Enhancing Human Performance [1 ed.] 9781443857772, 9781443852371

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Enhancing Human Performance

Enhancing Human Performance

Edited by

Craig Speelman

Enhancing Human Performance Edited by Craig Speelman This book first published 2013 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2013 by Craig Speelman and contributors Published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing in collaboration with the Global Science and Technology Forum

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-5237-6, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5237-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ...................................................................................................... vii About the Authors ..................................................................................... ix Acknowledgments ................................................................................... xiv Chapter One ................................................................................................ 1 A Test of a Computer Game Designed to Facilitate the Acquisition of Arithmetic Skills Craig P. Speelman Chapter Two ............................................................................................. 22 The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Cognition and its Application to Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Beron W. Z. Tan, Lynne Cohen and Julie A. Pooley Chapter Three ........................................................................................... 44 Bilinguals’ Cognitive Enhancement Lidia Suárez Chapter Four ............................................................................................. 71 The Function, Mechanism and Benefits of Belief: Could Believing in the Extraordinary be Good for You? Dr Krissy Wilson Chapter Five ............................................................................................. 87 Deprivation Level Drives Attention to Food Cues Anna L. Toscano-Zapién, Daniel Velázquez-López and David N. Velázquez-Martínez Chapter Six ............................................................................................. 106 Perceived Effort of Credit Repayment Over Time Fernanda Jesus and José Miguel Oliveira

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Table of Contents

Chapter Seven......................................................................................... 131 Do Non-Verbal Valenced Stimuli Direct Attention Upwards in Space? Evidence from Valenced Faces John McDowall, Marie-Louise Beintmann and Polly M. Schaverien Chapter Eight .......................................................................................... 152 Emotional Eating in Thai Female Adolescents: An Emotion Regulation Perspective Kullaya Pisitsungkagarn Chapter Nine........................................................................................... 183 From Passive to Proactive Behaviour: A Model of Work Role Performance Hui-Ling Tung Chapter Ten ............................................................................................ 207 National Culture and National Innovation: An Empirical Analysis of 55 Countries Robert Josef Rossberger and Diana Eva Krause Chapter Eleven ....................................................................................... 234 Preparing the Next Generation of Leaders: The Emerging Organizational Landscape with Generation Y at the Helm Carolin Rekar Munro

PREFACE The chapters in this book had their origins in papers presented at one of two conferences organised by the Global Science and Technology Forum (GSTF): the Annual International Conference on Human Resource Management and Professional Development (HRM&PD) 2012 and the Annual Conference on Cognitive and Behavioural Psychology (CBP) 2013, both held in Singapore. On the basis of these presentations, authors were invited to re-work their papers to fit within the theme of Enhancing Human Performance. This theme was deliberately broad so as to include a wide range of research areas, and yet was sufficiently specific that the chapters would cohere as different perspectives on the factors that affect human performance. One set of chapters are focussed specifically on conditions that could improve the performance of individuals. In Chapter 1 I report some experiments that tested the effects of a computer maths game on the acquisition of arithmetic skills in school children. In Chapter 2 Tan, Cohen and Pooley review the effects of exercise on cognition in children with autism spectrum disorder. In Chapter 3 Suarez reports some experiments that demonstrate that bilingualism enhances visuospatial memory. In Chapter 4 Wilson examines the potential beneficial effects of beliefs in the extraordinary (e.g., paranormal phenomena). The next set of chapters are concerned with the factors that can affect performance and so are informative about the conditions that are required for the performance of individuals to be changed for the better. In Chapter 5 Toscano-Zapién, Velázquez-López, and Velázquez-Martínez report experiments that examine how attention to food-related images is affected as a function of food deprivation. In Chapter 6 Jesus and Oliveira describe a study that examines the factors that affect the perceived effort of credit repayment. In Chapter 7 McDowall, Beintmann and Schaverien report several experiments that test the effects of the emotional valence of faces on the spatial direction of attention. In Chapter 8 Kullaya presents a study based on questionnaires and interviews that examines emotional eating in Thailand. The final set of chapters look at human performance beyond the individual. In Chapter 9 Tung describes a test of a model of the relationship between work roles, worker characteristics and work

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performance. In Chapter 10 Rossberger and Klagenfurt report a cluster analysis that examines the relationship between national culture (e.g., the extent to which a nation has a collectivist culture) and national innovation (e.g., the extent to which a nation exhibits innovation in business). In Chapter 11 Munro examines how organisations are preparing for a new generation of leaders, in particular those from Generation Y, with data collected from individual interviews and focus group discussions. This collection of chapters reflects the disparate contexts in which human performance is examined, and the many factors that impinge on performance in a negative way, and the conditions under which performance can be improved. I congratulate the GSTF for providing a forum within which such issues can be reported, and I look forward to future volumes that will consider other means by which human performance can be enhanced. Professor Craig Speelman Edith Cowan University August 2013

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Craig P Speelman PhD (Psychology), The University of Western Australia, 1992. BSc (Hons) (Psych), The University of Western Australia, 1985. He is currently Professor of Psychology in the School of Psychology and Social Science at Edith Cowan University in Western Australia. He was the Head of the ECU School of Psychology and Social Science from 2002 until 2011. He has previously held positions with The University of Western Australia, University of New England and Griffith University. Much of his earlier work on skill acquisition is summarised in his book with Kim Kirsner “Beyond the Learning Curve.” (Oxford University Press, 2005). Professor Speelman conducts research in the general area of Cognitive Psychology. This field is concerned with the mental processes that underlie human thought, memory, problem solving, and language. Speelman’s research interests are focused mainly on skill acquisition and memory. His research has covered the effects of transfer on the shape of learning functions, the relationship between skill acquisition and implicit memory, and the specificity of skill acquisition and transfer. Speelman has applied this expertise to developing a training program for the acquisition of skin cancer detection skills, and the development of basic arithmetic skills. He has also conducted research on the decision making underlying superannuation investment strategies, which has highlighted the characteristic investment behaviours of various groups within the work force, enabling superannuation funds to better target their investment advice. Professor Speelman is a member of the Psychonomics Society, the Australian Psychology Society, and the Global Science and Technology Forum. Beron Tan is a provisional registered psychologist with the Psychology Board of Australia and an associate member of the Australian Psychological Society (APS). He received his Bachelor in Psychology with first class honours and was also the recipient of the APS 2011 prize award for the highest honours thesis mark at Edith Cowan University. Professor Lynne Cohen is Executive Dean, Faculty of Education and Arts and Pro-Vice Chancellor: Engagement (Communities) at Edith Cowan University. Professor Cohen has won a number of national teaching awards for her commitment to university teaching. She led the team that won an Australian Award for University Teaching and was

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awarded a Fellowship of the Australian Learning and Teaching Council in Higher Education (2010). She has a special interest in teaching children with learning difficulties. She has been instrumental in developing a leadership program for undergraduate students, and the Retention and Persistence Transition Support (RAPTS) program to increase retention of undergraduate students have been adopted by universities both nationally and internationally. Associate Professor Julie Ann Pooley is currently the Associate Dean of Teaching and Learning for the Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science at Edith Cowan University. Julie Ann has been involved in teaching in both the undergraduate and postgraduate psychology programs and has been a recipient of a National Teaching Award and Citation by the Australian University Teaching Committee (2003, 2011). Her research focuses on resilience at the individual and community levels. Julie Ann has been involved in and directed many community based research consultancies, projects and workshops and has been involved in the generation of 15 different community oriented reports for various cities and districts. Lidia Suárez was born in Barcelona (Spain). She earned her Ph.D. (Psychology) in 2010 from the National University of Singapore, Singapore. She currently works at James Cook University (Singapore) as a lecturer and researcher. Her research interests include bilingualism, word recognition, lexical stress, and language relativity. She is a member of the Language and Culture Research Centre at the Cairns Institute (Australia), the American Psychology Society, and the Society for the Teaching of Psychology. Dr Krissy Wilson is currently a lecturer in Psychology at Charles Sturt University. Last year she set up a new research unit the Science of Anomalistic Phenomena (SOAP). Her main areas of interest are in belief and individual differences, and the creation of false memories. Krissy is a frequent presenter at national and international conferences, and appears regularly on national radio and television to discuss a variety of issues on the paranormal and related phenomena. Anna L. Toscano-Zapién has a B.Sc. in Psychology from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. She is currently a Ph.D. student at the same University and her research theme deals with attention to appetitive cues. Daniel Velázquez-López has a B.Sc. and a M.Sc. both in Mathematics from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Currently is Assistant Professor at the Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Sciences at the same University and Director of Computer Systems at Ameyalli

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College. His research interests include geometry and attention to appetitive cues. David N. Velázquez-Martínez has a B.Sc. in Psychology, a M.Sc. in Experimental Analysis of Behavior and a Ph.D. in Biomedical Sciences: Physiology all from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. He is Full Time Professor of Psychology at the Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. His major research themes include discriminative properties of interoceptive states (such as drug effects and food deprivation), mechanisms of reinforcement and attention to appetitive cues. He has 64 research articles/book chapters on these themes. Fernanda Jesus has a degree and a master in Psychology and is now doing a Phd in Social Psychology, with research on credit judgment. As junior researcher at the Center for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, she has been studying indebtedness and overindebtedness within a multidisciplinary team of researchers. José Miguel Oliveira has a PhD degree in Cognitive Psychology. The main subject of his work was an experimental approach to decisionmaking, namely fast and frugal heuristics. As a (former) researcher at the Institute of Cognitive Psychology, Vocational and Social Development (University of Coimbra, Portugal) he worked on risk perception and behavioral decision-making on medication prescription, and also on face perception. As researcher at the Centre for Social Studies (University of Coimbra, Portugal) he has been working on financial decision-making, namely related to consumer credit behavior. John McDowall is an Associate Professor of Psychology in the School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. His main focus of research interest is in the areas of implicit memory and implicit learning in neurologically impaired populations as well as groups suffering from psychological disorders. He has published research papers examining implicit learning in people with Parkinson’s disease, those suffering from anxiety disorders and those with traumatic brain injury. In addition he has research interests in people with eating disorders, specifically examining the relationship between eating disorders and clinical perfectionism. He has further interests in such diverse area as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and its relationship with Thought Action Fusion, as well as Eye Movements and the role of the Central Executive, and the relationship between Schizotypy and belief in conspiracy theories. Polly Schaverien and Marie-Louise Beintmann are both graduate students within the School of Psychology.

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Dr Kullaya Pisitsungkagarn is currently lecturing in counseling and clinical psychology at the Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. She received her Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from the University of Texas at Austin, Texas, U.S.A., in 2004. With support from the Australian Leadership Award Scholarship, she subsequently received training in Clinical Psychology and was awarded a DPsych in Clinical Psychology from the University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia, in 2011. Dr Pisitsungkagarn is currently the Director of the East-West Psychological Science Research Center, the Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, which endeavors to bridge cross-cultural research collaborations between Thai and international scholars in psychology. She is also a secretary for the President of the ASEAN Regional Union of Psychological Societies and a Thai delegate for the Asian Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Association. Dr Pisitsungkagarn’s research interests involve emotion regulation, cognitive behavioral therapy, eating- and weight-related issues, anxiety, and crosscultural psychology. An AHPRA licensed clinical psychologist, Dr Pisitsungkagarn also practices and actively contributes to the establishment of the Center for Psychological Wellness, Chulalongkorn University, the first university-based psychological center in Thailand. Hui-Ling Tung is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Human Resource and Public Relations at the University of Da-Yeh, Taiwan. Her research interests include leadership, creative outcomes in organizations, and the impact of individual performance on organizational outcomes. Professor Dr. Diana E. Krause is a Professor of Human Resource Management and Organizational Behavior at the Alpen-Adria University Klagenfurt, Austria. She is the head of the institute on Personnel, Leadership, and Organization. Prior to her 2009 appointment in Austria, she held professorships in Canada (University of Western Ontario) and Germany (University Paderborn, University Speyer, Humboldt University Berlin). In 2004 and 2005, she also worked in the U.S. where she was visiting fellow at Colorado State University. In 2005, she finished her Habilitation (Venia legendi for Psychology) at Ludwig-Maximillians University Munich. In 2003, she received her Ph.D. in Economics and Management at Technical University Berlin. Her current research topics are leadership, power and influence, assessment centers, and innovations in organizations. She has published five books, 43 refereed articles, 36 book chapters, and given more than 100 talks about these topics. Besides her academic work she leads the association “Help for children in Bali” and collaborates with the corporation “Education for Indonesia”.

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Robert Josef Rossberger, M.A. Strategic and International Management, HDU Deggendorf Germany and Mestrado em Administração de Emperesa, Universidade de Fortaleza, Brazil. Currently, he conducts his Ph.D. thesis and works at the University of Klagenfurt, Austria. His research interest focuses on international and intercultural aspects of management with a specific focus on innovation management. Dr. Carolin Rekar Munro is Associate Professor of Leadership and Human Resources in the MBA and B.Com programs in the Faculty of Management at Royal Roads University in British Columbia, Canada. Carolin is also an Adjunct Professor for Central Michigan University’s Global Campus teaching in the MA in Education. She received her masters and doctoral degrees from the University of Toronto. She also has a Certified Human Resources Professional (CHRP) designation from the Human Resources Professionals Association; a Certified Training and Development (CTDP) designation from the Canadian Society for Training and Development; and is certified in values-based leadership from the Barrett Centre, Myers-Briggs Personality Inventory, and Emotional Quotient Inventory. Carolin manages a successful consulting practice, Eye of the Tiger Consulting (www.eyeofthetigerconsulting.ca), in which she collaborates with leaders on change management, employee engagement, organizational renewal, strategic planning, performance management, developing and sustaining high performing teams, succession management, and leadership development. Her published work includes: developing and sustaining high performance teams; ROI from learning and development initiatives; leadership models for transitioning teams from dependence to interdependence; best practices in teaching and learning; wellness management of HR practitioners; transitioning to e-learning environments; bridging multi-generational differences; and, mentoring needs and expectations of Generation-Y HR practitioners. Carolin is involved in a number of national and international community initiatives: Human Resources Association’s Educational Standards Committee; National Steering Committee for the Canadian Society for Training and Development; and Education Beyond Borders.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank all of the chapter authors for agreeing to include such interesting research in this book, and who were very prompt in meeting my tight deadlines. My gratitude also goes to the staff of the Global Science and Technology Forum who have assisted me in the production of this book: Evangeline Gutierrez, Elizar Sto Domingo, Laura Chong, Kinkini Chakravarty, Imelda Calda, and Janelle Pineda. Professor Craig Speelman Edith Cowan University August 2013

CHAPTER ONE A TEST OF A COMPUTER GAME DESIGNED TO FACILITATE THE ACQUISITION OF ARITHMETIC SKILLS CRAIG P. SPEELMAN SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY JOONDALUP, AUSTRALIA [email protected]

Abstract—A study is reported that tests a hypothesis regarding the poor numeracy rates within Australia. The hypothesis suggests that the education system does not adhere closely enough to known principles of skill acquisition. These principles provided a rationale for the development of a computer game designed to facilitate the acquisition of arithmetic skills in children. Two experiments are reported that compared performance on standard arithmetic problems following the playing of several versions of the game with that observed following two control conditions: 1. Normal classroom lessons; 2. Arithmetic problems performed on a computer. The accuracy of performance on the standard arithmetic problems improved in all conditions at an equivalent rate, reflecting a general practice effect. In general the game was shown to improve the speed of performance on these problems. This far transfer from a game task to standard arithmetic problems was interpreted as support for the proposal that appropriately designed educational games can facilitate the acquisition of arithmetic skills. Some limitations of the study are discussed and recommendations are made that could improve the effectiveness of the full version of the game. Keywords: numeracy; arithmetic; skill acquisition; computer games

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1. Introduction Australia is currently experiencing a serious problem with numeracy skills. A recent report from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2006) states that 53% of the Australian population is functionally innumerate, which indicates that many would struggle to understand a bank statement or to make even the most basic of financial decisions. This lack of numeracy skills in adulthood has undesirable consequences. Fear (2008) reports that many adults feel overwhelmed by the financial choices presented to them, particularly by their superannuation funds, and often decide to make no decisions about their investments. People are entering university with such low achievement levels in mathematics that universities have to provide remedial courses (Arlington, 2012; Healy, 2010; Maslen, 2012; Slattery, 2010). Universities are producing fewer graduates with high abilities in mathematics (Arlington, 2012; Maslen, 2012; Slattery, 2010). University graduates generally have poor abilities in mathematics, and may even be frightened of mathematics, yet some may become primary school mathematics teachers (Arlington, 2012; Maslen, 2012; Slattery, 2010). Why does Australia have this problem? How could things have got so bad? What is wrong with the school education system that leads to over half of the student body leaving the system without a good working knowledge of mathematics, and the country struggles to find a sufficient number of people with interest enough to progress to further education in mathematics? The implications are clear for the nation’s innovation aspirations. The problems in poor numeracy skills begin early in life. Like literacy, learning the basics of a discipline is crucial to progressing through that discipline. We need to have a firm foundation of understanding in order to scaffold the development of further knowledge. The accepted wisdom in the fields of education and psychology is that numeracy skills are indeed skills, and all skills require learning. To develop well-entrenched skills, though, requires much practice, much application, and a learning program that enables high-level complex skills to be built up over time from simpler skills (Speelman & Kirsner, 2005). My contention is that mathematical education in Australian schools does not adhere sufficiently to this principle of skill acquisition, and this has led to inadequate groundwork in skill building, resulting in a disrupted progression through skill levels. The aim of this project was to test a possible solution to the problem.

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Principles of skill acquisition identified by Speelman and Kirsner (2005) provide a clear roadmap for the development of complex skills such as numeracy. The aim of this study was to test this theory of skill development. I have developed a computer game that embeds these principles in the context of performing mathematical tasks. The game can be played over long periods in order to maximize practice of basic numeracy skills. The study therefore provides an opportunity to test a prediction derived from Speelman and Kirsner’s work that a training program that adheres to their principles of skill acquisition will facilitate the development of well-entrenched and transferable numeracy skills. Speelman and Kirsner (2005) reviewed research over the last century on skill acquisition and learning. From this review they identified 5 principles of skill acquisition. Principle 1: Practice leads to faster performance Principle 2: Practice leads to efficiencies in knowledge access Principle 3: Learning leads to less demand on working memory Principle 4: As expertise increases, fewer mental resources are required to perform a particular task, enabling the development of a hierarchy of skills. Principle 5: Mastery in a domain involves the application of an array of component processes, with varying degrees of specificity to tasks and contexts, that are recruited in a manner that allows for consistent performance under stereotypical situations and flexible performance under unusual circumstances. The five principles of learning describe a number of features that are general to all forms of skill acquisition. Essentially these principles state that practice leads to faster and more efficient uses of knowledge. This enables faster performance and results in less demand on mental resources. In turn these outcomes enable higher level behaviours to be attempted. Ultimately skills are developed through refinement of many component processes. The hypothesis under test in this project is that cognitive development is a process whereby tasks are mastered through mastering lower level tasks. Skilled performance is built up over time through practice. Performance begins with low level tasks, or at least tasks that appear to be rudimentary to an adult but are beyond the capabilities of a child (e.g., recognising letters). These tasks are practiced until performance of them becomes automatic. That is, processes are developed that perform this task automatically. Initially these processes require most of the available cognitive resources to proceed. Little capacity is available for any other task (e.g., reading words). Once these processes have become automatic,

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however, sufficient cognitive resources are available for the person to attempt higher level tasks (e.g., reading words). Importantly, it is the outcome of the initial processes (i.e., letter identification) that provides the structures that are operated upon by the processes involved with the higher level task (i.e., reading words) (e.g., Karmiloff-Smith, 1979). With further practice, processes will be developed that are specific to this higher level task and these in turn may become automatic, enabling further developments in the level of skill. The development of addition knowledge starts with a process of generating answers (e.g., 3 + 4 = ? can be solved through a counting strategy), but then relies on direct retrieval of facts from memory (i.e., see 3 + 4 = ? and remember ‘7’) (Barrouillet & Fayol, 1998). The transition from solution generation to direct retrieval requires much practice (Logan, 1988). As per Speelman and Kirsner’s (2005) theory, relying on direct retrieval results in the freeing up of mental resources. Thus it is easier to attempt another task if one can retrieve the answer directly as opposed to having to generate it. A number of component processes that can run automatically must be available for higher level tasks to be attempted. Until there are sufficient component processes available, or sufficient cognitive resources available (e.g., working memory capacity), or both for the task to be completed, the learning curve for a task cannot commence. The process underlying this reliance on certain conditions to be met before tasks can be attempted is analogous to the changing of gears in a car with a manual transmission. In the car, the revolutions of the engine need to be at a certain minimum frequency for a smooth change of gears to occur. If the aim is to change from a low gear to the next higher gear, and the revolution frequency is too low, then the engine will run inefficiently at the higher gear, or possibly stall. In a similar vein, then, fluent solution of arithmetic problems relies on automatic retrieval of arithmetic facts. For example, the beginning multiplier might be confronted with a problem in which several numbers are to be multiplied (e.g., 32 x 7), but where the product of two of these numbers cannot be remembered (e.g., 3 x 7). This situation would then require some long-winded process for determining the product of the two numbers, such as reconstruing the problem as a sum (e.g., 7 + 7 + 7). Engaging in this process can finally result in a solution, but the process is subject to disruption. The reason is that by the time the addition process has provided a solution to the missing multiplication fact, the earlier parts of the problem will have been forgotten (e.g., that the 1 from the 14 that is the solution to 2 x 7 needs to be carried forward). The process of generating a solution to the missing multiplication fact, rather than

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remembering it directly, requires too much mental capacity for there to be sufficient resources left over to keep in mind the carry forward value. Thus the final solution could be in error, or some external memory device (e.g., pen and paper) will be required; either way, the process is not fluent. In summary, Speelman and Kirsner’s (2005) theory provides the following explanation for the poor uptake of maths skills: insufficient practice of basic arithmetic facts means students are required to generate solutions. This means they use a great deal of mental capacity, and may have little left over to attempt further calculations. As a result, they may fail to grasp a higher level concept. For example, working through an explanation of double digit multiplication (14 x 3), with carry-over values, requires instant recognition of times table facts. If a student has to generate these facts through an addition strategy (e.g., 3 x 4 = 4 + 4 + 4), they will have little mental capacity available to follow the explanation of doubledigit multiplication. If they cannot follow the explanation of the concept, then it is unlikely that they will be able to practice with examples of the concept and so come to master that skill. It is obvious then how a student can fall behind, and find it difficult to keep up with the progression through higher order concepts. Repeated experiences of this type could also lead to a student concluding that they lack a ‘maths brain’ (Swan, 2004), or even develop a ‘maths phobia’ (Furner & Berman, 2003). So, it is imperative that lower level skills are mastered prior to the introduction of higher level tasks. If this is not adhered to, it is likely that the demands of the higher order task will be too much for the student to cope with. One strategy for ensuring that a child acquires appropriate numeracy skills is to ensure they are provided with sufficient opportunity for practice of component skills, and to assess mastery of those skills prior to the introduction of higher order concepts. Both of these elements do not fit well with a classroom model of instruction where a teacher takes 20-30 children through the same material at the same pace. Children learn at different rates, so sufficient practice will mean different amounts of practice for each child. Furthermore, the point at which a child has gained mastery of a particular skill will also be different. Thus it would be difficult for a teacher to pace their instruction just right for each child and keep everyone at the same point in the curriculum. One potential solution to this problem is appropriately designed computer software. Computers can be programmed to provide practice opportunities and can simultaneously assess performance to ensure mastery of one level of competence before allowing the student to move to a higher level task. Indeed the structure that exists in many computer games is ideal for this purpose, as players typically strive to meet the

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demands of one level of the game before being allowed to attempt the next level. Games are also intrinsically motivating, leading to players spending many hours mastering the various features of the game. Such motivation would be valuable to draw upon when trying to encourage students to devote hours of practice towards the acquisition of mathematical skills. A recent study (Main & O’Rourke, 2011) demonstrated the benefits of such software, where the speed and accuracy of performance on a standard arithmetic test was improved for children who had played maths games on a hand held games console compared to children who received standard classroom lessons. Although this result is promising, the study did lack an appropriate control group that spent the intervening time between pre and post tests playing with the console but on a game unrelated to arithmetic. As a result, this study could not disentangle the motivating effects of playing with the console from the benefits of practice. Numbeat is a computer maths game that is based on the 5 psychological principles of skill acquisition derived by Speelman and Kirsner (2005). The game facilitates the acquisition of arithmetic skills (+, -, x, ÷) by building on counting skills and developing an intuitive mathematics sense. Other maths games only follow Principle 1 whereas Numbeat follows all 5 principles. The game is designed to assist children with working their way through the hierarchy of skills that underlies basic arithmetic operations (e.g., counting needs to be mastered before addition problems should be attempted), by ensuring that players have mastered basic level skills before being allowed to progress to the next level of the game and so tackle higher order problems. Another unique feature of Numbeat is that the mathematical tasks involved in the game are structured in such a way as to be the fun element of the game. Most other maths games separate the maths tasks from the fun elements, which threatens motivation to continue with the game, or at least engage with the mathematical elements. Numbeat involves players trying to destroy ‘bad’ characters (baddies) before they collide with ‘good’ characters (goodies) and turn them into baddies. The game is structured so that players are given large amounts of practice at what amounts to simple addition and subtraction problems, coupled with multiplication (i.e., noting that the baddies are arranged in rows of similar numbers – e.g., 3 rows of 4 = 12). Levels are arranged so that the game begins with situations that can be dealt with by counting alone. As the levels progress, a time limit is applied, and the numbers of baddies increase, so that the player must work quickly in order to destroy all of the baddies before the time limit expires. At higher levels, solving each problem by counting alone will not result in solutions quickly enough

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to beat the time limit. Thus players are encouraged to adopt higher order solutions that involve addition/subtraction and multiplication/division facts. If a player fails to beat all of the baddies within the time limit, they must attempt that level again. Progressing to the next level only occurs when the current level is achieved. The ultimate purpose of the game, then, is to encourage the player to work quickly. Sufficient and appropriate practice is provided so that the player becomes faster at retrieving arithmetic facts, and also looks for shortcuts that will achieve the same result with fewer processing steps (e.g., remembering that 3 x 4 = 12 rather than working through 4+4+4). The aim of this study was to test the effectiveness of the Numbeat game in facilitating the acquisition of arithmetic skills. In particular, the study was designed to test the hypothesis that Numbeat can increase the speed of fact retrieval, a necessary pre-cursor to the development of automaticity, and can give rise to far transfer (i.e., practice on Numbeat problems can transfer to standard arithmetic problems). Although the study was not designed as a test of the overall theory of the problems with Australian mathematics education, it was designed to examine a possible solution.

2. Experiment 1 Two versions of Numbeat were constructed. The full version (Numbeat-Full) included all of the features that were designed to encourage faster performance. These were: 1. All characters in the game moved around the screen. When a bad character touches a good character, the good character becomes a bad character, thus altering the underlying arithmetic problem to be solved; 2. Time limits were applied on certain levels such that a particular number of problems were to be solved in a prescribed time period in order to complete the level; 3. As players progressed through specific levels, the speed of motion of the characters would increase. A limited version of Numbeat (Numbeat-Limited) was also prepared that only possessed the first of these speed-up features. A control task was constructed. This task involved students solving arithmetic problems in standard form (e.g., 3 + 4 = _). These problems were presented on a computer screen, and students responded to each problem by selecting a solution from 5 options. The problems reflected the same arithmetic operations being tested in the Numbeat game, and were presented in a level-type structure to mimic the levels of Numbeat. Thus, in both Numbeat and the control task, problems became increasingly more complex as a student worked their way through the levels. The control

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task, however, lacked any form of encouragement to speed up performance, and students could progress through the levels regardless of the accuracy of their performance. If Numbeat encourages the acquisition of arithmetic skills in the way proposed, students playing the full version of this game should show greater improvement on their performance of standard arithmetic problems than students playing the Numbeat-Limited version. Further, students playing either version of the game should improve more on the standard arithmetic problems than students who worked on the control task, or students who just receive normal classroom lessons. These hypotheses were tested with four groups of students who all took the same pre and post tests.

3. Method 3.1 Design All participants in the study completed a pre-test of arithmetic ability, followed by a similar post-test over two weeks later (see Table 3.1). There were four conditions in the study, corresponding to the activity that occurred in between the pre and post-tests. Children in the Numbeat-Full condition played the full version of Numbeat in this period, whereas children in the Numbeat-Limited condition played a version of Numbeat that only possessed one of the three elements of the game designed to encourage faster performance. Children in the Control 1 condition did not engage in any special activities related to the study. Children in the Control 2 condition performed standard arithmetic problems on a computer. All children in the study received their normal classroom lessons during the period between the pre and post tests. Table 3.1: Design of Experiment 1 Phase 20-30 minutes

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Pre-Test

Pre-Test

Pre-Test

Pre-Test

2 weeks 20-30 mins/day

Numbeat – Full

Numbeat – Limited (no speed up)

Control 2 (Drill problems)

Control 1 (Nothing)

20-30 minutes

Post-Test

Post-Test

Post-Test

Post-Test

A Test of a Computer Game

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3.2 Participants Children involved in the study were in grade three of primary school, which in Australia means they were all 8 or 9 years of age. Four private schools took part in the study, all similar in terms of socio-economic status. Each school had two grade three classes, both of which took part in the study. Schools were randomly allocated to condition so that each condition corresponded to a different school. For example, the Control 1 condition involved children from one school only, and children in that school did not perform in any other condition. The reason that students were not allocated randomly to condition was that testing and game playing were to be conducted in a classroom situation. As a result, children could see what was being presented on the computer screens used by other children. Hence it was not possible to prevent children from being aware of the other conditions. If all four conditions were presented simultaneously in the same classroom, children might have been distracted by the fact that other children were doing a different task to them. In particular, children in the two control conditions might have been distracted or de-motivated because other children were playing animated games whereas they were required to perform traditional arithmetic problems, or something unrelated altogether. 229 students commenced the study, but due to technical issues relating to the connection of school computers to the Numbeat server, complete data on the pre and post tests was not collected for 70 students. The initial and final numbers of students in each condition are presented in Table 3.2. Table 3.2: Initial and final n in each condition Condition Control 1 (no activity) Control 2 (standard arithmetic problems on computer) Numbeat - Full Numbeat - Limited

Initial n 60 61

Final n 48 36

60 48

38 37

3.3 Materials Two different pieces of software were developed for this study. One was the Numbeat game and the other was the control arithmetic problems. Numbeat involves players trying to destroy ‘bad’ characters (baddies) before they collide with ‘good’ characters (goodies) and turn them into bad characters. There are three sets of bad and good characters: germs and

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Chapter One

healthy cells, zombies and boys, and witches and fairies. The player is required to count the number of baddies on screen, and determine how the ammunition level in the destruction device (i.e., a needle in the germs world; a cannon in the zombie world; a wand in the witch world) should be changed to match the number of baddies. They then click on numbers on the screen with a mouse to achieve that level, and when it matches, they engage the destruction device to destroy the baddies. Numbeat also includes a series of “Megabaddies” – characters that function like the ordinary baddies, but look more menacing, and can represent some multiple of the ordinary baddies. For example, in one level of the game, one Megabaddie represents 3 ordinary baddies. Thus the player must consider this when loading ammunition into the destruction device. There is also a Numbat character. (The numbat is a marsupial native to Western Australia.) The Numbat is earned by passing a bonus level. The Numbat has the feature of destroying large numbers of baddies in one go. For example, in one level, clicking on the Numbat can destroy 5 baddies at once. The full version of Numbeat (Numbeat-Full) includes three features designed to encourage faster performance: 1. Movement of characters around the screen; 2. Time limits; 3. Increases in speed of movement of characters on the screen. A limited version of the game (Numbeat-Limited) where features 2 and 3 were deactivated was also tested in the study. Both versions of the game contain the same number of problems, levels, and structure. The first eight levels of the game contain problems that only involve baddies, with no goodies appearing on screen. The object, however, is the same throughout the game – destroy the baddies by activating the destruction device with an amount of ammunition that matches the number of baddies on screen. From level 9 onwards, varying numbers of goodies appear on screen. As the levels advance, the initial number of goodies grows to increase the complexity of the problems. The number of baddies also increases. The number of problems within a level varied, from 10 to 20 in levels 1-8, and from 20 to 40 from level 9. At various points within the game, a particular level of problems would be repeated with a time limit or under conditions where the speed of movement increased within the level, but only in the Numbeat-Full version. These levels would just be repeated without these features in the Numbeat-Limited version. Both versions of the game had 116 levels available for play. The Numbeat software was controlled by a dedicated server that students would login to, via the internet, from computers in their classroom.

A Test of a Computer Game

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The students in the Control 2 condition solved arithmetic problems in standard notation (e.g., 3 + 4 = _). They solved the problems by clicking with a mouse on one of five options on a computer screen. The arithmetic problems mimicked the arithmetic underlying the problems presented in the Numbeat game. Feedback regarding whether or not the response was correct was provided after each response. Problems were arranged in levels of 40 problems each. There were 36 levels available. This condition was presented using Qualtrics software, accessed through the Numbeat server. Two tests of arithmetic ability were constructed to be used as the pre and post tests. Both tests consisted of 180 problems covering the four basic (+, -, x, ÷) arithmetic operations, plus problems featuring an array of symbols where children were required to indicate how many symbols there were (e.g., **** = _). The tests were arranged so that problems increased in difficulty as the test proceeded. Early problems were designed to be within the capabilities of all children in grade 3 (e.g., 1 + 2 = _). Problems in the middle section of the tests were considered to be within the capabilities of the majority of the children (e.g., 27 ÷ 3 = _). Later problems would probably have been challenging for many of the students in this cohort (e.g., 48 ÷ _ = 12). The children were required to type answers to each problem using the computer keyboard. The pre and post tests were presented using Qualtrics software accessed through the Numbeat server. When a child logged into the Numbeat server for the first time, they were randomly allocated to one of the tests as their pre test. The other test would then be that child’s post test. In this way, the two tests were counterbalanced as pre and post tests across students. There was no statistically significant difference in the speed or accuracy of performance of the two tests as the pre test, suggesting they were similar in difficulty.

3.4 Procedure The pre-test was scheduled for a Friday. Except for a few students that had other commitments that day, all students sat the pre-test on that day. The other students sat the pre-test either on the previous day, or on the following Monday. All testing was undertaken in class on school computers. Students in the Control 2, Numbeat-Full and Numbeat-Limited conditions commenced their activities on the Monday following the pretest. Generally students would engage with their respective tasks for 20-30 minutes per day, for 3-5 days per week, for two weeks. Variations around

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Chapter One

this schedule were determined by other activities planned by class teachers, and the availability of computers. The post-test was scheduled for the Monday that followed the completion of the two-week game/control period. Again most children sat the post-test on this day, but a few students had to sit the test the following day. All software was accessed through the school computers connecting to the Numbeat server. Each child was provided with a specific login name and password to enable tracking of results throughout the experiment, and the matching of results on the pre and post tests.

4. Results This paper only reports results collected on the pre and post tests. Several technical issues associated with the administration of the pre and post tests, plus differences in the amount of time allocated to these tests by each school, meant that not every child had the opportunity to complete each test. Two measures of performance were analysed to compare students across conditions: 1. Accuracy, or proportion correct, was calculated as the number of correctly solved problems divided by the total number of problems attempted; 2. Speed, was calculated as the total number of problems attempted divided by the total time spent on the test. A 2 (test: pre vs. post) by 4 (condition) repeated measures MANOVA was conducted on the Accuracy and Speed data. There were significant multivariate effects (as indicated by Pillai’s Trace) for condition (approx. F(6, 310) = 8.127, p