 0 and 1 (instead of ten digits, 0 and 1 to 9) for expressing any number as illustrated in Table 31.1. TABLE 31.1

For expressing in computer language, the alphabet, operations, etc. are first given specified code number as given in Table 31.2 and then transformed into computer’s language. TABLE 31.2

Components of a personal Computer (PC) Your PC has a machine-like body and components (referred to as hardware) and a set of instructions (called programmes or software) for its operation and use. Let us first know the hardware components of a PC. As shown in Figs. 31.3 and 31.4, the hardware, i.e. the physical components of your PC, may be divided into three main units. These are now discussed in detail.

Figure 31.3 Personal computer (monitor is placed on CPU)

Figure 31.4 Personal computer (monitor and CPU are placed separately)

Input Devices Unit The input devices are those devices or equipment meant for feeding data and instructions into the memory of the computer. For example, we may name keyboard, mouse, scanners, light pen, etc. Some of the most common input devices are given below:

Keyboard It closely resembles a typewriter. It has a set of keys for enabling you to enter data into the computer. It has 101 keys containing letters, numbers and symbols, like an ordinary typewriter. Besides these, it contains a variety of other keys:

1. Function keys: These are 12 keys found on the top left-hand side of the keyboard and are named F1, F2, …, F12. They are used to perform special functions depending on the software used. 2. Numeric keyboard: It is located on the right-hand side of the keyboard. It looks and functions like a calculator. 3. Special keys: These are meant to perform special functions like controlling the movement of the cursor on the computer screen. While working on your PC using a keyboard, you must have noticed a flashing point on the computer screen (monitor). It is the cursor. For the movement of the cursor, the keyboard has the following special keys: Four directional arrow keys for moving the cursor one space at a time either up, down, left or right direction. The keys such as Home, End, Page up, and Page down for moving the cursor quickly over longer distances. The page up and page down keys are in fact used to “Scroll up” and “Scroll down” the page length of the screen. The other special keys (besides the cursor movement keys) on your keyboard are identified in Table 31.3. TABLE 31.3 Special keys on the key board

Mouse It is an alternative device to the keyboard for controlling the movement of the cursor or pointer on the computer screen. It looks somewhat like a mouse with a tail (in the form of its connecting wire) hence the name. The mouse may have one, two or three buttons (Fig. 31.5). The function of each button is determined by the programme that uses the mouse. Rolling or moving the mouse on a flat surface (usually a mouse pad) causes a corresponding cursor movement on the computer screen. Whenever you press one of the buttons it will either mark a place on the screen or make selection from data on the screen. This quality of marking makes the mouse useful for graphic programmes to draw pictures by using it like a pen, pencil or paint brush. Similarly, its selection characteristic makes it popular selecting any option by simply clicking the button. Hence, the operation of a computer is often nicknamed as a clicking of the mouse button in relation to the programmes available in the computers.

Figure 31.5 A two-button mechanical mouse.

The type of mouse you generally come across in your computer lab is a mechanical mouse. In a mechanical mouse, the ball that projects through the button surface rotates as the mouse is moved along a flat surface (the mouse pad). The direction of this rotation is detected and relayed to the computer by the switches inside the mouse. On the other hand, another variety of mouse named as optical mouse uses a light beam (laser) instead of the rotating ball to detect the movement. The optical mouse responds more quickly and precisely than the mechanical mouse, but on account of being more expensive, it is rarely used in the labs of the institutions.

Light pen It is a pen-like pointing device used to select an option by simply pointing at it, or to draw figures and graphics directly on the computer screen. Now it has similar functions as that of a mouse. In terms of technology, a light pen is found to utilize a light-sensitive detector for selecting the options or drawing the figures on the computer screen.

Figure 31.6 A light pen.

Scanner Many times you face the situation when some information (text or picture) is available on paper and you need it on computer disk for further editing or incorporating it in your prepared document. The solution may be taking a photograph of the image directly from the available source, getting it converted into a form for being saved on the disk and then finally having its print through the printer. What you need as above can be safely and effectively done through a scanner. Scanner may be considered as an input device that can read text, picture or graphics printed on paper and translate the information/image into a form (code) capable of being processed

by the computer. Scanners that you will mostly find in your computer labs are of two types: (i) the flat bed, and (ii) hand-held.

Figure 31.7 Flat-bed scanner.

Figure 31.8 Hand-held scanner.

The hand-held scanners are appropriate for small graphics, photos and pictures but they do not suit the page-sized text or graphics. In the latter situation, the flat bed scanners are more suitable. They can scan and store images from books like a photocopier. Their operation also is quite easy. You are simply required to lay books, magazines, or the page of which you want to scan. Here even you don’t need to remove the page from the original source. The scanners as input devices are advantageous on many fronts. They may be used 1. to reproduce photographs on the computer screen. 2. as a photocopier for scanning text and graphics.

3. to integrate text and graphic files. 4. in so many educational, official and business purposes such as desktop publishing, storage of documents on the computer, demonstration and instructional aids in the classroom teaching, seminar and training programmes.

Digital camera It is used as an input device for feeding images into a computer (Fig. 31.9). We can take still photographs with the help of it. Such photographs after being stored in the camera are sent as digital input into the computer. The computer is capable of storing them as digital files.

Figure 31.9 A digital camera.

We can then make the stored digital images (in the files) by manipulating them in many ways, with the help of tools available in

the computer’s software programmes. It is quite customary to transmit these images (photographs) for showing on the screen of the computers as a part of video conferencing or transmitting them through e-mail. It has made possible to view the scenes and photographs of distant relatives by utilizing the Internet services along with hearing their dialogues (by using a special hearing device).

Output Devices Unit Output refers to any information or result coming out of a computer. In this sense, the output devices may be considered as those devices that help in providing information or results to the users by getting the same from the computer. Examples are monitor, printer, plotter, speakers, etc. Let us know about some of these commonly used output devices.

Monitor It is also known as visual display unit (VDU). The outcoming information or results (after being processed by the computer) are displayed in a visual form on the screen of the monitor. Since, here, the output from the computer is communicated to the user through the display on the screen, the visual display unit, is also shortly named as display screen or screen. However, the term monitor, refers to the entire display unit, whereas the display screen may mean just the screen.

Figure 31.10 A monitor (visual display unit>.

As a visual display device, the monitor allows viewers to have information about the results of processing unit of the computers. However, as it is attached with the keyboard, it can be used for viewing and checking the input provided to the computer through typing using the keyboard. It can display the outcoming data or information from the computers in the shape of both text and graphic images. This display can be either in black and white or in colour. Nowadays, we generally make use of colour monitors. There are many brands available in the market representing different styles, shapes and sizes, price range and quality. The typical size of the screen of most of the personal computers is 14 inches or 16 inches.

However, besides the size of its screen and colour display, the quality of a monitor is more judged in terms of its resolution, i.e. a measure of number of pixel, the short form for the Picture Element. A pixel is a single point in a visual display. The greater the number of pixel, the sharper will be the image or visual display. Hence, for getting fine results, the monitors with a satisfactory level of resolution should always be preferred. If you need permanent copy of the information you have entered into your computer on paper, you have to make use of a printer attached to your PC (see Fig. 31.11). In this way, the printer represents those output devices attached to the computer that help in getting the results of the computer’s processing on paper and in many cases, on transparencies and other media in the shape of text or illustration. The printers are available in a number of types, varieties and styles. The choices for using in your computer lab mostly depends on the speed or printing quality of their output, the present price range and economy in terms of their use, etc. However, nowadays three types of printers are most popular with the PCs. These are dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers and laser printers. Dot-matrix printers: It prints the individual character in the form of dots by striking pins against an ink ribbon. The number of pins in the print head may vary from 9 to 24. A printer having more pins in its print head is considered better as it helps in getting better printing. The dot-matrix printers are able to print both text and graphics in any language or form without additional hardware. We can also have coloured prints by changing ribbons. They are quite inexpensive. However, these printers are not much favoured in comparison to inkjet and laser printers on account of the following reasons: 1. These make much noise. 2. Their speed of printing is quite low.

3. Their print quality is very inferior in comparison to other printers. Ink-jet printers: These printers use jets of ink to print fully formed (not dots) characters on the paper. By jets of ink we here mean that the printers are capable of spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field for the printing of characters at a high speed, i.e., 250 characters per second. The sprayed ionized ink is absorbed and dries instantly on the paper. These printers are more popular in comparison to dot-matrix and laser printers on account of the following reasons:

Figure 31.11 Ink-jet printer.

1. Do not have unpleasant noises like dot-matrix printers. 2. More reliable in terms of their functioning and output. 3. Capable of producing high quality printing. 4. Require smaller mechanical parts and thereby are portable.

5. Provide an inexpensive way to print fully coloured documents. 6. In terms of speed, quality of printing and economy, they fall midway between the dot-matrix and laser printers. Laser printers: These use a combination of micro-electronic, laserbeam technology and photocopying technology. In their operation, thus, they utilize a light beam to form images on the paper using toner ink as the medium. The laser printers are very much ahead of the dot-matrix and ink-jet printers in terms of the speed and quality of printing. They are capable of printing up to 20 pages per minute, both text and graphics in any colour or black and white using an almost unlimited variety of fonts. On account of these qualities, these printers are most popular in the publication business of the texts and graphics. However, these are less commonly used in our computer labs and homes only on account of being quite expensive.

Plotters These devices help in creating high quality graphics (like charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, pictures and other computer-aided designs) on paper in multiple colours. They are used when the printers fail to serve the required purposes. In composition, the plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using pens attached to moveable arms. As a result, they are able to produce continuous lines in contrast to the printers that can only simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of dots. Like printers they can be available in two different shapes and styles, as flat-bed plotter and drum plotter. In a flat-bed plotter, the paper is held stationary while the arm and the pens move over it. In the drum plotter, the paper is wrapped around a drum and anchored at both ends. The drum rotates while the pen moves laterally along a fixed rail.

Figure 31.12 A flat bed plotter.

Figure 31.13 A drum plotter.

The quality of production from plotters depends on the quality of the pens, inks and the papers used for printing. Like printers, a plotter may be connected to your PC through the parallel port and can print as and when ordered by the computer. In general, however, the plotters are not available for printing in the computer labs of the institutions as these are quite expensive devices in comparison to the printers.

Sound cards and speakers These devices help the user to get output from the computers in the shape of sounds (information and results through hearing). These

devices are quite common to the PCs nowadays. The sound cards usually help: 1. In the output of sound through speakers connected to the motherboard of the computer whenever instructed by software programmes. 2. In manipulating sound stored on a disk.

Figure 31.14 Sound cards and speakers.

With their utmost utility, sound cards have become a prime necessity for nearly all CD-ROMs. The music and entertainment programmes of all sorts also are run with their help. In modern times, they are used as a supporting device for communicating worldwide. For communication purposes, we usually need a computer, a data communication package and a modem. The sound cards and speakers with a little more additional device of a hearing and speaking aid may help us speak and hear the voices of the person sitting at a distance through the telephone lines and digital signals of the satellite communication systems. It has made possible the task of on-line conferencing for deriving personal, educational and professional benefits.

Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit or CPU of the computer falls midway between the input and output devices. Whenever any data is fed into the computer through the input devices, it is processed and the resultant output is provided through the output devices. The unit of the computer where this processing is carried out is CPU. Its main component responsible for the actual processing is the microprocessor. The other important component of this unit is the memory consisting of data storage and retrieval devices. Let us know something about these components.

Microprocessor This is the main driving engine of the computer. There are various types of microprocessors (made out of chips) available. At present, the Pentium is the most powerful microprocessor manufactured by Intel. The capacity of a microprocessor is measured in terms of the number of bits it can send or receive and process internally. Let us understand the meaning of the term ‘bit’. As we know, the binary system (consisting of two digits—1 for on and 0 for off) is used in the computers. Each of these binary digits is called a bit and the collection of 8 bits representing a character of storage is called a byte. A modern microprocessor (32-bit processor) has a 32-bit data path meaning thereby that it is capable of sending, receiving and processing 32 bits of data at a time. This 32-bit processor will certainly have double speed in comparison to an old 16-bit processor. In its composition the microprocessor consists of the Arithmetic logic section (for executing arithmetic and logic instructions) the Control section exercising control over the data worked upon by Arithmetic logic section, and the Registers (for the presence of local memory needed by Arithmetic logic section). In functioning, all these sections work in union for providing required output to the users with the help of various output devices.

Memory (storage and retrieval devices)

It is that component of the computer system which works for the storage and retrieval of data and instructions. The computer has two types of memory, (i) internal memory, and (ii) external memory. Internal memory: It is present on the motherboard of the computer in the form of chips. It is also referred to as internal storage, primary storage or main memory. The following two types of internal memory are used by PC: 1. Random Access Memory (RAM) 2. Read Only Memory (ROM) RAM is the memory that the computers use for storing the programmes and their data while working on them. It is called Random Access Memory as it is possible to use any location in the memory at random to store data and instructions temporarily. You can retrieve data from these locations after their being stored on the hard disk and continue working on the document. It is also called read/write memory as data within it can be read and modified (written). When the computer is switched off, the data stored is lost if not saved properly in a location. The other type of internal memory found on the motherboard is called ROM. While manufacturing the ROM chip, the desired instructions are permanently stored on it. The information on such a chip can only be read. Nothing fresh can be written on it. In this way, ROM can be said to contain permanently recorded instructions that are quite essential for operating the computer. Unlike RAM, the data stored on a ROM is not lost when the power goes off. External memory (secondary storage devices): Your PC has a limited internal storage capacity. It places restriction on the amount of data processed. Hence, you need some extra means for the storage of more data. You have also noticed that in case of a power failure or switching off the PC by you, all the data stored in the internal storage is lost. It is a serious limitation. Here certainly you need some means

for the permanent storage of data. Both these purposes, permanent storage of data and the increase in the capacity of storing data, can be very well served through the external memory sources produced by external storages devices, also known as secondary storage devices. The common examples are floppy disks, hard disks, CD ROMs, magneto optical (MO) disks, etc. Let us know something about these secondary storage devices. Floppy disks: Often called floppies these are small, flexible and soft magnetic disks. These are removable as well as portable. You can insert or remove them from a disk drive of your computer at your will. As a result, these can be very well employed for moving data from one computer to another and for backup (keeping copies of your files and data). The floppy disks are in two sizes. 5½ inch floppies are now not much in use. Thus, you will be mostly using 3½ inch floppies (Fig. 31.15). Such floppies are made up of flexible plastic coated with magnetic oxide. These are circular in shape with a hole in the centre. These are placed in a square size plastic jacket or cover for protection purposes. The jacket has head slot (read/write opening) for the exposure of a portion of the floppy surface. The head of the floppy drive (a device used for retrieving and recording data) makes contact with the exposed surface of the disk while reading or writing information.

Figure 31.15 A 3½ inch floppy disk

The floppy drive is used for the task of reading or writing data on the floppy. In the case of hard disk, a hard disk drive performs the same function. Therefore, it should be made clear that the microprocessor does not perform the task of writing or reading from the floppy or hard disk. However, these disk drives are contained within CPU. The data can be stored on one or both sides of a floppy disk. Most of the PCs now use double-sided disks. A double-sided high density floppy of 3½ inch size can store 720 KB or 1.44 MB data. In computer language, the storage capacity of a PC is measured in terms of bytes. It is the small basic unit like gram utilized for measuring weight. One byte can store one character, i.e. any number, alphabet or other symbol. In this sense, to store the word ‘EDUCATION’, 9 bytes will be needed. For higher measurements, we have kilobyte (KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte (GB), terabyte (TB), etc. The conversion formula is given below:

1 KB = 1024 bytes or characters 1 MB = 1024 KB 1 GB = 1024 MB 1 TB = 1024 GB. Hard disk: As the name suggests, it is a hard and inflexible magnetic disk. It is made from aluminum and other metals. It is permanently housed in a sealed and contamination-free container and is located inside CPU of the computer. Hard disks are faster than floppy disks and can also hold more data (as high as 500 MB on a disk of 3½ inch diameter). In addition, a hard disk is very reliable safe storage device in comparison to floppies. There is no danger of its getting contaminated or damaged by heat, moisture and dirt like floppies. Optical disks: In these disks, the data is read and written by using a laser beam (Fig. 31.16). The storage capacity of these disks is much more than the magnetized disks (as far as up to 6 GB, i.e. six billion bytes).

Figure 31.16 An optical disk.

CD-ROM: It is a short name used for the Compact Disk Read-only Memory. This optical disk is capable of storing large amount of data (up to 1 GB) just equal to the storage capacity of 700 floppy disks. However, the data stored in it can only be read. The manufacturer of the CD-ROM writes or records data on CD-ROMs by using a high intensity laser beam. Once recorded, they cannot be modified, erased and filled with new data. You can only read the CD ROM CD ROM Drive recorded data by using in input device called the CD-ROM drive that employs a low intensity laser beam. CD-ROM players or drives may be internal or external. In the case of internal, a CD-ROM drive is provided in the CPU itself. CD-ROMs as useful storage devices can safely be employed for listening, viewing and making use of any information recorded on it. Now it is possible to modify or write

information on a CD-ROM disk with the help of a special device, called CD-Recorder.

Figure 31.17 An Internal CD-ROM Drive with a CD-ROM Disk.

CD-RW: It is a short name for Compact Disk Re-Writable. It differs from CD-ROM in the sense that here you can write and read data in the way you do with a floppy or hard disk. However, for doing this you need a special drive known as CD-RW drive (Fig. 31.18)

Figure 31.18 CD-RW Drive.

Magneto-optical disks (MO disks): These advanced types of disks make use of the magnetic as well as optical disk technologies thus getting the facilities of both magnetic and optical disks. As a result, (i) they prove quite safe from heat, dirt or moisture, (ii) the data can be read and written, (iii) these are portable like floppies, (iv) their storage capacity matches with optical disks as they can store data with capacities of even 2 GB (4 GB in case of double-sided), and (v) data can be directly overwritten on existing data during an overwriting operation (disks are rewritable over 1 million times). Pen drives: In the sequence of modern computer memory (storage and retrieval) devices, pen drives represent a portable USB (universal serial bus) flash memory devices that can be used for storage of audio, video and data files with the additional facility of quickly transfer these files from the hard drive of one computer to another. With a construction that is small enough to fit into a pocket, the pen drive drives its name from the fact that many of these USB devices resemble a small pen or pencil in size and shape. In its structure a pen drive consists of a small printed circuit board protected inside a plastic, metal or rubberised case, robust enough for carrying with no additional protectionin a pocket or in a key chain,

for example. The USB connection is protected by a removal cap or by retracting into the body of the drive, although it is not liable to be damaged if exposed. Pen drives, thus represent the typically shock proof, dust proof, removable and rewritable devices that are much smaller than a floppy disk (1 to 4 inches or 2.5 to 10 cm) and weigh merely 20 grams or so. These need no batteries, have no moving parts and are available in the range of storage capacity from 32 MB to 64 GB.

Figure 31.19 A 16 GB USB pen drive.

Pen drives offer unique advantages over portable memory storage devices particularly the floppy discs. They have a more compact shape, operate faster, hold much more data, have a more suitable design and operate more reliably due to lack of their moving parts. Moreover, these are more suitable to the demands of the modern PCs and laptops equipped with USB ports instead of the floppy disc drives. They are capable of beating optical disc drives in this regard, as a pen drive with USB-2.0 support can operate faster than an optical disc drive, while storing a large amount of data in a much smaller space. Utilisation of the pen drives is also a quite simple task. You have to insert your pen drive into a USB port of your PC or laptop like putting a blank CD. One end of the pen drive is equipped with a USB connector at one end. The connector is inserted into the USB port on a PC or laptop and activated. With its insertion, a pen drive is automatically activated. You can copy the data stored in it in your computer files or send the data stored in a computer files for the storage in the pen drive in no time with great ease and convenience.

How Does a Personal Computer Machine Operate? We have just in the above pages discussed the various components of a computer machine, i.e. the computer hardware in their three board categories (i) Input devices, (ii) Output devices, and (iii) CPU. Computer machine or hardware along with its three types of components is only a machine in its structure and functioning. It can’t do anything of its own for us without the help of computer software. A computer software is nothing but a programme or set of programmes (complete set of instructions written in a language understood by the computer machine) helpful in directing, controlling and coordinating the activities performed by the various components of the computer.

For this purpose, two types of softwares, application software and systems software are made into use by the computers.

Figure 31.20 Magneto-optical disk.

Application software These are programmes designed for the users to make general or specific application of the computer machine. This application may be

as simple as to draft a letter or add a few numbers, or as complex as preparation for landing on the moon. Most of the general and specific software programmes are available in the market. For the general application, you may have softwares: 1. Word processors (helping to create, edit and print documents). 2. Spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel (helping in working with numeric data, specifying formulae, performing calculations and generating charts and graphs). 3. Presentation graphics like Microsoft Powerpoint (helping in creating graphics, inserting text in a variety of fonts, preparing slides, etc.) 4. Database management systems like Microsoft Access (helping in storing, modifying and extracting information from database.) For special applications, you may purchase standard specific applications software or can ask a programmer to prepare specific programme (software) for your specific utility in a particular work situation. For example, you can have software for the marking of an answer sheet, preparation of marksheets or merit list, etc. as per your requirement.

Systems softwares These are computer machine-dependent programmes that are generally provided by the manufacturer along with the computer hardware. These are installed in the computer machine for the purpose of easy functioning of the computer system. In this way, by the term systems software, we mean all those programmes basic and quite essential for running and functioning of the computer system. The following types of software are generally included in this software. 1. Complier software: It is helpful in converting various types of computer languages like FORTRAN, PASCAL, COBOL, and BASIC,

into a language of electrical signals called machine language only understood by the computer machine. 2. Utility software: This provides services and utilities for supporting the operations, management and uses of a computer system. Examples are softwares like backup and restore, sort and merge utility software, calculator utility, and screen savers. 3. Operating systems: As the name suggests, the operating systems are most essential for operating a computer in the most convenient and effective way. All the programmes helpful in one way or the other for outlisting computer services are run by the operating systems. All the basic and important functions related to data storage management (recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, etc.) and device management (controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives, printers, scanners, etc.), and system security are very conveniently and effectively carried out by the operating systems software. With your PCs, you will be mostly using the operating systems such as Unix, MS-Dos, MS-Window NT, MS-Windows 95/98/2000, 2003, 2005, etc. You must get ensured that an operating system has been loaded and activated before accomplishing any task. This means that the operating system software is most essential for providing a vital link as user-interface between you and the hardware of the computer system. We would like to illustrate the concept of user interface (interaction between the user and the computer) with the help of Graphical User Interface (GUI). Graphical User Interface (GUI): As a user, we generally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. We can provide these commands through input devices like keyboard and mouse. The commands are accepted and executed by a component of the operating system called the command processor or user interface.

The term “user interface” in computer terminology, thus, stands for a component of the operating system which helps in the process of proper interaction between the user and the computer hardware by accepting and executing the desired commands for operating the computer hardware. Different operating systems make use of different user interfaces. In MS-DOS we make use of the non-graphical and text-based user interface. As a result, the commands like COPY and RENAME are given for carrying out the functions of copying files and changing the names of files. In contrast to such non-graphical and text based commands, the modern user-interface employed in MS WINDOWS 95/98/2000, 2003, 2005 etc., the user is allowed to enter commands by pointing and clicking at graphical objects that appear on the screen. User interface that makes use of graphical objects for accepting and executing the desired commands for the operation of the computer hardware is called graphical user interface (GUI). Its use by the MS-WINDOW systems has brought the following advantages in comparison to old operating system like MS-DOS: 1. The commands can be given by just pointing at or clicking at the graphical objects, which appear on the computer screen, by mouse. 2. There is no need for remembering the commands and their syntax. 3. It is now possible to use the keyboard and clicking or touching devices for providing desired commands at the will of the user. 4. GUI has made quite convenient many multiple applications simultaneously.

What is a Computer Network A computer network is an arrangement for linking two or more computers, so that they can communicate with each other over a

transmission medium referred as Data Communication Channel. The data communication channels mostly employed for the desired interconnection between two locations (two or more computer terminals) are cables, telephone lines, microwaves, and satellite links. For location in the same school, office or building we may make use of cables, while for location quite away, either telephone lines or microwaves can be utilized. However, for the very far-away distances across the seas and mountains, satellite links are to be used for maintaining the desired communication link.

Network Models Different computers can be interlinked to each other in the network technology through a number of possible configurations. The most fundamental configurations or models of such network may be named as (i) star network, (ii) ring network, (iii) bus network, and (iv) completely connected network.

Star network In this star-shaped network (as shown in Fig. 31.21) there is one centralized computer (called host computer or server) which is interconnected with other computers. Here, no two computers can communicate with each other directly. It is the centralized computer that controls the whole process of communication.

Figure 31.21 Star network.

This network model suits the purpose of those institutions, offices and establishments which have to share the pooled database or costly device like laser printer.

Bus network In this type of networks as shown in Figure 31.22, each computer is connected to a single common communication cable or bus (an

electronic path).

Figure 31.22 Bus network.

This system facilitates direct inter-communication among the different computers or devices included in the network. This system, a model or networking, is frequently used in LAN.

Ring network In this as shown in Figure 31.23, all the different computers are connected to each other in a ring shape. Here all computers can communicate with each other without the help of a centralized host computer as happens in the case of star-shaped networking.

Figure 31.23 Ring network.

Completely connected network In this model, as shown in Figure 31.24, each computer has complete interaction with all other computers in the network. The communication between two computers is highly reliable, fast and independent. The break down of any line does not affect the communication between two computers. However, such arrangement may prove a little costly on account of the use of more number of lines for the interconnections. Any institution, organization or network system may choose a typical exclusive model or a combination of models depending upon its requirement and economic and physical resources for connecting the computers either in the local area within its reach or a widely covered, scattered and distant area. LAN, MAN and WAN are terms used in computer network for representing the smallness or largeness of the area/distance served. Let us know about these terms.

Figure 31.24 Completely connected network.

LAN When a network connects two or more computers within a geographically close vicinity and relatively small area, the system of network is called a Local Area Network (LAN), Such arrangement

serves the purpose well in sharing the information/data and resources within a limited and small area like an office building, school or college campus. Here, the task of networking may be carried out by following a model like star, ring, bus or completely connected according to the needs and circumstances. See Fig. 31.25, which follows a bus network for the LAN.

Figure 31.25 Local area network.

As shown in the figure, in a LAN network we require the hardware, namely (i) a host, powerful computer known as network server, (ii) workstations, i.e. a number of client computers (less powerful PCs) located in the specified small area, (iii) transmission channels in the shape of special cables for connecting computers and other devices, and (iv) peripheral devices like printers, scanners, modems, hard disk drives, and CD-ROM recorders, the services of which are to be passed by server to client computers.

Since LAN has a common access to database and other shared peripheral devices, it needs the proper maintenance of security and privacy along with the correct and valid transformation of data with speed and convenience. All these tasks are performed by the hardware through the use of LAN software in the name of LAN operating system. The LAN operating system softwares such as Ethernet, Novel Netware, and IMB-PC LAN fulfil the need of providing essential software to both server and workstation computers for playing their roles in LAN with needed security, privacy, convenience and speed.

MAN It falls midway between LAN and WAN. LAN permits interconnections between different computers in a small, well-defined areas such as a big hall, building, group of closely placed buildings or a small locality through some special cable lines, but it cannot function beyond a certain specified area or distance through networking. For this, we need the services of other types of networks like metropolitan area network (MAN) or wide area network (WAN). The term wide area denotes the complete freedom or unrestricted limits and boundaries for the coverage of the distance and areas for the computer networking. MAN indicates the type of network maintained for connecting the computers in different parts of a metropolitan city (big cities like Delhi and Mumbai). Here the word metropolitan is a symbolic one, to indicate that we can cross the local area limit and go a step further for covering more distance and large area for the computer networking by using cables, telephone lines, etc.

WAN WAN is the abbreviation and short term used for wide area network. In comparison to LAN and MAN, this network covers a relatively large geographical area and greater distances. You certainly need WAN for

establishing a network between different locations in a large city or among different cities or places within a province and country or among different nations of the world. You can, thus, be global in the matter of sharing information and database and communicating with all at the remote corners of the globe. Unlike a LAN, where usually the cables are employed for connecting various computers, a WAN utilizes the services of telephone lines or microwaves and satellite links. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet. WANs are commercial networks subscribed by anyone or may be run privately by companies or big concerns only for their internal use. In comparison to LAN, there is a huge cost involved in establishing WAN and utilizing its services. While covering larger areas and greater distances, there is more possibility of errors occurring in data transmission, and also the speed of data transmission may be quite low in WAN as compared to LAN and MAN. However, the services provided by it are very valuable and unimaginative in terms of breaking the barricade of distances and linking the unlimited number of users spread across the world. To connect your PC for getting all the benefits from WAN, you just need the following things: (i) telephone connection, (ii) modem, (iii) an account, and (iv) communication software package.

What is Internet The Internet is the short name for the Internet System. It is known as the largest WAN in the world. It may be defined as the world’s largest inter-network system (the network of networks) that provides the fastest, easiest and cheapest means for the countless users to get, provide and communicate information on a global basis. Thus, the Internet (often named as the Net) may be considered as a name for a fast World Wide System consisting of people, information and computers, capable of

communicating and sharing data among indefinite number of users at a time scattered all over the world. This great game of the Internet can be played only with the help of two types of computer programmes (software): servers and clients. In brief, the servers are programmes that provide resources and the clients are programmes that you use to access these resources. Besides the Internet involves millions of computers, and a lot of wires, cables, telephone lines, satellite links, and so on. In other words, the Internet is so designed and made to work in the way the client programmes (which you use) can talk to server programmes (which provide resources). Thus, learning how to use the Internet from your point of view means how to use the client programmes run on your computer. Before discussing these things, let us know about the minimum requirements for the Internet access.

The Internet Access Connecting your PC to the Internet you may avail benefits from its so many valuable applications like e-mail, World Wide Web (WWW), and file transfer. You may do it simply by establishing a dialing-up connection to the Internet by the following arrangement: 1. A telephone connection. 2. A modem–internal or external (device that lets computers communicate through telephone lines). 3. A computer PC. 4. An account with some Internet Access provider such as VSNL, Mantra, HCL, and Satyam. 5. The appropriate software, i.e. client programmes. For e-mail, you will require a mail client programme, namely Microsoft Internet Mail and for exploring the WWW, you have to use Web client, namely Internet Explorer.

The Internet Protocols The Internet (a network of networks) utilizes the services of a number of computer machines (hardware) for its operation. Working as a server or client, these machines make use of specialized software (server or client programmes) for exchanging information between them. However, the software used in different types of machines must be understood by all of them and for this purpose, it must follow a set of rules. Such a set of rules observed by the software in the Internet operation is called Internet Protocols. There exist various types of Internet Protocols, namely File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

File Transfer Protocols (FTP) It is the protocol (set of rules) that helps in transferring files between the computers connected through a network. In other words, it stands for that protocol observed by the file transfer programmes or software being used in the hardware for sharing information or data (contained in some specific files) among themselves. The file transfer mechanism proves very useful for sending a file (not a message or information) from one computer to another. There are two terms—‘uploading’ or ‘downloading’—used for sending and receiving the file. If you need to send a file from your PC to another person’s PC you have to use a specific file transfer programme (observing a specific file transfer protocol) to upload or send the file. However, to receive or access a file you have to use another specific file transfer program (FTP client programme) to download it. Actually, FTP observes the client/server principle. The FTP servers are those computers which have uploaded certain files for being accessed by the users. To access these files, you have to make use of the FTP client programme. It is quite simple to make use of an FTP. Most of the time you even do not need any special account or password (e-mail address

may be used as password if asked so by an FTP site). You may sign on as a guest or as an anonymous user for accessing a lot of publicly available information through downloading them. Internet gives you free access to a wide variety of files containing (i) free software like fonts, games, and clipart, (ii) software that can be used free for a trial period, (iii) documents like research papers, and articles, (iv) upgrades to current software, (v) advertisement application forms of the institutions, information and rules of the establishments, etc. However, it is not free always to access the files on FTP. The FTP sites may call for opening your own account or ID and then allow you to download the files.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) It may be defined as the protocol that governs the transfer of hypertext between two or more computers. It is the powerful tool for accessing information on the web. The term hypertext here stands for a specially coded text created through a standard system or powerful tool named Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). The HTML codes are also used to create links (besides the basic text) to other sources of information, if you need more information through such links. The access to WWW, the universe of information, has been made quite simple and methodological with the help of HTTP. A web page is transferred to your PC via this. The information is available in the form of hypertext on the websites that usually include some or the other hypertext links. These links can be graphic or textual. When you click on these links you are at once connected to another resource for getting further information on the subject of your choice. How does HTTP work?: It works on the client/server principle. Your PC works as a client to establish a connection on the computer (server) having resources at its command, the client programme uses HTTP to initiate a connection with the server, to make a request regarding seeking some information about a particular area. The server programme on the server computer makes use of HTTP to

identify the resources that you are interested in and then helps you access what you need (see Fig. 31.26).

Figure 31.26 Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)

For getting more information from the identified resources, you may select by clicking the mouse, any of the hypertext linked (using blue in colour underlined in the running text or given in the shape of index) for identifying a particular source and asking the server to send it back to your PC in a format that your PC is able to display or store. HTTP plays the following roles in getting information through hypertext links: 1. When you select a hypertext link, the client programme on your PC makes use of HTTP to contact the server, identify a resource and ask the server to respond with an action.

2. The server computer accepts the request and then uses HTTP to respond to or perform the action.

The Internet Tools and Services For getting and providing information (access to data, graphics, sound, software and text, etc.) and communication among the people, the Internet makes use of a variety of services and tools such as e-mail, WWW and e-commerce. Here, we would be discussing some of these popular Internet Tools and Services.

Electronic mail In a conventional mode of mail, you sent your letters and documents through post offices, courier services or special personal messengers. You can yourself realize how much time it would take and how much money is to be spent in the safe and reliable exchange of letters and documents across the country and around the world through such means. This problem has now been successfully solved by the electronic mail (e-mail) services provided by the Internet. E-mail then stands for an Internet tool or service used for exchanging information and documents between the people, no matter sitting anywhere across the country or around the world. Moreover, in case one is not available to receive the communication, it may be safely stored in the mailbox of his PC for being read and replied at his will. In e-mail, the messages are sent to specified addresses of as many recipients in the same way as you can send an invitation card for the marriage or birthday, etc. to your relatives and friends. The difference lies in its mode of delivery. Here, the message is not delivered through a person, but is carried out from one computer to another computer in the shape of electronic message travelling along the Internet. With the reliable services of networking, the e-mail has

then made possible to interact quickly and easily with millions of people around the globe, any time of the day and night for the cost of a local phone call. In its latest development, it has also made possible to have Internet telephony (talking between people just as they have on telephone lines), chatting, (communicating with other people by typing messages at the keyboard and receiving their reply on the screen), and now the latest—seeing each other along with listening to each other’s voices just as if you are sitting across the tables for the inter-communication. All these developments in the Internet services are the result of an appropriate synthesis of the sources provided by e-mail and WWW along with some sophisticated additional input and output devices and proper software packages. For communicating through e-mail, the person involved must know each other’s address (like postal address). Let us analyze a hypothetical e-mail address to know its nature. [email protected] We read the e-mail address from left to right. 1. “karan” is the name of the user. 2. “hotmail” is the name of the organization providing the e-mail service through its server. 3. “com” indicates that hotmail is a commercial organization. Sometimes, the e-mail address may take the form of [email protected] symbolizing “dk” for the user name and vsnl.net for the network site vsnl whose server we are using for the e-mail.

World Wide Web The World Wide Web (WWW) or simply the Web is one of the fast growing valuable services offered on the Internet to the users at a time worldwide. Technically, it consists of a large system of servers (the computers providing resources) that offer all kinds of information

to anyone on the Net. The information can be in the form of text, pictures, sounds or other types of data. Vast amount of all types of information is available at the websites maintained by the individuals or organizations for one reason or the other in the form of web pages. These information may be accessed by using a client programme called web browser. A web page may be defined as a single unit of information, often called a document available through WWW. It can be larger requiring more than one piece of paper or smaller requiring a very small portion of it. Your college of education, thus, may put web pages on its website containing information about its men-material resources, the types of courses it offers, the procedure of admission, the type of training and facilities provided, the activities conducted in the year, the past achievements and many other things about the present, past and future of the institution that may be a subject of interest for anybody on the Internet. An organization—commercial, academic or professional—may also offer on-line services to its clients for the various types of enquiries and on-line services through the web pages that can be downloaded or interacted at will. A distant education institution or university may help its students around the world, apply and register for course, and complete course work electronically through its website. The creation of websites may be possible with the help of the resource-generating computer known as server. It makes use of a server programme by following HTTP. Here all information put on the website is first organized in the shape of a series of “documents” or “web pages”. These web pages contain hypertext (including pictures and other multimedia elements) and are prepared through the use of HTML. HTML helps in creating hyperlinks (specially coded section of the web page) for providing useful link to other information resources. Thus, each web page can hold both information and links to other

pages of the same website or other websites. As you read a page, you can follow a link to jump from one page to another. The main purpose of the Web, thus, is to fetch and display web pages, i.e. the pages of hypertext. How to access information through WWW: Information and access to resources, as pointed out earlier, is available on the web pages. You can request a web page from a website or server by using the web browser. Web browser helps you as a client in contacting a web server, sending a request for the information you desire, receiving the information, and then displaying it on your PC. Examples are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Thus, you can have access to the desired resources and information available on the Web by using an appropriate web browser. For this purpose, what you generally do is to engage in the process of visiting different websites on the Internet maintained by various individuals and organizations. This is known as Internet browsing or net surfing. Surfing is a process of browsing without tools. Here, you may start with a particular web page and then follow links from page to page, making intelligent guesses along the way for ultimately having access to your desired piece of information. But now with a developed web technology, it is possible to make use of new tools like search engines for searching the desired piece of information on the web. There are many engines available, e.g. Yahoo! (http:www.yahoo.com) and google. A search engine contains a useful database containing references to thousands of resources and also acts as database. Acting as an interface, it initiates the process by providing you a place to type your request like “brainstorming” or “emotional intelligence” (meaning, you need the information about brainstorming technique or emotional intelligence). The search engine with the help of its database then may provide you a list of resources/websites matching your request by displaying the results and may further help you link to these displayed resources directly for getting the desired information.

E-commerce A short name for the electronic commerce, it stands for the services in the field of business, trade and commerce through the use of Internet. It has revolutionized the field of trade and commerce on the pattern set by e-mail in the area of communication. Let us have a glimpse of the various utilities of e-commerce. 1. Internet services, utilized in e-commerce, have made possible to have big advertisements and provide worldwide information on the part of business establishments and commercial concerns for their products and services. They can also have a fruitful communication with their clients and customers through e-mail and on-line facilities on the Web. 2. It enables purchase through electronic means. You can now select the thing you want to purchase on the websites, have necessary dealings, order for the purchase, make payment and get the delivery at your home. 3. It has made the financial transaction of all kinds possible in a quite convenient and speedily way. All the big and small commercial and financial institutions like departmental stores, retail shops, hotel, railways, banks, and insurance companies, are making use of such facilities to themselves and their clients by way of on-line teller terminals to make you know the payment you have to make and the accounts of withdrawal and deposits you have, etc. 4. The use of Automatic Transaction Process (ATP), Automated Teller Machines (ATM) and smart cards has almost revolutionized the commercial and personal banking in a very big way. Electronic funds transfer has been smoothened though the e-commerce techniques. 5. Through ATP, now you can provide transaction instruction using your PC and enjoy deposit and withdrawal facilities at your home.

6. Through ATM, you can have electronic funds transfer from the computer terminals by using the ATM cum-debit card. Besides having banking facilities, you can use this card for making payment of any purchases from the establishments providing such facilities. 7. Smart cards are the latest development in the field of electronic funds transfer. The cardholders may enjoy the facility of keeping electronic money with them (instead of cash or cheque-book) and can use the money for making purchases and doing payments at their convenience.

Computer Virus You may have heard the term ‘virus’ hitting a human body, infecting it and causing damage to it in so many ways. As a result, you may fall ill and your body may stop regular functioning. It is all about the biological viruses. What are computer viruses? A computer virus actually is not an organism but a software programme or code that has been written to copy itself into other computer files. It gets executed automatically whenever the infected file is used and destroys data and other programmes in the host computer’s storage media (floppies, hard disks, etc.)

How Does a Computer Virus Harm and Spread? A computer virus normally gets attached itself to other computer programmes and becomes part of them. A virus programme is written in such a way that it gets loaded into the computer’s memory and executed automatically. Then it copies the virus instructions into all the other programmes that are being executed on that computer. This activity, is also called as “infecting” the system/files. The infection can then spread itself to other computers through sharing floppy disks, LAN, memory-storage devices, computer networks, e-mail, Internet or other on-line systems. Some viruses are

harmless as they display jokes or messages on the screen without damaging the system. But some other viruses can crash (destroying data and programmes) a large computer system within minutes.

Types of Viruses Viruses can be classified on the basis of their (i) threat and (ii) computer associates. Based on threat, there are the following types:

Benign These may cause annoyance by slowing performance, displaying messages on a certain date or playing a song at a given time, but they do not cause real damage.

Malignant These can cause major disasters such as destroying or damaging files and crashing the entire system. Based on computer associates, there can be:

File infectors These viruses attach themselves to or replace the .com and .exe files. When you run the infected programme the virus code first executes. After it has finished loading and executing, it loads the programme it has infected.

Boot sector viruses The boot sector contains information related to the formatting of the disk, the data stored there and also a programme called the boot programme. The boot sector viruses place their code in this sector, because the machine will automatically execute this code when

booting. These viruses are spread by leaving an infected diskette in the drive.

Multi-partite viruses These are a combination of a file and a boot sector infector. They will infect both boot files and boot areas.

Macro viruses These viruses consist of instructions in world Basic or some other macro language, and reside in documents or templates. They attach these macros to these documents in such a way that when an application loads the file, the first instructions it executes are those of the virus.

Evolution of the Computer Viruses Computer viruses are not new. They have been around since the 1980s. In 1983, Dr. Frederick Cohern of the University of Pennysylvania experimented with a self-replicating computer code and called it ‘virus’. However, the first known virus was Brain, created in 1985 by two Pakistani brothers—Basid and Farooq Alvi, who ran a small software company in Lahore. Since then, the field of viruses has been in a constant state of evolution day by day. In their early days, viruses could spread only through the shared diskettes and floppies. At that time you would have only got a virus by booting your machine with an infected floppy disk or perhaps downloading a game or programme that could reach the hard drive. But sooner, there came an age of new generation viruses. These viruses are different, they spread through the Internet. They are stealthier, more adaptive, complex, effective and a lot smarter than their neolithic age ancestors. What’s worse is that they can even replicate on their own without any user interaction at all—hence they’re called worms, a more evolved species of viruses. These

worms are not ordinary viruses. They are fast moving, and by the time you have identified them, they will have already spread. The pace at which the Internet has grown seems to have come as a boon for worm writers and hackers. For now, it is so much easier to spread a virus—simply attach it to an e-mail and let it loose! And even before the anti-virus industry comes up with a solution for a virus, there’s already a variant or a new version up and about. And then it is so much more simpler to write a virus these days, with virus writing tool kits freely available on the Web. That is why there has been a boom in the evolution and spreading up of viruses and worms world wide, starting from a single known virus (discovered up to 1986). With each passing year, viruses and worms are becoming a bigger threat. Recent counts estimate that there are more than 80,000 known viruses on the loose and more than 2000 new viruses are born every month. In fact, hardly a day goes by without a new virus popping up somewhere in the cyberspace: “On an average, six to eight new viruses are discovered everyday.” The top ten of these viruses and worms as existing today, may be named as: Code Red, Sircam, I Love You, Melissa, Chernoby, Anna, Kournikova, Hybris, Ramen, Lion and Home page.

How to face the Evil You can safeguard your computer and information saved in it by taking preventive and curative measures.

Preventive measures Prevention is better than cure should be the cardinal principal for facing the menace of computer viruses. For this purpose, it is advisable to follow the following guidelines: 1. Just like diseases of the body, computer viruses are best fought before they occur. Therefore, every computer—be it a

home PC or a desktop —should essentially have an anti-virus software. To begin with, now just install the latest anti-virus software from a reliable source like Norton, Webshield, Virus Scan, and Net shield and update them regularly. 2. Just as biological viruses hit a human body with weak immune system, the computer viruses damage machines that aren’t protected. And just like you vaccinate your body to avoid being infected, you need to vaccinate your machines to avoid the computer viruses. The rate at which viruses and worms are being written and spread, keep some anti-virus vaccination by the mouse and don’t be scared of using the injection as often as you should. For better results, the anti-virus programme should ideally start by default when the computer is switched on. The system should also be equipped with the ability to selfrepair the damage caused by virus attacks. 3. Ensure scanning all the incoming floppy disks by using antivirus software before using them. 4. If your institution has a network, all floppy drives must be disabled, except one or two; preferably in the IT support cell. If any floppy has been sent to other institution, it should be writeprotected to prevent virus invasion. 5. Be careful while using the Internet services. The golden rule is never to open an e-mail attachment that comes from an unknown user or a stranger. It is because virus is a programme that comes usually as an attachment. Simply reading the text of e-mail won’t launch a virus, but opening an attachment can. 6. You should always maintain a complete backup of all important information and data, which should be updated regularly. The system softwares and other executable files should be backed up with originals. 7. While surfing on the Net, appropriate care should be taken. It is true that there is nothing to be much worried as viruses do not float around the Internet. These are attached to an executable

programme. So, simply surfing the Internet will not infect the machine with a virus, but clicking or downloading a virusinfected programme can. Therefore, it is essential to scan the documents before downloading them from the Net.

Curative Measures Even after taking all such preventive measures against the possible attack, viruses may still silently creep in. In such a situation, there is a need of taking some curative measures. Firstly, there is an urgent necessity of having an early detection and confirmation that there has been a virus attack. You can detect the presence of a virus by strange messages that may pop up on the screen. For example, in the case of Melissa, a famous virus (affecting MS Word documents), the message germinated by the virus says “Here is a document you asked for…don’t show anyone else.” Similarly, “Code red”, the worm generated somewhere in August 2001 displayed the text “welcome to http.//www.worm.com! Hacked by Chinese!” Besides this, these may be unusual changes in the size of programs, strange file names in the contents, reduction or nonavailability of free space in the memory and prolonged disk activity or drives working on their own. In case the sign and symptom of getting affected with viruses go unnoticed then viruses may get enough time to get activated, spread out and cause havoc. After observing symptom and signs of virus attacks, the next things is to contact immediately the software engineers for the clear detection and identification of the viruses. This is important because sometimes antivirus programmes may repeat an uninfected file as infected and vice versa or may not identify the right type of virus. Proper identification of the virus helps in finding an effective software to cure, and ensure minimum loss of information/data. Through curative measures, it should be properly ensured that the virus has been completely cleaned. In case it is not done so, the virus may remain dormant for sometime and re-emerge to create problems

and finally damaging the valuable files, loaded programs and the operating system.

SUMMARY 1. A computer may be known as a thinking machine of the human being that makes use of some well-framed, meaningful programmes (software) for its operation and utilities. Technologically speaking, every computer is composed of two components – hardware (its machine like body) and software (the instructions it follows for its operation and data which it processes for its utility). 2. Depending upon their performance, size and cost, modern computers may be classified into four categories, namely minicomputers, mainframes, super computers and microcomputers. The personal computers (PC) or laptop that you are using in your computer laboratory or home are microcomputers. 3. The hardware (machine like body) of your PC may be divided into three main units, i.e. Input Devices Unit, Output Device Unit and Central Processing Unit (CPU). Input devices unit consists those devices, or, equipment that are meant for feeding data and instructions into the memory of the computer. As examples of these devices, we may name keyboard, mouse, scanners and light pen, digital camera, etc. Output devices unit consists of those devices that help in providing information or results to the users by getting the same from the computer. As examples of the commonly used output devices, we may cite the names of monitor, printer, plotter, speakers, etc. Whenever any data is fed into the computer through input devices, it is processed and the resultant output is provided through the output devices. The unit of the computer where this processing is carried out is called the Central Processing

Unit of the computer. The main component of this unit responsible for the actual processing is the microprocessor. The other important component of this unit is the memory consisting of data storage and retrieval devices. Computer has two types of memory, i.e. internal memory (present on the Motherboard of the computer in the form of chips) and external memory (used in the form of secondary storage devices like floppy disks, hard disk, CD-ROMs and magneto-optical (MO) disks, etc). 4. Computer machine or hardware for its operation makes use of two types of software, application and system software. Application Software are those programmes that are designed by the programmers for the users to make general or specific application of the computer machine (e.g., Microsoft’s Word, Excel, Powerpoint and Access programs). Systems software are quite basic and essential programs for running and functioning of the computer system and are generally provided by the manufacturer along with the computer hardware in the form of (i) complier software (for converting the various types of computer languages like Pascal, Cobol, Basic, etc., into a language being understood by the computer machine), (ii) utility software like Backup and Restore, Sort and Merge Utility, Screen Savers, Calculator Utility, etc. and (iii) operating systems software like Unic, MS-DOS, MS-Window, etc. essentially needed for running the computer machine. 5. A computer network is an arrangement for linking two or more computers so that they can communicate with each other over a transmission-medium like cables, telephone lines, microwaves and satellite links, etc. The most fundamental or possible arrangements or models for interlinking different computers may be named as (i) star network, (ii) ring network, (iii) bus network, and (iv) completely connected network.

6. The terms LAN, MAN and WAN used in the field of networking signifies the largeness or smallness of the distance and area covered by a network system. LAN means a system of network covering local area spread in a limited range covering small distance e.g. linking the computers of an office or institution. In a sharp contrast to LAN, WAN stands for the coverage of unlimited are and distance. The computers located anywhere in the world can be interlinked through microwaves and satellite links in the system of WAN. It can play a very significant role in providing internet and world wide web facilities to us. MAN network lies in between the LAN and WAN network systems in terms of the coverage of area and distance and we usually take the help of cables and telephone links for the working of this system. 7. Internet may be considered as a name for a largest and fast World Wide System consisting of people, information and computers capable of communicating and sharing data among the indefinite number of users at a time scattered all over the world. Internet services now can help us in communicating with our relatives and friends sitting anywhere in the world on their computers through e-mail, chatting and audio-video communication on speakers and wave cameras. The World Wide Web (WWW) is one of the fast growing valuable services offered on Internet to the numberless users of the world at a time. The vast amount of all types of information in the form of text, pictures, sounds and other types of data are available at the Websites maintained by the individuals or organizations for one reason or the other in the form of Web pages. The users, who are interested in some or the other information available in the web page of a website then may access them on the net. The Internet and worldwide web facilities now has given us a valuable treasurer of their applications in the form of e-leaning,

e-commerce, e-ticketing and e-learning for facilitating our world of work. 8. The users of the computers may be haunted many times with a major problem or difficulty named as computer virus. By the term computer virus we mean a software program or code that has been written to copy itself into other computer files. It gets executed automatically whenever the infected file is being used and destroyed data and other programmes residing in the computer’s storage media. The infection can then spread itself to other computers through floppy disks, memory-storage devices, computer networks, e-mail, internet or other on-line systems. For facing the problem of computer viruses one is required to take up both preventive as well as curative measures. As a preventive measure we should essentially have an anti-virus software loaded in our computers and get it up date time to time. We must not forget to provide a dose of anti-virus to any secondary storage device like floppy, CD before being used in our computer. In case of red signal, we must immediately remove it from our computer. In using Internet we must never open an e-mail attachment that comes from an unknown user or stranger. In case as we know about the virus attack we should immediately switch over the computer machine and get it repaired by seeking the services of a software engineer or computer expert.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What are computers? What role do they play in the process of teaching and learning? 2. How are computers classified? 3. Discuss, in brief, the various components of your personal computer (PC).

4. What are input devices? Discuss the various important input devices in detail. 5. What are output devices? Discuss the various important output devices in detail. 6. What is a central processing unit (CPU) of your PC? Discuss, in brief, its two main components. 7. What is internal and external memory of a computer? Explain in brief. 8. What are floppies? What is their role as memory storage devices of your PC? 9. Discuss the significance and role of hard disk and optical disks as memory storage devices of your PC. 10. How does a computer machine operate? Discuss in brief. 11. What is a software? Discuss the roles of application and systems softwares. 12. What are operating systems? Discuss their role significance in the functioning of a computer machine.

and

13. What is a graphical user interface (GUI)? Discuss its significance as an operating system. 14. What is a computer network? Discuss, in brief, the various network models. 15. What is Internet? How can you access it on your PC? Discuss in brief. 16. What is an e-mail? How can you make use of this facility on your PC? 17. What is World Wide Web (WWW)? How is it different from the Internet? 18. What are Internet Protocols? Discuss the role of File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) in the proper operation of the Internet services.

19. What is a browser? How does it work? 20. What are hypertext links and where are they used? 21. What is a website? How do you access websites on your PC? 22. What is e-commerce? Discuss its significance and utilities. 23. What are computer viruses? How are they harmful to the working of computers? 24. Discuss the precautionary and curative overcoming the problem of computer viruses.

measures

for

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Besag, Frank P., Computer Literacy for Teachers, Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1984. Fitting, Marjorie Anne and Roy Dubisch, Computer Literacy, Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publications, 1984. Gill, N.S., Essentials of Computer and Network Technology, Delhi, Khanna Book Publishing Co., 2000. Kershner, Helene G., Computer Literacy, (2nd ed.), Lexington, Mass: D.C. Heath, 1992. Koch, Warren J., The Use of Computers in Education in Secondary Schools, Washington: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1972. Maffei, Anthony C., Classroom Computers: A Practical Guide for Effective Teaching, New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986. Parsons, June Jamrich and Dan Oja, Practical Computer Literacy, Boston: Course Technology, 2005. Peter, Coburn, et al., Practical Guide to Computers in Education, (2nd ed.), Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1985.

32 Resource Centres of Educational Technology CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction Resource Centers—Meaning Objectives Functions Organization A Few Leading Resource Centers Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction Educational technology is concerned with the supply of essential knowledge and skills needed for improving the processes and product of education. It stands for helping the teachers in their teaching and the learners in their learning functions by providing needed theoretical grounds, suggesting useful teaching-learning material for the development of personal skills for achieving the teaching-learning objectives in the most effective and economical way possible. In this way, equipping the teachers and learners with the essential gradients of educational technology is a big challenge. It can only be faced by resorting to the pooling of different type of resources at their disposal. Such multiple resources can hardly be afforded by a single individual (teacher or learner) or institution. It is here arises the need of

establishment of some appropriate resource centres at the local, regional, state and central levels (in the shape of resource centres working in the schools, DIETS, SIETS, SCERT, State Educational Technology Cells, CIET, etc.) for catering the needs of the individuals and institutions for enabling them to utilize the services of educational technology in achieving the desired educational and instructional purposes.

Resource Centres—Meaning The term resource centres, as the name suggests, stands for those places where different types of resources may be pooled and are available for the benefit of those who want to use them for their desired purposes. However, in the field of educational technology, the term ‘resource centres of educational technology’ mean the centres or places where we can have provision of the needed men-material resources for providing essential theoretical and practical knowledge, skills, applications, attitudes and interests related with the use of education technology to the concerned persons for improving the process and products of education in general and the teaching-learning process in particular.

Objectives Whether working on the local, regional, state, or central level, a properly functioning resource centre may be supposed to serve mainly the following purposes. 1. To pool, produce, organize, maintain and provide services of the various types of men-material resources related to the use of educational technology in the field of education in general and teaching-learning process in particular. 2. To conduct and help in the organization of various type of activities, programmes, seminars, workshop, etc. related to the knowledge and application of educational technology for the benefit of students and teachers. 3. To conduct and help in the organization of training and refresher courses for helping students and teachers to acquire knowledge,

information and skills related to educational technology for improving the processes and product of education. 4. To make provision for conducting action and fundamental researches for the development and application of the principles and practices of educational technology. 5. To work as a motivating and inspirational source for the development and application of educational technology. 6. To work as a centre for the dissemination of information and knowledge related to the development and application of educational technology. 7. To work as a coordinating agency for the development and application of educational technology among the resource centres at the local, regional, state and national levels on one hand and the users of this technology (students and teachers) on the other. 8. To work as a centre for providing guidance and counselling for the development and application of educational technology to those who are in need of such services. 9. To have provision of extension services to the community in extending application of educational technology aiming to spread the stream and fruits of education among the masses.

Functions In view of the above objectives of resource centres, we can summarize their functions and roles in the following ways:

Pooling and developing needed resources (men and material) The resource centres are supposed to have an adequate supply of the men and material resources. So, these are supposed to be engaged in carrying out the following activities: Have production of varying types of audio-visual aid material needed for carrying out various types of instructional activities at the school level.

Acquire teaching-learning aid material from various sources available at the local, regional, state and national levels free of cost or on price. Acquire the needed information, knowledge, skills and application of educational technology from various sources for its storage and use. Remain in touch with the latest developments in the application of educational technology and keep such information and knowledge open to its users. Provide incentives and opportunities to the staff (students, teachers and other personnel) for the development of the needed improvised teaching-learning material. Have an adequate provision for the in-service and pre-service training of the personnel related with the organization and functioning of resource centres, especially for those who face a challenge of opening the gates of resources to those needing the service of these resources.

Providing needed services The resource centres are supposed to carry out the following types of services to their users (teachers and students): Work as an enquiry counter for providing any type of information and knowledge related to the development and application of educational technology. Provide essential guidance and counselling related to the knowledge and application of educational technology. Provide essential teaching and training for the use and application of the theory and practice of educational technology, namely the use of hardware and software, programmed instructions, teaching machines, computer-assisted instruction, other specific teachinglearning strategies, satellite educational programmes, etc. Work for providing needed motivation and inspiration to the users of educational technology through various modes such as organizing exhibition, launching a campaign in favour of the used educational technology, and encouraging students and teachers for coming forward in using educational technology.

Act as a provider of extension service to the community and the individuals in the form of development and application of educational technology. Act as a problem solver and helper in a problematic situation faced by the users in applying the theory and practice of educational technology in the real working situation.

Working as a liaison and coordinating agency As said earlier, there are various types of resource centres which may be founded to be operating at the institutional, local, regional, district, state and central levels. They all stand for helping the teachers and learners at the root level to understand the development and application of educational technology. However, they differ in their functioning and potential. Therefore, there should be a proper coordination and understanding among these resource centres working at the different levels, so that their efforts may be properly encashed for the desired benefits of the development and application of educational technology. A resource centre is supposed to carry out the essential coordinating and integrated activities by first establishing essential links with other resource centres and then disseminating the fruits of such links to its immediate users. In addition, a resource centre is supposed to have proper link and coordination with various individuals and institutions for providing needed men-material resources and services to its users, e.g. experts and professionals in various fields, learning and teaching areas, research and innovation, etc., the libraries and information centres, the officers and departments of local bodies, state and central governments, experts, and the organizations connected with the development and maintenance of hardware, software and other applications of educational technology.

Organization Since educational technology has to play a significant role in the educational life of an institution, the organization of its resource centres must occupy a prominent significance in the planning and scheduling of the school management. Generally, the following things should be kept in mind while

taking care of the establishment and organization of the resource centre in the schools: 1. As far as possible, it should be centrally located for providing a convenient access to the classroom- and subjects-related instructions. 2. It should have adequate space, lighting and ventilation, essential furnishing and accommodation not only for the upkeep and safety of material resources (hardware and software) but also for carrying out demonstration and other essential activities regarding their development and application. 3. The success story of the functioning of a resources centre is essentially linked with the personnel associated with its management and working. It is, therefore, essential that we must have proper provision of trained staff for its management and functioning. The person/teacher in-charge and the associates should have proper theoretical and practical understanding of the development and application of educational technology. They must be given opportunity for their professional growth by allowing them to join refresher courses, attending seminars and workshop and get them adequately trained and informed about the latest development in the field of educational technology including the management and functioning of resource centres. 4. An adequate budget amount should be allotted for equipping as well as the functioning of the resource centre by the management (government or private) or administrative authorities of the institution. The help of the grant and donations giving authorities should also be secured from time to time for raising this budgeting amount. In matter of planning expenses, priority should always be given for the procurement of essential men-material resources and execution of most rewarding activities. 5. In view of the resources in hand and the demands of the educational and instructional needs of the teachers and students, a proper execution plan/schedule should be chalked out for the activities and functioning of the resource centre. Accordingly, the work may be divided into certain specific heads. Further, for the execution, certain

subcommittees consisting of some enthusiastic students and a teacher in-charge may also be constituted. The division may proceed as: (i) Pooling and development of material resources. (ii) Maintenance and providing service of the material resources in hand. (iii) Orientation and training provision for the development and application of material resources as well as theoretical and practical understanding of the application of education technology. (iv) The collection, storage and dissemination of knowledge and information regarding the development and application of educational technology to the users (teachers and students). (v) Guidance and counselling regarding development and application of educational technology to the users. (vi) Carrying out coordination and integration task within the school system and with the resource centres and agencies lying outside the schools for pooling the best possible resources and their application for the ultimate benefit of the teachers and students. (vi) Establishing link with the community and its resources for the execution of activities as well as securing help of the society for the smooth and effective functioning of the resource centre. (vii) Popularising the use and functioning of resource centre and providing incentive and motivation to the users for the proper development and utilization of its resources. This division of the activities and schedules can surely help in securing involvement of the students and teachers in the greater degree besides providing efficiency to the functioning of the resource centre. Such division of the responsibilities may further be structured in the shape of forming various departments each sharing specific types of responsibility, namely department of material resources, department of collecting storing and disseminating information, department of guidance and counselling, department of research and extensions, department of personnel development and professional growth, department of coordination and integration, department of publicity and popularizing the application of educational technology,

department of planning and evaluation, and department of financial management and administration control. 6. The largest advancement in the field of science and technology and principles and practices of effective management should be made into use for the proper planning, execution and control of the functioning of the resource centre. For example, we must seek the help of the valuable services of the computer through a variety of useful software and networking for the collection, storage, and dissemination of information and knowledge to the teachers and students associated with the resource centre. The other managerial tasks like budgeting, keeping of account, scheduling of activities, maintenance of record of the tasks and responsibilities, outcomes of the efforts of the resource centres, enquiry for seeking information and knowledge, training, practice and drillwork, etc. should also be handed over to the well-managed activities of the computer operation. The help of the closed circuit television system, video and audio recording, etc. may also be taken for providing proper boost to the functioning and evaluation of the work and schedules of the resource centre. 7. The last but not the least thing that should be given due consideration lies in the fact and practice of establishing proper link and seeking due help, assistance and guidance from the chain of resource centres established outside the boundary of one’s institution in the shape of resource centres of the colleges of education, DIETs, state resource centres of educational technology (ET cells), SCERT, NCERT and its centre of educational technology (CIET). The staff and students of the school must have an essential awareness of the organization, functioning and services provided through these agencies for getting them properly acquainted with the latest development in the theory and practice of educational technology. Let us have some idea about the functioning and services of some of these agencies working at the district, state and national levels.

A Few Leading Resource Centres

With the advent of modern science and technology as well as the principles and practices of psychology and pedagogy, a visible trend was emerged almost globally for the development and application of educational technology with a clear-cut objective of improving the processes and product of education. The developed countries as usual took the lead for this purpose, which was later on followed by the developing countries. Accordingly, the Ministry of Education (Now Ministry of Human Resource Development) of the Government of India took a decision in 1972–73 to launch a workable project for this purpose. It was named as Educational Technology Project. The State as well as Central Governments both were assigned the joint responsibility of the execution of the project with the active assistance and cooperation of the organization like UNDP, UNESCO, NCERT, SCERTs, and film education institutions. As a result, the first resource centre of educational technology was established in the year 1972 at the central level in NCERT (CIET). It was later on followed by the establishment of the state resource centres in various States and Union Territories of the Republic of India in the shape of ET cells at the state and district level. Let us have an idea about the organization and functioning of these resource centres, working at present in their new capacities.

Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) CIET works as a constituent of the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi. NCERT, is an autonomous body set up in 1961 by the then Ministry of Education, Government of India. It is an apex resources organization responsible for bringing qualitative improvement in school education and consequently assists and advises the centre and the State Governments on academic matters in the area of school education including teacher education through its constituents like the 1. National Institute of Education, New Delhi 2. Central Institute of Educational Technology, New Delhi 3. PSS Central Institute of Vocational Education, Bhopal 4. Five Regional Institutes of Education located at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Mysore and Shillong.

Historically speaking, CIET came into its existence in the year 1984 by the merger of two departments of NCERT, namely the Department of Teaching Aids (functioning since 1959) and Centre for Educational Technology (functioning since 1973). Since then, it has been giving its praiseworthy services in the matter of improving the process and products of education.

Organisation of ClET As one of the important constituent of NCERT, it is located in a separate building lying well within the campus of NCERT, known as Chacha Nehru Bhavan. It is looked after by a Joint Director. For carrying out its various functions and activities, it has been divided into the following different sections or departments: 1. Educational Technology—Planning and System Design Department 2. Educational Technology and Training Department 3. Graphics Exhibition and Printing Department 4. Information and Records 5. Television Department 6. Film and Photo Department 7. Research, Evaluation and Coordination Department 8. Technical Planning and Maintenance Department 9. Audio-Radio Department 10. Distance Education Department 11. Special Projects Department

Role and function CIET is concerned with nearly all the tasks that go with the management of educational technology, viz. identification of themes, development of programmes briefs and audio-video scripts, planning and coordination of facilities for media production, training programmes, transmission of audiovideo programmes (telecast and broadcast), duplication, sale and supply of cassettes, access, installation and custody and maintenance of hardware, research and evaluation and monitoring of transmission, utilization and dissemination of information on ET, etc. These functions are briefly summarized in Table 32.1

TABLE 32.1 The function and roles of CIET

For exercising the above roles and functions, CIET has a democratic provision in the shape of an Advisory Board of the Institute that decides and approves the programmes and budget estimates for the year. Its major emphasis on the production and utilization of media elements, training, and consultancy research and external activities. Its activities and achievements in some of the major areas. 1. Production and development of audio and video programmes: CIET’s educational programmes are made by professionals, who are guided and advised by subject experts, faculty members and practising teachers to ensure content accuracy, credibility and authenticity. The programmes thus produced are subjected to preview, field testing and modification before dissemination or broadcast. The audio and video progammes mainly meet the requirements of the school sector. These are mainly in Hindi, while some are also available in English. They cater to the age groups of 5–8 years, 9–11 years, secondary

and higher secondary students and teachers. They aim at enriching the school curriculum, developing curiosity, enabling children to raise questions and fostering aesthetic sensibilities. 2. Training and consultancy CIET is engaged in offering its services in the following areas: Setting up audio and video studios, multimedia, graphics and animation facilities. Training of technical personnel in repair and maintenance of electronic media equipment and operation of new equipment. Training of production personnel like cameramen, video and audio editors, and producers. Training in scripting, research and evaluation. Training in multimedia design, scripting, graphics and animation and Web applications. Organization of customized training courses. 3. Transmission of ETV programmes: CIET has produced about 1700 ETV programmes and each year nearly 100 programmes are added to this list. ETV transmission from CIET, on the DD1 channel was started way back in 1982–83. As a result, a 45-minute capsule in Hindi from Delhi was telecast for primary school students. There has been a substantial increase in the duration and quality of the mission by now. Especially, a new era heralded on 26th January 2000 in the realm of educational television when an exclusive educational channel “Gyan Darshan” was offered to the Indian masses and CIET was declared the nodal centre for feeding this dedicated channel in the school education sector. Thus, CIET is now an active partner of the Gyan Darshan channel and shares the major transmission responsibility. It has been feeding three hours and 45 minutes daily from June 2000. As the entire responsibility of educational programmes in the schools sectors is on NCERT, it is coordinating with other sister organizations like National Institute Open Schooling (NIOS) and SIETs (Lucknow and Patna) for telecast of suitable ETV programmes. Under the umbrella of school telecast, CIET is receiving programmes for half an hour for Tuesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday from NIOS. Similarly, a half-hour programme on Tuesday and

Thursday is being received from SIET, Lucknow and, for a half-an-hour programme only on Saturdays is being received from SIET, Patna. The telecast schedule is as given in Table 32.2. TABLE 32.2 Telecast schedule of CIET on Network and Gyan Darshan channels

4. Broadcast of educational radio programmes: Since its inception, CIET has been producing educational audio-radio programmes for its clientele groups. By now, about 1700 audio programmes have been developed by it. These programmes are used in both broadcast and non-broadcast modes. With the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the All India Radio (AIR) and NCERT in March 1995, CIET started feeding a 10minute weekly transmission. Initially this programme was broadcast by 10 AIR stations in the Hindi belt (Allahabad, Bhopal, Delhi, Indore, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Lucknow, Patna, Rohtak, and Shimla). Later, this slot was available for broadcast by 195 AIR stations through the satellite mode. The MoU was renewed twice in 1997 and 1999, respectively, for two years. It was continued up to September 2001. With the introduction of the first educational FM radio channel “Gyan Vani” (the exclusive educational FM radio channel), audio programmes of CIET are broadcast regularly. This exclusive channel started functioning on the November 2001 in the city of Allahabad. In addition, on the same day, the test transmission of the second Gyan Vani station at Bangalore was started. Gyan Vani is a free-to-air channel serving an area of about 50-km radius. It works as a radio co-operative and serves the educational needs of different sections of society. There is a difference between Gyan Darshan and Gyan Vani. While Gyan Darshan is a centralized TV channel Gyan Vani is suited to the educational needs of the local community. Gyan Vani is not only for the conventional educational system but also a main tool in making

available the dream of education for all. Its main intention is to take education to the doorsteps of the people. The CIET audio programmes are broadcast through the Gyan Vani channel with definite schedule. For example, the schedules of the three stations, namely Allahabad, Bhopal and Lucknow are cited in Table 32.3. TABLE 32.3 Schedules of the Gyan Vani FM channel

The series/title of programmes scheduled for transmission in each month by different radio stations may be seen in the monthly Gyan Vani Schedule published by EMPC-IGNOU. 5. Research and evaluation activities: Research and evaluation form part of the regular activities of CIET. The studies are aimed at assessment of needs of media programmes for different target groups, to know their relevance, quality and extent of utilization. Studies are also undertaken to know the effectiveness and impact of media programmes on children’s learning and other aspects of their development. The extent and motive of these activities may be judged through the following major research studies conducted during the year 2001–02 to 2006–07. 1. Need assessment studies of educational media programmes for upper primary school children and teachers. 2. Study of effect of computer-assisted learning (CAL) on hearing impaired children. 3. Field testing of ETV programmes based on mathematics curriculum of Class 12. 4. Study of effectiveness of interactive video prgrammes for teaching of measurement concepts at the 6th grade level. 5. Computer-assisted learning in different areas—a meta analysis. 6. Review of media research titled “Effectiveness of Educational Media”.

7. Moinitoring and evaluation of ETV transmission service called “Tarang” at primary level—annual reports. 8. Analysis of response patterns on a series of audio programmes titled “Raag Ras Barse”. 9. Analysis of viewers response (viewers’ letters). 10. A study of tribal schools to assess their educational media needs. 11. Impact evaluation study of educational technology scheme of the Government of India. 12. Development of a series of ETV programmes on sex education. 13. Develoment of educational television and audio-video programmes on eminent personalities in various walks of life. 14. Development of audio/video scripts in different curricular area and on NCF-2005. 15. Study of the status and perception of stakeholders of school education programme telecast on the Gyan Darshan channel. 16. Pilot study of using mobile devices for delivery of educational content and instruction with the students. 6. Library services: The media resources at CIET are housed in three libraries—for audio, video and 16 mm films. Apart from the in-house productions, the film library has also a large collection of educational films on various subjects and for all age groups. The audio and video programmes are also available in cassette form for use in a non-broadcast situation. Over the years, CIET’s collection of programmes in audio, video and 16 mm film format spans a variety of subjects and themes including: Fun with science Science experiments Where do you things come from? History of India’s freedom movement Art and craft How are things made? Low-cost science experiments How and why Health and diseases Environment

Astronomy Mathematics Language learning Learning the Hindi alphabet Idioms Stories and poems Biographies Special education Programmes for the girl child Music and dance Teaching methods Low-cost teaching aids The CIET is also the South-Asian Regional Library for video programmes awarded by the NHK, the Japan Broadcasting Corporation at its Annual International Audio-video Festival. In this way, CIET has been doing a commendable work in making the task of educational technology quite workable and functionable to its users. It has already planned extension support to the National Curricular Framework (NCF)-2005 through advocacy and development of teachinglearning materials in electronic format. It is also planning to start a TV channel for home viewing by children and teachers to extend support in their learning-teaching activities through coverage of areas identified in the NCF-2005. As stated above, it has already taken a lead in making the EDUSAT experiment successful by resorting to capacity building through a series of programmes and develop skill of writing scripts and other aspects of educational media. 7. Providing help for the implementation of EDUSAT programme: CIET is working for the implementation of the scheme EDUSAT. It has very farreading consequences related to the application of educational technology for improving the processes and products of education. We can have a quite well-prepared educational and training programmes for the students and teachers (related with formal or non-formal systems of education) at a particular setup. These programmes can be transmitted to a particular statellite service. Through the satellite service then these programmes can reach the consumers for viewing at their television or computer screens.

This is what is being planned now by CIET. For providing direct and live link of its teaching-learning and training encounters to the students and teachers of the schools far away from its location, CIET is starting a new revolution in the field of school education. For turning this dream into reality, CIET, under technical guidance of the Space Application Centre of ISRO Ahmedabad, is implementing videoconferencing set-up between itself and its associated institutions. In its first phase, the proposed experimental set-up, consists of teaching and training facility at CIET Delhi and classroom facility at 50 chosen schools across India. For this purpose, it has 624 kbps transmitting and 624 kbps receiving bandwidth at Delhi, while all 50 classroom locations have 384 kbps individual receiving bandwidth. All communications from the classroom to CIET teaching end have been planned through Hub installed at Ahmedabad. At the Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad, a Media Exchange Manager server is being installed for remote configuration and management of 50 classroom locations from Delhi. Videoconferencing in this situation, thus, has been panned by making use of (i) interactive multicast—one to many transmission, and (ii) multipoint videoconferencing (making possible the intraction of more than one classrooms and teaching simultaneously).

Educational Technology Cells (ET cells) The State Educational Technology (ET) cells are the outcomes of a centrally sponsored scheme of Education Technology (named as INSAT For Education). It was launched by the Union Ministry of Education for supporting the early INSAT educational and developmental TV transmission in the country. As we know, school education is considered essentially a State subject under the Constitution of India and it is the State which has to take prime responsibility for education at this level. Therefore, the responsibility of implementing the function of educationed technology and establishment of ET cells was entrusted to the State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERTs) and State Institutes of Education (SIEs), the autonomous nodal agencies for bringing qualitative improvement in the school education of the respective State/Union Territories. In this way, most of the ET cells (except the SIETs) are located and functioning under the supervision and administrative control of the

SCERTs/SIEs of the respective States/Union Territories. The SIETs represent the type of institutions (functioning in some states) supposed to carry out the similar functions as performed by the CIET. There are seven SIETs working at Pune, Patna, Bhubaneswar, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Thiruvananthapuram. Out of these, six SIETs (leaving that of Kerala) were established in the years 1984 and 1985 by the respective States. The latest SIET in the country was established in Kerala in the year 1998. The establishment of these SIETs on experimental basis represents well-planned strategy on the part of the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) for providing opportunities and incentives to the States/Union Territories to make use of educational technology in improving the processes and products of formal and non-formal education. All these SIETs are fully funded and supported by MHRD under its Educational Technology Scheme. The SIETs are rigistered under the societies act as an autonomous society. However, each of them functions under the administrative control of the education ministry of the respective State. Each of them has full time Director who acts under the guidance of the Executive Committee with an officer designated (either Secretary of Education or CommissioncumSecretary Education) or Minister of Education itself as its chairperson. The SIETs have a well-qualified team of personnel for carrying out its educational technology projects and activities. In this way, the tasks and functioning of ET cells in the seven States are fully shared by their SIETs. In other States and Union Territories, these ET cells function through their SCERTs or SIEs. At present, 24 states of our country have SCERTs while five others, viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim, Andaman and Nichobar Islands and Chandigarh have SIEs. The SCERTs of Bihar, UP and Madhya Pradesh are also catering to the needs of the newly formed states of Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh. Four UTs, namely Puducherry, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Lakshadweep have neither an SCERT nor SIE. However, the academic wings of the Education Departments or SCERTs are looking after the ET cells’ functions in these UTs. Of these, some have been upgraded as DIETs. Hence, whether through SIETs or departments of SCERTs, SIEs or DIETs, the ET cells are almost established in the various States/Union

territories of India.

Objectives The ET cells are supposed to carry out the following purposes: Assist and advice the Department of Education of the respective State/Union Territory in respect of the development, application of educational technology, and in the implementation of the educational policies and major programmes of the State at all levels both in formal and non-formal sectors. Produce or develop all necessary material resources at reasonable cost and undertake all such activities which may seem appropriate for the achievement of the above objectives.

Activities and functions The ET cells are usually expected to discharge the following functions: 1. Analyze educational needs of the districts/regions of the state. 2. Produce educational video and audio programmes and other software material in broadcast and non-broadcast modes. 3. Design develop and disseminate teaching-learning aids and other necessary software material. 4. Conduct training and orientation programmes for technical personnel and various functionaries involved in the production and use of educational media programmes. 5. Provide orientation and training to teachers for using means and materials of educational technology is making their classroom teaching effective 6. Conduct orientation programmes for other users to make use of educational video and audio programmes both as a formal as well as non-formal agency of education. 7. Undertake evaluation and research of programmes and material developed by the state ET cells or CIET. 8. Coordinate with the agencies responsible for carrying out educational technology function at the Centre, State or district level.

9. Encourage innovation and excellence in the production and use of educational material and/or media programmes by involving producers and users from outside agencies. 10. Develop concepts and provisions of user services for educational technology programmes. 11. Develop and promote facilities on its part and promote awareness and competencies among students, teachers and parents on the possibilities of application of educational technology in the areas of educational radio, ETV, computer assisted/managed instruction, audio/video cassettes, satellite communication, multimedia, local area network and the Internet. 12. Provide guidance and assistant to the promoters and users of educational technology in every sphere of the development of educational technology with the objective of improving the processes and product of education, both in the formal and non-formal sectors.

District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) DIET is an acronym for District Institute of Education and Training. The DIETs were established by the Government of India after the adoption of National Policy on Education—1986 as one of the centrally sponsored schemes for restructuring and reorganization of teacher education at the school level. The first lot of DIETs were sanctioned in Ferbruary-March 1988. By now, around 500 DIETs have been sanctioned arround the country and most of them are functioning. The hierarchical position of these institutes is given in Fig. 32.1.

Figure 32.1 The hierarchical position of DIETs among training institutions.

Each DIET has seven branches. However, their number varies from one state to another and DIET to DIET (See Fig. 32.2).

General Functions

The DIETs are expected to perform the following general functions as prescribed by the MHRD, Government of India: 1. Training and orientation of the following target groups: • Elementary school teachers (both pre-service and in-service education). • Headmasters, heads of school complexes and officers of the education department up to block level.

Figure 32.2 Branches of a DIET.

• Instructors and supervisors and non-formal and adult education (induction level and continuing education). • Members of District Board of Education (DBE), village education committees (VECs), community leaders, youth and other volunteers who wish to work as educational activists. • Resource persons who will conduct suitable programmes for the target group as previously mentioned at the centres other than the DIETs.

2. Academic and resource support to the elementary and adult education systems in the district in the following various ways: • Extension activities and interaction with the field. • Provision of services as a resource and learning centre for teachers and instructors. • Development of locally relevant materials, teaching aids, evaluation tools, etc. • Serving as an evaluation centre for elementary schools and programmes of FFE/ AE. 3. Action research and experimentation to deal with specific problems of the district in achieving the objectives in the areas of elementary and adult education.

Specific functions performed by the ET cells of DIETs 1. Develop, with concerned staff of the DIET and other resource persons, simple, effective and low-cost teaching aids for various subjects/areas relevant to elementary education and elementary teacher education, viz. charts, diagrams, models, photographs, slides, audio-tapes, play-scripts, and songs. 2. Help the DRU in developing low-cost teaching aids, for adult and non-formal education to maintain: • all AV equipment of the Institute; • computer lab; • a display area of goods, low-cost teaching aids developed in-house as well as elsewhere; and • a library of educational video/audio cassettes if the Institute has a film projector. 3. Make slides, cassettes and films for institutions having playing/projection facilities and borrow them from other resource centres. 4. Liasie with nearby radio station for arranging educational broadcasts suitable for elementary school children, AE/NFE learners, teachers/instructors, etc. of the district. 5. Conduct appropriate in-service programmes for teachers in the area of educational technology, with special emphasis on:

• effective utilization of educational broadcast, telecast, cassettes and aids; and • development of simple, low-cost teaching aids by conducting workshops for the development work as mentioned in 1 above. 6. Provide ET-related inputs into all other programmes/activities of the institute, e.g. pre-service and in-service programmes for teacher’ training programmes for NFE/AE personnel, field interaction (including extension) activities, material development, and action research.

SUMMARY 1. The term “resource centres of educational technology” stands for the centres or places where we can have provision of the needed menmaterial resources for providing essential assistance in the use of education technology to the concerned persons for improving the process and products of education in general and the teaching, learning process in particular. 2. A resource centre of educational technology is mainly supposed (i) to pool, produce, organize, maintain and provide services of the various types of men-material resources, (ii) to conduct and help in the organization of various type of activities, programmes, seminars, workshop, etc., (iii) to conduct and help in the organization of training and refresher courses, (iv) to make provision for conducting action as well as fundamental researches, (v) to work as a motivating and inspirational source for the development and application of educational technology, (vi) to work as a centre for the dissemination of information and knowledge, (vii) to work as a coordinating agency for the development and application of educational technology, (viii) to work as a centre for providing guidance and counselling for the development and application of educational technology, and (ix) to have provision of extension services to the community. 3. For realizing the objectives and purposes, resource centres of educational technology may be usually engaged in the functions and activities like (i) pooling and developing needed men and material resources, (ii) providing needed services to the teachers and

students through the resources at their disposal, and (iii) working as a liaison and coordinating agency among the resources centres operating at the institutional, local, regional, district, state, and central levels. 4. A resource centre must occupy a prominent significance in the planning and schedule of the school management by taking cognizance of the things like (i) being centrally located for providing a convenient access to all, (ii) having adequate space, lighting and ventilation, essential furnishing and accommodation, (iii) having proper provision of trained staff for its management and functioning, (iv) allotment of an adequate budget amount for its equipping as well as functioning, (v) chalking out a proper execution plan/schedule for the activities and functioning, (vi) making use of the latest advancement in the field of science and technology and principles and practices of effective management for the proper of planning, execution and control of the functioning, and (vii) establishing proper link and seeking due help, assistance and guidance from the chain of resource centres established outside the boundary of one’s institution at the district, regional and national levels. 5. At the national level in the centre we have a resource centre of educational technology in the name of Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET), a constituent of NCERT. It is an autonomous body set up in 1961 by the Ministry of Education (now known as Ministry of Human Resource Development) Government of India. CIET is concerned with nearly all the tasks that go with the management of educational technology, viz. identification of themes, development of programmes briefs and audio-video scripts, planning and coordination of facilities for media production; training programmes; transmission of audio-video programmes (telecast and broadcast); duplication, sale and supply of cassettes; access, installation and custody and maintenance of hardware; research and evaluation and monitoring of transmission; utilization and dissemination of information on ET, etc. At present, the services provided by CIET in the form of radio broadcasting and TV programmes (recently through EDUSAT) for the educational

purposes are specially serving the cause of the application of ET in an appreciable way. 6. At the state level we have Educational Technology (ET) Cells located and functioning either under the supervision and administrative control of the SCERTs/SIES of respective states/union territories or established to function independently in the name of State Institute of Educational Technology (SIETs). SIET represents the type of institutions (functioning at present in seven states) supposed to carryout the similar functions as performed by CIET at the centre. The States ET Cells are usually expected to discharge the functions like (i) produce educational video and audio programmes, (ii) design, develop and disseminate teaching-learning material, (iii) conduct training and orientation programmes, (iv) undertake and encourage evaluation, innovation and research activities, (v) coordinate with the agencies functioning at the centre, state or district levels, (vi) encourage the use of ET on the part of students and teachers, and (vii) provide guidance and assistant to the promoters and users of educational technology. 7. At the district level, we have District Institute of Education and Training (DIETs) for functioning as the resource centre of educational technology. In general, these are expected to perform the functions broadly categorized as (i) training and orientation of the target groups associated with the organization of elementary education and noninformal and adult education, (ii) providing needed academic and resource support to the elementary and adult education systems in the district, and (iii) carrying out action research and experimentation to deal with specific problems of the district in achieving the objectives in the areas of elementary and adult education.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the term resource centre of educational technology? Mention, in brief, the main objectives and functions of such resource centres.

2. How can an educational technology resource centre be organized in an effective way? Discuss. 3. Discuss the role of resource centre of educational technology in teaching and learning. 4. Describe the role, functions and organization of the following institutions as resource centres of educational technology: (a) Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) (b) Educational Technology Cells (ET cells) (c) District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs).

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York, Behavioral Publications, 1973. http//www.ciet.nic.in/Central Institute of Educational Technology, NCERT, New Delhi. http//ncert.nic.in/sites/Annual report pdf, chapter 20, NCERT, Annual Report 2005–2006 and 2006–2007. http//diksha.nic.in/htm State Institute of Educational Technology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

33 e-Learning and Virtual Classrooms CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction What is e-Learning Nature and Characteristics of e-Learning The Concept of e-Learning Modes and Styles Promotion and Arrangement for e-Learning in our Educational Institutions Advantages of e-Learning Disadvantages and Drawbacks of e-Learning Virtual Classrooms Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction The computers with their unimaginable working and functioning capacity coupled with a tremendous progress in the field of electronics and communication technology have yielded so much power, abilities and capacities to human beings that we can boast to

do anything and everything imaginable or unimaginable on this earth. Teaching and learning that entirely happened to be a domain of the human factors—teacher and students—is now no longer limited to its traditional boundaries or ways and means. It has gradually turned into a subject of technological progress. Computer operation and networking, as visualized through the description provided in Chapter 31, have almost revolutionized the field of teaching and learning. Instead of the total dependency on the instructions imparted by the teachers and the subject matter available in the books or other printed publications, the learners are now able to utilize the computer’s database and networking facilities not only for seeking information but also for interacting with them online in the manner as happens in the real classroom encounters. Therefore, there is no exaggeration in saying that the future of education and classroom instructions lies to a great extent in the concept and practices of e-learning and virtual classrooms. In this chapter, we will try to know about the nature and mechanism of these two emerging trends in the realm of education.

What is e-Learning e-Learning is an abbreviation of the term electronic learning. Electronic learning in its literal meaning stands for the type of learning carried out, facilitated or supported by some or the other electronic gadgets, media or resources. It is quite a broader meaning of the term e-learning. Judging in this sense, the learning facilitated by the use of any electronic media or means like microphones and listening devices or audio and video-tapes can be termed as elearning. e-Learning, however, is not taken in such generalized sense. Although, in general, it may refer to all types of learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communication technology, yet in real practical sense, its use is limited and associated nowadays with the field of advanced learning

technology (dealing with both the technologies and associated methodologies in learning using networking and/or multimedia technologies). In this sense, e-learning may call for the services of the advanced electronic information and communication media and means like CD-ROMs and DVDs, teleconferencing, videoconferencing and computer based conferencing, e-mail, live chat, surfing on the Internet and Web browsing, on-line reference libraries, video game-style simulation, customized e-learning courses, and Web blogs. Identified in this way, e-learning may be taken as an electronically carried out learning facilitated and supported by the use of advanced learning technology particularly calling for the services of computers, networking and multimedia. However, a question may emerge at this stage—Whether or not we should include the learning possibilities through the recorded audio and video-tapes, CDs and DVDs in the category of e-learning? The question seems to be somewhat puzzling and challenging. The term e-learning has entered the realm of teaching and learning in the similar way as other related terms like e-mail, e-banking, e-booking and e-commerce tend to exist with us in our other walks of life. What seems to be common in the nature, functioning and use of these terms may be summarized as below: They all call for the services of the computers, laptops and their technologies in their functioning. The use of the Internet services and Web technology is must for their functioning. Having a proper look at the nature and use of e-learning dominated by the Internet technologies, a contemporary author, Rosenberg (2001) tried to define the term e-learning in the following words:

e-Learning refers to the use of the Internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance.

In this way, if we try to have a broad view of the nature and meaning of the concept e-learning in terms of the hard realities of its functioning and use in our day-to-day life, we can come to the conclusion that e-learning is an innovative technique or a form of information and communication technology used in providing learning experiences to the students on-line through the use of Internet services and Web technology of the computers on the same lines as witnessed by us in the form of e-mail, e-banking, e-booking and e-commerce in our day-to-day life.

Nature and Characteristics of eLearning On the basis of what has been said so far, we can draw following conclusions about the nature, meaning, characteristics and functioning of the term e-learning as it exists nowadays among us: 1. e-Learning is a generic term used to refer computer enhanced learning. 2. Its use should be strictly limited to “on-line learning” carried out through the Internet or Web-enabled technology. 3. It conveys broader meaning than the terms ‘computer-based learning’ and ‘computer-aided instruction’. 4. It is broader in its meaning than that conveyed through the simple terms like “on-line learning” or “on-line education” (that may call for the absolute Web-based learning without any follow-up, communication and interaction between the teacher and students). 5. It should not be taken as synonymous to audio-visual learning, multimedia learning, distance education or distance

learning. It is true that the audio-visual and multimedia technology and distance education programmes rest heavily nowadays on the use of the Internet and Web services provided through the computers, yet these are not identical but complementary. 6. It should be made absolutely clear that the use of the term elearning should be restricted to the type of learning carried out, facilitated or supported through Webenhanced instructions and the Internet-based communication like e-mail, audio and video conferencing, mail list, live chats, and telephony. As a result, all types of non- Internet and non-Web technology should not be included in the domain of e-learning. Taking a clear stand on this issue Santheesh Kumar and Sagy John (Kumar and John, 2008) write: Though computer is used for instruction and learning, the non-Web technology does not come under e-learning. The entire computer-based instruction like computer-assisted instruction, computer-managed instruction, integrated learning systems, multimedia, interactive video, virtual reality, artificial intelligence, etc. which are not delivered through the Internet but are still used for learning and instruction cannot be included in e-learning. However, these techniques, when delivered via Internet for instruction and learning, become e-learning.

The Contemporary Concept of eLearning The concept and the mechanism of e-learning are very much associated with the use of the Internet and Web-technology delivered to the end users, say students, via computers or laptops. However, there still remains certain doubts about the true nature and functioning of the term.

The learners are found to make use of a variety of recorded CDs and DVDs for gaining the desired information and learning experiences in their concerned subjects. Should it be included in the category of e-learning or not? Lately there is an emergence development in the shape of mobile learning (m-learning). It has the advantage of allowing learners to be “on the move” while learning. As a result, you may reap the benefits of the recorded information/lectures or connect yourself with the Internet and Web pages while driving, jogging or doing some other work. This technique calls for the services of mobile (cell) phones, PDA (Palm Device Assistants) and MP3 players (e.g., iPod and pod casting). So, now you can avail the services of e-banking, ebooking and e-commerce, etc. including e-learning while on move. The pertinent question that arises with the emergence of m-learning is that whether it should be included in the domains of e-learning or not. Let us now seek some explanation about these doubts. While the use of the recorded CDs and DVDs for learning is concerned with the prior stage of the evolution of the concept of elearning, the mobile learning may be well regarded as an extension of e-learning. Therefore, where one is the past of the present day elearning, the other is its promising future. It has been properly emphasized by Bhooma Krishnan, Director. Knowledge Quotient Education in his efforts directed to trace the history of e-learning. As a conclusion of his findings, he has mentioned four distinct stages in the evolution of the concept of e-learning (Krishnan, 2007), namely: multimedia era (1984–1993), Web infancy (1994–1999), next generation web (2000–2005), and mobile learning. As a consequence, it is, therefore, no surprise at present to see the users of e-learning to make use of:

The stored information and knowledge of the CDs and DVDs coupled with or devoid of the Internet and Web technology. The Internet and Web technology services delivered through their computers and laptops. The advanced m-learning technology delivered through Web TV, cell phones, pagers, PDA, Palms, iPods, etc. In this way, we can term the present day e-learning as a learning carried out, supported and facilitated by the advanced multimedia facilities as well as Internet and Web technology delivered to the end users via computers, laptops and mobile ICT appliances.

Modes and Styles The essential condition for calling a particular learning as e-learning lies in its characteristics of delivering the instructional contents through advanced electronic means like computers, multimedia and mobile ICT appliances. While fulfilling this condition, various elearning situations may be seen to adopt any of the following delivery modes and styles.

1. support learning e-Learning can play a mere supporting role to the teaching-learning activities organized in the class. As a result, a teacher may make its use for his better teaching and a learner for his needed learning, e.g. they may use multimedia, Internet and Web services for their teaching and learning to enhance their classroom activities.

2. Blended learning In this mode, attempts are made for making use of a combination of traditional and ICT enhanced e-learning practices. The programmes and activities are so planned and executed as to present a happy

combination of both the traditional classroom teaching practices and elearning- based instruction. Thus, one can reap the benefits of both the practices of traditional and e-learning.

3. Complete e-learning In this mode of learning, the traditional classroom teaching-learning is totally replaced by the virtual classroom teaching-learning. There is no existence of classrooms, schools and teaching-learning environment as happens in the traditional set-up of school education. The learners are free to take their learning tasks independently with the help of the properly designed e-learning courses. Most of the learning activities are carried out entirely on-line, but at the same time, they may have also access to the well-stored information and learning packages available in the form of recorded CD-ROM, DVD, etc. Such type of e-learning activities may be found to adopt the following two distinctive communication styles narrated: Asynchronous communication style: In this style, the course information or learning experiences are passed to the learners through e-mail, discussion forum, web pages, web logs, blogs, wikis or through the recorded CD-ROM and DVD. As a result, the teachers and learners do not interact simultaneously. Instead, messages/information/reading materials are posted on a forum or web page or are sent as e-mail. At an unspecified time later, a reply is provided. Any follow-up questions are dealt with through additional postings or messages with requisite delays. Where the reading material is available in the form of recorded CD and DVD, it neither provides any opportunity for the face-to-face dialogue nor any on-line direct timely interaction between the teacher and the students. Synchronous communication style: Here the communication between the teacher and students directly occurs in an on-line chat room or through live audio-video conferencing. It allows them

properly to gather at a specified time for communicating with each other regarding the course material. As a result, a teacher can provide valuable information, lecture or share one or the other learning experiences with his students. He can immediately respond to the queries and questions put to him by the students. The follow-up questions can also be addressed immediately at an appropriate level of detail. Moreover, the teacher can inquire as to whether the students are clear on what has been communicated to them as a course material or learning experiences. In this way, synchronous communication offers proper opportunities of lively interaction between the teacher and students although in virtual reality in a system of e-learning only because the Web technologies can allow synchronous learning at a distance. Thus, e-learning can have a variety of modes and styles for its operation serving as a support provider, collaborator or partner and substitute or alternative of the real time actual teaching-learning encounters of our classrooms. In all of its three forms, e-learning tries to maintain its basic features, i.e. providing learning experiences to the students through the adoption of advanced learning and communication technologies involving multimedia, Internet, Web services and m-learning. Further, for adopting its styles of communication between the teacher and students, it may choose the synchronous style of communication held in real time setting or the asynchronous style to allow the students to undergo the desired experiences at their own pace and convenience.

Promotion and Arrangement for eLearning in Our Educational Institutions

e-Learning has enough potential to provide solid assistance to all types of academic tasks— theoretical and practical—in individual and collaborative classroom situations. It can provide a valuable treasury of the knowledge and information to all subjects of the school curriculum besides proving helpful in managing the multidimensional affairs related to classroom instruction and allround development of the personality of the students. In the rapid moving world, we can sustain only by making ourselves capable of racing with the pace of the time and technological progress. elearning and m-learning is the demand of the time. We have to prepare our students and bring suitable modifications and improvements in the prevailing system of our educational institution to face this challenge. Let us see what can we do, in general, for promoting e-learning in our educational institution. 1. The first and foremost thing that needs to be done is to develop a positive attitude towards the processes and products of e-learning. For this purpose, attempts should be earnestly initiated to develop a culture that value e-learning as much as traditional face-to-face education. The students should be made to appreciate the fruits of e-learning. In any case, they should not be allowed to get a wrong message that on-line education or learning is somehow second-rate. 2. Provide the needed facilities for training and equipping the students and teachers (along with the supporting staff) with the essential technical knowledge and skills related to the operation and utilization of multimedia appliances, computers and their networking with special emphasis on the Internet and Web technology. 3. Provide proper orientation to the staff and students not only in terms of making them technologically capable for engaging in e-learning but also to have full awareness about all the

possible advantages and gains drawn from such ventures. The following initiatives may be taken for this purpose: • The students may be guided about what is available to them on the Internet specifically concerned to their course studies, general knowledge, personality development, creativity enhancement, or enrichment of their specific interests and aptitudes. • Acquaint them with the specific websites that provide reference tools and resources including dictionaries in all languages, grammar and spelling tools, maps and world atlases, encyclopedias, and historical, geographical, scientific and cultural milestones in the human progress. • Acquaint the teachers and the supporting staff with the websites that provide classroom management tools (downloadable or on-line), e.g. sites offering (i) software for the creation of on-line or paper tests, telling the method of scoring or grading or even doing these things by themselves, (ii) the problems and questions for the classroom drill, practice and recapitulation work, (iii) the services of various types of diagnostic testing and remedial measures, (iv) help in suggesting the solution of the various classroom and behavioural problems, and (v) lesson plans and unit plans for the instructional work. • Acquaint the staff and the students with the websites offering the popular academic tools, e.g. worksheet generators for making the students engaged in the activities like specific crossword puzzles, word searches, cryptograms, mathematical exercises, geometrical and drawing exercises and multimedia flashcards. 4. Make provision of the Internet facilities and classroom websites for giving opportunities to the teachers and students to carry out the teaching-learning tasks using the mechanism of e-learning. For this purpose, an institution can venture to

create an effective on-line learning course or programme proving as a substitute or alternative for the live classroom instruction or use its website as a tool for providing appropriate support or supplementary services to the traditional classroom instruction and school activities. Whatever may be the purpose or form, one should take care of the following for the development and utilization of such school and classroom websites: • It must fit to the age, mental and skill level, clearly defined learning objectives and goals, and local needs and available resources related with the student population. • Provide special attention in displaying information or learning experiences on the web pages of the site. It should invariably allow ease of navigation and charm of the multimedia presentation. Use a familiar interface such as a standard Web browser or Microsoft Windows interface so that the users don’t have to master a new technology for reaping the benefits of the school and classrooms websites. • Have adequate provision of including an interactive element in the website for enabling the students to interact with their teachers or with each other. In case the website is in the developing stage, then at least include options such as selfquizzes or simulations, which let them test and apply what they have learned. • Utilize the services of the website to extend learning from school to home. As a result, for example, let the students have proper access to the curricular contents, weekly or daily assignments, project work and other activities needed to be performed at their home, allowing them to complete their work, interact with their teachers or fellow students if needed so, and receive immediate feedback either through their teachers or the software programme installed on the website.

• Make provision for the due enrichment of the website by adding the Internet facilities like e-mail, chat options or audiovideoconferencing for the needed communication and interaction among the students and teachers. • Utilize the services of the Internet facilities and websites of the school and classrooms for building bridges with parents and community. It will surely provide a proper platform for seeking involvement of the parents and the community for the enhancement of the learning and personality development of the students. • Utilize the school and classroom websites as a communication tool to connect the school and classrooms to others across the region, country and the world as a whole for the exchange of information, knowledge and skills contributing towards the enhancement of the learning experiences of the students and practices of the teachers. 5. Last but not the least, make adequate provision for the availability of the technical support services to train and provide online support to both the teachers and students in reaping maximum benefits from the e-learning programme.

Advantages of e-Learning e-learning as an innovative technique provides unique opportunities to the learners for gaining useful learning experiences both on the individual and group levels. Its advantages are summarized below: 1. Most of the learners who may not have time and resources for getting access to the traditional class-bound learning experiences may get it now easily at their convenience in the form of e-learning. A learner can now satisfy his desire and fulfil his ambition of getting access to school or higher education or take up a hobby course without leaving his job,

compromising his comfort or feeling handicapped in one or the other sense on account of his limitations. The learners can access information and educational contents any time, any place. 2. e-Learning has enough potential to make the education, instruction and learning opportunities provided to the learners adaptable to their needs—mental and skill level—local needs and resources at their hands. 3. It has a unique feature of arranging an access to the same quality of the content that a full time student has. The best of the world’s educational content, treasury of knowledge and the opportunities are available through e-learning to an increasing number of learners especially in the developing and underdeveloped countries. 4. Unlike traditional classroom education, e-learning can cater to different learning styles and promote collaboration among students from different localities, cultures, regions, states and countries. 5. e-Learning can prove an effective media and tool for facing the problems of lack of the trained and competent teachers, paucity of schools and the needed infrastructure and material facilities for providing quality education to the number of students residing in the far and wide corners of the country. 6. The flexibility of e-learning in terms of delivery media (CD, DVD, laptops, and mobile phones), type of courses (modules or smaller learning objects) and access (real time or selfpaced) may prove a big advantage and attractive option. 7. e-Learning may make the students more interested and motivated towards learning as they may get a wide variety of learning experiences by having access to multimedia, Internet, Web technology and mobile-learning along with the verbal and non-verbal presentation of the learning contents.

8. The opportunities of having an on-line, offline and live interaction between the students and teachers and among the students themselves may make the task of e-learning a joy and best alternative to the lively face-to-face interaction and real time sharing of the experiences in a traditional classroom setting. 9. e-learning through audio-visual recording technology has a unique advantage of providing learning experiences that can be paused and reversed for observing, learning and imitating at the will and convenience of the learners. Such self-pacing provides a special weightage to the process of learning. 10. It may also provide opportunities for testing and evaluating the learning outcomes of the learners through teachers, peers and auto-instructional devices and software available with the reading material on-line, or through the Internet and mobile phone facilities. It may work for them as a desired source for the proper feedback along with the needed diagnostic and remedial teaching. 11. Learning experiences via simulated and gaming techniques, may also provide the benefits of getting richer experiences on the useful pedagogical footings of play-way spirit and learning by doing or living.

Limitations and Drawbacks e-Learning is said to suffer from some serious limitations and drawbacks as mentioned below: 1. e-learning requires a sufficient level of knowledge and skills for the use of multimedia, Internet and Web technology on the part of its users. Lack of knowledge and skills on this account may prove futile in taking advantages from the valuable services of e-learning.

2. As a technique and tool on the part of the students e-learning requires that they must have a proper, easy and timely access to the needed resources, tools and equipment like computers, laptops, multimedia facilities, Internet and Web services, mobile learning tools, etc. quite affordable to them in terms of the cost involved. However, in most cases, it does not happen so with the individual students and their schools also are not in a position to help them on this account. 3. Our schools are not at all ready, willing and equipped for making use of e-learning in the proper interest of the teachers and students. Leaving aside a few self-financing public schools meant for the rich segments of the society, most of the schools in our country cannot even imagine for venturing in the area of e-learning or m-learning. A few of them are equipped with the computer lab and a negligible few have any existence of the Internet and Web facilities for the use of their teachers and students. In such a situation, how can we expect from the students and teachers of our school to reap the desired benefits from e-learning? 4. There is no proper provision of equipping the teachers in their pre-service or in-service programmes for getting acquainted with the knowledge and skills required on their part for the use of e-learning at their workplaces. As a result, the teachers neither have any inclination towards e-learning nor have any competence for its organization in the school or providing guidance to their students in its use. 5. The feeling of isolation experienced by the users of e-learning is one of the major drawbacks quite visible in any system of distance learning including e-learning. They are found to be devoid with the face-to-face interaction and humanistic touch profoundly available in the traditional classroom set-up. Hence, the type of individual attention, diagnostic testing and remedial instruction, warmth of feelings towards each other

and timely guidance, supervision and feedback as provided in the real time settings of the prevalent classroom system are hardly available in the e-learning programmes. Moreover, the lack of opportunities for co-curricular, social participation and community sharing experiences may prove handicap to the students of e-learning in their proper physical, social and emotional development. 6. An overall attitude of the learners, teachers, parents, educational authorities, and society is usually found quite negative towards the processes and products of e-learning. It has resulted in disfiguring e-learning in terms of its costeffectiveness. To arrange for a system of an effective elearning proves quite costly either in terms of its installation, or the end users. It can only be successfully balanced through the economies of scale, i.e. its use in large scale by relatively large number of users. However, unfortunately it is not happening in the case of e-learning especially in the school education sector. In this way, we may witness a number of limitations and drawbacks in the adoption of e-learning as a system of school education and classroom instruction. The installation and use of any new tool or technology is said to face some or the other handicaps and challenges before getting acceptance from its organizers and users in a proper way. Hence, we must not get disheartened with the present status of e-learning in educational sector particularly related to school education. With a changed scenario reflected in the rapid evolution in technology, competitive global economy, need for the universalization of school education and knowledge society, and lack of trained teachers, the citizens of the developing countries urgently require the support, or alternative services for our existing system of education and instruction through a properly organized and guided system of e-learning and e-courses. However, we must try to follow

the middle path in view of the strengths and limitations of both elearning and the traditional format. There should have a proper synthesis of e-learning (the machine factor involving advanced technologies—computers and ICT), teacher (the human factor involving his skilled and humane classroom interaction) and the books and learning material (the printing factor) for deriving the desired outcomes.

Virtual Classrooms So far, we have discussed in this chapter that e-learning, characterized as the learning devoid of time and space and carried out through the advanced technologies involving multimedia, Internet, e-mail, website, mobile phone, iPod, etc. may prove a quite effective tool and technique for rendering valuable support, assistance and alternative to the traditional system of school education. Now the question here may arise whether or not it has the power and ability of replacing partially or totally the traditional mode of classroom instruction or the system of school education. Apparently we can say yes. But it is not correct. e-learning or mlearning dominated by web-based learning cannot rival the conventional classroom teaching or school education for some very obvious reasons. We here seldom find a true reflection of the lively environment of the real activities going inside the classroom in the form of interaction among the students as well as between the students and the teacher. It lacks the true depth that an instant faceto-face real dialogue can provide. It is here that the need of the organization of a virtual classroom system arises since it is quite helpful for doing away with the weaknesses or maladies of the Internet and Web-based learning. Throwing light on the concept of a virtual classroom, Professor Murray Turoff of New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA (2007) has wittingly commented:

Virtual Classroom is a web-based environment that allows you to participate in live training events without the need to travel. You listen to lectures, participate in lab exercises, ask questions, and receive feedback just as you would do in a conventional classroom— except you do it from the convenience of your desktop, or anywhere you have an Internet and phone connection. It saves the hassle, expense, and travel time to a training site.

Based on the above definition, “virtual classrooms”, as the name suggests, are the classrooms functioning in a system of virtual reality. These are, in fact, the cyber classrooms, where the teacher and the students can converse in real time. In every sense, a virtual classroom tries to stimulate, in every way it can, the learning platform provided by a conventional classroom. As a definition, therefore, we can understand the virtual classrooms as the classrooms, capable of replacing partially or totally the conventional educational, evaluative and administrative functioning of a regular classroom by adopting the advanced computer and ICT technologies like the Internet, e-mail, on-line chatting, WWW, CD-ROMs, DVDs, teleconferencing and video conferencing.

Modus Operandi Virtual classrooms stand for bringing various types of school courses and classroom activities at the doorstep of the students for being accessed by utilizing the advanced computer and ICT technologies at their end. The operation and working of the virtual classroom system may be summarized in the following manner: In its basic operation, a system of virtual classrooms may allow the subject experts or experienced teachers to deliver instructions on one or the other topics of the school curriculum. These may be telecast live with the help of satellite-based teleconferencing (as happening with the EDUSAT programme of NCERT).

In another mode, the study materials prepared by the experts and experienced teachers may be uploaded on the website of a virtual classroom or campus and the students are allowed to download the text and graphics for their study by issuing a confidential password to the students registered with the class or campus. It is also possible on the part of the institutions to provide CDROMs or DVDs with course contents and instructional guidance to be accessed by the students through their computers or laptops. In such supplied learning material (whether in CDs, Internet files or wave pages), the teachers and school authorities also try to send the support material, reference material and the supplement in the form of Frequently Asked Questions which may help the students in grasping and solving the problems related to the contents of the learning material supplied to them. There may be a number of appropriate options available to the students for interacting with their teachers and also with their colleagues through on-line chatting, e-mail or audio and videoconferencing as permitted by the organizational system of a virtual classroom or campus. The teachers may also make use of these interaction opportunities for seeking active participation of the students in the instructional process, asking questions for testing their comprehension and evaluating their progress besides giving them freedom for removing their doubts and quenching their thirst of knowledge. A virtual classroom system may evolve its own system for assigning practice work, projects, and questions/problems for reinforcing, fixing and evaluating the progress of the students. It can upload the needed material on its website for this purpose at regular intervals and the students may then be asked to do the desired work and send it back for the needed checking, feedback and evaluation on the part of the teachers.

This system also takes care of the other essential administrative and managerial requirements of the students enrolled in this system like their on-line admission, information on the Web about the type of courses and instructional programmes available with the school campus, information about the modes and technologies available, on-line provision for the tutorial, the needed feedback, guidance and evaluation for the academic progress of the students, grading of the students’ achievements, informing them about their scores and grades and providing them their certificates and degrees including holding convocations on-line.

Advantages Virtual classrooms have some unique advantages of providing twodimensional benefits to the learners—one comprising the time- and space-relaxed opportunities of learning and the other involving classroom encounters in their proper virtual reality. 1. It has provided a great amount of flexibility to the learners in getting the desired learning experiences at the time and place along with the pace of their choice. 2. Since the learners have not to present themselves for their pursuit of an instructional course at a fixed time and place, it does not come in their way of doing a job or engaging in other learning pursuit simultaneously at a time. 3. The facilities regarding receiving instructions or gaining learning experiences are available to the learners during 24 hours of all the 7 weekdays. It cannot be imagined in any other system of regular classroom set-up and hence is quite capable of allowing the learners better utilize their leisure hours without hampering their day-to-day routines.

4. The system of virtual classrooms is quite capable of providing the services of the most experienced and capable faculty belonging to any stream and discipline of the school curriculum which is mostly denied or remains impracticable in the conventional educational set-up. In place of searching for and employing full time faculty, we can hire the best faculty on a part-time basis in the system of virtual campus. It proves more suitable and economical for running a number of high quality inter-disciplinary and innovative courses for the benefit of the learners of varied interests and requirements. 5. The system of virtual classrooms is quite capable of providing the learners the joy and benefits of the real-time learning through the utilization of the most advanced technologies at its disposal on the part of teachers as well as the learners in the form of CD-ROMs, DVDs, Internet, on-line chats, mobile and telephonic conversation, WWW, audio and videoconferencing, etc. 6. There is no fear of criticism, snubbing and ridiculing by their teachers or colleagues in the system of virtual classrooms and also the failure in the attempts does not prove an unaffordable affair. There are more possibilities of engaging in the useful practice, creative and adventurous pursuits in the knowledge and skill areas of the school learning on the part of the students in the virtual set-up. 7. This system may prove quite advantageous to the students on account of its on-line features related to admission, information about the courses and academic activities, assignments and projects, tests and evaluation, grading and results, faculty available for the interaction, guidance and needed help, information about the commencement of the public examinations, merit schemes, entry in the vocational and professional streams, etc.

8. It saves the valuable energy of the faculty and administrative authorities that is otherwise going to be spent in the conventional school set-up for the day-to-day administrative and management of the affairs like maintenance of the school discipline, school timetable, attendance, regularity and punctuality of the students and staff, organization of the students welfare activities, the handling of mutual conflicts and ego problems of the students and staff, etc.

Drawbacks and Limitations To pose as a virtual for a thing and phenomenon is a limitation and drawback in many ways. The same holds quite true in the case of the organization and functioning of the virtual classes and campus. This is why the virtual school system in spite of its so many advantages and virtues is found to suffer from a number of loopholes and limitations. 1. The flexibility of this system to the learners for taking their studies at their will, convenience, comforts and adjustment of the space and timings according to their needs may be misutilized and misdirected on the part of the students especially when they are younger in age and are not matured enough in feeling their responsibilities for the building of their career, or are shirkers and lazy by nature. 2. In many cases, the organization and working of a virtual classroom or campus is found quite hopeless in terms of its quality of study material and its delivery to the students. The staff employed for providing instructional material, guidance and timely feedback is also very poor in the quality, sincerity and devotion to the work. In such a situation, the students enrolled with the system are bound to suffer adversely and such incidences may give a bad name to all virtual classroom systems in general.

3. The dreams and promises of providing real classroom experiences through virtual realities of the virtual classroom system are hard to realize. A virtual cannot be turned into real in toto. We cannot provide real time face-to face interactive experiences to our students through virtual classes. Who is there to study the faces and exchange other verbal and nonverbal clues for the lively classroom interaction and effective classroom discussions in a system of virtual classroom? The warmth of the teacherpupil relationships, the charms of the group cohesion and fellowship, and the humanistic touch prevailed in the surcharged social and emotional climate of the conventional classrooms are altogether absent in the virtual classroom system. In such a situation we cannot expect a better environment for the academic and personal growth of the students. 4. We aim to develop a wholesome personality of the students with what we teach and do with our students in the schools. Along with the curricular instruction work, the organization of co-curricular activities, students welfare services, community activities, the interaction with the parents and members of the community, etc. help the conventional system much in seeking the all-round balanced development of the children. However, such things are completely lacking in a system of virtual classroom. Therefore, in the absence of the needed humanistic touch, socio-cultural environment, and activities to promote social and moral values and opportunities for building physical, social and emotional competencies, the system of virtual classroom is quite incapable of turning our youngsters into a perfect human being sensitive to moral values and mutual brotherhood. In spite of the shortcomings and limitation pointed out above, virtual classrooms can solve many problems and maladies coming in

the way of realizing our constitutional obligation towards the younger generation, i.e. providing “education to all” and ensuring quality instruction to them at their doorsteps according to their needs and convenience. It can also open a new vista to many of our adolescents and youths for venturing into the new areas and fields of employments and entrepreneurships needed today. Hence, there is a great need of the promotion of the virtual classroom alongwith the formal setup of real classroom.

SUMMARY 1. e-Learning is an abbreviation of the term electronic learning. It may be understood as an innovative technique or a form of ICT used in providing learning experiences to the students on line through the use of Internet services and web technology of the computers. However, in practice as we find nowadays the use of the term e-learning is not limited to the use of Internet and Web technology. Therefore, as it exists today, we can term the present day e-learning as a learning carried out, supported and facilitated by the advanced multimedia facilities as well as Internet and Web technology delivered to the end uses via computers, laptops and mobile ICT appliances. 2. The different types of modes and styles adopted for the various e-learning situations may be outlined as (i) support learning (for playing a mere supporting role to the teaching learning activities organized in the class) (ii) blended learning (making use of a combination of traditional and ICT enhanced e-learning practices), and (iii) complete e-learning involving asynchronous communication as well as synchronous communication styles (replacing traditional classroom teaching-learning totally with the virtual classroom teachinglearning).

3. A number of measures may be employed to promote and arrange for e-learning in our Educational institutions like (i) developing a right positive attitude towards the processes and products of e-learning, (ii) providing the needed facilities for training and equipping the students and teachers along with the supporting staff in operation and utilization of multimedia appliances, computers and their network technology, (iii) creating full awareness about all the possible advantages and gains drawn from their ventures in e-learning, (iv) making provision for the Internet facilities and classrooms websites, and (v) making adequate provision for the availability of the technical support services to train and provide ongoing support to both the teachers and students. 4. e-Learning may prove quite beneficial to the learners in various ways like (i) getting access to leaning by breaking all barriers of time, pace and distance, (ii) providing individualized instructions suiting to the needs, abilities, learning styles, and interests of the learners, (iii) providing an access to the unlimited numbers of the learners same quality of the content that a full time student has, (iv) in promoting collaboration among students from different localities and cultures all around the world, (v) in facing the lack of menmaterial resources for providing quality education to all, (vi) having flexibility in terms of delivery media, (vii) helpful in making the students more interested and motivated towards learning, and (viii) providing opportunities for timely evaluation and feedback for the learning outcomes. 5. e-Learning is said to suffer from some serious limitations and drawbacks like (i) difficulty faced by the users in having proper access to the use of multimedia, Internet and Web technology, (ii) unwillingness or difficulties on the part of teachers and schools for making its provision to their students, (iii) lack of

proper provision to equip the teachers in their pre-service or in-service programmes for its use, (iv) feeling of isolation experienced by the users of e-learning by not having face to face interaction and (v) an overall negative attitude towards it by adjudging it as second rate in comparison to regular classroom learning. 6. The term virtual classrooms refers to the classrooms, capable of replacing partially or totally the conventional educational, evaluative and administrative functioning of a regular classroom by adopting the advanced computer and ICT technologies like Internet, e-mail, online chatting, WWW, CDROMs, DVDs, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, etc. 7. The virtual classroom system in order to bring various types of school courses and classroom activities at the doorstep of the students may adopt a variety of means and modes like (i) telecast live the instructions delivered by the subject experts or experienced teachers on one or the other topics of the school curriculum, (ii) it may upload the study materials prepared by the experts and experienced teachers on its website, (iii) providing the students the essential CD-ROMs or DVDs with course contents and instructional guidance for their independent learning, (iv) arranging for the desired interaction among the teacher and students through on-line chatting, email or audio and videoconferencing, and (v) evolving its own system for assigning practice work, projects, and problems for reinforcing, fixing and evaluating the progress of the students by making use of the Internet and web facilities. 8. The virtual classroom system is generally credited for its advantages and merits like (i) providing flexibility to the learner in terms of time, pace and distance, (ii) not coming in their way of doing a job or engaging in other learning pursuit simultaneously at a time, (iii) opening its door for the desired

learning to the learners during 24 hours of all the 7 weekdays, (iv) providing the services of the most experienced and capable faculty belonging to any stream and discipline of the school curriculum, (v) providing the learners the joy and benefits of the real-time learning, (vi) doing away the fear of criticism, snubbing and ridiculing by the teachers or colleagues, (vii) saving the learners from the difficulties faced in their encounters related to a variety of administrative and evaluative work, and (viii) proving a valuable asset in the managing of the school’s administrative and instructional programmes with utmost efficiency in a cost-effective way. 9. The virtual classroom system may be found to suffer from a number of loopholes and limitations like (i) possibilities of misutilization and misdirection of the freedom and flexibility provided in the system by the learners, (ii) possibility of being the organization and working of a virtual classroom quite hopeless in terms of the quality and delivery of its instruction to the students, (iii) deficiency and limitations regarding its inability to provide real time face-to face interactive experiences to the students, and (iv) its inability to help the students in the development of their wholesome personality.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is e-learning? characteristics.

Throw

light

on

its

nature

and

2. Define the concept of e-learning. 3. Discuss, in detail, the various modes and styles prevalent for carrying out e-learning. 4. What steps would you like to take for the promotion and organization of e-learning in our educational institutions?

5. Discuss the advantages and shortcomings of the system of elearning. 6. What are virtual classrooms? Discuss their characteristics and features. 7. Discuss the modus operandi of running the system of virtual classrooms highlighting the various means and modes employed for its functioning. 8. Discuss the concept of virtual classrooms system by throwing light on its merits and limitations.

REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED READINGS Bates, Tiny, National Strategy for e-Learning in Post Secondary Education and Training, Paris: Unesco, 2001. Golubchick, Leonard H. and Barry Persky (Eds.), Innovations in Education, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1975. De Carlo Julia E. and Constant A. Madon (Eds.), Innovations in Education for the Seventies: Selected Readings, New York: Behavioral Publications, 1973. Krishnan, Bhooma, “Click to Learn”, The Times of India, Delhi ed., 10 December, 2007. Kumar, Santheesh, J. and John Sagy, E-learning Possibilities in Education, Edutracks, April, 2008, vol. 7, No. 8. p. 8, 13. Rosenberg, Marc Jeffy, E-learning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. Stephenson, John, Teaching & Learning Online, London: Kogan Page. Turoff Murray, Designing a Virtual Classroom, Department of Computer and Information Science, Newyark NJ: New Jersey Institute of Technology, retrieved from [email protected].

Venkataiah, S., Education Publications, 2004.

via

Internet,

New

Delhi:

Anmol

34 Distance Education CHAPTER OUTLINE Introduction What is Distance Education The Purposes and Functions served by Distance Education Theories of Distance Education Distance Education in India—Historical and Modern Perspectives Organization and Management of a Distance Education Programme Summary Review Questions References and Suggested Readings

Introduction We have seen in the previous chapter that the field of education and instruction has witnessed some quite innovative and technologically developed techniques for taking up the task of instruction and education to the doorsteps of the learners in the name of virtual classrooms and e-learning. It has further helped in disseminating the required information and knowledge in the various subjects of school as well as higher and professional education to the distant learners.

So much so the distance education mode is now being recognized globally as an effective supplement for even substitute for the regular classroom instruction. More and more universities and School Education boards are coming with some or the other advanced network of the distance education. It has necessitated on the part of the prospective as well as in-service teachers to become acquainted with the nature and functioning of the distance education mode not only for helping the cause of distance education but also to make its proper utilization for professional growth.

What is Distance Education Different nomenclatures have been used from time to time for conveying the concept of distance education such as correspondence education, independent study, postal tuition, open learning, open school and open university courses, on-line learning, and distance learning. So simply, the term distance education means the type of education that is liable to be organized and imparted in keeping cognition of the distance factor. Who imparts such education and who receives it, both are separated by a common factor known as distance. Commenting on this aspect, Hanson, et al. (1997:1) write: The word ‘distance’ has multiple meanings—the term distance education has been applied to a tremendous variety of programmes serving numerous audiences via a wide variety of media.

This definition has resulted in bringing the subsequent changes both in the nomenclature of the term and in its meaning and functioning as may be evident from a number of other definitions of the term distance education as given below: Gunther Dohmen (1967:9): Distance education is a systematically organized form of self-study in which student counselling, the presentation of learning material and the securing and supervising of

students’ success are carried out by a team of teachers, each of whom has responsibilities. It is made possible at a distance by means of media which can cover long distances. The opposite of distance education is ‘direct education’ or ‘face-to-face education’, a type of education that takes place on the direct contact between lecturers and students. Otto Peters (1973:206): Distance teaching/education is a method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application of division of labour and organizational principles as well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material which makes it possible to instruct great number of students at the same time wherever they live. It is an industrialized form of teaching and learning. Michael Moore (1977:8): Distance teaching may be defined as the family of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviours are executed apart from the learning behaviours, including those that in a contiguous situation would be performed in the learner’s presence, so that communication between the teacher and the learner must be facilitated by print, electronic, mechanical or other devices. D. Garrison and D. Shale (1987:11): Distance education implies that the majority of educational communication between teacher and student(s) occurs non-contiguously. It must involve two-way communication between teacher and student(s) for the purpose of facilitating and supporting the education process. It uses technology to mediate the necessary two-way communication. H. Perraton (1988:34): Distance education is an education process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone removed in space and/or time from the learner.

Borje Holmberg (1989:9): The term distance education covers the various forms of study at all levels which are not under continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises, but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and tuition of a tutorial organization. Bruce O, Barker and Colleagues (1989:25): Telecommunicationsbased distance education approaches are an extension beyond the limits of correspondence study. The teaching-learning experiences for both instructor and student(s) occur simultaneously—it is contiguous in time. When an audio and/or video communication link is employed, the opportunity for live teacherstudent exchange in real time is possible, thereby permitting immediate response to student enquiries and comments. Much like a traditional classroom setting, students can seek on the spot clarification from the speaker. Michael Moore (1990:XV): Distance education is all arrangements for providing instruction through print or electronic communication media to persons engaged in planned learning in a place or time different from that of the instructor or instructors. P. Portway and C. Lane (1994:295): The term distance education refers to teaching and learning situations in which the instructor and the learners are geographically separated and, therefore, rely on electronic devices and print materials for instructional delivery. Distance education includes distance teaching—the instructor’s role in the process—and distant learning— the student’s role in the process. M.G. Moore and G. Kearsley (1996:2): Distance education is a planned learning that normally occurs in a different place from teaching and as a result it requires special techniques of course design, special instructional techniques, special methods of communication by electronic and other technology, as well as special organizational and administrative arrangements.

F. Saba, (1999): Distance learning has evolved over the past two centuries from correspondence courses to educational radio, one, and two-way teleconferencing, educational television, videoconferencing to computer assisted/web-based interactive learning opportunities. R. Kaufman and R. Watkins (2000:61): Distance learning is intended to offer useful learning opportunites to people at a time and location that is convenient to them. C.M. Mehrotra, C.D. Hollister and L. McGahey (2001:1): Any formal approach to instruction in which the majority of the instruction occurs while educators and learners are not in each other’s physical presence. Picciano (2001): Distance education uses three current and popular forms (of media): (a) broadcast television, (b) two-way videoconferencing, and (c) asynchronous learning networks (multimodal, wave-based delivery of instruction that can be reviewed by the students at any time). (Birbaum, 2001:4) O. Peters (2003): Distance education can be defined as a complex hierarchical, non-linear, dynamic, self-organized and purposeful system of learning and teaching. (In Saba, 2003:12) F. Saba (2003:17): The system approach allows distance education to subsume other forms of education, including what is generally known as face-to-face or traditional education. While schools traditionally tried to standardize education to make people on the factory capable of performing routine jobs, the challenge of distance education is to respond to individual differences and make instruction as diversified as possible. A close view of these definitions may reveal many things regarding the nature of the evolution of the concept of distance education along with many of its inherent features.

1. Distance education provides a systematic means and platform for the self-study carried on by the willing learners separated by the factors of time and space from the source of teaching. 2. It is an industrialized form of teaching and learning with an emphasis on division of labour and cost-effectiveness. 3. It makes use of the conventional and non-conventional media and technologies for the desired two-way interaction and communication between the source of teaching and the learner. 4. It includes distance teaching and the distance learning. 5. It provides independence and freedom to the learner in so many aspects like freedom of choice related to time, space, pace, medium, access and curriculum. 6. It utilizes the concept of system approach for its planning and organization with a reasonable control on the input and process components with an eye on the realization of the desired outcomes in the form of the output of the system. In view of these characteristics, we can term distance education as a system of education run along a two-way interaction and communication between the source of teaching and the learner maintained through the conventional as well as advanced information and communication technologies with an eye on providing opportunities to the learner to engage in his self-study with a freedom of choice related to time, space, pace, medium, access and curriculum.

The Purposes and Functions Served by Distance Education Distance education serves us in a number of ways:

1. Distance education remains as the first and a lone choice for those learners who: • Have no provision of any educational institution in their locality or neighbourhood. • Do not have any provision for their higher education in their locality or neighbourhood. • Are gainfully employed and thus are unable to attend the regular classes of a particular course or school and university education • Have a lot of social obligations, responsibilities and commitments such as housewives, adults, priests, social workers, farmers and cowmen, hence not able to attend the regular classes. • Are not able to attend the regular system of education on account of their physical, mental, emotional and social handicapped condition. • Are poor and deprived and thus cannot afford the cost of the regular higher or professional education. • Have been unsuccessful or denied admissions to the regular system of school, college or professional education on account of their previous educational background, low scores in the entrance tests or non-availability of seats for a particular course. 2. Distance education or open learning system can work as a good helping hand to the people and government of the developing countries like ours for achieving their target of compulsory education to all future citizens. 3. It can prove a boon to overcome the problems of overcrowding in the school, and higher and professional education classes. 4. Due to its cost-effectiveness, it may attract a huge number of the school and higher education learners and, in turn, may help in its qualitative development so much so that it might be

considered better in comparison to the conventional system of education. 5. It may become an effective and forceful media for mass education, adult and continuing education, population education, health and sanitation education, sex education belonging to the field of social awareness, and erradication of many evils prevalent in the society. 6. It is quite helpful in developing and inculcating among the students a number of good habits like self-study, independent problem solving ability, and time and resource management. 7. It may suit the likings, needs and temperaments of a wide variety of learners on account of the flexibility and freedom offered by it in the following manner: • Freedom of time: A high level of freedom allows students to communicate whenever it is convenient for them. • Freedom of space: The students can choose where they want to study (in a classroom, at home, at work, or wherever a busy life situates them). • Freedom of pace: Pacing implies meeting deadlines for starting a course, for examinations, and for assignments. Deadlines, however, can be flexible or rigid. They are flexible when the students can set the deadlines, or select one of several deadlines. A high level of freedom allows the students to choose the pacing they prefer. • Freedom of medium: Programmes with a high level of freedom provide students access to several media or sources of information: print, video, face-to-face meetings, computer conferencing, etc. • Freedom of access: Programmes that aspire to a high level of freedom must eliminate discrimination on the basis of social class, entry qualifications, gender, age, ethnicity, or occupation.

• Freedom of curriculum: A high level of freedom allows students to choose among a range of courses and to transfer credits between programmes and universities. 8. Distance education and open learning of the present age governed by e-learning and virtual classroom system give valuable opportunities for the students to get acquainted with and well versed in the use and application of the advanced technologies for collecting, storage and disseminating needed information and knowledge for self-study and progress. 9. It may be helpful both in the universalization, humanization and globalization of the system of worldwide education and the overall system of governance and living.

Theories of Distance Education A number of theories have been developed by the educationists and researchers in the field of distance education from time to time. The theories developed worldwide, as a whole may be put into three broad groups: (i) theories of autonomy and independence, (ii) theories of industrialization, and (iii) theories of interaction and communication (Kegan, 1996; Saba, 2003), Let us have a brief idea about the nature of the theories falling in these broad groups.

Theories of Autonomy and Independence The theories of autonomy and independence put the learner in the forefront of a teaching-learning process of any distance education programme. The theories developed by the scholars like Borje Holmberg, Charles Wedemeyer, Rudf Delling and Michael G Moore belong to this category. Focusing on the essence of these theories Saba (2003:4) writes: in these theories “the centrality of the learner is one of the distinguishing features of distance education, and

understanding this fact is essential for discerning why it is essentially different from other forms of education.” Let us now discuss, in brief, some individual theories included in this group.

Charles wedemeyer’s theory of independent study Propounding his theory Wedemeyer (1981) proposed that “the fundamental nature of distance education is a distinct non-traditional type of education which focuses on the independence of the student learner”. Accordingly, he advocated to include the following six characteristics of independent study in any programme of distance education: The student and the teacher are separated. The normal processes of teaching and learning are carried out in writing or through some other medium. Teaching is individualized. Learning is made convenient for the student in his or her own progress, with freedom to start and stop at any time (Kegan, 1996:64).

Moore’s theory of autonomy and independent study Michael G. Moore tried to develop a theory of distance education that focused on the role of two important variables in any programme of distance education namely the learner autonomy and the transactional distance—the distance between the learner and the teacher (Hanson et al., 1997). Moore declared that the quality and effectiveness of a distance education programme rests with the proper integration of these two factors in that programme. The main features and ideas related to his theory are summarized as follows:

1. Moore categorizes the distance education programme into two: (i) learner determined or autonomous, and (ii) teacher determined or non-autonomous. He preferred the learner determined or autonomous programmes in a distance education setting. In order to determine the degree of autonomy, he utilized three varying aspects: (i) Who (teacher or student) bears the autonomy in setting objectives? (ii) Who (teacher or student) bears the autonomy in deciding the methods of study? (iii) Who (teacher or student) bears the autonomy in evaluation? 2. For explaining the term transactional distance, Moore emphasized that it should not merely mean the physical distance between the two. The distance in education is not determined by the geographic separation of educators and students. When students do not take interest in their learning and are not engaged in a meaningful dialogue with educators, there is tremendous distance between them, even if they are under the same roof. If teaching is structured to afford students responsible for having a creative and meaningful dialogue with educators, distance decreases. Therefore, what is needed on the part of the teachers in distance education is to provide the requisite structure for students to meet certain standards in learning excellence, along with the necessary opportunity and means to let them engaged in learning that meets their individual needs. 3. The outcomes of the requisite structure founded by the teachers and the needed dialogue by students determine the distance between the two. In general, novice students need more structure, and as they acquire skill, knowledge and expertise their need for dialogue increases and the distance

between teachers and students decreases no matter how far apart they are in physical geographic terms or how close they might be. The communication transaction between teachers and students varies depending on the background of students, their prior knowledge of a subject, and their motivation and readiness to engage in learning, the nature of the subject matter, the complexity of the discipline, and the breadth and depth of the curriculum. Transactional distance depends on these variables. It changes not only during the course of a semester or an academic year, but also in each session, and as each session progresses. It varies all the time depending on what students need to do to learn and what teachers need to do to teach at each point in time. 4. When students and teachers are geographically separated, technology is used to facilitate their communication. The use of technology such as radio, television, computer networks, or print material does not define transactional distance. Students and their teachers decide on the appropriate transactional distance between them when they are separated 1000 miles or when they are in the classroom.

Theories of Industrialization The theories of industrialization try to organize the structure and functioning of distance education on the basis of the model of industrialization. The theories put forward by the scholars like Otto Peters, Desmond Kegan, Randy Garrison and John Anderson belong to this group. “Structural concerns and issues on the pattern and model provided by the industrialization are the main focal points of these theories along with how these issues influence the teaching and learning process” (Kegan, 1996; Saba, 2003). Now, we shall discuss the theory put forward by Otto Peters.

Otto Peters’ theory of industrialization This theory incorporates the idea that distance education is an industrialized method of teaching and learning, which can reach a mass audience. This theory tries to compare distance education with the industrial production of goods. For putting his theory before others, he made use of the following own terminology: Rationalization: Utilization of methodical measures to decrease the amount of input of power, money and time that is required. Division of labour: Dividing duties and tasks in its simpler subtasks. Mechanization: Without machines, distance education would not be possible. Assembly line: Workers usually remain stable and the objects on which they are working move past them. Mass production: Preparation of instructional material on large scale for meeting the needs of a quite large number of learners. Preparatory work: Planning, organization and scientific control methods. Formalization: Exact pre-determination of the phase of the manufacturing process. Standardization: Restricting the number of types of one product, in order to make these more suitable for their purposes—cheaper to produce and easier to replace. Change of function: Changing the roles of workers with in the production process e.g. appointing experienced lecturers as consultants.

Objectification: Decrease of the subjective element which used to determine the work of craftsmen, e.g. objectifying most of the teaching functions. Concentration and centralization: Believing that it is more economical to establish a small number of such institutions serving a national population rather than a large number of institutions serving regional population. Otto Peters’ theory of industrialization remained in operation to guide the organization and functioning of distance education for a long time. As observed by Saba (2003) “Industrialization has been a feature of distance education for many years, it is harder to imagining distance education without some elements of industrialization.”

Theories of Interaction and Communication The theories of interaction and communication try to focus on the significance and role played by them in the organization and functioning of a distance education programme. The theories propounded by the scholars like Borje Holmberg, John A. Baath, Kevin C. Smith, David Stewart and John S. Daniel belong to this group. Commenting on their basic feature Kegan (1996) writes: the theories falling in this group “highlight the constructs of interaction and communication as important factors in distance education”. The theory of interaction and communication put up by Borje Holmberg is now discussed.

Holmberg’s theory of interaction and communication Borje Holmberg developed his theory on his basic assumption that (i) the core of teaching is interaction and effective communication between the teaching and learning parties, and (ii) subject matter

presentation provides the solid ground for the simulated interaction and communication. Based on this basic assumption, he then went ahead to formulate a scheme of distance education. Emphasizing the features of his scheme, Holmberg (1986:123) writes: Distance teaching will support student motivation, promote learning pleasure and make the study relevant to the individual learner and his/her needs, creating feelings of rapport between the learner and the distance education institution (its tutors and counsellors, etc.), facilitating access to courses contents, engaging the learner in the activities, discussion and generally catering for helpful real and simulated communication to and from the learner.

Working further on this line, Holmberg elaborated his ideas in a more extensive and comprehensive way giving way for the development of an expanded new theory of distance education in the year 1995. He divided his new theory into eight different parts for the purpose of its better presentation and comprehension on the part of its users (Holmberg, 1995). In brief, he has highlighted the essential presence of the following concepts in his theory: The idea of the centralized learner Student freedoms and independence The concept of free access to learning opportunities and equity Mediated communication and deep learning Personal relationships Study pleasure and empathy between students and instructors The idea of serving conceptual learning and problem solving. From the above theories of distance education, we can infer that all these have been always quite helpful in directing the path of the planners and organizers of distance education across the globe. They have suited the demands of their time and age. However, if it will not be worthwhile and fruitful to make use of any single theory of

distance education for deriving desired outcomes from the system of distance education and open learning. This is why a new trend is emerging in this field in the form of the adoption of an integrated system approach. It calls for the integration and application of all the efforts, ideas and theories available so far in the field of distance education for the future planning, organization, execution and evaluation of the programmes and activities of distance and open learning in a perfect coordination with the needs and conditions prevailed in a particular teaching-learning situation of a region or nation. Commenting upon such desirability of the system approach, Saba (2003:17) writes: In order for distance education to be considered an educational paradigm, theories of distance education must provide explanation for the whole of education and not only explanations when the student and teacher are separated in time and space. While school traditionally tried to standardize instruction to make people on the factory capable of performing routine jobs, the challenge of distance education is (at present) to respond to individual differences and make instruction as diversified as possible. A system approach allows distance education to subsume other forms of education, including what is generally known as face-to-face or traditional education.

Thus, the latest trend in the use of distance education theories for the processes and products of a programme of distance education and open learning involves the use of system approach incorporating all what may be considered as the best in terms of the input and process for the desired output from the system of distance education and open learning depending upon the local regional, national or global needs and requirements.

Distance Education in India— Historical and Modern Perspectives All over the world, distance education had its existence in the name and form of correspondence courses and postal tuitions or coaching.

The same also holds true in the growth and development of distance education in our country. Before the Independence, distance education was not a means of mass or general education. It existed for the elite class as claimed by Chib (1977) in the form of stray educational activities in the hands of some commercial institutes like International Correspondence Schools (ICS) and the British institutes (BIET). The postindependence initiatives in the field of correspondence and distance education in our country may be briefly outlined as below: After independence in 1947, the country had no planning or vision of the distance or correspondence education for nearly two decades. It was perhaps in the early 1960s that the Planning Commission put forward a proposal of making use of correspondence education as a supplementary method to meet the growing demand for higher education. As a followup, the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), came with a resolution in its meeting held in January 1961, recommending that a detailed study of the correspondence courses be made by a small committee before arriving at a decision to start them in the country. Consequently, the Ministry of Education constituted such a committee under Dr D.S. Kothari (then UGC Charman). It recommended that a correspondence education course be started by the Delhi University although initially in the shape of a pilot project. The recommendation was accepted by the Central Government and as a result the Delhi University came up in 1962 with the first correspondence course of the country at the university level through the establishment of School of Correspondence Courses and Continuing Education in its campus. Correspondence courses in our country at the school level owe their initiation to the recommendation put forward in the year 1964 by the Conference of Boards of Secondary

Education to the State Boards of Secondary Education suggesting them to start such courses for improving the academic standard of the students. As a result, the first correspondence course at the school level, (for the students of intermediate classes) was started in 1965 by the Board of School Education of the State of Madhya Pradesh. The State Boards of Rajasthan, Orissa and U.P. later on followed the suit by starting correspondence courses at school level. In 1979 CBSE started an open school at the secondary level for the learners of 14 years age and above who were not enrolled in the regular classes for one or the other reasons. Actually, the scheme related to promote the system of open schooling was initially experimented by CABE from the year 1978 to 1989. Its working was later on handed over to the National Open School (NOS), an autonomous organization set up in November 1989 by the MHRD, Government of India. In July 2002, NOS was rechristened as the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). Since its establishment NIOS has taken significant steps for offering various life-enrichment programmes, examinations and certifications, training and extension programmes through distance education mode. For every programme, the self-instructional materials are made available in different mediums of instruction. NIOS has done a quite appreciable job in supporting the establishment of largest number of open schools compared to any other country in the world. As a consequence, we have now a sizable number of open schools in all the States and Union Territories either supported through NIOS collaboration and assistance or run independently by the respective States. As a result, NIOS with its current enrolment of more than 2 million learners is the largest open school system of the world. In order to facilitate better cooperation and interaction among NIOS, the State open schools, and other concerned agencies,

and the expansion of the activities pertaining to the open school system, a National Consortium of Open Schooling (NCOS) was established in 1997. NIOS works also as the secretariat of NCOS for providing assistance and leadership for the open schooling system of the whole country. The university level of correspondence education initiated in 1962 through the establishment of Correspondence Courses and Continuing Education department in the Delhi University further got its momentum at the hands of the Education Commission 1964–66 and the UGC Committee on the Expansion of Correspondence Courses. As a follow-up, UGC tried to concentrate on promoting and funding the establishment of correspondence courses and continuing education departments of the other universities spread throughout the country. Consequently, by the year 1972, a number of conventional universities came up with the Departments or Directorate of Correspondence Courses in their campus. They include Punjab University in 1968, University of Rajasthan in 1968, University of Mysore in 1969, University of Meerut in 1969, Madurai Kamaraj University in 1971, Himachal Pradesh University in 1971, Bombay University in 1971, Punjab Agricultural University in 1971, Shri Venkateshwara University in 1972, Andhra Pradesh University in 1972, and Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages (CIEFL) in 1972. Initially, the role of running correspondence courses was assigned by the UGC to the conventional universities through their departments or directorates of correspondence and continuing education. In the course of time, universities felt the need of having an open system of learning in the field of higher education on the pattern of open schooling. As a result, there came a wave of establishing open universities in the country with a clear-cut agenda of providing correspondence

courses (with a huge choice at their disposal) to all types of learners whoever opt for such courses. However, by the time the idea of an open university was gaining momentum, 34 dual mode universities were offering correspondence courses. But by the end of 2005, there emerged three open universities (Dr B.R. Ambedkar Open University in Andhra Pradesh, Yaswantrao Chawan Maharashtra Open University in Maharashtra, and Kota Open University, Kota in Rajasthan) along with 36 correspondence/distance teaching institutes (departments/directorates) located in conventional universities. As a result of the emergence of the open university system in the field of higher learning in the country, the nomenclature of correspondence education got changed to distance education. Issuing its guidelines in 1975 (later modified in 1980s) for the proper running of the system, UGC stated: Distance education is essentially based on the supply of instructional material but has to be supported and supplemented by personal contact programmes, student responses, library facilities, study centres, radio programmes and audio-visual aids, etc. A well conceived programme of distance education can be as effective and meaningful as regular day-time instruction in a college or a university department and every possible effort must be made to make it so effective.

Distance education of the eighties, thus, became changed into an open learning in the nineties. During this transition period, the Indian Association for Continuing Education tried to play the role of a catalytic agent in the area of university level of correspondence education. However, no central organization (like the NIOS) could be established for streamlining, strengthening and monitoring university correspondence education in the country. The need of the establishment of such an agency at the national level was very much

emphasized in the Parthasarathy Committee report submitted to the Government of India in 1974 in the following manner. In a situation of this type where the expansion of enrolments in higher education has to continue at a terrific pace and where available resources in terms of men and money are limited, the obvious solution if proper standards are to be maintained and the demand for the higher education from different sections of the people is to be met, is to adopt the open university system with its provision of higher education on part time or own time basis. The Group therefore recommends that the Govt. of India should establish, as early as possible a National Open University by an act of Parliament.

However, the report of the working group had to wait for another 10 years to be acted upon when ultimately a national open university, named as Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was established through an act of Parliament known as IGNOU Act, 1985. In this way, now, we can find three types of distance teaching institutions in India very much functioning in the field of college and university correspondence/distance education: 1. Directorates/Departments of Distance/Correspondence Education located in conventional universities 2. State open universities with greater autonomy to design and implement their programmes in accordance with local needs (at present, nine open universities at the State level are functioning in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka). 3. IGNOU with a dual responsibility, i.e. as a teaching university and as the apex body to coordinate and determine the standards of distance education in the country. The Government of India has very well recognized the significance and compulsion of promoting distance education

and open learning programmes both at the school and higher education levels. Consequently, it has made a mandatory policy to expect from each State to establish an open university and an open school to cater to the increasing educational and training needs of the students and citizens. Above all access and equity have so far been the prime focus, and shall remain so in the future. (Panda, 2005). This is why there has been a definite mandate on the part of the government in the previous Five-year Plan to reach the target for the enrolment in distance education as 40% of the total higher education at the end of the year 2007. As far as the figures at present are concerned, the Indian Open and Distance Learning (ODL) system now comprises one national open university, 11 State open universities and 106 dual-mode institutions. In this way, our open and distance education has travelled long from an alternative second choice on the part of the needy learners who resorted to the self-study through postal or correspondence education courses (often the only one available to the vast segment of our population on account of their inability to have access to the formal face-to-face classroom instruction) to the modern era of open and distance learning where advanced ICT and computer technology supported education has virtually eliminated all types of barriers of space and time. It no longer now exists as a compulsion or a second rate choice for getting one educated but a happier and promising alternative for getting all that which is not available in the formal system of education with the time, resources and money at one’s disposal.

Organization and Management of a Distance Education Programme

The distance education has a great challenge before its planners and organizers to make it a most viable media and method of the education. One should have a thorough knowledge and expertise for going through the task of the planning and organization of the activities concerning a distance education programme. The basic components or elements that are very much associated with the planning and management of a distance education programme are discussed now.

Pre-assumptions and Knowledge about the Learners Those who are entrusted with the task of planning and organization must be quite clear about its purposes and objectives. Who may get benefited through the distance education programme? What is their educational, social and cultural background? What type of technologies, resources and skills are available at their end for accessing the programmes? What is the approximate strength or possible enrolment of the learners in it? Is it serving the needs of the local, regional, national or global learners? etc.

Development of the Course Material Development of the course material is a crucial event in the organization and management of a distance education programme. In the case of the institutions serving a quite knowledgeable and rich learners who are well versed in the use of sophisticated technology (e.g. computer, Internet and WWW), the course material may be placed on the website. However, this practice can’t bring desired results if the learners are not in a position to afford or access the information/material. If it is possible for them, even then the supply and presentation of the course material in the printed form may serve their learning needs in a more fruitful way. So in every distance education programme sincere efforts are always made to design and

develop the course material which would suit utmost the needs of the independent study going to be performed by the target group. However, the lesson writing for the distance education course is not an easy task. It is somewhat different from the writing of a text or preparing lecture notes. One has to learn the techniques of imparting instructions to the learners in absentia keeping in mind the need of establishing a two-way link and interaction between the instructional material and the learners. A properly developed, printed and timely supplied course material is said to be a big asset and lifeline of a distance education programme and, therefore, every care should be taken by a distance education institution in this regard.

Assignments’ Evaluation and Feedback What is presented to the students in the form of a course material (printed lessons or Web pages) should always be subjected to a proper follow-up on the part of the organizers and managers of the distance education programme. For this purpose the students should be asked to respond to the assignment given to them along with the supplied course material. They may send it by post, submit it in their study centres or mail it through Internet or even complete it on-line (if it is made available so by the distance education institution). The submitted assignments, then should be carefully and timely evaluated by the trained and experienced staff. The students should then be given valuable feedback in terms of the grades, suggestions and remedial work, etc. for their properly remaining on the track of their self-study. This work related to the checking of assignment papers and giving needed feedback may also be done through the prompt services of the computers (if planned so by a distance education institution). Whatever may the mode be, such follow-up work should always be planned in a continuous chain throughout the study sessions of a distance education course.

Organization of personal Contact programme (PCP) Attempts are also made to provide the students opportunities for coming into direct contact with the instructors/teachers and the responsible personnel deputed from the managerial/ teaching faculty of the distance education institution. Commenting on the significance and functioning of such Personal contact Programmes (PCPs), Singh Bakhshish (1995:15) writes: Most of the institutes of distance education and open universities all over the world organize personal contact programmes for their students in order to provide an opportunity to them to come in personal contact with their teachers, so that they may have some faceto-face teaching and councelling and sort out any difficulty that they might have had while studying the lessons or while writing RSAs (responding to the given assignments). These programmes give the distance education students a chance to have direct rapport and interaction with their teachers as well as their fellow students and thus help them overcome the feeling of isolation.

Selection and Use of Appropriate Communication Media or Technology Teaching-learning in its desirable form is always designated as a two-way process needing a well-maintained communication link between the source of teaching and the learner. A distance education programme also needs a proper media/multimedia or help from the developed technologies for its desired communication and delivery to the distant learners. At the present, we have a lot of variety available for this purpose in the form of multimedia like print, radio/ audio, television/video, face-to-face contact sessions at the study centres, telephone, telex, e-mail, fax, and Internet along with the unlimited opportunities of interaction and communication provided through the large, scale computerization, teleconferencing and satellite-based communications. The success of a distance course or programme, in fact, very much depends upon the

selection, feasibility and employment of the avilable communication media and technologies not only on the part of the distance education institutions but also on the part of the learners for whom it has been generally or specifically designed. Commenting on the usefulness and desirability of the communication media and technology available at present, Ramanujam (2007) writes: Computer technology and satellite communication have opened up a wide range of interactive media which enables the students to overcome the communication barrier imposed by the physical distance between the learner and the teacher/institution in the context of distance education. However, the questions related to availability, access and use of relevant technology for distance education need to be considered carefully, before institutions commit themselves to policies of technology and multimedia. It is also to be seen that whether institutions may have access to sophisticated technology, but the same is not the case with student’s access. The students’ access to technology is still limited in our country.

Provision of Study Centres It is very essential and beneficial on the part of a distance education institution to establish a sufficient number of study centres at different locations of the regions and territories depending upon the concentration of students in and around a particular location. The decision for establishing a study centre in well-established school, college or department of a university should be taken in a quite judicious way in terms of its capability and sincerity for playing its role effectively for this purpose. It should essentially be in a position to provide the needed support services to the students attached to this centre in terms of arranging personal contact programmes, distributing study and course material, providing assignments, evaluating the responses of the students and providing timely feedback to them, establishing and organizing the needed library and reading room facilities, organizing the needed tutorials, counselling and guidance services, making provisions of occasional

extension and guest lectures, discussions, seminars and workshops for the benefits of the students.

Sharing of Resources The distance education institutions may come forward for the sharing of resources at their command among themselves and then, further putting them at each other, disposal for providing needed services to their clients (distance learners). It may help in avoiding the sheer wastage and duplication of the efforts on the part of these institutions. The task of sharing may be well executed through sharing of the developed and printed course or instructional materials, exchanging of the services of the experts, professionals and faculty working in each other’s institutions, and also through a variety of networking and global collaboration. The students may get advantage of studying the best course material in a relatively cheap price (as resulting through the emergence of global marketing and internationalization of trade and commerce) either in the printed form or on the web pages. In this way, by incorporating the above things in the input and process components of its system, a distance education institution can properly proceed on the path of providing an organized and formal system of non-traditional education open in its length and breadth to all types of learners with all kinds of openness and freedom on its disposal. The biggest obstacle in its path still lies in the form of a negative attitude developed in the learner and an indifferent attitude as well as antipathy adopted by the public and the persons belonging to the traditional system of education in treating distance education mode as the second rate or a thing of mere compulsion on the part of its users. It should be stopped in the proper interest of the development and flourishing of the system in our country. The system has proved its worth beyond doubt in a great way in the advanced countries. It can also prove its value in

our country as a quite academically viable, economically costeffective and favourable system of school and higher education in both formal and non-formal sectors even much ahead to the system of conventional system of teaching and learning.

SUMMARY 1. The term distance education refers to a system of education run along a two-way interaction and communication between the source of teaching and the learner maintained through the conventional as well as advanced information and communication technologies with an eye on providing opportunities to the learner to engage in his self-study with a freedom of choice related to time, space, pace, medium, access and curriculum. 2. The purposes and functions served by distance education may be outlined as (i) helpful in serving the educational and functional needs of all those learners for whom it remains as the first and a lone choice for one or the other reasons, (ii) helping in the achievement of the target of compulsory education to all besides proving an effective and forceful media for mass education, (iii) considered better in comparison to the conventional system of education due to its cost-effectiveness, (iv) helpful in inculcating among the students a number of good habits like self-study, independent problem solving ability, time and resource management, (v) suiting the likings, needs and temperaments of a wide variety of the learners on account of the flexibility and freedom offered by it in terms of time, space, pace, medium, access and curriculum, and (vi) helpful in the universalization, humanization and globalization of the system of worldwide education.

3. Theories of distance education represent the basic assumptions, principles and insights for directing the path of distance education. The theories discovered so far can be broadly grouped into three categories, namely (i) theories of autonomy and independence, (ii) theories of industrialization, and (iii) theories of interaction and communication. 4. Theories of autonomy and independence try to put the learner in the centre and fore front of a teaching learning process of any distance education programme. As example of these theories we may name the theories like Charles Wedemeyer’s Theory of Independent Study, Michael G. Moore’s Theory of Autonomy and Independent Study. Theories of industrialization try to organize the structure and functioning of the distance education on the basis of the model of industrialization. The theories put forward by the scholars kike Otto Peters, Desmond Keegan, Randy Garrison and John Andeson belong to this group of theories. Theories of Interaction and Communication focus on the significance and role played by the phenomenon of interaction and communication in the organization and functioning of a distance education program. The theories propounded by the scholars like Borje Holmberg, John A. Baath, Kevin C. Smith, David Stewart and John S. Daniel belong to this group of theories. 5. Before independence in our country, distance education was not the subject of mass or general education. It existed for the elite class in the name and shape of correspondence courses and postal tuitions or coaching run through a very few commercial institutes. The trend continued for a long even after gaining independence till 1960 when for the first time Planning Commission of the country put forward his proposal of making use of correspondence education as a

supplementary method to meet the growing demand for higher education. As a result Delhi University came up in 1962 with the first correspondence course of the country at the university level through the establishment of School of Correspondence courses and Continuing education in its campus. Later on other universities took initiative by establishing departments or directorate of correspondence courses or education. On the school level, the first correspondence course (for the students of Intermediate classes) was started in 1965 by the Board of School Education of the State Madhya Pradesh. In 1979 CBSE started an open school at the secondary level for the learners of 14 years age and above who were not enrolled in the regular classes for one for such courses. Its working was later on handed over to National Open School (NOS) now known as National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)—responsible of running open learning system at the school level. At the higher education level this responsibility is now shared by the National Open University known as Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) established in the year 1985. With the establishment of IGNOU, the distance education of the eighties (provided usually in the form of correspondence courses) have changed into an era of open learning. 6. The task of the planning and organization of the activities concerning a distance education programme involves certain basic components or elements like (i) preassumptions and knowledge about the learners, (ii) development of the course material, (iii) follow-up in the form of assignments’ evaluation and feedback, (iv) organization of personal contact program (PCP), (v) Selection and use of appropriate communication media or technology, (vi) Provision of study centres, and (vii) Sharing of resources.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is distance education? Discuss the purposes and functions served by it. 2. Discuss various theories propounded for planning and organization of a distance education system. 3. Throw light on the nature of the organization of distance education in our country with reference to its historical evolution and present scenario. 4. How can a distance education programme be organized and managed? Discuss in detail.

REFERENCE AND SUGGESTED READINGS Anand, S., University without Walls: Correspondence Education in India, New Delhi: Vikas Pulications, 1979. Barker, Bruce O., Anthony G. Fishbie and Kenneth R. Patrick, Broadening the definition of distance education in the light of the new telecommunication technologies, the American Journal of Distance Education, 3(1), 20–29, 1989. Birnbaum, B.W., Foundations and practices in the use of distance education, Mellen Studies in Education, Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, Vol. 60, pp. 1–174, 2001. Chib, S.S., Teaching by Correpondence in India, New Delhi: Light and Life Publishers, 1977. Dohmen Gunther, Das, Fernstudium, Ein news padagogisches for Schungsnand Arbeitsfeld Tubingen, DIFF, 1967. In Beth H. Chaney, History, Theory and Quality Indicators of Distance Education: A Leterature Review (retrieved from http://ohi.tamu.edu/ distanced.pdf on May 15, 2008).

Garrison, D. and D. Shale, “Mapping the boundaries of distance education: Problems in Defining the Field”, The American Journal of Distance Education, 1987, vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 4–13. Govt. of India, Report of the Education Commission (1964–66), Education and National Development, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1966. Govt. of India, Working Group Report on National Open University (unpublished), New Delhi (popularly known as the Partasararthy Committee Report), 1974. Hanson, D., N.J. Maushak, C.A. Schlosser, M.L. Anderson, C. Sorenson, and M Simonson, Distance Education: Review of the Literature (2nd ed.) Washington, D.C.: Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Ames, IOWA: Research Institute for Studies in Education, 1997. Holmberg, Borje, Distance Education: A Survey and Bibliography, London: Kogan Page, 1977. __________, Growth and Structure of Distance Education, London: Croom Helm, 1986. __________, The Sphere of Distance Education—Theory Revisited (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Ed 386578), 1995. __________, Theory and Practice of Distance Education. London Routledge, 1989. Kegan, D., The Foundation of Distance Education, London: Croom Helm, 1986. __________, Open learning: Concepts and Costs, Successes and Failures, in R. Atkinson and C. McBeath (Eds.), Open Learning and New Technology. Perth: ASET/Murdoch University, 1990, pp. 230–243. __________, (Ed.), The Foundation of Distance Education (3rd ed.), London: Routledge, 1996. Kirshner, D. and J.A Whitson, (Eds.), Situated Cognition: Social, Semiotic, and Psychological Perspectives, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997.

Kaufman, R. and R. Watkins, “Assuring the future of distance learning”, Quarterly Review of the Distance Education, vol. 1(1), 2000, pp. 59–67. Maddux, C.D., Jacque Ewing-Taylor and D. LaMont Johnson (Eds.), Distance Education: Issues and Concerns, New York: Haworth Press, 2002. Mehrotra, C.M., C.D. Hollister, and L. McGahey, Distance Learning: Principles for Effective Design, Delivery and Evaluation, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001. Moore, M., “Toward a theory of independent learning and teaching”, Journal of Higher Education, vol. 44, 1973, pp. 661–679. __________, On a Theory of Independent Study, Hagen: Fernuniversitat (ZIFF), 1977. Moore, M., Background and Overview of Contemporary American Distance Education, In M. Moore (Ed.) Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education (pp. xii–xxvi), New York: Pergamon, 1990. Moore, M. and W.G. Anderson, (Eds.), Handbook of Distance Education, Mahwal, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003. Moore, M.G. and G. Kearsley, Distance Education: A Systems View. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996. Panda, S., Higher Education at a Distance and National Development: Reflections on the Indian experiences, Distance Education, vol. 26(2), 2005, 205–220. Perraton, H., “A theory for Distance Education in D. Stewart, D. Kegan and B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance Education: International Perspectives, New York; Routledge, 1988, pp. 34– 45. Peters, O., “Distance teaching and Industrial production: A comparative interpretation in online, in D. Stewart, D. Kegan and B. Holmberg (Eds.) Distance Education: International Perspectives, New York; Routledge, 1988, pp. 95–113.

__________, Learning and Teaching in Distance Education: Analysis and Interpretations from an International Perspective. London, UK: Kogan Page, 1998. __________, Distance education and industrial productions: a comparative interpretation in online, in D. Kegan (Ed.), The Industrialization of Teaching and Learning, London: Routledge, 1944, pp.107–127. Picciano, A., Distance Learning: Making Connections Across Virtual Space and Time, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril/Prentice Hall, 2001. Portway, P., and Lane, C. (Eds.), Guide to Teleconferencing and Distance Learning, SanRamon, Cali.: Applied Buisness Communications, 1994, p. 295. Ramanujam, P. Renga, Distance Open Learning Challenges to Developing Countries, New Delhi: Shipra Publications, 2007. Saba, F., Learning Instruction for the Distance Learner, Distance Education Report, 1999, http/www.educator./inserver.net/der/designing.html. Saba, F., Distance education theory, methodology and epistemology: A pragmatic paradigm, in M.G. Moore and W.G. Anderson (Eds.) Handbook of Distance Education, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbalom Associates, 2003. Salomon, G. (Ed.), Distributed Cognition: Psychological and Educational Consideration, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Singh, Bakhshish (Ed.), New Horizons in Distance Education, New Delhi: Uppal Publishing House, 1995. Stewart, I., E. Hong and N. Strudler, “Development of validation of an instrument for student evaluation in the quality of web based instruction”, American Journal of Distance Education, 2004, vol. 18(3), 131–150. Wedemeyer, C.A., Learning at the Backdoor: Reflections on the Non-Traditional Learning in the Life Span, Madison, WI:

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